| Mv PAGAVR INU Ae AM Ae aye Pat , es es) i > eee bons i ee 9 Fi ’ heii as / Stary Ai Sela tt ae) yieth rire Vy d vi! ries ta oy $ rims mete ot yy vite Th) Es ery a ~~", NS rye’ ry a pin eg t Lose BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE REPORT OF THE NINETY-THIRD MEETING (NINETY-FIFTH YEAR) SOUTHAMPTON— 1925 AUGUST 26-SEPTEMBER 2 LONDON OFFICE OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION BURLINGTON HOUSE, LONDON, W.1 1926 ill CONTENTS. PAGE MERIOHRSPAND COUNOILE LOZD-26r .. veces eve Cova wile cot ereWilele Se wives Vv MOCARAORETOMRS, SOUTHAMPTON, O25 sesycteic ceca caves cesecnsearswave vii SECTIONS AND SECTIONAL OFFICERS, SOUTHAMPTON, 1925)....-......... vii ANNUAL MerEtTINGS: PLAcES AND DareEs, PRESIDENTS, ATTENDANCES, Receipts, Sums PAID ON ACCOUNT OF GRANTS FOR 2 Rages PURPOSES (Me l= 925)\5 veya iba cis CANA ee etetala ns Leb iran’ tteel ees x REPORT OF THE COUNCIL TO THE GENERAL ComMiIrrer (1924-25)........ xiv BririsH ASSOCIATION EXHIBITIONS .......... 0.0.0 cee ee cece ees 2. ee VI GENERAL Mretines, PusLic LECTURES, ETC., AT SOUTHAMPTON ........ xix GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT (1924-25) ........... cece cece ee ne eee xxi RESHARGH COMMITTEES (1925-26). <..... 0 ci. o0 oes ewes delesseleecaceas XXVi TN TID See Oe ei Seen lca cio ie on crew ae eae XXxi RESOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS (SOUTHAMPTON MEETING)..... ee x THE PrResmipENTIAL ADDRESS: By Prof. Horace Lamp, F.R.S. ........ 1 SEcTIONAL PRESIDENTS’ ADDRESSES : A.—The New Ideas in Meteorology. By Dr. G. C. Simpson, F.R.S... 15 B.—The Chemistry of Solids. By Prof. C. H. Duscu, F.R.S. ...... 30 C.—Cultural Aspects in Geology. By Prof. W. A. Parks....... .. 55 D.—Organic Evolution: Facts and Theories. By C. Tarn Rucan, RRL Metis: 56a w eiuge Sy wtv pena areata Mla ha cecaan MIS ahs yg 75 E.—The Science and Art of Map-making. By A. R. Hinxs, C.B.E., BSE yikes ants eatin: «2 ate tenting “as etos Sein Soe os 87 F.—The Meaning of Wages. By Miss LynDA Grip .............. 101 G.—Fifty Years’ Evolution in Naval Architecture, ete. By Sir A. IDV RENUNG WA a sic hare. 2= stakane'’e cS ores’ co te RR ILROI NA TeMerS >) ogcho cretpmetotexs cta.sve 114 H.—Practical Engineering in Ancient Rome. By Dr. T. Asupy.... 134 I.—Physiological Basis of Athletic Records. By Prof. A. V. Hit, TSP Pey ric aie ccors oes, eto MTR Rea ca cretarasc's ve wheels craves * Sip 156 J.— Some Issues in the Theory of “G.” By Prof. C. SPEARMAN, FEE tae one aie ae ete cee cinla eter a letene Wralsnaieelelss MICs oeke « 174 iv CONTENTS. PAGE K.—The Phzxophycee and their Problems. By Prof. J. Luoyp WILLIAMS Jo. S53 Set Se ee ee Be © cle nee L.—The Warp and Woof in Education. By W. W. Vaueuay, M.V.O. 197. 182 M.—The Mineral Elements in Animal Nutrition. By Dr. J. B. Orr.. 204 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. .... 2205 eles nce cceeccsesceeee 216 SHOTIONAL: TRANSACTIONS: 24 215.0 Sb occ oueiehe ca we a oles) sllanete eek he chee eae 297 REFERENCES TO PUBLICATION OF COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS .... 388 AERONAUTICAL PROBLEMS OF THE PAS? AND OF THE FuTURE: EVENING Discoursy. By R. V. SOUTHWELL, E.R.S.. ... > ietios oficmlelomeunertslt 395 CoNFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES ..........-. 418 List or Papers, 1925, on Zootocy, Botany, AND PREHISTORIC ARCHOLOGY OF THE Britisu Istes. By T. SHEPPARD .......... 421 APPENDEX TO/S HCTIONAT: LRANSACTIONS. 1c... . > «ssw shveleantnleerente iene 483 Hritish Association for the Adbancement of Scivence. OFFICERS & COUNCIL, 1925-26. PATRON. HIS MAJESTY THE KING. PRESIDENT. Professor HoracrE Lamp, Sc.D., D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S. PRESIDENT ELECT FOR THE OXFORD MEETING. H.R.H. The Prince or WAtsEs, K.G., F.R.S. VICE-PRESIDENTS FOR THE SOUTHAMPTON MEETING. H.R.H. Princess BEatTRIcE (Governor and Captain-General of the Isle of Wight). The Lorp-LinuTENANT OF THE COUNTY oF Hants (Major-Gen. the Rt. Hon. J. E. B. Seeley, C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., T.D., M.P.). His Worship the Mayor or SouTHamp- TON (Alderman T. McDonnell). The Lorp BisHor oF WINCHESTER (the Rt. Rev. F. T. Woods, D.D.). The Lorp BisHor or PortsmouTH (the Rt. Rev. W. T. Cotter). The Rt. Hon. Lorp SwayTHLIne. Lorp Aprstey, D.S.O., M.C., M.P. Col. E. K. Perxrs,C.B.E.,V.D.,M.P.,D.L. Brig.-Gen. the Rt. Hon. Lorp Montacu oF Bravxiev, K.C.I.E., C.8.1., F.Z.S., V.D., D.L. | Sir Gzroraze A. Cooper, Bart., V.D., | DL. | Lieut.-Col. Witrrip W. AsHury, M.P., | Sir WynpHam PortaL, Bart., F.S.A., D.L | The PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY | CoLLEGE OF SoutHampton (C. G. | _Monrertorg, M.A., D.D.). The PrincipAL OF THE UNIVERSITY | CoLLEGE or SoUTHAMPTON (KENNETH H. Vickers, M.A.). The DirectoR-GENERAL OF THE ORD- NANCE Survey (Col. E. M. Jack, | C.M.G., D.S.O.). Col. Sir C. F. Crosr, K.B.E., C.M.G., F.R.S. VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT FOR THE OXFORD MEETING.* The Lorp-LIgEvTENANT OF THE COUNTY oF OxForD (His Grace the DuKE oF Marweorovucs, K.G.). The CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF Oxrorp (Rt. Hon. Viscount Cave, G.C.M.G., P.C., D.C.L.). The Lorp BisHop oF OxrForp (the Rt. Rey. T. B. Srrone, G.B.E., D.D.). The Vick-CHANCELLOR OF THE UNI- VERSITY (JOSEPH WELLS, M.A., Warden of Wadham College). The Rt. Worshipful the Mayor oF OxForD. The Rt. Hon. Viscount VALENTIA, K.C.V.O. The Rt. Hon. Lorp Save AND SELE, J.P. The Very Rev. the DEAN oF CHRIST Cuurcnu (Very Rev. H. J. Wut, D.D.). Sir Arrnour Evans, D.Litt., LL.D., F.R.S. Prof. Sir CHarLEsS SHERRINGTON, O.M., G.B.E., F.R.S. Sir Hperpert Warren, K.C.V.O., D.C.L. (President of Magdalen College), Sir W. BucHanan RippeE Lt, Bart., M.A. (Principal of Hertford College). Prof. E. B. Poutron, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. Prof. H. H. Turner, D.Sc., D.C.L., F.R.S. The PRINcrIPAL OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, Reading (W. M. Curzps, M.A.). G. C. Bourne, D.Sc., F.R.S. Alderman G. CLraripce Druce, D.Se. J. F. Mason, M.P. Mrs. G. Hersert MorRELL. T. H. Ross, J.P. VERNON JAMES Watney, M.A., F.S.A. * Appointed by the General Committee at the Southampton Meeting, with additions made by the Council, November, 1925. vi OFFICERS AND COUNCIL. GENERAL TREASURER. E. H. Grirritus, Sc.D., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. GENERAL SECRETARIES. Professor J. L. Myrzs, O.B.E., M.A., | F. E. Smrra, C.B.E., F.R.S. D.Sc., F.S.A., F.B.A. SECRETARY. O. J. R. Howarts, O.B.E., M.A., Burlington House, London, W. 1. LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE OXFORD MEETING. Dr. F. A. Drxny, F.R.S.; Brig.-Gen. H. Hartrey ; A. C. CAMERON, LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE OXFORD MEETING. B. RowLanD JONES. ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. Prof. W. H. Asaworts, F.B.S. | Sir R. A. Grecory. Dr. F. W. Aston, F.B.S. Sir Danret Hatt, K.C.B., F.R.S. ERNEST BARKER. | C. T. Heycock, F.R.S. Sir W. H. Brveripar, K.C.B., F.R.S. | Sir T. H. Horztanp, K.C.M.G., F.RB.S. Rt. Hon. Lorp BLEpIsLor, K.B.E. Dr. P. CHatmers MitcHetyt, C.B.E., Prof. A. L. BowLEy. | #.R.S. Prof. E. G. Coxsr, F.R.S. Dr. C. S. Myers, F.R.S. Prof. W. Datsy. F.R.S. Prof. T. P. Nunn. Dr. H. H. Date, F.R.S. Prof. A. W. Portsr, F.R.S. Prof. C. H. Drscou, F.RB.S. Prof. A. O. RANKINE. E. N. Fatuarze. Dr. F. C. SHRUBSALL. Sir J. S. Fuert, K.B.E., F.R.S. | Prof. A. SmrrHEtts, C.M.G., F.R.S. Prof. H. J. FLevure. | A. G. Tansiey, F.B.S. EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. The Trustees, past Presidents of the Association, the President for the year, the President and Vice-Presidents for the ensuing Annual Meeting, past and present General Treasurers and General Secretaries, past Assistant General Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries for the Annual Meetings immediately past and ensuing. TRUSTEES (PERMANENT). Major P. A. MacManon, D.Sc., LL.D., | Sir ARTHUR Evans, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S. | F.S.A. Hon. Sir Cuartzs A. Parsons, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOCIATION. Rt. Hon. the Earl of Batrour, O.M., | Sir ArrHUR ScuustER, F.R.S. FBS. | Sir AntHUR Evans, F.B.S. Sir E, Ray Lanxuster, K.C.B., F.B.S. Hon. Sir C. A. Parsons, K.C.B., F.R.S. Sir J. J. Toomrson, O.M., F.RB.S. Prof. Sir C. S. SHERRINGTON, G.B.E., Sir E. SHarpry Scuarsr, F.R.S. Pres.R.S. Sir OLtver Lopes, F.R.S. | Prof. Sir E. RuruHerrorp, F.R.S. Prof. W. Barsson, F.R.S. Major-Gen. Sir D. Brucr, K.C.B., F.R.S. PAST GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION. Sir E. SHarpry Scnargr, F.R.S. Major P. A. MacManon, F.R.S. Dr. D. H. Scort, F.R.S. - Professor H. H. Turner, F.R.S. Dr. J. G. Garson. HON. AUDITORS. Professor A. BowLry. | Professor A. W. Kirkatpy. LOCAL OFFICERS FOR THE SOUTHAMPTON MEETING. CHAIRMAN OF GENERAL AND EXECUTIVE COMMITTEES. His Worsuip THE Mayor oF SOUTHAMPTON (Alderman T. McDonngELL). LOCAL HON, SECRETARIES. R. C. ANDERSON, M. e: F.S.A. | W. Rar SHERRIFFS, M.A., D.Sc. F. Woottey, F.S.A.A. LOCAL HON. TREASURER. J. Reynoutps Hote. SECTIONS & SECTIONAL OFFICERS, 1925. A.—_MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. President.—Dr. G. C. Suveson, F.R.S. Vice-President.—Prof. A. O. RANKINE. Recorder.—Prof. A. M. TYNDALL. Secretaries. _M. A. Grstett; W. M. H. Greaves; Prof. HE. H. NEVILLE. Local Secretary.—Prof. H. STANSFIELD. B.— CHEMISTRY. President.—Prof. C. H. Duscu, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents—Sir Rogert Ropertson, K.B.E., F.R.S.; Prof. J. F. Taorrn, C.B.E., F.R.S.; Dr. N. V. Sipawick, F.R.S. Recorder.—Dr. H. MoComsiz. Secretary.—Dr. A. C. G. Earrton. Lecal Secretary—¥. J. SmiTu. C.—GEOLOGY. President. —Prof. W. A. Parks. Vice-Presidents—G. W. Cotenutt; Mrs. E. Rew ; Prof. W. W. Warrts,. F.R.S. OsBoRNE WHITE. Recorder.—Prof. W. T. Gorpon. Secretary.—I. 8. DouBLE. Local Secretary.—H. J. Berson. D.—ZOOLOGY. President.—C. Tate REGAN, F.R.S. Vice-President.—Dr. J. W. Hestor Harrison. Recorder.—F.. BALFOUR BROWNE. Secretary.—Prof. W. J. DAKIN. Local Secretary—Mrs. O. H. T, RisHBETH. vill OFFICERS OF SECTIONS, 1925. E.—GEOGRAPHY. President.—A. R. Hryxs, C.B.E., F.B.S. Vice-Presidents—Col. Sir CHarLtes Ciosz, K.B.E., C.M.G., F.R.S.; Dr. G. G. CutsHotm; Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S.; Col.-Commdt. E. M. Jack, C.M.G., D.S.0.; Col. D. Mrts. Recorder.—Dr. R. N. RupMosE Brown. Secretaries —_W. H. Barker; F. DEBENHAM. Local Secretary.—Miss F. Miner. F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. President.—Miss LynpDA GRIER. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. A. L. BowLey; F. C. Carter; Harry Parsons. Recorder.—R. B. FoRRESTER. Secretary._Kk. G. FEnELON. Local Secretary.—A. ScHOLFIELD. G.—ENGINEERING. President.—Sir ARCHIBALD Drnny, Bart. Vice-Presidents—Prof. G. W. O. Howr; F. E. Wentworth SHemps; A. W. SzLuMPER ; Sir J. I. THornycrort, F.R.S. Recorder.—Prof. F. C. Lra. Secretaries—Prof. G. Cook; J. S. Wmson. Local Secretary.—Prof. J. Eusticn. * H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. President.—Dr. T. Asupy. Vice-Presidents.—_K. N. Fatuatzr; Prof. A. Lor; E. T. Nicorze; Dr. F. C. SHRUBSALL. Recorder.—Prof. H. J. Funure. Secretaries—L. H. DupLEy Buxton; Miss R. M. Fiemina. Local Secretary.—¥. J. BURNETT. I.— PHYSIOLOGY. President.—Prof. A. V. Hitt, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Dr. H. H. Dan, C.B.E., F.R.S.; Prof. J. C. DRummonn ; Prof. C. Lovarr Evans; Dr. R. A. Lyster; Prof. R. A. Perers. Recorder.—Dr. J. H. Burn. Secretary.—B. A. McSwiney. Local Secretary.—Dr. G. S. FARQUHARSON. J.—PSYCHOLOGY. President.—Prof. C. SPEARMAN, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. F. Avetina ; Dr. W. Brown ; Prof. A. A. Cock; Prof. T. H. Prar. Recorder.—Dr. Lu. WYNN JONES. Secretaries.—R. J. BARTLETT; Dr. SHEPHERD Dawson. Local Secretary.—Miss E. M. Ricks. OFFICERS OF SECTIONS, 1925. ~ 1X K.— BOTANY. President.—Prof. J. Luoyp Wii1ams, University College, Aberystwyth. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. V. H. Buackman, F.R.S.; Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S.; Sir Hues Murray, C.1.E. (Sub-section of Forestry); Prof. F. W. Oxtver, F.R.S. ; Dr. D. H. Scort, F.R.S.; Prof. A. C. Sewarp, F.R.S. Recorder.—F. T. Brooxs. Secretaries—Dr. A. W. Bortuwick (Sub-section of Forestry); Dr. W. Roxprnson ; Prof. J. McLnan THompson. Local Secretary.—Miss F. M. LoapEr. L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. President.—Dr. W. W. VAUGHAN. Vice-Presidents.—Sir Ropert Buatir; Mr. Ernest BarkER; Miss E. R. Conway ; Mrs. J. A. GREEN ; Sir RicHaRD GREGORY; F. Hemmines; Dr. M. W. Kratince. Recorder.—C. E. BRowNE. Secretaries.—Dr. Lian J. CLrarke; A. EK. Heatu. Local Secretary.—Miss M. J. STEE.. M.—AGRICULTURE. President.—Dr. J. B. Orr. Vice-Presidents.—Sir Ropert Greig; Sir Danren Hatt, K.C.B., F.R.S.; Rt. Hon. the Eart or Nortusprook ; Sir Jonn Russext, F.R.S. Recorder.—C. G. T. Morison. Secretaries—T, 8S. Dymonp ; Dr. G. Scorr RoBERTSON. Local Secretary—Principal L. G. Troup. ANNUAL MEETINGS. TABLE” OF Date of Meeting Where held Presidents id te Aas 1831, Sept. 27......| York ........ Seer Viscount Milton, D.O.L., ne = = 1832, June 19..,.... Oxford ..... ..| The Rev. W. Buckland, ER ae — = 1833, June 25...... Cambridge ., .| The Rey. A. Sedgwick, F. nh — == 1834, Sept. 8 ...... Edinburgh .. ..| Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.O. Fs _ — 1835, Aug. 10. Dublin ..... ..| The Rey. Provost Lloyd, LL. 5 "FERS. — — 1836, Aug. 22. Bristol .. ..| The Marquis of Lansdowne, F.R.S....| — — 1837, Sept. 11...... Liverpool ....... ..| The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S... = = 1838, Aug.10....., Newcastle-on-Tyne.,.| The Duke of Northumberland, ER, =< = 1839, Aug. 26...... Birmingham ..,....... The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, F.R. S. —_ —_— 1840, Sept. 17...... Glasgow........ ..| The Marquis of Breadalbane, F.R.S. =s — 1841, July 20 ...... Plymouth ..| The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. ..... 169 65 1842, June 23.,,... Manchester ..| The Lord Francis Egerton, ¥F.G. ia 303 169 1843, Aug. 17...... Cork ... ..| The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. .. 109 28 1844, Sept. 26 ...... MOTE oo cuse .| The Rev. G. Peacock, D.D., ERS. 226 150 1845, June l9...... Cambridge Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. , F.R. s. 313 36 1846, Sept. 10..,...| Southampton . Sir Roderick [.Murchison,Bart.,F.R.S. 241 10 1847, June 23...... Oxford ....... ..| Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart., F.R.S. ... 314 18 1848, Aug.9 ...... Swansea.....,. .| TheMarquis ofNorthampton, Pres.R.8. 149 3 1849, Sept. 12...... Birmingham ..| The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D.,F.R.S, 227 12 1860, July 21 ...... Edinburgh ...| Sir David Brewster, K.H., F.R.S....... 235 9 1861, July 2..,......| Ipswich..... ...| @. B, Airy, Astronomer Royal, E.R.S. 172 8 1852, Sept.1 ...... Belfast ...| Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S. ... 164 10 1853, Sept. 3 Hull: ..... .| William Hopxins, F.R.5S... 141 13 1854, Sept. 20 .| Liverpool The Earl of Harrowby, FRS. 238 23 1855, Sept. 12..,...| Glasgow.. The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. 194 33 1856, Aug.6 ..,... ...| Prof. 0. G. B. Daubeny, M.D., F.RB.S.... 182 14 1857, Aug. 26 .| The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., F. RS. > 236 15 1858, Sept. 22 ...... Leeds . ...| Richard Owen, M.D., D. jit. , FB... 222 42 1859, Sept. 14...... Aberdeen .| H.R.H. The Prince Gonsort PEAeat 184 27 1860, June 27 ,..... Oxford!) Jo ... ...| The Lord Wrottesley, M.A., F.R.S. . 286 21 1861, Sept.4 ...... Manchester . .| William Fairbairn, LL.D., BR. =a 321 113 1862,Oct.1_...... Cambridge ............ The Rev. Professor Willis, M. A.F.R.S 239 15 1863, Aug. 26 ...... Newcastle-on-Tyne...| SirWilliam G. ‘Armstrong.0. B., F.R.S. 203 36 1864, Sept. 13...... h Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A., F.R.S. 287 40 1865, Sept.6 ...... ...| Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., Tals, Di; F. R.S. 292 44 1866, Aug. 22 ...... Nottingham. ...| William R. Grove, Q.0., F.R.S.. 3 207 31 1867,Sept.4 ...... Dundee ....... .| The Duke of Buccleuch, K.O.B. VF. R. Ss 167 25 1868, Aug. 19..,... i ...| Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S. ......... 196 18 1869,Aug.18...... ...| Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.O.L., F.R.S....... 204 21 1870,Sept. 14...... “| Prof. T: H. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. 314 39 1871, Aug. .| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D., F.R. s. 246 28 1872, Aug. Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. | 245 36 1873, Sept. .| Prof. A. W. Williamson, F. RS 212 27 1874, Aug. .| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., on 162 13 1875, Aug. .| Sir John Hawkshaw, F. R. 239 36 1876, Sept. .| Prof. T. Andrews, M. DE ER 221 35 1877, Aug. .| Prof. A. Thomson, M.D., F.R 173 19 1878, Aug. ‘| W. Spottiswoode, M.A., #.R.S 201 18 1879, Aug. ....| Prof. G. J. Allman, M.D., F 184 16 1880, Aug. .| A. O. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R. 144 11 | 1881, Aug. MN OL Keer .| Sir John Lubbock, Bart. a i 272 28 1882, Aug. ..| Southampton ‘| Dr. 0. W. Siemens, F.R.S. : 178 17 1883, Sept. .| Southport .., .| Prof. A. Oayley, D.O.L., FI ‘ 203 60 | 1884, Aug. Montreal .., .| Prof. Lord Bayleteh, E.R. i 235 20 1885, Sept.9 ....., Aberdeen ....., .| Sir Lyon Playfair, K.O.B. 3 225 18 1886, Sept.1 ....., Birmingham .| Sir J. W. Dawson, O.M. Ge i e> S814 25 1887, Aug. 31.,,... Manchester .., .. Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.O.L., F a 428 86 fe LISTEN STE) 0) lore oye ued 2):1) 01: Dae en Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R. es ase 266 36 1889, Sept. 11 ...... Newcastle-on-Tyne...| Prof. W. H. Flower, 0.B., PRS. 277 20 1890, Sept. 3 ...... cin hii ee .| Sir F. A. Abel, O.B., F-R.S. ..... ..| 259 21 1891, Aug.19.,,.., Oardifts 5: Dr. W. Huggins, ERS. a 189 24 1892, Aug.3 ....., Edinburgh .. Sir A. Geikie, LL.D., F.B.S. a 280 14 1893, Sept. 13...... Nottingham .. "| Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson, B.S. 201 17 1894, Aug.8 ....., Oxford ..,.. "| The Marquis of Salisbury,K.G..F.R.S. 327 21 1895, Sept. 11...... Ipswich ..| Sir Douglas Galton, K.0.B., F.R.S. 214 13 1895, Sept.16 ...... Liverpool ..| Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., Pres, R.. Biv: 330 31 1897, Aug. 18 ..,... Toronto .| Sir John Evans, K.C.B., ER. S.. 120 8 1898, Sept.7 ...... Bristol Sir W. Orookes, F.R.S. .........e 281 19 1899, Sept. 12...... DOYOr seek .dian lire: | Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., Sec.R.S 296 20 * Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843. + Tickets of Admission to Sections only. [ Continued on p. xii. ANNUAL MEETINGS. XI ANNUAL MEETINGS. Sums paid Old New eat : ee on account Annual | Annual diated Ladies |Foreigners| Total for of Grants Year Members | Members Tickets for Scientific | Purposes <= — -- _ _ 353 - — 1831 — == = == = = _ _— 1832 == _— — _ — | 900 _— _— 1833 — — _ = _— | 1298 _— £20 0 0 1834 _ — — = = _ _— 167 0 0 1835 om = — — — 1350 _— 435 0 0 1836 = — -— — — 1840 — 922 12 6 1837 = == — 1100* — 2400 — 932 2 2 1838 | _— =_ _— — 34 1438 a 1595 11 0 1839 = — — _ 40 1353 _ 1546 16 4 1840 46 317 — 60* — 891 “sz 1235 10 11 1841 75 376 33} 331* 28 1315 _ 144917 8 1842 | 71 185 _— 160 —_ —_ — 1565 10 2 1843 45 190 9+ 260 } — —_— 98112 8 1844 94 22 407 172 85 1079 — 831 9 9 1845 65 39 270 196 36 857 _ 685 16 0 1846 197 40 495 203 53 1320 — 208 5 4 1847 54 25 376 197 15 819 £707 0 0 275 1 8 1848 | 93 33 447 237 22 1071 963 0 0 15919 6 1848 | 128 42 510 273 44 1241 1085 0 0 345 18 0 1850 61 47 244 141 37 710 620 0 0] 391 9 7 1851 63 60 510 292 9 1108 1085 0 0 304 6 7 1852 56 57 367 236 6 876 903 0 0 205 0 0 1853 121 121 765 524 10 1802 1882 0 0 380 19 7 1854 | 142 101 1094 543 26 2133 2311 0 0 480 16 4 1855 104 48 412 346 9 | 1115 1098 0 0 73413 9 1856 156 120 900 569 26 2022 2015 0 0 507 15 4 1857 111 91 710 509 13 1698 1931 0 0 618 18 2 1858 125 179 1206 821 22 2564 2782 0 0 684 11 1 1859 177 59 636 463 47 1689 1604 0 0 76619 6 1860 184 125 1589 791 15 3138 3944 0 0] 1111 510 1861 150 57 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 0 | 129316 6 1862 154 209 1704 1004 25 3335 3640 0 O| 1608 3 10 1863 182 103 1119 * 1058 13 2802 2965 0 0| 128915 8 1864 215 — 149 766 508 23 1997 2227 0 0} 1691 710 1865 218 105 960 771 11 2303 2469 0 0/|175013 4 1866 193 118 1163 771 7 2444 2613 0 0/1739 4 0 1867 226 117 720 682 45t 2004 2042 0 0/1940 0 0 1868 229 107 678 600 17 1856 1931 0 0O| 1622 0 0 1869 303 195 1103 910 14 2878 3096 0 0} 1572 0 0 1870 311 127 976 754 21 2463 2575 0 0O/| 1472 2 6 1871 280 80 937 912 43 2533 2649 0 0/1285 0 0 1872 237 99 796 601 11 1983 2120 0 0| 1685 0 0 1873 232 85 817 630 12 1951 1979 0 0} 115116 0 1874 307 93 884 672 17 2248 2397 0 0 960 0 0 1875 331 185 1265 712 26 2774 3023 0 0/1092 4 2 1876 238 59 446 283 | ll 1229 1268 0 0/1128 9 7 1877 290 93 1285 674 17 2578 2615 0 0 725 16 6 1878 239 74 529 349 13 1404 1425 0 O | 1080 11 11 1879 171 41 389 147 12 915 899 0 0 Toker dnd 1880 313 176 1230 514 24 2557 2689 0 0/| 476 8 1 1881 253 79 516 189 21 1253 1286 0 0; 1126 111 1882 330 323 952 841 5 2714 3369 0 0| 1083 3 3 1883 317 219 826 74 26 & 60 H.§ 1777 1855 0 0/1173 4 0 1884 332 122 1053 447 6 2203 2256 0 0/1385 0 0 1885 428 179 1067 429 | 11 2453 2532 0 0 995 0 6 1886 510 244 1985 493 | 92 3838 4336 0 0 | 118618 0 1887 399 100 639 509 12 1984 2107 0 0| 1511 0 5 1888 412 113 1024 579 21 2437 2441 0 O| 1417 011 1889 368 92 680 334 | 12 1775 1776 0 0 789 16 8 1890 341 152 672 107 35 1497 1664 0 0} 102910 0 1891 7 413 141 733 439 50 2070 2007 0 0| 86410 0 1892 328 57 773 268 17 1661 1653 0 0} 90715 6 1893 435 69 941 451 77 2321 2175 0 0 583 15 6 1894 | { 290 3) 493 261 22 1324 1236 0 0 977 15 5 1895 : 383 139 1384 873 41 3181 3228 0 0/1104 6 1 1896 286 125 682 100 41 1362 1398 0 0/| 105910 8 1897 327 96 1051 639 33 2446 2399 0 0/1212 0 0; 1898 324 68 548 120 27 1403 1328 0 0 | 143014 2; 1899 } Including Ladies. § Fellows ofthe American Association were admitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting [ Continued on p. xiii. es X11 Table of | Date of Meeting Where held | Presidents wee, Ber ii 1900, Sept. e eianer Bradford. ..........0.«0 Sir William Turner, D.O.L., F.RB.S. ... 267 13 1901, Sept. 11......| Glasgow ..| Prof. A. W. Riicker, D.Sc., Sec.R.S. ... 310 37 1902, Sept. 10...... Belfast . .| Prof. J. Dewar, LL.D., F.R.S. ......... 243 21 1903, Sept. 9 ...... Southport ..| Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S. 250 21 1904, Aug. 17,.... Cambridge..... .| Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P., F.R.S. 419 32 1905, Aug. 15..,... South Africa ..| Prof. G. H. Darwin, LL.D., ERS. ; 115 40 1906, Aug.1 ,.,...) York ...... ..| Prof. E, Ray Lankester, LL.D., F.R. s 322 10 1907, July 31. Leicester .| Sir David Gill, K.O.B., F.R.S. : 276 19 1908, Sept. 2 Dublin .,,... ..| Dr. Francis Darwin, F. R.S. 294 24 1909, Aug. 25...... Winnipeg . Prof. Sir J, J. Thomson, FRS. 117 13 1910, Aug. 31 ..... Sheffield..... Rev. Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.RS. ..... 293 26 1911, Aug. 30..... Portsmouth ..| Prof. Sir W. Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S. 284 21 | 1912, Sept. 4 ...... | Dundee ......... .| Prof. E. A. Schafer, F.R.S.............. 288 14 | 1913, Sept. 10 ....,.) Birmingham .| Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S......... 376 40 | 1914, July-Sept... | Australia ........ ..| Prof, W. Bateson, F.R.S. .. 172 13 1915, Sept. 7 ......| Manchester .. .........) Prof. A. Schuster, F.R.S. ..... 242 19 1916, Sept. 5 Newcastle-on Tyne...| 164 12 1917 (No Meeting) ..... . |} Sir Arthur Evans, F.R.S. —_ — 1918 (No Meeting) .. | _— — 1919, Sept.9 ...... Bournemouth | Hon. Sir O. Parsons, K.0.B.,F.R.S.... 235 47 i} 1920, Aug. 24...... LOPES ofa Ut ape eon de pe | Prof. W. A. Herdman, C.B.E., F.R.S. 288 11 1921, Sept. 7 ..... Edinburgh ..| Sir T. E. Thorpe, O. is F.R.S. 336 9 1922, Sept.6 ...... Hull | SirimO,_ 8; Sherrington, GB. E, IE RESSM Oc cuadcds aeedees psec nanmeearened 228 13 1923, Sept. 12.....| Liverpool . | Sir Ernest Rutherford, F.R.S. ......... 326 12 1924, Aug.6 .,...| Toronto..........; ....| Sir David Bruce, K.C.B., F.R.S 119 7 1925, Aug. 26...... Southampton ..,.... . | Prof. Horace Lamb, F.R.S. ............ 280 8 ANNUAL MEETINGS, ANNUAL MEETINGS, xl | } | Sums paid Old New eer eerie on account Annual Annual aban Ladies |Foreigners| Total rie of Grants Year Members | Members Ticket for Scientific = Purposes 297 45 801 482 9 1915 | £1801 0 £1072 10 0 1900 374 131 794 246 20 1912 | 2046 0| 920 911 1901 3l4 86 647 305 6 1620 | 1644 0 | 947 0 0 1902 319 90 688 365 21 1754 | 1762 0 | 845 13 2 1903 449 113 1338 317 121 2789 2650 O | 887 18 11 1904 937° 411 430 181 16 2130 2422 0/928 2 2 1905 | | 356 93 817 352 22 1972 | 1811 0! 882 0 9 1906 339 61 659 251 42 1647 1561 0 | 757 12 10 1907 465 112 1166 222 14 2297 2317 O 1157 18 8 1908 | 290? 162 789 90 7 1468 1623 0 1014 9 9 1909 | 379 57 563 123 8 1449 | 1489 0 96317 0 1910 | 349 61 414 81 31 1241 | 1176 0 | 922 0 0 1911 368 95 1292 359 88 | 2504 2349 0 | 845 7 6 1912 480 149 1287 291 20 2643 | 2756 0 978 17 I 1913 139 4160° 539° — 21 5044*° | 4873 0 1861 16 4° | 1914 | 287 116 §28* 141 8 1441 1406 0 1569 2 8 1915 | 250 76 251* 73 — | 826 821 0 | 985 18 10 1916 ( _ _ — | -- _ oe | eo 677 17 2 1917 _— —_ =— tal — _ 7 — 326 13 3 1918 254 102 688* 153 3 | 1482 1736 0 | 410 0° 0 1919 a \ Aik Annual Members Annual Vee LLP OP aco Eeeeeter- |Students’ Fae Meeting | yeoting | Tickets cRetE Report only | } | 136 192 571 42 120 20 | 1389 1272 10 1251 13 08 1920 | 133 410 1394 121 343 22 2768 2599 15 , 518 110 1921 | 90 294 757 89 2355 24 1730 1689 5 772 0 7 1922 —Comphi- | H mentary. | | | 123 380 1434 163 550 3087 =| 3296 2735 15 777 18 6° 1923 37 520 1866 41 89 139 2818 3165 19'°°1197 5 9 1924 97 264 878 62 119 74 1782 1630 5 1231 0 0 (925 * Including 848 Members of the South African Association. * Including 137 Members of the American Association. * Special arrangements were made for Members and Associates joining locally in Australia, see Report, 1914, p.686. The numbers include 80 Members who joined in order to attend the Meeting of L’Association Francaise at Le Havre, * Including Students’ Tickets, 10s. * Including Exhibitioners granted tickets without charge. * Including grants from the Oaird Fund in this and subsequent years. 7 Including Foreign Guests, Exhibitioners, and others. * The Bournemouth Fund for Research, initiated by Sir O. Parsons, enabled grants on account of scientific purposes to be maintained. * Including grants from the Caird Gift for research in radioactivity in this and subsequent years. *° Subscriptions paid in Canada were $5 for Meeting only and others pro rata; there was some gain on exchange. a i XIV REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1924-25. I. In March 1925 the Council learned, with deep satisfaction, that H.R.H. The Prince of Wales, K.G., F.R.S., would permit himself to be nominated as President of the Association for the year 1926-27 (Oxford Meeting). The Council, under Rule I, 5, summoned a special meeting of the General Committee to receive the nomination on March 6, when the Committee unanimously resolved, by acclamation, to invite His Royal Highness to this office, which he was graciously pleased to accept. II. The Council have had to deplore the loss by death of Sir Archibald Geikie (President, 1892); of Mr. William Whitaker (who gave freely of his services to the Association for many years as a member of the Council, with the Corresponding Societies Committee, and as an office-bearer in the geological section) ; of Dr. Willett G. Miller, of Toronto (to whose help the success of the recent visit to Canada was largely due, and who had been appointed to preside over the geological section at Southampton) ; and of Sir Edward Thorpe (President, 1921). The Association has also lost during the past year an unusual number of other former office-bearers and warm supporters, including Lord Abercromby, Sir W. Acworth, Mr. W. W. Rouse Ball, Sir W. F. Barrett, Sir W. M. Bayliss, Sir G. T. Beilby, Mr. J. Bolton, Rev. A. L. Cortie, 8.J., Mr. W. Dale, Prof. A. Dendy, Prof. C. D. Liveing. Ill. The congratulations of the Council were offered to Sir Ernest Rutherford, ex-President, on his receiving the high honour of the Order of Merit. IV. Representatives of the Association have been appointed as follows :— National Committee for Geodesy and Geophysics (as from January 1, 1925) : Professor H. H. Turner. American Association for the Advancement of * Science, Washington Meeting . : : . Professor E. W. Brown, Pro- fessor J. P. McMurrich. Leeds University, coming-of- pee and pS of Yorkshire College . ; : . Sir H. Rew, Professor H. H. Turner. Association of Teachers in Technical Institutions, inquiry into technical education F é . Sir R. Blair, Mr. C. E. Browne. Committee on the preceding : : : - Sir R. Blair, Professor A. Smithells. North Staffordshire Field Club, Jubilee Meeting . Professor P. G. H. Boswell. International Conference on use of Esperanto in Science, Paris : Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell. Congress of Spanish and Portuguese societies for the Advancement of Science, Coimbra : Senor la Rica. Research vessel Discovery, official luncheon, Portsmouth . c ; > 4 : . Mr. C. Tate Regan. Association frangaise pour rons des Sciences, Grenoble A Dr. J. G. Garson. The Council have oe, ao Dr PB: ‘Ckalmes Mitchell to be a governor of the Marine Biological Association, Plymouth, in the room of the late Sir William Herdman. 4 : : i : : | q REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1924-25. XV V. Following upon the Toronto Meeting, the Council have to thank the Royal Institution for an invitation which resulted in a most enjoyable and valuable meeting between members of the Institution and of the Association on December 17, 1924. An exhibition was arranged of photographs taken and specimens collected by members of the Associa- tion in Canada ; short lectures were given by Sir John Russell and Prof. W. W. Watts on special aspects of the Toronto Meeting and the trans- continental excursion which took place after it, and a portion of the Ontario Government cinema film made during the visit was shown, and was explained by Sir Thomas Holland. VI. Resolutions referred by the General Committee at the Toronto Meeting to the Council for consideration, and, if desirable, for action, were dealt with as follows :— (a) The Council submitted to H.M. Government and to the Universities Bureau the proposal that in any scheme for applying funds from the Boxer Indemnity to the provision of further facilities for higher education and research in China, account should be taken of the urgent need for education and research in geographical, economic, and social conditions. This proposal was supplemented by a reasoned statement, to which H.M. Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs promised that full consideration should be given. (Resolutions of Sections E, F, H, and L.) (6) Following upon discussion with representatives of the National Research Council (U.8.A.) on the subject of an international abstracting service for biological sciences, resolutions expressing general approval, in principle, of establishing such a service were received from Sections ©, D, H, I, J, K, and M. The Council, on learning that a committee of the Royal Society was considering this matter, placed at that committee’s disposal the information in possession of the Association. Other resolutions, referred to the Council by organising sectional committees during the year, were dealt with as follows :— (c) The Council commended to the consideration of the Ontario Government the support of the researches undertaken by the depart- ment of zoology in the University of Toronto on freshwater fisheries in Ontario. (Organising Committee of Section D.) (d) The Council, after inquiry, found that no action could usefully be taken with a view to preventing the closing of the Marine Biological Station at Little Abaco, Bahamas. (Organising Committee of Section D.) (e) The Council referred to Section D, and to the Committee on Zoological Bibliography and Publication, a protest against the curtail- ment of distribution of scientific publications by Government departments, etc., with especial reference to zoological publications. (f) The Council forwarded to the Board of Education a request received from the Committee on Geography Teaching, through the Organising Committee of Section E, that the Board should prepare and issue suggestions on the teaching of geography, etc. (g) The Council forwarded to the Department of Scientific and Indus- trial Research a proposal that the five reports on Colloid Chemistry, _ published on behalf of the Association by the Department through H.M. Stationery Office, should be re-edited and re-issued in a single volume. xvi REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1924-25. (h) The Council received from the Organising Committees of Sections A and B a resolution expressing the hope that the Council would see its way to include German men of science in the list of foreign guests for the Southampton Meeting. The Council, after full consideration, found it inexpedient to take action on this resolution. VII. The Council welcomed a proposal that a fund should be collected by voluntary contribution from members who attended the Toronto Meeting from Great Britain, etc., for the purpose of making a presentation to the University of Toronto in commemoration of the meeting. The fund so collected amounted to £196. It was decided, after consultation with Sir Robert Falconer, President of the University, to propose to the University that the income from the fund should be applied to the presentation of two bronze medals each year, to selected students in pure and applied science respectively, and that any available balance should be expended upon presents of books to the students. VIII. The Council circulated an appeal to agricultural and kindred societies and institutions in Great Britain to exchange their publications more freely with similar institutions in North America. IX. The Council received from some of the Corresponding Societies information as to demands made upon them for the payment of income tax upon revenue from invested funds, which had previously been exempted from taxation, coupled with requests that the Association should take action to avert these demands. The Association itself, when claiming the refund of taxation as usual in 1924, was informed that, while its claim was then allowed, future exemption might be reconsidered. The Council instituted a wide inquiry of corresponding and other societies, which revealed that such demands were being made unsystematically, and that the payment of tax would in many instances cripple the resources and work of the societies. The Council received co-operation and support from many quarters, and especially from the Society of Antiquaries, which instituted an inquiry of societies in union with itself. After full considera- tion by a committee of the Council and the officers of the Association and the Society, a deputation representative of both bodies and a number of other institutions waited upon the Financial Secretary to the Treasury, who sympathetically received a statement of the present and former positions of the societies with reference to taxation, and specific proposals for their exemption in future. Discussion followed between a committee of the deputation and the Chairman and other officers of the Inland Revenue, with regard to a possible definition of societies which should be exempted. H.M. Treasury, however, subsequently proposed that an agreed test case should be carried to the Courts, the costs, independently of the decision, to fall upon the public funds ; and the Council, for their part, agreed to this course. X. The Council, when appointing sectional recorders and secretaries for the Southampton Meeting, brought into operation a standing order that members of the Association should not, in general, hold either of these offices for a period exceeding five years (excluding, however, the year of an overseas meeting). XI. The Council have received reports from the General Treasurer throughout the year. His accounts have been audited and are presented | REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1924-25. xvii to the General Committee. The Council made the following grants to research committees from the Caird Fund :— Seismology Committee 5 A . : . £100 Tables of Constants Committee : Naples Table Committee . : . 100 Plymouth Marine Laboratory Committee. : 25 Zoological Record Committee . : ’ ; 50 Bronze Implements Committee . 3 ‘ =) 7100 Solar Physics Observatory in Australia . : 50 The grant of £250 from the Caird Gift for research in radio-activity for the year ending March 24, 1926, has been divided between Mr. P. M.S. Blackett, Dr. J. Chadwick and Dr. J. S. Russell. XII. The Corresponding Societies Committee has been nominated as follows: the President of the Association (Chairman ex-officio), Mr. T. Sheppard (Vice-Chairman), the General Treasurer, the General Secretaries, Dr. F. A. Bather, Mr. O. G. 8. Crawford, Prof. P. F. Kendall, Mr. Mark L. Sykes, Dr. C. Tierney, Prof. W. W. Watts. XIII. The retiring Ordinary Members of the Council are: Prof. A. Fowler, Sir J. 8. Keltie, Prof. A. W. Kirkaldy, Mr. J. Barcroft, Prof. A. C. Seward. The Council have received with much regret the resignation of Prof. A. C. Seward, who has been unavoidably prevented by other duties from attendance at Council meetings. The Council nominate the following new members :— Professor A. L. Bowley, | Dr. H. H. Dale, Professor A. O. Rankine, leaving two vacancies to be filled by the General Committee without nomination by the Council. The full list of nominations of Ordinary Members is as follows :— Professor J. H. Ashworth. Professor H. J. Fleure. Dr. F. W. Aston. Dr. E. Barker. Sir W. H. Beveridge. Rt. Hon. Lord Bledisloe. Professor A. L. Bowley. Professor E. G. Coker. Professor W. Dalby. Dr. H. H. Dale. Professor C. H. Desch. Mr. E. N. Fallaize. Sir J. S. Flett. Sir Daniel Hall. Mr. C. T. Heycock. Sir T. H. Holland. Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell. Dr. C. 8. Myers. Professor A. W. Porter. Professor A. O. Rankine, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. Professor A. Smithells. Mr. A. G. Tansley. XIV. The General Officers have been nominated by the Council as follows :— General Treasurer, Dr. K. H. Griffiths. General Secretaries, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. F. E. Smith. XV. The following have been admitted as members of the General ~ Committee :-— Dr. Cyril Fox. Dr. F. A. Potts. Professor D. M. S. Watson. XVI. TheCouncil recommend the following changesin the Rules, viz. :— (1) To add new Rule, Chap. VII, no. 6— Professor J. Y. Simpson. Dr. A. E. Trueman. No gift, bonus, dividend, or division in money shall be made out of the funds of the Association, to or between any of its members. a xvii REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1924-25. (2) To add new Rule, Chap. VIII, no. 4— The Council, in consultation with the Local Executive Committee of the Association for the Annual Meeting, shall provide evening or other lectures during the meeting, to which the public, other than members of the Association, shall be admitted free, and shall appoint lecturers for this purpose, having regard to the scientific and educational needs and interests of the place of meeting and its neighbourhood. (3) To amend Rule II, 1 (i, a) as italicised— 1. The General Committee shall be constituted of the following persons, being members of the Association :— (i) Permanent members— (a) Past and present members of the Council, past and present presidents of the Sections, and Recorders of Sections on retirement. (4) To amend Rule II, 2 (i) as italicised— (i) Claims for admission to Permanent Membership (of the General Committee) must be lodged... one month before the Annual Meeting, either by claimants themselves or by Recorders on behalf of Sectional Organising Committees desiring to make recommend- ations for admission. (5) To amend Rule IX, 6— The Sectional Committee shall nominate .. . not more than six of its own members to be members of an Organising Committee. . . . to read— The Sectional Committee shall nominate . . . not more than six members of the Association to be members of an Organising Committee. ... XVII. The Council at their meeting on June 5, 1925, were informed by the General Treasurer that he had the opportunity of acquiring a number of Vanity Fair cartoons of former presidents of the Association, and he invited and received subscriptions from the members present towards the cost of purchasing and framing these cartoons, to be hung in the Council room. Subsequently Miss A. Airy, grand-daughter of the late Sir G. B. Airy, presented to the Association a fine set of lithograph portraits made in connection with the Ipswich Meeting in 1851 (when Airy was President), a number of which are being framed. The thanks of the Council for this kind gift were conveyed to Miss Airy. BRITISH ASSOCIATION EXHIBITIONS. For the Southampton Meeting, British Association Exhibitions (referred to in § IX. of the Report of the Council, 1922-23) were awarded to seventeen students nominated by. the same number of universities and colleges. Their travelling expenses (railway fares) were met by the Association, which also issued complimentary students’ tickets of mem- bership to them; they were entertained in Southampton by the Local Executive Committee. Hight of the universities or colleges allowed expenses for twenty-seven additional exhibitioners, while five selected students from Liverpool received grants for the same purpose out of a fund formed from the surplus of the moneys collected for the local fund in connection with the Liverpool Meeting, 1923. The exhibitioners were enabled to meet the President and General Officers. One of their num- ber (Mr. K. K. Law, University College, Nottingham) was elected secretary for the purpose of communication by the exhibitioners as a body with the general officers. r GENERAL MEETINGS, PUBLIC LECTURES, &c. xix GENERAL MEETINGS, ETC., IN SOUTHAMPTON. INAUGURAL GENERAL MEETING. The Inaugural General Meeting took place in the Central Hall on Wednesday, August 26, at 8.30 p.m., when Major-General Sir David Bruce, K.C.B., F.R.S., resigned the office of President of the Association to Prof. Horace Lamb, F.R.S., who delivered an address (for which see p. 1). EveninG Discourse. Mr. R. V. Southwell: ‘ Aeronautical Problems of the Past and of the Future.’ 8 p.m., August 28, Central Hall. (See p. 395.) Citizens’ LECTURES. Major A.G. Church: ‘Science and the East African Commission.’ 7.30 p.m., August 27, Central Hall. Prof. E. V. Appleton: ‘The Réle of the Atmosphere in Wireless Tele- graphy.’ 8 p.m., August 29, Avenue Hall. Capt. P. P. Eckersley: ‘Some Technical Problems of Broadcasting.’ 8 p.m., August 31, Central Hall. Mr. C. J. P. Cave: ‘The Highway of the Air.’ 8 p.m., September 1, Central Hall. Mr. Cave also gave a lecture in Salisbury on August 31, at the invitation of the Education Committee in that city. LrEcturEs To YounG PEOPLE. Dr. F. A. Dixey, F.R.S.: ‘Mimicry in Relation to Geographical Dis- tribution.’ 3 p.m., August 29, Central Hall. Prof. W. J. Dakin: ‘ Whaling in the Southern Ocean.’ 3 p.m., Septem- ber 1, Central Hall. Mr. W. H. Barker: ‘The Development of Southampton in Relation to World Commerce.’ 3 p.m., August 31, Central Hall. ConcLUDING GENERAL MEETING. The Concluding General Meeting was held in the Central Hall on Wednesday, September 2, at 12 noon, when the following Resolutions were adopted with acclamation :— 1. That the cordial thanks of the British Association be offered to the Mayor, Corporation, and citizens of Southampton for their generous hospitality on the oceasion of the Association’s visit, and especially to the authorities of King Edward VI. Grammar School, the Central Hall, and other places of meeting; to the Southern Railway Company, the Docks Board, the Cunard Steamship Company, and the White Star Line for their reception of visiting members; to the municipal departments and industrial organisations for opportunities of studying public services and commercial activities of the district, and to the tramway committee for their kind provision of _ transport. a2 xx GENERAL MEETINGS, PUBLIC LECTURES, &c. 2. That the cordial thanks of the British Association be accorded to Mr. F. Woolley and Dr. W. Rae Sherriffs for their untiring work on behalf of the Association as Local Secretaries, to the Local Honorary Treasurer, Mr. Reynolds Hole, and to the Local Sectional Secretaries and members of the office staffs in Southampton for their able assistance. ‘ 3. That the thanks of the British Association be offered to the Air Ministry for the arrangement of a Meteorological Office in the Reception Room and for their generous reception of visiting members at the Royal Air Force Base, Calshot. 4. That the thanks of the British Association be offered to the Director-General and staff of the Ordnance Survey for his permission to inspect the offices of the Survey, and to the officers and staff of the Survey for the courtesy shown to a continuous succession of visitors. 5. That the cordial thanks of the British Association be offered to all those who have contributed by their courteous hospitality to the comfort of visiting members, and, by their personal interest in the proceedings of the meeting, to the realisation of the great objects of the Association ; and more especially to Lord and Lady Swaythling for throwing open their beautiful home and its treasures for the instruction and delight of their guests. 6. That the thanks of the British Association be offered to the authorities of the University College for placing its premises at the disposal of the Association for sectional meetings. The Association trusts that the University College may prosper and be enabled to contribute in even fuller measure to the advancement of learning and the spread of education. Xx1 BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT , OF SCIENCE. GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT Juty 1, 1924, ro June 30, 1925. Notes on items indicated in following pages :— 1 The amount under the heading of ‘Sundry Creditors’ includes the sum of £196 15s. 10d., representing subscriptions from Members toward a presentation to the University of Toronto, in acknowledgment of the hospitality received there in 1924. 2 As a proportion of the membership subscriptions for the Meeting in 1924 were paid in Canadian currency ($5 for annual membership and so on), the exchange results in the appearance of broken sums (shillings and pence) in the subscription accounts. 8 Owing to the earlier printing of programmes necessitated by the meeting overseas in 1924, the receipts from advertisements which would normally have appeared in the accounts for the present year had been collected and accounted during the year 1923-4. 4 The apparent (not actual) reduction in dividends is due to the fact that a summer half-year’s dividend from War Stock was formerly received in June. This stock has been transferred to Conversion Loan, the half-yearly dividend on which is paid in July, and is therefore not included in these accounts. Xxil GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. Balance Sheet, Corresponding Figures 1924. £ s. d. 10,575 15 2 9,582 16 3 V3 G itd ee oe 59 10 O 10,000 0 75 0 O 510.0. 0 450 0 O R896 8 8 86,463 7 3 To ” ” ” ” | LIABILITIES. Capital Accounts— General Fund, as per contra r (Subject to Depreciation in Value of Investments) Caird Fund— As per contra (Subject to “Depreciation in Value of Investments) Caird Fund— Revenue Account, Balance as at July 1, 1924 Less Excess of Expenditure over Income for the year 6 ; . Caird Gift, Radio SEAT Investigation— Balance as at July 1, 1924 . Add Dividends on Treasury Bonds Income Tax recovered Less Grants paid Sir F. Bramwell’s Gift for Enquiry into Prime Movers, 1931— £50 Consols now pec oninate to £126 pa ee as per contra . . Sir Charles Parson’s Gift John Perry Guest Fund— For eases of emergency connected with Guests of the Association 5 Life Compositions— As at July 1, 1924 Add Received during year Legacy—T. W. Backhouse Sundry Creditors . Income and Expenditure inbao ane — Balance as at July 1, 1924. £3,814 11 2 Less Excess of Bxpendi- ture over Pata for year ; : 596 15 4 510 198 | 10 15 d. £& 10,575 9,582 4 2 655 4 if 0 11 0 249 62 10,000 75 0 2 708 45 101 10 3,505 14 2 £35,865 15 0 a T have examined the foregoing Account with the Books and Vouchers and ce1tify the same Approved, ARTHUR L. BOWLEY } Auditors. A. W. KIRKALDY July 24, 1925. GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT, XxX Tune 30, 1925. Corres ondin y Pairares e ASSETS. . 1924. f ee 8sas & Borel £ s. d. |By ae on Capital Accounts—General und— SR ae 10s. 5d. Consolidated 24 per cent. Be . ost 3,942. 3.3 £3, “500 India 3 per cent. Stock at cost. d,024A02 6 £879 14s. 9d. £43 Great Indian Peninsula Railway ‘B’ Annuity at cost . 827 15 0 a Lee Td. War Stock (Post Office Issue) at r 5 Hee’ est ‘16s. Gd. 44 per cent. Conversion Loan at ii 4 maa’ 4 3 215400 War Stock 5 per cent. 1929/47 at cost 1,393 16 11 BIO0,575 15 2 LOsb75 15° 2 £7,735 10s. 10d. Value at date, £7,605 2s. 11d. ae Caird’ Fund— £2,627 Os. 10d. India 3} per cent. Stock at cost 2,400 13 3 £2,100 London Midland and Scottish Railway Consolidated 4 per cent. Preference Stock . at cost 2,190 4 38 . £2,500 Canada 3 per cent. 1930/50 Regis- tered Stock at cost . 2st 66 £2,000 Southern Railway Consolidated 5 per cent. Preference Stock at cost . 2,594 17 3 9,582 16 3 9,582 16 3 £7,502 19s. 7d. Value at date, £7,045 6s. 1d. » Caird Fund Revenue cn Kote 9/4 Cash at Bank . 655 14 2 >» Caird Gift— a ae Cash at Bank 249 18 11 > Sir F. Bramwell’s Gitt— £121 10 6 Self-Accumulating Consolidated Stock as per last Balance Sheet 59 10 O Add Accumulations 2 June >——— ice yall) 30, 1925 : E ee! A 59 10 O ass = 62 11 8 } £126 17 6 4 » Sir Charles Parson’s Gift— 10,000 0 0O £10,300 43 per cent. Conversion Loan 10,000 0 O ' £10,068 5s. 0d. Value at date, £9,682 1 » John ‘Perry Guest Fund— . £96 National War Sa piciua vas) at cost (oni!) ’ Cash at Bank . 012 0 ' Tin 0 0 = TO 0 "1 s, Life Compositions— £871 13s. 10d. eet prane at CHB a0 0: - 'O Cash at Bank . 138 12 2 4 510 0 @6 _—— 708 12 2 ' », Legacy—T. W. enamel . 450 0 0 “Cash at Bank . 450 0 O > "| ,, Revenue Account— £2,098 1s. 9d. Consolidated 24 per cent. Stock at cost 1.2002*0: 70 £1,949 8s. 9d. Conversion 3% per cent. Stock 1,500 0 0O Sundry Debtors : 58 0 8 Cash on Deposit £l, 700 0 0 Cash at Bank . 540 9 9 Cash in Hand . ts e6 £2,242 3 3 Less as shown above— Caird Fund Revenue Account £655 14 2 Caird Gift 249 18 11 John Perry Guest Fund B ; O20 Life Compositions. 138 12 2 Legacy — T. W. Backhouse. ~ 450" Os 0 —— 1,494 17 3 —— TAT 6 — 3,505 6 8 £35,865 15 0 be correct. I have also verified the Balances at the Bankers and the Investments. W. B. KEEN, Chartered Accountant. XXIV GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. Income and FOR THE YEAR ENDED Corresponding, erio EXPENDITURE. 1924. £ Si 1a: £ «s. d. £ s. d. 14 7 8 | To Heat, Lighting and, Power 5 “ 20 3 1 68 10 10 5 Stationery : 5 Ney 0G ts) nO eles Rent 10 0 De Gin at 44, ,, Postages 176 1 8 113 14 O » Travelling Expenses 78 11 2 27 14 10) ,, Exhibitioners 60 0 0 fee St) ,, General Expenses . 245 10 4 ,, Installation of Lift 914 16 3 ,, Decorations and Improvements 261 8 O 1,802 18 3 5130.09 2 », Salaries, Wages, &c. 1,202 10 0 (a ai Th ,, Pension Contribution Ge 7 0 0 1,851 7 8| ,, Printing, Binding, &c. . 5 1,675 12 5 4,756 0 8 ,, Sir Robert Hadfield’s Gift— 50 0 O Grants to Universities 50 0 0 , Grants made in aid of Expenses, &e., re Toronto Meeting out of moneys received from Do- minion Government of Canada, as per contra 8,421 13 4 , Grants to Research Committees— Old Red Sandstone of Bristol Committee . 10 0 O Medullary Centres Committee ‘ . 20 0 0 Triplet Children Committee : 25 0 0 Growth in Children Committee . 20° 0" 0 Anti-Sera Committee 20 0 O Corresponding Societies Committee 40 0 0 Index Kewensis Committee 100 0 90 Th.dians of the Canadian Rockies Committee 100 0 0 Marine Algae at Port Erin Committee. 250105, 0 Parthenogenesis Committee. . * A 5 0 0 Cost of Cycling Committee 5 5 . 30 0 0 Overseas Training Committee . 10 0 0 Old Red Sandstone of Kiltorcan, Ireland, Committee . 155 (0 76 Anthropological Teaching Committee - by OL 30 Colloid Chemistry Commit tee : ¢ 5° 0° 0 Palaeozoic Rocks Committee : . A 20 0 0 Zoological Bibliography Committee 1 0 0 497 5 9 — 451° 0: (08 855 12 2 », Balance being Excess of Engome over HED ane ture for the year ‘ an 5,087 10 4 £13,678 14 0 ae RT Caird EXPENDITURE, £ 8. d. £os. d. es a To Grants Paid— Marine Laboratory, Plymouth, Committee. 25 « Oe Solar Physics Observatory, Australia, Com- mittee . : 50 (0g Bronze Age Implements Gommittee | 100 0 0 Seismological Investigation Committee ‘ 100 0 0O Zoological Station at Naples Committee . 100 0 0 Tables of Constants Committee . 3 D 5 0 0 : Zoological Record Committee . S 6 50 0 0 350 0 O == — 430 0 0 », Balance being Excess of Income over Expendi- BAD 39 32:0 ture for the year . : . 3 394 7.0 GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. Expenditure Account JunE 30, 1925. XXV Corresponding Period INCOME. 1924. £ ad. CU £ Ga) Gs 276 10 0) By Annual Members (Including £64, 1925/26) : 207 4 62 1,680 0 0| ,, Annual Temporary (Including £155, 1925/26) . 1,956 19 82 649 10 0O », Annual with Report (Including. “e115 ale 1925-26) . : 870 3 112 217 10 O » Transferable Tickets a 96 0 42 281 0 0) ,, Students’ Tickets (Including ‘£5, 1925/26) 50 18 82 TON 6 0 », Life Members’ Additional Be ie 6. pb e.9 »» Donations i 50-3. 0 34 14 10 », Interest on Deposits ci lean AR 138 5 2 », Advertisements : 8 659 12 10 », Sale of Publications Gid.Lo. oT 98.3 4 »» Income Tax recovered . 40 6 3 ato” We », Unexpended Balance of Grants returned. 90 12 6 50 0 0 » Sir Robert Hadfield’s Gift 50 0 0 >», Dominion Government of Canada f for expenses re Toronto Meeting 8,421 13 4 », Dividends— £168 14 8 | Consols . £40) 5). 5 108 0 0) Tndia 3 per cent. Dat 40 25 13 3 | Great Indian Peninsula ‘ B? Annuity, 6 15 11 40 10 6 | 43 per cent. Conversion Loan . 1619 8 500 9 0 | Ditto Sir Charles Rares Gitte, 209 10 114 73 12 6 Treasury Bonds : GO" oles 9 8 9) Local Loans £6) 7 10 56 17 6 | War Stock by 15. 10 982 17 2 | —— - 622 13 04 By Balance being aieees of Hapendiiuy over Income for year p 596 15 4 6,087 10 4 | £13,678 14 0 ee ne Fund INCOME. £ Bo a. Ses £ Sede By dividends— India 34 per cent. 81 11 10 Canada 34 per cent. 67 16 2 London Midland and Scottish Railway Con- solidated 4 per cent. Preference Stock . 65 0 Southern Railway peers ise 5 wee ie Preference Stock . 77 10 O 801 3 10 292 0 O 23) 1d’ 2 ;, Income Tax recovered . 62 410 » Balanee being Excess: of Expenditure over aku’ Income for year 3 75 15 2 394 7 O £430 0 0O XXV1 RESEARCH COMMITTEES, Etc. APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, MEETING IN SOUTHAMPTON, 1925. Grants of money, if any, from the Association for expenses connected with researches are indicated in heavy type. SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. Seismological Investigations.—Prof. H. H. Turner (Chairman), Mr. J. J. Shaw (Secretary), Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Dr. J. E. Crombie, Dr. C. Davison, Sir F. W. Dyson, Sir R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. H. Lamb, Sir J. Larmor, Prof. A. E. H. Love, Prof. H. M. Macdonald, Prof. H. C. Plummer, Mr. W. E. Plummer, Father Rowland, Prof. R. A. Sampson, Sir A. Schuster, Sir Napier Shaw, Sir G. T. Walker, Mr. F. J. W. Whipple. £100 (Caird Fund grant). Tides.—Prof. H. Lamb (Chairman), Dr. A. T. Doodson (Secretary), Dr. G. R. Goldsbrough, Dr. H. Jeffreys, Prof. J. Proudman, Prof. G. I. Taylor, Prof. D’Arcy W. Thompson, Commander H. D. Warburg. Annual Tables of Constants and Numerical Data, chemical, physical, and technological. —Sir E. Rutherford (Chairman), Prof. A. W. Porter (Secretary), Mr. Alfred Egerton. £5. Calculation of Mathematical Tables.—Prof. J. W. Nicholson (Chairman), Dr. J. R. Airey (Secretary), Mr. T. W. Chaundy, Dr. A. T. Doodson, Prof. L. N. G. Filon, Mr. R. A. Fisher, Prof. E. W. Hobson, and Profs. Alfred Lodge, A. E. H. Love, and H. M. Macdonald. Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere.—Sir Napier Shaw (Chairman), Mr. C. J. P. Cave (Secretary), Prof. S. Chapman, Mr. J. 8. Dines, Mr. L. H. G. Dines, Mr. W. H. Dines, Dr. G. M. Dobson, Commr. L. G. Garbett, Sir R. T. Glazebrook, Col. E. Gold, Dr. H. Jeffreys, Dr. H. Knox-Shaw, Sir J. Larmor, Mr. R. G. K. Lempfert, Prof. F. A. Lindemann, Dr. W. Makower, Mr. J. Patterson, Sir J. E. Petavel, Sir A. Schuster, Dr. G. C. Simpson, Sir G. T. Walker, Mr. F. J. W. Whipple, Prof. H. H. Turner. £38. To investigate local variations of the Earth’s Gravitational Field.—Col. H. G. Lyons (Chairman), Capt. H. Shaw (Secretary), Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Dr. C. Chree, Col. Sir G. P. Lenox-Conyngham, Dr. J. W. Evans, Mr. E. Lancaster-Jones; the Director-General, Ordnance Survey; the Director, Geological Survey of Great Britain. SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY. Colloid Chemistry and its Industrial Applications.—Prof. F. G. Donnan (Chairman), oe W. Clayton (Secretary), Mr. E. Hatschek, Prof. W. C. McC. Lewis, Prof. J. W. cBain. £5. Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic Compounds.—Prof. I. M. Heilbron (Chairman), Prof. E. C. C. Baly (Secretary), Prof. A. W. Stewart. The Chemistry of Vitamins.—Sir F. G. Hopkins (Chairman), Prof. J. C. Drummond (Secretary), Prof. G. Barger, Prof. A. Harden, Sir J. ©. Irvine, Prof. J. W. McBain, Prof. Lash Miller, Dr. S. Zilva. £5. RESEARCH COMMITTEES. XXVl SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. The Old Red Sandstone Rocks of Kiltorcan, Ireland.—Mr. W. B. Wright (Chairman), Prof. T. Johnson (Secretary), Dr. W. A. Bell, Dr. J. W. Evans, Prof. W. H. Lang, Sir A. Smith Woodward. £8. (The Committee was authorised to devote also to the purposes of its research any proceeds from the sale of specimens.) To excavate Critical Sections in the Paleozoic Rocks of England and Wales.—Prof. W. W. Watts (Chairman), Prof. W. G. Fearnsides (Secretary), Mr. W. 8. Bisat, Prof. W. 8. Boulton, Mr. E. 8. Cobbold, Mr. E. E. L. Dixon, Dr. Gertrude Elles, Prof. E. J. Garwood, Prof. V. C. Illing, Prof. O. T. Jones, Prof. J. E. Marr, Principal T. F. Sibly, Dr. W. K. Spencer, Dr. A. E. Trueman. £15. The Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photographs of Geo- logical Interest.—Prof. EH. J. Garwood (Chairman), Prof. S. H. Reynolds (Secretary), Mr. G. Bingley, Messrs. C. V. Crook and A. §. Reid, Prof. W. W. Watts, Mr. R. Welch. To investigate the Flora of Lower Carboniferous times as exemplified at a newly discovered locality at Gullane, Haddingtonshire.—Prof. W. W. Watts (Chairman), Prof. W. T. Gordon (Secretary), Sir J. 8. Flett, Prof. E. J. Garwood, Dr. J. Horne, and Dr. B. N. Peach. To investigate the Stratigraphical Sequence and Paleontology of the Old Red Sand- stone of the Bristol district.—Dr. H. Bolton (Chairman), Dr. F. 8. Wallis (Secretary), Miss Edith Bolton, Prof. A. H. Cox, Mr. D. E. I. Innes, Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan, Prof. 8. H. Reynolds, Mr. H. W. Turner. £6. To investigate the Quaternary Peats of the British Isles.—Prof. P. F. Kendall (Chair- man), Mr. L. H. Tonks (Secretary), Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, Miss Chandler, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Dr. E. Greenly, Prof. J. W. Gregory, Prof. G. Hickling, Mr. J. de W. Hinch, Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger, Mrs. Reid, Mr. T. Sheppard, Mr. J. W. Stather, Mr. A. W. Stelfox, Mr. C. B. Travis, Dr. A. E. Trueman, Mr. W. B. Wright. £38. Comparison of the Rocks of Pre-Cambrian and presumably Pre-Cambrian Inliers of England and Wales and the Dublin Area with the Rocks of the Mona Complex of Anglesey, with a view to possible correlation.—Dr. Gertrude Elles (Chairman), Dr. Edward Greenly (Secretary), Mr. T. C. Nicholas, Prof. 8. H. Reynolds, Dr. C. E. Tilley. To investigate Critical Sections in the Tertiary Rocks of the London Area. To tabulate and preserve records of new excavations in that area.—Prof. W. T. Gordon (Chair- man), Dr. S. W. Wooldridge (Secretary), Miss M. C. Crosfield, Prof. H. L. Hawkins, Prof. G. Hickling. £10. SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY. To aid competent Investigators selected by the Committee to carry on definite pieces of work at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Prof. E. 8S. Goodrich (Chairman), Prof. J. H. Ashworth (Secretary), Dr. G. P. Bidder, Prof. F. 0. Bower, Sir W. B. Hardy, Sir S. F. Harmer, Prof. 8. J. Hickson, Sir E. Ray Lankester, Prof. W.C. McIntosh. £100 (Caird Fund grant). Zoological Bibliography and Publication.—Prof. E. B. Poulton (Chairman), Dr. F. A. Bather (Secretary), Mr. E. Heron-Allen, Dr. W. T. Calman, Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell, Mr. W. L. Sclater. To nominate competent Naturalists to perform definite pieces of work at the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.—Prof. J. H. Ashworth (Chairman and Secretary), Prof. W. J. Dakin, Prof. J. Stanley Gardiner, Prof. 8. J. Hickson, Sir E. Ray Lankester. £20. To co-operate with other Sections interested, and with the Zoological Society, for the purpose of obtaining support for the Zoological Record.—Sir 8. Harmer (Chairman), Dr. W. T. Calman (Secretary), Prof. F. W. Gamble, Prof. E. S. Goodrich, Prof. D. M.8. Watson. £35. XXVlil RESEARCH COMMITTEES. Pre-natal influence of Anti-sera on the Eye-lens of Rabbits.—Prof. W. J. Dakin (Chair- man), Mr. J. T. Cunningham (Secretary), Prof. D. M. 8. Watson. On the Influence of the Sex Physiology of the Parents on the Sex-Ratio of the Offspring. —Prof. W. J. Dakin (Chairman), Mrs. Bisbee (Secretary), Prof. Carr-Saunders, Miss E. C. Herdman. SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY. To consider the advisability of making a provisional Population Map of the British Isles, and to make recommendations as to the method of construction and reproduction.—Mr. H. O. Beckit (Chairman), Mr. F. Debenham (Secretary), Mr. J. Bartholomew, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. R. H. Kinvig, Mr. A. G. Ogilvie, Mr. O. H. T. Rishbeth, Prof. P. M. Roxby. SECTIONS E, L.—GEOGRAPHY, EDUCATION. To formulate suggestions for a syllabus for the teaching of Geography both to Matricu- lation Standard and in Advanced Courses; to report upon the present position of the geographical training of teachers, and to make recommendations thereon ; and to report, as occasion arises, to Council through the Organising Committee of Section E, upon the practical working of Regulations issued by the Board of Education affecting the position of Geography in Training Colleges and Secondary Schools.—Prof. T. P. Nunn (Chairman), Mr. W. H. Barker (Secretary), Mr. L. Brooks, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. O. J. R. Howarth, Sir H. J. Mackinder, Prof. J. L. Myres, and Prof. J. F. Unstead (frem Section H); Mr. D. Berridge, Mr. C. E. Browne, Sir R. Gregory, Mr. E. R. Thomas, Miss O. Wright (from Section L). (Unexpended balance). SECTION G.—ENGINEERING. To report on certain of the more complex Stress Distributions in Engineering Materials. —Prof. E. G. Coker (Chairman), Prof. L. N. G. Filon and Prof. A. Robertson (Secretaries), Prof. T. B. Abell, Prof. A. Barr, Prof. Gilbert Cook, Prof. W. E. Dalby, Sir J. A. Ewing, Sir H. Fowler, Mr. A. R. Fulton, Dr. A. A. Griffith, Mr. J. J. Guest, Dr. B. P. Haigh, Profs. Sir J. B. Henderson, C. E. Inglis, F. C. Lea, A. E. H. Love, and W. Mason, Sir J. E. Petavel, Dr. F. Rogers, Dr. W. A. Scoble, Mr. R. V. Southwell, Dr. T. E. Stanton, Mr. C. E. Stromeyer, Prof. G. I. Taylor, Mr. A. T. Wall, Mr. J. 8. Wilson. £47. Earth Pressures.—Mr. Wentworth Sheilds (Chairman), Dr. J. 8. Owens (Secretary), Prof. G. Cook, Mr. P. M. Crosthwaite, Mr. T. E. N. Fargher, Prof. F. C. Lea, Mr. J. S. Wilson. SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. To report on the Distribution of Bronze Ag Implements.—Prof. J. L. Myres (Chair- man), Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Secretary), Mr. Leslie Armstrong, Mr. H. Balfour, Prof. T. H. Bryce, Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton, Mr. O. G. S. Crawford, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Dr. Cyril Fox, Mr. G. A. Garfitt, Prof. Sir W. Ridgeway. £80. To conduct Archeological Investigations in Malta.—Prof. J. L. Myres (Chairman), Sir A. Keith (Secretary), Dr. T. Ashby, Mr. H. Balfour. To conduct Explorations with the object of ascertaining the Age of Stone Circles.— Sir C. H. Read (Chairman), Mr. H. Balfour (Secretary), Dr. G. A. Auden, Prof. Sir W. Ridgeway, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir Arthur Evans, Sir W. Boyd Dawkins, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. H. J. E. Peake. To excavate Early Sites in Macedonia.—Prof. Sir W. Ridgeway (Chairman), Mr. S. Casson (Secretary), Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, Prof, J. L. Myres, Mr. M. Thompson. RESEARCH COMMITTEES. XX1X To report on the Classification and Distribution of Rude Stone Monuments.—Mr. G. A. Garfitt (Chairman), Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Secretary), Mr. O. G. 8. Crawford, Miss R. M. Fleming, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Dr. C. Fox, Mr. G. Marshall, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. H. J. E. Peake. The Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photographs of Anthro- pological Interest.—Mr. E. Torday (Chairman), Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Secretary), Dr. G. A. Auden, Dr. H. A. Auden, Mr. E. Heawood, Prof. J. L. Myres. To report on the probable sources of the supply of Copper used by the Sumerians.— Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Mr. G. A. Garfitt (Secretary), Mr. H. Balfour, Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton, Prof. C. H. Desch, Sir Flinders Petrie. £415. To conduct Archxological and Ethnological Researches in Crete.—Dr. D. G. Hogarth (Chairman), Prof. J. L. Myres (Secretary), Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, Sir A. Evans, Prof. Sir W. Ridgeway, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. To investigate the Culture of the Peasant Population of Modern Egypt.—Prof. J. L. Myres (Chairman), Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton (Secretary), Mr. H. Balfour, Mr. E. N. Fallaize, Capt. Hilton Simpson, Prof. H. J. Rose. The Investigation of a hill fort site at Llanmelin, near Caerwent.—Mr. Willoughby Gardner (Chairman), Dr. Cyril Fox (Secretary), Dr. T. Ashby, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. H. J. E. Peake, Prof. H. J. Rose, Dr. R. Mortimer Wheeler. £5. To co-operate with the Torquay Antiquarian Society in investigating Kent’s Cavern.— Sir A. Keith (Chairman), Prof. J. L. Myres (Secretary), Mr. G. A. Garfitt, Prof. W. J. Sollas. To conduct anthropological investigations in some Oxfordshire villages.—Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton (Secretary), Dr. Vaughan Cornish, Miss R. M. Fleming, Prof. F. G. Parsons. £10. To report on the present state of knowledge of the relation of early Palzolithie Implements to Glacial Deposits—Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Secretary), Mr. H. Balfour, Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, Mr. M. Burkitt, Prof. P. F. Kendall, Mr. G. Lamplugh, Prof. J. E. Marr. £20. To co-operate with a Committee of the Roya! Anthropological Institute in the explor- ation of Caves in the Derbyshire district.—Sir W. Boyd Dawkins (Chairman), Mr. G. A. Garfitt (Secretary), Mr. Leslie Armstrong, Mr. M. Burkitt, Mr. E. N. Fallaize, Dr. Favell, Miss D. A. E. Garrod, Mr. Wilfrid Jackson, Dr. R. R. Marett, Mr. L. S. Palmer, Mr. H. J. E. Peake. To investigate processes of Growth in Children, with a view to discovering Differences due to Race and Sex, and further to study Racial Differences in Women.—Sir A. Keith (Chairman), Prof. H. J. Fleure (Secretary), Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton, Dr. A. Low, Prof. F. G. Parsons, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. £20. To report on proposals for an Anthropological and Archzological Bibliography, with power to co-operate with other bodies.—Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman), Mr. E. N, Fallaize (Secretary), Dr. T. Ashby, Mr. W. H. Barker, Mr. O. G. 8S. Crawford, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. H. J. E. Peake, Dr. D. Randall-MaclIver, Mr. T. Sheppard. To report on the progress of Anthropological Teaching in the present century.— Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman), Prof. J. L. Myres (Secretary), Prof. H. J. Fleure, Dr. R. R. Marett, Prof. C. G. Seligman. To investigate certain Physical Characters and the Family Histories of Triplet Children. —Dr. F. ©. Shrubsall (Chairman), Mr. R. A. Fisher (Secretary), Miss R. M, Fleming, Dr. A. Low. £20. To report on the possibility of Physiological Tests of Races, such as the Blood Agglu- tination.—Dr. F. C. Shrubsall (Chairman), Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton (Secretary), Dr. Davidson Black, Dr. H. H. Dale, Dr. A. C. Haddon, Prof. G. H. F. Nuttall. XXK RESEARCH COMMITTEES. To conduct explorations on early Neolithic Sites in Holderness.—Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Mr. A. Leslie Armstrong (Secretary), Mr. M. Burkitt, Dr. R. V. Favell, Mr. G. A. Garfitt, Mr. Wilfrid Jackson, Mr. L. 8. Palmer. ; SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY. The Cost of Cycling with varied rate and work.—Prof. J. 8. Macdonald (Chairman), Dr. F. A. Duffield (Secretary). £10. The Investigation of the Medullary Centres.—Prof. C. Lovatt Evans (Chairman), Dr. J. M. Duncan Scott (Secretary), Dr. H. H. Dale. £48 (and unexpended balance). SECTION J.—PSYCHOLOGY. Vocational Tests.—Dr. C. S. Myers (Chairman), Dr. G. H. Miles (Secretary), Prof. C. Burt, Mr. F. M. Earle, Prof. T. H. Pear, Prof. C. Spearman, Mr. F. Watts, Dr. Li. Wynn-Jones. £14. ‘The Character of a first-year University Course in Experimental Psychology.—Dr. J. Drever (Chairman), Dr. May Collins (Secretary), Mr. F. C. Bartlett, Mr. R. J. Bartlett, Prof. C. Burt, Dr. Shepherd Dawson, Prof. A. E. Heath, Dr. Ll. Wynn- Jones, Prof. T. H. Pear. SECTION K.—BOTANY. Index Kewensis.—Sir D. Prain (Chairman), Dr. A. W. Hill (Secretary), Prof. J. B. Farmer, Dr. A. B. Rendle, Prof. W. Wright Smith. £70. To consider the advisability of instituting a diploma in biology for students in training colleges.—Prof. F. O. Bower (Chairman), Prof. S. Mangham (Secretary), Miss A. Moodie, Mr. J. L. Sager, Miss E. H. Stevenson, Dr. Ethel N. Miles Thomas, Prof. J. Lloyd Williams. SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. To inquire into the Practicability of an International Auxiliary Language.—Dr. H. Forster Morley (Chairman), Dr. E. H. Tripp (Secretary), Mr. E. Bullough, Prof. F. G. Donnan, Prof. J. J. Findlay, Sir Richard Gregory, Sir W. B. Hardy, Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Sir E. Cooper Perry, Mr. Nowell Smith, Mr. A. E. Twentyman. To consider the educational training of boys and girls in Secondary Schools for over- seas life—Rev. H. B. Gray (Chairman), Mr. C. E. Browne (Secretary), Major A. G. Church, Mr. T. 8. Dymond, Dr. J. Vargas Eyre, Sir R. A. Gregory, Miss K. H. McLean, Mr. G. W. Olive, Sir J. Russell. $7. The bearing on school work of recent views on formal training.—Prof. F. A. Cavenagh (Chairman), Prof. A. E. Heath (Secretary), Prof. R. L. Archer, Miss E. RB. Conway, Prof. M. W. Keatinge, Mr. H. P. Sparling, Major E. R. Thomas, Prof. G. Thomson. CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Corresponding Societies Committee.—The President of the Association (Chairman ex-officio), Mr. T. Sheppard (Vice-Chairman), the General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, Dr. F. A. Bather, Mr. O. G. S. Crawford, Prof. P. F. Kendall, Mr. Mark L. Sykes, Dr. C. Tierney, Prof. W. W. Watts; with authority to co-opt representatives of Scientific Societies in the locality of the Annual Meeting. £40 Caird Fund grant, subject to confirmation by Council, for preparation of biblio- graphy and report. XXxX1 THE CAIRD FUND. An unconditional gift of £10,000 for research was made to the Association at the Dundee Meeting, 1912, by Mr. (afterwards Sir) J. K. Caird, LL.D., of Dundee. The Council, in its report to the General Committee at the Birmingham Meeting, made certain recommendations as to the administration of this Fund. These recommendations were adopted, with the Report, by the General Committee at its meeting on September 10, 1913. The allocations made from the Fund by the Council to September 1922 will be found stated in the Report for 1922, p. xxxi. Subsequent grants from the fund are incorporated in the lists of Research Committees. In 1921-24 the Council authorised expenditure from accumulated income of the fund upon grants to Research Committees approved by the General Committee by way of supplementing sums available from the general funds of the Association, and in addition to grants ordinarily made by, or applied for from, the Council. Sir J. K. Caird, on September 10, 1913, made a further gift of £1,000 to the Association, to be devoted to the study of Radio-activity. In 1920 the Council decided to devote the principal and interest of this gift at the rate of £250 per annum for five years to purposes of the research intended. The grants for the years ending March 24, 1922 and 1923, were made to Sir E. Rutherford, F.R.S. The grant for the year ending March 24, 1924, was made to Prof. F. Soddy, F.R.S. The grant for the year ending March 24, 1925, was divided between Messrs. C. T. R. Wilson (£100), J. Chadwick (£75), and A. S. Russell (£75). The grant for the year ending March 24, 1926, was divided between Mr. P. M. 8. Blackett (£100), Dr. J. Chadwick (£100), and Dr. A. 58. Russell (£50). RESOLUTIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS. The following Resolutions and Recommendations were referred to the Council by the General Committee at Southampton for consideration, and, if desirable, for action (except where specified as approved for immediate action) :— From Sections C, D, E. That the Council be requested to endeavour to obtain the inclusion of the category ‘scientific parties’ in the present regulations of the railway companies governing the issue of cheap return period tickets for pleasure parties, camping parties, &c. From Section E. To request the Council to approach the Board of Education with a view to the amendment of a clause in its Circular 826 (1913), p. 31, permitting in certain events the curtailment or discontinuance of instruction in geography. From Section G. That invitations to attend the Oxford Meeting should be issued to eminent scientists irrespective of nationality. From Section H. That the Association approach the Egyptian Government through the proper _ channels with a view to calling attention to Miss W. 8. Blackman’s valuable investiga- tion of the culture of the peasant population of modern Egypt, and if possible to secure 7 financial support from that Government. 4 XXXil RESOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. RESOLUTIONS RELATING TO THE Report oF THE Hast AFRICAN CoMMISSION. (Approved for immediate action.) From Section E. The committee of Section E welcome and endorse the general recommendations with regard to the scientific services contained in the report of the East African Commission and trust that H.M. Government will take immediate action to give effect to them. Further they are of the opinion that a complete topographical survey of the five East African Territories is urgently required for all scientific and economic development. From Section H. ‘ To ask the Council of the British Association to express to H.M. Government its hearty concurrence in the recommendations contained in the report of the East African Commission in regard to scientific study of the local conditions and adminis- trative problems of the East African territories, and to urge the Government to give full and early effect to those recommendations. From Section M. The committee of Section M desire to ask the Council to memorialise the Colonial Office with a view to securing the adoption of the recommendations contained in the report of the East African Commission relating to the Amani research station. A resolution from Section L dealing with the treatment of the history of science at the Oxford Meeting was not approved, but it was resolved to recommend the Council to call the attention of Organising Committees to the desirability of including papers on the history of science, RESOLUTIONS FROM THE CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 1. To request the Council to represent to the Ministry of Agriculture and to the Board of Education the facilities offered by local scientific societies on matters bearing upon local geography, natural history, and historical antiquities, which should be made supplementary to the treatment of these subjects in the curriculum of schools, and to inquire in what way this information may be more generally and effectively utilised. 2. To call the attention of the County Council of Devon and of the local district councils to recent spoliation of ancient monuments on Dartmoor by roadmenders, and to ask for effective protection of these monuments. (Approved for immediate action.) 3. To recommend that the British Association should take steps, through the Corresponding Societies Committee, to secure the establishment and facilitate the extension of regional researches, especially in the districts which it visits. 4. To ask the Council of the Association and the Corresponding Societies to inquire into the threatened extermination of many of the rarer British species of plants and animals and to take steps to ensure their protection. 5. That all Corresponding Societies be recommended to present one copy of all papers published to such bodies as prepare annually or otherwise bibliographies of particular subjects, for example, to the Geological Society in the case of geological literature. (Approved for immediate action.) fas mv iS 2 MAR26 ‘a V4, a ee : Pee ERESIDENTIAL FADDRESS. BY PROFESSOR HORACE LAMB, Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S. PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION. bf W38EN one is confronted as on this occasion with the British Association in plenary session it is permissible, I hope, to indulge in a few reflections on the nature and purpose of science in general. The theme is no new one and has never been discussed so frequently as in our time, but the very range of our activities entitles us to consider it from our own point of view. The subjects treated at these meetings range, according to the titles of our Sections, from the most abstract points of mathematical philosophy to the processes of agriculture. Between these limits we have the newest speculations of Astronomy and Physics, the whole field of the biological sciences, the problems of engineering, not to speak of other matters equally diverse. These subjects, again, have become so subdivided and specialised _ that workers in adjacent fields have often a difficulty in appreciating each other’s ideas, or even understanding each other’s language. What then is the real purpose of science in the comprehensive sense, what is the common inspiration, the common ambition behind such enthusiastic and sustained effort in so many directions ? The question may seem idle, for a sort of official answer has often been given. It was deemed sufficient to point to the material gains, the enlarged powers, which have come to us through science, and have so transformed the external part of our lives, The general aim was summed up in an almost consecrated formula: ‘ to subdue the forces of Nature to the service of man.’ And since it was impossible to foresee what abstract research might or might not provide a clue to some- thing useful, the more speculative branches of science were not only to be tolerated, but to be encouraged within limits, as ancillary to the supreme end. And, it must be said, the cultivators of these more abstruse sciences have themselves been willing sometimes to accept this position. The apologists of Pure Mathematics, for instance, have been wont to appeal to the case of the conic sections, which from the time of Apollonius onwards had been an entirely detached study, but was destined after some 2000 years to guide Kepler and Newton in formulating the laws of the planetary motions, and so ultimately to find its justification in 1925 B 2 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. the Nautical Almanac. I will not stop to examine this illustration, which I personally think rather strained. We may recognise that practical utility has been a conscious though not the sole aim in much scientific work, and sometimes perhaps its main justification; but we can hardly admit that any such formula as I have quoted worthily conveys what has been the real inspiration of discovery through the ages. If we may go back to Apollonius and the conic sections, we cannot suppose that he was thinking of posterity at all; he was engaged in a study which he no doubt held to be legitimate and respectable in itself. Or, to take a very recent instance, when Faraday and Maxwell were feeling their way to- wards an electric theory of light, they could hardly have dreamed of wire- less telegraphy, though as we now know this was no remote development. The primary aim of science as we understand it is to explore the facts of Nature, to ascertain their mutual relations, and to arrange them as far as possible into a consistent and intelligible scheme. It is this endeavour which is the true inspiration of scientific work, as success in it is the appropriate reward. The material effects come later if at all, and often by a very indirect path. We may, I think, claim for this constructive task something of an esthetic character. The provinces of art and science are often held to be alien and even antagonistic, but in the higher processes of scientific thought it is often possible to trace an affinity. The mathe- matician at all events is at no loss for illustrations of this artistic faculty. A well-ordered piece of algebraical analysis has sometimes been compared to a musical composition. This may seem fantastic to those whose only impression is that of a mass of curious symbols, but these bear no more resemblance to the ideas which lie behind them than the equally weird notation of a symphony bears to the sounds which it connotes or the emotions which these evoke. And it is no misplaced analogy which has led enthusiasts to speak of the poetical charm of Lagrange’s work, of the massive architecture of Gauss’s memoirs, of the classic perfection of Max- well’s expositions. The devotees of other sciences will be at no loss for similar illustrations. Is it not the case, for instance, that the widespread interest excited by the latest achievements of physical science is due not to the hope of future profit, though this will doubtless come, but to the intrinsic beauty as well as the novelty of the visions which they unfold ? It is possible, I trust, to insist on these aspects of the scientific tempera- ment without wishing to draw a sharp and even mischievous antithesis _between pure and applied science. Not to speak of the enormous importance THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3 in our present civilisation of the material advantages which have come in the train of discovery, it would be disloyal to science itself to affect to depreciate them. For the most severely utilitarian result comes often as the result of a long and patient process of study and experiment, conducted on strictly scientific methods. We must recognise also the debts which pure science in its turn owes to industry, the impulse derived from the suggestion of new problems, and not least the extended scale on which experiment becomes possible. And a reference may appropriately be made here to the National Physical Laboratory, initiated mainly in the higher interests of industry, which by the mere pressure of the matters submitted to it is becoming a great institute of theoretical as well as applied science, informed throughout by the true spirit of research. But perhaps the most momentous consequences of the increased scientific activities of our time have been on the intellectual side. How profound these have been in one direction we have recently been reminded by the centenary of Huxley. Authority and science were at one time in conflict over matters entirely within the province of the latter. The weapons were keen, and the strife bitter. We may rejoice that these antagonisms are now almost obsolete ; one side has become more tolerant, the other less aggressive, and there is a disposition on both sides to respect each other’s territories. The change is even reflected in the sermons delivered before the Association. The quarters where we may look for suspicion and dislike are now different ; they are political rather than ecclesiastical. The habit of sober and accurate analysis which scientific pursuits tend to promote is not always favourable to social and economic theories which rest mainly on an emotional if very natural basis. Some of us, for instance, may remember Huxley’s merciless dissection of the theory of the social contract. There is hence to be traced, I think, a certain dumb hostility which, without venturing on open attack, looks coldly on scientific work except so far as it is directed to purposes of obvious and immediate practical utility. There is a more open kind of criticism to which we are exposed, which we cannot altogether ignore, though it again rests on a misconception of the true function of science. It is to be met with in quarters where we might fairly look for countenance and sympathy, and is expressed sometimes with great force, and even eloquence. The burden is one of disappointment and disillusion ; we even hear of the ‘ bankruptcy of science.’ It’ seems to be suggested that science has at one time or other held out promises which it has been impotent to fulfil; that vague but alluring hopes which it has B2 A THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. inspired have proved delusive. It may be admitted that extravagant and impossible claims have sometimes been made on behalf of science, but never, I think, by the real leaders, who have always been most modest in their claims and guarded in their forecasts. It is true again that in the enthusiasm which attended the first sensational developments of modern industry hopes were conceived of a new era, where prosperity would ever — increase, poverty would be at least mitigated and refined, national anti- pathies would be reconciled. When these dreams did not swiftly come true there was the inevitable reaction, the idols were cast down, and science in general has rather unreasonably come in for its share of depreciation. The attitude which I have been trying to describe is put very forcibly in a quotation from President Wilson which I saw not long ago, though its date is not very recent : ‘ Science has bred in us a spirit of experiment and a contempt for the past. It made us credulous of quick improvement, hopeful of discovering panaceas, confident of success in every new thing. . . I should fear nothing better than utter destruction from a revolution conceived and led in the scientific spirit. Science has not changed the laws of social growth or betterment. Science has not changed the nature of society, has not made history a whit easier to understand, human nature a whit easier to reform. It has won for us a great liberty in the physical world, a liberty from super- stitious fear and from disease, a freedom to use nature as a familiar servant ; but it has not freed us from ourselves.’ The tone is one of bitter disillusion, but we may ask why should science, as we understand it, be held responsible for the failure of hopes which it can never have authorised ? Its province as I have tried to define it is vast, but has its hmits. It can have no pretensions to improve human nature ; it may alter the environment, multiply the resources, widen the intellectual prospect, but it cannot fairly be asked to bear the responsi- bility for the use which is made of these gifts. That must be determined by other and, let us admit it, higher considerations. Medical science, for instance, has given us longer and healthier lives ; it is not responsible for the use which we make of those lives. It may give increased vitality to the wicked as well as the just, but we would not, on that account, close our hospitals or condemn our doctors. In spite of the criticisms I have referred to we may still hold up our heads, let us hope without arrogance, but with the confidence that our efforts have their place, not a mean one, in human activities, and that they tend, if often in unimagined ways, to increase the intellectual and the THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5 material and even the esthetic possessions of the world. And in that assurance, we may rejoice that science has never been so widely and so enthusiastically cultivated as at the present time, with so complete sincerity, or (we may claim) with more brilliant success, or even with less of international jealousy. Passing from these reflections which are, I hope, not altogether in- opportune, it is expected that the President for the time being should deal with some subject in which he has himself been interested. For a mathe- matician this obligation is a specially difficult one, if he is not to overstrain the patience of his audience. I propose to speak briefly, and mainly from the mathematical and physical standpoint, about some branches of Geo- physics, and in particular those relating to the constitution of the earth. It is a subject which in the past has often engaged the attention of the Association ; I need only recall the names of Kelvin and George Darwin, and the controversies with which they are associated. Historically, it is of special interest to the mathematician and the physicist, for it was in his researches on the figure of the earth that Laplace initiated the theory of its potential, with its characteristic equation, and so prepared the way for Poisson, Green, Cauchy, and a host of followers, who developed the theory of electricity and ultimately that of light. To go further back, it was in this connection that Newton found an important verification of his law of gravity. Quite recently, the whole subject has been reviewed in a valuable treatise by Dr. Jeffreys, who arrives at conclusions which are at all events definite, and maintained with great ability. I do not propose to deal with the fascinating speculations as to the past history of the earth and its reputed child, the moon, which will be more or less familiar. I must confine myself to a rapid survey of the information as to its present constitution which can be gathered from observations made in our own time, and capable of repetition at will. This, though less exciting, is at all events a region in which imagination is more subject to control. The accurate investigation of the figure of the earth is intimately connected with the variation of gravity over its surface. In view of the local irregularities, some convention was necessary as to what is meant by the shape of the earth as a whole. The usual definition is that it is a level surface as regards the resultant of true gravity and centrifugal force : often that particular level surface of which the sea forms a part. I need not dwell on the immense amount of theoretical and practical labour which-has been devoted in various countries to the determination of the geometrical 6 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. surface which most nearly satisfies this requirement. Of more recent interest are the irregularities in the intensity of gravity, which have been found to exist over wide areas, by the highly trained Survey of India, by the Coast and Geodetic Survey of the United States, and by various observers on the continent of Europe. Briefly, the general result is this, that in mountainous regions the observed value of gravity is abnormally low, whilst on oceanic islands, and so far as can be ascertained on the sea, it is abnormally large, when all allowance has been made for altitude and the normal variation with latitude. The fact that this has been found to be the case in so many different places, shows that we have here to deal with no casual phenomenon. The accepted explanation, originated by Archdeacon Pratt, of Calcutta, in 1859, and since developed especially by Hayford and Bowie, of the U.S. Survey, is that if we imagine a level surface to be drawn at a depth of about 100 kilometres, the stratum of matter above this, though varying in density from point to point, is approximately uniform, in the sense that equal areas of the surface in question bear equal weights. The altitude of the mountains is held to be compensated by the inferior density of the underlying matter, whilst the oceanic hollows are made up for by increased density beneath. Leaving aside the technical evidence on which this hypothesis is based, there are one or two points to be noticed. In the first place it suggests, as is highly plausible on other grounds, that the matter in the interior of the earth, below the stratum referred to, is in a state of purely hydrostatic stress, 7.e. of pressure uniform in all directions. So far as this stratum is concerned, it might be floating on an internal globe of liquid, although no assertion is really made, or is necessary, to this effect. But in the stratum itself, shearing forces must be present, and it is necessary to consider whether the actual material is strong enough to withstand the weight of continents and mountains, and the lack of lateral support due to the oceanic depressions. The researches of Professor Love and others show that this question can fairly be answered in the affirmative. The accurate determination of the acceleration of gravity at any place is, of course, a matter of great delicacy. Not to mention other points, in the pendulum method the yielding of the support due to the reaction of the pendulum as it swings to and fro affects the time of oscillation. It may be recalled that so far back as 1818 Kater, in his absolute determina- tion of the length of the seconds pendulum in London, was on his guard against this effect, and devised a test to make sure that it was in his case negligible. In a portable apparatus, such as is used for comparative determinations, it is difficult to give sufficient rigidity to the support, and THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. vf a correction has, in some way, to be applied. Recently, Dr. Victor Meinesz, of the Dutch Survey, who has carried out an extensive gravity survey in Holland, has sought to minimise this effect by the use of pairs of pendulums swinging in opposite phases, and so reacting on the support in opposite senses. This has opened out a prospect of accurate gravity determinations at sea. The use of a pendulum method on a surface vessel is hardly possible, but a submarine when sufficiently immersed offers comparative tranquillity, and it is hoped that the small residual horizontal motions may be capable of elimination, and the diminished vertical oscillation allowed for. The methods previously employed at sea which could claim any accuracy are those of Hecker. In one method, the pressure of the atmo- sphere is found in absolute measure from the boiling point of water and compared with the gravitational measure afforded by the barometer. In a more recent method, also devised by Hecker, and followed with some modifications by Duffield, the idea is to carry about a standard atmosphere, i.e. a mass of air at constant volume and prescribed temperature, whose pressure is measured gravitationally by the barometer. Both methods are highly ingenious, but cannot compete as regards accuracy with the pendulum method if this should be found practicable. It is a matter of regret that the observational side of Geophysics has, of late, been so little cultivated in this country. In India with its wide opportunities, geodetic and gravitational work has long been carried on with high efficiency, and has furnished essential material for the general- isations I have referred to. But in the Home country, although we have an admirable topographical survey—whose headquarters by the way are here in Southampton—nothing so far as I know has been done towards a gravity survey since the time of Kater, more than a century ago. Proposals for the establishment of a formal Geodetic Institute, such as existed in some other countries before the war, which should embrace this as well as other subjects, have been urged, but have had to be abandoned owing to the exigencies of the time. It is therefore some satisfaction to record that a modest beginning has been made at Cambridge by the institution of a Readership in Geodesy, and that when the requisite pendulum outfit is complete, it is hoped that a gravity survey of these islands may be initiated. The physical features are hardly so rugged that sensational results such as were found in India are to be expected, but it is desirable that the work, which will involve comparatively little labour and expense after the initial steps, should be carried out. The example of Holland shows that in a country which has no outstanding features at all a survey may reveal evel THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. peculiarities which are at all events of considerable interest. I may add that it is contemplated that the Cambridge apparatus should also be designed to eliminate the disturbing element I have mentioned, and that it should be available for determinations at sea. It is perhaps not too much to hope that with the co-operation of the Navy, the gravity chart of the world, which is so far almost a blank as regards the ocean, may in this way be gradually filled in. The distribution of the intensity of gravity over the surface of the earth gives by itself no positive information as to the distribution of density throughout the interior, though the contrary view has sometimes been held. For example, a spherical globe with a uniform intensity of gravitation over its surface would not necessarily be homogeneous, or even composed of spherical strata each of uniform density, however plausible this might be on other grounds. Consequently, there is room for hypothesis. There are certain tests which any hypothesis has to satisfy. It must account for the observed distribution of gravity, and having regard to the phenomena of precession, it must give the proper relation between the earth’s moments of inertia about a polar and an equatorial axis. It may be added that it should be fairly consistent with the ascertained velocities of seismic waves at different depths, and the degree of elasticity which it is allowable to assign to the material. The somewhat artificial laws of density adopted by Laplace and Roche, respectively, mainly on grounds of mathematical convenience, have lost much of their credit. A more natural law, suggested indeed by Thomson and Tait in 1867 in their book on Natural Philosophy, has since been proposed in a more definite form by Wiechert. On this view the earth is made up of a central core of about four-fifths the external radius, of high density, about that of iron, surrounded by an envelope of about the density of the surface rocks. This is, of course, only to be taken as a rough picture, but it satisfies the requirements I have mentioned, and is apparently not incompatible with the seismic data. In all speculations on the present subject, considerations as to the thermal history of the earth and the present distribution of temperature in the interior play an essential part. The apparent inconsistency between the requirements of physics and geology was long a matter of controversy, and has given rise to keen debate at these meetings. Lord Kelvin’s historic attempts to limit the age of the earth by consideration of the observed temperature gradient as we go downwards from the surface lost their basis when it was discovered that the rate of generation of heat in the processes of radioactive change was amply sufficient to account for the THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 9 present gradient, and would even be far more than sufficient unless the amount of radioactive material concerned were strictly limited. Assuming an average distribution of such material similar to what is found near the surface, a stratum of some 16 kilometres in thickness would provide all that is wanted. Radioactive speculation has gone further. A comparison of the amounts of uranium, and of the end-products associated with it, has led to estimates of the time that has elapsed since the final consolidation of the earth’s crust. The conclusion is, that it must lie definitely between 10° and 10” years. The figure is necessarily vague owing to the rough value of some of the data, but even the lower of these limits is one which geologists and biologists are, I believe, willing to accept, as giving ample scope for the drama of evolution. We may say that physics has at length amply atoned for the grudging allowance of time which it was once dis- posed to accord for the processes of geological and biological change. The radioactive arguments on which these estimates are based are apparently irrefutable ; but from the physical point of view, there are reasons why one would welcome an extension even of the upper limit of 10” years, if this could possibly be stretched. For if this barrier be immovable, we are led to conclusions as to the present internal temperature of the earth which are not quite easy to reconcile with the evidence as to rigidity to be referred to in a moment. In the space of time I have mentioned, enormous as it is, the great mass of the earth could hardly have cooled very much from the temperature when it was in a state of fusion. The central portion, whatever its nature, and however high its thermal conductivity, is enclosed by a thick envelope of feebly conducting material, just as a steam boiler, for instance, may be jacketed with a layer of asbestos. To take a calculable hypothesis, we may assume with Wiechert that we have a central core of three-fourths the earth’s radius, with an outer shell of rock. We may give the core any degree of conductivity we like ; for mathematical sim- plicity we may even regard it as infinite. Then, if the outer layer consists of material having some such conductivity as the surface rocks, the internal temperature would take to fall to one-half its original value a period of at least ten times the limit I have named. It is obvious that the details of the assumption may be greatly varied without affecting the general conclusion of a very high internal temperature. The question as to the degree of rigidity of the earth has so often been dealt with, that a brief recapitulation will suffice. It was about the year 1862 that Kelvin first pointed out that if the earth as a whole were only as rigid as a globe of glass or even steel, it would yield so much to the 10 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. deforming action of the solar and lunar tidal forces as seriously to affect the amplitudes of the oceanic tides, which are a differential effect. Un- fortunately, the tides are so much complicated by the irregular distri- bution of land and sea that a comparison of the theoretical amounts which they would have on the hypothesis of absolute rigidity with the actual values is hopeless. The fortnightly tidal component, due to the changing declination of the moon, is probably an exception, but the difficulty here is to extract this relatively minute component from the observations, and the material is consequently imperfect. The problem was attacked in a different way by G. and H. Darwin in 1881. The horizontal component of the lunar and solar disturbing forces must deflect the apparent vertical, and it was sought to measure this effect by a pendulum. The quantities to be determined are so excessively minute, and the other disturbing forces so difficult to eliminate, that the method was only carried out successfully by Hecker in 1907, and subsequently by Orloff in Russia. The results on the whole were to the effect that the observed deflections were about three-fifths of what they ought to be if the earth were perfectly unyielding, and were so far in accordance with estimates previously made by Darwin and others, from the somewhat imperfect statistics of the fortnightly tide. There was, however, a discrepancy between the results deduced from the deflections in the meridian and at right angles to it, which gave rise to much perplexity. The question was finally set at rest by Michelson in 1916. He conceived the idea of measuring the tides produced in two canals (really two pipes half filled with water) of about 500 feet long, extending one N. and §., the other E. and W. These tides are, of course, of a microscopic character, their range 1s of the order of one- hundredth of a millimetre, and they could only be detected by the refined optical methods which Michelson himself has devised. The observations, when plotted on a magnified scale, exhibit all the usual features of a tide- gauge record, the alternation of spring and neap tides, the diurnal and semi- diurnal lunar tides, and so on. The theoretical tides in the canals can, of course, be calculated with great ease, and the comparison led to the result that the ratio which the observed tides bore to the theoretical was about ‘69, being practically the same in both cases. The whole enterprise was as remarkable for the courage of its inception as for the skill with which it was carried out, and was worthy of the genius which has accomplished so many marvels of celestial and terrestrial measurement. The perplexing discrepancy in the results obtained by Hecker at Potsdam is no doubt to be explained by the attraction of the tidal waters in the not very remote THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. ll North Sea, and by the deformation due to the alternating load which they impose on the bottom. In Chicago, near the centre of the American - continent, these influences were absent. The question may be asked, What is the precise degree of rigidity which is indicated by these observations, or by others which have been referred to ? Various answers have been given, based on observations of the tides, of the lunar deflection of the vertical, and of the period of the earth’s Eulerian mutation, on which I have not touched. The estimates have varied greatly, but they are all high, some of them extremely high. That they should differ among themselves is not surprising. The material is certainly not uniform, either in its elastic properties or the conditions to which it is subject, so that we can only speak of the rigidity of the earth as a whole in some conventional sense. Larmor and Love have shown that all the information that can be gathered, whether from the tides or from the Eulerian mutation, can be condensed into two numerical constants. This leaves a large degree of indeterminateness as to the actual distribution of elasticity within the earth. It is at all events certain that in regard to tidal forces the great bulk of the material must be highly rigid. In leaving this topic, it may be recalled that it was in this same connec- tion that Kelvin was led to initiate the method of Harmonic Analysis as applied to the tides, as well as to accomplish much brilliant mathematical work, whose importance is by no means limited to the present subject. The whole theory of the tides and cognate cosmical questions afterwards became the special province of George Darwin, but after his death, work on the tides was almost at a standstill, until it was resumed by Professor Proudman and his associate Dr. Doodson in the recently established Tidal Institute at Liverpool. They have already arrived at results of great theoretic as well as practical interest, some of which I understand are to be brought before the Association at this meeting. Within the last twenty years or so light has come on the elastic properties of the earth from a new and unexpected quarter, viz. from a study of the propagation of earthquake shocks. It is pleasant to recall that this has been largely due to efforts especially fostered, so far as its means allowed, by this Association. To John Milne, more than to anyone else, is due the inception of a system of widely scattered seismological stations. The instruments which he devised have been improved upon by others, notably by Galitzin, but it is mainly to his initiative that we are indebted for such insight as has been gained into the elastic character of the materials of the earth, down, at least, to a depth of half the radius. It may be 12 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. remarked that the theory of elastic waves, which is here involved, was initiated and developed in quite a different connection, in the persistent but vain attempts to construct a mechanical representation of the luminiferous ether which exercised the mathematical physicists of a generation or two ago. It has here at length found its natural application. One of the first problems of seismologists has been to construct, from observation, tables which should give the time an elastic wave of either of the two cardinal types—viz. of longitudinal and transverse vibration—takes to travel from any one point of the earth’s surface to any other. It has been shown by Herglotz and Bateman that if these data were accurately known it should be possible, though naturally by a very indirect process, to deduce the velocities of propagation of the two types throughout the interior. Such tables have been propounded, and are in current use for the purpose of fixing the locality of a distant earthquake when this is not otherwise known. They are however admittedly imperfect, owing to the difficulty of allowing for the depth of the focus, which is not always near the surface, and is sometimes deep-seated. This uncertainty affects, of course, the observational material on which the tables are based. Some partial corrections have been made by Professor Turner, who almost alone in this country, amidst many distractions, keeps the study of seismology alive, but the construction of accurate tables remains the most urgent problem in the subject. Taking however the material, such as it is, the late Pro- fessor Knott, a few years ago, undertook the laborious task of carrying out the inverse process of deducing the internal velocities of the two types of waves referred to. Although it is possible that his conclusions may have to be revised in the light of improved data, and, it may be, improved methods of calculation, they appear to afford a fairly accurate estimate of the wave velocities from the surface down to a depth of more than half the earth’s radius. Near the surface the two types have velocities of about 7°2 and 4 km. per second, respectively. These velocities increase almost uniformly as we descend, until a depth of one-third the radius is reached, after which, so far as they can be traced, they have constant values of 12-7 and 6:8 km. per second, which, by the way, considerably exceed the corresponding veloci- ties in iron under ordinary conditions. The innermost core of the earth, i.e. a region extending from the centre to about one-fourth of the radius, remains somewhat mysterious. It can certainly propagate condensational waves, but the secondary waves are hard to identify beyond a distance of 120° of are from the source of disturbance. Knott himself inferred that THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 13 the material of the central core is unable to withstand shearing stress, just as if it were fluid, but this must at present remain, I think, uncertain. It should be remarked that the wave-velocities by themselves do not furnish any information as to the elasticities or the density of the material, since they involve only the ratios of these quantities. The relation between the two velocities is however significant, and it is satisfactory to note that it has much the same value as in ordinary metals or glass. It is to be regretted that at present so little is being done in the way of interpretation of seismic records. Material support in the way of more and better equipped stations is certainly needed, but what is wanted above all is the co-ordination of such evidence as exists, the construction of more accurate tables, and the comparative study of graphical records. These latter present many features which are at present hard to interpret, and a systematic comparison of records of the same earthquake obtained at different stations, especially if these are equipped with standardised instruments, should lead to results of great theoretical interest. The task will be a difficult one, but until it is accomplished we are in the position of a scholar who can guess a few words in an ancient text, possibly the most significant, but to whom the rest is obscure. Even on this rapid review of the subject it should be clear that there is an apparent inconsistency between the results of two lines of argument. On the one hand, the thermal evidence points to the existence of a high temperature at a depth which is no great fraction of the earth’s radius, so high indeed as to suggest a plastic condition which would readily yield to shearing stress. On the other hand, the tidal arguments, as well as the free propagation of waves of transversal vibration at great depths, indicate with certainty something like perfect elasticity in the mathematical sense. The material with which we are concerned is under conditions far removed from any of which we have experience; the pressures, for instance, are enormous; and it is possibly in this direction that the solution of the difficulty is to be sought. We have some experience of substances which are plastic under long-continued stress, but which behave as rigid bodies as regards vibrations of short period, although this combination of properties is, I think, only met with at moderate temperatures. It is conceivable that we have here a true analogy, and that the material in question, under its special conditions, though plastic under steady application of force, as for instance centrifugal force, may be practically rigid as regards oscillatory forces, even when their period is so long as a day ora fortnight. But beyond that we can hardly, with confidence, go at present. 14 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. I have chosen the preceding subject for this address, partly because it has not recently been reviewed at these meetings, and also for the opportu- nity it has given of urging one or two special points. It is evidently far from exhausted—the loose ends have indeed been manifest—but this should render it more interesting. It furnishes also an instance, not so familiar as some, of the way in which speculations which appear remote from common interests may ultimately have an important influence on the pro- gress of science. Itis true that the secular investigations into the form of the earth’s surface have an importance in relation to Geodesy, but certainly no one at the time of Laplace’s work on this matter would have guessed that he was unwittingly laying the foundation of the whole mathematical theory of electricity. The history of science is indeed full of examples where one branch of science has profited by another in unexpected ways. I would take leave just to mention two, which happen to have specially interested me. It is, I think, not generally understood what an important part the theory of elasticity played in Rayleigh’s classical determinations of the relative weights of the gases, where it supplied an important and indeed essential correction. Again, the mathematical theory of Hydrodynamics, in spite of some notable successes, has often been classed as a piece of Pure Mathematics dealing with an ideal and impossible fluid, elegant indeed, but helpless to account for such an everyday matter as the turbulent flow of water through a pipe. Recently, however, at the hands of Prandtl, it has yielded the best available scheme of the forces on an aeroplane, and is even being appealed to to explain the still perplexing problem of the screw-propeller. To promote this interaction between different branches of science is one of the most important functions of our Association, and differentiates it from the various sectional congresses which have from time to time been arranged. We may hope that this meeting, equally with former ones, may contribute to this desirable end. Let me close with a local reference. The last fifty years have seen the institution of local universities and university colleges in many parts of this country and of the Empire at large. Through these agencies the delights of literature, the discipline of science, have been brought within the reach of thousands whose horizons have been enlarged and their whole outlook on life transformed. They have become centres, too, from which valuable original work in scholarship, history, and science, has radiated. The University College of Southampton is now contemplating an increased activity and a fuller development. In this ambition it has, I am sure, the best wishes of us all. —————< SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE. THE NEW IDEAS IN METEOROLOGY. ADDRESS BY G. C. SIMPSON, C.B.E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. ) Berore taking up the main thread of my address I should like to refer in a few words to the loss which mathematics and physics sustained on February 3rd last in the death of Oliver Heaviside. It was given to few men to know Heaviside personally, and to still fewer to know him inti- mately, yet his death was mourned throughout the world. This is not the place for me to give any account of his great contributions to the science of electricity, for they are familiar to every member of Section A. I would, however, like to refer to one aspect of Heaviside’s work. Heaviside commenced his electrical work on the commercial side, but he retired and devoted himself to science for its own sake. Realising throughout the immense commercial value of his work, he took out no patents and asked for no remuneration, but gave to humanity discoveries the money value of which cannot be estimated, so vast is it. In honouring Heaviside we honour one who brought great honour to British science. The first quarter of the twentieth century will always be remarkable for the great advances made in science. In our own particular branch the advance has probably been the most startling and has appealed very strongly to the popular imagination. In mathematics we have had a little-known and even less-understood branch of pure mathematics applied to physical problems with results which have revolutionised our whole conception of the universe in which we live. In astronomy we have had described to us an evolution of the heavenly bodies as real and as domin- ating as the evolution which the previous century revealed in the animal kingdom. In physics the progress made has been phenomenal. At the beginning of the century, it is true, we had been introduced to the electron, to Réntgen rays and to radio-activity ; Planck was also writing on the laws of radiation; but no one realised the powerful tools which these _ phenomena were going to put into the hands of physicists. These tools have, however, been used, and not least by our own countrymen, to dig deep into Nature’s secrets, even into the atom itself, so that now.we. are able to visualise the component parts of an atom, which itself is a structure far removed from our powers of perception. ; cam “er These advances have been the subject of a series of. Presidential addresses before this section and have given rise to.many interesting and fruitful discussions at our meetings ; they are almost common knowledge. _. Meteorology, although a child of applied mathematics and physics, has hardly been touched by the epoch-making discoveries in the house of its parents. .The quantum has, found. na place in. our theories of. the 16 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. mechanism of the atmosphere ; a knowledge of the structure of the atom has not helped us to understand the physics of the air as we deal with it in meteorology; the relationship between mass and charge, the in- variability of the velocity of light, four-dimensional space and all the other new conceptions which have been responsible for the advance of physics, have been of no help to meteorologists in their especial branch of science. The whole attention of physicists has been so dominated by these new ideas, and the vistas of unexplored country which they have opened out are so vast, that it is no wonder that physicists have had no interest in a domain in which their new tools could not be employed. The conse- quence has been that meteorclogy has had little help from physicists and mathematicians as such, and has had to depend, in this country at least, on the relatively small band of meteorologists in Government employ. Let me say, however, that we are grateful for the help which we have received from physicists, especially from those who were brought into contact with meteorology during the war. In spite of the fact that meteorology has not been able to make use of the recent discoveries in pure physics, there has been in the last twenty-five years as fundamental a revolution in our ideas of the atmosphere as has taken place in our ideas of electricity and matter. Unless I am very much mistaken, these fundamental changes in our conception of the atmosphere, both as a whole and in its parts, are little known outside the small band of pro- fessional meteorologists. I therefore welcome this opportunity of bringing them before the members of Section A. I have chosen as the title of this address ‘ The New Ideas in Meteor- ology.’ It is questionable, however, whether the word ‘new’ is a suitable adjective to use, for the ideas which I am about to describe deal with principles and processes which are by no means new, and the ideas them- selves can be traced back to the last century. Nevertheless it is only in the last few years, in some cases only since the war, that their significance has been realised even by meteorologists. I shall divide my address into four parts, each dealing with one of the new ideas, namely : (1) The thermal stratification of the atmosphere ; (2) The mechanism of the atmospheric heat engine ; (3) The significance of surfaces of discontinuity in the atmosphere ; (4) The origin and structure of cyclones. The Thermal Stratification of the Atmosphere. The fact that the temperature of the air decreases as we ascend in the atmosphere has been known from time immemorial, but our real knowledge of the temperature of the free air dates only from 1898, when Teisserenc de Bort introduced his ballons-sondes, which carried self-recording instru- ments to heights in the atmosphere up to that time never attained and from which no information was then available. , The initial success of Teisserenc de Bort in his epoch-making discovery of the stratosphere attracted great attention to his investigations. His methods were introduced into other countries and an intense investigation of the upper atmosphere, with an International Commission to guide and _ ———_ A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 17 encourage it, was inaugurated. In this country Mr. W. H. Dines did Trojan service in the cause, and his observations and deductions are out- standing in the mass of data accumulated in many parts of the world. Naturally the conditions over Kurope and North America were investi- gated in the greatest detail, but every opportunity has been taken by meteorologists to obtain upper-air data from all parts of the world. In addition to the regular observations undertaken in most countries having an organised meteorological service, expeditions have gone out specially to investigate the upper atmosphere over the oceans and over tropical Africa, and nearly all recent polar expeditions have included this investiga- tion amongst their scientific activities. There are, of course, large tracts of the earth’s surface above which no observations have yet been made, but some, if only a few, observations have been made in all meteorologically important areas, including both polar regions. It is on the results of these observations that we base our conception of the thermal structure of the atmosphere, and meteorologists have attempted from them to generalise the conditionsin all parts of the world. The most important generalisation of this kind has been made by Sir Napier Shaw and published in the form of diagrams in his book, _* The Air and its Ways.’ I shall use these diagrams as the basis of the following discussion. Probably everyone here is familiar with the main results of these investi- _ gations. The atmosphere, which itself is an extremely thin film of air, is composed of two shells surrounding the earth. Inthe lower of these shells, called the troposphere, the temperature decreases as one rises in the atmosphere, and the air is warmer over the equator than over the poles at corresponding heights. In the upper shell, called the stratosphere, _ the temperature conditions are entirely different. There is little or no _ change in temperature with height and the horizontal change of temperature is reversed, the temperature at the same height in the stratosphere decreasing as one passes from the poles to the equator. At the earth’s surface the mean annual temperature near the equator is 27° C., and at the poles —23° C., z.c. the equator is 50° C. warmer than the poles. At twenty kilometres above the surface the temperature over the equator is —80° C. and over the poles —30°C. That is, the temperature difference _ between the equator and the poles is the same in amount at the surface and at a height of twenty kilometres, but in the former case it is the equator which is the warmer, while in the latter it is the polar regions—a truly remarkable reversal. | The surface of separation between the two shells, called by Sir Napier Shaw the ‘tropopause,’ is extremely sharp. There is no region of transition. The stratosphere sits on the troposphere like a layer of oil on a layer of water. The boundary is, however, not horizontal, and, therefore, not exactly concentric with the earth’s surface, being higher at the equator than at the pole. In other words, the lower atmospheric shell, the troposphere, is thicker at the equator than at the poles. At the equator it is nearly twenty kilometres thick, while at the poles it thins down to a layer less than six kilometres thick in the summer and less than four in the winter. I have already said that in the troposphere the temperature decreases as one ascends. The magnitude of this decrease varies from place to 1925 q —_— 18 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. place and from time to time, but one remarkable result has come out of the investigation, and that is that the average decrease is practically the same in all parts of the world. Near the ground the conditions are com- plicated ; here the rate of decrease is largely affected by such factors as the kind of surface, whether land or water, the time of day and the time of year. If we omit for this reason the two lower kilometres of the atmosphere, we are able to state that the rate of decrease of temperature with height, to which I shall refer as the ‘lapse rate,’ is the same in all parts of the world, from the equator to the poles. The lapse rate is not the same at all heights, but increases regularly as one ascends. Between two and four kilometres above sea-level the rate of decrease is 5°6° C. for each kilometre of ascent; the rate is greater at greater heights, until towards the top of the troposphere, say between six and eight kilometres, the rate is 7°1° C. per kilometre. The importance of these results lies in the bearing they have on the possibility of vertical motion in the atmosphere. Whether air will rise or fall as the result of differences of temperature depends not only on an initial difference of temperature but also on the lapse rate in the sur- rounding atmosphere. When dry air rises its temperature falls on account of adiabatic expansion 10° C. for each kilometre of ascent. From the observed values of the lapse rate given above it will be seen that if a mass of air is as much as 10° C. warmer than its surroundings it cannot rise much more than two kilometres before it has no buoyancy left. The question of ascending and descending air is, however, very complicated on account of the condensation of the water vapour carried with it. The vertical motion of the atmosphere cannot be determined simply from consideration of the lapse rate of temperature in the atmosphere. We have also to take into account the pressure and vapour content of the moving air. This can best be done by considerations of entropy. Sir Napier Shaw has prepared diagrams showing the entropy through- out the normal atmosphere. These show surfaces of constant entropy which are nearly horizontal, but they slope upwards from the equator, to the poles, especially in the lower layers (Fig. 1).’ If these surfaces could be made visible, we should see a series of layers lying one above the other like the strata in a geological specimen of stratified rock. The advantage of this method of representing the thermal structure of the atmosphere lies in the fact that entropy in the atmosphere bears a close analogy to density in an incompressible fluid. Just as a fluid in equilibrium sets itself with the layers of equal density horizontal, so the atmosphere is in equilibrium if the isentropic layers are horizontal. Also when a portion of fluid is displaced it will return to its appropriate density layer, so a mass of air displaced will also return to its appropriate entropy layer. Any mass of air retains its initial entropy no matter what its position in the atmosphere, unless heat is added to it or extracted. In the former case the entropy is increased while in the latter it is decreased. Adding heat to air is, therefore, analogous to changing the density of an incom- pressible fluid. It must, however, be remembered that increasing entropy is equivalent to decreasing density, so that for equilibrium the numerical value of the entropy layers must merease upwards. 1 Facing p. 24. A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 19 Applying these considerations to Sir Napier Shaw’s entropy diagram, we see that, because the entropy everywhere increases upwards, the atmosphere has a thermal structure which gives it the characteristics of a fluid in which the density decreases upwards. Such an arrangement of density is very stable in the vertical direction, and it would only be possible for air to rise if it received sufficient heat to increase its entropy to that of the layer to which it is moving. If no heat is added, the air cannot be in equilibrium in any layer but that from which it starts. Thus, in all movements of the air in which heat is neither added nor extracted, for example by condensation or radiation, it must travel along an isentropic surface. Even if condensation takes place the amount of heat added is usually so small that the air can only move to a neighbouring isentropic surface slightly higher in the atmosphere. These isentropic surfaces act like physical restraints to the air, tending to prevent its moving in any but an almost horizontal direction. The effect is almost exactly as though the atmosphere were definitely stratified in nearly horizontal planes, so that all motion of the air must take place along the strata in which it started. This is what I mean by the thermal stratification of the atmosphere, and it isa new idea in meteorology, for it rules out ascending and descending currents as a direct consequence of the normal temperature distribution in the atmosphere. That ascending currents do occur and play a large part in atmospheric processes is, however, a matter of both observation and inference. We can actually see them taking place whenever we observe well-developed cumulus clouds, and we infer them from the large amounts of precipitation which we measure, for appreciable precipitation can only be accounted for on the assumption that air is rising in the atmosphere and cooling by adiabatic expansion. These ascending currents are possible in the stratified atmosphere only if the air taking part in them receives sufficient heat on its ascent to raise its entropy at least to that of the surrounding atmosphere at each level. Heat is supplied by condensa- tion of water vapour, but normally air does not hold sufficient water vapour even when saturated to supply the requisite heat, and so cannot pierce the normal stratification. It sometimes happens, however, that the stratification is less pronounced than at other times. The greater the lapse rate, the less the stratification, and by increasing the lapse rate sufficiently the stratification can be reduced to such an extent that there is sufficient water vapour to supply the heat required. When this occurs the atmosphere becomes unstable to saturated air and ascending currents take place, generally with considerable violence. Such conditions give rise to thunder-storms, which occur, as is well known, only when the lapse rate has been abnormally increased, g generally by the heating of the surface layers faster than the layers higher in the tmosphere. Also in equatorial regions over the ocean, where the air is very hot and also very humid, there may be sufficient water vapour in e air for it to rise through the normal stratification. This is the origin of the squalls and heavy rain in the Doldrums. From this it will be seen hat the ascent of air through its environment is not a normal phenomenon, but does occasionally occur in special circumstances. _ The descent of air is an entirely different matter, for there is no process hich extracts heat from a descending current equivalent to the process o2 ee a Se ee ee et 20 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. of condensation which supplies heat to an ascending current. Yet air cannot descend through the stratification without the necessary heat being extracted. On the other hand, we do know that air descends, for the air which goes up in the ascending currents, or rather, an equivalent amount, must come down somewhere. The solution of the problem is that air practically never descends through its environment, but comes down by the gradual subsidence of a whole column. This is generally brought about by the air at the bottom of the column spreading under the sur- rounding air and so lowering the air above in a way to be described in greater detail later. If now we consider the undisturbed atmosphere in different parts of the world, we find that each has its own stratification, which is mainly determined by the local radiation. At the equator the stratification is not so close as at the poles, and equivalent strata are higher in the atmo- sphere the further we move from the equator. If a large mass of air is transported as a whole without gain or loss of heat, no change in entropy occurs, and therefore it retains its original stratification. It is therefore clear that if masses of polar and tropical air are brought together the strata will not fit. The process is something like removing two geological specimens from different parts of a stratified rock and then placing them side by side. We can recognise the surface where the two masses meet by the discontinuity in the strata; in geology such a surface of discon- tinuity is called a fault. We shall consider later the consequence of bringing together masses of air of different origin in this way, and it will be shown that they interact like separate fluids, but throughout the resulting motion they retain their stratification, although this stratification becomes modified and distorted. This idea of the stratification of the atmosphere which has caused us to recognise that ascending and descending currents are relatively rare occurrences raises new problems as to how the solar energy is converted into the kinetic energy of winds. This leads me to the second subject of this address. The Mechanism of the Atmospheric Heat Engine. Brunt has calculated from considerations of wind and atmospheric friction that 25 x 1011 kilowatts of energy are required to maintain the motion of the atmosphere. It is generally agreed that this energy is derived from the solar radiation which falls on the earth, the atmosphere itself acting as a gigantic heat engine to convert the solar energy into the kinetic energy of the winds. How the atmospheric heat engine works is the problem which we are now to discuss. Until quite recently this problem seemed to present no difficulty. All atmospheric motion was referred in one form or another to the ascent of warm air through cold air and the descent of cold air through warm air. The so-called general circulation of the atmosphere was considered to be the direct consequence of the ascent of warm air at the equator and the descent of cold air at the poles, there being a permanent circulation from the equator to the poles in the upper atmosphere, with a return flow in the surface or middle layers. Similarly, cyclones were considered to form in regions where the air is warmer than the surrounding air, with a consequent upward motion of the warm air through its colder environment. Oe ——eo- A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 21 The anticyclone, on the other hand, was considered to be a region of cold descending air. Thus cyclone and anticyclone were regions of ascent of warm and descent of cold air respectively. But I have already shown that the thermal stratification of the atmo- sphere, except in the Doldrums and occasionally in other regions, is prohibitive of such ascending and descending currents. Further, observations have shown that there is no direct flow offair from the equator to the poles in the upper atmosphere, and measurements of temperature in cyclones and anticyclones have shown that the former are not warm and the latter are not cold. Although the old ideas were wrong in detail, they were, of course, right in principle, for the potential energy inherent in masses of air at different temperatures must be the origin of the kinetic energy of the winds, the difference in temperature between the equator and the poles being responsible for the general circulation of the atmosphere, and the difference in temperature between neighbouring masses of air for the energy of cyclones and anticyclones. The only question is, how does the transfer from potential to kinetic energy take place ? The solution of the problem was given by Margules in a series of papers, commencing in 1903, in which he investigated the energy developed in storms. Unfortunately, these papers were very obscure, and, as few meteorologists had then realised the insufficiency of the old theories, they received little attention outside Vienna. Margules’ papers were difficult because he dealt with the problem in a general way and treated the actual case of a compressible atmosphere, the density of each part of which varies with temperature and pressure. The physical principles involved are, however, extremely simple and are similar to those met with in problems dealing with the equilibrium of fluids of different densities. Suppose that we have a vessel in the form of a tank with a vertical division in the middle separating it into two parts, and let one of these parts be filled with oil and the other with water, both to the same depth (Fig. 2). If the partition is now withdrawn, the water settles down and flows under the oil, while the oil rises and flows into a horizontal layer over the water. A simple diagram of the position of the centre of gravity of the whole mass of liquid before and after the change shows that the centre of gravity has fallen. This change in the position of the centre of gravity has released the energy which set the liquid in ‘motion. In this experiment the oil has been lifted, but it did not rise through the water, it was pushed up along the surface of discontinuity, which continued sharply marked during the whole period of change. In his complete investigation Margules showed that if two bodies of air having different temperatures are brought side by side, they react towards one another like the oil and water in the experiment just described, and he showed that the energy released by the lowering of the centre of gravity of the mass of the air as a whole is sufficient to account for the most violent storms met with in the atmosphere. This work leads to an entirely new idea as to the method in which solar energy is converted into the kinetic energy of atmospheric motion. Instead of warm air rising vertically like the warm gases in a chimney, drawing air in at the bottom and delivering it at the top, we see two bodies of air, one warm and the other cold, brought side by side, then the 22 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. cold mass slowly subsiding and pushing its way as a wedge of cold air under the warm air, which is partly raised and partly drawn in above to replace the cold subsiding air. In the process the centre of gravity of the whole moving mass is gradually lowered, so providing the energy for the motion which we recognise as winds. The essential difference between the new and the old idea is that the two masses of air whose difference of temperature is the cause of the motion never mix. We start with the two bodies of air side by side, with a surface of sharp discontinuity between them. In each body there is a different stratification of isentropic surfaces. In the warm body of air the corresponding isentropic layers are all lower than in the cold body of air. As the cold mass subsides its isentropic layers are lowered, while as the warm air is raised its isentropic layers are raised with it; but the surface of discontinuity between them, which I have previously likened to a geological fault, is a sliding surface, and no air crosses it. The sliding motion does not cease until either the corresponding isentropic layers on the two sides have joined up across the surface, which then ceases to be a surface of discontinuity, or until all the warm air has been raised above the cold air and the surface of discontinuity becomes a horizontal plane. The two masses are then in equilibrium without any mixing having taken place. Surfaces of Discontinuity. The process which I have just described would take place very rapidly on a stationary earth, and in a short time the surface of discontinuity would disappear in the manner described or appear as a horizontal surface with all the cold air underneath and all the warm air above. But in the atmosphere we find inclined surfaces of discontinuity persisting for days together, and others which are apparently. permanent. This arises from the effect of the rotation of the earth, which we have so far neglected, but which introduces new forces when air is in motion. A mathematical investigation of the conditions governing the air motion at surfaces of discontinuity has shown that, on a rotating earth, the tendency of cold air to pass under warm air can be completely counter- balanced by forces due to the earth’s rotation if the air on the two sides of the surface has suitable relative velocities. We owe the mathematical investigation of this problem chiefly to Helmholtz, Margules, V. Bjerknes, and Exner. When the actual atmo- spheric problem is considered the mathematics becomes complicated, but the physical processes involved are not difficult to understand. In view of the importance now attached by meteorologists to surfaces of dis- continuity in the atmosphere, I should like to discuss the physics of the problem in a general way, so as to give a simple picture of the conditions necessary to maintain equilibrium at a surface of discontinuity. This can most easily be done by considering the analogous problem of the se of two masses of liquid of different densities maintained side y side, We have previously considered a tank holding oil and water. Let us now consider that the tank is indefinitely long and the partition between the oil and water placed lengthways. The water and oil each presses on the partition, but the pressure due to the water is obviously the greater. a OL A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 23 Tf now the oil is made to flow along the length of the tank a new force is called into play, due to the earth’s rotation. This force is horizontal and in the northern hemisphere tends to drive the moving oil to the right of its motion. If the partition.is on the right of the motion, the oil cannot move in that direction and the partition takes the additional pressure due to the deflecting force of the earth’s rotation. Before the motion started, the difference of pressure on the two sides of the partition obviously increased from the top to the bottom. It is possible to conceive the ~ motion of the oil increasing with the depth at such a rate that the deflecting force of the earth’s rotation would just balance the difference of pressure at each depth due to the difference in density. If this could be arranged, the pressure on each side of the partition at each point would be equal and the partition could be withdrawn without disturbing the equilibrium. We should then have the oil and water existing side by side in equilibrium without any tendency of the water to flow under the oil. In practice, however, the oil could not be caused to flow in the required artificial manner without introducing forces which themselves would destroy the equilibrium. The mathematical investigation shows, however, that the deflecting force of the earth’s rotation, combined with gravity, - leads to a system of forces which produces the same effect, except that the surface dividing the oil and water does not remain vertical but slopes at a definite angle. If the oil moves with the same velocity throughout, the surface of discontinuity remains plane and the angle of its slope depends only on the difference in density between the oil and the water, the velocity of motion, and the latitude in which the experiment takes place. When equilibrium has been reached in this way the sloping boundary between the oil and water is stable to small disturbances, and deformations only produce waves which travel along the boundary with a definite velocity. The mathematical investigation of the similar problem as applied to discontinuities in the atmosphere has shown that the result is the same. Two bodies of air at different temperatures will remain in equilibrium side by side if suitable motion parallel to the boundary is given to the air on each side. The angle which the surface of discontinuity makes with the horizontal depends on three factors, namely, the latitude and the difference in temperature and relative motion of the warm and cold currents. Given steady motion, these three factors adjust themselves in a perfectly definite way, with the cold air lying as a rule in the acute angle which the boundary makes with the horizon. V. Bjerknes considers that there are three great permanent surfaces of discontinuity of this kind in the atmosphere, and that the slope of the surface in each is in accordance with the discontinuities of the wind and density observed on the two sides. Taking these in turn, the first is the great surface of discontinuity between the troposphere and the stratosphere. In this case the strato- _ sphere is relatively the warm body of air and the troposphere is relatively the cold body of air. The air in the troposphere has an easterly drift relatively to the air in the stratosphere, and therefore, according to the formule, the surface of discontinuity should slope downwards towards the poles. Now we know from observation that the stratosphere is lower over the poles than over the equator, and Bjerknes considers that the observed values of the changes in wind and temperature on passing from 94 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. the troposphere into the stratosphere are sufficient to account for the observed slope. This is an important result, for if it is true it would appear that the slope of the stratosphere from equator to pole is due to the dynamics of the atmosphere rather than to differences in radiation. On the other hand, the interdependence of the various factors in the stability of the atmosphere is so complicated that it may not be possible ever to assign the relationship of cause and effect to any of them. The second surface of discontinuity discussed by Bjerknes is between the trade winds and the anti-trade winds above them. That there is a difference of temperature between the relatively cold trade winds blowing towards the equator and the anti-trade winds blowing away from the equator goes without saying. Also the trades have a wind component towards the west and the anti-trades a component towards the east; that is, there is relative motion parallel to the boundary. With these condi- tions the surface of discontinuity should slope downwards from high to low latitudes; that is, the depth of the trade winds should decrease as they approach the equator. From the few observations we have this would appear to be the case, and the theory appears to receive support in this case also. Bjerknes’ third surface of discontinuity, which has received the name of the ‘ polar front,’ is a very important one in modern meteorological theory. On the whole there is very little air motion in polar regions, and the cap of air over each pole is losing heat by radiation and so tending to subside and flow away from the pole. As the air from the polar cap flows radially outwards it is deflected to the west on account of the earth’s rotation, On the other hand, in middle latitudes, from near latitude 30 to the polar circle, the air is moving in an almost unbroken stream from west to east. Relative to the air in the polar cap this air is very warm. We therefore have a cold cap of westerly-moving air embedded in a warmer mass of air moving towards the east, and between the two there must be a pronounced surface of discontinuity. In such conditions the surface should slope upwards toward the pole. V. Bjerknes considers that there are such surfaces of discontinuity associated with each pole and that they are very stable. These ‘ polar fronts ’ play a large part, as we shall see later, in Bjerknes’ theory of the formation of cyclones. It will be realised from what has already been said that these three great surfaces of discontinuity are not mathematical abstractions. They have a very real physical existence characterised by great stability,which amounts, in the case of the stratosphere at least, almost to rigidity. Across them, when undisturbed, air does not pass, and when temporarily destroyed they reform as soon as the disturbing conditions have passed. But these are not the only surfaces of discontinuity which play a very real part in the physics of the atmosphere. While the three surfaces just described are of a more or less permanent nature, we now recoguise a constant succession of temporary surfaces of discontinuity which form and pass away in our own latitudes. Their presence is revealed in many ways. On the synoptic charts lines can be drawn which divide regions in which the conditions at the surface as regards temperature, humidity, and wind velocities are entirely different (Fig. 3). These lines are simply the Intersection at the earth’s surface of the surface of discontinuity between two bodies of air. ——or —— — o9 os ‘a3aahtiivy k= NELEPHS Saf LP —= ttl a tina 24 p. [Zo face Sir Napier Shaw’s Entropy Diagram ws Wy a | G CG. ER Bern Rigi Zugspitze Fig. 4 Topography of the warm front surface. Fic. 4. Fripay, 3° Decemoer, 1920, 0700 GMT. | Fig5. CHART SHOWING A DEPRESSION WITH i WELL MARKED WARM AND _ COLD | SECTORS. Fia. 5. oe _ A.—MATHEMATICS AND. PHYSICS. 25 By means of pilot balloons, cloud heights, and other observations, it is possible to follow these surfaces of discontinuities for great distances from the place where they meet the ground, rising at a definite slope all the way. I have already described how the warm air is pushed up over the cold air along these surfaces of discontinuity. As a result of the upward motion condensation takes place in the warm air and cloud forms, the cloud layer marking out the boundary between the two bodies of air. It now seems very probable that all clouds which appear in sheet simply mark surfaces of discontinuity separating bodies of air of different origin. This would account for the fact that there is nearly always an inversion of temperature over a sheet of cloud. A great deal of work has recently been done in investigating these surfaces of discontinuity, especially by J. Bjerknes, Bergeron, and Stuve. By means of the mountain observatories in Switzerland J. Bjerknes has been able to follow the temperature and wind changes in a surface of discontinuity sloping upwards from ground-level in France to the summit of the Sonnblick, 3,000 metres higher, 600 kilometres away (Fig. 4). Stuve has investigated a great number of surfaces of discontinuity by means of the daily observations of the upper air made at Lindenberg. He finds that the slope of the surfaces varies greatly, but the order of magnitude is a rise of 1 in 100, so that a surface extending in these latitudes from ground-level to the stratosphere would be of the order of a thousand kilometres wide. Helmholtz first proved that waves can be formed in surfaces of dis- continuity in the atmosphere. Recently Goldie has shown that such waves can be recognised at the earth’s surface in the squalls and lulls which accompany winds, and he has been able to determine the height of the surfaces from considerations of changes of pressure and wind at sea-level. The ideas which I have described above receive their chief application in our knowledge of the cause and structure of the cyclonic storms of middle latitudes. The literature on this subject has now become very great, and I can do little more here than sketch out as briefly as possible the main lines along which progress is being made. The subject is still full of difficulty and many problems await solution, but great progress has been made and our new ideas are very different from the old. The Origin and Structure of Cyclones. The old idea of a cyclone was tersely expressed by Sir Oliver Lodge, in a letter to The Times last year, as follows: * A cylindrical vortex with its axis nearly vertical, rolling along at a rate conjecturally dependent partly on the tilt, and with an axial uprush of air to fill up a central depression, -which depression, nevertheless, was maintained and might be intensified by the whirl, the energy being derived from the condensation of vapour.’ If this were the true mechanism of a cyclone we should expect to find considerable symmetry around the axis. The air would move in a continu- ous stream circulating around the centre but always approaching it ; in other words, the stream lines would be continuous spirals, There would also be little difference of temperature in the different parts of the cyclone, for the same air current would pass successively through all parts. In reality the conditions are entirely different. When stream lines are drawn by the aid of the wind arrows on synoptic charts it is impossible to connect 26 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. them so that they circulate all round the depression; we find, onthe contrary, that they are discontinuous, the stream lines in certain parts meeting the stream lines in other parts almost at right angles. Also we find large discontinuities in the temperature, each set of stream lines having its own temperature. Also we find that the areas of rainfall are not confined to the central regions, but are broad bands radiating from the centre like spokes in a wheel, showing that the ascending air is not taking place mainly in the central region. As the result of recent work we now recognise a structure in a cyclone which was unknown a few years ago. We owe this new knowledge largely to the work of J. Bjerknes and his assistants in the Bergen Geophysical Institute. If we examine a synoptic chart on which a newly formed rapidly moving cyclone is delineated, we can mark out in the southern half of the cyclone a region in which the air is definitely warmer than the air in the remainder of the field (Fig.5). This air is moving as a south-west wind. If we draw the stream lines in this region we find a broad stream of air which comes to a sudden end on the chart at a line which starts at the centre and is curved in a south-easterly direction. This line is called by Bjerknes the ‘ warm front.’ This line obviously marks out where a surface of discontinuity, similar to those already described, cuts the surface. Beyond it, at the surface, the wind is easterly or north-easterly, and the air is much colder than the air in the south-westerly stream. We are here dealing with a warm current meeting the flank of a cold current and mounting up over it. This supposition is supported by the fact that the rainfall occurs on the far side of the line at which the south-westerly current leaves the ground. The rainfall is also general and steady, which one would expect if a current of air is rising slowly up an inclined plane. Usually a large part of the southern half of a cyclone is occupied by the warm south-westerly current and the line of discontinuity which I have just described is in the south- east quadrant. In the south-west quadrant the flank of the warm current is in its turn attacked by cold air flowing from the north or north-west, and where the two meet we have another line of discontinuity called the ‘cold front.’ The cold current cannot flow over the warm current, but tends to push its way under. The surface of discontinuity at the cold front is very steep and is very unstable. In consequence, we have here violent squalls with heavy local showers which are in marked contrast to the steady rain at the ‘ warm front.’ When we come to trace the origin of the air which meets at the cold and warm fronts, we find that the warm current can generally be traced back to southerly regions and often to the tropical high-pressure belts ; on the other hand, the cold air can equally well be traced back to polar regions. Hence it has become usual to describe the air masses which meet in cyclones and are separated by the great surfaces of discontinuity at the cold and warm fronts as polar and equatorial air. The polar and equatorial air have each their own characteristics which they retain for a very long time. These characteristics are interesting and important. On its long journey from polar regions the polar air starts cold but stable; as it comes south over the Atlantic Ocean the lower layers become warmed up, because they are always passing over warmer and warmer surfaces. Thus the temperature lapse rate increases and the air becomes : : . A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 27 Jess and less stable, until actual instability occurs, and we get ascending currents which produce squalls and local showers even before the cold air meets the warm air at the cold front. Polar air is generally very clear and visibility is good in it; this is due partly to the air having started from polar regions where there is little dust, and partly to the fact that the air is getting warmer all the time and, therefore, the relative humidity is constantly decreasing. On the other hand, the equatorial air comes often from dusty tropical regions, contains much moisture, and its relative humidity is always increasing. All these factors tend to reduce the visibility and give one a sense of damp, oppressive conditions. We are being forced more and more to recognise in cyclonic depressions the meeting-place of polar and equatorial air. These masses of air, retaining the characteristic thermal structure of the regions from which they start, are brought side by side like the oil and water of the analogy which I have already used. Each body of air is stable to vertical currents within itself, but where the two masses meet readjustment is necessary ; the surfaces of discontinuity tend to set themselves at the angle necessary for stability under the existing condition of velocity and temperature. This involves the bodily raising of the warm air over the cold air and a general sinking and spreading out of the cold air. The energy for the process is derived from the conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy, as the centre of gravity of the air as a whole is slowly lowered during the readjustment of the air masses. The energy derived from the condensation of water vapour is a very insignificant part of the energy developed in a cyclonic depression. So much is now generally accepted by meteorologists, but we are still far from clear as to the forces which bring the equatorial and polar air into the close juxtaposition necessary to produce a cyclonic depression. There are, at present, two main theories, the first due to Bjerknes and called the polar-front theory, and the other due to Exner and called the barrier theory. Both theories make use of the polar cap of cold air circulating on the whole from east to west and surrounded by the strong westerly currents of middle latitudes. Both recognise something of the nature of a polar front; that is, of a marked surface of discontinuity separating the polar air from the warm air of the westerlies to the south of it. From this point, however, the theories diverge. Bjerknes con- siders that cyclonic depressions are definitely phenomena of the polar front itself. The polar front he considers has sufficient stability against north and south motion to be capable of having gigantic waves set up in it. Each cyclone commences as a wave on the polar front; these waves travel from west to east, become too large for stability, and break just like the breakers on a shelving beach. A cyclone is, according to _ this theory, a breaker on the polar front. This idea has been worked out in great detail as a descriptive theory and a few individual cases have been discussed ; but it still lacks the necessary mathematical analysis to show that the forces brought into play when the polar front is deformed are of the right order of magnitude to account for the violent motion associated with cyclonic storms. Exner makes no use of the stability of the polar front. He considers that the cold air moving westwards in polar regions is deflected south- wards by the land masses of Greenland, Spitzbergen, Franz Josef Land, 28 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. and Novaya Zemlya. These deflected currents move southwards into the region of the warm westerlies as tongues of cold air set at right angles to the prevailing westerly winds. These tongues of cold air act like barriers in a stream; the warm air is forced to rise over them, with a consequent increase of pressure on the windward side and a decrease on the lee side. Around the region of low pressure thus formed the air circulates ; the tongue is deformed, the tip being bent eastwards and a cyclonic depression is produced. There is probably a portion of the truth contained in each of these theories, but they both fail because they make cyclones phenomena of the lower atmosphere, while we have good reason to believe that the air in the stratosphere plays a large part in the formation of cyclones. The reasons for this belief are many, but two will suffice. The pressure changes associated with cyclones are absolutely as great at the base of the stratosphere as they are at the earth’s surface, thus indicating that as large masses of air move within the stratosphere as move below it. And secondly, Goldie has shown that the stratosphere over polar air, even in middle latitudes, has the same height and temperature as the stratosphere in polar regions, while the stratosphere over equatorial air in the same way retains the characteristics of the stratosphere in the low latitudes from which the air started. This has led to the idea that the movements in the atmosphere which transport polar and equatorial air to their meeting-place in middle latitudes are not confined to the troposphere, but that the air moves as a whole, troposphere and stratosphere travelling together. It must be admitted that we are still far from a complete understanding of the mechanism of cyclonic depression ; on the other hand, we do now know some features which are common to all depressions, and we have a much clearer idea of the source of the energy and the conditions necessary to their production. We have to imagine that in polar and tropical regions the air is relatively stagnant, and so has an opportunity to reach the state of thermal equilibrium appropriate to those regions. As already stated, the atmosphere is only a thin film, and we picture large areas or slabs of this film breaking away from their proper locality and moving into middle latitudes. Apparently the detached films move as a whole, at least to a considerable distance within the stratosphere. When two such portions of the atmospheric film come into juxtaposition they are not in equilibrium relative to one another and readjustment must take place. The surface of contact remains more or less intact, but the cold air tends to sink and undercut the warm air, while the warm air slides up the surface of dis- continuity. The whole motion takes place on the revolving surface of the earth, and the forces called into play by this revolution result in the air movement taking place in what appears to be a great vortex. The energy of the winds is derived mainly from the readjustment of the centre of gravity of the air mass considered as a whole, although the latent heat of condensation provides some additional energy by supplying heat to the warmer air as it ascends the slope of the surface of discontinuity. It will be admitted, I think, that this is a radically new idea regarding the mechanism of a cyclone. I might add a word here about tropical cyclones. All that I have said so far refers to the cyclonic depressions of middle latitudes. As to whether —_——_— =" * —— A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 29 the mechanism of tropical cyclones is the same or whether we have here something more of the nature of the process described by Sir Oliver Lodge, meteorologists are not yet agreed. We need more observations, especially of the conditions in the upper air over tropical cyclones, before this question can be decided. At present we must leave it an open question. These new ideas have had a far-reaching effect on the practical applica- tions of meteorology, especially in the domain of weather forecasting. The old method of weather forecasting was mainly empirical and based on the work of Abercrombie. Abercrombie had sketched the distribution of weather about centres of high and low pressures, and forecasting was based on the determination of the movement of these pressure distribu- tions when they appeared on the weather chart, the assumption being made that as the pressure system passed over a place the normal sequence of weather would be experienced. Now the forecaster has much more knowledge of what I may call the anatomy of a depression. The pressure distribution is, of course, still the main factor, but the forecaster searches his chart for indications of the surfaces of discontinuity, and examines the characteristics of the air masses to see whether they are of polar or equatorial origin. In this way he is able to determine the structure of the cyclone and whether it is developing or dying. Having determined where the surfaces of dis- continuity are situated, he is able to say where rain may be expected, and he knows what weather changes will accompany the passage of each surface of discontinuity as it moves over the surface of the land. He is aided in this by observations taken in the upper atmosphere by means of pilot balloons and aeroplanes fitted out with meteorological instruments. This has all resulted in greater confidence in the forecasts made, a confidence which is frequently justified by remarkably accurate forecasts. Unfortunately, however, the processes which take place in the atmosphere are extremely complicated, and perfect forecasts are still far from being attained. The progress made, however, is very encouraging, and, what is still more important, the paths along which further investigation must be made are clearly defined. Many more observations of the upper air are _ necessary, many more theoretical investigations have to be made in the - quiet of the study, and there is room for many more experiments in the laboratory. The problems awaiting solution are many and difficult and call for the highest skill in physics and mathematics. Why is it that these problems are entirely neglected in our great schools of physics and mathematics ¢ The official meteorologist is struggling to the best of his ability, but the number of meteorologists allowed to the Meteorological Office is governed by the practical application of the work. The official meteorologist has a full day’s work with his official duties and finds little opportunity to embark on theoretical investigations. We need the help of the universities, and the problems we offer, although difficult, are fascinating. Shall I appeal in vain for the study of meteorology to be taken up at our universities and colleges, where there are so many men and women with the knowledge and ability required for the work ¢ SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY. THE CHEMISTRY OF SOLIDS. ‘ADDRESS BY Proressor CECIL H. DESCH, D.Sc., Pu.D., F.R.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. In entering on the task of delivering an address from this chair, my predecessors have often selected a special topic for consideration, but have prefaced their remarks by a glance at the general position of chemistry at the time. This precedent I propose to follow, in the belief that it is well for us to give attention now and then to the relations of chemistry to the great body of science as a whole. Two tendencies are clearly visible, and are profoundly affecting our methods of study and instruction, and also the direction of research. On the one hand, chemistry, like every other science, is being split up into a number of distinct specialisms, and workers are tempted or even compelled to confine themselves to a narrow field; on the other, the boundaries between the several sciences are becoming less definite, through the development of border sciences, which themselves become new specialisms. In so far as it is possible to arrange the abstract sciences in a linear series, chemistry may be said to depend upon physics, as the biological sciences in their turn depend upon chemistry, the theoretical part of each being built up on the established laws of the preceding science as a basis. Physics has gone far to provide the required basis for chemistry, and each new advance in physics suggests new ideas in chemistry. Chemistry in its turn is pro- viding a basis for biology, although more slowly than had been hoped. Great as have been the triumphs of organic synthesis and of investigations of the colloidal state, the chemical study of living organisms is still looking to chemistry for more help than it has yet received. It is in this field that we may hope for the greatest advances in the near future, as the importance of a sound chemical foundation for biological science is more clearly recognised. Whether we look at the serious publications dealing expressly with the progress of science or at the mass of popular articles in newspapers and periodicals, we see that the centre of interest at the present day lies in the new discoveries and hypotheses of physics. Leaving aside the practical applications of physical science, such as the improvement of wireless communication, which absorb the greater part of the popular interest, there is no question but that the structure of the atom, the theories of relativity and of quanta, the existence of the ether, and the results of the examination of crystals by means of X-rays, interest the educated public more deeply than any questions in chemical or, probably, B.—CHEMISTRY. 31 in biological science, whilst some of them are even found useful by journalists in search of sensation. On the other hand, there is little public curiosity in regard to the advance of chemical science. A few of its applications, and those mainly concerned with warfare, attract attention from time to time, although the progress of agricultural chemistry, the most important of all from a national point of view, is shamefully neglected, in spite of the admirable work which is being done at Roth- amsted and elsewhere. The public interest in chemistry does not extend far beyond poison gases and dyes. The progress of pure chemistry and the development of chemical theory are only followed by a small body of specialists, engaged in teaching or research, and of students whom our present system of scholarships and degrees forces more and more to become specialists, even at a very early stage of their studies. Perhaps this state of things is responsible for a certain attitude concerning the future of chemistry which may be traced, in implication rather than expression, in the work of some chemists at the present day. It appears to be thought that chemistry is fated to become a branch of physics, and thus to lose its own peculiar discipline, leaving its long-established methods to chemists engaged in operations of a routine character, whilst new knowledge is being acquired by the application of physical methods of experiment, and interpreted by the methods of mathematical physics. The knowledge of the internal structure of the atom, and consequently of the manner in which atoms may unite chemically with one another, has advanced with such extraordinary rapidity that it has seemed that chemical facts must henceforth be regarded in an entirely new light. If we accept the view, for which such strong evidence has been produced, that protons and electrons are the units of which all atoms are composed, the forces between them being purely electrical, and that the whole system of the chemical elements may be built up in a perfectly regular and systematic fashion from these units, whilst the structure of each atom enables us to predict how it will enter into combination with other atoms, then it would seem that chemistry should in course of time become a purely deductive science, the properties of compounds being deduced from the number and arrangement of their component atoms, due note being taken of the changes of energy during their formation, such changes of energy being themselves accounted for by the exchange of electrons. Such a conception of chemistry recalls the views which were held some fifty years ago as to the mechanical structure of the universe. Kirchoff spoke of the aim of natural science as: being ‘the reduction of all the jhenomena of nature to mechanics,’ and Helmholtz declared that ‘ the bject of the natural sciences is to find the motions upon which all other changes are based, and their corresponding motive forces—to resolve themselves, therefore, into mechanics.’ Writers of the time made it clear that the biological sciences were included in this generalisation. So implified a view has lost ground in the course of the last half-century, nd although the theoretical possibility of such a conception of science would probably find many defenders, it has been generally admitted that jhe unity of science is not best shown by attempts to reduce all its phenomena to those of a single kind. The acceptance of the modern iew as to the structure of the atom has brought about something like a return to the position of the mechanical physicists of the nineteenth —_—," 32 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. century. Mr. Bertrand Russell, following such ideas to their logical conclusion, says that ‘ physical science is approaching the stage when it will be complete, and therefore uninteresting. Given the laws governing the motions of electrons and protons, the rest is merely geography—a collection of particular facts telling their distribution throughout some portion of the world’s history. The total number of facts of geography required to determine the world’s history is probably finite: theoretically, they could all be written down in a big book to be kept at Somerset House, with a calculating machine attached, which, by turning a handle, would enable the inquirer to find out the facts at other times than those recorded. It is difficult to imagine anything less interesting, or more different from the passionate delights of incomplete discovery.’ If such a state of things were to come about, experiment in chemistry would be unnecessary, since all facts could be deduced from certain general principles and from fundamental physical constants which would by then have been determined with great accuracy. Of course, no person believes that such conditions will ever be attained, and the passage quoted above is only a picturesque statement of the position that all science may, in the last degree, be considered as mechanics. Chemists, however, know that this is not how their science has advanced or is likely to advance. Chemistry 1s an experimental science, which progresses by the application of a definite discipline, obtaining conclusions by induction from the observed facts, and making use of deduction from a small number of well-tried hypotheses where required. Granting the theoretical possibility that atomic theory might become so perfect that the facts of the chemical structure of molecules might be deduced from a com- paratively limited mass of data, it would nevertheless remain true that the labour of such deduction would be beyond human powers, except in relatively simple cases. We can scarcely imagine the properties and synthesis of indigo being deduced from the internal structure of the atoms of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen, although it is possibly true that the one is implicit in the other. Human intelligence is not equal to the task, nor does it seem likely to be so in the future. Chemistry must continue to go its own way, whilst making every use of the new physical conceptions as an aid in generalisation and as a means of co-ordinating facts. There need be no fear that it will cease to have a separate existence. Chemical science has been responsible for the introduction of a number of hypotheses which have survived to the present day, and it may be worth while to look at them for a moment, although they are familiar to all and attention has been directed to them by recent writers. The doctrine of atoms, as we all know, was not a chemical invention, but there is a vast difference between its use among Greek philosophers as a means of satisfying their desire to find a consistent explanation of the universe and its scientific application in the hands of Dalton as a means of explana- tion of the quantitative facts of chemical combination. There has been some discussion as to Dalton’s personal attitude on this question, but there can be no doubt that those who did most to establish the doctrine attached no metaphysical importance to it, but used it frankly as an B.—CHEMISTRY. 33 For instance, Kekulé said in 1867 : * The question whether atoms exist or not has but little significance _ from a chemical point of view; its discussion belongs rather to philo- sophy. In chemistry we have only to decide whether the assumption of atoms is an hypothesis adapted to the explanation of chemical phenomena . . . and to advance our knowledge of the mechanism of chemical phenomena ’ “Horas to explain known facts and, above all, to predict new facts. and it is probable that throughout the nineteenth century it was a matter of comparative indifference to most scientific chemists whether atoms had a real existence. All that was important was that matter behaved as though it had an atomic structure, and that no fallacies or errors were introduced by making such an assumption. The value of the atom to them was quite independent of any possible demonstration of its real existence. Gradually, as the conception of atoms and molecules was found to fit a larger and larger field of facts, confidence grew, and atoms came to be regarded as real, in the only sense in which the scientific experi- menter can understand reality. Molecules, built up of atoms according to well-established laws, shared in this confidence, which was thoroughly _ justified by the remarkable concordance of the determinations of Avo- gadro’s number, the number of molecules in the gramme molecule of a substance, as arrived at by a number of totally independent methods. _ The discovery of radio-activity, whilst enlarging the conception of the atom, has made it possible to isolate the effects of single atoms travelling at a high velocity, so that the impact of a single «-ray on a fluorescent sereen produces a visible effect, and the counting of these rays, which are known to be charged helium atoms, corresponds perfectly with the original hypothesis. When the minuteness of the atom was realised, chemists cannot have dreamed that a day would come when the effect of so extraordinarily minute a particle could be perceived by the eye and even exhibited on a screen to an audience. No more extraordinary confirmation of the soundness of the theoretical views of the chemists of the early nineteenth century could have been received. It is strange to remember that little more than twenty years ago it was proposed by Franz Wald, and the idea was adopted by some chemists, that the atomic conception might be dispensed with in chemistry, and that the science might advance by making use of thermodynamical conceptions alone. It is certain that such a proposal could not have been made by an organic chemist, to whom reasoning on structural lines is habitual. It has been said that the establishment of the structural formula of an organic compound of some complexity, such as an alkaloid or a triphenylmethane dye, by successive, carefully chosen steps of analysis and synthesis, is the best illustration of the principles of scientific Teasoning, and there is much truth in the contention. Chemists, there- _ fore, were not inclined to follow so illusory a path, and the proposal has met with no acceptance. The later development of chemistry has been entirely in the opposite direction, that of leaning with greater and greater confidence on the atomic and molecular foundations of the science. 3! Next came the development of structural theory, with reference to organic compounds, associated with the names of Kekulé, Couper, Crum — -1925 D 34 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. Brown and Butlerow. Again the assumed arrangements of atoms in compounds were adopted in order to express the reactions of the substances, without reference to the real existence of the chains of atoms represented in the new formule. In 1867 Crum Brown wrote: “ While there can be no doubt that physical research points to a molecular constitu- tion of matter, it is perfectly indifferent to a chemist whether his symbols represent atoms or units; and graphical formule would be as useful as they are now, were it conclusively proved that matter is continuous.’ Within the last few years the study of the films of fatty acids and similar substances on the surface of water by Langmuir, Hardy and Adam has shown that the properties of such films can only be accounted for by assuming the reality of those chains of atoms which served so well the purposes of the chemist, but seemed physically improbable. The examina- tion of solid fatty acids by means of X-rays leads to exactly the same conclusion. The greatest triumph of structural theory, the hexagon formula for benzene, need only be mentioned in passing, since it is only a month or two since the celebration of the discovery of benzene by Faraday, when the wonderful chemistry of the aromatic compounds was eloquently described by Sir Wm. Pope and Prof. Armstrong. Next came the generalisation known as the periodic system of the elements, due mainly to Mendeleéff and to Lothar Meyer, and finally the hypothesis of the tetrahedral arrangement of the atoms around a carbon atom, devised by van t’Hoff and Le Bel to account for optical isomerism. Modern X-ray methods show that the structure of crystals of the corresponding substances is fully accounted for by assuming that the benzene hexagon and the tetrahedral linking of carbon are actually present, and the inter- pretation of crystals has been made possible and unambiguous by the existence of so great a mass of fully established chemical data. The point which I wish to make is that these hypotheses, of the chemical atom, of the molecule, of the chains and linkings represented in the graphic formule of organic compounds, of the hexagonal ring in aromatic substances, and of the tetrahedral carbon atom, were introduced without reference to any metaphysical conception of the nature of matter, and were independent of any dogma concerning reality; they were intended as working hypotheses, connecting and co-ordinating facts which had been discovered by the classical methods of chemical experimentation. That they have been confirmed by entirely independent physical means, so that they have become established as the truest representation we can have of nature, shows how sound was their foundation, and encourages us to suppose that the same methods which have served so well in the past may again ‘be trusted to lead to new discoveries in the future. The remaining example which I have mentioned, the periodic law, was regarded by many chemists as a convenient means of arranging the facts of inorganic chemistry, but was expressly stated to be only empirical, since a theoretical basis was inconceivable. The work of Moseley, the discovery of the radioactive elements, and the conception of isotopes, have shown the periodic classification to be the most fundamental thing in the chemistry of the elements, and the atomic number has been found to have greater | theoretical significance than the atomic weight. Reference to isotopes reminds us that this discovery also was made by chemical means, although its investigation appears almost to have passed out of the hands of the chemist into those of the physicist, since the introduction of the positive “- B.—CHEMISTRY. 35 ray method of analysis. It was the chemical work of Soddy, Russell, _ Fleck and Fajans, establishing the fact that two or more elements, differing in atomic weight but identical in chemical properties, could occupy the same position in the periodic classification, which opened up this new and extraordinarily important and interesting field of research. Two physical doctrines, originating outside of chemistry, have had and are having a profound influence in the science—the ionic hypothesis and Bohr’s hypothesis as to the internal structure of the atom. The former has had its opponents among chemists, although it has been generally accepted. One can understand the uneasy feeling of the chemist habituated to dealing with real things, when presented with formule which are only strictly valid for infinitely dilute solutions, and are apt to break down when the solution reaches the concentrations at which he is accustomed to work in the laboratory. The modern work on the hydration of ions has made it more possible to reconcile the theory with the facts, but at the expense of additional complications. Invaluable as the conception is to the physical chemist, therefore, I venture to think that it should be used sparingly in the elementary teaching of chemical reactions. [ have in view more particularly the teaching of analytical chemistry. A text-book of that subject, written entirely in the language of ions, is apt to lead the student to believe that the truth of the statements he is reading is bound up with that of the hypothesis, and to obscure the fact that the analytical reactions were firmly established by experiment without reference to any hypo- thesis, whilst they are carried out in solutions so concentrated that a strict application of the formule is practically impossible. This view may be somewhat heretical, but I submit it for the serious consideration of teachers, particularly of those who have to train professional analysts, in whom skill and accuracy are all-important. The development of the theory of atomic structure, due mainly to Bohr, has necessarily affected modern views of chemistry. The theory was devised to explain the phenomena of radiation, and later proved to accommodate itself in a wonderful manner to those of chemical union, making use for the purpose of Werner’s doctrine of co-ordination, another successful chemical theory which I have passed over in the foregoing sketch. In its new form it promises to do much to reduce to order the facts _ of inorganic chemistry, still so far behind the organic part of the science in the perfection of its logic. The static atom of Langmuir, now abandoned, played an important part in bridging over the gap between the planetary arrangement, chiefly suited to the explanation of spectra, and the present highly developed system. Whilst recognising the immense value of the new ideas, may I once more venture to utter a word of warning? The modern tudent, in these days of higher certificates and honours degrees, tends to ‘Specialise in his scientific studies at a very early stage, and, if introduced in detail to the new conceptions while still engaged in learning the elementary facts of chemistry, is likely to suppose that the facts depend on the theory, ‘instead of the opposite being true. In place of describing the facts deter- _ mined by analysis, a student in such a position will first give an account of the electronic arrangement of the atoms in question, and then proceed _ to deduce the formation of a compound, the existence of which had been _ proved a century or so ago. The danger may seem to be exaggerated, but it is nevertheless real. I would submit that the facts should be known to the student before he applies to them this interpretation, which may D2 30 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. prove so fascinating as to distract his attention from the experimental basis of the science. When we look at the enormous mass of chemical research which is published each year, filling a greater and greater space on our book- shelves, we may ask ourselves whether any progress comparable with that which I have been describing is perceptible. It will probably be admitted that the work is proceeding, for the most part, along well-worn paths, although sometimes with most striking results. The work on the structure of carbohydrates under Irvine on the organic side, and that of McBain and his collaborators on soaps in physical chemistry, may be mentioned as examples of the highest class of productive investigation now in pro- gress. On the theoretical side, chemistry would seem to have been marking time, contenting itself with waiting for discoveries in physics, which might then be applied. Quite recently, however, we have seen new explanations of the reactions of organic compounds, based on the ideas of polarity and of residual affinity. As we are to have a full discussion of this subject before the close of the meeting, in which we shall have the advantage of hearing the originators of the several hypotheses intended to co-ordinate the facts of organic reactivity describe their reasoning in their own language, T need not do more than welcome this new sign of activity in chemical thought. The doctrines have still to be submitted to the supreme test. The main service of the older hypotheses of atoms, of structure, &c., to which I have referred was not the co-ordination of existing knowledge, valuable as that was, but the prediction of new facts. All of them have passed that test triumphantly. New facts have been predicted, and the concordance of observation with prediction has been extraordinary. Confidence in an hypothesis grows with every successful prediction, until the mass of evidence in its favour proves overwhelming. Will history repeat itself in this respect ? It is to be hoped that it will do so. The interpretation of the reactions of the elements by means of the Bohr electronic groupings has been greatly assisted by the fact that those re- actions were already known, and it has been possible to develop the hypo- thesis by successive adaptations as more facts were considered, but the supreme test, that of predicting some entirely new range of phenomena, has still to be applied, and chemists will look eagerly for its success in due course. The same thing may be said of the theories of organic reactivity. Are they capable of opening up a new field of phenomena which would otherwise have remained unknown ? To this question also we shall await an answer. An unfortunate consequence of excessive and premature specialisation in the study of chemistry is the ignorance of many advanced students concerning the work of the great chemists of the past. When attention is mainly concentrated on the latest developments of some restricted branch of the science, the sense of historical perspective is lost, and too much weight is given to what may be only a perfection of detail. Faraday and his contemporaries are far too little known to our young graduates in chemistry. Some teachers of the subject adopt the admirable plan of giving an historical and biographical colouring to their teaching, so en- suring that their students understand something of the debt which the science of to-day owes to its great leaders of the past. The interest now being taken in the history of science generally, and the appearance of res. B.—CHEMISTRY. 37 useful little manuals of the history of chemistry in particular, are hopeful signs. Our universities still lack a synthetic view of science as a whole, and there is little appearance of the general adoption of a philosophy of science which would bring about unity, but, if I may venture to express an opinion on such a controversial point, itis that scientific study and research, with its inevitable increasing subdivision, will become less satisfactory as a mental discipline unless connected by a broad synthetic survey of science as a whole. The older metaphysics having proved a broken reed, men of science here and there are building up a working philosophy of their own, and it is permissible to hope that investigators and philosophers together may, in due course, succeed in the construction of a synthesis in which the several sciences will be placed in due relation to one another, so that the minute field in which each investigator has of necessity to work will appear to him, not as a completely isolated region, but as a part of a great whole, the general outlines of which will be comprehended by every scientific worker. I trust that these criticisms will not be thought impertinent in one whose work lies in a specialised branch of applied chemistry, that of the common metals and their alloys, and I may now pass to the proper subject of this address, the chemistry of the solid state. It is remarkable how little we know with any certainty about the chemical properties of solids, although the idea of a solid is so fundamental. At the present time we always begin the study of chemistry with the gases on account of the simplicity of their mathematical treatment, but it must be remembered that this simplicity is the result of long study and of many discoveries. To the unscientific mind the solid is simpler, because more tangible. When men have tried to understand gases, they have expressed themselves in terms of solids. The atom, however attenuated it may have become in recent years, was in the first instance essentially a solid sphere, and the elasticity of gases has been explained in terms of the collision of elastic solid particles in motion. Newton described the atoms as ‘solid, hard, impenetrable, movable particles . . . incomparably harder than any porous body compounded of them, even so very hard as never to wear or break in pieces,’ and this conception has been found useful in the course of the history of atomic and molecular theories, more so than the alternative view, associated with the name of Boscovich, which regarded the atoms as mathematical points or centres of force, a highly abstract idea, and one having no analogy in common experience. Our - conception of liquids has been based in the same way on the idea of moving particles, themselves thought of in terms of the solid state. And yet, of solids themselves, whilst our knowledge of their physical and mechanical _ properties is very extensive, our chemical information is of the most meagre kind. It was an old doctrine that chemical reactions could only proceed in the gaseous or liquid states, so that chemical action on a solid i was always preceded by the tearing off of atoms from the surface under the influence of electrical forces. That view can no longer be maintained. _ Chemical reactions can occur within or at the surface of a solid, but the experimental difficulties are sometimes such as to make the exact investigation of the subject a difficult matter. In the modern conception of a solid, the atoms are characterised by a regular arrangement in space, that arrangement being repeated so as to 38 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. build up a crystalline lattice. Crystals and aggregates of crystals are thus the only true solids, glasses being regarded as under-cooled liquids of high viscosity. Since the early beginnings of the geometry of crystals due to Haiiy, the study of their geometrical form has reached a remarkable state of perfection, all the possible lattices have been determined, and there is perfect agreement among crystallographers as to the classification of forms and the optical properties of different types of crystals. The X-ray method developed by Laue and by W. H. and W. L. Bragg has carried the matter an important stage further, by making it possible to determine, not only the class of a crystal, but the exact lattice possible to crystals belonging to that class. The connection between the chemical properties and the crystalline structure still remains indeterminate, although it must be very intimate. I shall revert to this point later. There are many reasons why the chemical study of solids should receive greater attention. In metallurgy, although metals and alloys may, and most frequently do, pass through a molten stage in the course of their manufacture, they may undergo many important changes of structure and constitution at temperatures far below that at which the last liquid portions have completely solidified, and these changes may be so far-reaching as to convert an alloy into one seemingly of an entirely different class, although the gross chemical composition has not altered. The petrologist, especially when dealing with igneous and metamorphic rocks, has to consider reactions which proceed in the midst of solids of high rigidity. Several industries, such as that of cement, are based on reactions of the same kind as those with which the petrologist has to deal. Sintering is not always due to the presence of small quantities of molten material between the solid particles, and it is now certain that union of solid masses under pressure may occur without actual melting. This was shown by Spring forty years ago, but for long, although frequently quoted, his results received little consideration. The most striking application of the principle is seen in the metallurgy of tungsten. This metal was formerly described as very hard and brittle, and it is not possible, by casting it and then annealing, to bring it to a ductile form. The method now adopted is to prepare it in the form of a pure powder, and then to bring it to a compact state by compressing, heating, and hammering while very hot, and finally drawing. As this process is continued, and as an originally thick rod becomes extended into a slender wire, the brittleness progressively disappears, and at last the tungsten is obtained in those beautiful filaments, drawn to extreme fineness, with which we are familiar in our electric light bulbs and wireless valves. Even several of the common metals, when their powders are compressed under suitable conditions at temperatures far below their melting points, are capable of forming compact masses with a mechanical strength of the same order as that of the cast metal. The conditions of these reactions, which have been studied by Sauerwald, suggest interesting questions for consideration. A somewhat similar, but perhaps more difficult, problem is that of the adhesion of an electrolytically deposited metal to its support, which is sometimes so perfect as to approach the breaking strength of one of the metals although interpenetration of crystals is not to be seen under the microscope.. There is another aspect of the chemistry of solids which will make an appeal to some who are not chemists, but amateur students of Nature. i‘ B.—CHEMISTRY. 39 The great beauty of natural crystals has attracted the attention of poets and artists as well as men of science. Much of this beauty depends on the varying habit of one and the same crystal species. Even with such a common mineral as quartz, it is possible on entering a mineral collection to point to some of the crystals exposed, and to name their locality, when once the form has become familiar, The same is true of other minerals. Why should there be this variation, when the chemical composition of the distinct varieties may be identical, so far as analysis is able to give - information? Again, the crystalline system will not account for the differences in the building up of individuals to form aggregates. Rock salt and cuprite crystallise in cubes, and the space lattice has a very similar form in the two minerals, but when the salt forms multiple growths, the cubes arrange themselves in characteristic stepped pyramids, whilst _ the red oxide of copper may form the most beautiful hair-like threads, a tissue of scarlet silk, as Ruskin calls it. Neither mineral ever assumes a form which is characteristic of the other, the simple cube being once departed from. Why should this be? It is known that the presence of traces of foreign matter may cause differences of habit, the most famous instance being that of the crystallisation of common salt in octahedra instead of cubes when 4 small quantity of urea is added to the solution, but the explanation of these facts is still imperfect. An important paper on this subject was published in the Annales des Mines as far back as 1818, by F. 5S. Beudant, who examined a large number of minerals and salts with the object of discovering the causes of variations of habit, concluding that the most important factor was the presence of foreign substances. This paper probably contains a larger mass of data than any later publication on the subject. Among recent workers, Gaubert has made an interesting study of the influence of impurities, especially of colouring matters, on habit. It was a problem which fascinated Ruskin, whose intimate knowledge of the forms of minerals, and keen desire to understand the reasons for their varying beauty, combined with a penetrating insight into natural phenomena, might have led him to discoveries of importance had he received greater help from his scientific friends. As it was, his chief contribution to the subject was his series of studies on agates and other banded formations, in which he anticipated some of the conclusions lately reached by Liesegang by entirely different methods, showing that the bands were produced by segregation from a gelatinous mass, and not, as had been supposed, and maintained until a few years ago, by the successive infiltration of fresh quantities of solution into a cavity. According to Curie, the appearance of a given face on a growing crystal depends on the ratio of its surface energy to that of other possible faces, but it has been found that such differences of surface energy as occur are much too small to account for the effect. The work of Johnsen and of Gross has shown that the appearance of a face on a crystal placed in a supersaturated solution is really determined by the velocity of growth in a direction normal to that face, those faces being produced which have a minimum velocity of growth. The presence of impurities undoubtedly has an influence on the velocity, although the effect of very small quantities of impurity has been little studied. Some light is thrown on the subject _ by a study of the growth of a crystal when solvent is completely excluded, 40 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. the substance used being sublimedina vacuum. This has been undertaken by Volmer, who finds that cadmium, zinc and mercury crystals grow in this way in a high vacuum. When small nuclei are present, those grow which have the face with the smallest velocity of growth perpendicular to the stream of impinging molecules. The differences between different faces are large, so that under these conditions either flat tables or long prisms are usually formed, according to the direction of the original nucleus. The crystal grows by the addition of thin laminz, probably only one molecule thick, which spread over the surface. This is likely to be the process when the crystal is growing in a solution or in a molten mass, as well asin the vapour ; and, in fact, when cadmium or tin is being deposited electrolytically at a cathode, or when lead iodide is being formed from a solution of a lead salt and an iodide, the growth of the crystal may be watched under the microscope, when a thin film begins to form at some point on a face, and extends over the face, maintaining a uniform thickness throughout. Marcellin had previously observed the same thing in p-toluidine, the layers not being more than two molecules thick, and probably only one. Marcellin also found that mica might be cleaved by Wood’s method of pressure against fused selenium, until the lamine had a thickness of one molecule. Moreover, there are indications that when molecules strike the surface of such a fresh crystal they first attach themselves irregularly in what is now called an adsorbed layer, before the film takes up regular orientation. It is realised that in the presence of a foreign substance either molecules or ions may attach themselves to such a surface by their residual affinity, and this will necessarily affect the addition of further layers of the original substance. In other words, the velocity of crystallisation in a direction normal to that face will be changed. As the residual affinity of different faces of a crystal must, from the ordinary conception of an atomic space lattice, be different, the habit of the crystal, that is the relative development of different faces, will be altered by the presence of a foreign substance. There is, in fact, evidence that dyes are not equally adsorbed by different faces of the same crystal, so that the state of things just imagined must exist. It is on these lines that an explanation of differences of habit must be sought. This possible effect of very minute quantities of impurities reminds us that we know exceedingly little of the properties of pure solids. Gases and liquids, which we commonly assume to be easily obtained in a pure state, have been shown, especially by Baker, to alter greatly in properties when deprived of their last traces of moisture, and this is true to some extent even of solids, Baker having found that specimens of sulphur and iodine had their melting points raised by 5.5° and 2° respectively when submitted to intensive drying for nine years. Another illustration may be taken from the effect of dissolved gases on metals. Most metals as cast contain very considerable quantities of gases, either in true solution or trapped during freezing by the growth of neighbouring crystals, and these gases are not removed completely in the later operations of forging or rolling. The effect of gases on the physical properties of the metal has been little studied, but that it may be great is shown by the instance of soft iron used for transformer cores. Hither commercially pure iron or the alloy of iron with silicon which is commonly used for this purpose is enormously improved in its magnetic properties by melting in a high B.—CHEMISTRY. 4] vacuum and extracting the dissolved gases as completely as possible The hysteresis loss is reduced to a quarter or less of its original value by this treatment. Pure iron so freed from gases is almost as soft as copper. The magnetic properties seem to be more profoundly altered than any others, but there is evidently a wide field here for investigation. Impurities other than gases may exert an influence out of all proportion to their quantity if concentrated in the boundaries between the crystal grains. When the added element is insoluble, or practically so, in the metal, the effect is obvious, as in the famous instance of gold to which 0.01 per cent. of bismuth has been added, the soft and ductile gold becoming excessively brittle, as shown by Roberts-Austen as a lecture experiment. Even when the two metals are miscible in the solid state it is quite possible that there may be a concentration of the impurity at the boundaries, if the addition be one which lowers the surface tension of the metal, it having been shown that surface tension plays an important part in the determination of those boundaries. Traces of oxide or sulphide are naturally rejected in freezing, and Tammann has found that when cadmium is dissolved in a solution of ammonium nitrate without the evolution of gas, a fine network of insoluble matter is left, representing the outlines of the crystal grains. Even if we imagine a metal so carefully purified that all these possibilities have been eliminated, it still does not follow that the mass is chemically homogeneous. There must be some change in the condition of the space lattice as the boundary is approached, and whether we suppose that this disturbance is limited to a layer a few atoms thick, or assume, as Brillouin and Rosenhain have done, that there exists an amorphous intercrystalline layer of appreciable thickness, one must conclude that there will be some chemical difference at the boundaries, and this is confirmed by the effect of etching reagents, which commonly indicate a difference in the rate of etching between the mass of a erysta’ grain and its boundary. Chemical reagents differ widely in this respect. Some brasses are readily brought into a state of brittleness, in which the crystal grains break away from one another under shock or alternating stresses, and it is usually possible to bring about the separation by contact with a suitable chemical reagent. It appears likely that failure in practice most often begins under the influence of chemical corrosion. The remark- able feature of this kind of failure is that it is only caused by a few chemical reagents, and that others will attack the metal generally without _ any selective action on the boundaries of the grains. Two reagents have in a striking degree this property of attacking the boundaries first— ammonia and the salts of mercury. The latter act with extraordinary rapidity, so that specimens of brass may be found which will disintegrate completely into a mass of loose grains, like sand, within a few seconds _ after immersion in a solution of mercurous nitrate. On the other hand, _ nitric acid or ferric chloride will attack the same brass uniformly, as if the condition of inter-crystalline brittleness were totally absent. When a face of a crystal is brought into contact with an etching reagent, such as water for rock salt, hydrofluoric acid for quartz, or cupric ammonium chloride for iron, the surface is not dissolved away evenly, leaving it smooth, but characteristic etching pits are produced, the sides of the pits being evidently crystal faces. This shows that chemical action proceeds more readily along certain planes of a crystal than along 42 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. others, a fact which we should expect from the general properties of the space lattice. It is not explained, however, why these etching pits should appear at first separate from one another, the intervening portions of the surface being unattacked. Minute particles of some impurity, causing local electrolytic differences, suggest themselves as a possible cause, but it is unlikely that they would be so evenly scattered in, for instance, a quartz crystal as to produce the regular distribution which is often observed. Minute inequalities of level, which may be of a periodic character, are more probable, and this suggestion is strengthened by the observation that a polished face of rock salt dissolves evenly in water, whilst a natural cleavage face shows etching pits. Lastly, another cause of want of homogeneity in solids is the presence of portions which have been deformed beyond their elastic limit. Such deformation alters the electrolytic potential of a metal, so that a couple is set up between the deformed and undeformed portions, even bringing about action in otherwise remarkably inactive iron of high purity used by Lambert in his experiments on corrosion. A true theory of corrosion will have to account for the formation of etching figures in apparently homo- geneous substances. It is now possible, when pursuing the study of solids, to eliminate one of the disturbing factors, the intercrystalline boundary, by making experi- ments with specimens composed of a single crystal. There are several ways of preparing single metallic crystals of such a size as to allow of the determination of their physical and mechanical properties. Carpenter and Elam have strained sheets of pure aluminium in tension, producing a small permanent elongation, and this sheet, after suitable annealing, shows such a remarkable increase of size of its crystal grains that frequently one occupies the whole specimen. Czochralski’s method is to dip a silica point into slightly undercooled molten metal, and then to raise it by clock- work at a rate which just keeps pace with the growth of the crystal, thus obtaming a thin cylindrical specimen. Davey has prepared large single crystals of copper by allowing the molten metal contained in a tube to freeze slowly from one end, whilst tungsten filaments of great length have been prepared by suitable thermal treatment during and after drawing. All these specimens have been studied, their great ductility being a characteristic feature. Even so brittle a metal as zinc has an extraordinary ductility in single crystals. The mechanism of deformation has been examined in detail by means of X-rays, aluminium having been studied by Taylor and Elam, zinc and tin by Polanyi and his colleagues, and tungsten _by Goucher. There is now a large body of evidence as to the directions of slip in a crystal during deformation, and this knowledge is essential to any understanding of the nature of cohesion, with which the chemical properties are no doubt closely connected. We may now turn to the subject of chemical reactions which take place in the interior of a solid, either originating at the surface or from nuclei which make a spontaneous appearance in the course of cooling below the melting point. A chemical change which has begun at some point in or at the surface of a homogeneous crystalline mass cannot advance unless the atoms are able in some way to change their places. Gross movements, represented in gases and liquids by convection currents, are out of the question, but the slower process of diffusion, by which atoms or molecules ee te i B.—CHEMISTRY. 43 ean make their way through the solid, must be possible. Only by assuming the reality of diffusion in solids can one explain the changes brought about in metallic alloys by heating and cooling, or the structure of minerals in igneous rocks. No very refined observations are necessary to establish the fact of diffusion, although quantitative measurements in this field are difficult. A large steel forging which has cooled slowly shows, when etched, triangular markings which recall the Widmanstatten figures seen in meteorites and are, in fact, of similar origin. From a solid solution in which carbon is unformly distributed throughout the crystals of iron, almost pure iron has separated in these characteristic bands, leaving the carbon concentrated in the remaining material which fills the meshes. For such a structure to be produced, some of the atoms of iron or carbon, or both, must have travelled through the crystalline steel over distances of the order of a millimetre in the course of some hours. Experiment shows that diffusion in solids, whilst naturally a slow process in comparison with diffu- sion in liquids, proceeds at quite measurable rates, the distribution of the invading atoms at different distances from their place of entrance following the familiar law, so that a coefficient of diffusion may be calculated from analytical results or from microscopical observations. The classical example of such measurements, and for many years the only one, is the study of the diffusion of gold in solid lead, undertaken by Roberts-Austen in 1896. It was then shown, and the figures have since been confirmed by a very accurate series of determinations by Van Orstrand and Dewey, that gold diffuses into solid lead at 200° at a rate which is 1/420 of that at which it diffuses into liquid lead at 550°. This is not the best pair of metals which could have been chosen, as lead and gold form compounds with one another, so that something more than mere physical diffusion is involved, but the choice was an obvious one, on account of the delicacy of the analytical methods of determining the distribution of gold in successive layers. Even at 100° the diffusion has a measurable value. A much simpler example is that of silver and gold, two metals which resemble one another closely in chemical character and in atomic volume, so that diffusion causes less change of properties than in any pair of less closely similar metals. The experimental results prove, as might have been anticipated, that diffusion is a much slower process when there is so little difference in chemical character. The value of the coefficient of diffusion varies with the condition of the experiment, a solid solution which contains much of the diffusing element offering a far greater resistance to diffusion than does the pure solvent metal. The same is true of other pairs of metals, and of the diffusion of carbon into iron, a process of the highest technical importance. When the two kinds of atoms are closely alike, the tendency to diffuse must be small, but it is certainly not zero. By making use of an ingenious device, Hevesy has been able to determine the coefficient of self-diffusion of liquid and solid lead. Two isotopes should not differ appreciably in their rates of diffusion, so that when the radioactive isotope thorium B is allowed to diffuse in ordinary lead the experiment is equivalent to selecting a certain number of lead atoms and attaching labels to them by which they may be identified in the course of their journey. In this way he found that the diffusion in liquid lead near to the melting point was of the order of that of salt in water, but that in the solid state it was very small. Further experiments, using a thin foil, proved that at 2° below the melting point dh SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. the rate was 1/10000 of that in molten lead. The same method has been used to determine the rate of diffusion of radioactive elements through gold, silver, and platinum. The matter is, however, by no means simple. On the one hand, inter-diffusion at the junction of two metals proceeds in both directions, although sometimes at very unequal rates. Dr. J. W. Jenkin, working in my laboratory, has been able to show that at 1000° copper diffuses into solid nickel about twenty times as fast as nickel into copper, the observed diffusion curve being the sum of two curves of similar type. A further complication arises from the fact that ordinary laboratory specimens of metal consist of an aggregate of crystalline individuals, the axes of which are directed at random, so that the whole mass is con- sidered for ordinary purposes as though it were isotropic. It is unlikely that foreign atoms can travel with equal ease in all directions in a crystal, and the observed diffusion will be an average value. Now that single crystals of many metals are available it is natural that experiments on diffusion in solids should have been made with them, and the results are rather surprising. Geiss and van Liempt found that neither molybdenum nor iron diffused into wires consisting of single crystals of tungsten, even when the temperature was near to the melting point of the more fusible metal, whilst mixed powders of the two metals became completely homogeneous on being heated for a few hours at the same temperature. In a similar way, Hevesy has found that his radioactive isotopes do not diffuse appreciably through a sheet consisting of a single crystal of lead. An explanation has been offered, based on the assumed existence of a layer of amorphous material between the crystalline grains. It is supposed that diffusion through the mass of the crystal does not occur, and in favour of this view Hevesy notes the fact that in different specimens of lead, varying in the size of their crystal grains, diffusion was much slower in that which had the largest grains, and therefore the smallest propor- tion of intercrystalline substance. On the other hand, microscopical observation of such pairs of diffusing metals as copper and nickel prove that the advance of the diffusing metal, as shown by the change of colour, proceeds through the whole mass, and not merely along the boundaries. Indeed, it is hard to see how any mass of metal could become homogeneous if diffusion were confined to inter-granular boundaries, as it is certain that the position of those boundaries may remain unchanged throughout the whole of the experiment. Hevesy finds that polonium, which is not isotopic with lead, diffuses through lead foil or through a single crystal of lead at the same rate, and suggests, as he has done regarding diffusion in solids in general, that the process is one of loosening of the space lattice, the invading atoms travelling through the progressively loosened patches. It remains to be seen whether the X-rays afford any support for this view. On the other hand, it may be suggested that much will depend on the particular crystal face selected for an experiment, as it is certain that if true diffusion through a crystal be possible—and I fail to see how such an assumption can be dispensed with—it must be much easier in the direction of certain crystalline planes than across them. This point calls for a systematic examination. When a liquid mixture of two substances which are miscible in the solid as well as in the molten condition, such as an alloy of copper and B.—CHEMISTRY. 45 _ nickel or a fused mass of albite and anorthite, begins to solidify, the - composition of the crystals has to adjust itself continuously in order to maintain equilibrium with the changing liquid phase, as was shown by Roozeboom in his classical work on solid solutions. Such an adjustment is only possible by means of diffusion, and when cooling is sufficiently slow, the adjustment does in fact keep pace with the change in the liquid, but with more rapid cooling the interior of each crystal differs in com- position from its outer layers, there being a concentration gradient from the centre to the boundary. This condition produces the ‘ cored ’ crystals which are familiar to every metallurgist, and the ‘ zoned’ crystals of the mineralogist. In most alloys this want of homogeneity disappears after a sufficiently long period of heating at some temperature below that of which the first drops of liquid are formed, but alloys of bismuth and antimony fail to become uniform even after weeks of annealing, whilst the felspars and similar minerals have never been persuaded to lose their zoned structure by any methods known in the laboratory. Bruni has shown and Vegard has confirmed the observation by the X-ray method, that true interdiffusion occurs between potassium and sodium chlorides when mixed and heated in the solid state. Electrolytic transport is observed in the solid halides of silver and in mixtures of silver and copper sulphides, but the modern view of the structure of such sub- stances represents them as built up of ions rather than of neutral atoms, and this must be taken into account in any interpretation of the facts. The apparent absence of diffusion in minerals which have once solidified, even when given geological periods of time, is a serious difficulty in the way of any general theory of diffusion. Such examples of the passage of alkali metals through quartz and other silicious minerals under the influence of a difference of electric potential are probably not instances of true diffusion at all, but merely of the passage of traces of impurities through a mass which is not completely impervious. We have always to bear in mind that crystals, whether of natural origin or prepared in the laboratory, are rarely perfect, and may contain cavities and capillary passages through which matter may pass without disturbing the crystalline lattice. This idea of the imperfection of crystals has found an interesting application in the work of A. A. Griffith on the rupture of solids and of such _ semi-solid substances as glass and fused silica. The tensile strength of metals and of these substances is far smaller than would be expected from calculations of the theoretical cohesion of the materials. Griffith supposes that actual solids and glasses contain innumerable fine cracks, which reduce the strength. By special means he has been able to prepare rods of glass and silica in an unstable state, in which their strength and elasticity are enormously greater than in their normal condition. It has even been suggested that means may be found for bringing our ordinary metals and structural materials into a similar condition, which would enable them to withstand loads several times greater than those which are normally possible, although the prospect of a sudden return to the : stable condition with its accompanying weakness may alarm the engineer. 7. However, the use of materials in an unstable condition is already _ familiar to metallurgists. Hardened steel is an instance. At high tem- peratures the structure of most of our steels is homogeneous, the carbon being in solid solution in the iron, which is then in the y-condition. As 46 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. the temperature falls, the iron changes into a modification which is stable at lower temperatures and loses its power of holding the carbon or carbide molecules (for the X-rays have so far failed to determine how the carbon atoms are grouped in the space lattice) in solution, so that separation occurs, and a-iron and cementite, Fe,C, crystallise from the mass, two solid phases now being present in place of one. The scale of the separation may vary greatly according to the time occupied by the process. No separation can occur without diffusion, and the transport of atoms or molecules through the solid mass takes an appreciable time, which is greater the lower the temperature, so that it is much less perfect when the steel is cooled rapidly than when ample time for diffusion is permitted. Consequently, the size of the molecular aggregates of cementite may vary from that of ultramicroscopic particles, so small and offering so large a surface to the action of chemical reagents that the mass is stained black or brown by acids, in which case the mixture is known as troostite, to the comparatively coarse, although still microscopic scale of the well- known laminated pearlite, in which the thin alternate sheets of ferrite and cementite, like the fine sheets in mother-of-pearl, can produce colours by the diffraction of light, whence the pearly appearance noticed by Sorby in the first exact scientific study of the microscopic structure of a metal. Now let the cooling be so rapid that a distinct separation into two phases, even on an ultramicroscopic scale, does not occur. The rearrange- ment of the iron atoms in their space lattice, in this instance from the face- centred cubic arrangement of the y-iron into the body-centred cubic arrangement of «-iron, still takes place, but the crystallisation of cementite as a separate phase is prevented. The result is that a new structure is obtained, known as martensite, in which the iron is, at least for the greater part, in the a-form, as is proved by its X-ray examination and by its magnetic properties, but in which the carbide is held, either in unstable solid solution in «-iron, in which it is normally insoluble, or as sheets of molecules parallel with the octahedral planes of the iron. Both views have their supporters, but I must profess a leaning towards the second. Whichever be correct, it is certain that this unstable condition is associated with great hardness and lack of plasticity, and it is necessarily present in fully hardened steels. Still more rapid cooling may suppress both the change in the lattice and the separation into phases, the solid solution which is stable at high temperatures being preserved during cooling, so that a part of the iron is still in the y-condition, and holds carbon atoms in a homogeneous fashion within its structure. As such a cooled solid solution is not hard, the steel is actually rendered less hard and brittle when the quenching is so severe than if it had been cooled somewhat less rapidly. The transformation of the iron, however, occurs with such ease that it is only when the proportion of carbon is rather large, or when some other metal is present, that this condition can be observed. It is the addition of foreign metals which has brought about the most remarkable changes in the properties of steels, out of which there has grown a new and important industry—that of the alloy steels. The presence of foreign elements in the original solid solution has a powerful influence on the rate of change in the system. As a general rule, the change from one lattice to another and the passage of a constituent, such as carbide, out of or into solution are greatly retarded by the presence of B.—CHEMISTRY. 47 alloying elements, a striking example being that of Hadfield’s manganese steel, containing about 12 per cent. of the added metal, the effect of which is to delay the change to such an extent that with fairly rapid cooling the solid solution is perfectly preserved so that the steel is relatively soft, its chief peculiarity lying in the fact that any deformation brings about a partial change, producing the hard martensitic structure wherever there is flow. This is the reason for the extraordinary resistance of the alloy to abrasion, and for other properties which, being mechanical, lie outside the scope of the present discussion. Only a comparatively small number of metals will produce useful alloy steels. Those metals include, first, the immediate neighbours of iron, namely, cobalt and nickel, which resemble it so closely in most of their properties, and next the A members of the groups VI and VII of the periodic classification, chromium, molybdenum, tungsten and manganese. The next horizontal neighbour of nickel is copper, but it has only a very limited value as a constituent of steel, and its related elements are appar- ently of no use for this purpose. Uranium, the heaviest metal of the chromium group, does not alloy readily with iron, and the claims which have been made for its beneficial influence have not been confirmed. A small group of non-metals, all near neighbours of carbon, can enter into the composition of steels, namely boron, silicon, nitrogen and phosphorus, all of which have their uses in this connection. . Between the two groups lies the metal vanadium, which is very valuable when added in small quantities to steels. It would be of interest to study the two homologues of manganese, the metals having the atomic numbers 43 and 75, the discovery of which has been claimed quite recently, from this point of view if they should ever be found in sufficient abundance. The com- panions of the ferrous metals in group VIII, the platinum metals, do not appear to form alloy steels of any importance. An alloying element, a B C N O F Li Al Si P s Cl Na Wal V Cr Ma Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Zr Nb | Mo Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd Hf Ta W Os Ir Pt Au Hg ie} S tg S) q to be of value, must be able to enter into solid solution in y- or a-iron or both, or to form a carbide which can do so. By varying the composition of alloy steels, and by subjecting them to different thermal treatments, a wide range of properties may be obtained, and the number of possible components being so large, it is clear that a very extensive field is offered for investigation. As a rule, only those alloys which lie within certain limits of composition have practical value, but dogmatism on this point is undesirable, and new and unexpected properties may be discovered 48 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. in a series of alloys when carefully investigated—witness the remarkable discovery of Permalloy, containing 78.5 per cent. of nickel, the remainder being iron, the extraordinarily high magnetic permeability of which in low fields was quite unforeseen and has proved of the utmost value to the manufacturer of cables. The rule given above as to the position of usefu! alloying elements in the periodic classification holds good, however, and the claims so frequently made for the virtues of some of the rare elements as additions to steel almost invariably prove to be baseless. Other metals than those mentioned may be of some use in the process of manufacture by serving to remove oxygen or. some other undesirable impurity, but this is not alloying, the substance used as a ‘ scavenger’ disappearing from the metal in the process and being removed in the slag. Of metallic alloys other than steel, the number of possible combina- tions is so large that only a minute fraction has been investigated. So far there is no rule by which we can mark out, in the neighbourhood of each metal in the periodic classification, a region within which useful alloying constituents may be found, but it is probable that further work will indicate such a possibility. The modification in the properties of a metal brought about by alloying depends largely on the formation of solid solutions, and when these vary in concentration with change of temperature, that is, when one or other constituent partly separates from solution on lowering, or sometimes on raising, the temperature, there is a possibility of changing the properties of the alloy by suitable thermal treatment. To a large extent this possibility has been neglected in respect of non- ferrous alloys, but experience with the light alloys of aluminium has shown how important such effects may be. Duralumin, which is composed of aluminium alloyed with copper and magnesium, was first found to vary in mechanical properties when its thermal treatment was altered, and its behaviour, which is shared by some other alloys of aluminium, has been explained on the basis of observations made chiefly at the National Physical Laboratory and at the U.S. Bureau of Standards. It appears that certain of the constituents of these alloys, especially magnesium silicide, Mg,Si, and the compound CuAl,, are more soluble in the solid metal at high temperatures than at low, and that their state of aggregation in the cold alloy depends on the rate of cooling. When first separated from solution, these compounds are dispersed in a condition of ultramicroscopic fineness, but when sufficient time is allowed, diffusion enables them to form larger and larger particles, there being a certain degree of dispersion which is associated with the best mechanical properties. In light alloys, as in steel, the degree of dispersion of one of the solid phases throughout another plays a great part in determining the properties of the composite mass. In this respect alloys resemble colloidal systems, and analogies may be found between the two, but nothing is gained by representing metallography as a branch of the chemistry of colloids, and certainly nothing by the restatement of familiar metallographic facts in terms of the formidable nomenclature with which that important branch of chemistry has been saddled by some of its enthusiastic advocates. Metallographic structure is essentially a matter of the distribution of solid phases in a system, and the scale of subdivision of one of the phases, although of immense practical importance, is not a factor which alters the fundamental character of the relation between components and phases. B.—CHEMISTRY. 49 The theoretical part of metallography by means of which we interpret the thermal and microscopical observations of the laboratory is based on the doctrine of phases of Willard Gibbs. The purely thermo-dynamical treatment is, however, too abstract, and it is the simple temperature- concentration diagram which is invariably used to represent equilibria in alloys, igneous rocks, or such artificial mixtures as cements. Only rarely is it necessary to appeal to the formal statement of the phase rule, most of the systems being simple enough for the number of possible phases at a given temperature to be obvious on inspection, whilst the vapour phase may usually be neglected. Systems of three components are represented by a three-dimensional model on a triangular base or by sections through the model, or by projections on to its base. For four components, the tetrahedral model is used, mainly in the form of sections, whilst for systems of greater complexity several devices have been proposed, but the study of alloys and mineral mixtures has scarcely progressed so far as to have made any serious demand for them. In time to come, both the metallurgist and the petrologist will need a means of representing such complex examples, but that stage will be reached by gradual steps. Allotropy of the dynamic kind represents difficulties, but it is not yet certain that the rather abstruse treatment adopted by Smits is necessary to its study, although evidence is accumulating that two allotropic forms may co- exist over a range of temperature within a solid, equilibrium only being attained with great difficulty. The metallurgist and the chemist interested in cements or other silicate mixtures has continually to bear in mind that he is dealing with systems which are not easily brought into equilibrium, and that for many practical purposes they are deliberately used in an unstable condition, persisting on account of the great resistance to move- ment within a solid, to which I have already referred. The equilibrium diagram serves as a guide, even to metastable systems, if the diagram be used to indicate the phases which may be expected to appear when under- cooling occurs, and due use is made of the knowledge of undercooling which we owe to Miers and to Tammann. This is a most interesting branch of metallography, the theory of which is in course of development. Bowen, of the Geophysical Laboratory at Washington, has proposed another manner of studying the order of crystallisation im the liquid and solid states in mixtures of high viscosity, such as igneous rock magmas, and it is on the wonderful experimental work of that institution that the modern study of silicates on lines similar to those which have served so well in metallography is based. Bowen’s reaction principle has to be reconciled _ with the theory of undercooling worked out for salts by Miers and for glassy materials by Tammann, and applied with success to steels by Hallimond. Metastable or labile conditions may persist indefinitely when the viscosity of the system is great enough, hardened steels and prehistoric bronzes having undergone no perceptible change in structure in the course of centuries, although Barus and others have shown that a secular change in the electrical resistance may be detected in steels, indicating a very small amount of reversion to the stable condition. Chemical reactions in the midst of a solid may be prevented from ‘reaching equilibrium by the formation of a layer of the solid product _between two reacting substances. When a layer of this kind has been formed, further reaction is only possible by diffusion of atoms through it, 1925 . 50 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. and it will evidently depend on the closeness of packing of the molecules in that layer whether diffusion is easy or difficult. As a rule, it is probably more difficult than in the original solid, and we therefore find on micro- scopical examination that crystals of the two reacting substances, whether pure metals, solid solutions, or intermetallic compounds, are separated by a zone consisting of the product of reaction, which may be very persistent, although its breadth gradually diminishes on annealing. This effect is well seen, for instance, in alloys of copper with antimony. An interesting class of reactions is that which includes the de- composition of a crystalline solid, one of the products escaping in the form of a gas whilst the other remains solid. From the nature of the curves connecting decomposition and time Hiittig and others have concluded that the escaping molecules must be able to traverse the crystal freely without serious dislocation, but this view is not confirmed by examination by means of X-rays or in any other independent manner. On the other hand, Hinshelwood has examined a number of such reactions in detail, giving special attention to the physical condition of the crystals before and after decomposition, and his experiments are not only of a higher order of accuracy but they include a study of the physical conditions of the reaction. The decomposition of the permanganates by heat has been found to be a convenient one for this purpose, since it proceeds at a moderate temperature, and the reaction is undoubtedly monomolecular. The initial rate of decomposition of silver and potassium permanganates is greatest when the solid is finely powdered, but when crystals of appreciable size are used the decomposition proceeds at an accelerated rate, as the crystals become disintegrated. The results prove that the reaction is confined to the surface, and that it can only proceed inwards as the texture is loosened, so that diffusion does not play a part in the process, at least when the temperature is such that the decomposition is nearly complete in an hour or two. When solid solutions of potassium permanganate in potassium perchlorate are used, the latter salt being stable under the conditions of the experiment, the rate of decomposition is lessened, the observed effect corresponding closely with that which is calculated from the heat of forma- tion of the solid solution, a quantity which has been directly determined. Some similar decompositions are more complex owing to the catalytic effect of one or other of the products of reaction. The hindering effect of a solid coating, already referred to in connection with reactions in the interior of metallic alloys, is seen in the decomposition of ammonium dichromate by heat, large crystals becoming coated with an adherent layer of chromium oxide, which retards further decomposition. Very recently Kurnakoff has studied the gradual change in the state of oxidation and hydration of vivianite, an hydrated ferrous phosphate. When first produced, these crystals are colourless, but they become blue as oxygen is absorbed, a part of the iron passing into the ferric state. Moreover, the degree of hydration may vary as water is taken up from without. During these changes it is stated that the structure of the mineral remains unaltered and the crystals remain homogeneous, the optical properties varying continuously, but it does not appear from the abstract that any X-ray examination has been made. Such behaviour recalls that of the zeolites, the structure of which is probably loose. It is unlikely that any closely packed crystal could behave in this way. ~~. B.—CHEMISTRY. Bl ; ‘ A new field of investigation has been opened up by Tammann in his attempts to determine the arrangement of the atoms in solid solutions by purely chemical means, by studying the action of chemical reagents on the solid. It is a familiar fact that the ‘ parting’ of silver and gold in assaying, which consists in dissolving out the silver from the alloy by means of nitric or sulphuric acid, is only possible when the silver forms more than 60 per cent. of the alloy. When gold is present in excess of this proportion, only a little silver is removed from the surface, and the action then comes to a standstill, the acid being unable to penetrate to the interior. Assuming the alloy to be completely crystalline, the atoms of silver and gold will occupy the points of the space lattice, and as the two metals have face-centred lattices of only slightly differing dimensions, the amount of distortion will be small. There are, however, different ways of arranging the two kinds of atoms. They may be distributed at random, or they may be so regularly arranged as to form two inter- penetrating cubic lattices. The two forms of distribution may be dis- tinguished by means of the X-rays, but Tammann has also drawn conclusions on the point from the action of various reagents on the alloys. | He finds that each reagent which attacks silver ceases to act on the alloys when the proportion of gold atoms in solution exceeds a certain limit, which is not the same for different reagents, but which he states to be always capable of being expressed as 1/8, 2/8, 3/8, &c., of the total number of atoms. The limits so found are not consistent with the distribution according to the laws of probability, but they may be accounted for by a regular distribution on the assumption that a certain number of inactive atoms is necessary to protect each atom of silver. The varying action of different reagents depends on the number of silver atoms which react with each molecule of the reagent. Thus, nitric acid attacks single atoms of silver, solutions of sulphides need two silver atoms, whilst osmium tetrachloride requires four. On the basis of these results, an ingenious theory of the action of reagents on solid solutions has been constructed, _ and although the accuracy of the experimentally determined limits is not __ high, and there are several exceptions to the rules, an interesting case has _ been made out. Similar limits are found in the precipitating action of alloys on salts of less electropositive metals, and in the electrolytic potential of alloys. Considerations of this kind point to the possibility of a new form of isomerism among solids, due to the differing arrangements of the same atoms on a space lattice. It is claimed that such instances have been found. Alloys prepared by the simultaneous electrolytic decomposition of two metals have different chemical properties and different potentials from the alloys of the same composition prepared by fusion, the former indicating a random distribution of the two species of atoms in the lattice, and the latter an ordered one. Annealing of the first causes the structure to pass over into the stable, regular arrangement. Other properties may also be used as a test. Crystals of sodium chloride containing a small aon (0-064 mol.) of silver chloride, when prepared from solution, _ teadily become purple in light, whilst crystals of the same composition ‘prepared by fusion are permanent for months. It is, however, quite _ possible that the former are not closely packed, and most of the facts cited by Tammann are capable of other explanations, but the hypothesis is E2 52 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. highly suggestive in regard to the study of solid solutions by chemical means. In all such work it is important to remember that the size of the crystals, the possibility of the material having been cold worked previously to testing, and other physical and mechanical factors must be taken into account. The properties of single crystals in this connection are unknown, and the preparation of single crystals of solid solutions is much more difficult than that of pure metals, so that further work will be required before any definite opinion can be given as to the validity of Tammann’s conclusions. As a consequence of the early studies of crystals by means of X-rays, some metallurgists were at first disposed to accept the conclusion that the chemical molecule ceased to exist in the solid state. This generalisation, which was instinctively felt by chemists to be improbable, was premature. Crystals of elements are clearly so constructed that all atoms are similarly related to one another, and there is then no group intermediate between the atom and the whole crystal, whilst crystalline salts are best regarded as built up of ions, every chlorine atom in rock salt being equally related ‘to six sodium atoms and so forth, but these conditions do not exhaust the possibilities. Organic compounds undoubtedly retain the chemical molecule, or some simple multiple of it, in the solid state, and the same is true of the very interesting class of compounds which metals form with one another. These are of a non-polar character, and hence have long puzzled chemists on account of their utter disregard of valency. Such a compound as NaHg, melts at 360°, or more than 260° above its less fusible component, and is largely undissociated in the molten con- dition. It evidently represents a very stable union of the sodium and mercury atoms, and it has many analogues. The intermetallic compounds have several features of interest. Their space lattice arrangement has been studied in a number of instances, but the correlation of their chemical properties with their atomic and crystalline structure still remains to be undertaken. If our knowledge of the chemical properties of the interior of a crystal be very incomplete, what are we to say of its surface? Of this we know still less. ven in a crystal of a pure metal there must be some difference in the structure at the immediate surface, on account of the unsymmetrical forces between the atoms in the outermost layer and its neighbours. For so far as the radius of sensible atomic forces extends, therefore, there must be a condition different from that which prevails at a depth below the surface. One consequence is that the surface has residual affinity, which shows itself in the ease with which foreign atoms or ions will attach them- selves to it. That the forces acting are chemical is shown by the great effect on the extent of adsorption of the chemical character of the solid and of the adsorbed substance. Films, often one atom thick, attach themselves to the solid, and are only removed with the greatest difficulty. Their presence makes the investigation of the properties of a surface difficult, as the surface actually examined may be in reality quite different from that which is assumed to be present. In photochemical experiments with mercury it is usual to prepare a completely fresh surface of the liquid metal by causing it to flow continuously in a fountain, but this device cannot be applied to solids. Only rarely can experiments be made with perfectly defined solid surfaces. Films of metal prepared by sublimation B.—CHEMISTRY. 538 or sputtering in a vacuum are probably the most under control, but other surfaces are commonly covered by invisible films. Little trust is to be put in determinations of the angle of contact of liquids with solids, a property of great theoretical and practical importance, since the solid surface actually examined is covered with a film of foreign atoms. Schumacher has recently shown that mercury wets glass and silica more and more readily as care is taken to remove films from them, and the property of not being wetted by mercury is probably not one of glass and silica, but of those substances coated with a film of gas. Metals most readily take up atoms of oxygen or other elements, forming persistent films, which play an important part in the phenomena of resistance to corrosion. Purely physical theories of passivity are not satisfactory, and it seems to be impossible to explain that property without assuming the presence on the surface of an invisible film, which is probably responsible for, among other things, the high resistance of certain chromium steels and other alloys to corrosion. There is one way of preparing a fresh surface of a crystalline solid for examination, and that is by cleavage. A freshly cleaved plate of a mineral may be supposed to be clean at the moment of its formation, although it will rapidly take up foreign atoms from the surrounding gas. It was known as far back as 1846 that a fresh cleavage of mica had different properties from one which had been exposed to the air for a time, and this was attributed by P. Reiss to the absorption of moisture. Tammann has made the interesting observation that a fresh surface of mica is more soluble in water than an older one. Washing with water immediately after cleaving extracts a quantity of alkali salts which is much above the normal solubility of mica, and later washings extract only the normal quantity. Itis suggested that the separation of the flakes of mica exposes the alkaline part of the molecules, which would be more readily attacked by water than the silicious part. Assuming that molecules are arranged perpendicularly to the cleavage planes, we may think of the act of cleaving as exposing the soluble ends, as if the molecules of mica were an array of hermit crabs with their soft unprotected ends exposed to attack. It will be interesting to see whether the X-ray examination of mica confirms this arrangement. Again, however, a word of warning as to the effect of possible impurities must be uttered. Natural minerals are not pure, and any uncombined alkaline salts present might well segregate along cleavage planes in the process of crystallisation, and so give rise to the effect noticed above, but the figures recorded by Tammann are striking and suggestive. In this hurried review of a large field it may seem that I have presented rather our ignorance than our knowledge, my intention having been to show how much remains to be done before we can understand the chemical relations of solids as we do those of liquids and gases. One department of research is, however, more advanced than might have been supposed from my brief references to it. That is the study of the internal changes in metallic alloys as revealed by the microscope and by thermal and electrical methods. Metallography has made wonderful progress since the days of Sorby, and it would repay students of physical chemistry to _ give some attention to its main results, even though they may not intend to make a special study of the subject. Nowhere are the benefits of the doctrine of phases of Willard Gibbs to be more clearly traced, whilst the 54 - SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. recognition of every change of phase by microscopical examination, making use of a technique which has been brought to a high state of perfection, gives concrete reality to the study by direct verification of its conclusions. To understand more thoroughly the mechanism of these changes in alloys and to extend its application to salts, minerals and rocks, we need a fuller knowledge of the relation between crystal structure and chemical behaviour. Research on the mechanical side is discovering the direction of planes of slip in the atomic space lattice under stress, and it remains to determine the corresponding planes of greatest and least chemical activity towards a given reagent. Next follows the still unsolved query as to the nature of the intercrystalline boundary, and the solution of these two problems will make it possible to define exactly the chemical character of a given aggregate of crystals. The results will be of extreme interest for the study of metallurgy, of mineralogy, and of petrology, besides filling a serious gap in chemistry, serious because of the extent to which solids compose the world around us, and of the part which they play in our daily life. SECTION C—GEOLOGY. CULTURAL ASPECTS IN GEOLOGY. ADDRESS BY Proressor W. A. PARKS, Pu.D., F.R.S.C., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. Introduction. In using the word ‘cultural’ in the title of this address I have been unfortunate, perhaps, in the choice of a term. Face to face with the necessity of a definition, I find myself somewhat at a loss, and must beg the privilege of using the expression with my own conception of its application. Culture is closely allied to education, but the two terms are not synony- mous: a highly educated man is not necessarily cultured, and the lack of culture may be conspicuous if the education is narrow in its scope. In my definition of culture, therefore, I would include, in the first place, a wide foundation and a breadth of view. Culture differs from education, also, in that it refers more to the emotional and spiritual and less to the practical and material. Music and the fine arts are essentially cultural ; philosophy and literature, for the most part, fall within the meaning of the term. Culture is all that tends to uplift the spirit, to induce con- templation, to direct the thoughts to the mysteries of time and of life, to awaken an appreciation of beauty, and to inspire the soul. The study of the material science is so largely a marshalling of facts, often with a utilitarian end in view, that the cultural aspect is somewhat obscured. Nevertheless, culture in its highest form appears in the grand generalisations and deductions of the scientist. Whether he deals with the microcosm or with the macrocosm he touches the infinite, and culture is within his grasp. Whether he seizes it or allows it to pass him by depends more on his own mental attitude than on the nature of his subject. The science of geology is wide in scope and general in application ; it deals with matter and with life, with time and with space ; it touches the philosophical and borders on the romantic ; majesty and beauty are its essentials, and imagination is necessary for its pursuit. The cultural ~ value of such a science is not to be despised. Whether the geologist him- _ self attains culture or remains immersed in his sea of mere facts depends on his own attitude. In any event the gems of his collection will pass before other eyes better able to appreciate their value and to rejoice in their magnificence. It is my purpose, in this address, to direct your attention to well-known _ features of our science. I shall attempt to introduce no new facts, and I beg _ that you will consider my remarks merely as an attempt to lay emphasis on a selected few of the many great lessons of geology. 56 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. While observation and experiment constitute the only firm foundation for the geological edifice, so many facts have been pigeon-holed that, perhaps, the time has come to empty the holes and take stock. I believe that the result would be below our expectation in so far as grand general- isations are concerned. Perhaps the time has come when a modified return to ‘armchair’ philosophy would be excusable. I shall venture a little indulgence in this respect, and must plead the nature of my subject as the excuse. The History and Scope of Geology. The earliest geology, doubtless, was purely economic. Primitive man learned the nature of flints and the localities of their occurrence; he acquired a knowledge of land forms and experienced the effects of the forces of Nature. His object was utilitarian and his geology unconscious. With the Egyptians began definite geological observation and philosophical deduction, and ‘ theories of the earth ’ engaged the attention of the Greek philosophers. Contemporaneously the exploitation of metallic ores must have added continually tothe stores of economic knowledge, a phase of the subject more particularly cultivated under the commercialism of Rome. Passing through the slough of the Middle Ages, we have, even in the fantastic conceptions of the cosmogonists, a glimmer of cultural geology, and in the revived interest in fossils we see the dawn of modern inquiry into the organic history of the earth. The science of geology as now understood dates from about 1800. The name was suggested by De Luc (1788), but De Saussure (1789) was the first to use the term without apology. It is interesting to note that Werner makes ‘ geognosy ’ the general term, and restricts “ geology ’ to theoretical discussions as to the origin and history of the earth. It would appear, therefore, that the science of geology was dual, if not multiple, at its inception. It embraced at least two aspects which have remained somewhat divergent, yet intimately related, to the present day —historical and philosophical geology on the one hand and economic geology on the other. Cultural geology, as I have attempted to define it, is not confined to either branch, but is inherent in both and may be revealed by an approach in the proper frame of mind. Geology is the most comprehensive of sciences : literally it embraces all subjects that have to do with the earth. In the narrower sense, it does not include all the other material sciences, but it requires them all for the solution of its problems. The line of separation between chemistry and physics has practically disappeared. Botany and zoology are so closely related, that a single term ‘biology ’ has been coined to.include them both. These two groups of sciences have a connexion so intimate, that such expressions as ‘ bio- chemistry ’ and ‘ biophysics’ have arisen. The unity of the sciences is established ; geology is the application of this unity to the problems of the earth. The term ‘ paleontology ’ stands in evidence, and the intro- duction of ‘ geophysics’ and ‘ geochemistry’ indicates the application of the fundamental sciences in the study of the structure and history of the globe. There is, however, one aspect of geology in which it is the leader and not the follower of the so-called fundamental sciences. Geology is history C.—GEOLOGY. at as well as applied science ; herein lies its great contribution to the other _ seiences—the introduction of the time concept, the law of progressive development, and the great fundamental of eternal change. This influence is to be observed on all sides. Where is now the text-book of botany without Sigillaria, or of zoology without trilobites ? The chemico-physicist is casting his thoughts back to a universe of hydrogen, and tracing through time the aggregation of protons and electrons into elements, and of ele- ments into compounds. He has become conversant with time terms, and writes of the relative radioactivity of Precambrian granite and Miocene basalt. The general tenor of text-books of geology, also, is undergoing a change. Rocks and formations are no longer considered as mere structures with their time significance in the background ; they are recognised as pages of history, as chronicles of events. We speak less of a succession of strata and more of a sequence of occurrences in time. Modern text-books are replete with diastrophisms and migrations, with disturbances and destructions, with rejuvenations and reconstructions. Historical geology is becoming more and more in accord with its name. I interpret this to mean that the cultural side of the subject is receiving a fuller recognition. The Duty of Man and the Law of Tendency to the Complex. To account for the existence of the human race and to determine the purpose, if there be a purpose, for its existence is probably the greatest and most fundamental problem with which humanity is confronted. An answer to this question would form the basis of an infallible system of philosophy and would be a sure guide to our conduct individually and collectively. An answer is not yet forthcoming, but it is interesting (and cultural) to inquire if the science of geology can throw any light on a problem so stupendous. In the first place, it is to be noted that the earth is very old ; its age is _ to be reckoned, not in millions, but in hundreds of millions, even in billions, _ of years. In the second place, living creatures have inhabited the globe, not from the beginning, but from the earliest period of which we have a definite record. Does not the inconceivably long duration of the earth itself and of life constitute a guarantee of a similar extension into the future ? This assumption may not be in accord with rigid logic, but it falls within the scope of high probability. Further, geological history shows conclusively that some force or tendency has acted on the life principle to the production of higher and higher forms culminating in man. It does not matter for the present how or why the successively higher forms appeared ; it is enough to know that they did appear and that life has not only endured for hundreds of millions of years but that it has shown a trend in the same general direction throughout all time. ‘Is there any reason to assume that this long-enduring gradient should change its direction ? I confidently believe that geological history teaches us that the earth, and life, and the upward tendency of life will all three reach out into the illimitable future. The tendency towards the more complex (higher) seems to be a feature, not only of the organic, but also of the inorganic world. We postulate _ the existence, an eternity ago, of a universe of hydrogen. We believe that hydrogen gave rise to other elements more and more complex, and : 4 58 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. that the elements entered into compounds more and more complicated. It has been beautifully stated that we are now in an eternity which will end in the attainment of maximum complexity, to be followed by another eternity in which the reverse process will maintain, and thus throughout the grand eternity of all time. The tendency to the complex must be accepted as a fundamental fact; when it began we know not and when it will end is beyond con- jecture ; that it is a valid generalisation from observed fact cannot be doubted. Iam forced to the conclusion that whatever tends to facilitate the working of this tendency is in accord with a cosmical fundamental, and is consequently right. In the lower orders of life the tendency to the complex has acted throughout all the ages without the conscious volition of the individual. With the advent of the higher nervous complex that we call ‘ reason’ a new factor entered the field, a factor so important that many geologists now favour the establishment of a separate era, the Psychozoic, for the age of man. Undoubtedly the rise of mentality in the Pleistocene must be regarded as a geological event of profound importance. From the evolutionary point of view it may mark an event of comparable significance, in that it may be interpreted as a great saltation of the mental attributes without a corresponding physical development. The general tendency to the complex is not interrupted, but its manifestation is less material and more spiritual. It is a reasonable assumption that future evolution will be mental rather than physical, and that the long-continued upward gradient of complexity will not turn in its course. I venture to state that the greatest lesson in geology is the tendency to the complex ; if there be a purpose behind all things, the working-out of that purpose is herein revealed. It follows, therefore, that man can best fit into the scheme of things by facilitating the operation of a principle which has endured through all time, and which is to be regarded in the light of a revelation. The duty of man, if these premises be correct, is to so direct his efforts that his mental capacity may be strengthened and that a slightly better equipment may be transmitted to his offspring. The trend in the direction of greater complexity is a generalisation from observed fact. That it is a Jaw in the sense of being a necessary accompaniment of life is not established. An ameeba of to-day is probably no more complex than an ameeba of the Cambrian. Life can continue throughout countless generations without greater complexity developing ; complexity may or may not be superimposed on any particular line of development. For the sake of convenience, however, I propose to speak of the principle as the law of tendency to the complex, and to emphasise it as the most important principle underlying the geological aspect of the doctrine of evolution. I would emphasise, also, the fact that all races of creatures and all individuals of a race do not evolve to higher forms. Similarly, it is not to be expected that all men are destined to give rise to higher types under the action of a beneficent, all-pervading principle. The development of mentality in the human race has introduced new factors; perhaps it would be better to say it has strongly accentuated certain old factors. By reason of his superior mental equipment, man has acquired a degree of dominance never attained by any earlier race. Surely, C.— GEOLOGY. 59 his reason should temper his power, and he should realise the enormous responsibility that has fallen into his hands. Among the lower races the struggle for existence goes on, and the weaker is dispossessed by the stronger; the individual, however, profits but little from the activities of his fellows (with exceptions). With man the case is entirely different ; the community, the nation, the race, all benefit, perforce, through the exertions of a few individuals. In doing honour to the great investigators and discoverers, let us not forget that they have not only conferred on us great material advantages, but they have helped us onward on the great road of increasing complexity. Evolution. The literature of this subject has so expanded, and nicety of definition has received so much attention, that one is almost afraid to use the word ‘evolution’. Perhaps it would be better to follow Joseph, and say ‘ the modification of species through descent’, and leave to biologists and psychologists the hair-splitting as to the meaning of evolution, emergence, development, &c. To the geologist the fact of organic descent is of prime importance, and in the geological evidence lies the chief foundation of evolution, define it as you may. This doctrine has passed beyond the realm of the scientist and has profoundly affected human thought in general ; it may be regarded, there- fore, as well within the scope of this address. I have no intention of writing an essay on the subject, but I wish to take advantage of the opportunity to emphasise certain aspects that have appealed to me as fundamental. I would remind you, also, that the geological aspect of evolution is admir- ably presented in the Presidential Address of Dr. F. A. Bather, read at the Cardiff meeting in 1920. Geological investigation has established, beyond all doubt, the basic facts that life has changed during the course of the ages, that this change has been uniform in direction over the whole globe, and that the general tendency has been towards greater complexity both in physical structure and in mental equipment. It has been established, further, that in certain instances, sequences are found indicating the gradual passage of one species into another. This observation is not necessarily a proof of descent, but it is a strong argument in its favour. Life appeared on the globe in Precambrian time ; of its inception we shall probably never be able to obtain direct evidence. In course of time, however, recognisable protoplasmic units appeared—unicellular creatures neither plant nor animal. The second great event in life history occurred somewhat later in the Precambrian—the separation of the parent stem into ancestral plants and ancestral animals. Here I would like to emphasise the fact that the difference between plants and animals lies, not only in the different nature of the metabolism, but in the possession _ by the latter of a sensibility or mental equipment so vastly superior, that we are accustomed to think of it as absent in the vegetable world. In order to simplify our inquiry, let us confine the question to the animal ‘stem, and let us imagine the primitive creature to be a generalised proto- zoan, as sooner or later it was. Within the Precambrian occurred a third great organic event of tremendous significance—the Protozoa gave rise to the Metazoa. Having accomplished this feat, the ancestral Protozoa 60 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. continued to reproduce their own kind. Despite differentiation, the making of genera and species, of offshoots that lived and offshoots that failed, the Protozoa during more than 500,000,000 years have never given rise to anything but unicellular offspring. The conclusion is obvious, that in the Precambrian occurred a marvellous event due to certain conditions which have never since been duplicated. Similarly the primitive ccelenterate, presumably a sponge, gave rise to ancestral Cnidaria still within the Precambrian. Never since has the sponge given parentage to anything but the sponge, but the phylum has continued to exist and to differentiate within seemingly fixed bounds. Before the close of the Precambrian all the phyla of Invertebrata arose successively in this manner. Possibly we may include the vertebrates, although they have not yet been found so far back in time. These are well- known principles, trivial perhaps to an audience such as this, but re- iterated here because J think that they are not always given their true value. I would emphasise—the origin of phyla as great events in geological history, the crowding of these events into the Precambrian, the continua- tion of ancestral stocks, and their failure ever again to give rise to new phyla. It would appear, further, that higher phyla have not developed through highly specialised genera of lower phyla. For the invertebrates this is evident in the appearance of all the phyla in the Precambrian ; for the vertebrates, in the first place nothing is known with certainty, and in the second place the various phyla appeared long before high specialisation was attained by the ancestral stock. Amphibia arose from primitive Devonian ganoids, not from highly specialised teleosts; reptiles were derived from early Permian stegocephalians, not from highly specialised Anura or Urodela. The eutherian mammals appeared with startling suddenness in the Basal Eocene, and before the close of the period had developed into all the great classes. Evolution, in the phyletic sense, is not a gradual process, not uniform- itarian, but marked by great events in time. Specialisation and consequent fixation of characters are adverse to phyletic differentiation. It is apparent that phyla can arise only through genera and species. How far the phyletic principles may apply in the lower taxonomic ranks is an interesting question, the consideration of which would unduly extend this address. I would venture to state, however, that close adaptation (high specialisation) is likewise inimical to the production of new genera and species. Further, I believe that close adaptation is the main cause of extinction. Let us assume the existence of an organism perfectly adapted to its environment. Is it not a safe conclusion that any change in environment must result in the death of such organism ? That there is now or that there ever has been a perfectly adapted animal is extremely doubtful, but all animals must be more or less adapted or they could not exist. It may be stated that the margin between perfect and necessary adaptation is the zone'in which organic evolution is possible ; further, that the nearer an animal approaches perfect adaptation, the more liable it is to extinction on the advent of changed conditions. This conclusion is in accord with the generally recognised fact that in many instances highly specialised animals have suffered sudden extinction; it is also in accord with the general C.—GEOLOGY. 61 observation that the geological record is one of extinction and replacement in so far as species and even higher taxonomic divisions are concerned. The great weight of geological evidence points to the supplanting of one species by another, not to the transformation of species into their successors. A single transformation sequence may be regarded as suflicient to establish the principle, but an adequate explanation must be given of _ the failure of vertical seriations in the great majority of cases. This explanation is not yet forthcoming, and its lack stands as the chief item in the contra account of the balance sheet of evolution. Le Conte explained this generally observed replacement as due to the abruptness of the change in environment. The hereditary tendencies maintained to the breaking point and suddenly gave way. The result was a great mortality and the survival of only a few individuals showing transitional stages. Unfortunately for this explanation, the advent of a new species is generally unheralded by even a few individuals showing the connexion with an earlier species. Migration is the generally accepted explanation of the abruptness of faunal changes, but this is a mere statement of the evident, and throws no light on the evolution of the immigrant species. Let us assume a species to be in possession of a given area either of land or of water. This area of similar conditions, in most cases, can have no exact boundaries. It seems safe to infer that the individuals towards the centre of the region are more closely adapted than those on the margin, although no apparent anatomical differences exist. It would follow that on the advent of changed conditions the individuals approaching close adaptation, 7.e. those towards the centre of the region, would all succumb, but that those with a wider latitude of adaptation inhabiting the borders of the area would in part survive. The fate of the survivors would depend on the nature of the change, which might be for better or for worse. Favourable changes, from the point of view of the animal, could be only those which lessen the necessity for adaptation, which bring it nearer to complete adaptation, but which render it less able to resist further changes of an unfavourable kind. For example, a species lives in an area with a constant temperature of 60° at the centre, but varying from 50° to 60° at the margin. If the tempera- ture falls to 55° throughout, all the animals at the centre will die, but those at the borders will survive and will find themselves in better circum- stances than before the change. Minor evolution only can result. _ It is to the unfavourable changes, therefore, that we must look for an explanation of the more deeply seated organic evolution ; by unfavour- ble meaning adverse to the present condition of the animal in that it is forced to further adaptation. A change of this kind is not of necessity adverse to life; it may even be stimulating. The animals towards the “margins of a colony, by reason of their less perfect adaptation, may in a few instances survive an unfavourable change. The first impulse of these ‘survivors will be to escape by flight, and thereby diminish the fatal suddenness Of the change and thus achieve adaptation. _ The new species would arise rather suddenly with but few individuals of the transition stages. Arrived at a favourable habitat, migration tvould cease, multiplication would ensue, and closer and closer adaptation would be achieved, Eventually an approximation to perfect adaptation 62 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. would render the new species liable to extinction on the recurrence of unfavourable conditions. This explanation of the common failure of vertical seriations emphasises migration as a factor in evolution and leads to the conclusion that tran- sitional stages are few in number, scattered over wide geographical extents, and disposed in stratigraphically oblique lines. Barrell’s ‘ diastems,’ to be referred to later, support this explanation of abrupt changes in the faunas. The line of division between animals and plants is not clearly defined, but in a general way the distinction is clear enough for our purposes. The evolution of plants is shown chiefly in an increasing complexity of structure, but that of animals is dual—increasing complexity of structure and more and more acute sensitive discrimination and response. The evolution of the nervous system is only one expression of the increasing complexity of structure, but it runs more or less parallel to an increasing ‘ sensibility ’. I have no intention of entering the discussion as to the relation of mind and matter, but wish merely to point out that there has been an evolution of sensibility as well as an evolution of the physical organism, using the term ‘evolution’ without the precise definition that is demanded by psychologists. Various terms such as ‘ instinct,’ ‘ intelligence,’ ‘ mentality ’ have been applied to certain stages of mental development. As parts of an evolu- tionary series it is evident that these terms cannot be defined rigidly. Nevertheless, if a comparison with the physical development is justified, we should expect to find that the successively higher stages of mental capacity appeared with some degree of abruptness. To my mind the most striking difference between the physical and mental development lies in the cumulative nature of the latter, a feature which is in accord with Joseph’s contention that the term ‘ development ’ is justified only with regard to the mental series. In man, for instance, higher reasoning has not replaced intelligence, nor has intelligence replaced instinct, nor has instinct replaced mere nervous reaction and response. Doubtless certain nervous attributes have been lost in the higher animals, for vestigial sensibilities can be found as well as vestigial organs. The evolution of sensibility is not necessarily parallel to that of the physical structure of organisms. Insects are nervously endowed in excess of their structure, and the mentality of man is out of all proportion to his physical equipment. Can it be inferred that mental development is the indicated road for further progress? Does the evolutionary series of sensibility begin with a protoplasmic response to stimulus and end with omnipotence, and does man occupy a position an eternity from the starting post and another eternity from the goal ? In the preceding remarks I have expressed no opinion as to how or why evolution has been carried on; personally I incline strongly to the vitalistic creed and the Bergson philosophy. My purpose has been to emphasise certain conclusions from geological observation that appeal to me as fundamental and which may be summarised as follows : 1. The law of tendency to the complex. This is a mere statement of observed fact. 2. The tendency to the complex is not a force acting on all organised matter. It comes into play only under especial conditions, C.—GEOLOGY. 63 . 3. Approximation to complete adaptation to a given environment is ' a condition fatal to organisms under adverse circumstances. 4. Individuals of a species are not necessarily equally adapted. 5. Replacements rather than transformations is the rule in the successive strata of a given locality. 6. Migration is an important factor in evolution. 7. Fixation of characters is adverse to evolution. 8. ‘ Missing links’ are of necessity few in number, widely scattered, and disposed obliquely with respect to the strata. 9. The development of sensibility is only sub-parallel to that of physical structure. 10. The origin of a new race is to be found only in the primitive stock of an older race. Time and Space—The Age of the Earth. The mysteries of time and of space have long been subjects of profound contemplation and scientific inquiry ; they are intimately connected with the destiny of man and bring him into touch with the infinite. High is the cultural value of the mere contemplation of infinity, and of supreme importance is any light that may be thrown on a problem long regarded as beyond human comprehension. In recent years the theory of relativity has opened to the mathematically trained mind a possible avenue to a solution, but to most geologists this avenue is a closed road. The most majestic of all sciences,. astronomy, has given us, if not a solution, at least a better conception of space, and has provided a standard of measurement, light years, in terms of which the vast distances of space are brought somewhat nearer to our comprehension. Similarly, geology has given us a better conception of the vast lapses of time and, together _ with physics, has discovered in the radioactive minerals a standard of measurement which may eventually prove to be as exact for time as light _ years are for space. It is well to remember, however, that years do not constitute the only standard by which time may be measured, and that, whatever the standard, the significance of an occurrence lies in its relationship to preceding and succeeding events rather than in the actual number of units of time that have intervened between then and now. The geologist gradually acquires his point of view, but a degree of maturity in geological thought seems to be required before time resolves itself into a succession of events. _ The determination of the actual age of the earth has long engaged the uttention of philosophers and scientists, and various widely divergent estimates have been made by approaching the subject from different ntsof view. On the one hand, the earth is a member of the solar system ; determination of its age is intimately connected with the history of _ that system and falls naturally within the realm of the astronomer and the physicist. On the other hand, we have an avenue of approach in the succession of events inscribed by the hand of time on the earth’s crust ; such investigations fall naturally within the field of the geologist. Kelvin, Tait, King, and other great physicists but a few years ago lowed the geologist a maximum of 40,000,000 years for the age of the earth. Recent studies on radioactive minerals have induced the same i school to raise the figure to 1,710,000,000 years, a volte-face that emphasises WM 64 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES: the danger incurred by ‘the dictatorial hierarchy of exact scientists’ in raising a mathematical structure on an insecure foundation. The chief methods of determining the age of the earth, other than those based on radioactivity, are: the rate of decline of solar energy, the gradient of earth temperature, the quantity of salt in the seas, the rate of organic differentiation, and the rate of denudation of lands and of accumulation in the seas in relation to the known thickness of strata made throughout the geological ages. The determination of age by means of radioactivity depends on the fact that uranium and thorium break down into lead and helium, and that the rate of this disintegration is known. ‘The time required for half a given amount of these elements to break down is known as the half- value period. This period, according to Gleditsch, can be calculated to within 2 per cent.; for radium it is 1660 years and for uranium 6 X<10° years. An atom of uranium breaks down into one atom of lead and eight atoms of helium; if the content in these elements can be measured and compared with the quantity of unaltered uranium in an equal volume of the mineral, it is evident that the age of the mineral can be deduced. The different methods of estimating the earth’s age have given results so divergent that it may be of interest to enumerate some of the outstanding computations as summarised by Barrell in 1917. To this list may be added the general statement, that on the basis of the gravitational infall of its own mass, Thomson calculated that the sun could not have illuminated the earth for more than 500,000,000 years, and probably for not more than 100,000,000 years. His latest estimate (1897), based on the assumption that the temperature gradient of the earth is the result of simple cooling, is 20,000,000 to 40,000,000 years. Clarence King in 1893, on the basis of the temperature gradient, calculated that the earth could not be more than 24,000,000 years old. Methods based on the supply of salt to the sea from the decay of primary rocks are very uncertain, and have led to widely divergent estimates as follows: Joly, 150,000,000 ; F. W. Clarke, 90,000,000 ; Holmes, 340,000,000 ; and Becker, 50,000,000 to 70,000,000. Lyell long ago demanded 240,000,000 years for organic differentiation, and Darwin thought 200,000,000 too short for the purpose. On strati- graphic evidence, Barrell considered 250,000,000 a reasonable estimate for the duration of geological time since the Precambrian. The history of the subject shows that high figures were originally proposed by geologists and that, later, they tried to lower their estimates under the influence of the shorter time allowed by the physicists. More recently, the greater figures endorsed by the physicists permit the geologist ample time for his processes ; both lines of inquiry are now pointing to the it result—higher and higher estimates of the immense antiquity of the globe. Sedimentation and the Earth’s Age. Intimately connected with the estimation of time are the rates of erosion of old rocks and of deposition of new. Herein lies the most dependable geological means of determining the duration of the periods ; nevertheless, there are serious difficulties to overcome, among which may be mentioned : _ 65 C.—GEOLOGY. fH “APIATIOVOTPLI UO paseg g “UOT}PLJUSMAIPIS PUL WOISOIO UO Paseg eyez “UOISOIO JO OFVI PUB SLES OT} UI Yes UO paseg 000‘000‘0TL‘T s19quInu 4 000°000‘0FS‘T 3 = 000‘000‘e¢ a 000‘00008 =| PuNnor ul Be [eyo], = 000°000°6@ =| ** «=: Ser;TUITOFMOOT) 000‘000‘0001 °F 000°000°00L = ae (2) 000‘008‘Lz rok 000‘000°66 WerIquIBoelg 000‘000‘0F¢ 4 000°000‘09E sae 000°00€‘61F 000°00¢*LT 000°000‘8T 000‘00T ‘ZT iz: = SOLOZOS Ted 000°000‘08T : 4 000000‘EET 000°000‘0F 000°00¢‘T6T 000‘0FS‘L 000000‘6 000°006‘9 < Bo ae SOZORS TA 000‘000‘¢9 4 000‘000‘¢¢ 000°009°6 000‘00F‘E6 000°006% 000‘000‘E 000‘00€*9 *e ee SOzeue) SIvoX s1vo X SIO K sIvox sIvoX SIvo LI61 FI6I 968T £681 OI6I 6061 SUOISIATP OUILT, 9 T91eg ¢ M0472 ¥ PIPyopoos) 9 190072 M z Woyonyqog 1 SeT]og ‘HLUVY AHL dO ANDY AHL dO SaLVWILSY . 19 > oo = : : a OED Pm * a 66 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. variations in the rate of decay under different conditions, variation in the rate of deposition and the occurrence of unrecorded intervals either evident or obscure. The rate of erosion has received much attention, but as this factor is obviously dependent on the shape and condition of the land surface, its average for all time is difficult to estimate. Barrell considers that denudation by solution lowers the land surface one foot in 30,000 years, and that mechanical degradation accomplishes this result in 13,800 years. The two forces acting together require 9,000 years to effect one foot of erosion. Barrell’s estimate of 250,000,000 years since the beginning of the Pale- ozoic has been mentioned already ; this estimate has been arrived at by a study of details of deposition under the hypothesis of rhythms in geological time. According to this author, time is to be measured by rhythms or pulsations, the greater rhythms having shorter rhythms im- posed upon them. The longer are to be measured in terms of the smaller, and the smaller in terms of years. A single rhythm is an erosion cycle and small partial rhythms are superimposed on it. Present erosion and sedimentation owing to the Plocene-Pleistocene uplift is unduly high, with the result that estimates of time based on the present rate of erosion are much too short. Barrell would further increase the time by restricting the area of deposition to the zone immediately below the local base level, and making the accumulation dependent on upward oscillations of the base level or downward oscillations of the bottom. The control of sedimentation by base level is summed up in three principles as follows : 1. The rate of sedimentation is determined by the rate of the discontinuous depression of the surface of deposition. 2. Subsidence of the sedimentary floor is not initiated by the load of sediment, but its further sinking may be facilitated thereby. 3. The deposition of beds is not always a continuous process, but is often broken. The process of sedimentation is scour and fill with a balance in favour of the fill; in consequence, apparently continuous beds are broken by minor gaps to which the name ‘diastem’ is given. These gaps tend to increase the estimate of time, and they probably represent unrecorded intervals as long as the total indicated by the apparent unconformities. In view of all the factors, Barrell concludes that the geological ages may be ten to fifteen times as long as methods based on uniformitarian principles indicate. In connexion with the rate of sedimentation and its bearing on the age of the earth, it is apparent that the intimate structure of the stratified rocks must be looked to for data bearing on the problem. To this end the character and mode of formation of these rocks are now receiving an in- creasing degree of attention. A better understanding of sedimentation is being obtained by direct observation on the formation of modern sedi- ments, determination of the precipitating value of alge and bacteria, studies on coral reefs, deep-sea investigations, studies on colloidal solutions, investigations of chemical deposits, and a better appreciation of the value of facies and vegetal terrestrial deposits. Direct investigation of the rocks themselves is leading to an increased use of the petrographic microscope and of analytical methods. Secondary features of stratified rocks are receiving greater attention, horizontal transitional stages are better under- ~~ a lla et Oe i C.—GEOLOGY. 67 stood, and the relationship of strata fo sea invasions has led to a fuller appreciation of the value of paleogeography. Grabau states that ‘in the future the study of lithogenesis must go hand in hand with the study of paleogeography. Neither science can progress without the other, and each is dependent on the other to a degree too little realised.’ So deeply are American geologists interested in the problems of sedi- mentation and the time factor involved, that a Committee has been appointed by the United States National Research Council to compile data bearing on the subject. A report of this Committee was presented on April 26, 1924. The Origin of the Earth and the Nature of its Interior. The question of the earth’s origin is evidently closely related to the problem of its age. Although geologists are inclined to disclaim this aspect of the subject, I feel that it cannot be disregarded under the title of this address. Theories of the earth were indulged in by the Greek philosophers, and reached a climax in the fantastic conceptions of the cosmogonists during the eighteenth century. The announcement of the nebular hypo- thesis of Kant and Laplace was an epoch-making event, and the theory has been generally accepted as ‘the grandest conception of the human intellect.’ Its influence on all cosmical philosophy has been tremendous ; in fact, it lay at the base of all geogeny until it was questioned by Chamberlin and Moulton in bringing forward their planetesimal hypothesis, This explanation of the origin of the earth, as due to the aggregation of cold discrete particles, has received much credence in America, but it has had a less favourable reception in Europe. Under the influence of the theory of Kant, Laplace, and Herschel, many attempts were made to explain the nature of the earth’s interior during the early years of the nineteenth century (Fourier, 1820; Poisson, 1835 ; Ampére, 1833). Somewhat later, in 1871, Helmholtz published his classic exposition of the nature of the earth under the Laplacian hypothesis. In 1893 Clarence King decided that the temperature of the earth’s interior was originally not more than 2000° C., and that its age is about 24,000,000 years. His determination of temperature gradients is referred to in another part of this paper. Tn more recent years a great advance has been made in the spectroscopic study of the sun and stars; it has been established beyond question that the earth, the sun, and the fixed stars are materially identical—that they are composed of the same chemical elements. The interior of the earth is beyond direct observation ; the deepest mines and bore-holes scarcely penetrate the outermost skin. Certain fundamental facts, however, may be taken as established. The interior is hot, rigid, and heavy (sp. gr. 5°6 as compared with 2°7 for the known exterior) ; the accessible exterior is composed of elements common to the universe. Beyond this all is vague and speculative. It is worthy of particular emphasis, however, that while the earth as a whole acts as an almost perfectly rigid body, the external envelope with which we are familiar is by no means rigid. Adjustments have taken place throughout all geological time, and I need not quote evidence that they are still taking place. The acquisition of perfect rigidity by F2 68 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. the globe is to be regarded as a tremendous calamity. This condition attained, the universal deluge is within sight geologically speaking, and the end of the present order of things must inevitably ensue. Harth- quakes, therefore, are not to be regarded as unmixed calamities ; they are evidence that the fatal total rigidity has not yet been attained. It might be asked if there is any evidence in geological history of an approach to a condition of total rigidity or of a tendency in this direction. There can be little doubt that Precambrian events were on a scale seldom, if ever, attained in later time. Cambrian and Ordovician transgressions of the sea were also on a grand scale, but later movements, on the whole, seem to have been smaller and more local in their expression, although there were notable exceptions as the Tethys sea in Europe, the great inva- sion of the Coloradoan geosyncline in Upper Cretaceous time in North America, the tremendous voleanic activity of the Miocene, and the grand epoch of mountain-building in the Pliocene and Pleistocene. Professor Eliot Blackwelder touched this question in his Presidential Address to the Geological Section of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in December 1921. He concludes that there is no evidence of a trend towards rigidity; he sees only great pulsations with intermediate periods of rest. ‘The Middle Tertiary revolution was one of the most widespread and intense of which we have any record. There have been many fluctuations but no general trend. . .. The volcanic activity of the last two geological periods is equal in intensity and widespread distribution to anything known to us in earlier periods.’ Barrell’s observations lead to a similar conclusion ; in fact, he considers that the rate of sedimentation is increasing rather than diminishing, and gives the following general figures, the length of geological time being based on the minimum results obtained from uranium minerals. RatTE OF SEDIMENTATION IN GEOLOGICAL TIME, AFTER BARRELL. es Big cer Maximum thick-| time, in years Geological interval Time in years ness a ee a et AG Pleistocene ve ag 1,500,000 4,000 375 Tertiary ie a 55,000,000 63,000 875 Mesozoic a3 a 135,000,000 84,000 1,600 Neopaleozoic .. “a 200,000,000 78,000 2,600 Eopaleozoic .. a i 160,000,000 43,000 3,700 The last column is particularly significant from the present point of view ; it indicates that sedimentation was progressively slower as we pass backward in geological time. This observation does not mean that the rate of erosion of lands was slower, but that the products of erosion were spread over greater areas. Barrell concludes that despite the tremendous activity at certain times in the Precambrian, the total unrest was no greater than in later time, as the upheavals were separated by corre- spondingly long intervals of rest and erosion. The Paleozoic, also, with its widespread epieric seas, indicates long intervals between the periods of upheaval. Passing into later time, the increasing localism of deposits is an indication of more sustained activity—of shorter but less profound C.—GEOLOGY. 69 pulsations. ‘The later revolutions have been less profound than the great convulsions of the Archean, but diastrophism may make up for this by becoming more recurrent, tending to stimulate in post-Palzozoic eras the mean rate of erosion and sedimentation.’ The general conclusions seem to be that the earth is not showing a trend towards rigidity, but that earth movements and vulcanism are becoming less profound in scope and less widespread geographically, the average of activity being maintained by more frequent recurrence. 2 Earth Movements and the Nicety of Adjustment. The causes of earth crumpling and the dynamic laws which govern _ the phenomena are subjects well within my theme, but their consideration _ would lead us to undue length. Earth movements, of necessity, are bound up with theoretical considerations of the earth’s interior. Whether earth crumpling is due to loss of terrestrial heat and consequent contraction of the nucleus, or whether the modern concept of isostasy offers a better explanation, there must be a downward limit to terrestrial disturbances. This limit has been placed at 113°7 kilometres and termed the ‘ depth of compensation ’. According to the principles of isostasy great blocks of the upper crust float higher or lower above the depth of compensation according to the specific gravity of the mass involved. This is a grand conception and offers much food for thought. If isostasy is the true explanation of moun- tains and oceanic depths, it follows that the calculated gravity should be uniform over the earth’s surface if all parts of that surface are in isostatic equilibrium. Observations do not entirely support the conclusion, as many anomalies have been observed. The subject is attractive and the literature extensive. In reviewing the results of 325 gravity determina- tions in the United States, Dr. David White explains the observed anomalies as due to local causes beneath the gravity stations. ‘ Hence the equilibrium of the crust beneath the gravity stations is very much nearer complete than is indicated by the anomalies as uncorrected for local abnormal densities relatively close to the instrument.’ (Presidential Address, Geological Society of America, 1923.) lt is obvious that a consideration of this subject would lead to a dis- cussion of land forms and their influence on human activities—definition of nationality, physiographic control, distribution of faunas, and countless other effects, all of which extend beyond the realm of technical geology and form part of a general education if they are not ‘cultural’ in the narrower sense. There is, however, one great lesson to be derived from the study of earth movements that bears on the general scheme of things and is worthy _of especial mention—the marvellous continuity of conditions. The diameter of the earth is about 8000 miles and the maximum of _ relief of the lithosphere about eleven miles, approximately 0°14 per cent. _ Oceanic waters have filled the depressions and continental masses have _ risen above the water-level—a condition that has maintained throughout _ all time in the opinion of most geologists. The present area of the land is 27-7 per cent. of the whole terrestrial surface, and the average height above sea-level of the continental masses is only 2120 feet according to de Lapparent. It is apparent that the actual volume of that part of the 70 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. lithosphere which projects above sea-level is extremely small when compared with the volume of the whole globe. It is well known that the power of erosion is sufficiently great to have reduced this relatively small mass to sea-level time and time again through- out the long course of the geological ages. Nevertheless, it is confidently believed that this result has never been entirely achieved. Rejuvenation has kept pace with erosion throughout the hundreds of millions of years that the earth has endured. In my opinion this marvellous nicety of adjustment between two great sets of opposing forces is one of the major lessons of geology. Is it a mere coincidence or is it evidence of design ? Climate. That the earth has experienced great changes in climate is a deduction from geological observation that is universally admitted. Many are the possible causes of change and voluminous is the literature of the subject. Cosmical controls such as changes in the sun’s radiant energy and in the earth’s planetary motions have been adduced; appeal has been made to variations in the composition of the atmosphere and to changes in the distribution of land and sea with all the consequent effects on atmospheric and oceanic circulation; terrestrial heat, radioactivity, and vulcanism are thought to have played a part ; and a theory has been brought forward that in earlier times solar control was a negligible factor. Whatever the causes, climate has been extremely variable in past time; the polar regions have been temperate—almost tropical—and ice sheets have extended over sub-equatorial regions. It is significant, also, that a given climatic condition in a given locality is not necessarily of long duration. Great changes are known to have occurred within the time of man, and the warm interglacial periods of the Pleistocene alter- nated with glacial conditions within comparatively short bounds. Climatic change must be regarded as an ever-present factor. It is highly probable that variation in climate will greatly affect the activities of the human race within a measurable number of years, and it is not impossible that the sites of our present centres of civilisation will be buried under glaciers and that a new civilisation will occupy, under a genial climate, the present inhospitable regions around the poles. Despite the changes in any given locality, the continued existence of life is sufficient evidence that the whole globe has not experienced, from the earliest geological time, any very great universal change in climate. Griiner has proved to the satisfaction of most geologists the existence of alge in the Keewatin of Minnesota. The great masses of limestone with disseminated graphite of the Grenville are at least suggestive of life, and Moore has brought forward convincing evidence of alge in the Animikie © of Belcher Islands in Hudson Bay. Both the Archzozoic and the Pro- terozoic, therefore, were warm enough to permit organisms to exist despite the intervening event of an ice age in the Huronian. Wonderful have been the changes in climate and far-reaching their effects, but truly marvellous has been the continuity of a range of tempera- ture permitting the existence of life from the very dawn of earth history to the present moment, Nothing short of a cosmical catastrophe can alter a condition that has maintained for nearly two billions of years. Surely if culture is the cultivation of the spirit, the contemplation of geological | C.—GEOLOGY. 71 climate should lift the mind above the mere material into the realm of the philosophical and the spiritual. If the continuity of the observed range of temperature is due to a single factor—solar energy—the endurance of that energy is a marvellous thing. If the observed climatic continuity is a composite result due to various sources of energy, it is still more marvellous. Both geologists and physicists incline to the latter point of view, but as yet they have been unable to fathom the mysteries of the sources of energy. ‘ Geologic time brings to light, consequently, the evidence of unknown sources of energy, cosmic forces which must constitute a fundamental factor in any satisfactory hypothesis of stellar evolution’ (Barrell), Historical Geology. History is the essential of geology, and its cultural value is not less because the record is written in enduring stone rather than on fading parchment. Further, there is a geological background to most human pictures and our activities are largely controlled by the geological setting. While I would not regard the study of all geological phenomena as par- ticularly cultural, I would so consider those in which the historical element is emphasised. I can, perhaps, better express my meaning by citing one or two examples. To the engineer, Niagara Falls is a great natural source of energy ; the volume of water and the fall thereof can be measured and the potentialities in horse-power can be calculated. Every citizen of Toronto knows that he lights his home, cooks his food, and operates his factory by reason of the existence of Niagara Falls. How many know that this result is achieved because some hundreds of millions of years ago a layer of hard dolomite was deposited over soft shale in the old Silurian sea ? The history of aboriginal man has been deciphered chiefly by means of the flint instruments found in Western Europe. The successive invasions of near-man and of man were doubtless influenced by the occurrence of flints in this region. Is it not cultural to reflect that the _ clear Upper Cretaceous sea with its Foraminifera to make chalk, and its sponges to supply silica for flints, had so profound an influence on the development of the human race ? The Study of Geology. Tt might be well to inquire into the effect that the study of geology produces in the minds of its devotees. Doubtless, this effect so greatly depends on the attitude of the student that an individual may well hesitate to speak for the group. I have endeavoured to show, however, that geology contains much of the inspirational and contemplative— features that go far to relieve its vast array of facts. The subject has become so comprehensive and so complex that no one man can be conversant with all its phases; in consequence, it is sometimes stated that there are no longer any geologists, but only specialists in various branches. I feel that the adoption of this point of _ view would be most unfortunate, as the general geologist alone is able to co-ordinate the work of the specialists, to harmonise their findings, and to deduce the great lessons of the science. In his hands, to a very large extent, lies the cultural aspect of the subject. 72 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. Whatever satisfaction is to be derived from the acquisition of know- ledge, there is always a discouraging factor in the realisation of our limitations. Owing to the complex nature of the subject and the vast number of facts involved, the study of geology is peculiarly effective in this respect, and cannot but tend to a humble attitude of mind. Another potent influence to this end is the realisation of the mistakes that have been made, even in the basic principles of the science. From the fantastic theories of the cosmogonists arose eventually the doctrine of catastrophism ; this conception yielded to uniformitarianism, and to uniformitarianism was added the doctrine of evolution. Le Conte described Darwin as a uniformitarian evolutionist. To-day uniformitarianism is being questioned seriously from both the inorganic and the organic points of view. We are swinging back to a conception of a milder catastrophism variously expressed as rhythm, diastrophism, &c. The necessity of drawing conclusions from doubtful or insufficient evidence is an ever-present antidote for dogmatism. Many of our con- clusions are merely inferences subject to revision in the light of further evidence. The experienced geologist has become cautious, he knows he is only feeling his way, and he is accustomed to temper his statements with a saving clause to cover his discomfiture should his conclusions be proved erroneous at a later time. To humbleness and caution I would add a conviction of theism as a result of the study of geology. I fear to venture on dangerous ground, but I must be allowed the opinion that materialism offers no adequate explanation of the wonders of geology. With revealed religion I am not here concerned, but I believe that the inconceivably long gradient that has led ever upward to the mentality of man has not been traced without design, and I see no reason why that gradient should terminate. I look, rather, to its upward continuation to even greater heights beyond. Literature. The science of geology is founded on observations in all parts of the earth, and its broad principles are everywhere applicable. In detail, however, the science is necessarily local; hence the enormous quantity of literature that has accumulated. This literature is very largely economic and technical; it finds its way chiefly into the hands of professional geologists and mining engineers, and it is scarcely intelligible to the ordinary man of culture. Numerous text-books of geology are available, but they are addressed to the student of geology rather than to the general reader. It is not by means of text-books, however, that an appreciation of the great lessons of geology is to be cultivated, but rather by non-technical treatises dealing only with the broad aspects of the subject. The influence of geology on general literature is less than might have been expected. This lack is in part due to the brief period of modern scientific geology, and in part to the ancient separation of culture and science—a distinction that is rapidly losing recognition. Poetry descriptive of land forms and of the wonders of Nature is to be found in abundance, but an appreciation of the great principles of geology is not shown by the major poets to any great extent. In this respect, Tennyson is probably deserving of first position, but I fear of getting C.— GEOLOGY. 73 beyond my depth in an attempt to pursue this subject. I beg, however, to quote a few verses to show that the principles of geology may be gilded by the touch of poetic inspiration. _ Tennyson : ‘ Astronomy and Geology—terrible muses.’ (Parnassus.) * All things are taken from us and become Portions and parcels of the dreadful past.’ (Zhe Lotus Eater.) ‘The solid earth whereon we tread In tracts of fluent heat began, And grew to seeming-random forms The seeming prey of cyclic storms, Till at the last arose the man.’ Sir Samuel Garth : * And floods of chyle in silver currents run ; How the dim speck of entity began To extend its recent form, and stretch to man.’ (Dispensary.) Pope: ‘Who sees with equal eye, as God of all, A hero perish or a sparrow fall ; Atoms or systems into ruin hurled, And now a bubble burst and‘now a world.’ Of the minor poets, the Reverend Mr. Wilks has been called England’s geological poet: that title in America would undoubtedly go to Bret Harte. His ‘Geological Madrigal’, a parody of Shenstone’s ‘ Pastoral Ballad ’, is well known, and the ‘ Society upon the Stanislaus’ is a biting tire on pseudo-scientific discovery. The doctrine of evolution, strange to say, has inspired more doggerel verse than true poetry, and the same is strikingly true of the great Mesozoic eptiles. Other aspects of geology have received like treatment, not always without point, as the following lines indicate : TsosTasy.* What is it rules the upper crust ? Tsostasy, Isostasy. What actuates the overthrust ? Isostasy, Isostasy. What gives the shore lines wanderlust ? What humbles highlands to the dust ? What makes the strongest stratum bust ? Isostasy, Isostasy. Conservatives in vain have cussed Isostasy, Isostasy ; The strongest power on earth is just Isostasy, Isostasy. So let us down our deep disgust, If we'd seem up to date we must Roll up our eyes and take on trust Isostasy, Isostasy. %: Sung at the annual dinner of the Geological Society of America, Washington, 1923. 7A SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. Conclusion. In selecting the topic of this address, I was influenced by my experience with students who often fail to grasp the elusive side of the subject that I have called ‘ cultural.’ I fear, however, that to you my remarks may have seemed trivial, in that no new facts have been presented nor has any new theory been advanced. I hope, nevertheless, that the point of view will meet with your approval, and that the emphasis laid on culture as pertaining to the science of geology may not be amiss. The beautiful, the philosophical, and the spiritual can be found in any of the sciences, in none more than in geology. The pen of Addison or of Macaulay in the hands of an experienced geologist would give an effective picture. The portraiture is too difficult for the feeble brush ; the scientist is unable to do justice to his own subject. SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY. ORGANIC EVOLUTION. ADDRESS BY C. TATE REGAN, F.R.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. A sysTreMAtic zoologist, whose work is the classification of animals, should so define his groups that another worker may be able to use his system to place an animal successively in its right class, order, family, genus and species, and so arrive at its correct name. The name is the key to all that has been recorded about the structure, variation, habits and life-history of that particular form; but it should be something more, it should be an indication of its relationships ; for it may often happen that very little is known about a species, but much about its nearest allies. It is, therefore, of practical importance that classification should be natural, an expression of relationships; to make it so the systematist has to attempt to estimate the meaning of resemblances and differences, to what extent they may be due to the nearness or remoteness of a common ancestor, to what extent to other circumstances. Every good systematist must feel some satisfaction when he has written a diagnosis that is diagnostic, or has made a key that will work; but this satisfaction is small in comparison with that which he feels when he has reason to think he has settled the position of some doubtful form, or has discovered the origin of a group and the lines of evolution within it, or _ has found the relation between structure and habits or environment. The main interest of systematic work lies in the fact that it is a study of the - results of evolution, and that from such a study one may hope to get some light on the meaning of evolution. For any profitable discussion of the origin of species it is essential to know what we mean when we use the word ‘species.’ In nature we find that a number of similar individuals, with similar habits, live in a certain area; such an aggregation of individuals may be termed a com- munity. It is unfortunate that this word has sometimes been used for ‘dissimilar and unrelated organisms that occur together—for example, the animals found on a muddy bottom in the North Sea, or the plants of a range of chalk hills; but I am satisfied that the word ‘ association’ is more ‘appropriate to these, and that ‘ community ’ is the right name for a number ‘of similar individuals that live together and breed together. All this is preliminary to my definition of a species. A species is a community, or a number of related communities, whose distinctive morphological characters are, in the opinion of a competent systematist, sufficiently definite to entitle it, or them, to a specific name. Groups of higher or: _ lower rank than species can be defined in a similar way. Thus, a sub- ‘Species is a community, or a number of related communities, whose dis- tinctive morphological characters are not, in the systematist’s opinion, sufficiently definite to merit a specific name, but are sufficient to demand 76 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. a sub-specific name. Similarly a genus is a species, or a number of related species, whose distinctive morphological characters entitle it, or them, to generic ravk. There are, of course, many species so distinct from all others and so uniform throughout their range that everyone is agreed about them ; but frequently the limits and contents of a species, as of a genus, are a matter of opinion. No systematist has, or should have, any rule as to the amount of difference required for the recognition of a species or a sub-species ; he is guided by convenience. In practice it often happens that geographical forms, representing each other in different areas, are given only sub- specific rank, even when they are well defined, and that closely related forms, not easily distinguished, are given specific rank when they inhabit the same area but keep apart. I have seen a species defined as a stable complex of genes—or words to that effect—and Bateson, without exactly defining a species, has insisted that those systematists who distinguish between good and bad species are right, and that the distinction between the two is not simply a question of degree or a matter of opinion. There is some truth in this ; in the absence of exact knowledge seasonal or sexual differences have been regarded as specific, and hybrids, as well as varieties that differ from the normal in some well-marked character, have been given specific names : these are certainly bad species. There is truth also in Bateson’s contention that species are qualitatively different from varieties, if we restrict this word to the kind of varieties he has specially studied and do not use it for communities that differ from each other in morphological characters. According to Bateson the principal qualities of species are morpho- logical discontinuity amd interspecific sterility ; but to the implication that these have been suddenly acquired I would reply that in nature there is every gradation from communities that are morphologically indistin- guishable to others that are so different that everyone is agreed that they are well-marked species; and it is not surprising that when morpho- logical differentiation has proceeded to this extent it should generally, but not always, be accompanied by mutual infertility. That morpho- logical discontinuity in a continuous environment which appears to Bate- son to support the theory of the discontinuous origin of specific characters is seen to be the final term of a habitudinal discontinuity that began with the formation of communities that were at first morphologically identical. Bateson’s argument that the Natural Selection Theory, or any theory of gradual transformation, demands that the ancestral form from which two species have diverged should persist as an intermediate is seen to be quite fallacious if we get a firm grip of the idea of the division of a species into communities, followed by the evolution of each community as a separate entity. A great deal of work has been done, especially on our more important food-fishes, in making biometrical analyses and investigating the life- histories of the different communities. The pioneer research was that of Heincke on the herring ; he showed that in the North Sea there were several communities, each with its own slight morphological peculiarities, its own area, and its own time and place for breeding. Heincke grouped these communities into two main classes—herrings of the open sea that spawned in summer or autumn in rather deep water of high salinity, D.—ZOOLOGY. 77 and coastal herrings that spawned in winter or spring near the coasts, often in brackish bays or in estuaries. The herrings of the Baltic are coastal herrings, but those of Iceland and of Norway form a third class— herrings of the open sea that spawn in the spring. It seems to me highly probable that in the North Sea the coastal communities have been derived from those of the open sea, that they have changed their habits but kept to their original spawning season, whereas the others may have postponed their spawning, waiting for the influx of the oceanic water. Diincker has shown that the plaice of the Baltic differs from that of the North Sea in having an average of one vertebra less, five rays less in both dorsal and anal fins, and one ray more in the pectoral fins. The Kattegat plaice agrees with that of the North Sea in the number of vertebre and of dorsal and anal rays, afd with the Baltic plaice in the number of pectoral rays ; but it differs from both in its deeper form. There is no doubt that the plaice of the Baltic, the Kattegat and the North Sea form separate communities ; there is nothing to prevent a Kattegat plaice from going either into the Baltic or into the North Sea if it wants to; but it seems not to want to—it has its own feeding places and breed- ing places and prefers to keep to them. I have studied with particular attention the fishes known as char, or salmonoid fishes of the genus Salvelinus. Char are very like trout in appearance, but have orange or scarlet spots instead of black ones; they inhabit the Arctic Ocean and in the autumn run up the rivers to breed in fresh water, often forming permanent freshwater colonies in akes. There are many such colonies in the lakes of Scandinavia, of Switzerland, and of Scotland, Ireland, and the Lake District of England ; he formation of these colonies must date back to glacial times, when these Arctic fishes occurred on our coasts and entered our rivers to breed. These lacustrine communities show considerable diversity in habits, and so in structure ; for example, the char of Lough Melvin in Ireland are quite unlike those of Loch Killin in Inverness in form, in coloration, in the shape of the mouth, and in the size of the scales ; these differences are sufficient to entitle them to be regarded as different species, and I have so regarded them ; but now I doubt whether it is not better to look upon all these lacustrine char, however well characterised, as belonging to the same species as the migratory char of the Arctic Ocean, for once you begin giving specific names to lacustrine forms of char you never know where to stop. But if we were to exterminate the char in our islands and on the Jontinent, except in a dozen selected lakes, we should have left a dozen ve Lmarked forms which it would be convenient to recognise as species. somewhat similar problem arises in the classification of man ; it is con- venient to place all the living races in one species. But if there were only Englishmen and Hottentots we should probably regard them as specifically ustinct. _ In our British char, habitudinal segregation—the formation of com- munities in lakes—has been followed by a geographical isolation which commenced at the end of the glacial period, when the migratory char retreated northwards. The char of each lake have evolved separately, d one can see clearly how many of the differences between them are ated to the conditions of life; for example, the large eyes of the Loch annoch char, which lives in a very deep lake, and the blunt snout and 78 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. rounded subterminal mouth of several kinds which always feed at the “bottom. I confess that I do not understand why the scales are much smaller and more numerous in the char of some lakes than in those of others, but I suspect that these differences in scaling are the expression of physiological differences and are the result of differences in the environ- ment or in the activities of the fish. The genus Salmo comprises about ten species from the North Atlantic and the North Pacific, and I have shown that the salmon and trout of the Atlantic form one natural group and those of the Pacific another. Our own salmon and trout are two closely related species ; both of them range in the sea from Iceland and northern Norway to the Bay of Biscay, both enter rivers to breed, and in both the young fish, known as parr, remain in fresh water until they are about two years old and six inches long, and then go to the sea. From Mr. F. G. Richmond, a well-known pisciculturist, I have the information that although at certain seasons the parr of both salmon and trout may eat the same kind of food—for example, both take flies at the surface—yet on the whole their food and feeding habits appear to be different. Salmon parr seek their food, such as insect -larve, small molluscs and crustaceans, on the bottom, whereas young trout tend to keep in mid-water and to subsist more on water-borne food ; thus the salmon parr may be hunting for food in a stretch of shallow rapid water, while the young trout wait for it in the quieter water just below. When they are about six inches long the parr of both species become silvery and are termed smolts; the trout smolts go to the sea in a leisurely manner, hanging about the estuaries, and the older fish frequent the coastal waters; but the salmon smolts make straight for the open sea and there grow much faster than the trout, attaining a weight of several pounds in a year. I have gone into these details because I think it is important to estab- lish that two closely related species in the same area have different habits, and to a large extent avoid competing with each other. The morphological differences between salmon and trout are slight. The salmon, more active and a stronger swimmer, is more regularly fusi- form in shape and has a more slender tail and a more spreading and more deeply emarginate caudal fin, differences of the same kind but not of the same extent as between a perch and a mackerel. Therows of scales between the adipose fin and the lateral line are usually fewer (10 to 13) in the salmon than in the trout (12 to 16); but this may be directly related to the fact that the tail is more slender. On an average the salmon has one ray more in the dorsal fin than the trout, and I am tempted to regard this as a step towards that increased number and concentration of the dorsal rays which is so characteristic of swift-swimming pelagic fishes. The last difference between the two species—the smaller mouth of the salmon— may be related to the food and feeding habits of the parr. In structure as in habits the salmon is more specialised than the trout, and may have evolved from it. The salmon is found on the Atlantic coast of North America, where there are no trout; but I think this is because its habit of going farther out to sea has given it a greater opportunity of extending itsrange. There can be little doubt that the differentiation of these species has been not geographical but habitudinal, comparable to the differentia- tion of the coastal and open-sea herrings. , D.—ZOOLOGY. 79 In every river and lake that it enters the trout forms freshwater colonies, and on the other side of the Atlantic the salmon does so fairly readily, although not nearly so generally as the trout does on this side. In Europe, trout being present, the salmon forms freshwater colonies only in exceptional circumstances. Thus Lake Wenern in Sweden, now cut off from the sea by inaccessible falls, has a stock of salmon ; there can be no doubt that in former times salmon entered the lake and bred in its tributaries, and that some of the smolts, when they reached the lake on their seaward migration, considered this very large lake a sufficiently good substitute for the sea to stay there, and so founded a lacustrine race. Freshwater colonies of trout are found in the Atlas Mountains and in the countries north of the Mediterranean eastwards to the Adriatic, proving that in glacial times the range of sea-trout extended southward to the Mediterranean. The rivers of Dalmatia and Albania are inhabited not only by trout but by fish of another species, known as Salmo obtusi- rostris. This little fish, which never grows larger than fifteen inches long, has all the structural characters that distinguish salmon from trout, and, _ indeed, looks very like an overgrown salmon parr; but when compared with salmon of the same size it is seen to differ in having a considerably smaller mouth, weaker teeth, and more numerous gill-rakers (15 to 18 instead of 11 to 14 on the lower part of the first arch). In fishes generally the number and length of the gill-rakers—projections from the gill-arches that prevent food from entering the gill-chamber with the respiratory current—are related to the nature of the food ; thus, in exclusively pis- civorous fishes, such as the pike, they are represented by a few short knobs, and in feeders on minute plankton organisms they are very numer- ous, long, slender, and close-set. It has been recorded that Salmo obtusi- _rostris subsists mainly on the larvee of Ephemeride, which are very abun- dant in the rivers it inhabits, and there can be no doubt that the small ‘size of the mouth, the feeble dentition, and the increased number of gill- takers are related to this diet. The presence of this fish in the rivers of the east side of the Adriatic seems to me to point to the probability that in glacial times salmon, as well as trout, occurred in the Mediterranean, and that in these rivers some of the salmon parr, tempted by the abundance of parr food, pre- ferred to continue the parr life instead of going to the sea as smolts, thus orming a freshwater colony in quite a different way from the salmon of Lake Wenern. The question may be asked—if these fishes are derived from salmon and live in the same way as salmon parr, how can their ‘differences from salmon be adaptive ? The reply to this is that the size of the mouth in the salmon parr must have some relation to the fact that it is going to become a salmon, feeding on fishes in the sea, and that, as S. obtusirostris grows to twice the length of a salmon parr, we should expect ‘the number of gill-rakers to be increased, for it is not number but the size of the interspaces that is important in relation to food. __ The work of Dr. Johannes Schmidt on the Viviparous Blenny (Zoarces wiparus) is of great interest. He had found that in the European eel he average number of vertebre was 115, and that from whatever part of ‘its area samples were taken, whether from Iceland, Denmark, the Azores, or the Adriatic, the range of variation and the mean were exactly the same. _ This he considered as a confirmation of his view that all the eels from these 89 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. widely separated localities formed one community and came together in one breeding-place. To test the soundness of this conclusion he in- vestigated Zoarces, a fish of about the same shape and with about the same number of vertebre as the eel, but viviparous, and not migrating for breed- ing. He found that samples of Zoarces from various parts of the Kattegat and Baltic differed slightly, but generally had an average of about 118 vertebre, but that in the shallow Danish fiords the number was less, and decreased progressively the farther the distance from the sea. Conditions of temperature, salinity, &c., are very different in the different fiords, 50;— set rae) 109-3 i10.2-| a ~ 46 IN fh er IN Bhik “CCEA we H Bei ASEH See ane colts 1c iI ul | ———— os SS eS iaasaees —| ea a * AC Pammaurield rhea AEE is | IEA] lie = Ban wis HH seared geitiece i SCH E NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS N a 2 EEE AIEEE : Hf NU TALIA : | | AAMT TZ \ PANES a annn SCE REES 1034 56 7 8 9 HON 12 13 i4 15 16 17 18 19 12021 22 NUMBER OF VERTEBRA Graphic representation of number of vertebre in samples of Zoarces viviparus from (1) Kattegat, 5 miles north of Mariager Fiord (average 117°4); (2) Mouth of Mariager Fiord (average 115-4); (3) Mariager Fiord, 7 miles from the mouth (average 111); (4) 15 miles from the mouth (average 110-2); (5) 16 and 20 miles from mouth (two similar samples, average of each 109-3). The wide range and irregularity of the curves for the intermediate populations are noteworthy. and I am inclined to think that the critical character common to all of them is that they give the Zoarces an opportunity of leading a quiet life amidst a plentiful supply of food ; hence the fiord Zoarces can be distinguished at a glance from those outside by their shorter and deeper form. In the Mariager Fiord, a narrow inlet about twenty miles long, the average number of vertebree decreases from 115 at the mouth to 111 about seven miles inland and 110 about fifteen miles inland ; two samples from the extreme end_of the fiord and from a point four miles from the end both showed exactly the same average, 109.3. In the Roskilde Fiord, a very large D.—ZOOLOGY. Sl sheet of water connected with the sea by a long, narrow neck, there is a Zoarces population with an average of 108 vertebrae, but in the neck the number gradually increases towards the sea. There can be no doubt that the fiords were originally populated from the outside, and it seems likely that the decreased number of vertebrae in the fiords is related to the lesser activity of the fiord fish. Evolution has proceeded to such an extent that the Zoarces of the Roskilde Fiord differs from that of the Kattegat more than does the European eel from the American, and these are generally regarded as good species. But the repetition of the same phenomenon in different fiords and the continuous gradation from one form to another make it impossible to recognise species here. Zoarces are very stationary, but possibly the young are more migratory than the adults. But if we suppose that these fishes move on an average a mile a year, or even less, and mate with the nearest fish of the opposite sex, we can understand how the tendency to form a pure fiord race is hampered by continuous interchange, and how the influence of the outside form gradually diminishes until in the innermost waters it is not felt at all and isolation is accomplished. In each fiord a series of intermediates, hybrids if we like so to term them, connect two well-differentiated com- munities, one in the sea, the other in the inner waters of the fiord. These detailed examples are sufficient to illustrate my view that some form of isolation, either physical or produced by localisation or by habi- tudinal segregation, is a condition of the evolution of a new species. The effects of physical isolation, due to the formation of a barrier, are well seen in comparing the fishes of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of Central America, most of which can be paired, one species being found on the Atlantic side and its nearest ally on the Pacific side. The effects of habitudinal segregation are, as it seems to me, seen in the Cichlid fishes of Lake Tanganyika, where there are ninety species that appear to have evolved in the lake from two ancestral forms; the differences between these species in the form and size of the mouth and in the dentition are an indication that their diversity is related to specialisation for different kinds of food. _ The whole of my work leads to the conclusion that the first step in the origin of a new species is not a change of structure, but the formation of a community either with new habits or in a new or a restricted environ- ment. For some species we know fairly certainly what has happened, and where, when, and why; shall we ever know how? Experimental attempts to repeat the operations of nature might perhaps give us a clue, but I do not expect one from experiments of the kind that is so fashionable owadays. _ For example, if Salmo salar and Salmo obtusirostris could be bred together, it would not matter much whether the hybrids were sterile or ertile ; and if they were fertile, it would not interest me to know that the variation in their offspring could be squared with the factorial hypo- thesis by the ingenious assumption that there were several factors for both larger mouth and smaller mouth and for fewer gill-rakers and more ill-rakers. Even if the number of gill-rakers in either species could be increased or decreased by thyroid extract, I should still be unconvinced that we had got much nearer to the root of the matter. y 61925 G 82 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. Now let us leave for a time the origin of species and consider the origin and evolution of a sub-class, the Neopterygian Fishes, the group that includes the great majority of living fishes and of which the most primitive living representatives are Lepidosteus and Amia. The earliest Neopterygians were the Semionotide, which began in the Upper Permian, and the only known fishes that can have given rise to them are the Palzo- niscids, which flourished from Devonian to Permian times and had fins essentially similar in structure to those of a sturgeon. The transforma- tion of a Palzoniscid into a Semionotid can be interpreted as the trans- formation of a strong-swimming fish that captured other fishes into a slow- swimming fish that fed at the bottom on small molluscs and crustaceans. The reduction of the upturned end of the tail was related to a lesser speed in swimming ; the decrease in number and spacing out of the rays of the dorsal and anal fins, until they were equal in number to their skeletal supports and each acquired a definite articulation with its own basal bone, made these fins less suitable for cleaving the water in swift motion, but better fitted to perform the delicate movements required of the fins of a fish that swims about slowly. The change from a wide mouth, with strong, sharply pointed teeth, set well apart, to a small mouth, with small, blunt teeth, set close together, was related to the change in food. In connection with the small size of the mouth the suspensorium became directed forwards and the preoperculum acquired a long lower limb, and below this lower limb appeared a new bone, the interoperculum, which looks like an anterior outgrowth of the suboperculum that segmented off in order to preserve freedom of movement. The lower jaw of the Semionotide was short and broad, probably used for crushing shells ; in relation to this, another new bone, the symplectic, was developed to articulate with its hinder end external to the quadrate articulation. The characters diagnostic of the sub-class Neopterygu, the abbreviate heterocercal or homocercal caudal fin, the dorsal and anal rays equal in number to and directly articulated with their skeletal supports, the presence of an interoperculum and of a symplectic, were all adaptive when first acquired and were related to a change in food and in feeding habits. The Semionotide gave rise to a number of distinct families, two of which are of special interest. The Eugnathide were active, predacious fishes, resembling the Paleoniscide in the size of the mouth, the denti- tion, and the form of the fins. But although the dorsal rays have m- creased in number and become concentrated, the dorsal fin is quite unlike that of the Palsoniscide, for the skeletal supports have imereased in number with the rays; similarly the forked caudal fin differs in that its upper lobe is formed by the outgrowth of fin-rays and does not include the upturned end of the tail. The resemblances between the Paleoniscide and the Eugnathide are adaptive ; the differences are not adaptive, but historical, due to the Semionotid ancestry of the Eugnathide. The Jurassic Pholidophoride, also derived from the Semionotide, were extremely like herrings in shape, in the form and position of the fins, and in the rather small and feebly toothed mouth ; doubtless they were plankton-feeders. In correlation with the small size of the teeth the jaws were slightly built and the symplectic articulation with the lower jaw was lost ; the presence of this bone became a historical character. Towards the end of the Jurassic the Pholidophoride gave rise to a group of larger D.—ZOOLOGY. 83 and more active fishes, essentially similar in structure to the modern Tarpon, which chases and devours the schools of small fry of other fishes. n relation to these more active habits the lobes of the caudal fin became longer and more divergent and the rays of the upper lobe, which in the Pholidophoridz were supported by the centra and hzmal spines of the upturned end of the vertebral column, acquired a firmer support by the enlargement and welding together of the neural spines of some of these vertebre, which replaced functionally and caused the disappearance of the upturned centra. This structure, thus and for this purpose first acquired by the Tarpon-like fishes, persists in all the multitude of modern fishes derived from them, whatever their habits, whatever the size and shape of their caudal fin. And in comparing the herrings with the Pholi- dophoridz we see that the difference in caudal structure is due to the arpon ancestry of the herrings. At the present day the perch-like fishes are dominant in the coastal waters of tropical and subtropical seas. One might have thought that when the anterior rays of the dorsal fin had become strong, sharp spines, weapons of attack and defence, further modifications would be unlikely ; but in different offshoots of the perch tribe many extraordinary modifica- tions of the spinous dorsal fin occur. In the flat-fishes, where undulating movements of the whole dorsal fin are required, the spines have been reconyerted into jointed, flexible rays; in the angler-fishes the spinous rays have become flexible and the first has moved on to the snout and has been modified into a line and bait. In the sucker-fishes the spimous dorsal fin has been transformed into a transversely laminated suctorial isc placed on the upper surface of the head; when this disc is applied to the skin of a shark or of some other marine animal, the lamine, or modified fin-rays, are erected and a series of vacuum chambers is formed between them. I put forward this example of the sucker-fishes (Echenevs) us one that can be interpreted only on the assumption that a change of habits preceded a change of structure. In swift-swimming pelagic fishes the spines of the dorsal fin are either short or slender and can be depressed within a groove so as not to impede rapid motion through the water ; the pilot-fish is a fish of this type that has the habit of associating with tks. Some similar fish might have found that a spinous dorsal fin with s structure could be used for adhesion if the margins of the groove e pressed against the skin of the shark and the spines were slightly ected; the habit of trying to adhere once established, the evolution of the suctorial disc would follow. Throughout, the evolution of fishes illustrates the same principles. whi anges of structure have been intimately related to, and may even be d to have been determined by, changes of habits, and especially changes of food and of feeding habits. Evolution has been adaptive, but modifica- ions of structure that were originally adaptive persist when they are 0 longer; they become historical and the basis for further adaptive fications. Iam satisfied that these principles, which I have illustrated xamples from the group I have specially studied, have a general cation. @Q 84 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. pre-eminent for his wide knowledge and his great reasoning powers, who mew the facts that had to be explained and gave us a theory that ex- plained them. The ‘ Origin of Species ’ still remains the one book essential for the student of evolution. Darwin has been criticised, because, we are told, he did not know that there were two sorts of variations—mutations, which are inherited, and fluctuations, which vary about a mean and are not inherited. But when you point out to a mutationist that the heredity of many fluctuating variations has been proved—parents above the mean, for example, giving ofispring above the mean—he tells you that that shows that the variation is not really fluctuating, but only apparently so, and that a large number of ‘factors’ must be involved. This is in effect a complete withdrawal, for it amounts to an admission that Darwin was right if he considered that these types of variation differed only in size and frequency. But there are other critics who admit that at any rate some fluctuations are inherited, but who say that the effect produced on a population by selection is limited ; elimination of certain types will change the average, but will produce nothing new. This criticism has also, as it seems to me, been disproved experimentally ; for example, by De Vries, who from two © plants of clover in which a few leaves were four-lobed produced by selec- tion a variety in which the number of lobes of the leaves varied from three to seven, fluctuating about a mean of five. Incidentally this experiment shows the relation between mutations and fluctuations. The criticism that many specific characters are non-adaptive merely amounts to this, that we do not know the meaning of many specific characters. And we are not likely to for a long time, for a prolonged study would be necessary to understand fully the meaning of the differences between any two species, to determine which characters were adaptive, which historical, which due to the environment, and which the expression of metabolic differences. But if these criticisms of the natural selection theory can be met it does not follow that it is a complete theory. It may be a sufficient — explanation of certain types of evolution, and one cannot wonder that those who have studied mimicry in insects are firmly convinced of its truth ; but the evolution of the Dodo, and of the blind fishes of subterranean waters, put rather a strain on the theory and almost demand the recogni- tion of the inheritance of the effects of use and disuse. And if this be admitted, if the adaptive responses of an organism to changed habits and changed conditions make it possible for subsequent — generations to respond with greater effect, then the part played by natural selection in evolution of this kind would be subsidiary, the selection of those individuals who responded earlier or better than their fellows. How well this idea fits in with that fundamental generalisation, the law of recapitulation, which states that ontogeny tends to repeat phylogeny, and that the more remote the ancestor the earlier it will be represented in the developmental history !_ This generalisation, based on embryological data, has since received strong support from paleontological evidence. No doubt all of you are aware that a flat-fish when first hatched is symmetrical and swims vertically, but that at an early age one eye migrates round the top of the head to the other side, and the little fish sinks to the bottom and henceforth lives with the eyed side uppermost. But perhaps” D.—ZOOLOGY. 85 all of you do not know that it has been shown that almost as soon as the fish is hatched the cartilaginous supraorbital bar above the eye that is _ going to migrate begins to be absorbed, and is eventually represented only by short processes of the otic and ethmoid cartilages, with a wide gap between them; through this gap the eye migrates, with the result that when ossification begins the main part of one frontal bone is on the wrong side of its eye. The flat-fishes are an offshoot of the perch group, and it is known that some of these have a habit of resting on one side ; if such a fish found it profitable to lie in wait for its prey in this position, it would naturally try to make some use of the eye of the under-side, pressing it upwards against the edge of the frontal bone. And in the flat-fishes the migration of the eye into and across the territory of the frontal bone, prepared for by the absorption of the cartilaginous precursor of the frontal bone before the eye shows any sign of migration, may well be interpreted as the final stage of a process thus initiated. You will have seen, then, that I am inclined to accept Darwin’s theory as a whole, including both natural selection and the inherited effects of use and disuse, at any rate until some better explanation of the facts is forthcoming. But still there are difficulties and to illustrate them I must "give one more example from the fishes. The most primitive spiny-rayed fishes are the Berycoids, which flourished in Cretaceous times; in some of these the vertebrae number 24, 10 precaudal and 14 caudal. In many families of Percoids, not at all closely related to each other, we find this number of vertebre is a constant family character ; for example, all the genera and species of Sea- breams (Sparide), Red Mullets (Mullide), Cheetodonts (Chetodontide), Gray Mullets (Mugilide), and Barracudas (Sphyrenidz) have 24 (10+ 14) vertebre. The conclusion is inevitable that this is a primitive Percoid ‘character derived from a Berycoid ancestor. Yet we have clear evidence that whenever the circumstances demanded it this number could be decreased or increased. There is no variation and therefore no material for selection; also the number of vertebre is settled at a very early stage, and no fish can increase or diminish that number in its lifetime. Psettodes, the most primitive living flat-fish, has 24 (10+ 14) vertebre ; it is simply an asymmetrical perch. It has a large mouth and strong, sharp teeth, and its principal movements are probably short dashes after fishes that come near enough to be caught. But in other flat-fishes the number of vertebree is greater ; in the sole, which feeds on small invertebrates that it finds in the sand, and swims along with undulating movements of the whole body, the number is about fifty, and in the Tongue-Soles (Cyno- glossus) there may be as many as seventy vertebre. ; We are almost compelled to believe that muscular movements, the efforts of a fish to swim in a certain way, may lead to an alteration in the number of muscle segments of its descendants ; the number of vertebre is, of course, determined by the number of muscle segments. This is an extension of the Lamarckian theory, and some of you may regard it as a teleological speculation unworthy of serious consideration ; some may even _ think that, as my suggested explanation is incredible, we have here another example of the truth of the mutation theory, which in effect states that it is only by accident that a structure has a function. Many biologists have adopted Weismann’s germ-plasm hypothesis so 86 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. whole-heartedly that they seem to regard it as a final disproof of Lamarck’s theory. But when we consider that in progressive evolution, as in the — development of the individual, increasing complexity of structure and localisation of functions is accompanied by co-ordination of the activities of all the parts, that differentiation and integration go together and the organism remains a unit, the so-called “inheritance of acquired characters’ seems no more unlikely in the most advanced Metazoa than in the simplest unicellular organisms ; and in some of these it has been proved. When I read Huxley’s essays as an undergraduate I was greatly impressed with his remark that ‘Suffer fools gladly’ was very good advice. If a man does not agree with you, try to find out why he thinks as he does; you may discover the weakness of your own position. We should not adopt theories as creeds and denounce other theories as heresies. We are more likely to make progress towards the solution of the problem of evolution if we keep open minds and take broad views. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF MAP-MAKING. ADDRESS BY A. R. HINKS, C.B.E., F.B.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. As Geographers we count ourselves happy that we are met this year in the beautiful town of Southampton—an ancient borough well fitted by its pride of place in the maritime history of England, by its splendid geographical setting, its scientific renown as the seat of the Ordnance Survey, its remarkable modern development of natural advantages, and _ its traditional hospitality, to receive us with that blend of serious intention and discreet gaiety which the cities of England know so well how to offer to the British Association. As your President in this Section I count _ myself especially fortunate: for it is no small advantage to me that I find myself addressing you in a place where it is natural to speak in the language of the cartographer, surveyor, and geodesist. Our science of geography uses several strange tongues and jargons that have something the appear- ance of English: but I have little practice in them. I have never, with our great poet-geographer, wandered in my dreams On banks of consequential streams Until my weary head was fain To rest upon a peneplain. SECTION E—GEOGRAPHY. I know next to nothing of those mysterious adjectival objects, ‘Woollens,’ that figure so largely in the geographical education of the modern young. Still less am I able to compete with our senior General Secretary or with the late Director-General of the Ordnance Survey in arguing that ever-attractive question: What is included in the scope of Geography ? I am ready to agree with the former that ‘Geography . essays to discover what happens where, and to explain why any- thing which happens, happens just when it does; and under what combination of circumstances it does happen, just then’; or with the latter that there is no accepted definition of Geography, but it is a popularisation of geodesy, surveying, cartography, geology, climatology, and ethnology. At the risk of getting into as much trouble with the Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society as he did over it, I will go nearly so far with him, provided that I am not called upon to discuss the grounds of my beliefs. Rather than do that, in this town where the language of ‘cartography must be in every mouth, would I ask leave to discuss the Science and Art of Map-making—the Science which has made so notable ‘an advance, and the Art which has suffered in some respects so lamentable a decline since the heroic days of Saxton and Hondius and Norden, of Mercator and Blaeu. 88 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. But before I embark upon my main adventure, there is a pious duty to perform. Southampton reckoned among its citizens for many years a man whose name will live for ever in the abstruse literature of geodesy ; yet I doubt very much whether, if one had enquired a few months ago of the Mayor and Corporation, who was the most distinguished citizen of Southampton in the nineteenth century, they would have replied with one voice, ‘ Colonel Clarke.’ The name of Alexander Ross Clarke must not be forgotten by the town which his genius adorned ; and I am happy to think that steps have been taken at last to mark the house where he lived, for no man ever better deserved remembrance. He came back from service in Canada to the Ordnance Survey in 1854. By 1858 he had published, under the direction of Sir Henry James, the monumental volume describing the triangulation of the United Kingdom, and with it his first determination of the Figure of the Earth. In 1866, under the same direction, was published his Comparison of the Standards of Length, and as an appendix his second Figure, tucked inconspicuously away with not a word about it on the title-page. I sometimes wonder if the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, who have made Clarke’s Figure of 1866 the standard for the North American Continent, would know at once where to find the original memoir. The years passed by, and Lieut.-Colonel Clarke remained still a subordinate of the Chief who held his post for life. In 1880 he published his treatise on Geodesy—the first and last book of its kind in our language, now become very scarce and irreplaceable. It included his famous Third Figure (if it was not the fourth). Next year Clarke suddenly resigned his position on the Ordnance Survey and his interest in Geodesy. He lived until 1914; but in those thirty-three years of retirement he could not be induced even to publish a second edition of his treatise, and to any enquirer he replied courteously, but firmly, that he had given up the subject. It was a great scientific tragedy, and the fault not of any man but of a system. I shall regret as long as I live that the British Delegation at Madrid last autumn did not make a concerted fight for Clarke’s Figure of 1880 as the Standard Figure of the Earth. I will not dwell on the sad story. The last act in the Clarke tragedy is too painfully fresh in my memory. But a grave mistake was made that day when it was decided by the narrowest of majorities that a brand new figure of the Earth, derived from a restricted part of it, by a process which is the subject of controversy, should be imposed upon a generally reluctant world as the collective wisdom of a plenary International Conference. Let us turn to more agreeable and less controversial topics. The progress of invention has placed in the hands of surveyors a number of beautiful new methods, and some we have not yet scientifically explored. Would you measure a base? So far from painfully seeking a dead-level plain and clearing it of every petty obstruction, you will gaily take the suspended invar tapes across country, and by preference run them up a hill at each end to get a better view for the base extension. Would you equip a party for primary triangulation? Look thankfully at Ramsden’s 36-inch theodolite reposing in the museum of the Ordnance Survey ; look doubtfully at the fashionable 10-inch; and before you take it any more into the field, examine whether the instrument of the future is not a 5-inch constructed on the new principles of Mr. Henry Wild, with circles etched EE — =— E.—GEOGRAPHY. 89 on glass, and parallel plate micrometer that reads opposite points of the circle from the eye-end and takes the mean for you. When you lay out the triangulation, consider well the recent opinion of the U.S. C.G.S., that it is better to be content with small triangles easily accessible, with automatic electric beacons tended by a party in a car, than to make enormous efforts at rays longer than Nature easily allows. And bear in mind a remark which our lamented friend Colonel Edmund Grove-Hills made to me not long before his death. I was saying how necessary it was to complete as soon as possible the late Sir David Gill’s great arc of meridian in Africa ; and to my horror Hills referred contemptuously to the meridian arc as an ‘obsolete method.’ He did not pursue the idea; but I think we can see what was in his mind, and that he was right. The old-fashioned arc stuck to the meridian or the parallel with a sublime disregard of the topographer’s convenience. It had infrequent bases measured with pomp and ceremony. It had occasional astronomical latitudes and azimuths observed with an almost painful degree of internal precision by heavy instruments and prolonged sojourn on uncomfortable heights. We can see now how mistaken it all was. The purpose of these astronomical observations was to compare the geodetic with the astronomical latitudes, as a contribution to the Figure of the Earth. But what use to aim at single tenths of seconds in the latter, when on the average they were divergent by several seconds owing to local deviations of the vertical? Our real need is for a latitude at every triangulation point, and those points thick upon the ground. ‘ Obsolete’ was Hills’ word for the meridian arc; and I think we shall not find it too strong, when we look at a graphical plot of the contribution to our problem which Gill’s arc in South Africa can make. It amounts to very little, because, as I made bold to show at the Madrid Conference, the results are incon- sistent with any correction to the semi-axis and the flattening. Or look in the same way at that beautiful enterprise of General Bourgeois and the Academy of Sciences, in remeasuring the famous ‘ Arc de Pérou.’ We have only to plot the results to see at once that they tell us nothing, except that the irregular local deviations of gravity have overwhelmed any indication that the Figure of the Earth requires correction. It seems that we shall be driven back to the old network stretching far and wide across the country like the triangulation of Great Britain; and that raises problems which can hardly be discussed here. But let me not for one moment be taken as disparaging the practical value of Gill’s great -achievement. It has proved invaluable as a framework on which to hang boundary surveys. It stretches a long skeleton from Port Elizabeth to near Tanganyika—ready to be clothed with topographical maps ; and still lying in stark nakedness, for there is something in self-government that is antipathetic to map-making. Our Crown Colonies are getting pretty well provided with maps, thanks in great measure to the work of that Colonial Survey Committee which was so active early in the century, and _ which we hope was not a casualty in the war. But our self-governing - Dominions have not always much to boast of. Let me mention a bad example. When the Union of South Africa wanted to make a small relief ~ map of Natal to be shown at Wembley last year, they sent round to the _ Geographical Society for material, and were staggered to find that we _ could not supply it, for the good reason that Natal has never been mapped. 90 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. They had discovered it to their cost in 1899, they found it out again in 1924 ; and it seems only too likely that if an emergency arises in 1949, it will be discovered once more, for nothing has been done. This is a well-worn subject, and geographers are getting tired of asking whether there is yet a single topographical sheet to be bought in Australia. I believe that the answer is still, No: though there are some thirty sheets for official use produced by the Department of Defence as an earnest of the thousands that are wanted to cover the Continent. Canada has now a first-rate geodetic survey and the beginning of a good topographical map; but it is a big country that began survey very late, and its settle- ment is marching faster than its maps. Thanks to the labours of Mr. Wallace, we do know at last, what Lord Southesk never did, where he went on his journey of 1859 in the Rockies, but there is still no published map good enough to show the route upon. May I turn aside for a moment to propound a question this suggests, to which I have never yet found any adequate reply : What is the extent of the permanent harm that is done to a country by cutting it up into squares ; into ranges and townships, as the Canadians say ? In the flat prairie the effect is simple. It makes people drive about / 2times as far, on the average, as they need. But in broken country with a real and significant and compelling topography, the damage is obviously far graver; and I think that to assess the damage would make a very interesting thesis for some research degree in a Canadian university. And there is a pleasant problem ahead wherever the regular topo- graphical survey based on triangulation carried from afar invades the system of squares laid out astronomically. For geodetic and astronomical points will never fit. In local deviation. of gravity a second of arc is relatively nothing. But its equivalent of 100 ft. is mighty noticeable in the position of a boundary pillar, and it may very well be that the know- ledge of trouble to come is a real though unavowed ingredient in the dis- taste for regular survey which marks some governments. Nevertheless, there is much to be said for astronomical as against geodetic positions in a large unsettled and especially a thickly forested country. You can find where you ought to be on the map by an isolated fix, as a sailor does ; and that is not always possible otherwise. ; And this brings us back to new methods of survey. It is a commonplace of books that the surveyor in the field can always find latitude or azimuth, but is in difficulty with his longitude. That is no longer true. The rapid establishment of powerful time signals has made it possible to get longi- tude as exactly as latitude, and this must have a profound effect on further survey, exalting the astronomical at the expense of the trigonometrical ; facilitating marvellously the rapid reconnaisance survey; putting off the drastic remedy of triangulation ; but heaping up trouble in the future. On the other hand, the method of wireless longitudes will tend to the solution of two great problems, one of respectable position and one a little parvenu. Is the equator a circle ? No one has yet certainly challenged it, though Clarke and others have done their best with inadequate means. Are the continents floating, or rather sliding about slowly ona sima-slide ? We are generally agreed that Wegener has not proved his case, because he had a naif trust in astronomical longitudes palpably weak. Yet the question has been deemed worthy of a serious and costly enterprise, warmly advocated E.—GEOGRAPHY. 9] by General Ferrié, and gradually assuming, I think we may say, without offence to that great enthusiast, a much more acceptable shape than the rather hard and unadaptable outline that was a little criticised by British geodesists and astronomers two years ago. The need of a strong central authority is as evident in Wireless Time Signalling as it is in the organisation of Broadcast. Happily for geo- graphers, the astronomers have organised themselves well since the War into a Union with thirty-two Commissions. The Union spends half its whole income on the sustenance of the Bureau International de |’ Heure, over which one of the Commissions exercises a general control. The prodigality of the Union, stated thus, is impressive. In cold fact, its contributions, fixed unfortunately in French francs, do not go very far to pay the cost of the service, which can be carried on only because the Director of the Paris Observatory has not hesitated to place the instru- mental resources and the magnificent house-room of his Observatory at the disposal of the Bureau ; while the keen interest of General Ferrié has secured the benevolent and beneficent co-operation of the French radio- telegraphic services, military and civil. Geographers owe a great debt of gratitude to the French in this matter. But we hope that the British Government: will not rest content with the modest part which Great Britain has played up to the present in this great development. The pro- gramme of the B.I.H. has shown up to now clear signs of spasmodic and rather lop-sided growth, while it did not provide for the principal needs of the surveyor in the field in Africa, A recent rather drastic revision made at Cambridge last month has cut off the superfluities and greatly improved the system; but it leaves a very evident place for Great Britain to fill. We have—or shall have soon—an ‘ Imperial Wireless Chain’ stretched out from the new station at Rugby to the furthest Dominions ; and we shall miss a great dramatic opportunity if from the opening of this service we do not insist that time signals from Greenwich shall be sent from Rugby and retransmitted in each link of the chain, that all Britain’s Dominions beyond the seas, her ships on the ocean, and her travellers wherever they may be, shall be able to take Greenwich Mean Time direct from the source. Let it not be thought that this would be overlapping the International Service. Our ideal should be an hourly service of accurate time all over the world, though that will not be realised at once ; but we in Great Britain could make a notable contribution to it by a well-chosen pair of signals straddled between the signals of the B.I.H. The technique of time trans- mission has been so greatly improved in these last years that there is no serious difficulty about it ; and of the Imperial services for which the Rugby station is built, there can be none, I think, more really, ifmodestly, useful than the propagation of Greenwich Mean Time throughout the Empire. The Science of Cartography is based upon the sciences of precise Survey, and I make no apology for having dwelt for some time on the methods of securing the foundations. But when these are well and truly laid, it is time to press forward the visible building—the maps—and a problem we share with the larger world is that of building withspeed and economy, not regarding too closely the interests vested in the old methods, but prepared if it seems wise to reinforce the ancient crafts with new. Two new powers have been added to the cartographer in these last years : flight to give him range of vision, and the stereoscopic plotter to give his 92 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. photographie vision a new sense. For I do not exaggerate when I use those words—a new sense—to describe the power which the stereoscopic measure- ment of pairs of photographs has given the surveyor of topographical detail. Colonel Laussedat in France, Mr. Deville in Canada, were pioneers in the simple measurement of photographs, searching for pairs of recognis- able points, and deriving their distances and heights by a tedious compu- tation or construction. The brilliant idea that at least part of this could be done automatically was due to Captain Vivian Thompson, an assistant instructor in the Survey School at Chatham ; and I well remember seeing his process in embryo when I was first introduced to the pleasant delights of survey by my god-father in that art, Sir Charles Close. But Thompson’s machine was lamentably poor in construction; and those who used it seem to have loved it little. The credit of extending and perfecting the beautiful but marvellously simple geometry belongs to an Austrian, Lieut. von Orel; and of translating the geometry into sweetly-working mechanism to the German firm of Zeiss. No more beautiful piece of optical machinery has ever been made, I willingly believe, thanthe Stereoautograph of von Orel and Zeiss. But they made a sad mistake in marketing it, granting exclusive rights over a terri- tory to an individual, and demanding from him not only ‘a heavy price for the outfit, but a large and perpetual royalty on his gross receipts as a stereoautographer. So strange a method of selling a scientific instrument was never known before. Imagine the plight of the stereoscopic surveyor in Tibet confronted with an injunction obtained by the Concessionnaire for Nepal if he dared photograph the South Peak of Mount Everest. Happily there is more than one mechanical and optical solution of the problem, and at least four different machines are now in the field abroad, while a fifth is under construction in this country to the order of the Air Survey Committee. We are thus fortunately saved from the reproach that nothing has been done in this our country to develop a method first devised by an Englishman. But we may feel that our instrument-makers and our surveyors have been a little unenterprising ; and there is nothing I would like to see more than a real effort, with adequate means, to try out stereographic surveying on geographical scales. We know well enough that the stereoautograph can deal marvellously with a small piece of country on a large scale; but what has never yet been shown is that it can deal with a large piece of country on a small scale. It will contour for you an inaccessible cliff at 1-metre intervals on the scale 1/5000 ; but can it or a rival be made to tackle 100-metre intervals on the scale 1/250,000? That is a question which has never yet been answered, and I believe that it is our duty to answer it. Along the northern frontiers of India in the ranges of the Himalaya are at least 10,000 perma- nently snow-clad peaks. I have heard from the lips of an Indian Survey officer the deplorable remark that a certain rather rough method was “ good enough for the mountains.’ No true geographer would admit that anything short of the very best is good enough for the grandest mountain region in the whole world ; yet it is easy enough to see that the surveyor had a certain justification. So long as the inch-to-the-mile map is in- complete in the plains, we can hardly expect it in the mountains. Yet a really accurate map on the scale, say,1/250,000, cannot be deemed superfluous for defence ; and even the poor geographer or traveller is entitled to ask fi.—_ GEOGRAPHY. 93 for it. How is it to be obtained ? Will stereoscopic survey do anything for us ? I feel certain that the answer is Yes; but much less certain thatthe photographs should, at least in the first instance, be taken from the air, which seems to be contemplated by the advanced school, and taken for granted by the newspapers. Air photography made a brilliant success jn the War, when the cost was not too severely scrutinised. It did its best work in France, but demanded a pretty close plane table survey of well-marked points, to give it a rigid skeleton. In the East it also did well, but perhaps on the ground that any sort of patchwork mosaic was a good deal better than nothing at all. In peace we have to approach the problem with the fear of the Treasury in our hearts, and with more respect for that sort of precision which lets one go on in an orderly way for ever, without leaving accumulations of errors ‘ to be absorbed in the _ desert,’ as they say in the Sudan. Now, photographs taken with axis vertical cover a surprisingly small ground, even from extreme heights. With a lens of 6 in. focal length, about the minimum, you must go to 25,000 ft. to get a result on the scale 1/50,000, and then you can photograph only about three miles square on each plate. Flying at ninety miles an hour you must take plates every few seconds to avoid getting too much stereoscopic relief. It looks as if vertical photographs combined stereoscopically will fail in mountainous country. I turn to obliques. The photographs taken in the air are taken from unknown points, and the first thing to do is to determine the position of the camera at the instant of exposure. This requires at least three recognisable fixed points on each plate ; and the first adjective is as essential as the second. The geometry of the method is none too strong, anyhow, and we could not expect to find the resulting place of the aeroplane with anything like the accuracy of a ground station. This leads me to think that stereographic survey from ground stations will be found to play an indispensable part in the future survey of mountainous country. Suppose, for example, that political difficulties did not exist, and that we were able to survey the country south of Mount Everest. I think I would rather start out with a series of camera stations along the Singalela ridge, and fix all the visible crests stereographically with horizontal axes and vertical plates. A large part of the ground would be dead ground ; _ but quite a good deal could be putin. Would this not solve the question of providing a fixed framework for the obliques from the air, perhaps ‘combining each with a plate from a ground station, rather than in pairs of obliques? It will at any rate be worth the trial; and therefore I am anxious that we should not fail to exploit the relatively easy and in- expensive ground stations, while we are perfecting the vastly more difficult process of the oblique air photograph. And that is the reason why I would urge a start with the best of existing apparatus: though which that is I am not at present prepared to say, for there are several models in the field, including a new one by the ingenious Mr. Wild, already mentioned. I suppose there never was a time when it was more difficult than now - to forecast the future in surveying. We have seen already that Geodesy is in a state of flux; we are not even allowed to believe that the pole or the continents stand fast in their right places. The methods that were 94 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES, canonical in field astronomy a few years ago are being rapidly displaced by new. The prismatic astrolabe is threatening to oust the theodolite ; and Mr. Reeves has retaliated by inventing a small attachment to the theodolite that does the work of the astrolabe to perfection, and makes a separate instrument unnecessary. Sound-ranging and flash-spotting may yet be turned to the arts of peace, and there is something suspiciously like the latter in the method proposed for connecting Egypt with Crete or Alaska with Siberia. Sound-ranging in air is perhaps not so likely to be useful to geographers as sound-ranging in water. But there is a post- War invention whose future is brilliant. Who would have dreamed in the Challenger that her modern counterpart, the Royal Research ship Discovery, would be equipped with deep-sounding gear on the method of echoes, that takes soundings in no time, or very nearly. It has become suddenly vastly more simple to measure the depth of the sea than the height of the land. There is much more sea than land, and a dispro- portionate part of it is very deep. Yet now for the first time we can begin to think of ocean contours drawn less by imagination and more by soundings in the new sense of the word. If there was twenty years ago one branch of cartography that seemed stereotyped and unlikely to develop, it was surely the subject of map projections—a subject with a large and rather unprofitable literature ; a science in which pure mathematics disported itself to the little advantage of maps; a science with a misleading title, since scarcely more than one of the useful projections is really a projection at all, the rest being only constructions ; a science in which guiding principles were hard to find. The most practically useful has always seemed to me the dictum of Sir Charles Close, that map-makers should draw the line at the root of minus one. The true geometrical projections had come down to us from antiquity, excepting that elegant small group of which the best known is the projection of Sir Henry James, which I think has been employed precisely once, by Sir Henry James himself. Mercator had constructed empirically in the sixteenth century the famous and much-abused projec- tion that Edmund Wright first put upon a strict mathematical foundation, though it could not be done neatly until Napier of Merchiston invented logarithms a few years later. Lambert had provided a whole galaxy of projections more than amply sufficient for the most adventurous atlas constructor, who nevertheless fought shy of them ; and in the middle of last century the Coast and Geodetic Survey popularised the useful and unambitious Polyconic, whose sad fate it is to be completely misrepresented in books that give figures—for they insist on showing as a world map what was especially designed for single sheets. The projections in common use were all, except Mercator, of little mathematical interest; and when exhibited, as they were, as isolated pieces of geometry, it was tedious, and hardly attempted, to compare their respective merits. But in recent years the subject has taken on a new aspect. Tissot, and Jordan, and especially A. EK. Young, have developed the expressions in infinite series—a process which sounds terrifying to those whose intelligences automatically shut up when they scent mathematics, but which is really an enormous simplification, because it reveals at once how much alike all these projections are in the first few terms, and precisely by how much they begin to diverge from one another when the sheet is E.— GEOGRAPHY. 95 extended. Moreover, this way of dealing with the subject allows the conscientious cartographer to distribute the errors judiciously by a process of cooking the projection, producing a flavour much appreciated by the connoisseur, though a taste not yet acquired by the common mapmaker. But these refinements must not be looked at askance, as over-elaboration tending to preciosity. They have real practical advantages in the com- puting office, and strange though it may seem, the most interesting theoretically were inspired by the practical needs of the Allied Armies in the field. They have changed the whole aspect of the subject; and I _ speak feelingly as the guilty author of a text-book only thirteen years old, on a subject more than two thousand, which must at the first opportunity be entirely re-written. | This branch of our venerable science is therefore very much alive. Tt has even produced of late two new families—the retro-azimuthal projections which are the offspring of the-Survey of Egypt, and the doubly- zenithal whose father is Sir Charles Close. The former guides the Muslim in his prostration towards Mecca; the latter serves wireless direction- finding and other devices of the twentieth century. Could a student _ desire a subject of wider scope in which to exercise his powers ? The thought of the very charming modification of the Polyconic : projection devised by M. Charles Lallemand for the International Map on _ the scale of one in a million, leads us naturally to consider the outcome of that ambitious programme which was launched at the London Conference of 1909. The second conference of 1913, at Paris, established a Central : Bureau for the map in the offices of the Ordnance Survey, and we have already had the advantage in this section of hearing from its Secretary a valuable statement of the situation. I sometimes wonder ii Major MacLeod, in that august position, looks back with a fond regret or with a righteous indignation upon the quite irregular enterprise in which he and I were partners during the early days of the War. In the beginning of August 1914 two officers of the Survey of India, on sick leave in London, and officially forbidden to work, spent their enforced leisure at the house of the Royal Geographical Society preparing a skeleton map of the Western Front on the scale of 1/500,000. A proposal to reduce it to 1/1,000,000 led, quite naturally, to a little scheme for rapidly compiling a few sheets of the International Map covering Central Europe, of which Colonel Hedley admitted that six might be useful. By the end of the War our volunteer ‘staff had compiled nearly one hundred sheets, and the War Office and Ordnance Survey had published them. We learned our job from Major ‘MacLeod in those hectic months before he was passed fit and went away ‘to win distinction in France and on the Rhine. The map to which he contributed about five sheets to every one that his colleagues could make ‘was a rapid improvisation, keeping as near as might be to the scheme of the International Map. It was rough compilation, and not too accurate, but it spread across Europe and the Near East in a slow continuous expansion, and I do not think that more than half a dozen of the sheets have as yet been superseded by the legitimate offspring of the Convention. For this there are the best, or worst, of reasons. Difficult as it was to secure enthusiastic co-operation before 1914 in producing sheets whose _ marginal lines were necessarily drawn on a hard geometrical convention _ regardless of frontiers, it is trebly difficult now. 96 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. But I think it is fair to enquire if the original scheme was sound, The history of international scientific enterprises is not uniformly encouraging. The International Chart of the Heavens was projected in 1887, and begun about 1891, under rigid rules to secure uniformity. It was even proposed that all the plates should be developed by a uniform formula. About twenty years later it was found necessary to publish a guide to the published catalogues, because no two observatories had used the same system, and it was impossible without a guide to find the way about in them. This was an extreme example. But there is an old proverb that if you want a thing well done you must do it yourself, and with suitable modification this seems to me to apply especially to mapmaking. It is difficult enough for a single office to produce at intervals sheets that will absolutely match their neighbours. To expect uniformity from twenty or thirty reproduction offices is to expect altogether too much. One might indeed overlook slight differences in layer tints if one could only get the maps; but that is just the difficulty. Some countries are keen to meet their obligations, and some are not. India has produced a fine block of sheets ; the North American Continent—I will not particularise— has produced three. And J think we should find if we took a census that the majority of the Powers represented at Paris in 1913 have produced none, and show few signs of doing so. With some trepidation I suggest, therefore, that the scheme for an International Map was bound to fail, because it required that each of many different countries should do its share, after a preliminary wrangle with its neighbours as to what that share was. Successful international co-operations have never worked that way. What has been the guiding principle of the successful enterprises? Surely that the reputed cost should be contributed by the nations in rough proportion to their populations, and that the work should be done by one. The Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, the old International Geodetic Association’s Institute, the modern Bureau International de l’Heure, all these work or worked on that plan, with great success. The contributing nations get a great deal for a very small payment, and the nation which has the energy to take on the responsibility, and gets the credit, naturally contributes from its own resources, directly or indirectly, a large and essential part of the total cost. The International Map is a bigger thing altogether, but I believe that the same principle applies to it, that it will never become really successful until some one establishment undertakes the whole production, on com- pilations supplied if you like by each country, and perhaps on some scale of payment for each sheet produced. Such organisation would solve a real present difficulty, that when the maps are produced it is difficult to buy them. No dealer in London, for example, finds that it pays to stock — the scattered sheets that are produced in ones or twos in different capitals ; and I do not suppose that in any country it is easier. Moreover, the world was not ripe for a general map on the scale of 1/1,000,000 : a smaller scale will do at present for Africa and Asia; and — it is far more important to get a general map out quick, though the scale be smaller, than to aim at a uniform scale disproportionate to the available — detail, The Survey of India has set us an admirable example in its map © of India and Adjacent Countries, with a liberal interpretation of what : E.—GEOGRAPHY. 97 adjacent means. We followed their example in a humble way at the R.G.S. when, during the War, we compiled a good part of Africa on 1/2,000,000, and began a 1/4,000,000 of Asia. When we were demobilised these projects were taken over by the G.S.G.S., and have made great progress. The map of Asia, in particular, does the greatest credit to the office which is plugging away at it. Is it beyond hope, that even in these hard times that section of the General Staff might be given means to produce a map of the ‘ British Empire and Adjacent Countries ’"—again without too much regard to the niceties of language ? Such a map of the world is indeed an almost necessary outcome of the P.C.G.N.’s work on names for British official use, for if unity of style _ could be achieved by miracle in an international map, there is no hope _ whatever for unity of spelling, or even of nomenclature. A sheet bears inevitably in its methods of transliteration the mark of its origin. We are all agreed that names in countries using the Roman alphabet should be spelled as in that country ; the difficulty comes in transliteration from the non-Roman, and in descriptive names. The International Hydro- graphic Bureau at Monaco seems to me to have entered on a hopeless quest when it tries to obtain international agreement for the names of international waters. The French must surely always call Pas de Calais and La Manche what we call the Straits of Dover and the English Channel. The Germans will doubtless continue to speak of the Ost See, even though the bishop’s wife protested to Elizabeth in Riigen that ‘ the Baltic exactly describes it.’ Much can be done, no doubt, to eliminate superfluous _ variants and modern corruptions; but I do believe that the names for * British Official Use ’ must always have a certain British flavour, however much we try to be scrupulous or even pedantic. You will agree with me, I trust, that the science of mapmaking is healthily active and growing. Let us turn now to the art, which is two- fold: the art of the convention by which the outline and the relief are reduced to the compilation, and the. personal art of drawing the detail, _ the lettering, the divided margins, the ornaments, so that the finished map _ shall be clear, harmonious, and beautiful. During the last thirty years we have seen the convention profoundly modified by the rapid improvement of colour lithography. Colour has, it is true, been used on engraved maps from the very first, and in my opinion the most agreeably coloured atlas ever published was the Rome = of Ptolemy of 1486. But this was hand colouring, and no two § = | . | copies are alike. In the years that followed the colour became more elaborate, but it was largely in the ornament, and the essential outline of _ the map was in black, from the single engraved plate. The great extension of possibilities came with the quite modern use of colour to distinguish _ the outlines of different classes: blue for rivers, brown for contours, red for roads, and so on. And the enormous resulting improvement was _ conspicuously in the representation of relief. Layer colouring in par- _ ticular, first employed on a large scale by the celebrated firm of Bar- _ tholomew, has given our maps all the advantages of a relief model without _ the inconveniences. It is a method in which the British have always excelled ; and the supreme example of skill in layer colour-printing is the ‘Gamme’ or colour scale attached to the report of the Paris Con- _ ference of the 1/Million Map in 1913: a scale which we may be proud to 1925 H 98 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. think was printed in England, and I believe at the War Office. There are infinite possibilities in the combination of layer colouring with contours, hachure, vertical and oblique hill shading ; many of them have already been realised by the Ordnance Survey, particularly in their special maps of holiday districts, and in a map of South Devon which I regretfully remember in proof only, because it was found too expensive forissue. For we must note that a modern map passes through the press eight or ten or twelve times, and the cost of the machine work, apart from all the plates, is multiplied in the same ratio. The wonder is not that maps are expensive, but that in the circumstances they are so cheap. I showed one day a particularly good example to Sir Coote Hedley, who said ‘ Yes, it has fifteen printings; I never think myself that more than eleven are justified!’ Yet most of us who like to think that we are still in the prime of life can remember when the Ordnance Survey maps were in black only. But it was black: the beautiful intense black from the engraved steel- faced plate that is never approached by any product of surface printing, to which we are for the present restricted. We should wish to believe, however, that the progress of invention may some day give us back that richness of tone that distinguishes the old engraved maps. And while I speak of invention, may I suggest to the ingenious the need of a machine for writing names on maps a good deal better than the dreadful typed names that economy too often demands? Typed names never have been a success. We have a horrid example of them as early as 1511, in the Venice edition of Ptolemy ; and equally horrid examples may be seen to-day on the latest large-scale sheets of the Ordnance Survey. Something could no doubt be done by cutting special founts of type suited to photographic reduction, and it is curious that no one has ever thought it worth while to do so. But something much more is required. We want a machine that will reproduce any letter of a dozen founts, letter by letter exactly in the right place, with that degree of flexibility that allows the skilled draughtsman to avoid the detail without noticeably spacing out the letters; to follow the curves of a river or a mountain chain, get the spot heights exactly placed about the spot, and the town signs adjusted to the names within a hundredth of an inch. Until that can be done map reproduction will remain several centuries behind printing inspeed, and the best map-work will remain terribly expensive. Mr. Reeves and I have often talked over the problem without getting any way towards a solution. I commend it to more ingenious and mechanical minds. If a solution is ever found, the skilled draughtsman need not fear that his job will be gone. On the contrary, relieved from the painful monotony of spending a day in drawing twenty or thirty names, he will have oppor- tunity to devote himself to the larger questions of artistic map draughts- manship. I remarked at the outset that this art has suffered a lamentable decline. May I devote my last few minutes to a brief examination of the matter, which is worth more attention than it has ever received, at any rate for two centuries ? A few months ago Dr. Lewis Evans presented to the University of Oxford his famous collection of early scientific instruments—astrolabes, dials, nocturnals, and other beautiful things—now most fittingly housed at the Old Ashmolean Building in the enthusiastic curatorship of Mr. Gunther, of Magdalen. At the opening ceremony the Earl of Crawford and —~— rw a ee + 4 4 a Fi ud >. 2 4 4 | ! E.—GEOGRAPHY. 99 Balcarres deplored our loss of artistry in craftsmanship and demanded that we make some effort to retrieve the position. Let us take up his challenge. Can we hope to see an artistic theodolite ? The decay in beauty in con- struction set in very long ago, with the application of optical power. Hevelius, who stood out against telescopic aid in measurement, was per- haps the last man to have a beautiful sector. Flamsteed, who had to pro- vide his own instruments for the Royal Observatory, and cannot therefore be excused on the ground that he had to take what was given him, built instruments frankly utilitarian and ugly. It was a sudden and deplorable lapse, that cannot be accounted for by any general decay in taste, for the building and furnishing of the period were unsurpassed. Yet all through the eighteenth century scientific instruments lacked even the first grace of good proportions. Their makers had a touching but ill-founded faith in the strength and rigidity of materials, and we had to wait until well on in the nineteenth century before instruments fulfilled the prime duty of behaving like steady bodies rather than tuning-forks. I think that the most we can hope for is that the modern scientific instrument shall not be unnecessarily ugly ; and we may reasonably congratulate ourselves that British instruments, like British battleships, locomotives, bicycles, cars, and other machinery, have achieved a certain distinction of style above their neighbours, which is of good augury for the future. But there is much to be said for a real effort at improvement in the style of our maps, by study rather than by imitation of the past. There is already a small school of map draughtsmen conscious of the need, but, if I may say so, too self-conscious for success, relying on the deliberately medizval or archaic, with disastrous results. They have produced. for town-planners and guide-book writers some pretty drawings, with pleasing invention of symbols, but with explanatory legends of dismal pleasantry or doggerel verse. We shall not return to a better style of map-drawing by writing ‘ Here shall ye play ye ancient game of Golfe ’ on a label, or by adorning the northern margin with the words ‘ This is ye toppe.’ But, eschewing sham archaism, we might with great profit follow the best practice of our predecessors in the following matters :— They gave the map a border or frame, and left nothing drifting about outside it. They kept the title distinct from particulars of authorship, or origin, or scale. They did not mix their styles of lettering, and they never made the hair-lines too fine. The first two are simple, but I think none the less important ; the third raises a large question. The conventional signs sheet of the International ‘Map is a useful pattern now widely followed. We could adopt the first principle without doing any violence to the convention, and design a frame to include all the explanatory matter, with a little rearrangement. But the rule of this map is that names of physical features—it would be more accurate to say of land forms—are written in block letters, so-called Egyptian, while other names are in various styles of Roman and Italic. This mixture of styles I believe was a bad mistake—bad for the appear- _ ance of the map, though doubtless serving a useful purpose. Whether it is _ possible to provide enough variety within the bounds of Roman—prefer- ably the Italian Roman—and Italic remains to be seen. But I feel confident H2 100 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. that that is the direction in which we must go if we seek to improve the artistic appearance of our maps, which we surely must do after Lord Crawford’s challenge. For after last century’s neglect and deterioration there has been in this a very marked revival of knowledge and interest in lettering. There has even been published an admirable Blue Book to show how other Blue Books ought to be printed, and still are not. The fundamental reform is to cast out all ‘ modern style’ type and all block capitals. I think we shall find that what is right in printing is equally right in map drawing and lettering. True, it is much easier to change a printer’s type than a draughtsman’s style ; and nothing can be done until we have a collection made of good examples, and from those a new conven- tional signs sheet. This I hope to see. The question will then be raised, is it worth while to make the change ? Would one person in twenty notice the difference ? Probably not at first, for I will confess to you that when, some long time ago, I had a hand in changing the type of a certain journal, not one single person remarked it. But, nevertheless, they probably felt after a time that somehow or other that journal was a good deal improved in appearance ; and I believe that the improvement would be much greater in maps. Therefore in this home of map-making, that must print twice as many sheets as any other town in the world, I plead for reversion in lettering to something like the old style of the great masters. We have already been shown this morning that the Director-General and his staff are keenly alive to the scientific side of their work, and we have only to look at any recent folded map they publish to see that they do not disdain the artistic side—at any rate the artistic outside. That is a good omen and encourages us to hope. With that hope I conclude these reflections on the Science and Art of Map-making. Ee SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. THE MEANING OF WAGES. ADDRESS BY Miss LYNDA GRIER, PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. THERE is a growing demand for the formulation of a theory of wages, a theory which shall be easy of comprehension and useful both in support of things desired and in refutation of things detested. Our friends across the Atlantic have set a price upon it ; they are offering 5,000 dollars for the best original thesis on the subject, and have engaged the services of distinguished men to decide which of the theses submitted on an economie theory has an economic value. Meanwhile laws are passed in this and other countries determining and bearing on wage rates, and international wage settlements are under discussion. It cannot be denied that the formulation of a theory of wages would give satisfaction to economists as well as to others who desire to use such a theory in practical affairs. Early economists essayed the task, but to no lasting purpose. The Iron Law of wages, the Wage Fund theory, with other theories of more or less note, have been placed on the scrap-heap of venerable antiquities, whence they are raked from time to time by those whodelight in recognising that it is almost as rare, perhaps almost as difficult, to evolve an economic theory which contains no truth as to evolve one which contains the whole truth. Modern economists for the most part content _ themselves by explaining how wages are determined under given conditions and commit themselves to no theory. While they give explanations only, other people will, if reverently minded, exalt these explanations into theories, or, if of bolder make, produce theories of their own and pour - scorn upon the timidity of academic theorists. ; It is as little within my intention as it is within my power to put for- _ ward a theory of wages. My business is one of analysis, not of construction, of restatement, not of creation. My purpose is twofold : first, to discuss certain aspects of wages, and then to review from those aspects certain _ payments made to or on behalf of employees. Let us then consider three aspects of wages, each important in its way. First, there is the distributive or competitive aspect, from which wages are regarded as a factor determining where labour shall go, who shall - command it, in what manner labour of certain types and given efficiency shall be employed. Competition between employers seeking the best workers is expressed in the wage they offer, and competition between workers seeking the best employer is expressed in the wage they accept. This competition tends to bring the wages of workers of equal efficiency to equality and to ensure that the wages of workers of unequal efficiency shall be unequal. 102 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. Taken alone, this idea of wages treats of the supply of labour as being fixed independently of the wage, and of the wage as powerful only in directing the available supply. It is therefore a short-period consideration, dealing with market price rather than normal value; as in all short- period considerations, stress is laid on the quantitative side, on the notion of value falling with an increase in the supply of labour and rising with a limitation of supply. Secondly, there is the idea of wage payment which treats of work and wages as completely interdependent, since the product of each worker constitutes his payment. The product of each worker, represented by his wage, makes an effective demand for the produce of other workers. His addition to wealth is his claim upon it. Numbers are important only if with alteration in numbers there are consequent alterations in productive power per head, or if the proportions between the different types of labour required be ill-adjusted. Finally, we may take the aspect of wage payments which is concerned with their effect on work and on the supply of workers, the wage being regarded as something that maintains the worker. These three aspects of wages are not antagonistic. It is clear from the outset that there is no contradiction between the first two, between that from which they are regarded as a distributive force and that from which they are regarded as the actual product of the wage-earner. The idea that the worker produces so much wealth and that his work is paid in proportion to the wealth he produces is, indeed, associated with the idea that the demand for and supply of such labour as he has to offer determines its value. Wages so determined are known as ‘ fair’ or ‘normal’: fair in that they are equal to those of other workers of similar capacity, normal in that they are the wages that tend to be paid under conditions of free competition. Each worker on this reckoning tends to get what his work is worth. It may be worth little. This admission does not apply only to bad workers. It certainly does apply to them, whether the badness of their work be due to bad character, bad health, or bad mental equipment. But the question is not one only of efficiency but of the type of ability and of the number of other workers possessed of that particular type. Men and women may work hard and in their own line efficiently, but there may be so many others working hard and in the same line efficiently that the force of competition may give them a wage low compared with that given for work to which no more effort is devoted but for which the demand is greater in relation to the supply. Work which is not entirely unskilled may be ill-paid if the numbers competent to do it are great. This is, perhaps, especially the case with women’s work. No one can compare the work done in clothing factories in the machinery rooms in which women are employed with some of the work done in the cutting-rooms by men without admitting that the difference in the wage overestimates the difference in skill. Professor Edgeworth, in discussing from this Chair three years ago the low wages of women workers, gave as a powerful cause of such wages the overcrowding of women into certain occupations. Moreover, dull jobs; monotonous jobs, and unpleasant jobs largely tend to be done by workers receiving low wages. For the most part people —d .. f ‘- ¥ . f.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 103 receive more pay for amusing jobs, varied jobs, and, up to a point, pleasant jobs, because there are, in proportion to the demand, fewer people able to do these. Those engaged on them belong to fairly high grades, qualities being required which, whether owing to heredity or educational advantages, are comparatively rare. Where the powers are equal it is true enough that any charm belonging to the work will lower the wages. I remember a discussion, initiated by a group of business men on the startling differences between their own incomes and those of professional workers of at least equal ability and more expensive training, being brought to a close by a member of the group saying that he supposed members of the professional classes were paid in self-satisfaction. It is probably true that men and women depress the rates in certain professions simply through their liking for the work. Few would object to rates being lowered in this fashjon. Those who earn them accept pleasure in their work in lieu of money. But for the most part earnings are low in occupations that offer no special attractions and are filled by workers who, thanks to heredity, or sex, or environment, have little chance of entering others. The able man or woman has not only the fun of being clever, but the advantage of high earnings through belonging to a grade in which the numbers are relatively small. Work for which the ‘ normal’ or ‘ fair’ wage is low may be of great importance. The fact that a man’s work is worth little may mean not that those who use his services could readily dispense with such services, but merely that they could readily dispense with him because of the numbers ready to fill his place. The thing done or service rendered by an ill-paid worker may be more essential than the services or products of many better-paid workers, but the relative wage rates in different grades are affected by relative quantities and every grade contains some workers doing essential and some doing non-essential work, Workers are not, and are aware that they are not, entirely responsible for being of a particular type, for belonging to a grade in which numbers are ereat, for having entered an occupation for the products of which demand is small or has fallen. Their parents are responsible for their existence and largely for their early environment ; their teachers and the State are largely responsible for their education or lack of education. Human beings do not come into the world in response to economic demand. - Human life precedes economic activity and special talents do not appear in exact and speedy response to the call for them. Hence the normal wage is frequently low for reasons outside the control of the worker. It is, perhaps, unfortunate that wages which reflect the value of the work done should be known as fair wages. It has already been stated that they are known as fair because they are, if mobility is perfect and competition free, equal to those of other workers of equal capacity and doing work offering equal attractions. It is the equality that has led to _ the epithet ‘fair.’ But it is a not very convincing fairness to the man receiving a low wage whose work is worth little through no fault of his own. For when the demand price sufficient to absorb all the workers in a given grade is small or, in more technical language, when the marginal net productivity of such workers is low, when the workers in that grade _ are neither bad nor careless, other members of the community gain by _ cheap goods as the workers lose in low pay. It is often thought, and it is 104 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. sometimes true, that it is not the consumer who gains by the low price of labour, but the employer or some intermediary between the worker and the consumer. But whether this be the case or not, the worker sees no essential fairness in the fact that his low wages leave others with a pur- chasing power greater than they would otherwise possess. It is true, of course, that when he consumes the commodities that he helps to cheapen he gains with other consumers by their plenty, but, since the consumers of a commodity outnumber and are to some extent other than its producers, the gain to the worker is less than the gain to others. Plenty is generally an advantage to the community. We rejoice if land is plentiful in proportion to the population and rents are low. We should like capital to be plentiful and cheap, competing for employment at a low rate of interest. We are aware also that the owner of a limited supply of a commodity that becomes plentiful loses wealth as the con- sumer gainsit. Itis one of the anomalies of economic measurement that when a country becomes richer through an increased supply of certain goods, wealth as represented by those goods may be calculated as being less than before, because of the lowering of this exchange value. Plentiful crops, the discovery of mineral resources, enrich the world, but the value per bushel and per ton is decreased by the very plenty which increases general wealth. The owner of anything other than labour may be com- pensated, or more than compensated, by the greater amount he possesses. Not so the worker. Each worker is lord only of his own labour. His energy and his possible working hours are limited, and, given that he is using his energy through as many working hours as is compatible with efficiency, it is not in his power to balance the low value of each unit of energy by multiplying it. Recognition of this leads to limitation of output. There are, roughly, two ways in which men may increase their own wealth : by increasing or by decreasing production ; by adding to general wealth so greatly that they command more of it, or by making rare that portion of it which they control. Adult workers who have their youth and their training behind them have little power of doing the first, and fall back on the second. Through limiting output, erecting barriers against new-comers into their trades, they may successfully maintain or raise their own wages. From this point of view the objection of men to opening to women any new branch of industry is perfectly logical. If women be found capable of doing work formerly reserved for men, and are allowed to do it without let or hindrance, they will tend to have a depressing effect on the wage. Not because of their sex, but because of their number. Their exclusion from many trades makes their entry to any single trade formidable ; they are jealously excluded from one type of work because they are jealously excluded from others; thus they come to be considered natural blacklegs. The erection of barriers swells the numbers of those without and lowers their wages further. It may be said in parenthesis that, from this point of view, all rates of pay for women are abnormal, below the ‘fair’ rate. Excluded from any one occupation, they lower wage rates in other occupations of the same grade, and if by such exclusion they are forced into the occupations of a grade below that to which they would otherwise belong they again lower the wage. If this line of thought be Pls ee 8 I.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 105 pursued further, it may be concluded that the normal wage of each occupation is constantly interfered with by monopolistic action, whether _ on the part of employers or employed, in other occupations. But it is not profitable to pursue this subject further without dis- cussing the third aspect of wages, and considering not merely the wage that a man is worth but the wage that he needs. The section of modern economic literature devoted to the dependence of labour on wages on the one hand. and to the dependence of wages on the needs of labour on the other, is growing in volume and importance. Wages, in addition to directing labour and being a return of goods and services to labour in exchange for the goods and services it supplies, are expected to maintain the worker. The owner of labour alone among owners of any agent of production is supposed to live on the product of the thing he owns. The economic fact that to a great extent he does so has been exalted, like many other economic facts, into a moral obligation. And when the normal wage is low without any discernible fault on the part of those who earn it, the moral obligation is shifted and it is said that the wage ought to be large enough for the worker to live on. No one suggests that landlords ought to live on their rents. We know that some of the larger landlords do and that some of the smaller ones do not, and we are aware, as was suggested earlier, that if improvements in methods of production or transport facilities lower the prices of agricultural produce and land- lords’ rents it will be more difficult than before for landlords to live on their rents. From the economic view we should care not at all. There would be plenty in the land, and though we might be sorry for individual landlords who had formerly subsisted on their rents, there are many who are capable of saying that it will be good for landowners to have to do a little honest work. So it is with capital. Certain owners of capital live on their dividends, a fact that many resent. But the bulk of capitalists, those with small savings, do not depend on interest. Their dividends do not make their income, but are an addition to it. But, it being assumed that the worker lives on his wage, with what truth we shall discuss later, we concern ourselves greatly with the question of how far wages do or can be made to respond to needs. Our concern may take the form of a demand, like that put forward by Mr. Clifford Allen in his Presidential Address to the Conference of the Independent Labour Party last April, for ‘a universal living wage, dictated by the needs of a civilised existence and not dependent on the varying fortunes of each industry.’ Ora problem may be presented as in the opening words of the Teport of the International Labour Office on Family Allowances: ‘In the determination of wages two somewhat conflicting principles may be etected—“‘ equal pay for equal work” or “to each according to his needs.’’’ Or we may find the assumption, as expressed in Miss Rathbone’s book on the ‘ Disinherited Family,’ that needs are an active factor in the determination of wages. Bachelors, she tells us, are enabled by the uniform wage system’ ‘at one moment to fight the battle of higher wages from behind the petticoats of their hypothetical wives and children, and _ the next to claim the wages thus won as their exclusive property.’ ‘And, a speaking of the jealousy of women felt by the male worker, she Ss 1 The Disinherited Family, Eleanor Rathbone, p. 56. 106 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. writes that this jealousy is? ‘ due partly to his well-grounded fear that her lesser family responsibilities will enable her to undersell him.’ And finally we have the attempts of legislators in setting up Trade Boards and other machinery for dealing with wages, crowned by the Widows’ and Orphans’ and Old-Age Pensions Bill, which deliberately attempts to make payments in respect of work cover the bulk of the cost of contributions for the maintenance of the worker during old age, of his widow after his death, and of his fatherless children until such age as they be thought competent to maintain themselves. We are challenged daily, by proposals for minimum wage rates, cost of living standards, family allowances, contributory insurance schemes, to consider the connection between the normal wage and a wage adjusted to the needs of the worker. The question is a complicated one. Marshall writes? : ‘ Wages tend to equal the net product of labour; its marginal productivity rules the demand side for it; and on the other side, wages tend to retain a close though indirect and intricate relation with the cost of rearing, training, and sustaining the energy of efficient labour. The various elements of the problem mutually determine (in the sense of governing) one another ; and incidentally this secures that supply price and demand price tend to equality.’ It is far easier to see the connection between the wage and ‘ training and sustaining ’ the worker’s energy than between the wage and the cost of rearing the worker. If labour be not adequately sustained during the period for which the worker is engaged the product will suffer. Diminution in the number of workers available, or in efficiency, or both, follow swiftly on lack of sustenance. Further, the wage must bear some relation to the cost of training, since so long as there are occupations which demand no training, or less training than others, those needing most will lack recruits if the earnings they offer are not relatively high. The cost of rearing the worker raises different questions. It is clear that the individual worker does not pay for his own childhood; no bill of the cost is presented to him when he begins to work. It is equally clear that the childhood of most wage-earners is paid for from wages ; part, and a considerable part, of the wage of many workers is devoted to the maintenance of their children. It may be said crudely, therefore, that unless wages cover the cost of rearing workers there will be no workers. It cannot, however, be asserted that because a worker pays certain expenses from his wages those expenses-are the cause of his wage, or of any part of it. } There is a tendency to assume that, while the efficient sustenance of — labour during working days and hours is a prime cost of industry to be covered by the wage, sustenance in non-working days and hours, in sickness, during unemployment, in old age, and the maintenance of wife and children not only during but after a man’s working life, is a kind of supplementary cost for which provision should be made in respect of work done. This presupposes a vast amount of calculation both on the side of the employer and the employee. First let us take the employee, as being the party to any wage contract — most likely to reckon such costs. Here, roughly, we find workers divided 2 The Disinherited Family, Eleanor Rathbone, p. 48. 8 Principles of Economics, Marshall, Book VI, ch. ii. § 3. F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 107 into the calculating and non-calculating classes, those who expect security and those who do not: an expectation which probably makes a far sharper class distinction than that made by riches and poverty. ‘ Calcu- lating the future’ is an expensive and harassing occupation, generally indulged in on an extensive scale only by the comparatively well-to-do, including those whose high productivity and, again comparatively, rare gifts have secured high earnings. The supposed security of those who draw their incomes entirely from rents and interest, rudely as that security has been shaken from time to time, has been accepted as an ideal by many able to afford it through high earnings of hand and brain. Arrangements for contributory insurance schemes have long been common in the pro- fessions. Civil Servants are accustomed to compulsory schemes. Com- pulsory schemes have been accepted by section after section of the teaching profession. They are under discussion for the clergy. The Local Govern- ment and Other Officers Superannuation Act of 1922 covered members of the medical profession working under local authorities, and a scheme which would apply to all doctors on the panel is being mooted by some of the doctors concerned. Contributory insurance schemes for the pro- vision of pensions have, with the exception of some of the less exalted branches of the Civil Service, in the past been made compulsory among those classes who before their introduction attempted to make similar provision voluntarily. The same classes have perhaps more than others calculated the number of children whom their earnings would maintain. The fertility statistics of the last census show that the professional classes, who are very largely the calculating classes, have a lower fertility rate than any other occupied section of the community : .90 being the average number of children under sixteen for married men in the professional classes as compared with 1.27 among all married men. These classes who calculate the future are but a small section of the community. For most earners the exigencies of present maintenance exclude considerations of future maintenance. With dependants the case is somewhat different ; more and more every class of the community tends to consider the possibility of making good provision for its children, and more and more do the parents of every class recognise that they can provide for their own needs by limiting the size of their families. The im portance of both considerations is enhanced by the raising of the school- leaving age. The first consideration reacts on the health and efficiency of the children and stimulates the activity of the parents, while both tend fo lessen the number cf children. The effect on earnings of calculations made by the worker, either for his own future and that of his dependants or for the present needs of his dependants, is not easy to trace. A stimulus to activity which in effect raises the wage-earner to a higher grade, increasing his productivity and general wealth, makes him worth a higher wage. A limitation of numbers is slow in its action on supply, and, since it cannot be assumed that each grade or occupation is entirely self-recruiting, no positive result can be ascribed to it, except in so far as it is thought that a general increase or decrease of population is likely to cause a general rise or fall in wages— @ question round which controversy has raged for the last and is likely fo rage for the next century. It may be assumed that a limitation of — CULT h eC ee rrr rrr. ——n ee ee SS ee lee eee 108 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. numbers in the lowest grades would have a beneficial effect on wages, but it appears that even this form of calculation works less strongly in such grades than it does in higher ones. Before further considering the effect of calculations made by the workers on wages, it will be well to turn to the question of how far such calculations affect the employer, purely from the business point of view. The employer is concerned to pay such a wage as will, within the limits of his vision, keep his firm effectively staffed. His range of vision will extend over sickness as well as health, even over some unemployment as well as employment, according to the need of his particular firm for employees who know their job and the firm. But, apart from philanthropy, it will not extend forwards to the period in which men cease to work for him, any more than it will extend backwards to the period in which they have not begun to work, save in so far as a higher wage is needed to induce parents to pay for the education or training appropriate to the particular work. Nor, again apart from philanthropy, will it extend to the sustenance of children, save in so far as it appears that lack of sustenance for the children leaves the workers without sustenance to an extent which reacts on their efficiency. This is likely to happen only amongst the most ill- paid workers, ill-paid because of the number of others ready to replace them ; therefore such a reaction on wages is not likely to be very powerful. The children of the worker may, of course, be the future recruits of the firm to which their father belongs, but there is no certainty about this. In some cases, as in the mining industry, where families are relatively large but where male labour only is needed, some of the children will necessarily be of the wrong sex. For, as Cobbett ruefully remarked, ‘ where there be men and boys there will also be women and girls.’ The upshot of this analysis of the effect of calculations relating to old age and dependants is that for the most part where they have been made voluntarily they have been the effect rather than thecause of high earnings, and that, apart from the more immediate needs of labour, normal wages are not adjusted to cover them. Employers have not reckoned the whole of the worker’s life or maintenance of his dependants as an overhead charge. They do not pay adult male employees at a high rate because they have families dependent on them or because they must make pro- vision for the future, but because their productivity is relatively high and because they are strong and experienced workers. They do not gravely reckon the average family of an average worker, they reckon what the man’s work is worth. Nor do the needs of the worker provide him directly with additional bargaining power. It has generally been recognised in foreign trade that needs are a weakness and not a strength in bargaining. It is the same with the worker. As far as fighting strength goes, bachelors who are without dependants can fight more effectively than men with families. And the mere acquisition of a new set of needs, unless it stimulates activities and so is part of a higher standard of life, adds to misery and not to wages. To a certain extent it is notorious that dependants do stimulate activity, married workers being generally steadier and more regular than un- married ones. Their higher productivity raises their earnings. But it is to be feared that bargaining power is in no way enhanced by the number F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 109 of dependants, and everyone present will call to mind cases of men who dare run no risk of losing their job because of their wives and children. In view of this, we may think it fortunate that the workers who get low wages so often have few needs. Young untrained workers whose productivity is low have no dependants. They have often, in fact, just ceased from being dependants themselves and become contributors to the family wage. If women are crowded into a somewhat small number of occupations with low rates of pay,it is some comfort to remember that they have comparatively few dependants to suffer from those low rates. | If we agree that the normal wage in some cases rises above and in many falls below the wage required by the worker for his maintenance in the future as well as the present, and for the maintenance of his wife and family in both the present and future, what should be our attitude towards the many persons and bodies who are concerned with raising the wage rate, with charging provision for unemployment and the future on to wages, and with readjusting wage rates? It is clear that we cannot expect the approximation of normal wages to wages adequate for such maintenance to be the main preoccupation of social reformers or statesmen. But for a short time we may make it ours. Measures concerned with wages may be put into three categories roughly coinciding with the three aspects of wages with which we began. First, there are those which are concerned with the mobility of labour, with seeing that labour is as swiftly as possible directed where it is most needed, by the dissemination of knowledge, by facilities for movement such as are offered by the Employment Exchanges, by vocational selection, by the efforts of Trade Unions to ensure that in every instance the rate received shall be at least the normal rate. Secondly, there are those which attempt to increase the productivity of the worker and raise him from one grade to another ; such as measures of educational reform, improved social conditions, even, when wages are very low, minimum wage rates which by improving the health of the worker increase his productive capacity. Thirdly, there are measures which attempt something further and try either to add to the normal wage rate or to ‘stretch ’ the rate so that it will pay for things that it did not previously pay for. I do not propose to discuss the first two categories. Their value is obvious. _ But we are being forced increasingly to discuss the third category. Tt includes schemes for fixing such minimum wage rates as do not increase productivity: cost of living standards when they attempt something other than the maintenance of the normal wage; schemes for subsidising certain sections of wage-earners, such as Sir Alfred Mond’s scheme for subsidising wages in industries afflicted with unemployment from the unds of the Unemployment Insurance Scheme, and systems of Family lowances ; and schemes for stretching normal wages to cover certain osts, such as compulsory insurance schemes. Where these schemes ensure a given rate of wages their advocates esire that it should be secured without unemployment ensuing. They 0 not wish either to raise the wages of the individual at the expense of is earnings or to raise his earnings at the expense of the unemployment of other workers. Where, as in compulsory and contributory insurance - schemes, a charge is levied on employer and employed, it is presumably =o desired that unemployment benefit should be provided by measures —_ ———E——— et y 110 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. which, by making labour costs high, increase unemployment, or that hypothetical widows and fatherless children should be provided for by schemes which, by reducing wages, stint actual wives and the children of those whose fathers are living. Minimum wage rates may be maintained without unemployment following when, as has already been suggested, through their reaction on efficiency they increase the value of the work done, and also where the demand for the labour employed is inelastic. Trade Boards have proved this. And it may further be argued that, when normal wages are too low to provide adequate maintenance for all workers belonging to a given grade, it is better to enforce a wage adequate for the maintenance of a certain number, and, having so produced a certain amount of unemploy- ment and defined the problem, take steps to deal with the unemployment. It may be better to have eighty or even fifty per cent. of workers of a given grade adequately paid and the remaining twenty or fifty per cent. unemployed, than to have a hundred per cent. inadequately paid. But when the question is one not of the minimum needed for efficient sustenance but of the relative rates in different occupations, according to the degree of skill required and the customary rates for work of a given kind, the problem becomes different, as in the case of cost of living standards. There is nothing sacred about relative wage rates; they are exceedingly arbitrary as between different occupations and between different types of skill in the same occupation. Wage rates normal in the past are not normal in the present and will not be normal in the future. They are subject to infinite variations in accordance with the changes in demand (including changes in the scale of the market), changes in the structure of industry, and the progress of invention. The alterations in industry which took place during and immediately after the war must have been as bewildering for the unskilled labourer in this country, who found himself better off in 1922 than in 1914, as for the skilled labourer who found himself worse off.4 It was not unnatural that in the case of the second bewilderment should be accompanied by resentment and succeeded by efforts to restore the former balance. But the balance is mobile and cannot be stereotyped. It is a pomted commentary on this fact that the Cave Committee reporting on the Trade Board Acts in 1922 advised that the Boards should in future confine their activities to the settlement of wages when such wages are unduly low and no other adequate machinery exists for their effective regulation. The report further deprecated the attempt to fix a national minimum wage for all trades, on the ground that it raised® ‘ highly controversial questions, not only as to the principle upon which a general minimum wage should be based, but also as to the relationship of men’s and women’s wages, the provision to be made for dependants, and the possibility of distinguishing between district and district.’ This report and consequent legislation marked the abandonment of one attempt to legislate on relative wage rates. But if one attempt was abandoned, others remain. The minimum wage rate in the coal-mining industry is being hotly discussed, and, apart from legislative enactments, cost of living standards as a basis not for « Manchester Guardian Commercial, Oct. 1922. ® Report to the Minister of Labour of the Committee appointed to inquire into the working and effects of the Trade Board Acts, 1922. issinniddincinnciusurateer ec ee eC F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 111 wages but for fluctuations in nominal wages are commonly enforced by Trade Union action. In so far as such standards are adjusted to meet changes in the general price-level due to fluctuations in the quantity of currency they tend to restore and maintain the normal rates of real wages; but when they are adjusted to meet changes in the general price- level due to an increase or decrease in the production of wealth, or to maintain for as many workers as before ina given occupation the standard of living formerly enjoyed by itsmembers when the conditions of ordemands for their work have changed, the position is different. If, for instance, the price-level falls because there is greater production in the country, there is no reason why the worker should not share in that increased wealth by retaining at least his former nominal wage, and so be enabled to raise his standard of living. It is also to be feared that the better-paid workers at least should share in the lessened wealth which is represented by a higher price-level when prices rise because wealth is scarce. Finally, with changing conditions the relative numbers of workers required for work of different types will vary, and if the relative wage rates may not vary labour will not be discouraged from entering occupations where it is not needed or encouraged sufficiently to enter those in which the demand for it has increased. This may lead to an increase in unemployment, acting in the same way as mistaken investments of capital in attracting labour to and locking it up in industries in which it cannot be absorbed at rates equivalent to those paid for similar labour elsewhere. This is well-trodden ground, from which we may pass to the disputed fields of subsidies, allowances, and contributory insurance schemes. For a wage which is ‘ above the normal’ is in effect a subsidy given to the _ worker in respect of a particular type of work. In a sense, nomenclature - matters little. We tend to call anything a wage which is given by an employer to a worker, and to call anything a subsidy which is given to a worker or an industry or anyone or anything else by the State, and to dub as taxes revenue collected by the State. For practical purposes this is the most convenient definition. But when we come to analyse payments above or below normal wages, we find that we are generally tracing their incidence and dealing with transferences of wealth rather than with costs. Sir Alfred Mond’s scheme is frankly a subsidy. It is better, he suggests, ~to use available funds for paying the employed rather than the unemployed. For the sake of production, for the sake of preserving skill, and for the sake of ‘restoring normality,’ we are urged temporarily to subsidise employment wherever employers are prepared to add to the numbers of workers engaged. The source of the proposed subsidy will be discussed in another connection. Nor is there in effect much disguise about the ‘tax and subsidy’ nature of the family allowance system. Bachelors are to be taxed, or to tax themselves, for the sake of men who have families. It is recognised that it is on the whole unwise to put the administration of the ‘ tax and subsidy ’ in the hands of the employer, lest he should mistake a tax and subsidy scheme for a new wage system under which it would be greatly to his advantage to employ bachelors instead of married men. Once it is frankly admitted that large families neither force nor enable employers to pay high wages, we can if we wish settle down to a discussion of the ethical and economic advantages of family endowment. And we can 112 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. contrast the advantages of making provision for families within each industry separately or through a more general scheme of taxation. If the bachelors are more willing to pay the tax when they see their comrades and their comrades’ children benefiting, the first method has at least one great advantage. On the other hand there are advantages in extending the area of the tax to bachelors not engaged in industries providing subsidies, and even to some who are not bachelors. There is much to be said from the point of view of the revenue in favour of taxing those who are without dependants far more fiercely than they are taxed at present, but the policy of earmarking taxation is always a somewhat doubtful one, as earmarked contributions may be less or more than is needed to cover the cost of the object for which they are earmarked. From the suggestion to tax certain wage-earners for the benefit of other wage-earners we may pass to the practice of taxing wage-earners for their own benefit, as embodied in unemployment and health insurance schemes, in the various pension schemes already adopted in the Civil Service, and as proposed in the Pensions Bill. It may be said that here we are not dealing with taxation but-merely with deferred pay; that the contributions, covering as they do the workers’ own risks, are a forcible method of saving, but cannot fairly be called taxation. This is perfectly true when the saving would or could be made voluntarily. Indeed, when compulsory savings replace voluntary savings the worker may gain in earnings, since the compulsory scheme may contain a contribu- tion from the Exchequer and large-scale insurance is cheaper than small- scale insurance. But when wage-earners are too poor to save, enforced saving leaves them for the time being poorer than before, and Mr. Neville Chamberlain’s hope that the Pensions Bill® ‘would encourage people to try to add to the benefits and thus achieve complete independence for themselves ’ is likely to be frustrated by the reduction in their means. We are agreed that the benefits of these schemes must be secured. We are, I believe, agreed that they must be augmented. But the provision of future benefits by taxes on present wages may not be the best method of giving such benefits when wages are low. The wage may be too small to be deferred. Nor does the fact that employers pay a larger proportion when the wage is exceedingly low help those who are on the verge of unemployment and may by this arrangement be pushed over it. It is to be feared that if normal wages be not adequate to cover calcula- tions for the future, contributory schemes, however advantageous, may make things more difficult than before for workers belonging to a grade in which numbers are great in proportion to demand. It cannot be assumed that the demand for such labour is inelastic. In many instances it is, as when labour paid at a low rate is employed in co-operation with better- paid labour and in industries in which its cost is but a small proportion of total cost. But frequently the demand is elastic, as in agriculture, where we are constantly told that labour cannot profitably be employed even at minimum wage rates which seem to many of us less than moderate. Contributory insurance schemes have occupied much attention lately, probably more than they deserve. The contributions demanded by each individual scheme are no great matter; even taken together they do not amount to a vast charge per worker. But, small as they are, they are 6 The Times, May 19, 1925. F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 1138 of interest as being attempts to stretch the normal wage to meet the needs of maintenance when, in terms of that wage, the worker is not always worth a rate which will enable him to meet all the demands made upon him for his own immediate support and that of his family. The normal wage is defiantly rigid. It is also brutally erratic. It - will not be stretched to meet any but the most immediate needs of workers in low grades ; it is capable in times of depression of falling below even that low standard. In the process of asserting itself it drives men ruth- lessly from occupations for the products of which demand has fallen. The secret of its mastery lies in the fact that it offers the one price at which all labour of any given grade can be absorbed in the occupations to which it is admitted. Whatever be the rights of the coal dispute, it is true that a point may come at which any industry or any single firm in an industry may be unable to pay a living wage to all those occupied init. The normal wage commonly offered in other occupations for the same grade of labour will only be given in such an industry when enough men have left it to make the rate even throughout the grade. In the mean- time labour may suffer greatly, and the productive power of all industry may suffer, since nothing is so destructive to a man’s capacity or more likely to force him into a lower scale of labour than a prolonged spell of unemployment. There are those who hope that in time the normal wage may in all ranks of labour be at least adequate to maintain workers and their families through all uncertainties and vicissitudes. They believe that the progress of invention will immensely increase productivity; that improved business methods on the one side and rising standards of work on the other will make each worker more productive; that ultimately education will raise all workers to the ranks of those whose work is worth much. But until that Utopia arrives it is well to recognise that, except by making wages abnormal, we cannot at present expect them in all cases to do what is required of them. The normal wage may be subsidised, either by addi- tions to it by the State with all the attendant difficulties, or by Trade Union action, effective where demand is inelastic, in making the consumer pay a tax in the form of a higher price for the products of labour. Monopolistic action limiting entries to a trade or limiting output, beyond the point at which such a limitation is important for the health of the worker, may raise the wage payments above what is normal, but at the expense of making them abnormally low elsewhere in the first case and making the country poorer in the second. _ It is blindness to pretend that the normal wage must necessarily provide for all needs, or that the worker is necessarily to blame if it does t. Those more fortunately placed among the workers, as well as among other classes of the community, often gain by the cheapness of the goods made by workers whose work is worth little because their ‘humbers are great. But the community as a whole does not gain because the workers receiving low wages are part of the community. _ It isroughly true that the normal wage distributes labour well through stributing wealth ill. Redistribution of wealth is therefore necessary. Redistribution in the name of wages tends to interfere withthe distribution of labour ; for this reason it may be well to leave wages to mean normal wages and to redistribute wealth by other methods. 1925 E SECTION G.—ENGINEERING. FIFTY YEARS’ EVOLUTION IN NAVAL ARCHITECTURE AND MARINE ENGINEERING. ADDRESS BY Sir ARCHIBALD DENNY, Barr., F.R.S.E., LL.D., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. Tuts Section of the British Association covers the whole vast field of Engineering, but I propose to limit my survey to accord with the title I have chosen. No one could within the limits of such an address cover the whole field, nor, indeed, could an engineer of any section cover all the ground in that one, for within every branch of engineering specialisation has rapidly developed. I can do no more then than note the milestones on the fifty-year road and the landmarks, and must deny myself the pleasure and resist the temptation of straying down side-roads, pausing only on the main-road to admire the changing landscape. Let us start with Marine Engineering, where the evolution has been positive and fairly well defined. After Watt’s invention of the separate condenser, many years elapsed before the next considerable step—the introduction of the compound steam-engine. This was natural, as steam pressures were too low to make compounding profitable. The first record I can find of compounding was John Elder’s ‘ Brandon ’ in 1854, and pro- gress thereafter was not very rapid; but when I began my apprenticeship, in 1876, the old box boiler had been replaced by the now highly appreciated Scotch circular return-tube boiler, supplying steam to two-cylinder compound engines at about 60-lb. pressure. It was not then found profit- able to carry more than about 25 in. of vacuum. Auxiliary machinery was almost non-existent ; the circulating, air, bilge, sanitary and feed — pumps were worked off the main engine, with a crank and fly-wheel stand-by feed-pump, and perhaps a similar pump for sanitary and bilge © purposes, and when a double bottom was fitted (which was not always) a similar pump for ballast tanks. That was the equipment of a good-class engine-room in those days. On deck the steering gear was usually — fitted near the bridge and connected to the quadrant or tiller by chains © and rods laid in the gutter-waterways, with numerous turns and kinks, ~ whilst a combined windlass and capstan on the forecastle head, and winches — of the simplest type at the hatches, completed the deck machinery. There — might, in addition, be a clattering steam ash-hoist fitted in one of the stokehold ventilators. ( As to types of marine engines—in the Navy, for protection reasons, — horizontal machinery was not uncommon, while in the mercantile marine, for screw ships, the vertical type was practically universal. In paddle- steamers for river and coast service, of which there were many, the beauti- ful oscillating engine, which had the advantage of taking up little room lengthwise, was still built; but the diagonal engine was more common, either with single cylinder and haystack boiler or compound two-cylinder. G.—ENGINEERING. 115 Returning to sea-going vessels, the Propontis, a vessel built in 1864, was re-engined at Fairfield with triple-expansion three-crank engines _ designed by the late Dr. Kirk in 1874, with boilers working at 150-lb. pressure ; but the boilers, Rowan’s water-tube, proved unsatisfactory, and in 1876 new Scotch boilers of 90-lb. pressure were fitted. The first really successful triple-expansion three-crank job, the Aberdeen, was built in 1880 by Robert Napier & Sons, and fitted with engines and 125-lb. pressure boilers designed by Dr. Kirk. The re-engining of the Propontis,' however, marked the opening of a new era, which only developed slowly at first, due in some measure to the then rules for the thickness of the boiler shells and furnaces. In 1883 the late Mr. Walter Brock designed and fitted two-crank four-cylinder tandem triple-expansion engines to the sister ships Arawa and Tainui, for the London-New Zealand service. They had high and intermediate on the top with two low-pressure cylinders of equal diameter below, the working pressure being 160 1b. The Board of Trade Surveyors were naturally cautious in the use of mild steel in boilers, then a comparatively new material, but they had been gaining confidence in it and had also made interesting experiments on two kinds of furnace flues, to ascertain their resistance to collapsing under hydraulic pressure. The two kinds were Fox’s corrugated furnaces, and plain ones with widely spaced flanged rings, called at that time coxcomb furnaces. Under these circumstances and after full discussion the 160-lb. pressure desired by Mr. Brock was made possible by agreement as to shell thickness between the Board’s Surveyors and the Engineer ; Fox’s steel corrugated furnaces were used. These vessels showed excellent economy and proved thoroughly reliable. Thereafter quadruple-expansion engines using _ pressures of 180 lb., 200 lb., or even higher, became common, with improved - economy in fuel, but the lower limit of pressure at the condenser was still little altered. The next great step was the introduction of the Parsons turbine. My _ first connection with the Parsons turbine was in 1890, when a small one _ driving an electric dynamo was fitted on board of the Duchess of Hamilton, on the Clyde. It was a tiny plant, the turbine driving the dynamo direct at 10,000 revolutions, and was not very economical, but as it was only rarely used, on evening cruises, that did not matter much. It was, however, a forerunner of that great invention, permitting the economical use of the low end of the pressure curve which could not be efficiently used in the reciprocating engine, thus improving the economy of the steam- engine, apart altogether from the other advantages of freedom from vibra- tion troubles and the increased speed of ship which could be obtained through its light weight per I.H.P. None can forget the tremendous interest created by the appearance of the 34}-knot 100-ft. Turbinia, at Spithead Review in 1897. I felt that here was the engine we had been looking for to use in fast cross- Channel work, and it was a great gratification when Sir Charles Parsons and Captain John Williamson arranged with my firm that we should join ‘Ma venture to build and run a Clyde river-steamer fitted with turbines ; __! Messrs. Normand, of Havre, now inform me that in 1871 Benjamin Normand fitted a triple-expansion engine ina passenger steamer on the Seine, and that before 1880 he had so fitted twelve vessels successfully. They also state that M. Normand fitted his first compound engine at the same time as John Elder’s ‘ Brandon.’—18/9/25. 12 116 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. the King Edward, put on service in the spring of 1901, was the result— the first commercial turbine. Before that, however, in 1898, the Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company received an order from the Admiralty to build the Viper, whose hull was built by Messrs. Hawthorn, Leslie ; and Messrs. Armstrong, Whitworth, on their own account, built the Cobra, engined by Parsons. Both of these were torpedo-boat destroyers, and the Cobra was purchased by the Admiralty. Most unfortunately, at an early date after delivery, through no fault of the turbines, they were both wrecked, so that little service experience was available. Both of these vessels had four shafts; the Viper had eight propellers, two on each shaft, while the Cobra had twelve, three on each shaft. The King Edward is so well known that I need only remind you that originally she had three shafts with five propellers, two on each side shaft, but later, single propellers were fitted to the side shafts. She is still running with the original boiler after twenty-four years’ service, four of which were spent in war service in the stormy English Channel carrying troops from England to France. The engines also are the originals, except that higher-powered ‘ go-astern’ turbines have been fitted. There was no method of indicating the turbines at that date, and, while Sir Charles was able, from theoretical calculations, to give a close estimate of the 8.H.P., it was very desirable to get it accurately on trial. To measure the torsion of the shaft was the natural way, and we made the attempt in the Queen Alexandra, which was put in service in 1902, by means of a telephone and contacts on the shafts a considerable distance apart. This had been tested on a works shaft at about 200 revolutions with success, but at the higher revolutions on the Queen it was not at first very successful. Thereafter, an induction method, with permanent magnets and coils, designed by Mr. Chas. Johnson, was used for some time with success, but when tried in T.B.D.s, with their light and narrow hulls, the very slight change of form which sometimes occurred in a sea-way was sufficient to upset the arrangement, which depended for its success on a very small clearance between the electric coils fixed to the hull and the sharp permanent magnets fixed onthe shaft. The Hopkinson-Thring instrument, using only a short length of shaft, with mirror and light arrangement, was much employed ; and, using likewise a short length of shaft, Edgecombe constructed an averaging electrical meter, which had the great advantage of requiring only one reading even on a reciprocating-engine shaft. There are now several types of meters available which can be used with con- fidence ; some such instrument is essential with a turbine, and very desirable with a reciprocating engine, whether steam or internal-combus- tion. On this subject of indicating engines on trial, several have not only had the torque indicated, and hence the shaft horse-power obtained, which does away with any question of main-engine friction, but instruments have also been devised for giving the real thrust ; from these two readings the efficiency of the propeller is obtained which it is so desirable to know. Following the King Edward and Queen Alexandra, the Queen for the Dover-Calais service and the Brighton for the Newhaven-Dieppe service were the first cross-Channel turbine steamers put in service in 1903. They also were most successful, and the turbine as a commercial engine was fairly launched, a great tribute to the genius of Sir Charles Parsons and his courage in overcoming the many initial difficulties. The G.—ENGINEERING. 117 decision, taken early in 1905, to fit turbines in the large Cunarders Lusitania and Mauretania, built by Messrs. John Brown and Messrs. Swan & Hunter respectively, was a very bold and momentous one fully justified by the success of these vessels ; it was a tremendous step to take from the smaller vessels already built and tried to these leviathans crossing the _ stormy Atlantic. In 1905 the Admiralty also decided on the general introduction of turbines in all classes of warships. The earlier turbines were all fitted as direct drives and hence to vessels of fairly high speed, when the revolutions were not too low to spoil the efficiency of the turbine nor so high as to spoil the efficiency of the propeller. But from the first it was felt that some means of gearing down the propellers was absolutely necessary; Sir Charles Parsons’ conversion of the Vespasian in 1909 from reciprocating to geared turbine gave the answer required and marked another new era. This was quickly followed by the partial gearing of the Badger and Beaver T.B.D.s for the Royal Navy, and the complete gearing of the Normannia and Hantonia for the South-Western Railway Company’s Southampton-Havre services, so well known in this district, built under the advice and to the design of Sir John Biles by the Fairfield Company. These were early examples of many single-reduction gears, but for the slower cargo-vessels still greater reduction of propeller revolutions was required and double-reduction gears were introduced, thus enabling the advantages and economy of the turbine to be available to owners of all kinds of vessels. Other forms of gearing have been used—Fottinger hydraulic in Germany and electric dynamo to motor reduction principally in America, though some have been fitted to vessels built in this country by Messrs. Cammell Laird for the United Fruit Co. As we are to have a paper from Mr. Stanley 8. Cook, a colleague of Sir Charles Parsons, dealing with the turbine and its auxiliary machinery, I need say no more, but I would like to emphasise one point of ad- vantage of the turbine over the reciprocating engine. In the latter, racing of the engines at sea is a trouble which is practically absent in turbines. In 1897 Dr. Diesel began developing his internal-combustion engine, depending for the ignition of the charge of heavy oil not on electric sparks, hot tubes, or bulbs, but on the heat generated by compressing the air charge. It took some considerable time to get over the initial mechanical difficulties, and to decide the necessary scantlings and quality of the material to be used in the cylinders and other parts, and there were some regrettable accidents due to explosion of cylinders. I would draw attention to the immense developments which have taken place in this direction. Initially the greatest progress was made with this type of engine on the Continent. My information is that the first successful ocean-going motor-ship was the Vulcanus, built “in 1911 by Werkspoor of Amsterdam for the Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Oil Co., while the first completed in this country was the Jutlandia, built in 1912 by Barclay, Curle & Co. While this country may have been slow at first in taking up the Diesel, she cannot now be blamed for lack of interest and initiative, and while _ many of the builders of this type are licensees of foreign patentees, certain _ types—such, for example, as the Doxford and the Cammell Laird-Fullagar —— * * 118 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. —are purely English. Another purely English one (which, being a com- bination of steam and oil, is exceptionally interesting) is the Still engine, of which that on the Dolius, built by Messrs. Scott of Greenock for Messrs. Alfred Holt & Co. of Liverpool, has been successful. The first double-acting four-stroke cycle marine engine in this country was developed at the North-Eastern Marine. While the turbine developed from the fast passenger-vessels direct driven, to the slow cargo-boat with gearing, the Diesel started in the slow cargo-vessel and is developing towards the faster liner, of which the Aorangi of the Union Steamship Co. of New Zealand, built this year by the Fairfield Co., is, at the time I am writing, the most notable example. The question naturally arises—what will be the final outcome? I find that, taking Lloyd’s Register alone, in 1919 there were 750,000 tons gross of motor-ships, while five years later there were 2,000,000 tons gross, 84 of the vessels being of 6,000 tons gross or over, and it has been asserted by responsible people that the disappearance of the steam-engine for over- seas trade is now largely a matter of time ; but on the other hand we have an equally authoritative statement that the Diesel engine ‘ will not have a dog’s chance against the future steam-engine for ship propulsion.’ It is never safe to prophesy unless you know, and therefore I shall not attempt to do so; but the battle between the turbine and the Diesel is set, and nothing but benefit can arise to science and trade as the outcome. On the one hand we have the geared turbine with much higher steam-pressures— 500 lb. per square inch soon will be, I presume, commonplace, and 1250 lb. has been used on land. On the other hand we shall have the two-stroke double-acting Diesel climbing up in power per cylinder and com- paring more nearly with the unit power of the steam reciprocating engine. One frequently hears of an internal-combustion turbine, and recently there have been statements made which would almost make us believe it had arrived. While I admit to being sceptical, of one thing I am sure— that there can be no halt in invention and advance in thermal efficiency. We are sometimes found fault with by our clients the shipowners, who claim that they have no sooner settled down and adopted our latest improvement than we render their new ships obsolescent by some new invention. I once asked an American why they constantly changed the pattern of their boots ; I said I was surprised that their bootmakers did not ‘ stick to their lasts’ until they were worn out. ‘ Ah, yes!’ he said; ‘but what about the last-maker ? He must make new lasts to live, and so he alters the pattern.’ We do not change the fashion of ships and their machinery primarily with such an object in view, but in the pursuit of economy in cost of working and fuel-saving. The foregoing is the briefest of brief outlines of the changes in the main engines of ships, but the development in auxiliary machinery has been of tremendous importance and extent. In the early days of my experience, marine engineers were much troubled by boilers strained in getting up steam or by collapsed furnaces due to deposits of lime, salt, or other matter mixed with oil, even at the © lower pressures. At the higher pressures this collapsing of furnaces became so serious that one found a special department attached to many ship and engine repairing firms for the express purpose of setting up buckled — ee OO Pies pos. furnaces. Perhaps no one in those early days was more assiduous in G.—ENGINEERING. 119 searching for cures for those troubles than the late Mr. James Weir. Beginning with his hydrokineter for circulating the water during the raising of steam, thus getting rid of strained boilers, he also tackled one of the chief causes of boiler corrosion, by his feed-heater and air and gas extraction. But this brought new trouble, for the fly-wheel pump could not pump the solid airless water ; this brought in his well-known straight- line pump. The careful filtering of the feed-water to eliminate oil and dirt and the use of evaporators for the supply of fresh water for ‘ make-up ’ were also notable advances. These and other improvements brougit freedom from many troubles in the use of high pressures. But these developments added many extra pieces of auxiliary machinery to the charge of the chief, and there are now separate centrifugals for condenser circulating water, perhaps separate air-pumps, and in turbines separate air-ejectors on the condenser. In condensers there are now several designs which lead to more com- pact and economical conditions. Still we have trouble with leaky tubes, an undesirable thing when water-tube boilers are used, especially small- tube boilers. The composition of the metal tubes was frequently blamed for these perforations, but a new theory is that it is due to a kind of water- hammer action arising from eddies and whirlpools generated in the circu- lating water forced to enter and leave small blunt-ended tubes. One remembers the researches made by Dr. Silberrad in 1908-13 on excessive damage to propellers in which he showed that this damage was mechanical in nature and properly termed erosion, and how his conclusions were sub- sequently confirmed by the investigations of Sir Charles Parsons in 1918-19, who proved that the mechanism of this erosion was due to a similar water-hammer action so severe as actually to cut away the metal. In no direction has advance been greater than in the use of electricity on board ship. My own experience was, I think, typical of that of other early workers in electricity. Swan and Edison invented the carbon- filament lamp about 1880, thus making domestic and ship lighting a pos- sibility. I remember while at Greenwich College seeing at the Crystal Palace, about 1881, an exhibition of Edison lamps, supplied with current by a dynamo with electro-magnets almost as tall as myself, and with a stray field so strong that it ruined all watches within yards of them. In 1884 the Arawa and Tainwi were fitted with incandescent electric lighting with stand-by oil lamps, as was, indeed, always done for some years thereafter, because of liability to failure of the electric plant. In 1884 the switches were made with wooden bodies, with no quick- break arrangements; sectional switchboards and fuseboards were un- known ; soldered joints on trunk wires insulated with rubber tape were made, and the wire available was little better than the modern bell-wire. But the interesting thing was that the two dynamos were alternating- current, ribbon-armature, 150-light Ferrantidynamos. This was fortunate, _ because, as the wiring was poor and the skin of the ship was used as the return, had the current been ‘ direct ’ there would have been great danger _ from electrolysis and consequent fires. The total power used was about 380 horse. ___ What developments there have been since then! Instead of the feeble 20 kilowatts, hundreds of kilowatts are now in use on a vessel of the same size, and the current is used not only for lighting, but for ventilating, local heating, cooking, and for driving small machinery of all kinds, including 120 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. frequently many of the important engine-room auxiliaries ; in fact, in some vessels practically all the auxiliaries are driven by electric motors. There is considerable controversy as to whether these main dynamos should be driven by Diesels or steam-engines, and, in the case of steam, whether it should not at some stage be drawn from the main engines before going to the auxiliary, or passed to the main engine after going through the auxiliary, or that the exhaust of the auxiliary be used. for heating the feed-water, or a combination of these arrangements. It will be interesting to watch the development of that controversy, as on its proper solution further economy in fuel consumption will result. Probably no one solution will suffice and in Diesel motor-ships we may find the auxiliaries driven by steam—e.g. when they are oil tankers requiring the steam to heat the cargo oil—while in steam-driven turbine steamers we may find the auxiliaries driven by electricity generated by Diesel-driven dynamos. There are many other pieces of auxiliary machinery connected, for example, with refrigeration, lubrication-oil pumps, fuel-oil pumps and heaters, pumps for hot and cold water for baths and other sanitary pur- poses. When there are automatic self-closing water-tight doors there are generally duplicate pumps for supplying high-pressure water to work them. It will thus be seen how extensive is now the auxiliary machinery in the engine-room. The fuel consumed in developing the power of these auxiliaries is now such an important proportion of the total fuel con- sumed that their design and installation is becoming, to a certain extent, a separate branch of engineering. To show the importance of a thorough study of this auxiliary-power question on board ship, I have been informed that in a large intermediate passenger-ship the consumption of fuel for auxiliaries is reported as exceeding 10 per cent. of the total consumption and that 15 per cent. or more is not uncommon in some other vessels. The percentage will naturally rise with increased economy of the main engines unless the auxiliaries in their turn are made more economical. In types of boilers the development has gone from the old box form with safety valve opening inwards to prevent them collapsing when cooling, to the well-known and most extensively used Scotch marine circular boiler with return tubes. But always there were inventors working at the water-tube boiler, and several were constructed which proved successful. The Haystack was an early example, and those of Yarrow, of Thorny- croft, and of Babcock & Wilcox may be named as types. In my own experience Yarrow and Babcock have each been used in fast cross-Channel steamers with absolute success, and, apart from the great user of water-tube boilers, the Royal Navy, water-tube boilers are being used increasingly in oversea merchant-ships. And we know that for land stations they are in great demand, fitted with mechanical coal-stokers or with pulverised coal or oil firing, in units of such enormous size and with steam pressure so higt that steam drums have been built’ and used 34 ft. long, 4 ft. internal diameter, and 4 in. thick. Shall we see such boilers on board merchant-ships ? I have no doubt we shall, though I would not care to express any opinion as to the ultimate highest steam-pressure which will be used, but 500 lb. is in sight. Superheating of steam was early recognised as a very desirable thing, but it took many years to produce a reliable superheater, and then there were lubrication and other difficulties in reciprocating engines which had G.—ENGINEERING. 121 to be surmounted. In the case of turbines certain of these difficulties were “non-existent, and turbines are peculiarly suited to the use of superheated steam. Another economical advance is pre-heating of air, which is now being pushed much further than ever, but with which the name of Howden will always be associated. Stage feed-water heating is also being very fully carried out, which you will hear of in detail from Mr. Stanley Cook. Fuel-oil firing of boilers has been very largely adopted in steamships, with a marked gain in speed and, when oil is marketed at certain figures, with economy of cost as compared with coal, not only on account of its relatively smaller weight consumption, but on account of the reduced crew required and the more regular speed obtained, hence shorter time at sea. But in considering the relative advantages of steam- and motor- driven ships one must remember that an oil-fired steamship, in the event of oil soaring in price, may be converted to coal-burning, while in a motor-ship the owner has not that option. As to powers developed by the main engines in any one steamship, from the 2-3000 I-H.P. in good-class passenger-ships of 1875 to the 75,000 I H.P. we now find in the most powerful merchant-ships, or of over 140,000 in naval vessels, is a stupendous step. As a matter of interest—in the course of my inquiries the first twin- serew vessel I can trace was a 60-ft. craft built for the Khedive of Egypt by Rennie of London in 1854; Dudgeon built the Far East in 1863; the Admiralty fitted twin screws in the Penelope in 1867, and the Notting Hill appears to have been the first North Atlantic twin-screw steamer, built in 1881 ; but vessels so fitted were not usual till the middle eighties. Although multiple screws had been fitted—e.g. in the Livadia— four and three shafts seem to have come into more general use with the turbine. The combination of twin screws driven by reciprocating engines with one or two other screws driven by turbines taking the exhaust from the reciprocating engines, was a step between direct-drive turbine and the introduction of turbines with gearing, when twin screws were generally reverted to. I have to confess that this fifty years’ survey of marine engine-room and boiler-room development is so brief that it cannot do justice to the subject nor to those who have been responsible for the advance made during that period, but I think the salient features have been touched on in sufficient detail to show you what the engineers of this country have done for marine engineering. Turning now to the ship herself and to naval architecture—after erving three years as an apprentice in the yard, and spending another bree years at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, as a private student, rough the kindness of Lloyd’s Register I was received at the Liverpool Office as an ‘ observer ’ (to use an American term), or, as my late brother, Villiam Denny, said, ‘as a volunteer surveyor to study the morbid ana- omy of shipbuilding.’ The severe North Atlantic storms were the most trying to ships, and at Liverpool one had the opportunity of seeing the ‘Breatest number of damaged hulls. It was a most valuable experience, at that time the transatlantic steamers were developing rapidly in size, d many of them were sorely tried and damaged in their superstructures. I crossed to the States to see ships’ behaviour in heavy weather in ecember of 1882 in the Parisian, of the Allan Line, and returned in D 122 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. the same month by the Alaska. The latter was the ‘crack ship’ at that time, and was 500 ft. long, the former was 440 ft. long, and they were considered enormous ships. The City of Rome was 560 it., but was not so fast as the Alaska. They were all single-screw ships. A 400-footer in the early ‘eighties was considered to be a very large ship ; indeed, I think I am correct in saying that such a ship was not provided for in the scantling tables of the Classification Societies, and required special consideration. My Liverpool experience convinced me that midship erections such as long bridges must have the decks plated so as to resist the stresses which would inevitably go up there, so when I took charge at Leven Shipyard in 1883 I carried out that idea. But in 1887 in a 400-ft. ship of high speed I found myself short of weight, so to avoid plating the bridge deck I cut it in two purposely and fitted an expansion joint. Whether this was the first time it had been done I do not know, but in that ship it was successful. In the early years of this century I saw such expansion joints in large Atlantic liners, but as the result of experience and further consideration it is now held that that expedient is not the proper solution of the problem and that nothing but plating the decks and ample strengthening of long superstructures isin order. But I shall not go into such details, as we are to have a paper on the subject by Mr. Foster King. Dimensions: Mr. King read a paper at Philadelphia, U.S.A., in 1912, in which he divided ships into three groups : (A) Atlantic passenger-ships (the longest ships). (B) Passenger-ships on all other routes. (D) Cargo-ships. He obtained from the owners and registry books particulars of thousands of ships, and plotted them on diagrams on a base of years and with lengths of ships as ordinates. From these diagrams he concluded that the growth of ‘the largest ships in the world’ might be fairly represented by straight lines in each group ; that Group A ships grew at the rate of 66 ft. in ten years, and Group B 50 ft. in ten years. He observed, however, that after 1897, special vessels in A—viz. the fast Atlantic ferry—grew much more rapidly, at the rate of 150 ft. in ten years. For cargo-vessels D the rate-of growth was about 30 ft. in ten years. ; Taking Mr. King’s A line, in 1875 the longest ship was about 475 ft., while, owing to the above-mentioned offshoot of the Atlantic ferry-boats, in as it was round 900 ft. The Mayestic, the present longest ship, is 915.5 ft. Reading from the B line, in1875 the longest ship wasround about 425 ft. In 1912 it should have been 610 ft., but was actually 570, and he remarks in explanation that ‘ one of the usual pauses was occurring.’ The Oronsay, on the Australian trade, is the present longest B-line boat at 633.6 ft. The Empress of Canada, on the Pacific, is 627 ft. long. As to cargo-ships—general traders—in 1875 a 3000 dead-weight carrier was a large ship; the more usual size was 2000-2500 tons. Now, 7000 to 8000 is the ordinary size, 10,000 is not uncommon, and many exceed that latter dead-weight. In dealing with the growth in breadth of ships, Mr. King remarks that about 1875 the fashion in passenger-ships was about ten beams to Jength, — G.—ENGINEERING. 123 but that after 1880 proportionate breadth became rapidly greater. An analysis of data available to me confirms this view, and that it is not now uncommon to find a proportion of eight beams to length, or even seven and a half. As to proportionate depth to length, that is difficult to trace, as number of decks, type of superstructure, and style of ship has varied so much; but I think I can trace a proportionate diminution in main-hull depth to length from about 1875 till 1895, but the proportionate depth seems to be rising since then. ; The draught increased along with the increase in length, and the ports _ were constantly improved in depth, while new dry docks and floating docks kept pace. Perhaps no better example can be given than the port _ of Southampton, with its “longest in the world’ floating dock, of which we shall be hearing during these meetings. Increase in draught is usually the most economical way of increasing carrying capacity or speed, hence the desire of naval architects for ample depth in ports and canals. Lloyd’s original freeboard tables stated freeboard in terms of depth with a correction for any departure in length from the standard either way, but freeboard might have been equally well stated on a length basis with a correction for depth varying from the standard. When a curve of draught for the same proportion of depth to length is drawn with length as a base, it is seen at once that draught is proportionately less for the longer ship, and, as Lloyd’s original tables were based on the current practice of the day, it is to be presumed that prac- tical sea experience is responsible for this. Mr. Foster King’s 1912 analysis _of practice, as might be expected, shows the same thing. In the early eighties, however, experience was limited to about 400 ft. in length, and subsequent experience has shown that these and the longer steamers might safely be loaded deeper than the original rules contemplated. __ Ihave mentioned that at a certain time there appeared to be a reduc- tion in relative depth to length, but this may have had no effect on draught, _ due to the allowances for erections above the freeboard deck. Since 1915 the regulations for water-tight subdivision have come into play, and, as the easiest way to gain long compartments, within the regulations, is to increase the freeboard ratio, vessels relatively deeper in proportion to length are being built. _ I need not point out that the depth of water in the Suez Canal had a commanding effect on draught; the Canal authorities, however, have constantly been deepening the Canal since its opening to traffic, and I noticed the other day that Messrs. Alfred Holt found that the port of Colombo and not the Canal was now the limiting factor in their largest hips. The above is a brief sketch of the change in size and in proportions. Let us now turn to consider the change in the provisions for the comfort and convenience of the passenger. In the earlier days of steamships the first-class were in a poop, and jhe accommodation was very much in the style of the old sailing-ship—a w of cabins at each side with the dining-tables in the centre. There § no separate lounge, writing-room, or smoking-room ; when meals were ‘over the dining-tables were cleared and the room became a writing-room 2 or lounge. Smoking was not allowed there, but a piano was sometimes at ee 124 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. installed. There was an open-ended bridge and a forecastle, where the officers and men were accommodated. Gradually, in later vessels the poop joined the bridge, and then the bridge joined the forecastle, and the vessels became awning-deckers or spar-deckers. A medium-sized passenger steamer on which I made a short trip when she was delivered in the autumn of 1874 was a spar-decker and her passenger accommodation was arranged as above. The captain’s cabin was in the companion-house aft, the officers and engineers in a deckhouse just abaft the engine-room skylight, and the ship’s offices were in a bridge only 44 ft. long; she was otherwise a flush- decker ; the crew were below the spar-deck forward. Then in later ships forecastles again appeared, and midship houses developed into bridge- houses; then poops were fitted, to go once more through the same programme. Thus, as size increased, deck after deck has been added, until in the largest vessels the old names of bridge, upper, main, lower and orlop no longer suffice, nor are they truly descriptive, and the decks are lettered A, B, C, D, etc. In 1876, as an apprentice joiner I made the old-fashioned settees for the dining-saloons, with their swing backs, which gave way to revolving chairs bolted to the deck, which again have been displaced by comfortable armchairs, either entirely free, so that they can be pulled im and out to suit the build of the passenger, or at most loosely attached by a chain. The simple saloon framing designed by the foreman joiner has given place to the beautifully designed and fitted public rooms, in the design of which the best architects and artists have been willing to show their skill. I think one of the earliest ships so fitted was the P. & O. Clyde, whose saloons were designed in 1880 by Mr. (now Sir) John Burnet, R.A. The old wooden ‘ two in a height’ bunks in staterooms, with galvanised-iron cross-strips to support the hair mattress, have given way to brass bedsteads with luxurious spring mattresses of ample length and width as ‘ at home,’ instead of the regulation 2 ft. by 6 ft. The old candle-lamps, swinging in gimbles at the mirror or fixed in the bulkheads, one for each two cabins, which at best made darkness visible, have been replaced by powerful electric lights, one or more to each stateroom, with probably a reading- lamp at the head of each bed. Artificial ventilation, either with fans in each stateroom or with trunk ventilation fed by powerful main fans supplying air warmed or cooled as desired, is now fitted. Hot and cold water laid on to each stateroom has taken the place of the old goglets and receivers. —— least in a height and in blocks of dozens, having in many cases to crawl — The third-class, or emigrants, of the ‘eighties were packed two at — | in over the end of their bunks. Now they have two, three, or four berthed — staterooms with many comforts which were absent from the first-class of an earlier date. The restriction put upon the entry of emigrants to the — States has led our wide-awake shipowners to new developments—the one- — class ship, and latterly to the tourist class, where ‘ gentlefoll’ for little more than third-class fare may cross the Atlantic in much greater comfort and even luxury, and at speeds which in the ’eighties were not available to first-class passengers. The navigating bridge of a modern high-class steamer is an inspiring sight, with Gyro compass probably fitted with an automatic quartermaster, _ ‘ tell-tales ’ from the engine-room giving the revolutions of the engine and — Patton. G.—ENGINEERING. 125 the direction of turning, similar ‘ tell-tales’ to the rudder head showing the angle of the tiller; the steering gear, now fitted aft, is controlled by a ‘telemotor,’ first invénted by A. B. Brown of Edinburgh ; wireless rooms, wireless direction-finder, and it may be underwater microphones for finding the position from underwater land bells; probably an outfit of telephones communicating from the bridge to the various chiefs of depart- ments ; automatic indicators showing the water in all holds and ballast tanks, and means for closing all water-tight doors below deck in event of fog or collision. Returning for a moment to the cargo-steamer—I have already dealt with the growth in size, but there are many other changes in these ships. The equipment has much improved both in the engine-room and on deck, and cargo appliances are quite different. Sails having practically dis- appeared, we find the place of masts taken by Samson posts and gantries ; indeed, very many modern vessels, built for special trades, look more like a building berth in a shipyard than a sea-going steamer. But an - important change is in the question of fullness of block. For a considerable time the shipowner seemed to think in terms of £’s per ton dead-weight. This inevitably led to fuller and fuller blocks, until .83 was not uncommon ; result—a low speed and a great uncertainty as to date of arrival at a port if any bad weather was encountered. Of course, block must be coupled with length, for the longer ship may have a fuller block, but round 400 ft. a block of .76 is now much more fashionable, with the result that, while the dead-weight lifted at one time on the same length of vessel is _ less, yet the higher speed and the greater regularity of time on the voyage, due to the ability to keep up a reasonable speed in bad weather, makes the finer vessel a more economic proposition. I have said nothing about sailing-ships, because their evolution has been, so to say, backwards; they are rarely built now. And yet I could unfold a tale of past achievement, for Messrs. MacMillan of Dumbarton built many fine sailing-vessels, and I would remind you that Dumbarton was the birthplace of one of the most famous tea clippers, the Cutty Sark. Her builders, Scott & Linton, failed before she was completed, and my firm had the honour of finishing and rigging her. A most interesting and important type of special trader is the bulk oil carrier or oil-tanker, which has developed quite a special technique in design, construction, and fastenings. Originally oil was carried in cases, but, starting with quite small bulk-oil carriers, we now find oil-tankers among the mammoth dead-weight carriers of to-day. Bulk grain, coal, and especially ore carriers, involve also quite special considerations in stability, and strength to resist concentrated loads in the last mentioned, 4 which type the highest development is to be seen on the Great Lakes of North America. The construction of sailing-ships having practically _ ceased, interest in propulsion by wind force was revived recently by the - appearance of a ship fitted with Flettner rotary cylindrical sails, if one may use such aterm. Mr. Flettner is the inventor of a most ingenious rudder, where, by using a small auxiliary rudder attached to the after- edge of the main rudder, a large ship can easily be guided by a man- handled steering gear without the use of steam. Neither of these inventions, however, is as yet in general use. Other vessels of special design are yachts; train-ferries ; ice-breakers ; : 126 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. shallow-draught vessels fitted with side wheels, stern wheels, tunnel screws, vane wheels, or even air screws; meat-carriers, and cable-laying steamers. ? Nor have I touched on the design and development of vessels to navigate in the air or under the sea. In the opinion of many the former are bound to take the place of certain types of ordinary sea-going vessels ; the latter, I think, will always be confined to warfare. There is then no lack of opportunity for the skill of the naval architect and the marine engineer in the further development of ‘ specialities,’ many of which have had their inception during the last fifty years. For the present there is not, I believe, much designing of the monster North Atlantic ferry-boat, which by Mr. King’s paper should by now have attained a length of over 1000 ft.; vessels of 5-600 ft. are the most frequently built now, with plenty of passenger accommodation, a fair proportion of paying dead-weight, and a speed which is moderate for their length. I have hardly referred at all to the tremendous changes which have taken place in the Royal Navy;; that in itself would take more time than I have at my disposal. In main engines, however, the lines of development have been much the same as in the mercantile marine, while in the vessels themselves their purpose is so different that no comparisons can be drawn. But their design has not been without its influence on the merchant-ship m many details, and there are several directions in which the work at the Admiralty has has a commanding influence on naval architecture in this country. The important paper we are having from the two chief technical officers at Whitehall will show what I mean. Education —Until the founding of the John Elder Chair of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering at Glasgow University, the technical education available to apprentices in private works was provided practi- cally entirely by evening classes under the South Kensington Science and Art Department.. Many of those men who for at least a generation were responsible for the great strides made in the technical efficiency of the twin industries received their professional education at these classes. These classes are still doing good work. For generations the Royal Dockyards have taken care of the technical instruction of their appren- tices, and schools for their instruction were, and are, at work in every Dockyard, and of these you will hear ; I can only stop to note the founda- tion of the Royal School of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering at South Kensington. The best students from each Dockyard were sent there for the first time in 1864, to receive a training in higher science and mathematics of a severity unmatched in any college, and the first year there were eight marine engineers and eight naval architects. The latter group I knew best—John, Gowings, Elgar, White, Ragge, Fitze, Deadman, Bone. Early in this year Mr. Deadman, the last survivor of that brilliant eight, passed away. Some of the others died young, but, of those who survived, who can forget the brilliant work done by John at Lloyd’s Registry, by Elgar at Glasgow University as the first Professor of Naval Architecture in the John Elder Chair, or by Sir William White, whether at the Admiralty as D.N.C. or at Armstrong’s in Newcastle as designer ? From 1879 to 1882 I had the honour of being one of his students at the G.—ENGINEERINGs 127 Royal Naval College, Greenwich, and no students ever listened to a more inspiring Professor. On the marine engineering side at South Kensington, that first group included men who also did splendid work for their country—Bedbrook and Littlejohns, who occupied high positions in the Naval engineering service, and Pratten, who is, I am glad to say, still living, after many years of splendid work done in the service of Messrs. Harland & Wolff at Belfast. Many of those who started in the Naval service ultimately took up positions with the Board of Trade, the Registry Societies, and in private firms, while certain private students were permitted by the Admiralty to attend at Kensington and Greenwich. Of these I mention two—Professor F. P. Purvis and Sir Eustace Tennyson-d’Hyncourt, the latter recently retired from the position of D.N.C., and the former, after some years as chief of the scientific department at a private yard in this country, became Professor at Tokio, from which position he has just retired. The education in the Admiralty has has a commanding effect on the private shipyard and marine-engine work, and it is interesting to note that almost all the Professors of Naval Architecture at Glasgow University, Liverpool University, and Armstrong College at Newcastle have been Admiralty- trained men—Dr. Elgar, Professor Jenkins, and Sir John Biles at Glas- gow, Sir Westcott Abell, now chief at Lloyd’s Reyistry, and his brother, Professor T. B. Abell, at Liverpool, and Dr. Welch at Newcastle, while at the Royal Naval College the Professors in’ the technical subjects naturally were Navy men. Without proper technical education an efficient corps of designers and of research workers could not be maintained, and you will learn how considerable and important has been the research work guided by the Admiralty. Nor need I remind you of the research which has been carried out by our technical institutions, by Lloyd’s Registry, and by many. _ private firms and individuals. .. Research was given a great impetus by the necessities of the Ministry of Munitions and other Government Departments during the War, and a notable advance was made when the Department of Scientific and Indus- trial Research was established, with a parliamentary vote of its own, and in addition with a fund of a million. After many methods of assisting research had been considered, the Department specialised in aiding the establishment of research associations connected with specific industries, and by these bodies much useful work has been done. The Department took over the responsibility for the National Physical Laboratory at Teddington, and we are greatly indebted to the Laboratory, and especially _ to the William Froude Tank established there by the generosity of Sir _ Alfred Yarrow. There is no research association of shipbuilders and marine engineers, but they contribute to a fund for research in the William _ Froude Tank and use it and the other departments of the Laboratory for __ private experiments ; they are thus closely linked up with research. 7 In research, to no two men are we more indebted than to Dr. Wm. Froude and his son, Mr. R. E. Froude, for the experimental work done by them on ships’ resistance and screw propellers. The British Association in 1868 appointed a committee to consider stability, propulsion, and sea- going qualities of ships, and of that committee Dr. Froude was a member, 128 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. the others being Merrifield, Galton, and Rankine. The committee recom- mended experiments on actual ships, but Dr. Froude dissented and gave it as his opinion that model experiments were of value and were much cheaper to carry out, describing some he had made in 1867. In 1868~9, on the suggestion of Sir Edward Reed, then Chief Constructor, the Admiralty agreed to bear the cost of the construction and the working costs of the tankat Chelston Cross, Torquay. This tank started work in 1871, Dr. Froude acting as chief, and he gave his services gratuitously as long as he lived. On his death Mr. R. EK. Froude took over charge, continuing and expanding his father’s work. The results were freely communicated by him, with the full consent and encouragement of the Admiralty, to the Institution of Naval Architects in a series of valuable papers. The Torquay tank was ultimately dismantled and transferred to Haslar, where the good work is continuing. From the Froude tanks great benefits have flowed. I shall leave Mr. Mumford to show in detail the effect of these establishments on the design of ships and their propellers. Probably no one is more qualified to do so, with nearly fifty years’ experience in experimental tank work. He joined the staff at Torquay in 1878, after having been trained as a naval architect in Devonport Dockyard, and took charge of the Dumbarton tank in 1882, when the first private one was built at the suggestion of the late Wiliam Denny, than whom perhaps no private naval architect had so much influence on the profession in such a short life; he died in 1887, at the age of thirty-nine. I shall confine myself to giving one example of the benefit of the tank. In 1888 the Prince ' Henriette was built at Dumbarton for the Ostend-Dover service of the Belgian Government. The ship’s lines were developed in the tank and the paddle-wheels were fixed in size and position from trial runs with model wheels in the tank. She was 300 ft. -by 38 ft. by 8 ft. 6 in. draught, and the speed on Government official trial was 21.09 knots. The previous fastest paddle-boat, built in 1885 at the same yard, was of the same length—300 ft. by 35 ft. beam, and draught 7 ft. 8 in. ; its speed was 15.01 knots. Thus within three years, and largely by the aid of the tank, six knots higher speed was attained on the same length. The original tank trials were made with the same beam as the older vessel, viz. 35 ft., but only 194 knots was predicted. It was then suggested by the tank staff to try 38 ft. beam, thus fining the lines, when an extra knot for the same power resulted. Of course, every effort was made. both in the hull and in the machinery, to economise weight and provide the highest possible power. In the compound two- cylinder diagonal machinery, designed by the late Mr. Walter Brock, cast- steel entablatures, wrought-steel guides, and single eccentric valve gear were used ; the boilers were Navy type, straight-through tubular, working under forced draught in a closed stokehold. Still, without the tank experi- ments neither the naval architect nor the engineer would have had the confidence to proceed or to undertake the onerous Government guarantees demanded. But before tank trials were available there was a notable influence at work which was constantly inspiring the desire for higher and higher speeds in merchant-ships. I refer to the construction and development of high-speed launches, torpedo-boats and destroyers, with which the names G.— ENGINEERING. 129 of Thornycroft and Yarrow are so honourably connected. The exceed- ingly high speeds attained taught naval architects much till then unknown. As a later development, the construction during the War of the coastal motor-boats was most instructive and was a notable contribution towards the final victory. There are now, besides the Government tank at Haslar, the following Froude tanks in this country in the order of age—Denny (Dumbarton), Brown (Clydebank), William Froude (Teddington), Vickers (St. Albans), and Parsons’ have also a smaller open-air tank at Newcastle: that is six ; and there are in Italy, Germany, France, Sweden, Russia, Austria, Japan, and the United States other eleven, a total of seventeen, and it may be claimed that tanks have had more far-reaching effect on design than any other means of research. And yet, when one considers the research carried out on ferrous and non-ferrous metals, that claim may be disputed. Time fails me to do more than indicate to you the history of mild steel. Great Britain was the birth- place of the steel industry and Sheffield was its cradle. Bessemer cupola and Siemens-Martin open-hearth steels were British inventions, and at one time this country held premier place in tons of steel produced per annum. It was on the Bessemer converter that America built up her vast steel industry, but in shipbuilding and marine engineering Siemens- Martin open-hearth steel was the key to success. While steel had been used in shipbuilding at an earlier date, our present material came into daily use in merchant-ship building in the late ’seventies of last century, and I can remember the interest taken in the Buenos Ayrean, the first steel Atlantic ship, built in 1879. Grave doubts were expressed as to the wisdom of Messrs. Allan in ordering that steamer, and when she developed certain infantile troubles and was dry-docked for the first time a crowd of talent _ examined her from stem to stern. At last one lynx-eyed surveyor found a crack in a bottom plate, but there was great relief when the superintend- _ Ing engineer removed the crack with the point of his knife: it was a hair from a paint-brush ! With the considerable reduction in scantlings allowed by the Classifi- cation Societies mild steel rapidly displaced iron in ship construction. But still we were warned that it was unreliable if worked at a blue heat, and some failures were recorded. Further improvement in manufacturing methods, however, finally gave us a material of great reliability and easily worked. The limits of 28-32 tensile strength and 20 per cent. extension in an 8-inch specimen have been standard now for many years, though steels of greater carbon content and higher tensile strength have been ised ; and as Young’s modulus is practically the same for all ordinary earbon steels, these higher tensile steels could be used in conjunction with milder steels without disadvantage. But there is now another mild carbon steel on the market which has a higher elastic limit, the use of which is just beginning ; 5 opin tS: claimed that it will ensure firthee advantageous EE a, Sir Robert Hadfield’s invention of ite -manganese steel gave a fresh ‘im petus to research in ferrous alloys. Among other facts, he found that while 2 per cent. to 3 per cent. of manganese rendered carbon stee! so brittle as to be useless, when a 13 per cent. alloy was made and properly heat- treated a material resulted of extreme toughness and great resistance to 1925 K 130 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. abrasion. All will remember Mushet’s old self-tempering steel, but now we have alloys of nickel, chromium, vanadium, tungsten, and other metals, each with its own special use, either in construction of ships and their machinery or in the machine-shop for tool-steel, thus still further advancing the science and art of shipbuilding and marine engineering. The alloy which appeals most to the domestic circle is Firth’s stainless steel, which has largely abolished knife-boards and knife-cleaning machines. In engineering, this and other similar alloys are now coming into use, where their non-rusting qualities are of particular value; further, they are now under test with a view to their employment for important sea structures in connection with piers, docks, and harbours. Other powerful factors in the development of the merchant marine were the Board of Trade, the Classification Societies, and the technical institutions and societies. The Board of Trade is charged by statute with the duty of seeing that - ships are safe and sufficient for navigation. The individual surveyor is legally responsible, and it is he who must certify safety and sufficiency ; but, for co-ordination purposes, there is a Consultative Branch at White- hall which issues ‘ Suggestions and Instructions’ to the surveyors as to how they should carry out their duties. These ‘ buff books ’ have in practice largely the same effect as the rules and regulations of the Classification Societies. Practically every maritime nation has a Registry or Classification body or bodies of its own, but in this country that type of organisation has been earlier and more fully developed than in other countries. Lloyd’s Registry has a world-wide name and has had a profound influence on design not only in this country but all over the world. When iron superseded wood as the constructional material for ships, it required boldness of conception to pass from the very ponderable thickness of the wooden-skin planking to what must have appeared the paper thickness of the iron-skin plating, and from the practically solid wood framing to the spidery and wider-spaced iron framing. This was not the work of any one man; many naval architects were experi- menting and making gradual advances. The history of the change is difficult to follow, and I shall leave the task to Mr. Foster King; but I have always understood that the late Mr. Weymouth, at one time a — Surveyor to Lloyd’s and ultimately Secretary to the Registry, after collecting from the various builders information as to the scantlings in — use, conceived the system of numerals, and got out the first draft of the scantling rules, which system was in use for many years. It was inevitable that the only Registry should be criticised and dubbed — arbitrary and that shipowners and builders should think it desirable to— establish another, and this was done by the Liverpool Registry, known as_ the ‘Red Book.’ This led to competition in scantlings, no doubt in the endeavour to simplify and hence cheapen the structure, but the Registries were accused of ‘ sailing too near the wind ’ in weight of scantling. Plimsoll’s agitation ‘and the Act which made it obligatory for the ship- owner to place a mark on the sides of his ships showing the maximum draught to which he proposed to load them greatly affected mercantile owners, and schemes for fixing a load-line were evolved, for it should be noted that no scheme was included in the Act. The Board of Trade had G.—ENGINEERING. 131 their ideas of what the criterion should be, while Lloyd’s Registry published rules in the early ’eighties, but there were no legal rules. In 1884 the Government appointed a Committee, the parent of many others, on which were representatives of the Board of Trade, Lloyd’s and the Liverpool Registries, and others, with Sir Edward Reed as Chairman. Sir Dighy Murray, Mr. Benjamin Martell, Mr. West, and Mr. Wm. Denny were very active members. The Board of Trade proposed height of platform as the _ criterion, while Lloyd’s pinned their faith to surplus buoyancy ; the latter _was ultimately adopted, though, curiously enough, the former is now recognised as the more important factor. On the eve of the publication of the report it was announced that Lloyd’s had absorbed the ‘ Red Book,’ and so the standard of strength, which the Committee had decided to combine with draught of water, _ Was recommended to be Lloyd 1885 rules. When the Government accepted _ the report and passed the Load Line Act in 1890, the Board of Trade was made responsible for its application, Lloyd’s was named as an assigning body, and any other similar body approved by the Board might be similarly appointed, and the Board was to consult such assigning bodies before making any modification in the rules which experience might suggest. Certain shipowners and shipbuilders, having an objection to a practical monopoly in the fixing of scantlings and freeboards, founded in 1891 the British Corporation Registry, with head office in Glasgow, which _ Was recognised by the Board under the Act, but only on condition that _tules for scantlings and a registry book were produced, and finally that the controlling committee was so constituted as to ensure the influence not only of shipowners, but also of shipbuilders, marine engineers, and under- writers. That Registry has had a profound influence for good, and the question of strength was fully assured, as a standard for that was. laid down. The virility of the younger society, with its modern ideas and its constant endeavour to simplify the construction while maintaining the strength of its vessels, reacted on the older society with all its accumulated experience, and these two, in consultation with the Board of Trade, have done much useful work in standardising, while not fossilising, practice hrough research. . And this leads me to speak of Standardisation in Shipbuilding and Engineering, which Mr. Le Maistre, Secretary of the British Engineering Standards Association, will deal with at greater length. You are all iware of the attempts to standardise the design of ships and their machinery ‘uring the War. In my opinion, that was not the wisest proceeding ; in ny case, I do not believe that standard designs such as were carried out t that time are suited for peace times. But, if we are to maintain our ational supremacy, I am a firm believer in standardising details in ships nd machinery. The first work of the B.E.S.A., when it was established in 901, was the standardising of ships’ sectional material. Order was thus rought out of chaos, the number of standards, sections of all kinds and izes, was fixed at 175, and the steelmakers reported that a saving of at feast 5s. per ton was the result. A revision in 1918 reduced the standard etions to 115. A recent piece of work of the B.E.S.A. is the standardising of the tail-shafts of ordinary cargo-vessels, which standards may also be applicable to many passenger-ships. The taper of the shaft to take the propeller boss is also fixed. It can easily be seen what a saving this would K 2 152 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. mean in the case of damage at a distant out-port, where, were these standards adopted, only a few spares need be kept, or even the spare of one steamer could be used for another with the same diameter shaft, and thus in the case of damage the present long delays in an out-port waiting for replace parts would be avoided. The influence of the Institution of Naval Architects on the progress of design cannot be exaggerated. Founded in 1860, there has been a constant stream of valuable papers read and discussed at the annual meetings ; naval architects and marine engineers were glad of the opportunity of pre- senting the results of their experience to their fellows and of profiting by the discussion of their ideas. The Institution is a forum where ability and efficiency are highly valued and honoured. One of the earliest benefits conferred by the Institution on the profession was that, through the influ- ence of its members as a body, Government was induced to establish the School at South Kensington from which, as I have shown, such benefits have flowed. And there are all over the country—at Liverpool, Newcastle, Southampton, Glasgow, and other centres—similar institutions, contri- buting to the advance of the science by their meetings and published transactions, I have done what I could to ensure chronological accuracy in preparing this address, but, from the difficulties I encountered in my inquiries, I am conscious that there may be certain errors. It is sketchy, | admit, as the change and progress during the last fifty years has been so colossal that one cannot within the limits of such an address do more than glance at the phases of the evolution. But there is one other aspect on which | think J should say a few words, and that is on the management of the works and the personnel. Plan the designer never so well, unless the works management and the artisans be efficient and work cordially together, the designer plans in vain ! Fifty years ago, when transport was primitive, the staffs and artisans remained largely in the place of their birth, education, and apprenticeship. Tradition thus grew up in each works, which were generally moderate in size and frequently situated in small towns, so that everybody knew everybody ; there was a clannish feeling and a spirit of emulation between works and works, the stafis and artisans were as pleased with a technical success as the master, and considered that they shared the credit, as indeed they did. Son succeeded father in al] grades in the works, and, so far as discipline and willing service were concerned, the manager, if he had ow any anxiety at all, could yet make his calculations as to cost and time of | delivery with a fair certainty of ‘coming out.’ Trade Unions there were, but controlled by men with different aims from the present. The same held good in the local football team, the men were really from the locality. And just as professionalism has destroyed that spirit in football, so pro- fessional agitators and politicians have largely destroyed the old spirit of ‘the works.’ The employer is blamed for not knowing his own men, but every precaution seems to be taken to prevent the employer from doing so; the individual workman is not permitted to talk things over with the individual employer. We older men had our own difficulties and troubles in the earlier stages of the evolution, but our sons and descendants have imposed on them the | necessity of acquiring a greater mass of detailed and accurate knowledge, G.—ENGINEERING. 133 combined with immensely greater social difficulties. I would like to quote a few sentences from the preface of ‘ The World Unbalanced,’ by Gustave le Bon :— “In this domain (social life) progressive evolution remains feeble. The feelings of ambition, jealousy, ferocity and hatred, which animated our first ancestors, remain unchanged. . .. We cannot understand events unless we take account of the profound differences which separate mystic and emotional impulses from rational considerations. They explain why - individuals of superior intelligence have at all times accepted the most infantile beliefs... . Even in our day Communistic chimeras have had the power to ruin a gigantic empire and threaten other countries.’ He points out virtually that civilisation in scientific and constitutional directions has quite outstripped moral civilisation, which has made little or no real progress ; that at bottom our ancestral savage instincts are the real power, certainly in emergencies like the late war, and he says :-— “We do not know what influence reason will one day exercise on the march of history. If its only influence is to provide these emotional and mystical impulses, which still threaten the world, with more and more power of destruction, our civilisation is doomed to share the fall of the great Asiatic empires, whose power did not save them from destruction and whose last traces are now covered with sand.’ But he ends on a more cheerful note. He says :— ‘The Future is indeed within us and is woven by ourselves. Not being fixed, like the Past, it can be transformed by our own efforts.’ And may I also quote from an address given to Members of Parliament by Lieut.-Colonel (now Sir James) Lithgow. He closed his remarks on the causes of the present serious depression in our industry, and begged that the House might assist in the cure, with the following remarks :— “Protected industries are living on the unprotected, but raise their costs in doing so... . ‘The standard of living possible in this country depends on its power to export at competitive costs. ... “We shipbuilders and marine engineers cannot save ourselves from within our industry... . ‘Unless the whole public conscience is awakened to the broader and cumulative handicaps under which we, in common with all! British export- ing industries, are working to-day, there can be no hope of restoring the shipbuilding industry to its old position of supremacy.’ May such intelligence and wisdom be granted to the present generation that it may be even more successful in evolving a satisfactory social tem than the past generations have undoubtedly been successful in olving highly developed means of transport, so that the benefits of the uable work done in the past may not be lost to future generations, | SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. PRACTICAL ENGINEERING IN ANCIENT ROME. ADDRESS BY THOMAS ASHBY, D.Lrrr., F.S.A., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. THE subject of the present paper might better have been stated as ‘Practical Engineering in Ancient Italy.’ For it is not my mtention, on the one hand, to confine myself to the city of Rome itself, or even to its immediate environs ; nor, on the other hand, shall I attempt to overstep the limits of time at my disposal nor the bounds of my own personal experience, and attempt to give you a general survey of the manifesta- tions of the Roman genius throughout the Roman world in its triumph over obstacles of a material nature. And, when [ use the word genius, it is certainly more than a coincidence that the Italian terms for the engineering branch of the Italian Army—our Royal Engineers—or for the body of civil engineers are respectively ‘ genio militare’ and ‘ genio civile.’ In fact, I remember many years ago how an eminent soldier and archeologist, General Borgatti, to whom we owe the restoration of the Mausoleum of Hadrian—Castel 8. Angelo—to its pristine form, was billed to lecture on what he had accomplished, and Maggiore nel Genio— his then rank—was translated, for the benefit of the British tourist, as “Genius Major,’ instead of ‘ Major, R.E.’ But this is by the way. Nor have I time to dwell as much as I might wish upon the importance of all these wonderful works in the development of the Roman sway over the ancient world. Whatever be our views on Roman Art—and, personally, I am one of its admirers—we shall not deny to the Romans achievements of supreme importance in the material sphere, for which both their con- temporaries and posterity must be everlastingly grateful to them. What appealed most of all to those who saw Rome in her prime were the aqueducts, the roads, and the drainage system. In regard to the last, Rome is described as a city suspended above a network of navigable sewers ; and Agrippa, when he was zedile, in 33 B.c., is said to have traversed them in a boat and emerged at the Tiber. Pliny the younger, more than a century later, expressed his admiration of the — way in which, after 700 years, they offered a firm resistance to the rush of storm-water which passed through them, to the fall of buildings above | them, and to earthquakes ; and he calls them opus omnium dictu maximum ; and nearly 400 years later, Cassiodorus, in the reign of Theodoric, wrote of Rome: ‘What city can rival thy lofty buildings, when even thy lowest depths are beyond compare?’ And even so, the system was not as perfect as it might have been. Livy tells us that, as originally constructed, the drains ran under land which belonged to'the State, but that in the rebuilding of Rome, after — H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 135 its sack and destruction by the Gauls in 390 B.c., houses were built pell- mell, without the lines of the streets being properly drawn, so that the old drains passed under private buildings, and the city had all the appearances of hasty construction. All this grew out of very small beginnings. The Palatine, the nucleus of the City of Rome upon the Seven Hills, had great natural advantages of position ; it was an almost flat-topped hill, with two distinct summits and a slight depression between them, protected by lofty cliffs, far more formidable than they seem at present, and almost entirely surrounded by two marshy valleys traversed by winding streams. Its neighbourhood to the Tiber enabled it to command the crossing, which, no doubt, existed in some form long before the foundation of Rome, probably just below the island, where the Pons Sublicius stood later. This crossing was of great importance, for it was the only permanent one over the whole lower course of the river. Even in the palmiest days of Rome there were no bridges over the Tiber below the city, and those that there are now are all quite modern ; while if we look upstream we find that above the city the only bridge for forty miles was that by which the Via Flaminia recrossed the river into Umbria just below Otricoli—and of that the last traces were obliterated by a flood some twenty years ago, which led to a complete change of course of the river. The traffic between the two banks was probably carried on by ferries, as at present. Tradition-ascribes the building of the Cloaca Maxima to a powerful race of foreign kings, the Tarquins, from the city of Tarquinii in Southern Etruria. A noticeable feature in Etruscan cities was the attention paid _ to drainage. Not only are rock-cut sewers a feature of Etruscan sites, but the system of tunnels for draining the territory to the north of Veii is one of the most remarkable in existence and well deserves study. The Tarquins are said to have ruled over Rome in the sixth century B.c., and this chronological statement is supported in a remarkable way by the _ discovery of tombs, the latest of which are dated down into the sixth century B.c., proving that the valley of the Forum was used as a burial- place until that time. It is not certain whether this cemetery belonged to the Palatine or the Septimontium ; but in any case burials must have ceased to take place here after the valley of the Forum was drained and had become the common market-place of the Latin-Sabine settlements on the Palatine and the Quirinal1 The valley of the Circus Maximus must have been drained at the same time, for tradition ascribes the beginnings of the circus and the assignment of definite places to the Senate and the ights (where they could erect wooden platforms twelve feet high from hich to view the games) to the Tarquins. It is, indeed, only reasonable _ to suppose that, after the separate communities had been knit into one, these two valleys no longer served as the defences of one hill only, but became sites of supreme importance for the development of the life of the whole; and the first wall which enclosed the enlarged city, Rome of _ the Seven Hills, is ascribed by tradition to Servius Tullius, the immediate ‘predecessor of Tarquinius Priscus, and from its remains may with fair certainty be assigned to the sixth century B.c. We may suppose, if we will, that the Aventine was at first left out of the enceinte, and the wail 1 Hiilsen, Roman Forum, 4, 216. : | 136 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. carried along the south side of the Palatine. This gives a far better defensive line, avoids the inclusion (which does not seem reasonable) of the place reserved for games and festivals within the area which had to be protected by a wall, and explains the non-inclusion of the Aventine within the pomoerium until the time of Claudius. Of the Cloaca Maxima little or nothing remains that belongs to the original structure ; and indeed in the time of Plautus it was called canalis,” and may have still been open at any rate for part of its course; for the whole this seems an almost impossibly insanitary supposition. We have, too, a number of branch drains which must have eventually led into it from the slopes of the Capitol—though conditions have been so altered that some of them now give into the open. I think they may be claimed as dating from the sixth or fifth century B.c., and as being thus by over a century the earliest Roman arches in existence. But in this connection I would like to remind you that here we are dealing with a soft volcanic stone—the kind of tufa known as cappellaccio. When Appius Claudius built the Via Appia in 312 B.c., and his engineers had to build an embankment wall to carry the road along a hillside, we may see that, where they had to deal with the hard local limestone, they did not waste labour either in making a curved arch for the culvert, contenting themselves with inclining the sides gradually and then putting a lintel over, or in making the courses of the embankment wall horizontal, A century ago both these peculiarities were taken to betoken a high antiquity, and some of our own countrymen, more especially Gell and Dodwell, searched out all the remains of Cyclopean construction they could find in Central and Southern Italy, and carefully drew and noted them. But the same adaptation of means to ends may be seen in modern railway embankments in Switzerland, and, as Choisy rightly remarked, is rather a geological fact than anything else. The course of the Cloaca Maxima, as shown on the map,? resembles, as Lanciani remarks, rather that of an Alpine torrent than of a carefully constructed drain; and its origin, from the canalisation of a stream meandering at the bottom of a flat valley, as the Tiber does at present, is sufficiently clear: though some of its windings are due to the erection of buildings under the Empire, e.g. the temple of Minerva in the Forum of Nerva. The mouth of the Cloaca, with its three concentric arches of volcanic tufa, which may be assigned to 100 B.c. or a little before,4 was much more picturesque before the construction of the modern embank- ment. It is now a mere dummy, as the Cloaca itself, which still performs its functions, has been conducted into the new main sewer (the Collettore, as it is called) which runs just inside the embankment. There is therefore no possibility of a repetition of the flooding of the Forum, as described by Horace— Vidimus flavum Tiberim retortis Latore Etrusco violenter undis Ive deiectum monumenta regis Templaque Vestae. (Od. I. ii, 138.)— 2 Cure. 476. 8 Lanciani, Ruins and Excavations, p. 29, fig. 14. ‘Tenney, Frank, Roman Buildings of the Republic, 102 n. 9, H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 137 and as I saw it myself in the winter of 1902, when for a fortnight it lay under a somewhat unsavoury mixture of river water and sewage. This did not happen even in the great flood of 1915, when the whole of the plain between the low hills near Ponte Galera—where the mouth of the Tiber was in days long ago—and the present mouth was flooded, and the old coastline, followed by the railway to Pisa, was once more lapped by the waves. The Cloaca Maxima is a drain of considerable size, having an average measurement of 14 ft. high by 11 ft. wide—we are told that a haycart could be driven through it—while the other two principal sewers of ancient Rome are rather smaller. One of them started near the ‘nymphaeum ’ of the gardens of Sallust, an interesting ruin which still exists in the centre of the modern Piazza Sallustio, ran in more or less a straight line down the Via 8. Nicolo da Tolentino and the Via del Tritone to Monte Citorio; there it turned at right angles, and ran due south under the Pantheon to the Tiber. A little to the east of the Teatro Argentina it was joined by a branch from the western slopes of the Quirinal, and either to the main stream or to its tributary belonged the name Petronia Amnis, its source being the Cati Fons. The other is the Cloaca of the Circus Maximus, which we have already mentioned ; it drained the valley between the Esquiline and the Caelian hills, and the marsh later occupied by Nero’s lake and, then by the Colosseum, and found its way into the Tiber only about fifty yards below the Cloaca Maxima. Both these drains were built, like the Cloaca Maxima, of large rectangular blocks of stone, with a vaulted roof of the same material ; and some of the minor drains were built in the same way, while others were covered with a flat block of stone, or with two slabs inclined to form a gable. This last shape, with the gable formed of large flat tiles, was that adopted in the brick-faced concrete sewers of imperial times, which vary in width from 2 to 4 ft. and in height from 6 to 9 ft. Notwithstanding their splendid construction, which still bids defiance to the lapse of time, Lanciani is undoubtedly right in maintaining that the Roman Cloacae have been overpraised. The modern sanitary engineer cannot approve of their use for carrying off sewage and rain-water together. Such contrivances as traps and syphons being unknown, the openings for the reception of the latter served to let out the effluvia from the former. Still more dangerous was the direct admission of sewage into the Tiber, which must have been odoriferous in the extreme when the water was low ; while in times of flood the drains were dammed back, as was the case even in 1902. No, Roman ideas of sanitation, though advanced for their day, were ‘not always perfect; their latrines were only regularly flushed when it rained, and their invariable juxtaposition with the kitchen in Pompeian houses shocks our modern ideas of hygiene, though it might not have _ troubled our great-great-grandfathers so much as ourselves. Was there - not a hot controversy in the sixteenth century as to whether the Tiber water was not better suited to the pontifical digestion than the Aqua Virgo, the modern Acqua di Trevi, perhaps the purest as it is certainly the most palatable drinking-water in the world ; and did not Clement VIT and Paul III, two of the splendour-loving Popes of the Renaissance, take 138 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. Tiber water with them on all their journeys (the former had it sent as far as Marseilles), which shows that they must have been proof against typhoid ?* In the time of the Republic the drainage system was under the general control of the censors, who let out contracts for the necessary constructions or repairs in this as in other classes of public works. They also had charge of the river banks and channel, and in 54 B.c. they erected a series of boundary stones (cippz) along both banks to prevent encroachment by private persons. Under Augustus in 8 B.c. the consuls of the year erected another series of terminal stones, and Augustus himself a third in 7-6 B.c. Tiberius, after a great inundation of the Tiber in the second year of his reign (A.D. 15), instituted for the first time a special board of five curatores riparum et alver Tiberis, who probably looked after the sewers as well; though until the time of Trajan the charge of the sewerage does not actually appear in the formal title of the curator—for from the time of Vespasian onwards only one is mentioned, who was either the president of the board or a single official who had taken its place. The last inscriptions we have belong to the time of Diocletian. In the series of cippz which we owe to Augustus himself in 7-6 B.c. we find upon each stone, for the first time, the distances to the next one given, from the front, the back, the right or the left, as the case may be. We thus see that the boundary followed a zigzag line along the bank. The czppi have been found along both banks from the Pons Mulvius (the modern Ponte Molle) of the Via Flaminia, two miles above the city, down to a point opposite 8. Paolo ; but recently two of those of the curatores of the time of Tiberius were found at Ostia, on the ancient right bank of the river, which has completely changed its course owing to the great flood of 1557, so that we must assume that their authority extended right down to the mouth of the river —how far up we cannot say. But besides the erection of boundary stones, a good deal was done in the way of actual regulation of the river bank. There was no continuous embankment wall, as at present, but walls seem to have been built at the points where they were most needed. The modern engineers attempted to impose a uniform width of 100 metres on a river, the volume of which is liable to variations so great as that which the Tiber undergoes. This has led to the formation of sandbanks in places where the new bed, often double the width of the old, is too large for the ordinary state of the river ; while the attempt to force the river into a less tortuous course above the island, and the widening of the right branch of it from 48 to 75 metres led to the silting up of the left-hand branch, except in times of flood. As a result, the river was driven against the right-hand embankment, the foundations of which were not protected by aprons, and consequently a length of 125 yards of the wall collapsed into the river in the flood of December 1900. Measures have now been taken to diminish the amount of water passing through the right-hand channel and to keep the left- hand channel open, and have met with a certain measure of success. The Romans, at one point at any rate, at the Pons Aelius built by the Emperor Hadrian (the modern Ponte S. Angelo), were wise enough to provide three different widths of channel for different seasons of the year, in correspondence with which the bridge was provided with extra flood 5 Modio, Il Tevere, p. 8 v. H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 139 arches. The bridge was brought to light in its entirety in 1892, and it was found that, as originally constructed, it had three arches for low water, corresponding with a channel 663 metres wide. Two more slightly smaller arches were available when the river was moderately full, with a channel _ 974 metres wide. For great floods three smaller arches came into use, giving a total width of 135 metres to the stream.® It was these three smaller arches and the bridge-heads characteristically sloping up on each side that were brought to light m 1892; and it is much to be regretted that it was impossible to preserve this remarkably perfect specimen of a Roman bridge. The same may be said of the Pons Aemilius, though as it stood it was largely a work of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, having last been rebuilt after the flood of 1557 (after the flood of 1598, in which it lost three out of its six arches, no attempt was made to repair it); it might more fittingly have been restored instead of being reduced to a single arch left in midstream to tell the tale. Similarly, the Pons Cestius, which crosses the right-hand branch at the island, an ancient though much-restored structure of one large arch and two smaller flood arches, has been transformed into a modern bridge of three large arches in connection with the widening of the channel already mentioned. The Pons Fabricius, on the other hand, has been left untouched. It was built of solid stone in 62 B.c. by Lucius Fabricius, then curator viarum, and partly restored by the consuls of 21 B.c. (the inscription recording these repairs seems to relate only to the left-hand arch). With the exception of the brick fillings above the arches it is almost intact. It has two large arches with a flood arch in the pier between them, which would otherwise have been needlessly massive. There are also two small side arches, now concealed by the embankment walls. From the consideration of the bridges of the city of Rome we naturally pass to that of the roads ; and here, as in the case of the drainage system, we find that the nucleus of that great network of roads which spread all over the Roman world dates almost from the beginning of her history. It may be well to study briefly some of the main engineering works upon a few of the most important of these roads. I have already spoken at Toronto of the course of the main lines of the roads that traverse Italy, and of their historical significance—how from small beginnings, con- temporary with the first extensions of the sway of Rome over her immediate neighbours, these lines of communication were gradually extended as her power spread through Italy. The road was pushed into the heart of the conquered territory, where some strong fortress like Alba Fucens or Venusia (Horace’s birthplace) was established, and _ garrisoned by a Latin colony. The colonists at the same time cultivated the territory around the town, receiving allotments of it as their own, and were thus at once soldiers and farmers. From these beginnings grew the _ wonderful network of roads which extended beyond Italy over the whole Roman Empire, and form a most important part of the heritage which that great empire left to posterity. _ I must, naturally, avoid repeating the paper that I read last year ; but I will call attention once more to some of the more interesting features ‘upon two or three of the main roads. 6 Lanciani, Ruins and Hxcavations, p. 13, fig. 6. 140 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. The Via Appia, the queen of roads, as Statius calls it, was built as far as Capua in 312 B.c., and later on prolonged to Venusia (291 B.c.), Tarentum, and Brundusium (244 B.c.). It runs in a practically straight line from Rome to the Alban Hills. There it finds its first serious obstacle in the small extinct volcanic crater below Aricia, where Horace spent the night hospitio modico, not in the high-lying town, but at the post station below ; and on the steep ascent from this post station it has, on the lower side of it, a massive embankment wall, about 200 yards in length. This, there is little doubt, is the Pons Aricinus, of which Juvenal speaks as being infested by beggars—like many another steep hill. The road soon reaches its summit level at Genzano, and descends once more in a straight line along the south-eastern slopes of the Alban Hills, passing at one point of its course over a smaller embankment, almost unknown to archeologists, and then, still perfectly straight, through the Pomptine Marshes. In Horace’s day there were nineteen miles of canal, which were traversed by night, whether to gain time or because the road was out of repair is uncertain. A milestone of about 250 B.c., found in the middle of this stretch, shows that the canal was not in use from the first. Horace’s description is too well known to be repeated here. In any case, Nerva and Trajan repaired this stretch, called from its length the Decennovium, and the ancient bridges on it are probably all their work. Thence we arrive at Terracina. Above the town is the mountain, crowned by a temple of Jupiter Anxur, behind which the old road ran, keeping high above the sea, and descending again several miles further on, Trajan is in all probability the author of the cutting at the foot of the isolated dolomitic mass of rock at the lowest extremity of the promontory, by which the road was enabled to pass round on the level. The height of the cutting is marked in splendid Roman numerals in swallow-tail tablets at frequent intervals. After the two roads have rejoined, there is a flat stretch for some miles, with a number of ancient culverts and bridges, still used by the modern road; and then beyond Fondi the road enters the picturesque gorge of 8. Andrea, where it is supported by massive embankment walls, well seen from the modern road, which has here abandoned the ancient line. On the descent, in the modern village of Itri, we see the ‘ Cyclopean ’ wall to which I have already called attention, and shortly afterwards reach the Bay of Gaeta and Formiae, where Cicero had his villa. From this point onwards the road proceeded on the level, first along the coast as far as Sinuessa (Mondragone), and then across the Campanian plain as far as the Volturnus. Just before the fine bridge over this river, which lies in sight of the modern railway bridge, it joined up with the Via Latina Labicana (which the modern railway follows more or less), and crossed to Casilinum, the modern Capua. Shortly after the ancient Capua the road enters the mountains once more, and after passing through the famous defile of the Caudine Forks, we find three finely preserved ancient bridges, of which the modern road still makes use. They are probably assignable to the period of Trajan. We soon reach Beneventum, beyond which the course of the ancient Via Appia is so doubtful that there is no question of there being any remains of great interest. And we shall, therefore, do well to follow . ’ : H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 141 instead the Via Traiana, which Trajan built as an alternative route to Brindisi, following an older mule-track of which Strabo speaks. It must have been completed in 109 B.c. and it reached the coast at Barium, the modern Bari, which, we may remember, lay on Horace’s route—though he did not follow the Via Appia far beyond Beneventum, nor yet the later Via Traiana, but took a third route. The road passes through some difficult country with frequent ups and downs, and there are a number of bridges in concrete faced with fine brickwork, stonework being used sparingly, and then only at the base of the piers. These bridges are all 24 Roman feet wide, which is above the usual standard width (14 feet) of the Via Appia and other Roman highroads—though even they widened out somewhat at the bridges. From the summit, about 3,000 feet above sea-level, there is a long winding descent, the Buccola di Troia, to the city of Troia, the ancient Aecae, with its fine cathedral. Here we enter the regna arida Dauni and the plain of Apulia. The road crossed two rivers, the Cervaro and the Carapelle, both of which have changed their course, and so left their bridges high and dry in the fields. They are, from the great width of the valleys and the character of the streams, which are wide and shallow—in fact, almost dry except in times of flood, when they carry a great quantity of water— structures of great length. The first is about 280 metres in length, about half of which is accounted for by the bridge proper, a structure with at least fourteen arches, the principal one having a span of about fifteen metres. The second is much longer, beginning with a causeway 200 or 300 metres long; then follows the bridge proper, some 200 metres long, with about ten arches; and then follows a causeway about 250 metres long, with supporting buttresses on each side. We have mentioned the Via Latina as joining the Via Appia at the bridge over the Volturnus. Its straightness of line shows that it, like the Via Appia, was constructed as a military highway (the earlier tracks which these two roads have obliterated may one day be found by air- photography), and it may date from a slightly earlier period. It led in the first place to the depression between the inner and outer ring of the Alban volcano below Tusculum, and it passed through the rim of the larger crater by the Pass of Algidus, through a narrow cutting which is still clearly to be seen. After its descent from this pass it followed the valley of the Sacco, and there are no remarkable works of engineering along it until we come to a branch road between it and the Via Appia from Teanum to Minturnae by way of Suessa, the modern Sessa Aurunca. Here we find a remarkable bridge, now known as the Ponte Ronaco, with more than twenty arches, which are in two tiers in the centre. The pavement on the top is still preserved. The construction is in brick-faced concrete. We may turn now to the Via Flaminia,’ the “ great north road,” of ancient Rome, built by Gaius Flaminius during his censorship in 220 B.c., to provide rapid means of communication between the capital and the citizen settlers with whom the newly conquered ager Gallicus in the Po valley was to be peopled, and to keep in touch with Ariminum both as a defence against Gallic inroads and as a starting-point for future conquests. Its great importance is shown by the fact that even under the late 7 See the article by Mr. R. A. L. Fell and myself in Journal of Roman Studies, xi, 142 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. Republic (65 B.c.) it had a special cwrator (whereas the upkeep of the roads was normally part of the censor’s duties, and the curatores of particular roads, of whom we have many inscriptions, seem to date only from Claudius). In 278.c. Augustus himself took charge of its restoration. It was, from this time on, evidently well kept up and much frequented. Vespasian built the tunnel in the Furlo Pass; Trajan and Hadrian as well as other emperors undertook other repairs ; and as a result we find that at about this time some travellers from Gades (Cadiz) in the south of Spain to the baths of Vicarello (perhaps the ancient Aquae Apollinares), on the north side of the Lake of Bracciano, preferred to come by land, and further. preferred the Via Aemilia and the Via Flaminia to the difficult Riviera coast route and the unhealthy Tuscan shore, or to the Apennine crossing between Bologna and Florence. These travellers have left a record of their journey in the shape of four silver cups found at these baths, with the itinerary from Cadiz to Rome and the names and distances of the post-stations inscribed upon them. The Via Flaminia, unlike the two roads of which we have spoken, is not able to maintain its straightness of line for very long after leaving the Tiber valley. It comes into some heavy country among the hills on the right bank, and is in some places constrained to wind about very con- siderably, so as to follow the watershed between deep ravines. It was not possible, as on the Via Cassia, which, though it runs only a few miles further west, traverses quite different (volcanic) country, to meet the difficulties by the use of deep cuttings—on the Cassia there is one as much as sixty feet deep in the descent to the crater of Baccano. But the first really serious obstacle by which it is confronted is the valley of the river Treia, which is subject to violent floods, one of which, only four years ago, carried away the modern bridge just below Civita Castellana. The valley is about 1,300 yards wide, and the drop in level to the bottom is about 250 feet on the south, while the ascent on the north is some 150 feet. The difficulties were considerable, but have been very well dealt with : and the causeways and bridge by which the Roman engineers took the road across the valley form a splendid monument of their skill. On the south side of the valley the road runs along the slope, being supported on the outer side by an embankment wall, the blocks of which have for the most part been removed. The road-bed is 0°90 m. thick, including the selee pavement blocks, and consists of large lumps of stone and earth. The width of the embankment is 8:20 m. and of the road itself 5°20 m. Shortly after the second turn the embankment is traversed by a culvert. The river has changed its course since Roman times, and has therefore carried away the greater part of the bridge, which must have been of considerable size. All that remains on the left bank is a pier with part of one arch, which I should be inclined to consider as a mediaeval restoration. After crossing a modern road we come to the Muro del Peccato, an inclined causeway nearly 600 feet in length, sup- ported by walls of opus quadratum of tufa on each side. There are nineteen courses at the highest point, each 0°59 m. in height (thus giving a total height of 11:20 m.), composed of alternating headers (0°55 m. wide) and stretchers (1°90 m. wide). The courses are inclined in order to follow the upward slope, and the joints are not always vertical. A little mortar is used, but is not universal. H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 143 The width at the top 1s 10.50 m., and the space between the two walls is filled with pieces of tufa and earth. At one point there was an arched conduit through the embankment. At the upper end there is a sudden break, due no doubt to some con- vulsion of nature: the name of the embankment wall (Muro del Peccato, ‘the wall of sin’) probably refers to the fact that the builder was supposed to have sold his soul to the devil, or to some particular iniquity which was punished by the destruction of the roadway. Where the causeway should have reached the rock, we see, at a higher level, the cutting of a narrower Etruscan road descending from the east, which was cut across when the Via Flaminia was constructed. The latter then turned west and ran along a ledge of rock, on the north side of which is a group of rock-cut tombs with arched niches for bodies, the largest of which has its roof supported by two pillars of natural rock. The road then bears north-west, and here a mediaeval castle was built on the brow of the cliff to guard the passage. To the north of it is a group of quarries, in one of which is a rock-cut dwelling in two storeys. Despite the fact that it is visible from the main line to Florence (if one knows where to look), I must confess that my knowledge of the Muro del Peccato was derived from Pasqui’s notes. After crossing the plateau to the north, the Via Flaminia descends to the valley of the Tiber, which is followed by the railway to Florence: and here we may see its parapets still preserved beside a modern road which has recently been constructed along its line. A few miles further on, below Otricoli, it crossed the Tiber, as we have already seen, and entered Umbria, traversing a hilly district as far as Narni, perched on a lofty cliff above the river. Ascending through the town, it reached the famous Bridge of Augustus, one of the wonders of Italy even in the sixth century . after Christ, as Procopius tells us. Of the four arches by which it crossed the stream only one is now preserved. Two smaller bridges a little to the north, remarkably well preserved but less known, may be compared with the three bridges of the Via Appia a little before reaching Benevento. One of them, the Ponte Cardaro, formed the subject of one of Richard Wilson’s pictures, once in the Orrock collection, now in America, Many other ancient bridges are preserved along the course of the road, but none can vie with what we have seen; and the only other important work of which we shall speak is the tunnel by which the passage of the road through the Furlo Pass is facilitated. The inscription recording its construction by Vespasian may still be seen above the entrance. But such fine bridges were not confined to main roads; to take only one example, the city of Asculum, the modern Ascoli Piceno, besides its town walls and one of its gates, preserves two remarkable and little-known Roman bridges, the Ponte Cecco and the Ponte Cappuccini, which served the needs of purely local traffic. Their preservation is extraordinarily good, and so is the solidity, and at the same time the grace, of their construction. The aqueducts of ancient Rome are among its most celebrated monuments ; but, conspicuous as are their remains within the city and in its immediate neighbourhood, less is known of them at a greater distance than might have been expected. I have myself been engaged in the 144 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. study of them for over twenty-five years, and hope shortly to be able to complete the work with which I have been occupied for so long. For the present purpose I shall confine my attention almost entirely to the four aqueducts which drew their supplies from the upper valley of the Anio, the Anio Vetus (272-269 B.c.), Marcia (144-140 B.c.), Claudia, . and Anio Novus (both built by Caligula and Claudius, a.p. 38-52)—two of thém, as their name implies, taking their water from the river itself ; while the other two made use of excellent and very abundant springs which are for the most part conveyed to Rome by the modern Acqua Marcia, though a few of them still gush forth freely in pools which have a beautiful bluish tint (one of the springs was, indeed, known to the Romans as Caeruleus). These springs, indeed, as has been ascertained by the engineers of the modern aqueduct, come from holes in the roof of the original Roman headings. They rise under the rocks at the edge of the floor of the Anio valley, only a little way above the river-level, and come probably from huge reservoirs in the interior of the massif of Monte Autore, being supplied by percolation from a great basin about 1,500 metres above sea-level, which is snow-clad for the greater part of the year. As the Roman headings lie some seven or eight metres below the present level of the valley, which has been much raised by floods, it seems useless to try to identify, as previous authors have done, the individual springs of which the Romans made use. We have seen that the Anio Vetus goes back to the early part of the third century B.c., and the Marcia to the middle of the second century B.c., but comparatively little of the original construction of either is left to us. Both were restored by Augustus—rivos aquarum omnium refecit, says the inscription on the arch by which the Marcia, Tepula, and Iulia crossed the Via Tiburtina (later part of the Porta Tiburtina and now the Porta S. Lorenzo); to him belong all the cippi of the aqueducts which were in existence in his day, and no one found it necessary to renew them; and’ he brought into use new springs for the Aqua Marcia which doubled its volume. It is curious that the next restoration works of which we have epigraphic evidence, which were carried out by Vespasian in a.D. 71, belong, not’to the two older aqueducts, but to the Aqua Claudia, which had at that date been interrupted for nine years, so that Claudius’ original work had lasted for ten years only ; and even this was not enough, for Titus had to restore it again ten years later, in a.p. 81, and speaks of it in what would appear exaggerated language as having collapsed owing to its age (a sola vetustate dilapsae) along the whole of its course. By this time, however, the Aqua Marcia had already fallen into disrepair, and was patched up in a.p. 79 by Titus. We have no direct evidence (except from the study of the remains themselves, which shows that a good deal of work was done by the emperors of the second century, especially Hadrian) of other restorations until we come to the time of Caracalla, who restored the Aqua Marcia in 212-213, and still further increased its volume by adding a new spring ;§ but we shall see that they were very extensive, and that they continued even after this date. It is more difficult to know how to explain their necessity. The * The history of all these repairs is derived from the inscriptions on the Porta §, Lorenzo and Porta Maggiore (C.1.L, vi. 1244-1246, 1256-1258). H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 145 possible reasons are three. Claudius may quite well have been cheated by his freedmen ; secondly, it was certainly risky to place two or three channels upon arches that were only built to carry one; and thirdly, the channels seem frequently to have been flooded by the Anio, if we are to judge by the foul deposit which is frequently found in the channels of the Aqua Marcia and the Aqua Claudia, instead of the crystalline deposit which is proper to them. It will be convenient to follow the course of all the four aqueducts together, observing their principal remains as they occur. Before doing so I should mention two things by which my task has been greatly facilitated. One was the careful scientific levelling of all the remains of these four aqueducts that could be found, which was carried out in 1915 by the late Professor Vincenzo Reina and his assistants, Ingegneri Corbellini and Ducci.® This, among other advantages, rendered it far easier to assign the ruins correctly (where the course of two or more aqueducts was almost identical) than it had hitherto been. The second _ was the visit which I paid to the remains of the aqueducts in the spring _ of the present year in company with Dr. Esther van Deman (whose __ tesearches on the chronology of the various types of construction employed in the aqueducts and their frequent restorations are of the greatest import- ance and have been drawn upon in what follows) and Mr. G. R. Swain, Photographer of the Near East Expedition of the University of Michigan, _ towhom I am indebted for a most valuable series of fine photographs. Nor ean any student of the Roman aqueducts forget Professor Lanciani’s pioneer work in 1880: and my own researches were begun under his guidance. The Anio Novus originally drew its water from the river four miles _ above the springs of the Aqua Claudia, at the forty-sécond mile of the Via Sublacensis; but as the water was apt to become turbid, Trajan carried out a project of Nerva, according to which the three lakes used by Nero for the adornment of his villa above Subiaco were used as filtering tanks. This increased its length considerably, the new intake being some six or seven miles further up. Considerable remains of the dam still exist on the way up to the far-famed monasteries ; but the centre of it ‘collapsed in a flood in 1305—as the story goes, partly owing to the malice or imprudence of some of the monks who began to tamper with it. Otherwise there are no remains of any particular interest until we reach the gorge of §. Cosimato, some fifteen miles further down. It lies a couple of miles above Vicovaro, where the road from the valley of the Digentia and Horace’s ‘Sabine farm joins the main road down the Anio valley, the ancient Via Valeria. Here the Anio Novus is on the left bank of the Anio and the Aqua Marcia and Aqua Claudia are on the right bank, as they have been all the way from their respective beginnings. At the beginning of the gorge the Claudia is vertically above the Marcia, and there is a shaft by which water could be run from it into the lower channel in case of need. i All through the gorge the two channels may be followed one above : the other, cut in the rock, which is here somewhat rotten, so that it has _ more than once been necessary to make a new channel further in and abandon the outer one. ® See Livellazione degli antichi acquedotti Romani in Memorie della societa italiana delle scienze detta dei XL, serie 3. vol. xx. (1917). 1925 L 146 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. The gorge has, alas, lost much of its picturesque character owing to the construction of a large reservoir for the channel which supplies the electric-power works at Castel Madama, some three miles further down. At the lower end of it the Aqua Claudia divides into two branches, the slits for the sluices being still clearly visible at the point of junction. The original line kept along the left bank until it reached Vicovaro, where it crossed the Anio by a bridge which was repaired by Hadrian, and is still in use as a road-bridge ; but at a later period, probably that of Hadrian also, a branch was constructed. The channel first descended by a slope of 1 in 4°6, or 217-4 per 1,000, and then crossed the Anio by a bridge, of which scanty remains are preserved. The Marcia crossed the river a little further down, by a bridge of which hardly anything remains, and that little belongs to the Imperial period. The intake of the Anio Vetus was situated, not above or in the gorge of S. Cosimato, as was hitherto believed, but 35-50 metres above the bridge at Vicovaro, where we saw and levelled in 1915 the crown of the concrete arch of the channel. In 1925 nothing was to be seen; but there are remains of the channel, built in volcanic tufa, and belonging quite possibly to the original construction, on both banks of a small tributary on the left of the Anio not very far down. From Vicovaro onwards, then, all the four aqueducts remain on the left bank of the Anio. The deep valleys of some of its tributary streams create considerable difficulties for the aqueducts, and great bridges were required to cross them. Such is the aqueduct, nearly 200 metres long, by which the Aqua Claudia crosses the valley of the Fosso Maiuro. It was originally built partly in concrete faced with opus reticulatum and partly in ashlar masonry, resting on concrete foundations. The whole of the central portion of the bridge was strengthened at a later period. The brick facing of the reinforcing walls is fine work of the period of Septimius Severus. It is split by the roots of trees in several places, and, like other remains of the aqueducts, requires attention if it is not to collapse. The Anio Novus ran rather higher up, and avoided the difficulties into which the Aqua Claudia rather unnecessarily came, so that its channel is almost entirely underground, while the Marcia has a smaller bridge, of the time of Hadrian, lower down. Another example, also belonging to the Aqua Claudia, is the bridge over the next lateral valley, the Fosso della Noce; the greater part of it is of homogeneous con- struction, attributable to Septimius Severus, and is therefore a restoration. The central portion has collapsed, while on the further bank are traces of constructions and reinforcements of earlier periods. Two miles further down, the Aqua Claudia and the Anio Novus leave the river valley, and reappear in a small valley leading southward to the Valle d’ Empiglione, which is traversed by the road from Tivoli to Ciciliano and Genazzano. In this valley we find only one channel (where we should expect to find two), of rough concrete, belonging to the original construction, and measuring 1:20 metre wide and 2°60 or 2°70 metres in height—characteristic dimensions of the channel of the Anio Novus when running alone. It runs along the side of the valley, so that only one external wall is exposed, and this has later facing. The same difficulty presents itself when we reach the main Valle d’ Empiglione, for whereas previous observers have supposed that the two aqueducts ee ee ee H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 147 which are here visible can be assigned respectively to the Aqua Claudia and the Anio Novus, the line going south belonging to the construction of the tunnel under the Mons Aeflanus by Paquedius Festus in a.p. 88, mentioned in an inscription,!® careful investigation shows that they branch off from one another at the north edge of the valley, and that the south branch falls slightly more rapidly than the other. The south branch is undoubtedly still attributable to Paquedius Festus, and the western to the main aqueduct; but the problem of the existence of one specus only (which confronts us again at Ponte degli Arci, though not after we have passed Tivoli) remains at present insoluble. The level of the bottom of the specus, at the beginning of the existing arches going southward (the northern extremity of the aqueduct near the road has disappeared), is 248°57, and at the end of the bridge it has fallen to 248°17, or 40 cm. in 349 m., which represents a fall of 1 in 872°5, | or 1:15 per 1,000. On the western branch the levels are 249°91 at the _ beginning of the bridge, and 249°83 at the end, or 8 cm. in 156 m., 7.e. 1 in 1,950, or 0°51 per 1,000. Both of these falls are below the average fall in the long stretch of arches between Capannelle (where the aqueducts emerge from their long underground course) and Rome, which varies from 3-22 to 0:96 per 1,000. The general average is 2 per 1,000, but there is much variation." The brickwork of the western branch, which is singularly well preserved, and shows no traces either of any earlier construction (except for a few loose opus reteculatum cubes of the original period) or of later restoration, is of the type which must be attributed to a period considerably later _ than Septimius Severus. The bridge across the main valley, on the other hand, has a con- siderable amount of the original opus quadratum preserved, concrete faced with opus reticulatum with stone quoins being used at the south end, as it probably was at the north. The whole of the central part is encased in reinforcements of concrete in which three different periods may be traced. At the extreme south end nothing is visible but post-Severan brickwork. + In the next valley to the south is the only instance known to me of the existence of an alternative channel on an aqueduct bridge. Both jpecus appear to have been maintained to the last and there is no sign of either having been put out of use. The original structure was the straight (western) channel, in ashlar masonry of volcanic tufa, quarried on the spot, with the bridge-heads in concrete faced with opus reticulatum, which was perhaps the material of the channel. The whole structure was then encased in concrete, and the channel also restored. The brickwork is good. The alternative specus, on the other hand, is faced with greatly inferior _ brickwork, of a later period. L The channels are of the usual width, 1:14 and 1:17 m., respectively, but of exceptional height, the main specus being 2°94 high, and the branch no less than 3:34 m. at the point of departure. There is no trace of deposit now in either channel, and it may be that the alternative channel 10 0.1.L. xiv. 3530, rivom aquae Claudiae sub monte Aeflano consummavit. U Livellazione, 75 sqq. L2 148 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. was provided in order to allow of cleaning before the beginning of the long tunnel, in which it would naturally have been exceptionally difficult. The tunnel must be about 2} kilometres long, and the fall is 5°90 m. to the tank where the branch rejoins the main aqueduct, or 1 in 381, or 2°62 per 1,000. We must now return to the main line, which has a fine bridge, the so-called Ponte degli Arci, over a tributary of the Anio. The original bridge was a massive structure in opus quadratum, most of which has disappeared, though the impressions of the blocks are visible on the pier of the great brick arch on the south-west bank, and some of the masonry itself in the base of the last pier on the north-east bank. The brickwork with which the concrete of the greater part of the bridge is faced is, once more, Severan in character. When the aqueducts emerge on the hillside above Tivoli we find the four specus distinct from one another once more. There is a very interesting point where from a reservoir of the Anio Novus a branch channel runs off, falling sharply (about 1 in 10), and sup- plying when required, by means of vertical shafts, the channels of the three lower aqueducts. After passing the point of junction of the tunnel built by Paquedius Festus, the next feature of interest is the fine bridge known as the Ponte §. Antonio, which served to carry the Anio Novus across a deep and narrow valley. We may note here a right-angled turn, which often occurs, to break the speed of the water immediately before reaching the bridge. The channel is surprisingly narrow, being only 80 centimetres wide and about 3°12 metres high. The bridge was originally a massive structure in ashlar masonry of volcanic tufa, and the fine central arch, 32°30 metres in height and 10°40 in span, is still visible on the westside. The width was originally only 2°60 metres and the total length is about 120 metres. The channel was probably in concrete faced with opus reticulatum, at any - rate at the ends of the bridge, where it is still visible. The whole structure was enclosed, in post-Severan times, with brick-faced concrete, with smaller arched openings. In the centre there were four of these, one above the other, flanked by huge buttresses. Reinforcements of concrete faced with pieces of aqueduct deposit from the channel were added still later. . In the next valley, that of the Mola di S. Gregorio, there is a long bridge of the Anio Vetus, which, however, is a construction of the time of Hadrian, itself restored later—the change of period occurs in the arch over the stream. The original channel ran underground up the north bank of the valley until it could pass under the stream, and then returned on the south bank, where its channel may still be seen. It is, after all, unlikely that in 270 B.c. the Romans would have constructed an aqueduct above-ground which could so easily have been cut by an enemy, and Augustus followed the older line in his reconstruction. The bridge has a rapid descent of 2°92 in 25°30 metres, or 1 in 8°66, or 116°5 per 1,000, at the end (the only case known to me at the end of a bridge) into the newer channel, which is some six metres higher than the older channel, with which it seems to have no communication. It continues to run for some way along the valley before it turns at right angles to tunnel through ~ the ridge separating it from the next one, that of Ponte Lupo, with which ~ we shall presently deal. One of the bricks in the cornice of this descent 4 * 2 H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 149 bore a fragment of a stamp of about a.p. 120%, The bridge had a total length of about 165 metres (with a fall of 1:06 in the main portion of 136 metres, or 1 in 129, or 7°75 per 1,000), and a maximum height of 24°50 ; it has two tiers of arches for the most part, though the last seven on the left bank originally had only one. A little further up the valley is the Ponte 8. Pietro, belonging to the Aqua Marcia. The original arch over the stream in opus quadratum of porous travertine, with a span of 15°50 metres, and the lateral arches, which were probably of similar material, are completely hidden by the later reconstructions. The bridge was first reinforced with concrete faced with opus reticulatum and brick; then the whole structure was masked by very fine brickwork with buttresses, of the time of Septimius Severus, smaller brick arches taking the place of the larger ones; that over the stream remained of necessity fairly wide, having a span of 11:20 metres ; but those of the lateral openings were quite narrow. A peculiarity is the - disproportionate height of the portion of the bridge above the brick arches, due to the diminution in the height of the openings produced by _ these changes ; and in order to avoid a monotonous effect, pilasters were introduced. The whole south-east end of the bridge was reconstructed at a still later date, perhaps under Diocletian; a straight vertical joint . , ——— Ls and a change in the character of the facing show the break. Higher up the same valley are the much-ruined Ponti delle Forme Rotte (broken aqueducts), which were the highest in the whole course of the aqueducts ; the top of that of the Anio Novus was at least 42 metres above the bed of the stream, while that of the Aqua Claudia (which is upstream of it) is a good deal lower, the difference between the level of the bottom of the two channels being no less than 10°93 metres, which is a good deal more than usual. Both bridges have been reconstructed, that of the Anio Novus in the time of Hadrian !* and that of the Claudia by Hadrian and Antoninus Pius," as the brick stamps show, and there is no trace of any later work in them. They have collapsed completely, owing to the giving way of the cliffs on the right bank of the stream, on which no remains exist. We now arrive at the valley of the Acqua Nera, which is crossed by the Ponte Lupo, the best-known and the largest of the aqueduct bridges in this district. It has hitherto been believed—and Mr. Newton and I still held that view when the drawings were made—that it carried all the four aqueducts. Accurate levelling has shown that this is not the case, and that the Anio Novus and Claudia both pass under the floor of the valley considerably higher up. This, indeed, gives them a much better line than the devious course which they would have taken supposing they had passed over Ponte Lupo. The upper channel is, therefore, that of the Aqua Marcia ; the fall from Ponte 8. Pietro is 186°79-182'27, or 4°52 metres in about a kilometre, or perhaps more ; for the specus, as usual, runs along the side of both valleys for some way both before and after the tunnel through the ridge. But there is a problem in regard to the Anio Vetus. At the last shaft of 120.1.L. xv. 1345-8. 13 C.I.L. xv. 1019, a. 7. 14 0.1.L. xv. 223a, 1065, 2309. 150 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. the earlier channel in the Valle della Mola di §. Gregorio the intrados is 168°86 metres above sea-level, while at the last shaft of the newer channel, after the bridge which Hadrian built, the intrados is about 172 metres above sea-level ;” the floor of the specus would be about 2°80 metres lower in each case. The level of the water of the Fosso dell’ Acqua Nera is 155:19, and the bottom of the specus at the Ponte Taulella is 155°61. The distance between the last two points in a straight line would be not much over two kilometres ; but along the line of the aqueduct it should be 21,120 Roman feet, or more than 7 kilometres according to the cvppi.”* It is thus quite impossible that the Anio Vetus should not have been above-ground at the Acqua Nera, unless it was carried under it by a syphon. There is, about 17 metres below Ponte Lupo, on the right bank of the stream, a massive concrete buttress, faced with opus reticulatum, probably belonging to the time of Augustus, and containing a shaft, which, though blocked up, certainly seems as if it went down at least as far as the level of the stream, and might very well reach down to a channel passing under it. There is no inherent impossibility in the use of a syphon under these circumstances. That the Romans were familiar with the principle is well known," and another example has recently been discovered near Avezzano, where it is cut in the limestone rock. The question why syphons were not made use of to take the aqueducts in a straight line (like the modern Aqua Marcia) across the Campagna from Tivoli to Rome (in which they would have come to intermediate levels considerably lower than that which they reach at Porta Maggiore), in order to avoid the long detour which we are now following, has been well answered by M. Germain de Montauzan in his book on the four Roman aqueducts of Lyon,18 in which no less than ten syphons have been observed. The Romans did not trust their concrete and cement for making syphons, though they might have done so. They were unable to make a large metal pipe that would stand pressure; and at Lyon the contents of a channel 0:58 by 1:75 metre are transferred to nine or ten lead pipes with a bore of 0-20 when the syphon is reached. We have only to calculate the enormous quantities of lead that would have been required to take the water from four channels, the largest of which measured nearly 1:20 metre wide and 3 metres high, and to remember that small-bore pipes would have been choked almost at once by the heavy calcareous deposit, to realise how im- possible it would have been to adopt this method here. On the other hand, all the building material required was quite easy to obtain on the spot or not far off. But there is no objection to its use in a rock-cut channel for a short 15 Livellazione, p. 74. 16 T saw No. 733a, some 150 metres downstream from Ponte Lupo; while No. 645 is still in situ some 500 m. before Ponte Taulella, and No. 626 was seen lying by the path a little beyond it though not in situ, the intervals being 240 feet. The windings of the Anio Vetus must have been very considerable at this point tunnelling being avoided as far as possible. See Bull. Comunale, 1899, 38; Eph. Epigr. ix. 968 for Nos. 626, 645 ; No. 733 is unpublished. It must be remembered that the numbering ran from Rome to the source. 17 For examples see Lanciani, I Comentari di Frontino in Mem. Lincei Ser. III., vol. iv. 554 sqq. 18 Germain de Montauzan, Les Aqueducs Antiques de Lyon, Paris, 1909, 176 sqq. aA ES Ge © sir be LL << CCC H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 151 distance ; and if we do not accept this view, we have to find a place for the specus of the Anio Vetus in the lower part of Ponte Lupo; and a careful study of its construction and of the dating assigned to its various parts by Miss van Deman has shown me that this is by no means easy, though from the levels it is admissible.!® The Ponte Lupo itself is the product of a number of periods of con- struction. The first part in point of date is undoubtedly the opus quad- ratum in the centre of the bridge. Whether it is part of the original con- struction is doubtful; it might seem too conspicuous a bridge to have been erected in 154 B.c., when the fear of invasion was by no means a thing of the past. In any case, we may assign to Agrippa, working under Augustus, the reconstruction of the upper part of the aqueduct in opus reticulatum, with the large arches with small stone voussoirs which carry the channel ; and to Augustus at a later period some further strengthening in opus reticulatum. To Titus belong probably the arches of tiles on the east side and the opus reticulatum with brick bands at the south-west end ; to Hadrian some extra buttresses of concrete, again faced with opus reticulatum. One of the Severi, perhaps Alexander Severus, filled in the great arches of opus quadratum with two-storied arches. But the greatest transformation of the bridge occurred later still, perhaps under Diocletian. To him we may attribute all the thickening of the lower part of the bridge and the great brick buttresses at the lower level on the east side, including the semi- circular buttresses at the stream right back as far as the opus quadratum piers, and the great brick-faced wall on the west side on the south bank of the stream. Finally, to a still later period (fifth or sixth century after Christ) must be assigned the masking of the buttresses on the east bank. Such is in brief the history of the bridge as far as it can be read from its remains. We now pass to the Ponte Taulella of the Anio Vetus, which has already been mentioned, situated in a deep ravine much overgrown with vegetation. There is no trace of Republican work, and the first bridge of which we have any trace had a single arch of brick with a wide base of opus quadratum. It has twice been reinforced with concrete faced with opus reticulatum and brick bands—perhaps, therefore, in the Flavian and Hadrianic periods, and there is no trace of anything later. _ Ridges and valleys follow alternately in quick succession, and remains of the aqueducts continue to be seen, though decreasing in size and grandeur as the ravines become smaller and we approach the open country. We cross the Via Praenestina, and on a hill-top find, still in situ, a cippus of the Aqua Marcia with the inscription fairly well preserved—Mar(cia) Imp(erator) Caesar [Divi f(ilius) Augustus ex s(enatus) c(onsulto) clix pledes) CCXL (the 509th cippus from Rome). Below, in the valley, are two bridges belonging to the Anio Novus and Claudia, known as the Ponti Diruti. They run side by side, with only about 0°50 m. difference in the level of the bottom of the channels, and so - close together that they were connected by arches still traceable at the springing. They show, like the rest, traces of strengthening and reinforce- ment. In the upper bridge traces of the original construction in opus 19 Tivellazione cits 152 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. quadratum and opus reticulatum may be seen with Severan (and later) restrictions ; but the lower one has been entirely rebuilt in post-Severan brick-faced concrete. Raffaelle Fabretti, one of the pioneers of the investigation of the aqueducts, whose work De Aquis et Aquaeductibus Urbis Romae was first published in 1680, marks these as the last remains of the aqueducts visible towards Rome ; and, indeed, it was believed until a few years ago that they ran underground from this point to the well-known line of arches which begin at Capannelle. Even Professor Lanciani had written of all the four that there were no traces from Cavamonte to Roma Vecchia and Capannelle respectively.2° But the casual discovery of a part of the channel of the Aqua Claudia on the farm road leading to the Casale della Pallavicina directed his attention to the possibility of discovering the course of the aqueducts in this district; and he further suggested that the large amounts of calcareous deposits thrown out at the shafts (puter) which occur at frequent intervals in the subterranean course of the aqueducts were bound to reveal their course still further towards Rome, where they traverse the lower slopes of the Alban Hills. This proved to be the case; and it has thus been possible to follow them from point to point in their gradual descent towards the plain, until they emerge between the Via Latina and the Via Appia, the Claudia and Anio Novus near the racing stables of Capannelle (Villa Bertone), and the Marcia near the farmhouse of Roma Vecchia; while the Anio Vetus was cut by the Naples railway where it passes under the Marrana Mariana and the Acqua Felice. In all this stretch, however, there were no complicated problems of engineering to be solved; and we may therefore turn to the con- sideration of the remains of the aqueducts after their emergence. The arches of the Claudia and Anio Novus gradually increase in height from Capannelle to Roma Vecchia, until beyond it they reach their greatest elevation in this section, estimated by Lanciani at 27°41 metres. In this stretch they are extremely well preserved and have not required restoration to any considerable extent. The lower stone channel of the Claudia is surmounted by the concrete specus of the Anio Novus, faced with brick and opus reticulatum—an obvious afterthought, the detrimental effects of which we have already seen. Shortly afterwards comes a right-angled turn, intended to diminish the rapidity of the flow of water ; and here the aqueduct was strengthened with brickwork, some of which fell a few years ago; I found stamps of the first quarter of the second century A.D. init.24_ Here the Aqua Marcia (upon the arches of which ran the Aqua Tepula and the Aqua Iulia, both from the Alban Hills) passed under the loftier arches of the Aqua Claudia. Some 300 metres further on they recrossed, and in the space between the two lines of aqueduct the Goths encamped when they besieged Rome in A.D. 539. A mediaeval tower, the Tor Fiscale, has been planted on the top, and within the tower may be seen the crossing and the channels of all the five aqueducts. Further on, as we come nearer to the city, considerable reinforcements have become necessary. In many places the original stonework of the ° Op. cit. 262, 292, 349, 356. C.I.L. xv. 314, 697, 1241. Procopius, Bell. Goth. ii.; cf. Lanciani, op. cit. 360. 2 2 2 1 2 ee. Ee. H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 153 piers has been removed for building material, and Lanciani quotes the records of the sale of e.g. two or four peperino pillars by the Hospital of Sancta Sanctorum at the Lateran, to whom the ground belonged. But, as he also points out, sometimes the brickwork was removed and the stone- work left ; or, again, the brick facing is sometimes hammered away from the concrete. As we approach the city, the line of arches was incorporated by Aurelian in his city wall. Just before the aqueduct turned to the right to cross the Via Praenestina and the Via Labicana by the splendid double arch which Aurelian used as the Porta Major (still known as Porta Maggiore), a branch diverged from it across the Caelian Hill—the Arcus Caelemontani, as they are called in the inscription in which Septimius Severus and Caracalla recorded their repair of them,”° or Arcus Neroniani, the name under which Frontinus speaks of them. He tells us that Nero conveyed the Aqua Claudia by them to the Temple of Claudius, where was their distributing tank; the Caelian, Palatine, Aventine, and the region across the Tiber were supplied by this aqueduct.24 No doubt there was a great ornamental fountain at the Temple of Claudius, from which the water fell into the Stagnum Neronis. The arches leading across the Caelian are of very fine Neronian brickwork, and so are those leading from the Caelian to the Palatine, though they have been largely restored by Septimius Severus and Caracalla.?° Lanciani thinks that there were two more tiers of arches above the two now existing”®; but I cannot believe that the aqueduct would have carried more, and I therefore believe that the syphon of which he speaks was originally constructed by Nero, and that it ran over the arches. It was restored by Domitian; a pipe bearing his name, about eight inches in diameter, was found in 1742.2? Just beyond the Porta Maggiore the Aqua Marcia, with the Tepula and Tulia above it, entered the city ; and the three channels may be seen in _ section where they pass through the Aurelian wall. The Anio Vetus has been found just inside the gate, and the Aqua Alexandrina very likely entered the city here also. The question as to the amount of water carried by the aqueducts depends upon the value given to the quinaria, the official unit of measure, 1 RY explained by Frontinus, who, as cwrator aquarum under Trajan, wrote a treatise upon the aqueducts. The most probable value has recently been determined?® as 0°48 litre per second or 41°5 cubic metres in twenty-four hours ; and we thus get the following table :— Quinariae Litres Cubic metres (Frontinus). per second. per diem. Anio Novus .. BE 4,738 2,274 196, 627 Claudia .. a: y. 4,607 2,211 191,190 Marcia .. ah Lg 4,690 2,251 194,365 Anio Vetus... i 4,398 2,111 182,517 29 3 O.7.L. vi. 1259. 24 Frontin. i. 20; ii. 76, 87. 25 Lanciani, op. cit. 372, attributes them to the Severi entirely. 26 Ruins and Excavations, 186, fig. 69. 27 Lanciani, Comentari, 424. 28 Claudio di Fenizio, in Giornale del Genio Civile, liv. (July 1916). 29 Livellazione, 77: Lanciani’s estimates, Ruins and Excavations 58, are a good deal higher; but cf. Comentari, 573 sqq. 154 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. There were no large clearing or settling tanks within the city, only comparatively small reservoirs (castella) from which distribution was made by lead: pipes ; and this is the case with the modern aqueducts also, so abundant is the supply. From the study of the aqueducts we should pass naturally to that of the buildings which they supplied. The great imperial thermae, such as those of Caracalla, were naturally among the most important of these ; and in this case, as in others, the water supply of the city as a whole was increased in order to have enough water for the special aqueduct, a branch of the Marcia (to which he added a spring called the Fons Antoninianus, after his own name) by which they were supplied. But this might lead us on into a general survey of Roman architecture, which would be far too vast a subject. It may perhaps be opportune to ask, in conclusion, who were the practical men who carried out these great works ? The question who were the persons responsible for the development of Roman engineering has been asked and answered by Rivoira in his Architettura Romana, soon to appear in an English translation, the proofs of which I have been allowed to see. He points out that the architects of the great Roman state buildings of the Imperial period were forbidden to inscribe their names upon them, but rightly maintains that they must not be assumed to have been Greeks, in that prejudice and passion for things Greek against which he raises a very necessary protest. This pre- judice leads those who are swayed by it to ‘look at the architect solely in his character of artist and exponent of aesthetics, forgetting the technical and engineering sides of his activity.’ Rivoira emphasises the fact, as does Montauzan,°° that we learn from Vitruvius what class of men these state architects were—military engineers, who were at the same time civil architects. They were, it would seem, all Roman citizens, and for the most part Italians, not Greeks, as their names imply ; and it is to them that we owe the planning of such a garrison town as Aosta, and the development of Roman vaulted buildings, the ancestors of the great vaulted architecture of the Byzantine, Lombard, and Romanesque periods. The Roman engineers had at their disposal comparatively simple and primitive instruments—the best work on the subject I know is M. Germain de Montauzan’s Essai, for it is written by a practical man. The groma, their chief land-surveying instrument, has recently been reconstructed from fragments found at Pompeii by Sig. Matteo della Corte,*! and there is a reproduction of it made by Col.-Sir H. G. Lyons in the Science Museum at South Kensington. It can only be employed for measuring horizontal angles; for measuring vertical angles they had to proceed by slow degrees, sighting through a dioptra, which measured angles of both kinds, being combined with a water-level, or using a chorobate, a somewhat cumbrous form of water-level, much like a dumpy level of the present day, and preferred by Vitruvius for levelling aqueducts, probably because it involved no sighting ; for we must remember that they had not the assistance of the knowledge of the optical properties of glass. Their systems of calculation, too, which involved the use of the abacus, must have been complicated, slow, and inconvenient. 80 Hssai sur la science et Vart de V Ingénieur (Paris, 1909), 114 sqq- 3! Monumenti dei Lincet xxviii. (1922), 5 sqq. H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 155 But having at their disposal comparatively little theoretical knowledge of mechanics, they yet succeeded in achieving marvellous results, largely from their practical ability. They must have solved such problems as the _ transportation of an obelisk by the multiplicity of simple elements of traction employed and by the ingenuity displayed in their arrangement. And when it is a question of sea transport, we cannot but admire the courage of those who succeeded in bringing such huge masses of stone through the Mediterranean from Egypt to Italy without the aid of steam— an even greater enterprise than dragging them along the land without the appliances that we now have at command. - Mr. O. G. 8. Crawford has of late eloquently maintained the view that anthropology is concerned with the whole of man’s past as it bears on his present and his future. If this be so, and personally I entirely agree with him, I think I may claim that the study of practical engineering among the Romans shows us that in this, as in other spheres, they added very considerably to the sum of human achievement, and thus contributed in _ no small measure to make the condition of the human race what it is. SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF ATHLETIC RECORDS. ADDRESS BY Proressor A. V. HILL, O.B.E., Sc.D., F.R.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. In the study of the physiology of muscular exercise there is a vast store of accurate information, hitherto almost unexploited, in the records of athletic sports and racing. The greatest efforts and the most intense care have been expended in making what are really experiments upon these subjects, and the results obtained represent what may justly be described as a collection of natural constants of muscular effort in the human race. It is the purpose of this address to discuss certain aspects of the data available in connection with various forms of racing, and to see how far physiological principles at present known underlie them. Sources of Information. The most complete set of records available, for a great variety of sports, is to be found in ‘ The World’s Almanac and Book of Facts,’ published by the New York World. Much of the information here presented was obtained from the 1925 edition of that work; similar but less extensive data can be found in our own Whitaker’s Almanack. In addition, various books on horse-racing, on swimming, and on rowing have been searched for suitable material. The study of such data is not new. In most cases, however, it has been carried out not from the physiological but purely from the statistical standpoint; insufficient knowledge of the under- lying physiological principles was available to make it profitable to ask for the why and wherefore. Recent developments, however, of the scien- tific study of muscular effort in man have indicated certain broad lines on which some at any rate of the relations so established can be explained. I will not deal further with the statistical analysis of the facts, beyond referring to an extremely interesting and suggestive collection of them given in a paper by A. E. Kennelly, entitled ‘ An Approximate Law of Fatigue in the Speed of Racing Animals,’ published in the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. xlii., p. 275, 1906. Some, indeed, of my data are taken directly from that paper. Fatigue as the Determining Factor. An important and interesting problem for any young athlete is presented by the question ‘ how fast can I run some given distance ?’ Themaximum speed at which a given distance can be covered is known to vary largely with the distance. What are the factors determining the variation of speed with distance? How far, knowing a man’s best times at two I.—PHYSIOLOGY. isi distances, can one interpolate between them for an intermediate distance, or extrapolate for a distance greater or less? Obviously the answer to such questions depends upon the factor which in general terms we designate fatigue. Fatigue, however, is a very indefinite and inexact expression ; it is necessary to define it quantitatively before we can employ it in a quan- titative discussion such as this. There are many varieties of fatigue, but of these only a few concern us now. There is that which results in a short time from extremely violent effort: this type is fairly well understood ; there is the fatigue, which may be called exhaustion, which overcomes the body when an effort of more moderate intensity is continued for a long time. Both of these may be defined as muscular. Then there is the kind which we may describe as due to wear-and-tear of the body as a whole, to blisters, soreness, stiffness, nervous exhaustion, metabolic changes and disturbances, sleeplessness, and similar factors, which may affect an individual long before his muscular system has given out. Of these three forms of fatigue the first one only is as yet susceptible of exact measure- ment and description. The second type may quite possibly come within the range of experiment at no distant date. The third type is still so indefinite and complex that one cannot hope at present to define it accur- ately and to measure it. Undoubtedly, however, all these types of what we call ‘fatigue’ influence—indeed, determine—the results which are to be presented. Presentation of Data. The data will be exposed throughout this discussion in graphical form, and in every case but one (fig. 5) the quantities plotted are the speed as ordinate and the time, or some function of the time, as abscissa. The _ reason for taking the time occupied in a race as one of our variables is simple; the problem before us, physiologically speaking, is, clearly, how long can a given effort be maintained ? The length of time is given by the abscissa as the independent variable ; the magnitude of the effort, or some function of it, as represented by the speed (that is, by the average speed over the race considered), is given as ordinate. It will be shown below, as Kennelly indicated in his paper, that the ideal way to run a race, possibly not from the point of view of winning it, but certainly from that of breaking _ the record for the distance, is to run it at constant speed. In those performances which have attained to the dignity of a world’s record itis unlikely that this criterion has been to any very large degree neglected. Apart, therefore, from the fact that there is no speed of which we have any record except the average speed, we are probably not far wrong in using the average speed as a fairly exact measure, or at any rate as a function of the effort involved. In one case only (fig. 6) the time occupied in the race has been given on a logarithmic scale: no great virtue attaches to the logarithm, but ff 75 yards and 100 miles are to be shown on the same diagram in a read- able form it is necessary somehow to condense the abscisse at the longer times. As a matter of fact, from the standpoint of an athlete, one second in ten has the same importance as ten seconds in a hundred, as a hundred seconds in a thousand; in this sense, therefore, a logarithmic scale of _time most truly represents the duration of an effort. Such a scale, how- ever, has not been used for any ulterior reason, but only, as in fig. 6, to get all the available data on to one diagram. SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. ft Gn (o/) Running and Swimming: Shorter Times. In fig. 1 all the important world’s records are presented, average speed against time, for men and women running and for men and women swim- ming. The crosses representing men rowing in an 8-oar boat will be dis- cussed later. It is obvious in all four cases that we are dealing with the same phenomena, a very high speed maintainable for short times, a speed rapidly decreasing as the time is increased and attaining practically a constant value after about 12 minutes. There are no reliable records, in the case of swimming, for times of less than about 50 seconds, so that the curves cannot be continued back as far as those for running. There can, however, be no doubt that the curves for running and swimming are essen- tially similar to one another and must depend upon the same factors. In running, starting inertia is the cause of the initial upward trend of the curves: a maximum average velocity is attained in the case of men for about 200 yards, of women for about 100 yards; after that a rapid decrease sets in, ending only when the time has become 10 or 15 minutes, the distance two to three miles. The phenomena shown in fig. 1 are susceptible of a fairly exact discussion. Oxygen Intake, Oxygen Requirement, and Oxygen Debt. In recent papers my colleagues and I have tried to emphasise the importance of a clear distinction between the oxygen intake and the oxygen requirement of any given type and speed of muscular effort. When exercise commences, the oxygen intake rises from a low value characteristic of rest to a high value characteristic of the effort undertaken. This rise occupies a period of about two minutes; it is nearly complete in 90 seconds. The oxygen used by the body is a measure of the amount of energy expended: one litre of oxygen consumed means about five calories of energy liberated, enough to warm 5 litres of water one degree centigrade—expressed in mechanical energy, enough to raise about one ton seven feet into the air. It has been established, however, that the oxygen need not necessarily be used during the exertion itself. The muscles have a mechanism, depending upon the formation of lactic acid in them, by which a large amount of the oxidation may be put off to a time after the exercise has ended. The recovery process, so called, is a sign of this delayed oxidation : it is just as important to the muscle as recharging to an electrical accumulator. The degree, however, to which the body is able to run into debt for oxygen, tocarry on not on present but on future supplies, is limited. When an oxygen debt of about 15 litres has been incurred the body becomes incapable of further effort: it is completely fatigued. In anything but the shortest races our record-breaking athlete should finish with something near a maximum oxygen debt, otherwise he has not employed all his available power, he has not done himself full justice. The maximum effort, therefore, which he can exert over a given interval depends upon the amount of energy available for him, upon (a) his maximum oxygen intake (that is, his income) and (6) his maximum oxygen debt (that is, the degree to which he is able to overdraw his account). These maxima are fairly well established for the case of. athletic men of average size—about 4 litres per minute for the one, about 15 litres for the other. a i tie 159 I.— PHYSIOLOGY. “7X07 Off} Ul 1078] 07 Poldojor ov PU SUIUUNI sv o[BOS OUIeS O44 UO ore 4eOq IeO-44SIO We SULAOI UoUr “JOF SUOIZBAIOSqO OYJ, “SULWUNI JOJ sv yvoIS Se SOUT} OAY St SuLUMUMLMS OZ oTLOS oU—'a0\" “spuooes ur oul} ysurese puooes sod spavd ur poods oSvsoae : Suruuns pur SUrTUIWIMS UeMOM pue OUT IOF Sp109e1 8, P[IOMM—'"T “O17 aes SP. Assit ZS] lh OM Sete ESEO. 2 9% oe EG & x7 | A eee | ERE eae SNIWWIMS 160 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. It is possible for a man to make an effort far in excess of any contem- porary supply of oxygen. This effort will require oxygen afterwards, and the total oxygen needed per minute to maintain the exercise can be measured. It is what we call the ‘ oxygen requirement’ characteristic of the effort involved. Now experiments have shown (see fig. 2) that the PER MINUTE LITRES SPEED 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 Fic. 2.—Observations of oxygen requirement of K.F. running and standing- running at various speeds. Horizontally, speed : running, metres per minute ; stand- ing-running, steps per minute. Vertically, oxygen requirement per minute, litres. oxygen requirement varies very largely with the speed: it increases far more rapidly than the speed, more like the second or third power of the speed, so that high speeds and intense efforts are very wasteful. These facts enable us approximately to deduce the general form of fig. 1. Imagine an athlete with a maximum oxygen intake of 4 litres per minute,’ capable of running until his maximum oxygen debt has been incurred of 15 litres. If he runs for 15 minutes the total oxygen avail- able during the exercise and in arrears is 15 *4-++15=75 litres : an effort can be made requiring 5 litres of oxygen per minute. Imagine, however, that he exhausts himself not in 15 but in 5 minutes : the total oxygen available during or in arrears is 5X 4+15=35 litres. He may exert himself more violently, therefore, with an effort equivalent now to 7 litres per minute. Tmagine next that he runs himself to exhaustion in 2 minutes: 42-15, z.e. 23 litres of oxygen are available, 11°5 per minute; a correspondingly greater effort can be made. By such calculations it is possible from fig. 1 to deduce a relation between oxygen requirement and speed. Taking the case of a man swimming, the result is shown in fig. 3 on the assumption of 1 Assumed, for the sake of simplicity in calculation, to commence as soon as the race begins. For a more accurate calculation the gradual rise of the oxygen intake at the beginning of exercise can be taken into account. Ne I.— PHYSIOLOGY. 161 a maximum oxygen debt of 15 litres, a maximum oxygen intake of 3°5 litres per ininute, and the supposition that at the end of the race the performer is completely exhausted. A similar calculated curve is given for the case of running, on the hypothesis of a maximum oxygen debt of 15 litres and 20 15 PER MINUTE 10 CALCULATED OXYGEN REeQuiIRENENT LITRES SPEED: Swinnying . YARDS PER ny 14 I-6 ‘8 2 9, 7 8 SPEED: RUNNING: YARDS. PER SEC. Fie. 3.—Oxygen requirement, running and swimming, of record-breaking athletes, calculated from curves of fig. 1, on the assumption that at the end of a race the per- former is completely exhausted, having attained his maximum oxygen debt. Maximum oxygen debt assumed=15 litres for both. Maximum oxygen intake assumed : for running=4 litres per minute; swimming=3.5 litres per minute. Method of cal- culation described in the text. a maximum oxygen intake of 4 litres per minute. These curves are similar in character to those shown in fig. 2 for the cases of running and standing-running, which have been investigated in the laboratory. There can be little doubt that the factors here described are the chief “agents in determining the form of the curves given in fig. 1. Limits of the Argument. It is obvious that we must not pursue the argument too far. A man cannot exhaust himself completely in a 100 or a 200 yards race: even 300 yards is not sufficient to cause an extreme degree of exhaustion, though a quarter-mile, in the case of a first-class sprinter, is enough, or almost enough, to produce complete inability to make any immediate further s effort. We have found an oxygen debt of 10 litres even after a quarter- mile in 55 seconds. It is obvious, therefore, that we cannot pursue our argument below times of about 50 seconds, that the maximum speed is limited by quite other factors than the amount of energy available. It is not possible in any way to release energy explosively for very short intervals of effort: other factors determine the maximum speed, factors 1925 M 162 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. mechanical and nervous. Neither can the argument be applied to very long races, where—as we shall see below—other types of exhaustion set in. Comparison of Men and Women; Swimming and Running. There are certain characteristics of these curves which are of interest. In the first place those for men and women are almost precisely similar. For a given time of swimming the maximum speed for a woman appears throughout the curves, to be almost exactly 84 to 85 per cent. of that for aman. The curve relating oxygen requirement to speed, in the case of swimming, is not known from experiment, nor are the maximum oxygen debts and the maximum oxygen intakes known for women with any certainty. It would be very interesting to determine them, were volun- teers forthcoming. If we assume what is roughly true, that the energy expenditure rises approximately as the square of the speed, we may con- clude that a woman swimming is able to exert, per kilogram of body weight, about 72 per cent. of the power expended by aman. Women are well adapted to swimming: their skill in swimming is presumably just as great as that of men; the difference in the maximum speed for any given time can be a matter only of the amount of power available. In running, the same typeof comparison may be made, though here not over the same range of times. For anything but the shortest races the maximum speed of a woman is almost precisely 79 per cent. of that of a man running for the same time. For very short times, 5 to 10 seconds, the ratio is greater, namely 84 per cent. Here again there would seem little reason to attribute the difference of speed, at any rate for the longer races, to anything but a difference in the maximum amount of power expendible over the period in question. Assuming again, as an approxi- mate means of calculation, that the energy used per minute varies as the square of the speed, we see that a woman running is able to liberate in a given time only about 62 per cent. of the energy expendible by a man of ~ the same weight. It is probable that this ratio between men and women, as determined by swimming and by running respectively, is really the same in either case, and that the apparent difference depends upon an inexactness in the simple laws we have assumed for the variation of energy expended with speed. It would seem fair to take the mean of these two values, 67 per cent.—that is, about two-thirds—as the ratio of the amount of energy expendible by a woman in a given time as com- pared with that by a man of the same weight. It would be of great interest—and quite simple—to test this deduction by direct experiment on women athletes. Men and Women Jumping. A further interesting comparison between men and women may be found in the records of high jumps and long jumps. The world’s record long jump for a man is 25°5 ft., for a woman 16-9 ft. The high jump records are respectively 6°61 ft. and 5 ft. At first sight, when compared with running, these records for women seem extraordinarily poor: the high jump is only 75-5 per cent., the long jump only 66 per cent., of that for men. Sucha conclusion, however, rests upon a misunderstanding, almost like that which makes many people believe that if a man could I.—PHYSIOLOGY. 163 jump as well as a flea he could easily clear the top of St. Paul’s Cathedral. It is a matter only of elementary mechanics to show, on the assumption that a woman can project herself vertically with a velocity proportional to that with which she can project herself horizontally, the constant of the proportion being the same as for the case of a man, that both the high jump and the long jump in the two sexes should be in the ratio not of the velocities but of the squares of the velocities. The maximum range and the maximum height of a projectile vary as the square of the velocity of projection. Thus it is right to compare, for men and women, not the height of the high jump or the distance of the long jump, but the square roots of these quantities, if we wish to study their relative performance in jumping as compared with running. This being 80, we find that the high jump of a woman, as measured by its square root, is 87 per cent of that of a man”; the long jump, measured in a similar way, is 81-5 per cent. These compare closely with their relative performances for very short times of running, where a woman, as shown above, can run 84 per cent. asfastasaman. It is amusing to find simple mechanics explaining such _ apparent differences between the sexes. The Characteristic Oxygen-Requirement-Speed Curve. The curves given in fig. 2 define the economy with which movements are carried out. By such means can be shown the amount of energy _ required, in terms of oxygen used, in order, say, to run or swim for a minute at any given speed. The curves will vary largely from one individual to another. Some men move more efficiently than others at all speeds: A may be moreefficient at one speed than B is, but less efficient at another. For most kinds of muscular exercise the characteristic curve of fig. 2 is ascertainable by experiment. In some cases, as in swimming, experi- mental difficulties might be considerable, at any rate at higher speeds. It is obvious, however, that such a curve must exist for any person performing any kind of continuous muscular exercise. In it we have _a characteristic of that given individual for that particular form of work. Skill. Some people are much more skilled than others. To a large degree, of course, the skill and grace associated with athletic prowess is natural and inborn ; to a large degree, however, it can be produced by training and breeding. All the movements required in the violent forms of mus- alae exertion here discussed are rapid ones, far too rapid to be directly and continuously subject to the conscious intelligence : they are largely, indeed mainly, reflex, set going by the will but maintained by the interplay of proprioceptive nervous system and motor apparatus. The nature of -mouscular skill cannot be discussed here; possibly, however, above all other factors it is the foundation of athletic prowess. Such skill has a physiological basis as it has a psychological aspect. It is a fit subject for discussion alike by physiologists, psychologists, students of physical ain hanes 2 It would really be fairer to compare the heights jumped, less the initial heights of the centres of gravity, say 3:1 feet and 2°8 feet respectively. This gives 2°2/3°51 = -63 as the ratio of the heights, of which the square root is ‘79, a close agreement with the long jump. M 2 164 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. training, athletes, masters and workmen. The further study of skill is likely to be most fruitful in many branches of human endeavour. Here I would only remark that the forms of the characteristic curves of fig. 2 depend upon the skill of the subject in ordering his movements, just as the ‘ miles per gallon’ of a motor-car depends upon the skill of those who designed and adjusted its timing gear and its magneto. Given incorrect adjustment due to lack of skill, given imperfect timing of the several parts of the mechanism, given unnecessary movement and vibra- tion, the whole system will be inefficient. Fundamentally the teaching of athletics for anything but the shortest distances consists in training the performer to lower the level of his characteristic curve, to carry out the same movements at 4 given speed for a smaller expenditure of energy. Bicycling and Horse-running. Not all forms of muscular exertion are so violent, involve so great an expenditure of energy, when carried out at the highest speed, as running and swimming. In fig. 4 are two examples of this fact, horse-running 20 |l0 xq Soot (@ |q—“O— 2 o—p o Norse! RUNNING a~ Nv Ta) © ral 6 |sp— a a | a i a Batt 25 oY in ef 1 MAN BICYCLing +17 ae pelaaie a yaa Se ae ee s 4 MAN RUNNING [is = : — a i sa Be hs : a ae eos | bs ie naeeal wn x Ss =e TIME: SECOND 100 (So 200 250 300 350 400 450 Soo Fic. 4.—Records for horse running and man bicycling; dotted curve for com- parison, man running, taken from fig. 1. Horizontally, time in seconds ; vertically, average speed yards per second. Note.—The horse and the man bicycling are shown on half the scale of the man running. The records for bicycling are the unpaced professional records against time. The records for horses were made in America. and bicycling. For horse-running a long succession of records on American horses are plotted on the topmost curve: below are the records of men bicycling, the unpaced professional records, made not in a race but against time. Most bicycle races are useless for our purpose: the competitors proceed in groups, trying one to ride behind the other to avoid wind resis- tance, and the speed may be absurdly low. Paced records are of little value because the efficiency of the wind-screen provided by the pacing apparatus is not standardised. These professional records, however, made unpaced, simply with the intention of breaking the record, are probably reliable, and they form a reasonably smooth curve. Plotted on the same diagram for comparison is a curve to represent a man running, a replica of that of fig. 1. The first two curves are on twice the scale of the third, since a running horse and a bicycling man can go about twice the speed I.—PHYSIOLOGY. : 165 of a running man. It is obvious at once that neither of these two curves falls anything like so rapidly as does that of a running man; fatigue does not so soon set in: the amount of energy expended at the highest speed must be much less than in a running man. This conclusion, indeed, is obvious to anyone who has tried to ride a bicycle fast. It is impossible to exhaust oneself rapidly on a bicycle: the movements are too slow, they involve too little of the musculature of the body ; it would require some minutes to produce by bicycling a state of exhaustion easily attainable within a minute by running. The curve for horse-running is almost parallel to that for bicycling; presumably, therefore, the movements of a horse are so arranged that the extreme violence of effort possible in a human ‘sprinter’ is unattainable: possibly the movements are too infrequent, or the qualities of the horse’s muscles are so different, that the kind of fatigue rapidly attainable in man is not possible in the horse ; possibly the horse will not ‘ run himself out ’ so completely as a man. Bicycle Ergometers. The curves of fig. 4 are of interest in connection with the numberless experiments which have been made with bicycle ergometers. Nearly all the laboratory observations on man, in connection with muscular exercise, have been made with that implement. It has been obvious to my colleagues and myself during the last few years that the types of exercise chiefly adopted by us, running and standing-running, are more exhausting and require a far greater expenditure of energy than those employing the bicycle ergometer. In rowing and in pedalling a bicycle it may not be possible to attain respiratory quotients of 2 or more during or shortly after exercise. After running, or standing running, however, very high values are attained, due to the fact that these latter forms of exercise, at the highest speeds, are so very much more energetic than the slower movements of rowing or bicycling. It is speed and frequency of movement which determine the degree of exhaustion pro- duced by it. To exert a powerful force in a moderate rhythm is not anything like so tiring as to exert a much smaller force in a frequent rhythm : hence the reason for ‘ gearing up,’ as in the bicycle and in the long oars of a rowing-boat. Horse-racing. The fact that running is not so exhausting to a horse as to a man is well shown by the records of fig. 5. There the small circles represent the best English records of horse-racing between the years 1721 and 1832. Speed in metres per second is given against kilometres distance. The larger circles represent the best of some more recent English records, from 1880 to 1905. D, O, and L represent respectively the Derby, the Oaks, and the St. Leger. It will be seen how little the speed falls off for _ the longer races: six or seven kilometres are run at the same speed as one or two. ‘There is, indeed, a visible tendency for the curve to rise towards the left, as in fig. 4; there is, however, no obvious further fall of the curve towards the right after about two kilometres. Such a state ment would seem preposterous to a human runner if applied to himself. Hither the horse cannot exhaust himself so rapidly as a man, or he cannot 166 : SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. be induced by his rider to go as hard as he ought. A man may be able to force himself to a greater degree of exhaustion than his rider can force a horse. An amusing incidental point brought out by fig. 5 is the fact that Fic. 5.—Records for horse-races. Small circles=old English records, 1721-1832. Large circles=later English records, 1880-1905. D=Derby, O=Oaks, L=St. Leger. Average speed, metres per second, against distance in kilometres. the small circles and the large ones are intermingled. The horses of 150 years ago could run just as fast as their modern successors—a fair comment on the doctrine that the improvement of the breed of horses is the chief and a sufficient reason for encouraging the continuance of horse-racing— even in time of war. The Logarithmic Graph. Let us pass now to a consideration of the last diagram, fig. 6. There average speed in a race is plotted against the logarithm of the time occupied in it, the logarithm being employed, as stated above, for the purpose of including all records from 75 yards to 100 miles in the same picture. That people think, to some degree, in logarithms, although unconsciously, is — shown by the fact that the records which men have thought it worthwhile to make are distributed approximately uniformly over the picture from left to right. Fig. 6 presents the data of athletics perhaps more clearly than any other. The initial rise of the curve for men running, which is due to starting inertia, is very obvious. The rapid fall beyond 220 yards is clearly seen. It is obvious that the 100 and the 220 yards (3 mile) records are better than those lying in their neighbourhood, that the quarter-mile record is extremely good, the 500 yards record very bad, by comparison with its neighbours. This diagram should enable any enterprising and scientific athlete to select the records most easy to break: let him try those for 120 yards, for 500 yards, for three-quarter-mile, for three miles, but not for 220 yards, quarter-mile, one mile, and six miles. ; : i ; £ 167 I.— PHYSIOLOGY. *souly Ueyorq Aq UMOYS Ie SOAINO OATZVUIEYTe ooIG4 PUL ‘sopIM GT 10 Q{ puokeq [NJIqnop yeyMoutos oq 09 srvodde Suruuns usw 10 oAIM0 oy, *syoxovAG orenbs ur wmMoys sv ‘poAojduro st oywos oy] J[eY oy AL ‘surpo£orq 10g ydeoxe “ynoqsnosyy posn st o[vos oures oY], “~puooes aod spavé ur poods oSes0Av ‘AT[vOTZIOA £ sow UL pardnoso oUITy JO WYyWesO[ ‘ATTVJNOZMOF, «*SULUUNI WTO JOF puR ‘SUTYTeM pue SuTUUNI ‘suTpoAoIq “SUIZeys Uo 1OJ Ssp10d9y7—"g “DIT 0000) 0001 00) 0) I “3qvIs} NWHILIYY907* SON0IJ3S = FWY NI G31dNII0 JWIL sow ool Th OS smi sy Y ‘ np 001 = aq , 9 = SaIMOS a ~ "one ~~ Ssz ~ aa He Coe = NASI Nal > ee e ai 2 >No % Ong % SBMLIL 008 o8r ©) S INOD9S Yd SOYWA’ G33dS FJOVNIAY 0-6 SI—O-eRo0 “SayvAcor AOS) / 168 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. Long-distance Records. In fig. 1 we saw that the speed fell to what seemed to be practically a constant level towards the right of the diagram : this fall represents the initial factor in fatigue. On the logarithmic scale, however, where the longer times are compressed together, the curve continues to fall through- out its length. This later fall is due to factors quite different from those discussed above. Consideration merely of oxygen intake and oxygen debt will not suffice to explain the continued fall of the curve. Actually the curve beyond 10 miles seems to some degree doubtful. Apparently the same extent of effort has not been lavished on the longer records : the greatest athletes have confined themselves to distances not greater than 10 miles. The curve A drawn through all the points has a suspicious downward bend in it, which suggests that if Alfred Shrubb or Nurmi had tried to break the longer records they would have done so very effectively. Possibly the true curve lies more like the continuation ©: possibly it may be intermediate as shown at B. It would seem doubtful, indeed, whether the running curve and the walking curve are really to meet at about 150 miles. The most probable continuation of the running curve would seem to be somewhere between the lines B and C. The continued fall in the curve, as the effort is prolonged, is probably due to the second and third types of fatigue which we discussed above, either to the exhaustion of the material of the muscle, or to the incidental disturbances which may make a man stop before his muscular system has reached its limit. A man of average size running in a race must expend about 300 gms. of glycogen per hour; perhaps a half of this may be replaced by its equivalent of fat. After a very few hours, therefore, the whole glycogen supply of his body will be exhausted. The body, however, does not readily use fat alone as a source of energy: disturbances may arise in the metabolism ; it will be necessary to feed a man with carbo- hydrate as the effort continues. Such feeding will be followed by digestion ; disturbances of digestion may occur—other reactions may ensue. For very long distances the case is far more complex than for the shorter ones, and although, no doubt, the physiological principles can be ascertained, we do not know enough about them yet to be able further to analyse the curves. Women’s Running Records. The women’s curve, as far as it goes, is very similar to the men’s. Some records again are better than others. An enterprising woman athlete who wants to break a record should avoid the 300 metres; she would be well advised to try the 500 metres. It would be very interesting to have an intermediate point between 100 and 220 yards. Bicycling and Walking. As before, the curve for men bicycling, which is drawn on twice the scale vertically of the running curves, is far less steep than they are. The conclusion from this was emphasised above. The walking curve is inter- esting—it is approximately straight. Physiologically speaking, there is not much interest in the shortest walking races, since here walking is ne es ee ee ee I.—PHYSIOLOGY. 169 artificial and extremely laborious ; running at a considerably higher speed is much more easy. For longer distances, however, say from 10 miles onwards, we have probably in walking the most reliable data available for long-continued muscular effort. If we wish to study the exhaustion produced by exercise of long duration, walking-men may well provide the best subjects for our experiments. Skating. There remains the top curve of all, that for men skating. The initial rise of the curve, due to starting inertia, is very obvious. The fall of the curve beyond the maximum is nowhere near so rapid as for the case of running. Clearly in skating a man is not able to exert himself with the degree of ardour that is possible in the more primitive exercise of running. Skill and restraint are necessary, as they are in bicycling: there are limits to the output. Moreover, the effort can be continued for a long time, at comparatively high speeds. It is interesting to note that a man can skate 100 miles at almost the same speed as another man can run one mile. The curve falls uniformly throughout as does the walking curve. Clearly the phenomena of gradual exhaustion could be well investigated in the case of skating. Here again it is obvious which records the aspiring athlete should attempt to break. Rowing. There are only a few records available, and those lying between rather narrow limits, for the case of rowing. Taking the case of an eight-oar boat, I have been able to obtain very few reliable data. Kennelly gives records of crews rowing, for times from 305 to 1,210 seconds. Yandell Henderson, in the American Journal of Physiology, vol. Ixxii., p. 264, 1925, gives five observations made upon the Yale crew of 1924. In addi- tion there are records for the Henley course: these, however, are usually contaminated by the speed of the water. The most reliable’of the data have been plotted in fig. 1 on the same scale as the running, on five times the scale of the swimming. The observed points, shown by crosses, are somewhat scattered. As far as they go, a mean curve through them would lie practically along the curve for women swimming, but of course on five times the scale. The interesting part of the curve to the left is lacking ; it is obviously impossible to make observations on an eight-oar boat for periods of 20 seconds, starting inertia is too great and no result of any value could be obtained. It would, however, be of interest to obtain data as far back as possible; certainly the records of crews rowing in still _ water for a minute andabove should be ascertainable, and they would help to fit rowing into the scheme outlined by the other typesof muscular effort. Work and Stroke Frequency in Rowing. In rowing the movements are slow: in an eight-oar boat, from 30 to 40 strokes per minute. According to observations by Lupton and myself the maximum efficiency of human muscular movement is obtained at speeds of about one maximal movement per second. In rowing, experience and tradition alike suggest that such a speed is about the 170 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES, optimum. In an eight-oar boat the recovery takes almost as long as the stroke, both occupying about one second. It is of interest how practical experience has gradually evolved a speed of movement which is almost exactly what a physiologist might have predicted as the most efficient. At a stroke of about 32 per minute the mechanical efficiency is apparently near its maximum. An enormous amount of work has to be done in pro- pelling a boat at speeds like 10 to 12 miles per hour. According to Hender- son, each member of the crew of an eight-oar boat must exert about 0.6 of a horse-power. Clearly if this enormous amount of external work is to be done it must be accomplished by working under efficient conditions : those conditions necessitate a stroke of a particular frequency; only when the race is very short is it permissible, in order to obtain a greater output, to work less efficiently by adopting a more rapid stroke. The stroke may rise to 40 per minute for a short distance: in such an effort the oxygen debt is accumulating rapidly and exhaustion will soon set in. The amount of work, moreover, will not be proportionately greater, probably only slightly greater, than at the lower frequency. The con- ditions which determine the speed of movement, the ‘ viscous-elastic ’ properties of muscle, are what ultimately decide the length of the oars and the speed of movement in a racing-boat. It is interesting to find— as, of course, was really obvious—how closely athletics is mixed with physiology. Wastefulness of High Speeds. This last discussion leads us to the question of what determines the great wastefulness of the higher speeds. Why, returning to fig. 2, does a speed of 280 steps per minute require 24 litres of oxygen per minute, while a speed of 240 steps per minute requires only 8 litres of oxygen ? The answer depends upon the variation of external work with speed of muscular movement. In a series of recent papers it has been shown that in a niaximal muscular movement the external work decreases in a linear manner as the speed of shortening increases. At sufliciently high speeds of shortening no external work at all can be performed. In most of these athletic exercises, apart from the case of rowing, a large proportion of the mechanical work is used in overcoming the viscous resistance of the muscles themselves. At high speeds of running only a small fraction of the mechanical energy of the muscles is available to propel the body, once the initial inertia has been overcome. The speed of shortening is so rapid that little external work can be done. The work is absorbed by internal friction, or by those molecular changes which, when the muscle is shortening rapidly, cause its tension to fall off. When working against an external resistance, as in rowing, there is an optimum speed. If an effort is to be long continued it must be made at a speed not far from the optimum. When, however, the whole of the resistance to movement is internal, as in running, there is no optimum speed: the expense of the movement increases continually as the speed goes up ; the faster we move, the greater relatively the price: our footsteps are dogged by the viscous-elastic properties of muscle, which prevent us from moving too fast, which save us from breaking ourselves while we are attempting to break a record. I,— PHYSIOLOGY. 171 Uniform Speed is the Optimum. The amountof energy required per minute to runor to swim, or, indeed, _ to propel oneself in any way, increases more rapidly than the speed—in _ the cases which have been investigated, approximately as the square of _ the speed. This mathematical relation is not exact: the facts can only really be described by a curve such as that of fig. 2, but it simplifies the argument. From the form of the curve of fig. 2, or from the variation of energy output as the square of the speed, we can immediately deduce that the most efficient way in which to run a race is that of a uniform _ speed throughout. Imagine that a man runs a mile race in 4 minutes _ 30seconds at a uniform speed of 6.52 yards per second : his energy expen- diture is proportional to 44 times 6.52 squared ; that is, 191.3 expressed in some arbitrary units. Imagine now that he runs it at two speeds, 6 and 7 yards per second, 780 yards at the lower, 980 at the upper speed: the total time is the same; the energy expended, however, is slightly greater, 192.3 instead of 191.3. This small variation of speed in the race has pro- duced no serious increase in the energy expenditure. Let us imagine, however, that one portion of the race, 665 yards, is run at 5 yards per _ second, while another portion, 1,096 yards, is run at 8 yards per second. The total time occupied in the race is still 4 minutes 30 seconds. The energy expended, however, is greater, namely, 201.5 units. Even this, however, is not a very large increase ; by running about half the time _ at 8 yards and half the time at 5 yards per second, the energy expended _ has been increased only about 5 per cent. as compared with that required for running at a uniform speed of 6.5 yards per second throughout. Although, therefore, theoretically speaking, the optimum fashion in which to run a race is that of uniform velocity throughout, comparatively large _ variations on either side of this velocity do not appreciably increase the amount of energy expended. Possible Advantages of a Fast Start. There may, indeed, be advantages in starting rather faster than the average speed which it is intended to maintain. The sooner the respiration and circulation are driven up to their maximum values, the greater will be the amount of oxygen taken in by the body, the greater the amount expendible during the race. It is a common practice in mile races fo start very fast and to settle down later to the uniform speed : this may have a physiological basis in the quickening up of circulation and respiration achieved thereby. The Simple Mechanics of High-Jumping. One final point may be worthy of mention—this time connected with _ high-jumping and long-jumping. Recently I made a series of observations, _with a stop-watch reading to 0.02 seconds, of the times occupied by a number of high-jumpers from the moment they left the ground to the moment they reached the ground again. With men jumping about five feet the time averaged about 0.80 second. Calculating from the formula S =i¢?’, 172 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. where ¢ is half the total time of flight, the distance through which the centre of gravity of the body was raised must have been about 2.5 feet. The men competing must have had an original height of their centre of gravity of about 2.7 feet. Thus, in the high-jump, their centres of gravity went about 5.2 feet high into the air. They cleared a height of five feet: they just managed to wriggle their centres over the bar. Now, paradoxical as it may seem, it is possible for an object to pass over a bar while its centre of gravity passes beneath; every particle in the object may go over the bar and yet the whole time its centre of gravity may be below. A rope running over a pulley and falling the other side is an obvious example. It is conceivable that by suitable contortions the more accomplished high-jumpers may clear the bar without getting their centres of gravity above or appreciably above it. Let us calculate, how- ever, on the assumption that the centre of gravity of a jumper just clears the bar. The world’s record high-jump is 6.61 feet, the centre of gravity of the performer being presumably about 3 feet high at rest. He raises it therefore 3.61 feet into the air, from which we may calculate that the whole time occupied in the jumpis about 0.96 second. Seeing the amazing complexity of and the skill involved in the rapid movements and adjustments involved in a record high-jump, it is striking that all those events can occur within a time of less than one second. All the character- istics of the proprioceptive system must be evoked in their highest degree in carrying out such a skilled, rapid, and yet violent movement, Long-Jumping. It is well known to athletes that success in long-jumping consists in learning to jump high. It is not, of course, the case that a record long- jumper performs at the same moment a record high-jump. He must, however, cover a very considerable height. The world’s record long-jump is 25.48 feet. With the check provided by the vertical impulse in the last step we cannot well imagine the horizontal velocity to be greater, at this moment, than that of 100 yards completed in 10 seconds; that is, than 30 feet per second, Let us assume this value: then the performer re- mains in the air for 25.48 ; that is, 0.85 second: hence we may calculate that the vertical distance covered is about 2.9 feet. Assuming the centre of gravity of the subject to have been originally 3 feet high, this means that it must have reached a height 5.9 feet in the air, enough, in a high- jump, to enable its owner to clear’5.9 feet. It is interesting to find that the simple laws of mechanics emphasise so strongly the precepts of the athletic trainer. Not only must one jump high if one wishes to break a long-jump record, but one must bring one’s centre of gravity nearly six feet high into the air; for one must project oneself vertically, so that one may remain for 0.85 second above the ground. Conclusion. The practice of athletics is both a science and an art, and, just as art and science are the most potent ties tending to draw men together in a world of industrial competition, so sport and athletics, by urging men to friendly rivalry, may help to avert the bitterness resulting from less - i pads 72a we’) I— PHYSIOLOGY. 173 peaceful struggles. If, therefore, physiology can aid in the development . of athletics as a science and an art, I think it will deserve well of man- kind. As in all these things, however, the reward will be reciprocal. Obviously in the data of athletic records we have a store of information available for physiological study. Apart from its usefulness, however, I would urge that the study is amusing. Most people are interested, at any rate in England and America, in some type of sport. If they can be made to find it more interesting, as I have found it, by a scientific con- templation of the things which every sportsman knows, then that extra interest is its own defence. SECTION J.—PSYCHOLOGY. SOME ISSUES IN THE THEORY OF “G” (INCLUDING THE LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURNS). ADDRESS BY Proressor C. SPEARMAN, Pu.D., F.B.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. I. Theory of ‘g.’ Tue following communication treats of certain points in a theory which has become known as that of Two Factors or of g. At the present time this theory has undergone very elaborate development. The mental testing from which it originated lay at first as a foreign intruder in the midst of general psychology. Its opponents—and these were not few—regarded it as an excrescence that should be forthwith cast out ; and even its best friends wondered how the general psychology was ever going to assimilate it. But, seemingly, neither of these solutions is happening to any great extent. The mental testing has waxed larger and established itself more firmly than ever without much assimilation with the current general doctrines ; indeed, it seems more likely, cuckoo- wise, to eject them from the psychological nest. In particular, the theory of g, which arose from the mental tests, has now managed to spread itself over the whole of the cognitive side of psychology, and not impossibly it will soon extend its scope over into the supplementary or orectic side. For the present I do not propose to try your patience by depicting the whole elaborate theory of g even in outline. Such an attempt is reserved for a work that will appear shortly. But a very few words may be allowed here to indicate its essential foundation as unwaveringly preserved from the very beginning. This consists in the theorem, that the measure of every different ability of any person can be resolved into two factors, of which the one is always the same, but the other always independent. Suppose, for instance, that any person undergoes a mental test and obtains seventeen marks forit. The theory asserts that this can actually be divided into two parts, say eleven and six, such that (on reduction to comparable units) the eleven re-occurs for this person in every other test however widely different, whereas the six is each time replaced by some other number independently. The establishment of this doctrine falls into three distinct phases. The first is to ascertain what are the conditions under which the measures of any ability admit of such division into two factors. We may note that this phase has often been erroneously called an assumption or hypothesis. It is really nothing of the kind, but simply a mathematical demonstration. Given the said conditions, then the divisibility into such two factors must necessarily occur, just as, given that a triangle has all ee ae : J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 175 its angles equal, then it must needs also have all its sides equal. The second phase is to find out where, if at all, the conditions are actually fulfilled. Again, no assumption or hypothesis of any kind is involved ; the matter is nothing more than observation of fact. But then comes the third and last phase, that of supplying the factors with some plausible interpretation. Here the most cautious procedure and one that goes not an inch beyond what has really been proven, is simply to denote these factors by the non-committal letters g and s respectively. Any interpretation going beyond this can only, in our present state of knowledge, have a provisional value; it can serve to inspire further investigation, by which it will assuredly suffer much modification itself. With this reservation, then, the hypothesis at present seeming most helpful and suggestive is that the g measures something of the nature of an ‘ energy ’ derived from the whole cortex or wider area of the brain. Correspondingly, the s’s measure the respective efficiencies of the different parts of the brain in which this energy can be concentrated ; they are, so to speak, its ‘ engines.’ Whenever the mind turns from one operation to another, the energy is switched off from one engine to another, much as the power supply of a factory can be directed, at one moment to turning a wheel, at the next to heating a furnace, and then to blowing a whistle. Il. Recent Confirmation. So much to serve as a general description of the doctrine. I will now bring to your notice some recent work whereby its foundations have received additional strengthening, both on the side of mathematics and on that of actual observation. To take the former first, the earlier researches had only shown what conditions are necessary for the divisibility into the two factors. Later investigation has proved that these conditions are also sufficient. In other words, we now know, not only that under the said conditions the divisibility into two factors may possibly occur, but even that it inevitably must do so. I stress this point because some of the recent writing on the subject appears to make the contrary and mistaken statement that, even when the conditions are satisfied, still the divisibility either may or may not ensue. As to the precise nature of these conditions, they are based upon what are called the co-efficients of correlation. Such co-efficients, as is now generally understood, consist in numbers that indicate just how closely any two abilities or other characters tend to vary in proportion to one another. They are usually symbolised by the letter 7. Thus, 7,, would denote the degree that any ability 1 tended to vary from individual to individual proportionately to some other ability 2. Now, the conditions for the divisibility into the two factors reduce themselves to the simple equation : Pintle Tags Tipe Here the value on the left is called the tetrad-difference. When such tetrad-differences remain equal to zero throughout any set of abilities, whichever of them may be taken as J, 2, 3, and 4, respectively, then, and then only, each of these abilities can be divided up into two factors 176 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. such as we have described. Should anyone ask why this particular equation should have the virtue of necessitating such a divisibility, I can only answer that it is but one out of all the miracles of mathematics. I never cease to be astonished at it myself. For further elucidation, reference must be made to the mathematical proof." So far we remain in comparatively smooth waters. The chief difficulty arises when we turn to what are known as the errors of sampling. Suppose you wanted to know whether a field of potatoes was bearing a good crop. You walk about, pulling up a plant here and there. This gives you some approximate knowledge, but not an exact one. For all you can tell, you may have been exceptionally lucky or unlucky in your selection. The degree of discrepancy between the average size of the potatoes actually pulled and that of the whole field is your error of sampling. Now, just the same befalls any co-efficient of correlation between two abilities. You want to know how closely these two go together with people of some general class. You pick out, say, 100 of these people. But just in this 100 the correspondence between the two abilities may happen to be rather higher or lower than on an average throughout the entire class. Your co-efficient of correlation will have an error of sampling. And our preceding tetrad-difference, being made up of correlational coefficients, will have one also. Now, the latest advance in the theory of g consists in showing the general magnitude of the tetrad-differences that will arise from the sampling errors alone, even when the true magnitude is always zero. This value of the tetrad-differences to be expected merely from sampling was published last year (Brit. J. Psychol.). But, having got this theoretical value, there remains the momentous step of comparing it with the median value which is actually observed. The theory of g stands or falls according as these two values are or are not found to agree. This step so fraught with fate has now been taken. To avoid all danger of personal bias, no work of my own was chosen for this crucial decision, but that of an investigator who, more than all others, had shown himself unsympathetic with the doctrine of g. Here is his table of correlations as published by himself : Test Lind oSric ined 6261) 7, 6813 59 ol0ndd da ash 14 1. Completion .. 98 94 79 62 91 71 54 78 88 55 42 33 25 2. Hard Opposites 98 84 80 64 81 79 70 73 74 52 43 26 25 3. Memory words 94 84 62 55 82 49 56 73 71 53 40 28 21 4. Easy Opposites... 79 80 62 57 52 68 53 42 56 45 29 38 48 Be Aa Test® .< -- 62 64 55 57 55 54 73 39 51 39 59 25 22 6. Memory pass. .. 91 81 82 52 55 53 57 59 66 54 31 28 19 7. Adding .. -. 71 79 49 68 54 53 45 39 47 51 57 17 25 8. Geomet. forms.. 54 70 56 53 73 57 45 35 49 34 56 25 25 9. Learn. pairs .. 78 73 73 42 39 59 39 35 69 36 29 26 09 10. Recog. forms .. 88 74 71 56 51 66 47 49 69 44 37 34 28 TI) Serolls ser -- 55 52 53 45 39 54 51 34 36 44 31 19 27 12. Compl. words .. 42 43 40 29 59 31 57 56 29 37 31 21 07 13. Estimat. length 33 26 28 38 25 28 17 25 26 34 19 21 24 14. Drawing length 25 25 21 48 22 19 25 25 09 28 27 O7 24 To work out all the tetrad-differences was no light undertaking, since they run to the number of 3,003. The calculation of these was entrusted 1 Proc. Roy. Soc., 1923. i , } : : J.— PSYCHOLOGY. I a er to the competent hands of Mr. Raper. When all was reported ready we met, I carrying the ‘ probable error’ of the tetrad-differences—that is, the median value that should by theory be expected to arise from sampling alone, he bringing the average value of the 3,003 tetrad-differences actually derived from the above table. My number was .061. His was .074; this, in order to get from the average to the median, had to be multiplied by the well-known constant .0845, whereby it came finally to .062 ! It may be of interest to survey the entire frequency distribution of the values concerned. Simpson’s Tetrad-Differences (37 subjects). The dotted curve shows the relative frequencies that should be expected from the sampling errors alone. About half should lie between a and b ; extremely few beyond cord. The continuous rectangles show the relative frequencies that actually occurred. ----------------------- -- A better agreement of a theoretical frequency curve with one of actual observations does not, I venture to say, exist throughout psychology, or perhaps even throughout statistics. The preceding result may be instructively compared with another one. The doctrine of Two Factors, as is only proper, has had to make its way in the face of strong resistance. But the latter has curiously adopted two contrary lines of defence. The one is to question whether the mathe- matical criterion would really be satisfied by actual observation ; and this doubt, I hope, has been met by the facts just cited. But the other opposi- tion has instead asserted that any ordinary table of positive correlations _ would naturally satisfy it, so that such satisfaction must be devoid of _ Peculiar significance. And recently this second line of opposition has acquired much greater vitality, in that a table of correlations has now _ been brought forward as an actual example ; it is not derived from mental but from physical traits, and yet, it is said, exhibits a quite similar character. Here is the table : 1925 N 178 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1. Area of ossification oe 88 60 62 43 31 25 26 2. Ratio of ossification .. 88 52 58 41 74 24 29 3. Height .. a .. 60 52 69 44 51 45 11 4. Weight .. ae e162 58 69 65 39 40 83 5. Chest girth af AS 41 44 65 59 36 69 6. Lung capacity .. ae eit! 21 51 39 59 46 26 7. Strength of Bei Sea) 24 45 40 36 46 14 8. Nutrition 22°26 29 11 83 69 26 14 Let us, then, look at the median tetrad-difference derived from this table and compare it with the probable error to be expected from sampling alone; the respective values are .089 and .011. That is to say, the actually observed value is no less than eight times greater than what theory demands. Here again we can examine the whole frequency distribution. Tetrad-Differences of A. Gates (115 subjects). The explanation of the figure is the same as in the preceding case of Simpson. & ' ' ' ' ' ' 1 ‘ ' ' a b ad 1 ' 1 ' ! 1 beyond “055 -033 -Oll -0 +-0l1 -033 -055 beyond Between the curve showing the values to be expected from the errors of sampling and the rectangles showing those actually observed there is this time no agreement whatever. III. Law of Diminishing Returns. So much for the strengthening of the doctrine. I will now proceed to describe a rather curious matter that has arisen in the course of its elaboration. Since the very beginning it has been known that the two factors, g and s, the energy and the engines, may have widely different relative importance, according to the particular mental operation involved. With some operations the superiority of one person over another is prepon- derantly decided by their respective amounts of the energy. With other operations, on the contrary, the dominant factor is the engine. Subsequent research, moreover, has been gradually outlining the cases which incline in the one or the other direction. Thus the energy is in general J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 179 more important for operations that are composite, the engines for those that are monotonous. This is natural enough. The composite operation really involves several different engines ; the superiority that an individual may happen to have in any one of them will tend to be neutralised in the average of them all; but a superiority in the energy will make itself felt in each, and thus obtain cumulative influence. Again, the energy is less and the engine more influential whenever the operation depends much upon the efficiency of some sensory or motor apparatus. This, too, is natural enough; for such apparatus obviously constitutes a part and parcel of the engine. Yet again the energy has been found to lose in importance as compared with the engine in proportion as the operation tends less to create new mental content and more to reproduce old. On this profoundly significant matter I need not dilate here, as it seems likely to be treated by Dr. McCrae later on. The point which I do wish to bring forward in this place is that the relative influence of the energy and the engines changes largely with the class of person at issue. The most drastic instance of this is supplied by a comparison between normal children and those who are mentally defective. The work of Abelson may be quoted, where the same tests were applied by the same experimenter to both classes. The correlations obtained for the two respectively are as follows : Norma CuHinpren. (78 Cassis.) Le 2i2F idk wt ey iene Oa il ee Seet OF £1 Os Rs 12 1. Opposites .. ce <3 75 78 71 62 64 72 78 57 40 46 33 2. Observation ne .. 75 72 58 60 58 67 56 58 56 52 29 3. Absurdities a A 78 72 53 41 44 79 68 41 46 34 29 4. Memory sentences -» 71 58 53 54 61 54 37 54 55 19 43 5. Crossing 0’s om -- 62 60 41 54 73 48 54 38 36 52 35 6. Geometrical figs. .. -. 64 58 44 61 73 45 48 30 42 48 35 _ 7. Discrim. length .. .. 72 67 79 54 48 45 56 49 30 31 06 8. Crossing patterns. . .. 78 56 68 37 54 48 56 30 21 27 18 9. Memory form... .. 57 58 41 54 38 30 49 30 24 31 29 10. Tapping .. ae -. 40 56 46 55 36 42 30 21 24 29 18 11. Strength of grip -- 46 52 34 19 52 48 31 27 31 29 28 12. Interpret. pictures -. 33 29 29 43 35 35 06 18 29 18 28 Mean=.466. DEFECTIVE CHILDREN. (22 CAsEs.) (2c Ot ede ae SOM ie” Oe Oe lOn milan 1. Absurdities OE HO’ TO ss OF Ho NO ie’ 98 ga gw 7g MeOpposites.. 5... LO 97 95 87 91 85 76 85 87 70 72 3. Crossing patterns.. ..1.0 97 91 80 88 68 92 74 78 76 67 4. Crossing 0’s ore a em | 85 77 84 67 76 81 73 55 5. Memory sentences .. 97 87 80 85 73 90 68 88 65 78 68 6. Observation eillows Ou Sb Asse oS 76 83 71 86 59 65 7. Memory form .. ..1.0 85 68 84 90 76 65 67 70 77 75 8. Interpret. pictures ..1.0 76 92 67 68 83 65 74 80 80 59 9. Geometrical figs... .. 98 85 74 76 88 71 67 74 65 60 62 10. Discrim. length .. .. 94 87 78 81 65 86 70 80 65 51 45 ll. Tapping .. .. 94 70 76 73 78 59 77 80 60 51 61 12. Strength of grip... .. 79 72 67 55 68 65 75 59 62 45 61 Mean=.782. All round, obviously, the correlations are much smaller in the case of the normal children. This indicates that with these the influence of the energy has gone down and that of the engines has correspondingly gone up. N 2 180 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. Compare next young children with those that are older. Here I may quote from the admirable work of Prof. Burt. Applying his test of reasoning to numerous children of different ages, he obtained the following correlations with the estimates of the teachers : pedi Hila Earp agua 11-12 12-13 13-14 Correlations .. 78 81 64 59 No less marked is this tendency on comparing children with adults. As examples may be taken the correlations obtained by Otis and Carothers respectively for what appear to have been similar tests in each case. Test Correlations with g Otis, grades IV-VIII. Carothers, students. Analogies $s 2 84 71 Completion .. ats are 88 -53 Directions .. oe 33 -86 : 45 Digits, memory .. : 41 22 Now these changes obviously follow a general rule. The correlations always become smaller—showing the influence of g to grow less—in just the classes of person which on the whole possess this g more abundantly. The rule is then that, the more energy available already, the less advantage accrues from further increments of it. And this is a well-known property of engines in general. Suppose that a ship at moderate expenditure of coal goes 15 knots an hour. By additional coal the rate can readily be increased another 5 knots. By doubling the addition of coal, however, the additional knots will certainly not be anything like doubled. This relation is observed not only in engines, but also widely elsewhere. In the science of economics, for instance, it comes to expression in the well-known law of diminishing returns. A moderate amount of capital spent on a given piece of land will produce a certain return ; but on adding further doses of capital the returns will not go increasing proportionately. In our psychological case of different classes of persons there enter no doubt various complications which render the theoretical interpretation more dubious. Above all, there is the fact that the classes better endowed with g have usually undergone more or less selection. For instance, the university students of Carothers had been cleared of the weaklings who could not matriculate. And this in itself would tend to lower all correlations due to g. However, such facts would seem capable of accounting for only part of the phenomenon, not for the whole. There remains enough over to suggest a genuine law of diminishing returns for mental as for material processes. IV. Corollary of Independence. The next and final point to be raised here is a corollary of what has been said. Since a great many abilities depend almost entirely upon the efficiency of the engines involved and this efficiency varies independently from individual to individual, we may conclude that these abilities them- selves vary almost independently from individual to individual. This theorem has, indeed, been called into question. Some authorities have asserted the existence of a general ‘ sensory level’ of ability, so that the persons who are successful at one kind of sensory performance will tend to be so at others also. Other writers have adopted a similar position as regards what they call ‘ practical’ ability; persons are taken to be either endowed or not endowed with this all round. But no such position J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 181 would appear to be supported by the available definite evidence. Dr. McCrae, for instance, has recently examined the correlations between different tests that have been entitled those of Performance. These, even among persons of comparatively low status, proved to be, in fact, almost independent of each other. Still more striking has been the result of a very valuable investigation by Mr. Philpott. He undertook to test the discrimination of length, a power which obviously possesses great import- ance in many spheres of industry. But he wisely tested this discrimination in two different ways. First, he showed pairs of lines and made the subjects judge which was the longer. And then he gave them single lines and made them, in each case, draw another line of as nearly as possible the same length. As result, these two performances, that seemingly are but mani- festations of one and the same power, turned out to be almost entirely independent. Those who were best at judging between the two lines already _ drawn did not, to any appreciable extent, excel at making a second line equal to a given one. Quite similar results were obtained for the dis- crimination of angles, as also for perceiving whether a line is straight or not. Accepting, then, the conclusion that an immense number of abilities vary from one individual to another almost independently of each other, what is the practical result ? Let us try to get a notion how such abilities of any person must be distributed in respect of excellence. By all experience, and also by statistical theoryinto which we cannot enter here, the great bulk of his abilities will tend to be mediocre ; that is to say, they will be near the general average of his class. A fair number will be distinctly above this average, and a fair number below. A small number will be much above; and so also below. The whole frequency distribution will, in fact, have a bell-like shape similar to that which was shown by the curves of the tetrad-differences to be expected from sampling errors. At the extreme ends of the distribution will lie a very small number of performances for which the person is, on the one side a genius, and on the other an idiot. Every normal man, woman, and child is, then, a genius at some- thing as well as an idiot at something It remains to discover what—at any rate in respect of the genius. This must be a most difficult matter, owing to the very fact that it occurs in only a minute proportion out of all possible abilities. It certainly cannot be detected by any of the testing procedures at present in current usage. But these procedures are capable, I believe, of vast improvement. The preceding considerations have often appealed to me on looking at a procession of the Unemployed, and hearing someone whisper that they are mostly the Unemployable. That they are so actually I cannot help concurring. But need they be so necessarily ?, Remember that every one of these, too, is a genius at something—if we could only discover what. I cherish no illusion, indeed, that among them may be marching some “mute inglorious Milton, some Cromwell guiltless of his country’s blood.’ For these are walks in life that appear to involve a large amount of g. But I am quite confident that every one of them could do something that would make him a treasure in some great industrial concern. And I see no reason why some should not have even become famous, in such occupa- tions, for example, as those of dancers, jockeys, or players of popular games, SECTION K.—BOTANY. THE PHAZOPHYCEZ AND THEIR PROBLEMS. ADDRESS BY Proressor J. LLOYD WILLIAMS, D.Sc., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. WuEN the Botanical Section of the British Association did me the honour of inviting me to preside at its meeting, several members of the Committee seem to have regarded it as a foregone conclusion that the subject of this address would be the Pheophycee. But for this unconscious com- pulsion on their part, one would probably have selected some other subject ; for the greater one’s interest may be in any department of a science the more keenly one realises the difficulties of its problems, and the more conscious one is of his own ignorance and helplessness regarding them. There are, however, several good reasons for selecting the Pheophyceze for discussion at the present time. The study of many life processes ought to prove easier and more fruitful when carried on in the simpler Alge than in the more complex higher plants; for not only does one come nearer to the problems of life and its past history in the Algal world, but one is able also to concentrate attention on fewer factors at a time, and thus obtain results with far greater expedition and certainty. The Pheophycee present a remarkably wide range of plant forms. In regard to external form and tissue structure, the higher members of the class are the most highly differentiated among the Thallophyta, while in size they far exceed any members of the Green or Red Alge. The mode of sexual reproduction ranges from isogamy to pronounced oogamy ; and, although fertilisation is invariably external, the difference in the reproductive schemes and life histories of such representatives as the Cutleriaceze, the Dictyotacee, the Laminariaceze, and the Fucacee are so great that it is at first difficult to believe in their descent from a common stock. And yet the uniformity of structure of the motile reproductive cells, with their characteristic lateral cilia, together with the similarity of the colouring matter, and the products of assimilation throughout the group, are such that there is general agreement as to their close relation- ship in the distant past. Some recent discoveries in the Pheophycex have added to the interest already felt in the group. While previous researches in the Cutleriacew, Dictyotacex, and Fucacee had given us the key to the cytological relations of their sporophytes and gametophytes, the position of the Laminarians was still a paradoxical one, for here we had plants of very advanced somatic structure, possessing sieve-tubes comparable with those of the Flowering Plants, and yet presenting the most elementary mode of reproduction—an asexual one, by means of zoospores. The successful ee a K.—BOTANY. 1838 investigations of Sauvageau, followed by those of Kylin and others, have now solved the puzzle; and as a result the systematists have moved the Laminarians from among the Pheospore to compete for the premier position with the Fucoids. At the same time Dr. Margery Knight’s studies at the other end of the series of Brown Seaweeds—the Ectocar- pacese—already promises to be most fruitful in valuable information about the cytology and ecology of these, the simplest of the Pheospore. There is, however, still another reason for discussing this group of Alge. Dr. Church, by his insistence on the marine origin of the Land Flora, and by his very detailed exposition of the successive steps in the supposed transmigration ; and still more by the importance he assigns to the Brown Seaweeds in the *‘ elaboration of specialisations,’ which (quoting Church’s own expressions) ‘subsequently adapted and improved (often beyond knowledge) in the new environment of subaerial vegetation,’ has roused renewed interest in the group. One hardly knows which to admire most—the wealth and precision of knowledge possessed by the author, or the daring flights of imagination and scientific speculation indulged in by him. Personally, I confess to a lack of courage to follow the theorist in his adventures. I marvel at the advocate’s complete mastery of his brief, and admire the ingenuity of the arguments he advances to support his case: yet, when I try to follow his lead I feel an insecurity akin to that of a man walking on quicksands. The story is interesting, often romantic ; and one wishes it were true, if only to satisfy the questionings of one’s mind; but though the general idea may be sound, the detailed elaboration of it bristles with difficulties, especially to minds that, like my own, have the misfortune to be both slow and sceptical. But here we at once lay ourselves open to the author’s pungent criticism: ‘ If this is not the story of the rise of plant-life in the world, the field is still open to anyone who can concoct a more convincing narrative ; but in such a case it has to be a better one, and must give a more intelligible reason for the same natural phenomena.’ A shrewd thrust, which it is not easy to parry. When we turn from the field of hypothesis and speculation to the dis- cussion of facts and phenomena, the contents of these memoirs must excite everyone’s admiration. The wealth of knowledge of plants (and animals) displayed by the writer, his extensive and detailed acquaintance with the literature of botany and the allied sciences, the keen insight shown by him into the interplay of organisms and their various environ- mental factors, his passion for exactitude and measurement (though it often makes his phraseology highly technical), and his pregnant and highly condensed style (which, paradoxically, does not always save him from repetition and loose arrangement)—all these things quicken our interest in the numerous problems that are dealt with. The memoirs are treasure- houses of knowledge collected from far and near. Their pages are reservoirs of learning that continually overflow into footnotes—always informative, but often pithy and even pungent. In his ‘Somatic Organisation of the Pheophycee,’ + Church is exceed- ingly severe in his condemnation of morphologists who confine their attention to reproductive structures, and who neglect the study of the soma. ‘Given a moss-capsule,’ says he, ‘the timber-tree follows as 1 Church, A. H., Bot. Mems., 10, 1920. 184 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. a minor detail, so long as it produces asexual tetrads.’ He himself deals with all these somatic considerations with great thoroughness, as may be seen from the following selection from the numerous sectional headings of the memoir: ‘ Evolution of growing-points’; ‘Systems of Ramifica- tion’; ‘Symmetry’; ‘ Phyllotaxis’; ‘Space form and the Theory of Members’; ‘ Evolution of the Leaf-member’; ‘ Pneumatocysts and Pneumatophores’; ‘Evolution of Gametophores’; ‘Theory of Tissue Differentiation’; ‘Mechanism of Tissue Differentiation’; ‘ Mucilage- hairs and Ducts,’ &c. All these are treated philosophically, and the relation of various structures to the factors of the environment expounded with a thorough mastery of detail. In the course of the work a classification is given of Plant-forms, arranged in order of increasing complexity and efficiency. Though in matters of detail the author could improve the classification in respect of clearness and consistency, it is sufficiently interesting to justify our indicating, in mere outline, the principal forms dealt with. The series begins with: 1. Ectocarpoid Forms, consisting in Hctocarpus and Pylaiella of much branched, uniseriate filaments. The outstanding advantage of this form is that every cell unit is fully exposed to the external medium ; the inevitable disadvantage of the form is its weakness to withstand heavy seas : this also prevents its attaining a great size. Sphacelaria is so different from the above that one would have pre- ferred its being placed under a different heading. It is remarkable for its big apical cell, and the multiseptation of its products, with very little or no intercalary growth. This gives greatly increased strength, but the plants remain small. In the higher members the central cells in the older axes receive less light, and are not in contact with the external mediums. Cladostephus, by further outgrowths from the primary cortex, develops a ‘mantle’ or secondary cortex which greatly increases its mechanical strength. One would have preferred to include this under the ‘ Cortzcated Forms’ rather than among the ‘ Ectocarpoid Types.’ 2. The Cable Type with axial strands of large cells or filaments, often strengthened by interwoven hyphal outgrowths ; the whole invested with tufts of branches radially arranged in a palisade-like manner and embedded in a matrix of mucilage. These ‘ ultimate ramuli’ carry on the work of photosynthesis and also bear the reproductive organs. Mesogioia is an example of this type, while Chordaria shows considerable advance in condensation and efficiency. 3. The Multiseptate Cable Type—Apart from a few small plants, Chorda is the only example given of the type. It interests the author greatly as he sees in it a transition from the ‘ Cable Type’ to the ‘ Paren- chymatous Type.’ The only reason for connecting Chorda with Mesogloia or Chordaria is the fact that the whole surface, except the basal part, is covered with paraphyses and sporangia. It may, however, be pointed out that in its parenchymatous structure, its possession of well-developed trumpet-hyphe, in the structure of its reproductive cells, and in the nature of its alternation of generation, Chorda is a true Laminarian ; and, as will be shown later, it isfar nearer Laminaria itself than Saccorhizais. For this reason it is difficult to see why a separate division should be made to receive this plant-form. The author’s remarks about the efficiency of the form are Aw T=. | K.—BOTANY. 185 instructive. He points out that ‘it occupies the least area of the sub- stratum,’ that this allows ‘ indefinite gregarious association’ ; and that it extends ‘ longitudinally to the limit of mechanical cohesion and hapteron- system ’"—“ Individuals may thus attain in quiet waters a range of 40 ft., while the filamentous soma gives little more range than 1 ft.’ 4. The Corticated Type.—In this are included Stilophora, Spermatochnus, Arthrocladia, &c., together with the well-known Desmarestia. The latter has an axis consisting simply of branching, uniseriate filaments with “trichorhallic’’ growth, but completely obscured by a massive develop- ment of pseudoparenchyma, due to the growth of descending ramuli. This bulky tissue may show some amount of differentiation, and the success of the strengthening device enables the plants to reach a length of 4 to 6 ft. In summer the plants bear tufts of delicate branches which are _ shed again before winter—a seasonal adaptation resembling that obtaining in our deciduous trees. . 5. The Parenchymatous Type including laminate forms like Punctaria as well as tubular types like Asperococeus ; and derivable from a Chorda- like type by suppression of external ramalia, localisation of sori, and immersion of reproductive structures in the parenchymatous thallus. The author maintains that ‘there can be no doubt, so far, that sorus- location is always to be taken as the indication of a preceding condition of diffused production of similar ramalia-systems.’ _ 6. Improved Parenchymatous Types—These, culminating in the _ Pucacee and the Laminariacee, and presenting a surprising variety of ; forms, with a high degree of differentiation of members, and an elaboration _ of tissue-systems far in advance of anything known in any other group of _ the Thallophyta, are far too well known to need description. The author’s treatment of the factors concerned in the evolution of the various forms and their morphological significance is exhaustive and interesting. He adds equally instructive accounts of various reduced forms, parasites and J endophytes. _ Among the structures about which further information is much needed var the characteristic Laminarian ‘Trumpet-hyphe.’ Wille? published a _ drawing of these structures in Laminaria Cloustoni and he showed the perforated sieveplate, but not the thickenings of the walls—like many others, he regarded them as artifacts. Oliver ? demonstrated the presence, , nature and origin of the callus often found in them, and incidentally described the walls as being ‘ striated.’ These markings, however, do not appear in the drawings. Miss Sykes (Mrs. Thoday),* employing the methods _ of Gardiner and Hill, proved that the crosswalls in these structures were true sieveplates traversed by slime-strings enclosed in callus rods. Owing to the swelling method employed, the thickenings could not be seen. _ Later she expressed the opinion that they were artifacts. Previous to this, - Rosenthal® had figured the ‘spiral thickenings’ in Laminaria, and finding _ them also in Chorda (of which Reinke® published drawings in the following year), he made the pertinent suggestion that this fact should weigh in 2 Ber. d. deutsch. bot. Ges., 1885. 8 Ann, of Bot. i., 1887. 4 Tbid. xxii, 1908. 5 Flora, 1890. 6 Atlas deutsch. Meeresalgen, 1891. 186 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. discussing the relation of Chorda to the Laminariacee. Killian (1911), describing the development of the tissues in young plants of Laminaria, seems to hold the view that the thickenings are artifacts. In a forthcoming paper an account will be given of some work of my own on these structures. Only the more important conclusions will be mentioned here. There can be no doubt whatever that the thickenings are normal structures, as they can be seen equally well in sections of fresh material mounted in sea-water, and in well-fixed material. In optical section, the outer limit of the wall of the hypha is perfectly even, while the inner is sharply ridged or serrated. In surface view, parallel lines or nearly parallel lines are seen running from the serrations across the tube. These suggested to Rosenthal the idea of spiral markings ; really, however, they are reticulate. In badly-fixed material there may be crumplings of the walls, due to a longitudinal contraction of the medulla, or delicate trans- verse or oblique striations, which are, however, outside the walls, and are due to the contraction of the outer mucilaginous layer being less than that of the inner wall. In most cases the bulbous dilations on either side of the sieveplates are unequal in size; and where this is the case they have a definite orientation, the bigger bulb being on the upper (distal) side. It is interesting to note that the reticulate thickenings are not — continued into the larger bulbous expansion. It frequently happens, as in the higher plants, that fixed material shows the presence of much coagulated substance, which in most cases is located in the upper part of the segments, against the lower surface of the sieve-plates. It had already been found by several investigators that the substance of the cross-plates is very different from that of the wall. The application by the writer of the same and other — tests shows clearly that the thickening layer is also different from the rest of the wall, and that its reactions resemble in many respects those of the very resistant cross-walls. The true trumpet-hyphe pursue a vertical — course among the web of ordinary hyphe, many of which show similar ‘ trumpet’ ends, which, as Church points out, ‘are not so much ~ dilated, as expressing the full-sized transverse septum of the elongated — units.” There can be no doubt that many writers have confused the two — kinds and thus arrived at wrong conclusions; but the presence of the © thickenings will always enable us to distinguish the true trumpet-hyphe — from the others. They occur in all typical Laminariacee. Oliver gives — a list of eight genera in which they are found ; to these I have been able to — add five. They occur even in the insignificant Adenocystis. Theone striking — exception is Saccorhiza. This and other considerations raise the question — whether this curious plant should be included among the Laminariacee. — Oliver points out that in Macrocystis the trumpet-hyphe never show — connections with the true sieve-tubes. Several writers, relying on sections of alcohol material, where the tissues are compressed and distorted, have — complained of the difficulty of tracing the courses of the trumpet-hyphe. — It is not difficult, however, to tease out the tubes. Thus, from the inner | surface of a hollow stem of Macrocystis, the writer obtained masses of woolly threads; consisting entirely of beautifully regular trumpet-hyphe. The facts suggest several interesting problems :— 1. What is the function of the tissue? Is it storage, conduction — of food material, or merely a strengthening of the whole plant ? by 2. If it subserves either or both of the two first-named functions, how | —P—E———— es es ee ee K.—BOTANY. 187 do the elaborated substances enter or leave the tubes, seeing that the whole system is self-contained ? 3. Why are the tubes furnished with resistant internal thickenings ? Is it because their osmotic pressure is too low to resist the lateral pressure from the other medullary tissues ? If so, it is interesting to observe the evolution in this group of a device for strengthening the cellulose walls of (according to the majority of writers) proteid-conducting elements, subsequently elaborated in the higher plants for the strengthening of lignified water-conducting cells. 4. Are the dilatations of any use to the plant, and is there any meaning in the frequent inequality of the two bulbs and their orientation? The possibility occurred to the writer that their peculiar form enabled the plant to utilise the tidal pressures to aid the translocation of substances within them. To test this, experiments were carried out on two different lines, but they had to be discontinued, partly because of the lack of time, but also because of the difficulty and expense of constructing a culture arrange- ment capable of standing alternating pressures of 20 ft. or more. The fact that some Laminarias grow round the edges of floating stages where there is no alternation of tidal pressure seems to make the hypothesis untenable ; still, it would be interesting to test it. There are numerous other details of cell structure in the Pheophycee that would repay investigation. Among them may be cited the strengthening bands of certain true sieve-tubes ; the fine striations across large cortical cell-walls (well shown, together with crossed pit-slits, in Chorda)” and in the long cells in the medulla of the stipe of Saccorhiza ; the complicated stratification of the very thick distal wall in the young antheridium of Dictyota with layers of different chemical composition, together with the sharply marked change in the nature of the vertical wall about midway between its base and apex, and numerous other interesting details. In the same genus, Heil® describes a swelling arrangement in the basal cell of the tetrasporangia that aids in the libera- tion of thespores. Thereis, as yet, no general agreement as to the supposed fusion of hyphe in the medulla of Laminariacee*®. Some cytological work of my own on the multinucleate cells of the meristematic region shows some interesting features. The great majority of Pheophycee are characterised by having long, delicate hyaline hairs which, in the higher forms, arise in clusters in so-called ‘ cryptostomata.’ It is a striking sight to see a miniature forest of Chorda in deep, clear water; each tall, thin plant surrounded by a widely-extending halo of pellucid hairs. In spite of all that has been written about these structures, their function remains conjectural. The following are some of the suggestions that have been made concerning their use :— (1) That they respire, and absorb nutritive substances. (2) That they serve as shock-absorbers and prevent injury to the plant from friction. (3) That they protect against intense illumination. * Pringsheim, E. G., Arch. Protistenk 47, 1924. 8 Ber. d. Bot. Ges., 42, 1924. 9 Killian, Zeitschrift fiir Bot., 1911. 188 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. (4) That they protect against epiphytes. This is hardly true, for Chorda often bears luxuriant ectocarpoid vegetation. (5) Church describes them (but with some hesitation) as mucilage organs, and calls them ‘ mucilage hairs.’ (6) Though perhaps not a primary function, I feel certain that in muddy waters the hairs effectively prevent sand and silt from settling on the thallus. In collecting Dictyota on oyster-banks in the Menai Straits, I have often observed passing steamers sending waves that churned up the mud, which afterwards seemed to cover the Dictyota plants. A slight movement of the water shook off the dirt, which was then perceived to have been caught and suspended in the web of hairs. Let us return for a moment to Church’s Memoirs, and consider his reasons for regarding this group as being so important. ‘The Pheo- phycee,’ says he, ‘illustrate in a manner beyond all other types of the plant-kingdom the beginnings of plant anatomy and vegetable morphology.’ Now there is a widespread impression that Church regards the higher plants as having descended from the brown seaweeds. This is an error, for he says: ‘It is from types parallel and conformable with these that all the higher flora of the land has been at some time derived’; and further: ‘The inexplicable fact remains that they ’ (the first land-plants) ‘ appear to have been a green, starch-forming series of parenchymatous organism, a type at the present time wholly unrepresented in normal sea-water.’ In spite of the positiveness of many of his pronouncements on evolutionary questions, it is not always easy to decide how far we can accept them at — their face value. Sometimes we wonder whether certain terms are used — metaphorically, and not literally ; and whether certain types are quoted because they are analogous rather than related. And yet statements like ‘Land Flora has been undoubtedly produced from the highest plant organisms attained in the sea’ seem explicit enough. So also is the — following: ‘ The whole of the fundamental framework of the organisation — of the land plant, the anatomy of its tissues, the morphological differentia- _ tion of members . . . are the expression of response to the conditions of — marine environment.’ The difficulty here is that so many evolutionists hold that new forms do not originate from the culminating members of a — series, but from lower ones, because the latter are, presumably, more plastic. It is not for me to argue the question, but simply to present the problems involved. When we are told that ‘forms of plant life have passed on to the dominion of the land, becoming adapted in turn to the novel conditions of subaerial existence,’ are we to suppose that the species literally became ‘ adapted,’ or that they gave rise to new forms which succeeded better in the new environment ? I quote the following without comment :— ‘The idea that all these factors, largely the commonplaces of the Land Flora, should have been evolved in the sea, to run to waste, and — that they required to be again invented under entirely different condi- — tions in the evolution of larger land plants from such depauperated — relics as a fresh-water Alga (Coleochete) or retrograde Bryophyte | (Riccia) shows so remarkable a lack of insight into the more fundamental principles on which life has been evolved, that the rise and per- sistence of such views may well remain a historical curiosity of the science,’ K.— BOTANY. 189 The author traces all ‘ the fundamentals of the construction ’ of plants (and animals) to their ‘ preceding phase of marine benthon.’ Does this imply that the more rigorous conditions of the Land Habit—generally believed to be more potent in the evolution of new forms—is incapable of ‘inventing ’ a new structure ? In most cases the author explains the various stages in evolution in terms of physics and chemistry; and it is interesting to note that he believes that every adaptation is the response of the organism to environ- mental factors. Then what exactly does he mean when he says that ‘no feature of somatic organisation was ever designed from the beginning to meet the special circumstances in which it may be now functional ? ?— I suppose we must regard the words ‘designed from the beginning’ as a metaphorical expression, for the very next expression is: ‘ Teleological interpretations carry their own condemnation.’ But there are several other such examples, and they are rather puzzling. The above are a few of the many questions that occur to one in studying _ these interesting and original ideas—questions asked in no captious spirit, _ but in a real desire to obtain a little more light on the story of life in the plant—a story that, of late, has become to many of us more and more _ bewildering. A great deal of work has been carried out of late on the various bodies found in the Pheophycean cell, but so great is the disagreement between _ the investigators as to the origin, composition, and, in the case of some,- even the functions of these, that we feel the need for additional research. Since the careful researches of Hansteen, the bodies which he called * Fucosan,’ but which were called by Crato, Church, and others, ‘ physodes,’ have attracted attention. One of the most remarkable facts relating to them is their power of self-movement. This is described as ‘ amoeboid,’ but in Dictyota it is often more slug-like. It is curious’ to watch one moving along a protoplasmic strand, the back humped up, but the anterior and thinner end turning from side to side as if feeling its way. That they give a bright red colour with a solution of vanillin in HCl is well- known, but some of the writers do not seem to be aware that the reaction is not given in young cells, and that the colour is particularly pronounced in old reproductive cells especially old antheridia. Kylin and Mangenot have again investigated these bodies, but their results are at variance. The same may be said as to the accounts that have been given by Mangenot and others of the origin and functions of mitochondria and other cell constituents, as well as of the studies of Kylin, Meves, and Mangenot of the constitution of Fucus antherozoids. These, then, are ae sme un problems requiring further investigation. Within recent years the most striking advance in Algological study has been made in our knowledge of the reproductive processes in the _Pheophycee. Until a few years ago the only member of the group whose _ mode of reproduction was well known was Fucus. Opinions were divided _ regarding gametic fusions, many of the reported zygotes being described by the sceptics as double spores that had not separated in the gametangium, a plausible explanation, for the phenomenon is frequent even as high as in the eggs of the Fucacee. Very little was known even about the repro- ductive structures in the Pheosporales, and many of the failures of Algo- logists to trace the reproductive processes were ascribed to parthenogenesis 190 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. or apogamy, .or even to pathological conditions. A closer study of the living plants, and particularly the many discoveries of Sauvageau, together with careful cytological researches, and the consequent demonstration, in most of the groups examined, of meiosis, has greatly clarified our ideas regarding reproduction in the Brown Seaweeds, and made necessary a re-classification of some of the genera. In her interesting paper on Pylaiella, Dr. Knight! shows that the plants are either diploid or haploid, the former being the more numerous. Diploid plants may bear both unilocular and multilocular sporangia. The former undergo meiosis and consequently produce haploid spores which, as would be expected, germinate into haploid plants. The latter bear multilocular sporangia with haploid spores which fuse in pairs, and consequently are true gametes, and from the zygotes diploid plants again result. Returning to the plurilocular sporangia born on the diploid plants, the spores not having undergone reduction do not fuse, and consequently grow up into diploid plants, and in this manner there may be several successive generations of diploid plants. There is a further irregularity upon which fresh light would be welcome : in some cases the diploid number continues to the fourth or fifth segmentation of the sporange, and then, without any sign of synapsis, the number changes to the half. If the author (following Kuckuck) is correct in regarding Pylaiella as primitive, it is interesting to compare the fluctuating character of the cytological rhythm here with its firm stabilisation in Dictyota. There, out of many thousands of sexual plants examined, I have never seen a single one that bore tetra-sporangia"; nor have I seen more than one example where both oogonia and antheridia occurred together. There have been material additions to our knowledge of the repro- ductive organs of the Phzosporales, but there are gaps still to be -filled, and it is unfortunate that some supposed discoveries are received with doubt by some other investigators, who suggest that the reproductive structures observed belong to other plants growing epiphytically upon the ones described. Sauvageau’s account of the parasitic Hctocarpus Padine with its mega- and meio-sporangia, and its useless ‘ antheridia ’ is particularly intriguing. His description of reproduction in Dictyosiphon introduces us to a new type of alternation of generations, and it has already induced Taylor™ to institute a new sub-order to receiveit. It is interesting to note, however, that work done on plants growing on the Welsh coast give materially different results. There is no need to dwell upon Cutleria, for its interest- ing story is familiar to us. Clearly, one of the urgent problems in this field is the working out of the full life-histories and the satisfactory solution of the cytology of typical members of all the important genera of the Pheosporales. Let us now turn our attention to the Cyclosporales. Of the Dictyotacee, Haliseris (the three forms) and Taonia (tetrasporic plants) have been investigated by the writer; Georgevitch!® has examined the asexual 10 Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1923. 11 It is true that a supposed case has been reported. In all probability, however, this was due to oospores segmenting on the thallus—a frequent occurrence. 12 Bot. Gaz., 74, 1922. 18 Comp. Rend. Acad. Sci., 167, 1918. K.—BOTANY. 191 generation of Padina, and Mr. Carter, one of my assistants, has a paper on the same subject awaiting publication. All the results are confirmatory _ of the existence of meiosis in the tetraspore mother cell in the Dictyotacee. _ Furthermore, most of us know that Hoyt, for Dictyota, and Wolfe, for _ Padina, cultivated, in the sea, plantlets from tetraspores, and from fertilised _ eggs started on oyster shells ; and in this way they obtained confirmation _ of the existence of alternation. But there are certain facts that make it ex- tremely difficult to understand how the succession of plants is maintained. - Both Taonia and Padina are, on our coasts, almost solely tetrasporic. I have not collected a gamete-bearing plant of either for years! From fairly deep water in Cardigan Bay, big, tangled clumps of thread-like f. intricata of Dictyota can be dragged: it is invariably asexual. In dredging for Cutleria in the estuary of the Yealm, quantities of very broad Dictyota often came up: it never bore reproductive organs of any sort. In the ! three first cases the problem is, what becomes of the myriad tetraspores that are shed; and, in the absence of sexual plants, where do the 4 abundant tetraspore plants come from? Have the plants any contrivance for perennation? If so, the tetraspores must have lost their function. If not, there must be some cytological changes as yet undiscovered. In the writer’s Dictyota work it was proved that the supposed par- _ thenogenesis reported by earlier observers consisted only of a few apparent segmentations. A cytological examination showed that the nuclear figures were very irregularly multipolar ; and as a result the chromosomes ee irregularly distributed, ultimately forming nests of nuclei. This made it evident why under these conditions normal segmentation could not go on. Wolfe has shown by cultural methods that ‘ unfertilised eggs divide freely, producing a cell-body of varying size, but which invariably fails to mature.’ It would be interesting to find out in this case also how the nuclei behave. It is instructive to note that, in the Cutleriaceze, both ‘parthenogenesis and apogamy can occur. In the Dictyotacee the capacity for producing plants from unfertilised ova has been lost, except for a few initial divisions. In experiments on unfertilised oospheres of Fucus, a few showed projections suggestive of incipient rhizoids, but the nuclei never showed signs of dividing, and the oospheres never even acquired proper walls. This takes no account of experiments, such as Overton’s, in artificial parthenogenesis. The great importance attaching to Sauvageau’s discovery of the gametophytes of Saccorhiza has already been mentioned. The young sporophytes of Laminaria, Chorda and Alaria had already been identified, but the gametophytes from which they arose were called protonemata, while the very small-celled male gametophytes in the cultures were regarded as intruding Alge. There was a growing suspicion as to their e nature, but the proof obtained by Sauvageau was a very unexpected one, exhibiting a curious peculiarity of Saccorhiza. Many of the “sporangia do not liberate their spores: the wall swells greatly and the ‘Spores germinate into the two kinds of gametophytes while still enclosed. I have been able to verify this for myself. One wonders whether this curious behaviour obtains in the sea; and, if it does, whether it is of advantage to the plant. Yendo’s' account of Phyllitis shows some distinctive features. While filamentous gametophytes are formed in the 14 Bot. Mag., Tokyo, 33, 1919. 192 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. usual manner, the antheridia, instead of producing single antherozoids, contain a large number of very small, motile sperms. The oogonium is an outgrowth of an intercalary cell, which becomes separated by a wall and is finally detached. Ikari,’ in his account of Laminaria religiosa, describes the antheridia as forming a continuous row, with a common opening in the terminal part of the row. This may, perhaps, help to explain the case of Phyllitis. : Two characteristics of the spore germination in all the Laminarias _ investigated are :— 1. The formation of a tube through which the cgntents of the spore migrate into the new bulbous enlargement. 2. The division of the spore nucleus, and (except in rare cases) the degeneration of one of the daughter nuclei. One wonders whether these constantly recurring features have any significance in the life-history. One writer suggests that the nuclear division establishes sexuality. But what exactly does that mean ? There is no time to enumerate the additional genera whose gameto- phytes have been identified by different observers, but in all cases the difference in size between the two generations is startling. To see fertilisation actually taking place is more a matter of chance than any- thing else ; and, so far as is known, the writer is the only one who has been lucky enough to witness fertilisation, and to secure preparations showing the two gametic nuclei within the newly-fertilised oospheres. Some writers have discounted the accounts of the gametophytes on the ground that the latter had only been obtained in cultures. The objection is no longer valid, for Ikari® claims, in the case of Laminaria religiosa, to have seen the same structures in the natural habitat, and the writer has discovered young Chorda sporophytes connected with gametophytes in the sea at Aberystwyth. The question of the systematic position of Chorda and Saccorhiza has already been touched upon. Both the histology and the mode of repro- duction justify the growing tendency to place Chorda with the Laminariacee. The difference in the initiation of the sporophyte—the fact that the ovum does not emerge, that it is still enclosed in the inner wall, and that the mouth of the oogonium remains open!’—seems to indicate that it is not so closely related to the other genera as they are to each other. Other characters deserve consideration—its peculiar form, the fact that the whole surface is covered with sporangia, and, in spite of its energetic growth, its annual character. Saccorhiza is, in its internal structure, so different from all the other Laminariacee that it should be placed in a family by itself. The whole plant is unique. It is true that the mode of reproduction closely resembles that of the Laminarias ; in other respects it is widely different. The large basal bulb; the provisions for maintaining the rigidity of the flat stipe (the twist at the base, the curious furbelows1* and the strong, fibre-like cells); the sporangia covering bulb (and spines), stipe, and parts of the lamina ; the disappearance of the huge lamina and stipe at the close of the summer, and the continuance of spore production 15 Bot. Mag., Tokyo, 35, 1921. 16 Toc. cit. 17 Williams, Ann. Bot., 35, 1921. 18 Barber, Ann. Bot., 3, 1890. NT K.—BOTANY. 193 through the winter by the persistent bulb, are all characteristics peculiar to itself. In the Fucaceze there have been no striking discoveries, but there are many problems awaiting solution. A considerable amount of attention has been paid to the study of Sargassum and of the Sargasso Sea, but the accounts of both are conflicting. One writer states very definitely that there are no mitoses in the oogonium of Sargassum. This is now contradicted, and we are told that the usual eight nuclei are formed, although only one oosphere results. A statement that requires confirma- tion is that in one of the Sargassums!® two of the eight nuclei remain functional in the formation of the one egg, and that there is no uni- nucleate stage in the oosphere. If so, then the resulting embryo must originate from a double ovum! There comes from New South Wales?° an account of a parasitic Fucoid—Notheia anomala—where antheridia have not been found. The author conjectures that reproduction is by means of parthenogenetic eggs. If this is so it is important that we should know whether the chromosomes undergo reduction. Members of the Fucacee have proved useful in the investigation of physiological problems. It appears to the writer that much might be learnt from them about the intimate details of the physiological processes concerned in fertilisation. The unique fertilisation phenomena in Halidrys have already been described, but as no figures have ever been published lantern illustrations are now shown. Many questions suggest themselves: What is the nature of the stimulus imparted to the cytoplasm of the ovum by the cilia of the gyrating antherozoids ? What are the physical processes concerned in the consequent swelling of the oosphere ? How is sperm-entry effected ? What are the sudden chemical and physical changes that cause the protrusions, the emission of toxic substance, and the sudden formation of the investing wall??4 These and numerous other interesting questions demand for their solution a botanist who is also an expert physicist and chemist. The much-discussed theory of ‘alternation of generations’ is now being re-examined in the light of the new Pheophycean facts. The divergent types represented in the group are very interesting. Here we have Pylaiella with a fluctuating alternation, where the diploid phase may be several times repeated, and with a similarity of form in the two generations ; Cufleria, with dissimilar forms, and an alternation that is not strict ; Dictyota with ‘homologous’ forms and a strict alternation ; Laminaria with the generations as dissimilar in size and structure as any in the Vascular Cryptogams ; and lastly, the Fucacee, variously described as presenting alternation with extreme reduction of the gametophyte and (for the first time) retention within the sporophyte ; or as merely a “nuclear alternation of generations’; or, as having no alternation at all —the plant being a gametophyte, and thus comparable to an animal. The majority of botanists have accepted Strasburger’s view that Fucus is a sporophyte, and that the so-called oogonia and antheridia, up 19 Tahara, Bot. Mag., Tokyo, 37, 1923. 20 Williams, May M., Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, 48, 1923. 21 The whole of the life-history and cytology of Halidrys, including meiosis, gamete formation, fertilisation, germination, and general ecology has been worked out, and the results will be published at an early date. 1925 Oo 194 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. to the four-nucleate phase (the completion of meiosis), are really macro- and micro-sporangia respectively ; and that the gametophyte stages are limited to the few succeeding nuclear divisions, resulting in the formation of oospheres and sperms. Church, however, combats this view most vigorously.2 According to him: ‘to talk of alternation of generations is mere academic futility. There is only one soma, or one generation, so there is nothing to alternate. To attempt to construct an idea of two generations to bolster up an academic conception of ‘‘gametophyte” and ‘* sporophyte ” borrowed from land flora is nonsense.’ Elsewhere Church advances cogent arguments in support of his view ; and his comparison of the efficiency of the reproductive arrangements in Fucoids with those in animals is interesting and persuasive. When he asks us to concentrate our attention on Meiosis as the most important fact in the racial history, we shall most probably all agree with him. When, however, he bids botanists ‘ scrap ’ the ‘ alternation of generations ” superstition, many will demur. Some of his opponents point out that in vigorous cultures of Laminaria the spore may give rise to an egg after only one nuclear division—the one in the embryospore. This brings it very close to what they claim happens in Fucus. Another point, though small, and perhaps of no great significance, is interesting. In its supposed sporangial condition the Fucus ‘oogonium’ is unilocular, like other Pheophycean sporangia, but in its gametangial condition it is multi- locular.2* Another consideration that weighs with the opposing school is that throughout the greater part of the group ‘alternation’ is an acknowledged fact, and that in the ascending series it shows a consistent progression towards greater strictness, with increasing reduction of the gametophyte phase. The theory has been so useful in unifying the phenomena presented by the different groups of the Brown Seaweeds that many Algologists will be reluctant to relinquish it without stronger reasons being adduced. Svedelius,™ in a discussion of the biological importance of alternation of generations, maintains that the case of Laminaria invalidates the theory of Bower and Wettstein that the gametophyte generation is an adaptation to a land habitat, for the same phenomenon obtains in the marine series Dictyota—Laminaria—Fucus. After pointing out the importance of the reducing division in the sorting of chromosomes, and the consequent increase of variability, and in the initiation of new types, he suggests that the establishment of a diploid sporophyte would be advantageous to the race; for by postponing the reduction divisions the plant is given the chance to effect many reduction divisions, and so many more fundamental combinations of chromosomes. Through this the genesis of higher types is made possible. It may be pointed out that as far as the evolutionary principles above mentioned are concerned, it is perfectly immaterial whether we follow Church in calling Fucus a gametophyte, or agree with other botanists in regarding it as a sporophyte. In spite of their great interest, problems relating to the Physiology and Ecology of the Pheophycee can only be touched upon—the space at our disposal does not allow of more. 2 Jour. Bot., 1924-25. ?3 Farmer and Williams, Phil. Trans., 190 B, 1898. 4 Ber. d. deutsch. bot. Ges., 39, and Svensk. Bot. Tidske, 1918-19. : 7 4 3 K.— BOTANY. 195 From the Puget Sound Biological Station come a number of welcome investigations, by Gail, Shelford, and others, into such questions as the amount and nature of light penetration at different depths of the sea, the efficiency of light of different wave-length in photosynthesis at various depths, and the effect of the roughening of the surface in diminishing the light. It is interesting to get the zoning of the seaweeds correlated with exact data of light absorption as well as with percentages of exposure to the air. I believe that light affects marine plants in another way and one that is also fully deserving of investigation. The statements made by the writer regarding the periodicity of the sexual cells in Dictyota and its dependence on the local incidence of the spring tides have now been amply corroborated, and from widely separated localities. Hoyt®> does not accept the explanation that it is dependent upon the variation in the amount of light; but no one has-.as yet offered an alternative solution to the problem. Since then I have been able to study the question further, and my conviction that this is the correct solution is stronger than ever. (Incidentally, cannot some clever physicist find out for us why light is able in this particular case to produce such remark- able results, when it does not affect the tetraspores in the same plant, nor any of the three kinds of reproductive cells in Padina?) Now there are other ways in which these local differences in the time of spring tides may affect the plants. Compare two localities—one where low-water of spring tides always occurs about 6.0 in the morning and evening, whilein the other the times are at midnight and noon. In the case of summer-fruiting plants one would expect fruiting to be earlier under the former conditions; but in the case of winter-fruiting plants the results would be quite different. Take, again, the case of plants of half-tide level in a locality where low- _ water of spring tides occurs between 12.0 and 2.0. They are always emergent during the periods of intensest illumination. What will be the effect on the plants? The probability is that not only early or late fruiting, but also vigour of development, local distribution, especially of the smaller plants, and even the amount of epiphytic growth, will be _ affected. It would be interesting to collect data to test these hypotheses— 4 e they make the problem more complicated but also more interesting. Every marine algologist must have been puzzled by the distribution of some of the larger Brown Seaweeds. The rocky coasts inside Cardigan Bay have no Himanthala, Alaria, or Saccorhiza, and yet the surf on the _ Aberystwyth rocks is heavy enough. On the rocky promontories of Pem- _ broke and South Carnarvonshire to the north and to the south of _ the bay the plants are quite common. The explanation generally p ae given is that the plants demand pure water. Gail and Powers, both at Puget Sound, publish papers proving the importance of the H-ion concentration to the growth of marine plants, even of hardy ones like the Fuci. Gail makes the interesting statement that in the presence of much Ulva the P,, of the water is too high for Fucus. There may be another factor in operation. We know that certain substances essential to the welfare of the seaweeds—iodine, for instance—exist in the sea in very minute proportions, so that in order to obtain a sufficient supply the plants have to come in contact with an exceedingly great amount of continually moving water. Our young botanists would perform a great 2 Johns Hopkins Univ. Circ., 195, 1907. 02 196 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. service to science by solving these and similar problems. Perhaps this would also assist us in finding a satisfactory culture method. At present none of the Pheophycee, except a few of the simplest and hardiest forms, can be cultivated from spore to spore. This makes the investigation of the life-histories of these plants doubly difficult. It is difficult to understand why so little ecological work has been done on the Brown Algz of our shores. Since the publication of Miss Baker's interesting papers on the Zoning of the Brown Seaweeds and the Fuci of the Salt-Marsh very little has been done. Miss Knight, by following the development of marked Pylaiella plants, obtained fascinating results, show- ing how the plants assumed successive appearances so different from each other that they had previously received names as being distinct ‘ forms.’ Her account of the seasonal change of host-plants, and the relation between the host and the kind of sporangia produced is hardly less interesting. Work of a similar kind by other investigators would be very welcome. Our knowledge of the fruiting periods of the Pheophycee is scrappy and inaccurate. Some writers speak of Laminarias as if they all had a definite summer and winter season, not knowing that species of the same genus have different fruiting periods and that there is not one of the twelve months of the.year without some Laminarian or other being in full sporing activity. A mere calendar, however, would hardly suffice. One should distinguish between cases where all the sporangia or gametangia in a sorus or conceptacle are of the same age and where they are of different ages ; that is, the arrangements for the continuous supply of reproductive cells should be noted. Some plants, Dictyota for example, are exceedingly responsive to environmental changes. It would be very interesting to trace the connection between such plastic organisms and the factors affecting them. Fucus vesiculosus is an example of a very polymorphic species. Only a few of the many forms have been described, and we do not know to what extent the ‘ forms’ are really distinct. These are only a few out of the many interesting ecological problems that await investigation. One task, however, is very urgent. When we consider the great amount of fruitful work done by English algologists of a past generation in identifying, describing, and classifying marine Alge, it is very remarkable, not to say deplorable, that there has been no English Borgesen to compile a survey of the marine Algz of our shores. Even should a young algologist feel a desire to undertake such a task, there is at present no up-to-date English manual which he can use in identifying his plants. Itis a great testimony to the excellence of Harvey’s four volumes that they are still useful in spite of the progress that has been made since their publication. But it is time we had a new Phycologia ; in particular we need a new and well-illustrated ‘Handbook of the Pheophycee.’ SECTION L.—EDUCATION. THE WARP AND THE WOOF IN EDUCATION. ADDRESS BY W. W. VAUGHAN, M.V.O., M.A., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. My working life has been spent in the Public Schools. They share with all other forms of education and classes of school the honour of being virulently attacked and affectionately defended ; but attack and defence, even when victorious, do not carry us far into the problem of education, and so, under the somewhat vague title I chose in the far-away spring days for the address I had to give in the waning summer, I propose to raise some important but not burning questions that have troubled my own mind in my daily duties and in the public work which has brought me during the last ten years into close and admiring contact with almost every kind of education. They will not be solved to-day or to-morrow, . but they will never be solved until all men and women of good will, with the humility that comes of experience and without the prejudice that so often accompanies it, take counsel together. Without claiming any deep knowledge of the mystery of weaving, it may be assumed that we all know the difference between the warp and the woof. In the factory the loom stands as the essential machine for the creation of the stuff that is to clothe or adorn. In life the school stands for the fashioning of the fabric of character. The lengthwise threads of the warp must be crossed by the threads of the weft, or woof, before feeble isolation can become compact and serviceable texture. But I have no wish to follow up the metaphor too elaborately. Sup- posing that the warp represents in education the influences that shape the child’s destiny as imagined by the State or the parent, now enlarging, now cramping in their effect, the cross-threads are those the teacher with skilful or clumsy hand, as the case may be, shoots, with the help of the shuttle, across the warp. I know well that the weaver’s fingers of the original hand-looms have been supplanted by many cunning devices, and that the simple and primitive division of the warp threads is now super- seded by countless heddles, or heald shafts, which allow of innumerable variations of pattern. So has it been with the educational loom. The simplicity of the three R’s has been superseded by complicated programmes of work that have grown up haphazard to meet momentary needs and to fulfil sudden hopes, and there is hardly more difference between the mat on which the half-civilised man knelt to pray and the varied and extensive products of modern cloth and ribbon looms than there is between the programme of an elementary school a hundred years ago and what children of the same class may learn to-day. And yet, as I have said, chance, or caprice, or 198 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. sentiment has had more to do with its development than any clear idea in men’s minds as to what should be meant by education. At one time we have talked of educational ladders, at another of broad highways ; but such blessed and consoling phrases, though possibly politically fruitful, have been certainly educationally barren. The ladders have too often - only enabled the pupils to climb to narrow but overcrowded platforms, and, though on the broad highways progress has been pleasant enough, the travellers along them have at last been brought face to face with the precipice of unemployment, or have been led from the toil that wrings the sweat from the brow in factory or field to the toil that curbs man’s back on the office-stool or by the counter-side. It is possible that the warp—to give it its due precedence—has been too complicated, it is certain that it has been too uniform. This has come about, as have many other evil things, from quite respectable causes, e.g. from the necessity of stimulating backward districts, the desire to restrain wayward enthusiasts, the importance of getting value for money expended by the State, but the results have been unfortunate. Those who have been enthusiastic for education, including many who are here to-day, have not dared to raise discordant voices for fear of providing ammunition for others who, on the plausible plea of public economy, employ all the dilatory tactics that the stingy mind can devise to save the rates and the taxes. Here, in a meeting of friends of education, a healthy scepticism may be indulged. Take two or three of the questions that might help us to clearer minds as to our purposes. Is the assumption that the State should develop to the full all the intellectual abilities of all its citizens sound? Even if this were possible, is it desirable? We do not endeavour to develop to the full all the physical powers. We know that so we might increase the number of ‘strong men,’ or even throw the discus further. Man is so wonderfully made and has so many possibilities of development in mind or body that a wise regard for balance must ever curb the enthusiastic trainer. I have heard it seriously argued that the Schools of England should be passed through a sieve to discover which boys have an aptitude for, say, the 120 yards hurdle race ; that these should be trained and allowed to run no other distance, until by dreary reiteration that muscular development might be made perfect and England might win at the next Olynipic Games, and so by some similar concentration of physical effort we might recover from France the Lawn Tennis Championship, from America our Golf renown, and perhaps even the ashes from the Colony where they now lie heaped. The absurdity of this is seen here at all events; but is it not also absurd to encourage enormous numbers of boys and girls to a one-sided or even to a many-sided intellectual development, when neither the State nor they themselves are to get any return in happiness or usefulness ¢ Perhaps I shall get into trouble for using these words. Alone they may be barren of inspiration, but methinks that in that mystical union that unromantic words may enjoy in the mind of men they gather creative power, and those who build the loom of life may well do worse than make sure that the warp admits of happy and serviceable citizenship beg woven on it. And there is great need to think of these two at once, for at times when standing in the great weaving-shed of life L.—EDUCATION. 199 it has seemed in the past as if the service and the joy were being woven not on the same but on different looms. And even now, when the workers have been granted or have exacted more tolerable conditions, there is still something patchy about their service and their happiness. Seven hours of joyless work they claim, or its equivalent in still more joyless dole; in the resultant eight hours of leisure little real joy is harvested and excitement rather than happiness is aimed at. It is easy to see how this has come about. It may be that within the limits of this Association the cause is to be found. It was to the discoveries of science that the industrial revolution was due. You all know how what was a blessing capable of mitigating human toil became for a time a power that relentlessly heaped more and more and more toil on human backs, and enrolled in the workers’ army even the tenderest children. And then the reaction came, and with the vote the power, and now the worker’s idea has changed. Work and pleasure are becoming isolated in water-tight compartments. More and more does work tend to get squeezed of all idea of pleasure. Less and less do we expect our fellow-men to find reasonable satisfaction in the performance of the bread-winning duties. Discontent is a necessary ingredient of life, but it ceases to be divine when it invades every corner of our active life, ousting from work all its redeeming qualities except the sense of comrade- ship, and the presence of that is often only tolerated because of its useful- ness against the common foe. The master craftsman of old had a happier and nobler conception of life than this. We do not wish to revive the methods of the middle ages. Could we not detain for the redemption of the new methodstheold possibility of pleasure in work beforeit is gone forever ? We need, however, a reasoned not a sentimental faith to have the right to delay the departure of a reluctant guest. So we must not be satisfied with augurial winks but must expose at some risk our deepest con- victions, even though they clash with our earliest hopes or our political predilections. Two convictions have grown upon me after intimate experience of thousands of boys between thirteen and nineteen. The first is that as a general rule the judgment passed upon them at thirteen holds good so far as intellectual development is concerned until they are eighteen, and, indeed, much later too, and that just as the supreme work of the world requires some creative power that lies dormant and is almost fairy-like in its elusiveness, so much of the work of the world requires little intellectual distinction and but a small dose of fancy. Fancy and distinction play their part, however, but it is a part that is independent of the warp and possibly of the woof of education. A plan might mar it. It follows from these that the purely school education is even now continued too long for some. At present the air is full of projects for extending the school life of all beyond the age of fourteen. This should be done for many pupils, but not for all, if full-time education is meant. Some pupils—and I am not thinking so much of the recalcitrant as of the willing learners—seem unable to open the gates of their minds to any . impressions or knowledge that may wish to enter through the form room. We teachers fumble with all the keys of knowledge that we possess, and yet we cannot unlock the entrance. We even call in the doctors with their wisdom and the faddists with their ‘Open Sesame’s,’ and we are still 200 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. treated as trespassers and locked out. These same children show them- selves by no means witless when faced with the problems of life. In a trade, with its direct bearing on livelihood, or under the quickening influence of immediate reward, or in the friction of the workshop, they become even bright. I would not let a child off one hour of school life merely for the sake of an industry. Industries were, after all, made for men, not men for industries. But I should give generous remission after fourteen to those who showed no special aptitude for book-learning or any other form of direct education, on condition that they were kept within the spell of corporate life and in touch with teachers capable of undermining the outworks of suspicious pride and of sounding reverently the abysmal deeps of personality. For these great purposes music, literature and art, dramatic, pictorial, and manual, must be called on to give generous help. Again, we should beware of the morbid fear of genius being wasted. I doubt if genius has ever been wasted. It defies alike the neglect of states- men, the over-carefulness of teachers, even the cramping circumstances of daily life. Ability, an even more robust plant, gets now a very good chance of being recognised, True, the owner’s want of character, his or her parents’ want of means or of will, often involve sterility after recognition. The State can step in to make good in some measure the want of means; it is we, the teachers, who are challenged to fortify the character. Further, ability when handicapped neither by poverty nor by innate feebleness may not always develop in quite the way that we, with our ideas of success, would think best for it. I am not sure that a man may not do society a richer service as a Trade Union leader, after graduating as an artisan, or even as a lover of knowledge in a W.E.A. class, whilst still doing manual labour, than he would have done had he been enrolled betimes in the black-coated brigade. Some risk of waste must be run unless we are to go over and over again the heaps of rejected human material. Let the warp be generously planned, but do not let it be so intri- cate in its aims, or so relentless in its working, so unerring, so infallible, as to make us at any time confident that it cannot be improved and that those who escape it are failures. Again, may I plead that all who are occupied with schools as teachers, or administrators, or, and especially, as theorists, will recognise more fully than they have done show truly educated are many who have escaped, as may be thought prematurely, from the definite influences of school ? The agricultural labourer, with his knowledge of and often tender sym- pathy with animal life, his watchings of the seasons, his weather lore, his skill, his beautiful skill, in building or thatching the rick, his power to drive a straight line with the plough, his ability by wise, almost ruthless, severity to fortify the quickset hedge, is a better-educated man, even though he left the school-room at thirteen, than many a clerk who suffered complete immersion in a secondary school course, and, satisfied with the benefits of his baptism, has since then only become a little more skilled in figures and filing. I have mentioned the agricultural labourer, but the shipwright and the sailor too, to think only of the dwellers in this Hampshire where we . meet, can, I think, consider the educating value of their work as some compensation for their too short school-days. These would come out well if we applied to them only the test that I shall stoutly condemn as the sole L.—EDUCATION. 201 test of the teacher’s work—the test of how do they employ their leisure ? Surely the thought-free idleness at cottage door, the friendly banter in the village tap-room, or the arguments at the workmen’s club are not so vapid, so unrefreshing, as the ‘ Revues’ and many of the half-decent dramas and books with which ‘ the more educated ’ kill their leisure time. Another cause for the undue complication of the warp and its machinery is the desire to give by education a bias in the direction of some particular vocation. We should be all at one in condemning such attempts before the child is thirteen, but after that age some other metaphor is needed and the work should be left to the less rigid woof. The very word ‘ bias’ suggests a dead-weight, an insidious approach, a crafty twist of hand. Itis surely voca- tional inspiration that is needed rather than vocational bias, and the in- spiration must come from the teacher—from the woof, not the warp—and such inspiration will never be given as long as teachers proclaim themselves to be mainly occupied in teaching the young how to make a good and happy use of their leisure. This is a pose we have assumed of late years. We have been patted on the back for it on prize days; we have boasted of it in those secret conferences when teachers modestly make known their virtues to a misunderstanding public. Oh, if only we could teach the secret of getting happiness from work! Leisure will always look after itself. A man who enjoys his work will enjoy his leisure. It may seem a desperate task to attempt to make some of the work of the world even tolerable, much less pleasant as a pastime. How can the service of a machine, the repetition work of a factory, the doing of such menial tasks as washing or scavenging, ever be anything but wearisome? Well, I have seen much happiness harvested in a laundry. Repetition work has been made tolerable under wise and blessed welfare work. We need to teach _ more convincingly how to break the spell of gold, how to measure happi- ness not by ‘ the purple of great place,’ but by some other standard, how _ to sail past seductive prosperity not with hands tied nor with ears stopped up with wax, as Ulysses coasted the dangerous shore, but unfettered, _ and even attentive to choose a glimpse of truth, a love of beauty, in prefer- ; ence to worldly or material success. This, after all, is the power that Plato _ would have education produce. We seem almost to have lost the will to keep by education the pores _ of the soul and the mind ever open to the impressions of experience, to _ the stirrings of emotion, to the slow and enduring influence of the reason. ‘We have too often pinned our faith on the production of dexterity, of ‘mental facility, of almost thoughtless accuracy, and we have our reward in our educational looms being ill-adapted to the production of content- ment and beauty and the power or the will to reason. If it is on the warp that depends the plan of education, if it is in the _ warp that extent of opportunities, the aspirations of the community or the parent, find expression, sometimes thoughtless, sometimes mistaken expression, it is on the woof that the pattern depends, the texture, the _ durability, the possibilities, the charm of the fabric or the human _ character. And the woof is the teacher’s opportunity. If he is wise he will recognise that each individual has not the same aptitudes ; if he is wiser still he will refrain from labelling one set of aptitudes as good, another as bad. The weaver can see how much yarn he has to work with; by fingering it its quality is known to him, but this knowledge is not possessed 202 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. by the teacher. The supply of ability and will-power that is available for his purposes varies from day to day, from year to year. In one case it is scanty when the child is thirteen, to be abundant at sixteen ; in another case the glorious promise of thirteen fades away as years go by. In many fancy plays strange tricks, and now and then the imagination is chased away from the mental precincts by an over-retentive memory. The teacher has no sensitive weaver’s fingers, no miller’s golden thumb, by which he can infallibly test his judgment, and yet the shuttle must fly back and fore, because if the teacher rests the threads will soon be tangled ; and even when he works there are other workers too, some deliberately, with Penelope-like perversity, unravelling by night the labour of the day, others bringing confusion into the pattern by adding threads of strange colours and uncertain strength. Because teachers feel this they often occupy the whole of a child’s leisure and endeavour to monopolise its mental activities. Before abusing them for doing this, ought not the citizens to see to it more zealously that the city is a place for children to live in, that there are fewer polluting sights, fewer discordant noises in it? The school where the child spends six hours may be made beautiful; what of the streets where twelve hours of wakefulness are spent? And if from day to day the woof may be interfered with, marred by outside influences, after the holidays the teacher may fail to recognise his work at all. It was only the other day I heard one of the wisest and most experi- enced social workers advocate a longer day in school, not that the child might be taught more, but that he might spend a greater proportion of his life away from the contagion of the streets and the discomforts of the crowded home. What a comment on our streets and homes! What a condemnation of our false ideals! What a challenge to all teachers to revise their ideas of citizenship ! But I must not end on a note of exclamation or even on one of interrogation. What is really wanted in England now is a series of experiments—- experiments not made, as so often, in a limited field, but experiments made on a geographical basis. Grants are made by the Board of Education to individual schools for ingenious experiments in the teaching of special subjects. Let the State have more courage and make not a bigger but a freer grant to some city, say, of 50,000 inhabitants, which will experiment on the whole field of education, or to some county district which will do the like. Up to now the experiments made have been no guide as to the best way of designing the loom of education. They have been made, too, on the voluntary system for those who believed in co-education or insome Dalton plan, and little has been learnt, for success or failure in isolated cases may be due to a variety of causes. In my 50,000 city I should allow anyone who wished to contract out of the experiment by paying fees for the full course of their children’s education, otherwise no citizen of the future should escape the experiment. Assuming that 40 per cent. of the child population were ripe for what we call secondary education, schools should be provided for them, 5 per cent. might contract out, 5 per cent. need special treat- ment ; of the remaining 50 per cent. half should go on with their education until at least fifteen and should leave the elementary school when the secondary children do. On the whole I should be inclined to leave the balance in the elementary school where they would be known and be sure Miidecteneienirrecptetenenicneesincsdienenessnian recon L.—EDUCATION. 203 of the sympathy of the teachers, and gain something from the familiar sur- roundings and their undoubted but mysterious influence, At fourteen they might be allowed to go to work on condition that they were enrolled in a continuation school and that all employers were organised to make the earlier stages of industrial life more educational, by the provision of welfare supervision for leisure hours, by enlarging and encouraging the already considerable number of wise trainers among the workmen, _and by eliminating from the early years in the factory as much as possible of the merely fetch-and-carry work. But these are details. This is only ‘one possible experiment. What I ask you to consider is the desirability of such geographical experiments in setting up the warp of education. To the teachers themselves I do not fear to entrust the task of designing an infinite variety of patterns for the woof. There are great difficulties of finance, of local jealousies, of statutory and administrative red tape, and some of even less respectable origin, in the way of such an experiment, but there are always difficulties. I under- stand that many, many years ago a certain stable was the despair of all the sanitary authorities, but it was cleansed by a brave man—an amateur ‘scavenger who harnessed a river to his purpose. Our stable is not in such an offensive state, but it does need cleansing, and we need the faith to depend more on the enthusiastic and less on the Pactolean properties of _ the river of public opinion to enable us to do our work. Depend upon it that, when its cleansing work is accomplished, this river, joined by all available streams, those from the snow-clad mountain-tops where solitary thought is possible and high ideals are cradled, those from the table- lands where teachers trained and untrained must still humbly work side by side with parents and all the friends of childhood, and those from the upland valleys where employers, whether of the single servant or of an army of factory workers, will be enthusiastically conscious that they too are teachers with the teacher’s opportunity to curse or bless—this river, gathering its strength from all these sources, will in its journey to the lowlands of life have the power—the smokeless power—as have so many harnessed Alpine streams, to lighten the burdens and to enlighten the lives of the dwellers in the plain. SECTION M.—AGRICULTURE. THE MINERAL ELEMENTS IN ANIMAL NUTRITION. ADDRESS BY J. B. ORR, D.Sc., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. Since the times of Lavoisier, research in nutrition has been directed chiefly to the chemistry and metabolism of organic compounds, 7.e. proteins, fats, carbohydrates and allied substances, and in tables of rations the food requirements of animals have been expressed in terms of these or their equivalents. During the past half-century, however, an increasing number of workers have become interested in the réle played by inorganic salts in nutrition. The information being yielded by the researches of these workers is throwing new light on many fundamental problems of biology, and some of it appears to be of potential economic value in animal husbandry. In this address an attempt is made to review some of the recently acquired knowledge, and to show its bearing on present-day practical problems of animal nutrition. From 10 to 25 per cent. of living matter consists of organic compounds of which the colloidal material of the protoplasm is formed. The remaining 75 to 90 per cent. consists of water and inorganic salts. In the recent literature of animal husbandry, the elements of these salts have been somewhat loosely termed ‘ the mineral elements ’ to distinguish them from the carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen of the organic compounds. About eight or nine of these elements, e.g. calcium, phosphorus, potassium, &c., are always present in living matter in substantial amounts and are known to be essential constituents. In addition to these, iodine, manganese, fluorine, copper, zinc and some others are found in traces. The presence of these was at one time thought to be accidental. It is now believed, however, that most, if not all, are essential constituents of the tissues in which they are found, and that they perform important functions in metabolism. In living matter these mineral elements are present, partly in chemical combination with, and forming an integral part of, organic compounds, and partly free or potentially free, either in solution as salts or ions in the — water of the protoplasm, or in a temporary loose union with the colloids. — The fundamental nature of the functions of the so-called mineral or inorganic salts in life processes is at once apparent when we consider — the part played by them in the origin of the cycle of energy exchanges — which occur in the ‘ organic world.’ All forms of life depend ultimately _ upon the transformation of the energy of the sunlight into chemical energy. _ The power of carrying out this fundamental process,which can be regarded a as the real origin of life, is possessed by inorganic salts in colloidal solution. E M.—AGRICULTURE. 205 Photosynthesis with the production of formaldehyde, which contains the trapped energy of the sunlight, arises from the action of sunlight and inorganic salts on water and carbon dioxide. According to Moore, - ehlorophyl! itself is a product of photosynthesis, and its chief function is probably not the primary one of deoxidising the carbon dioxide and thus charging the carbon with energy, but of changing the formaldehyde into higher carbon compounds. Hence the beginning of life-processes lies " in the action of radiant energy on inorganic salts. The carbon atom is harnessed as the most suitable vehicle for conveying the chemical energy formed. The giant molecules and colloidal aggregates with their complex _ earbon-containing compounds, which have been regarded as the funda- _ mental organic substances, are really secondary developments to secure that degree of stability and complexity required for the evolution of higher forms of life. Thus the true basis of protoplasm is the saline solution which forms from 75 to 90 per cent. of its bulk and which still ~ resembles the sea water from which it originated. The brilliant researches of Ringer, Hardy, Moore, Loeb, Héber and others have shown that these inorganic elements play a vitally important part in all physiological processes, and that the hidden mysteries of cell life which are slowly being unravelled are intimately connected with their activities. The fundamental facts revealed by these workers are perhaps the most important results obtained in research in biology in modern times. They throw new light on the nature of the vital processes, which are shown to be phenomena capable of explanation in terms of the com- paratively simple laws which obtain in ‘inorganic’ systems. It is - impossible here, however, to do more than refer briefly to the nature of _ the functions of the inorganic salts and ions. : As has been already indicated, these functions are intimately connected ‘ with colloidal activities. The visible phenomena of life are the resultants _ of an enormous number of chemical and physical changes in the colloids of protoplasm and of exchanges between masses of protoplasm separated _ by membranes or interfaces. But these changes in the physical state of _ colloids are determined by the association and dissociation of colloids and inorganic ions. These ions also affect the permeability of membranes _ and the tensions at interfaces. Hence, in a real sense, protoplasmic activity _ is regulated by the action of the mineral elements in solution in the proto- _ plasm or attached to its colloids. Thus, in the contraction of muscle, though the ultimate source of energy is the oxidation of organic com- _ pounds, the initiation of the process, the mechanism by which it is carried _ through and the factors by which it is controlled, depend on the action of ihe ions and salts present which involve changes in osmotic pressure and other physical forces. The foregoing considerations suggest that definite degrees of con- centration of the various inorganic ions in the cell fluids are necessary for the maintenance of normal protoplasmic activity. This has been fully demonstrated by work done to determine the effect of changes in the normal concentration of the different ions. The results of experiments with unicellular organisms and with isolated organs such as the perfused heart, have shown that slight alterations either in the absolute or relative concentrations of any of the inorganic ions may accelerate, retard, or 206 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. even reverse processes being carried out by means of the colloidal mechanism. In the animal body these changes in the concentration of the inorganic ions can be correlated with changes in the functions of the organs. Thus, all the organs regulated by the central nervous system depend for the integrity of their functions upon the maintenance of definite ratios of calcium, potassium and sodium in the fluids within the nerve tissues. Changes in the relative proportions of these are accompanied by alteration in the excitability of nerve and in the irritability of muscle. The classical experiments of Ringer on the perfused heart show that minute changes in the concentrations of calcium or potassium in the perfusing fluids have a profound effect on the activity of the heart. These examples are merely illustrations of the general law that any disturbance of the normal physiological balance of the salt solution of the body is accompanied by a correlated impairment of function. There is both experimental and clinical evidence to show that changes in the physiological balance are involved in many pathological conditions in which the symptoms can be associated with excess or deficiency of specific ions. Some of these pathological conditions, such as rickets, can be produced experimentally in animals fed on ill-balanced diets, and the symptoms can be relieved by adjusting the diet so that the essential mineral elements are absorbed from the intestine in the right amounts and proportions. The body is remarkably efficient in maintaining this balance, in spite of the fact that there is a continuous loss in the excreta, and the mineral matter of the food is liable to be very different in composition from that found in the blood. Within limits, the elements present in excess tend to be excreted and those deficient to be conserved. The bones act as a reservoir, especially for calcium and phosphorus, the two required in largest amounts. Reserves can be deposited in the bones when the supply is ample, and mobilised in times of need. It is probable that this function of the bones, viz. regulating the supply of mineral elements to the body fluids, is as important as the more obvious one of providing arigid framework. It is probably more fundamental, for, when the available mineral matter is insufficient to maintain both the physiological balance in the blood and the rigidity of the skeleton, it is rigidity which is sacrificed. There is little doubt that in most diseases affecting the bones, the skeletal symp- toms are only secondary manifestations of the influence of some factor, often a dietary one, which upsets the balance of mineral elements in the blood. We have seen that the presence in the body fluids of mineral elements in definite amounts and proportions is a necessary condition of health, and that the body possesses means of regulating this physiological balance. We must now consider what occurs when there are in the diet deficiencies or excesses of mineral elements greater than can be dealt with by the regulating mechanisms of the body. Let us note first the widespread and drastic results of more or less complete privation of all mineral elements. Forster studied the effects of feeding a diet from which the mineral salts had been removed as com- pletely as possible. He found that on this diet_animals died sooner than, — ro M.—AGRICULTURE. 207 in complete starvation. Signs of disturbance of the digestive organs appeared early. They were soon accompanied by increased excitability and weakness of the neuro-muscular system. The central nervous system was also affected, as was shown by the occurrence of convulsions and _ periods of drowsiness. A remarkable feature of these experiments was the profound disturbance caused by relatively small losses of inorganic salts from the system. The total mineral matter of the body at the begin- ning of the feeding with the salt-free diet was estimated at 1,500 grams. Phosphoric acid and sodium chloride were lost in greatest amounts, and of these only about thirty grams and seven grams respectively were lost before death occurred. A well-nourished body could lose a far larger proportion of its total protein, fat or carbohydrate without showing any marked disturbance of its functions. A number of workers have studied the results of prolonged feeding of a diet containing a marked excess of acid radicles, and have found that, under such conditions, the body tends to be depleted of bases, and when a certain stage of depletion has been reached, there appear signs of disturbance of the functions of the digestive and nervous systems and loss of weight. The regulating mechanisms of the body, however, are able to deal with a considerable excess of acid in the food, and opinion is divided as to the extent to which, in actual practice, excessive acidity of the diet is a factor in causing malnutrition. It is probable that, if evil effects do occur, they will be most marked during the period of active growth, because an excess of bases is required for tissue construction. Deficiencies of single elements, or of groups of elements, in the diet, are followed by more or less characteristic symptoms, which, however, are _ modified by the presence or absence of other factors. It is interesting _ to note that, in many cases, the pathological symptoms due to deficiency of individual elements, such, for example, as the hyper-excitability which occurs in calcium deficiency, can be explained by the influence of the ion concerned on the colloids of the tissues or on the permeability of _ membranes. —_— Under experimental conditions it is possible by feeding diets with marked deficiencies or excesses of some of the mineral elements to produce conditions of malnutrition which are so definite and marked that they are as easily recognised as definite diseases; indeed similar conditions occurring in practice are regarded as definite diseases. Thus, primary anemia, simple goitre and rickets are produced by deficiency of iron, : : iodine and either calcium or phosphorus respectively. An interesting case of a disease due to an excess of a mineral element is reported by “McCollum, who regards an inflammatory condition of the eyes, resembling xerophthalmia, which he calls ‘ salt ophthalmia,’ as due to excess of chlorine in the food. In addition to these diseases due to excesses or deficiencies of mineral elements in the diet, in which the symptoms form a definite and easily recognised picture, and the cause is admitted, there are conditions of malnutrition due to the lack of balance of the mineral elements in the diet, where the signs are much less obvious. In young animals there may be retarded growth without any definite pathological symptoms. The only reason for supposing that such animals are not in a perfect state of health is that their rate of growth is not optimal, as is shown by the fact that 208 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. improvement follows the adjustment of the mineral balance in the food. Thus, Kellner obtained an increased rate of growth in calves by the addition of a calcium salt to a diet on which the animals grew at an average rate and showed no signs of obvious ill-health. In some work, not yet reported, we have found that the addition of traces of iodine to the diet of stall-fed calves in winter increased the rate of growth as compared with that of control animals whose condition would be regarded as normal. Further, it has been shown recently that the supply of minerals in the food of the mother may have a profound influence on the vitality of the young at birth and for some time after, even where there may be no obvious effect on the mother. Thus Hart, Steenbock and Humphrey have noted that deficiency of calcium in the diet of cows may lead to the birth of dead or weakly calves, and Ennis Smith has shown that deficiency of iodine in the food of pigs may lead to the birth of dead young, although there is not, in either case, any obvious pathological condition apparent in the mothers. Some attention has recently been devoted to the question of an in- creased susceptibility to certain infectious diseases in cases of malnutrition due to deficiencies of minerals. We have noted in feeding experiments that the mortality from intercurrent infections is much higher in the groups fed on diets which, for experimental reasons, are ill-balanced or deficient in mineral matter. Meigs has noted a similar increased incidence of diseases in cows on diets deficient in calcium. In clinical medicine the administration of inorganic salts of calcium, iodine and manganese has been advocated in the treatment of certain bacterial infections. It is very probable that such treatment is efficacious where these salts are deficient in the body and that its efficacy is due to the making good of that deficiency. It has been suggested that deficiency of calcium may be a causative factor in producing a lowered resistance to tuberculosis. If this is correct 1t is of great economic importance on account of the inci- dence of tuberculosis in dairy cows. It is known that, at the height of lactation, there is usually a loss of calcium from the body. This is greater the higher the yield of milk, and tuberculosis seems to be more liable to occur in heavy-milking cows. Though these results of disordered mineral metabolism can be pro- duced under experimental conditions, it does not necessarily follow that they occur to any considerable extent under practical conditions. There is, however, strong circumstantial evidence that deficiency of one or more mineral elements is a common cause of malnutrition in farm stock. Indeed, in some cases, it has been possible to identify the deficiency ; in these cases marked beneficial results follow the addition to the ration of the elements present in insufficient amount. This evidence, which has been accumulating during the past few years, now warrants the attention of the practical expert. It may be of interest to consider some reasons which can be adduced for believing that the danger of deficiencies of minerals in the food of farm animals has been increasing in recent years. During the past half- century the types of animals after which breeders have been striving — are those whose young have a very rapid rate of growth, or whose females — have a great capacity for producing the constructive materials required — P M.—AGRICULTURE. 209 for growth. A remarkable degree of success has attended these efforts of the breeders. Some breeds of pigs will increase in weight from 2 lb. to 2 cwt. in six months. There are dairy cows which can secrete in their -milk as much as 10-12 lb. of solid matter per day. There are hens that lay 200 to 300 eggs in a year. Now, the faster the rate of growth, the greater must be both the absolute amount of mineral matter required in a given time and the proportion of mineral matter per unit of energy in the food. The following table shows that the percentage of mineral matter in the milk of different species and also the amounts relative to the energy values, are in proportion to the rates‘of growth. TABLE I. ‘ Milk of species contains y Number of days in which weight of Ash Ash per 1,000 J new-born animal is doubled. % calories. ke Days. Grams. Grams. Rial sition 39. - esr 40 175 100 182 92 67 38 78 19 15 3 9 A falar 4 Tala aS sar 7 pte sts yeaa) 2 OF 13, Sr eas Sum 81 222 231 341 177 137 101 88 50 44 63 56 It is clear that there is a considerable inequality in 120° of longitude. Analysing the results harmonically, we get 24 cos (I—135°)+ 22 cos 2 (I—110°)+38 cos 3 (J—128°) the co-efficient of the third harmonic being much greater than those of the first and second. Apparently different localities on the earth are not related by any serious latitude term; places in the same longitude are all affected together. A latitude term was suggested in the early stages of the work, and actually applied ; but on further revision was found to be doing more harm than good and was removed. The investigation will be published in the Geophysical Supplement to the Monthly Notices, R.A.S. ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 221 Calculation of Mathematical Tables. — Report of Committee (Professor J. W. Nicnotson, Chairman; Dr. J. R. Atrey, Secretary; Dr. D. Wrincu-Nicnorson, Mr. T. W. Cuaunpy, Professors L. N. G. Fiton and E. W. Hoxsson, Mr. G. KENNEDY, and Professors A. Lopez, A. E. H. Love, H. M. Macponatp, and A. G. WEBSTER). Durie the past year, tables of Bessel and other functions, approved by the Association, have been completed and prepared for publication. The tables are :— Bessel functions of half-odd integral order, positive and negative, to twelve places of decimals for values of the argument from «=1 to ~=20. Bessel functions Jj (x) and J_; (x) to six places of decimals from z=0-00 to 20-00 by intervals of 0-02. Lommel-Weber functions 3 (x) and Q_4 (x) for the same range of argument. The work required in the construction of these tables has been considerably facilitated by the use of a Burkhardt Arithmometer kindly lent to the Secretary. In the 1893 and 1915 Reports of the Mathematical Tables Committee, the recom- mendation was made that a volume of tables of the more important transcendental functions, to six places of decimals, might be published under the auspices of the Association. The tables which have appeared in the Reports include :— Sines and Cosines—angles in radians. Logarithmic Gamma function, &c. Zonal Harmonics. Riccati- Bessel functions. Bessel-Clifford, Neumann and Lommel-Weber functions of zero and unit orders. Ber, Bei and other related functions. Bessel functions with imaginary argument of zero and unit orders. Zeros of Bessel functions of high order. - _ Bessel and other functions of equal order and argument, &c. The following tables have been computed and are submitted to the Association with a view to publication in next year’s Report. os Integrals: S(x) and C(x) from z=0-0 to 20-0 by intervals of 0-1 to six places. Lommel-Weber functions: Tables of the first forty roots of Q,(a), Qu(x), Q4(2), and © 3(z). Neumann functions ; first forty roots, 9 of G)(x) and r of G(x) with values of Gi(e) and Go(v). ? : ' Confluent Hypergeometric function *: M(«.y.«) for values of «, y and «, in particular for y=}. . ' Bessel Functions of Half-odd Integral Order. The functions J3(x) = Af 2 . sin x and J_3(%)= r/ Tea seventeen places of decimals for x= 1 to =20. Tables of the sines and cosines of angles from 1 to 100 radians to fifteen places of decimals are given in the 1923 Report in continuation of Dr. Doodson’s table in the 1916 Report ; the calculations, however, were carried to twenty places of decimals. Functions of higher and lower orders were found (i) from the recurrence formula : Tyaile) = Iy(x) — Tya(z) and 2 cos x were computed to TH *H. A. Webb. The practical importance of the confluent hypergeometric function, Phil, Mag., vol, 36, July 1918, (ii) from the continued fraction Jys(t)_ 21 et 1 Jy(z) ae) Av+1)_ 2&v+2) * x xz The ratio of two Bessel functions whose orders differ by unity served as a check on the calculations derived from the recurrence formula. When z=14, for example, 222 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. : the ratio of J20(x) and Js1(z) is : 16793 8041 45216: From (i) J2a(%)= -+ 0-1499 8890 40384: and Taa(z)= + 0-0893 1204 79085: Dividing J29(x) by the above ratio. Jai(z)= + 0-0893 1204 79085: The succeeding ratios are : 1-8694 8979 649: 3-6667 67: 2:0506 3821 112: 3°8196 50: 2-2253 7835 892 3°9717 5: 2-3953 3130 42 41231 7 25615 8707 57 4-2739 : 2:7249 1181 7: 4-424 2-8858 6335 0: 4-57 : 3-0448 5964 4:72: 3°2022 2140: 4:8: 3°3581 997 5-0 3-5129 945 5-1: The calculations were, of course, carried out in the reverse direction. The last entry in the above table is the ratio of J as (x) and J 73(a). The relation sin vv. Ty) yan()+ITy_s(@\T_y(e) = 7 was employed at intervals to check the results in each table. A table of Fresnel’s Integrals S(x) and C(a) to twelve places of decimals was con- structed from the values of J»,,, (x) for the first twenty integer values of x by the as method employed by Lommel for this range of the argument, viz. : C(x) = I(x) + J5(x) + J9(t)+JSis(z) +--+ S(x) = Ja(x) + Jz(x) + Jaga(z) + Jis(z)+...- A number of errors have been discovered in the values of these integrals as published in collections of mathematical tables. cm 2y Jv (1) | 2y Jy (1) —1 +0-4310 9886 8018 +13 +0: 571 0409 +1 +0-6713 9670 7142 +15 - | +0: 38 2197 + 3 +0-2402 9783 9123 |}. =417 +0- 2 2552 + 5 +0: 494 9681 0228 | +19 | +0: 1190 + 7 +0. 71 8621 2019 eet -++0- 57 +9 +0: 8 0667 3904 +23 +0- 2 +11 +0: 7385 3119 | r) ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 223 ao 2y Jy (2) 2v Jy (2) y —65 +0-8282 2063 2444 +13 ‘| +0: 4 6719 5209 253 —0-3956 2328 1359 +15 +0- 6329 8186 =} —0-2347 8571 0406 +17 +0: 754 1189 y #1 +0-5130 1613 6562 +19 +0: 80 1916 +3 +0:4912 9377 8687 +21 +0: 7 7015 +5 +0-2239 2453 1469 +23 +0: 6744 +17 +0: 685 1754 9985 +25 +0: 543 +9 +0- 158 8689 3479 427 +0: 40 +11 +0- 29 7347 0671 +29 +0 3 Ag at . a Qy Jv (3) | “Byer | Jv (3) 7 -—0-7020 7597 4177. | +15 | +0 11 3991 4073 =. 5 +0-3690 4073 0074 = +17 +0: 2 0706 6745 = 8 +0-0870 0809 0721 +19 | +0 3346 4147 ss —0-4560 4882 0795 +21 +0: 487 2855 +1 +0-0650 0818 2877 | +23 | +0 64 ©5837 Pik 3 +0477) \1821 5087 || +35, bres-+O: 7 8560 | +5 +0-4127 1003 2210 | +27 +0: 8831 Basa: +0-2101 3183 8596 | +29 | +0 923 | +9 +0-775 9759 1180 |§- +31 +40: 90 { 411 +0- 226 6093 4945 § 433 . 40: 8 i +13 +0- 54 9250 3620 || 435 | +0. 1 N Ba, sy a 2 Jv (4) Qy Jv (4) +0-6251 4661 8950 | +17 +0: 19 7434 6274 —0-3489 0209 7875 +19 +0: 4 3365 5437 —0-0145 6794 7669 +21 +0: 8551 7053 +0-3671 1203 2461 | +23 +0: 1530 9091 —0-2607 6607 6677 || +25 +0- 251 0221 —0-3019 2051 3292 | +27 +0: 37 9788 | +0-1852 8594 8354 +29 +0 5 3349 40-4408 8497 4557 | +831 +0- 6995 +0-3658 2026 9842 +33 +0: 860 +0-1993 0049 7667 | +35 +0: 100 +0- 826 0584 9908 | +837 +0: ‘ll +0- 278 6558 9580 | +39 +0: 1 +0- 79 65731 6228 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 224 as 2v Jy (5) 2y Jv (5) Sill —0:5717 4941 8290 +17 +0- 102 4343 2064 =) +0-3329 4527 0161 +19 +0: 28 8689 0725 =F —0-0275 5206 7999 +21 +0: 7 2675 2690 =. —0-2943 7237 4962 +93 +0- 1 6547 0572 = 3 +0-3219 2444 2961 +25 +0: 3441 1942 = il +0:1012 1770 9185 || +27 +0 658 9140 iil —0:3421 6798 4798 +29 +0 116 9412 3 —0-1696 5130 6145 en --0: 19 3449 doe +0-2403 7720 1111 +33 +0 2 9972 Ay +0:4100 2850 7256 +35 +0- 4368 + 9 -+0-3336 6270 9047 +37 +0: 601 +11 +0:1905 6436 9029 +39 +0: 78 +13 +0: 855 7890 2816 +41 +0: 10 +15 +0: 319 4077 8293 +43 +0- 1 x=6 Qy Jy (6) 2y Jv (6) ils —0-8323 5823 0066 SL INF +0- 351 9869 2456 —13 +0-5317 8661 8789 +19 +0: 123 2375 8179 —ll —0-3198 4611 0644 +21 +0- 38 2654 1777 —=9 +0:0545 9791 7391 +23 +0- 10 6913 8039 = +0-2379 4923 4557 +95 +0: 2 7182 0707 5 —0-3322 0535 7708 S17) -+0- 6344 8242 —3 +0-0388 8856 3533 +29 -+0- 1369 6380 =I) +0:3127 6107 5941 +31 +0 275 0928 aey —0-0910 1540 9523 +33 +0 51 6748 + 3 —0-3279 3031 0862 +35 +0: 9 1187 + 5 —0:0729 4974 5908 +37 +0 1 5175 7 +0-2671 3885 5939 +39 +0: 2389 + 9 +0:3846 1174 4503 +41 +0: 357 +11 +0:3097 7876 0816 +43 +0- 51 +13 +0-1833 1598 3659 +45 +0: 7 +15 +0- 874 0587 0446 || +47 +0: 1 af = 7/ 2y Jy (7) | 2v Jy (7) Sly +0-7634 0121 2731 +19 +0: 378 5136 5325 —15 —0:5003 6133 2244 +21 +0: 142 0491 5635 —13 +0-3088 0164 2077 +23 +0: 47 6338 1582 sili —0-0731 2743 1613 +25 +0- 14 4619 5276 = 9 —0-1938 8710 6684 LPT +0: 4 0160 1547 ei +0-3224 1085 4493 +29 +0: 1 0283 9262 — 5 —0-1285 2374 7809 +31 +0- 2444 6824 — 3 —0-2306 0817 7487 +33 +0 542 5246 221) +0-2273 5582 3875 +35 +0 112 9333 2b +0-1981 2877 4076 +37 +0- 22 1421 13 —0-1990 5171 3292 +39 +0 4 1037 Seay —0-2834 3665 1202 +41 +0: 7212 a7 —0-0034 0303 7566 +43 -+0- 1205 +9 +0-2800 3361 3636 +45 +0- 192 Sciul +0:3634 4625 5098 +47 +0: 29 +13 +0:2910 9621 5803 +49 +0: 4 +15 +0-1771 6100 2823 || +651 +0: 1 +17 +0: 885 3450 4531 BAT e ye 80 ete Se ee Rie i. ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 225 c=8 2y Jv (8) 2y Jv (8) —19 —0-7095 8681 4292 +19 +0- 892 1334 8387 —17 +0:4747 6855 4185 +21 +0- 400 4485 1004 —15 —0-2992 9636 3352 +23 +0- 159 0438 5498 —13 +0:0864 1212 7100 +25 +0- 56 8025 7304 —ll +0-1588 7665 6815 +27 +0- 18 4641 8576 —9 —0-3048 6753 0220 +29 +0 5 5140 5390 —7 +0:1840 9931 4683 +31 +0 1 5242 5964 —5 +0:1437 8062 9873 +33 +0: 3924 6221 —3 —0:2739 6220 8353 +35 +0 946 0572 —1 —0:0410 4480 1740 +37 +0 214 4782 +1 +0-2790 9280 8571 +39 +0 45 9046 + 3 +0:0759 3140 2812 +41 +0- 9 3068 + 5 —0-2506 1853 2517 +43 +0 1 7927 + 7 —0:2325 6798 5635 +45 +0: 3289 +9 +0:0471 2154 5086 +47 +0- 576 +11 +0-2855 7972 3857 +49 +0- 97 +13 +0-3455 5057 5217 +51 +0- 16 +15 +0-2759 3996 0870 +53 +0: 2 +17 +0-1718 3685 1415 z=9 2y Jv (9) 2v Jv (9) —21 +0:6661 4067 7745 +19 +0-1671 6217 8244 —19 —0-4533 7404 9129 +21 +0- 895 9047 5069 —17 +0-2909 8231 4860 +23 +0- 418 8226 3584 —15 —0-0962 5921 2274 +25 +0- 174 4197 6313 —13 —0-1305 5029 4404 +27 +0- 65 6767 0619 —ll +0-2848 3185 9746 +29 +0- 22 6103 5543 —9 —0-2175 7753 4175 +31 +0- 7 #41788 8354 —7 —0:0672 5432 5571 +33 +0 2 1169 1010 — 65 +0-2698 8645 4064 +35 +0: 5831 2017 —3 —0:0826 8259 3353 +37 +0: 1507 7944 —1 —0-2423 2558 9613 +39 +0 367 5088 +1 +0:1096 0765 8865 +41 =e 84 7436 + 3 +0-2545 0421 8375 +43 +0 18 5455 + 5 —0:0247 7291 9407 +45 +0: 3 8626 +7 —0-2682 6695 1379 +47 +0: 7676 +9 —0-1838 7915 3888 +49 +0: 1459 +11 +0-0843 8779 7491 +651 +0: 266 +13 +0-2870 1979 5266 +53 +0- 46 +15 +0°3301 9635 1227 +55 +0: 8 +17 +0-2633 0745 6778 +57 +0- 1 1925 Q 226 REPORTS ON THE STATE-OF SCIENCE, ETC. z=10 2y Jy (10) 2y Jy (10) —23 —0:6301 4458 1157 +21 +0-1630 0736 6390 —21 +0:43851 2346 8587 +23 +0- 897 5896 3150 —19 —0-2836 1470 2876 +25 +0- 434 3824 8856 —l17 +0:1037 4446 6877 +27 +0- 188 3665 8989 —15 +0:1072 4910 9185 +29 +0 74 2073 0414 —13 —0-2646 1813 0654 +31 +0- 26 8345 9212 —ll +0:2367 5446 0666 +33 +0. 8 9799 3143 —9 +0:0041 8822 3922 +35 +0- 2 7991 8159 —7 —0:2405 2386 2196 +37 +0- 8172 0413 —5 +0:1641 7847 9615 +39 5 Os 2244 7370 —3 +0:1584 3462 2388 +41 +0 582 4329 —1 —0-2117 0886 6331 +43 +0 143 2377 +1 —0:1372 6373 5755 +45 +0- 33 4891 + 3 +0:1979 8249 2756 +47 +0 7 4635 +5 +0-1966 5848 3582 +49 +0 1 5893 +7 —0-0996 °5325 0965 +51 +0: 3241 +9 —0-2664 1575 9257 +53 +0: 634 +11 —0:1401 2093 2367 +55 +0: 119 +13 +0:1122 8273 3654 +57 +0- 22 +15 +0-2860 8848 6117 +59 “Os 4 +17 +0-3168 4999 5521 +61 +0- 1 +19 +0-2525 5650 6269 x=11 2v Jv (11) 2y Jy (11) —27 —0-9436 6649 2860 +19 +0-3051 1671 5612 —25 +0-5997 0590 2928 +21 +0: 2432 5383 6484 —23 —0:4193 0146 8341 +23 +0:-1592 7697 2222 —21 +0:2770 1534 9058 +25 +0: 897 7983 2706 —19 —0:1095 4601 6224 +27 +0: 447 6810 2111 —17 —0:0877 9950 2853 +29 +0- 201 0550 8838 —15 +0-2452 3615 6997 +31 +0- 82 3733 0281 —13 —0;2466 1343 8506 +33 +0- 31 0878 5589 —l1 +0:0462 1608 8511 +35 +0- 10 8902 6486 —9 +0-2003 9734 9996 +37 +0 3 5629 8686 —7 —0:2101 7755 6689 +39 +0- 1 0943 2730 — 5 —0-0666 4799 5739 +41 +0- 3169 0086 — 3 +0:-2404 7210 0207 +43 +0 868 4861 —1 +0-0010 6469 5683 +45 +0 225 9827 +1 —0-2405 6889 0723 +47 “+0 55 9886 + 3 —0-0229 3459 4839 +49 +0 13 2415 + 5 +0-2343 1400 1222 +51 +0 2 9962 + 7 +0:1294 4095 9031 +53 +0- 6500 +9 —0-1519 4248 1838 +55 +0: 1354 +11 —0-2537 5753 5080 +57 +0 271 +13 —0:1018 1505 3242 +59 +0: 52 +15 +0:1334 3065 3976 +61 +0: 10 +17 +0:2837 6594 5028 +63 +0- 2 ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 227 f= 12 2v Jy (12) 2v Jy (12) —29 -+-0-8850 5905 0694 +21 +0-2946 9968 4098 —27 —0-5735 3867 5790 +23 --0-2350 9491 2327 —25 +0-4054 0296 9832 +25 +-0-1558 9889 7863 —23 —0:2710 5084 4695 “E97 +0: 896 9445 8220 —21 +0:1141 1114 9166 +29 -+0- 459 1368 3132 —19 +0-0713 5633 3655 +31 +0: 212 6348 8516 7 —0-2270 9201 0786 +33 +0: 90 1704 5535 —15 +-0-2503 5734 8292 +35 +0: 35 3338 6706 13 —0-0858 5467 4579 +37 +0- 12 8866 5689 91 —0-1573 4811 7498 +39 +0- 4 3999 9170 =:9 +0-2300 9044 8952 +41 +0- 1 4133 1612 7 —0-0152 1971 9216 +43 +0: 4288 3837 5 —0-2212 1227 9409 +45 +0: 1233 5471 | me +0-1073 9150 2303 +47 +0: 387 4178 : Sh +0-1943 6440 3834 +49 +0: 88 0060 | bie —0-1235 8853 5956 +51 +0: 21 9401 eae —0-2046 6344 8497 +53 +0: 5 2395 : +5 +0-0724 2267 3832 +55 +0: 1 2009 7 +0:2348 3956 2593 +57 +0: 2646 : +9 +0-0645 6707 1014 +59 +0: 562 . 411 —0-1864 1425 9332 461 +0: 115 | +13 —0-2354 4680 8736 +63 +0: 23 +15 —0-0686 5311 6798 +65 0: 4 17 +0:1496 3041 2738 +67 +0: 1 +19 +0-2806 2953 4844 x=13 2v Jv (13) Qy Jv (13) ea —0:8355 0462 0144 +21 +0-2770 3024 6380 —29 -+0:5507 3569 3645 +23 +0-2853 7188 0348 —27 —0-3930 5961 9526 +25 +0-2278 5846 5005 —25 +0-2656 1890 0755 +27 +0-1528 1747 6431 —23 —0:1177 4595 8849 +29 +0: 895 3167 6275 =51 —0-0572 9912 7407 +31 +0: 469 0703 3182 —19 ++-0-2103 0608 7737 +33 +0: 223 2355 6698 a7 —0:2500 7130 8516 +35 +0: 97 6045 6898 —15 +-0-1167 1023 8784. +37 +0- 39 5459 6488 -13 +0-1154 0564 8381 +39 +0: 14 9493 3106 il —0-2321 1588 7165 +41 +0: 5 3020 2831 sea) +-0:0810 0010 2297 +43 +0: 1 7724 65054 ee +-0-1760 3889 3267 +45 +0: 5606 9271 eh —0-1757 9027 5595 +47 +0: 1684 0883 a —0-1084 2724 8807 +49 +0 481 6999 a +0-2008 1194 8396 +51 +0 131 5499 Ete +0-0929 8017 5854 +53 +0: 34 3805 a) —0:1936 5962 7177 +55 +0: 8 6167 +5 —0-1376 7085 9048 +57 +0: 2 0749 “7 +0-1407 0929 6774 +459 +0: 4808 +9 +0-2134 3740 3465 +61 +0: 1074 O11 +0-0070 5505 9471 +63 +0: 232 +13 —0-2074 6773 7759 +65 40° 48 +15 —0:2145: 2279 7230 +67 +0: 10 +17 —0-0400 5856 6737 +69 +0: 2 +19 +0-1621 3851 7650 a “tg Q2 228 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. x=14 2y Jy (14) 2y Jv (14) —33 +0:7929 8611 2288 +21 +0:1718 4952 6383 —3l —0:5306 3684 3931 +23 +0:2731 8645 8796 —29 +0:3819 9547 0703 +25 +0:-2769 5679 8781 —27 —0:2606 3948 8239 +27 +0:2213 7925 3314 —25 +0:1206 6639 9472 +29 +0-1499 8890 4038 —23 +0-0451 6377 4895 +31 +0 893 1204 7909 —21 —0-1948 6402 9658 +33 +0: 477 7348 7759 —19 +0-2471 3226 9591 +35 +0: 232 9688 7524 —17 —0:1405 2976 4787 +37 +0- 104 6873 1050 —15 —0:0764 8898 3778 +39 +0- 43 7407 3108 —13 +0-2224 8224 7407 +41 +0- 17 0615 8323 —l1 —0:1301 0167 4528 +43 +0 6 2613 3408 —9 —0-1202 5950 3134 +45 +0 2 1696 5716 —7 +0-2074 1135 5115 +47 +0 7125 6393 — Bb +0:0165 5382 5577 +49 +0 2225 2176 — 3 —0-2133 2343 5678 +51 +0 662 6222 —l1 +0:0291 5833 9211 +53 +0 188 6203 + 1 +0:2112 4069 7163 +55 +0 51 4405 + 3 —0-0140 6971 7985 +57 +0 13 4673 + 5 —0-2142 5563 6731 +59 +0- 3 3908 + 7 —0:0624 5015 2276 +61 +0: 8224 +9 +0-1830 3056 0593 +63 +0: 1924 +11 +0-1801 1265 5514 +65 +0- 435 +13 —0:0415 1347 4118 +67 +0- 95 +15 —0-2186 6088 1481 +69 +0: 20 +17 —0-1927 6604 1755 +71 +0: 4 +19 —0:0154 1216 9221 +73 +0- 1 2D 2v Jy (15) 2y Jy (15) —35 —0-7560 4914 4202 +21 +0:-0058 6203 2399 —33 +0-5127 4919 0254 +23 +0:-1794 1189 O119 —31 —0-3719 9907 4358 +25 +0: 2692 3619 9116 —29 +0-2560 4889 6751 +27 +0- 2693 1510 8408 —27 —0-1230 2879 2695 +29 +0:-2155 3099 6018 —25 —0:0345 9706 9901 +31 +0:1473 7815 0561 —23 +0-1806 9057 5862 +33 +0: 890 5051 5141 —21 —0-2424 6181 3088 +35 +0: 485 3298 2749 —19 +0°1587 5596 2461 +37 +0: 241 9311 1274 —17 +0-0413 7092 7304 +39 +0- 111 4335 8393 —15 —0-2056 4301 3406 +41 +0- 47 7962 0547 —13 +0-1642 7208 6102 +43 +0- 19 2093 7769 —ll -+0-0632 7387 2118 +45 +0 7 2706 7725 —9 —0-2106 7292 5655 +47 +0 2 6026 5405 — 7 +0-0631 2988 3275 +49 +0 8843 0545 —5 +0:1812 1231 3460 +51 +0 2860 7709 — 3 —0:1235 3398 7762 +53 +0 883 5664 —1 —0:1565 0551 5907 +55 +0 261 1638 +1 +0:1339 6768 8822 +57 +0 74 0343 + 3 +0:1654 3669 5162 +59 +0 20 1666 + 5 —0:1008 8034 9790 +61 +0- 5 2877 + 7 —0-1990 6347 8425 +63 +0- 1 3366 +9 +0:0079 8405 9858 +65 +0- 3262 +11 +0-2038 5391 4340 +67 +0- 770 +13 +0-1415 0881 0658 +69 +0 176 +15 —0-0812 1294 51038 +71 +0- 39 +17 —0-2227 2175 5761 +73 +0- 8 +19 —0:1712 0504 4760 +75 -+0- 2 56 ++4++44 | | me OTOL = —! +++4+ Nee _ moO 229 ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. az =16 Jv (16) |} 2Qy Jv (16) +0-7236 1819 5240 +23 +0-0242 6931 2615 —0-4966 9642 9240 +25 +0-1853 0352 6223 +0-3629 0524 3723 +27 +0: 2652 6744 7109 —0-2517 9563 5939 +29 +-0- 2623 3529 0773 +-0-1249 4880 0908 +3) +0-2102 1526 7417 +0-0253 2593 4293 +33 +0-1449 5678 9847 —0-1676 8631 5027 +35 +0- 887 5811 1643 +0-2366 8393 2937 +37 +0- 492 0157 9372 —0-1725 4683 8570 +39 +0- 250 2054 0655 —0-0102 1620 7314 +41 +0- 117 8598 8475 +-0-1846 7858 4755 +43 +0 51 8105 4813 —0-1860 0478 8989 +45 +0: 21 3809 6336 —0-0102 9909 5078 +47 +0- 8 3234 1128 +0-1943 7280 3740 +49 +0: 3 0690 5730 —0-1233 3220 7493 +51 +0: 1 0755 7669 —0-1249 9843 7025 +53 +0: 3593 4340 +0-1780 1902 3691 +55 +0: 1147 4831 +0-0693 6749 2122 +57 +0 351 0391 —0-1910 2542 8464 +59 +0 103 0938 —0-0574 2840 2843 +61 +0 29 1194 +0-1874 3615 3286 +63 +0 7 9237 +0-0925 7268 1584 +65 +0 2 0804 —0-1585 0719 0291 +67 +0: 5277 —0:1619 1957 7336 +69 +0: 1295 +0-0674 2742 8040 aT +0: 308 +0-2082 7593 4114 +73 +0: 71 ++0-1017 9676 8428 +75 +0: 16 —0:1128 4146 3713 BLY) +0: 3 —0:2216 9082 3623 +79 +0: 1 —0-1504 1638 9339 230 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. x=17 2v Jy (17) 2y —39 —0-6948 8043 3632 +23 —37 +0-4821 8579 1678 +25 —35 —0-3545 8276 0020 +27 —33 +0:2478 3753 7776 +29 —3l —0-1265 1363 6838 +31 —29 —0-0171 3620 0012 +33 —27 +0-1557 4597 8035 +35 —25 —0-2302 2505 9220 +37 —23 +0:1828 2028 5524 +39 —21 —0-:0171 2003 2960 +41 —19 —0-1616 7200 9515 +43 —17 +0-1978 1227 8888 +45 —15 —0:0361 4026 9373 +47 —13 —0-1659 2380 5912 +49 —ll +0-:1630 2317 9776 +51 —9 +0-0604 3821 8998 +53 —7 —0-1950 1988 3952 +55 —65 +0-0198 6408 6159 +57 —3 +0-1891 7750 65670 +59 —1 —0-0532 4835 1865 +61 +1 —0-1860 4524 9678 +63 + 3 +0-0423 0451 3649 +65 + 5 +0-1935 1075 2086 +67 +7 +0-0146 1041 3435 +69 +9 —0-1874 9469 9495 +71 +11 —0:1138 7231 3168 +73 +13 +0-1138 1261 4504 +75 +15 +0-2009 0548 8965 +77 +17 +0:0634 5693 4583 +79 +19 —0-1374 4855 4382 +81 +21 —0-2170 7590 7128 Jy (17) —0:-1307 0403 +0-0402 4103 +0-1898 8202 +0-2613 3630 +0-2559 2696 +0: 2053 5403 +0-1427 0146 +0: 884 4309 +0: 497 9233 +0- 257 8637 +0: 123 9832 +0- 55 7410 +0- 23 5665 +0: 9 4134 +0- 3 5664 +0: 1 2858 +0- 4424 +0: 1456 +0 459 +0 139 +0 40 +0 ll +0- 3 +0: +0: +0: +0: +0: +0: +0: ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 231 z= 18 2Qv Jy (18) | vy Jv (18) —41 ~+40-6692 0984 6779 +23 —0-2099 8455 0586 —39 —0-4689 8570 9391 +25 —0-1122 0755 1575 BT +0-3469 2585 6902 +27 +0:0541 4072 8955 —35 —0-2441 3966 3130 +29 +0-1934 1864 6007 —33 40-1277 9015 4739 +31 +0-2574 7819 9112 aol 40-0098 5771 2775 +33 40-2500 1603 1241 —29 —0-1447 6732 6740 +35 40-2008 8452 4830 —27 +0-2233 7853 6862 +87 40-1405 9276 7040 —26 —0-1903 0047 7053 +39 +0- 881 1171 8530 ~23 40-0409 2768 2267 +41 +0. 603 1595 6441 —21 40-1380 0399 4156 +43 +0: 264 9684 8919 —19 —0-2019 3234 2116 +45 +0: 129 8207 1532 17 +0-0751 4681 1411 447 +0- 59 6832 9912 —15 +0:1309 6035 3561 +49 +0: 26 7578 9904 313 —0-1842 8043 9379 +51 +0: 10 5354 2605 a1 +0-0021 3107 4879 +53 +0: 4 0924 7477 ig +0-1829 7811 5842 +55 4+0- 1 5146 3856 ENG —0:0936 2013 2800 +57 +0: 5355 8749 —65 —0-1465 7028 6420 +59 +0: 1813 8849 ¥en 40-1343 3410 . 1249 +61 +0 589 6366 mI 40-1241 8126 9545 +63 +0 184 3280 seit —0-1412 3306 0669 +65 +0 65 6115 +3 —0-1320 2755 0693 467 +0 16 1302 +6 +0-1192 2846 8886 +69 +0 4 6288 B07 40-1651 4656 9828 Bi 5) +0: 1 2302 +9 —0-0550 0480 2842 +73 +0: 3237 +11 —0-1926 4897 1249 475 +0: 826 +13 —0-0627 2512 4032 477 +0: 205 +15 40-1473 4749 2781 +79 +0: 49 +17 40-1855 1470 1350 +81 +0: 12 +19 +0-0278 6083 6271 +83 +0: 3 +21 —0-1561 0604 0841 +85 +0: 1 232 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC z=19 2v Jy (19) 2v Jv (19) —43 —0:6461 1625 7566 +23 —0-1698 ‘0520 —41 +0:-4569 1035 0001 +25 —0:-2012 2769 —39 —0:3398 4818 1910 +27 —0-0949 6806 —37 +0:2406 7276 0234 +29 +0-0662 7306 —35 —0-1288 3035 1178 +31 +0°1961 2169 —33 —0:0033 5369 2274 +33 +0: 2537 1496 —3l1 +0-1346 5518 5128 +35 +0:2445 4113 —29 —0:2163 4687 2935 +37 +0-1967 65554 —27 +0:1955 5846 3036 +39 +0-1386 1440 —25 —0:0615 5199 5590 +41 +0: 877 6875 —23 —0:1145 6899 65155 +43 +0: 507 8133 —21 +0:2002 4077 9198 +45 +0: 271 5742 —19 —0:1067 4976 0801 +47 +0: 135 3887 —17 —0:0934 9101 8397 +49 +0: 63 3347 —15 +0:1903 9961 9367 +61 +0: 27 9482 —13 —0:0568 2447 0577 +53 +0- 11 6843 —l1 —0:1515 1971 8446 +55 +0- 4 6447 —9 +0:1445 4641 2835 +57 +0 1 7611 —7 +0:-0830 5036 4998 +59 +0: 6386 — 5 —0:1751 4391 5729 +61 +0: 2220 —3 —0:0369 5986 0859 +63 +0 741 —1 +0-1809 7968 3233 +65 +0 238 spl +0:0274 3461 4373 +67 +0 73 + 3 —0-1795 3575 6161 +69 +0 22 + 5 —0:0557 8236 5346 +71 +0 6 a= 7 +0:1648 5618 6333 +73 +0 ] ab +0:1165 1885 5047 +75 +0: +11 —0:1096 6304 4468 +77 +0: +13 —0-1800 0798 6055 +79 +0: +15 —0:0135 0031 4411 +81 +0: +17 +0:-1693 4984 3099 +83 +0: 45S) +0:1650 2385 8237 +85 +0: +21 —0:0043 2598 4862 +87 +0: +11 ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES, Jv (20) +0-6252 —0-4458 +0-3332 —0-2374 +0-1296 —0-0024 —0-1253 +0-2092 —0-1990 +0-0793 +0-0919 —0-1942 +0-1314 +0-0562 —0-1848 +0-1009 +0-1091 —0-1718 —0-0146 +0-1784 —0-0478 —0-1665 +0-0728 +0-1628 —0-0646 —0-1725 +0-0215 +0-1801 +0-0595 —0-1473 —0-1553 +0-0308 +0-1815 +0-1416 1019 0866 7842 1211 7518 8699 2295 6986 4533 4587 2840 5638 6643 1662 7223 2476 7865 9089 3866 7829 2873 2110 0690 8076 6286 8019 1781 1143 3232 6865 2194 7718 6755 1199 6622 1243 5050 0109 9663 0768 5820 7870 9379 4230 9169 5691 4375 9597 2492 8022 6476 4731 4374 3700 8421 9094 4785 3855 6592 3844 8131 0190 5454 1190 8728 9644. 9925 2285 +23 +89 233 Jy (20) —0-0328 7496 8026 —0-1794 1820 5515 —0-1913 9778 8867 —0-0789 6880 9456 +0-0768 9301 5156 +0-1981 5298 2948 +0-2500 5940 6708 +0-2394 65097 8791 +0-1929 2490 4056 +0-1367 5258 4117 +0 874 1789 3384 +0: 511 9588 6660 +0- 277 7285 1599 +0- 140 7031 4599 +0: 66 9941 9169 +0- 30 1320 4281 LQ- 12 8557 2176 +0- 5 2211 9202 +0: 2 0246 7550 +0: 7516 0071 +0: 2677 0667 +0 916 7530 +0 302 3804 +0 96 2214 +0 29 5834 +0 8 7997 +0: 2 5355 +0: 7085 +0: 1922 +0: 507 +0: 130 +0: 32 +0: 8 +0: 2 234 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. Bessel Functions. J,(x) and J_;(z). From the tables of sin 6 and cos 9, §@ in radians, given in the 1916 and 1924 Reports of the Committee, values of Ve . sin ¢ and a/ ued . cos x were calculated to nine places of decimals from 20-00 to x=1-50 by sat pels of 0-02 and from 1-5 to 20-0 by 0-1 ; intermediate values were found by interpolation to fifths. The results were afterwards employed in completing tables of Fresnel’s Integrals. S(z) = 5? J3(x)dx and C(x) = aie J_4(x).dx over the range x==0-0 to z=20-0 to nine places of decimals. z Hy) | S42) a Kye) | Tye) | a ee es 8 | it 5 0-00 +0-000000 + oc 0-90 +0-658812 : +0-522801 : 0-02 +0-112830 : +5-640767 : 0-92 +0-661823 +0-503953 0:04 +0-159534 : +3:986231 : 0-94 +0-664584 +0-485369 0:06 +0-195324 +3-251488 : 0-96 +0-667098 : +0-467039 0-08 +0-225435 +2-811925: 0-98 +0-669368 : +0-448952 0-10 +0-251893 +2-510527 : 1:00 +0-671396 : +0-431099 0-12 +0-275732 : + 2-286730 : 1-02 +0-673185 : +0-413471 : 0-14 +0:297567 +2°111572: 1-04 +0-674736 : +0-396062 0-16 +0°317794 +1-969233 : 1-06 +0-676053 +0-378863 0-18 +0°336688 : +1-850248 1:08 +0-677136 +0:361869 : 0-20 +0°354450 : +1-748560 : 1-10 +0-677988 : +0:345074 : 0-22 +0-371229: +1-660095 1-12 +0-678613 +0-328474 0-24 +0-387140: +1°581994 1-14 +0-679010: +0°312063 0-26 +0-402274 : +1-512188 1-16 +0-679183 : +0:295837 : 0-28 +0-416705 : +1-449137 1-18 +0-679134 : +0:-279794 0:30 +0-430493 : +1-391668 : 1-20 +0-678865 +0-263929 0:32 +0-443688 +1-338872 1-22 +0-678378 +0:248239: 0-34 + 0-456330 : +1-290028 : 1-24 +0-677674: +0:232723 : 0-36 +0-468457 +1°244562 : 1-26 +0-676757 : +0-217378 : 0-38 +0-480097 +1-202007 : 1-28 +0-675628 +0:202202 0-40 +0+491277 +1-161979: 1-30 +0-674289 : +0:187193: 0-42 +0-502019 : +1-124161 1-32 +0:672743 +0-172350 0:44 +0-512344 +1-088286 1-34 +0-670991 +0-157672 0-46 +0-522268 +1-054131 1-36 +0-669036 +0-143157 0-48 +0-531806 : +1-021505 1-38 +0-666879 : +0-128805 0-50 +0-540974 +0-990246 1-40 +0-664524 +0°114615 0-52 +0°549781 : +0-960213 1-42 +0-661971 : +0-100586 : 0-54 +0-558240: +0-931286 1-44 +0-659224 : +0-086719 0-56 +0-566360 : +0-903358 : 1-46 +0-656285 +0-073013 0-58 +0-574150: +0:876340 1-48 +0:653155 : +0-059467 : 0-60 +0-581618: +0°850149 1-50 +0-649838 +0-046083 0-62 +0-588771 : +0-824715 1-52 +0-646335 +0-032859 : 0-64 +0-595616 : +0-799975 1-54 +0-642649 +0-019797 : 0-66 +0-602159 +0°775873 : 1-56 -+-0-638781 : +0-006897 0-68 +0-608406 +0-752361 : 1-58 +0-634736 —0-005842 0-70 +0-614361 +0-729395 1-60 +0-630514 —0-018418 : 0-72 +0-620030 +0-706935 1-62 +0-626118: —0-030832 0-74 +0-625417 +0-684946 1-64 +0-621552 —0:043082 : 0-76 +0-630526 +0-663396 : 1-66 +0:616816 : —0:055168 : 0-78 +0-635361 +0-642258 1-68 +0-611914: —0-067090 0-80 +0-639926 +0-621505 : 1-70 +0-606849 —0:078846 : 0-82 +0-644224 : +0-601116 1-72 +0-601622 —0-090436 : 0-84 +0-648259 -+0-581068 : 1-74 +0:596236 : —0-101859 : 0-86 +0-652033 : +0-561345 1-76 +0-590695 —0-113114: 0-88 -+0-655550 +0-541927 : 1-78 +0-585000 : —0-124201 : 8 Rew SHOPNODARNS Se ae ee SCoooDSHaH ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 235 Bessel Functions. J4(x) and J_4(x)—cont. J4(x) J_4(x) x J4(z) J_3(z) +0:579155 —0-135119 2-98 | +0-074364 —0-456180 : +0-573161 : —0-145866 3:00 | +0-065008 —0:456049 -+0-567023 —0-156442 3°02 | -+0-055689 : —0-455741 +0-560741 : —0166846 : 3:04 | +0-046410: —0-455258 : +0:554320 : —0-177077 : 3-06 +0-037175 —0-454603 +0:547762 : —0:187135 3-08 -+0:027984 : —0°453775 +0-541070 —0-197018 3-10 +0-018843 —0-452776 +0-534246 : —0>206725 3°12 | +0-009753 —0-451608 +0-527294 : —0:216256 3-14 -++0-000717 —0-450271 : +0-520216: —0-225610 3:16 —0-008261 : —0:448769 +0-513016 —0-234785 : 3°18 —0-017180 : —0-447101 : +0-505696 —0-243782 : 3-20 —0-026036 : —0-445270: +0-498259 —0:252599 : 3°22 —0-034827 : —0-443277 : -+0-490708 —0-261236 3°24 —0-043550 : —0-441124: +0-483046 : —0-269691 : 3-26 —0:052203 —0-438813 +0-475276 : —0-277964 : 3:28 —0:060782 —0-436345 +0-467402 : —0-286055 3-30 —0-069285 —0-433722 +0-459426 —0-293962 3-32 —0:077710 —0-430945 : +-0-451351 —0:301684 : 3-34 —0;086054 —0-428018 +0-443180 : —0-309222 3-36 —0-094314 : —0-424941 +0-434917 : —0-316574 : 3-38 —0-102489 : —0-421716 : +0-426565 —0-323741 3-40 —0-110576 —0-418347 +0-418126 —0-330720: || 3-42 —0-118572 —0-414833 : +0-409604 —0:337513 | 3-44 —0-126475 : —0-411178 : +0-401001 : —0°344117: || 3-46 —0-134283 —0-407384 : +0:392322 : —0°350534 3-48 —0-141993 : —0-403453 +0-383570: —0:356762 3°50 —0-149604 : —0;399387 +0-374746 : —0-362801 : 3-52 —0-157113: —0-395187 : +0-365856 —0-368651 3°54 —0-164518 : —0-390857 : +0-356901 —0-374311 : 3°56 —0-171817: —0-386399 : +0°347885 : —0-379781 : 3°58 —0-179008 : —0-381815 +0-338812 —0:385062 3-60 —0-186089 : —0-377106 : +0-329684 —0-390151 : 3-62 —0-193058 : —0-372277 +0-320504 : —0-395051 4! || 3-64 —0-199913 : —0-367328 : +0-311277 —0-399760 3-66 —0-206652 : —0-362263 -+0-302005 —0-404278 : 3-68 —0-213274 —0-357083 : -+0-292691 —0-408606 3°70 —0-219776 : —0:351792 : +0:283339 —0-412743 3°72 —0-226157 : —0:346391 : +0-273951 : —0-416689 : 3°74 —0-232415 : —0-340884 : +0-264532 —0-420446 3-76 —0-238549 —0:335273 +0-255084 —0-424011: 3-78 —0-244557 —0-329560 +0-245610: —0:427387 : 3-80 —0-250437 —0°323748 +0-236114 : —0-430573 : 3-82 —0-256188 : —0-317839 : +0-226600 —0-433570 : 3°84 —0-261809 —0-311837 +0-217069 —0-436378 3°86 —0-267298 —0-305744 +0-207526 —0-438996 : 3°88 —0-272653 : —0-299562 +0-197973 —0:441427: 3-90 —0:277874 : —0-293294 : +0-188414 —0-443670 3-92 —0-282959 : —0-286944 +0:178852 —0:445725 : 3-94 —0-287908 —0-280513 +0-169290 —0-447594 : 3:96 —0-292718 : —0-274004 : +0-159731 : —0:449277 : 3-98 —0-297389 : —0:267421 : +0-150179 —0-450775 4-00 —0-301920: —0-260766 +0-140636 : —0-452087 : 4-02 —0-306310 : —0-254041 : +0-131106 : —0-453217 4-04 —0-310558 —0-247250 : +0:121592 —0-454163 4-06 —0-314662 : —0-240396 +0-112096 : —0°454927 4-08 —0:318623 : —0-233481 +0-102623 —0-455509 : 4-10 —0:322439 : —0-226507 : +0-093174 —0-455912 4-12 —0:326110 : —0-219479 : +0-083753 : —0-456135 : 4-14 —0-329635 : —0-212399 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. J4(z) —0-333014 —0-336245 —0-339328 : —0-342264 —0-345051 —0-347689 —0-350177 : —0°352517 —0-354706 : —0-356746 : —0-358636 : —0-360377 —0-361967 —0-363407 : —0-364698 : —0-365840 —0-366832 —0-367675 —0-368369 : —0-368915 : —0-369313 : —0-369564 : —0-369668 : —0-369626 : —0-369438 : —0-369106 —0-368629 —0-368008 : —0-367245 : —0-366341 —0-365295 : —0-364110 —0-362786 —0-361324 —0-359726 —0-357992 —0-356124 —0-354122 : —0-351989 : —0-349726 : —0-347334 —0-344814 —0-342168 —0-339397 —0-336508 : —0-333488 —0-330352 : —0-327099 —0-323728 : —0-320243 : —0-316645 : —0-312936 —0-309117 —0°305190 —0-301158 —0-297022 —0-292784 —0-288446 : —0-284011 Bessel Functions, J_4(x) —0-205269 —0-198092 : —0-190872 —0-183611 —0-:176312 : —0-168978 : —0.161612 : —0-154217 —0-146795 : —0-139350 —0-131884 : —0-124400 : —0-116902 —0-109391 : —0-101872 —0-094346 —0-086816 —0-079286 —0-071757 : —0-064234 : —0-056719 —0-049214 —0-041722 : —0-034247 —0-026790 —0-019355 —0-011943 : —0-004559 : +0-002795 +0-010117 : -+0-017405 +0-024655 : +0-031865 : +.0-039033 : +0-046156 +.0-053230 : +.0-060255 : +0-067228 +0-074145 : +0-081005 : +-0-087805 : +0-094544 +0-101217 : +0-107825 +.0-114363 : +0-120830 : +0-127224 : +0-133543 +0-139784 +0-145945 : +0-152025 +0-158021 : +0-163932 +0-169755 +0-175488 : +0-181131 +0-186680 +.0-192134 : +.0-197492 : J4(x) and J_3(x)—cont. bo bo SBSSSRSSSSRNS BPP ADAH AH HDAADAAPAD HDHD HO Bk BB iB Se 02 oo Gp oe to bo — fie >) J3(z) —0-279479 : —0-274854 : —0-270138 : —0-265332 : —0-260439 : —0-255461 —0-250400 —0-245258 : —0-240038 : —0-234742 —0-229372 —0-223930 : —0-218420 —0-212843 —0-207201 —0-201497 —0-195733 : —0-189913 —0-184037 : —0-178109 : —0-172132 —0-166107 —0-160037 —0-153924 : —0-147772 —0;141582 —0°135357 —0-129099 : —0-122812: —0-116498 —0-110158 —0-103796 : —0-097414 : —0-091015 : —0-084601 : —0-:078175 : —0-071739 : —0-065296 —0-058848 : —0-052398 —0-045948 : —0-039501 —0-033059 : —0-026625 —0-020201 —0-013789 : —0-007393 —0-001014 4-0-005345 +0-011681 : +0-017994 +0-024279 +.0-030534 : +.0-036758 : +.0-042948 : +0-049102 : +.0-055217 : +0-061292 +0-067323 J_3(z) +-0-202752 +0:207911 : +0:212969 : +-0-217925 +-0-222776 : +0-227520 +-0-232157 +0-236685 +0-241103 +0-245409 : +.0:249603 +.0-253683 +0-257647 : -+.0-261496 +.0-265227 -++0-268839 : +0-272333 +.0-275706 : +.0:278958 : +.0-282089 +0-285096 : +0-287980 : +0-290740 : +0-293375 : +.0-295885 : +0-298269 : +0-300527 : +0-302658 +.0-304661 : +-0-306538 +-0-308286 +-0-309906 -++0-311398 +0-312761 +0-313996 +0-315102 +0-316079 : +0-316928 : +.0:317649 +0-318241 +.0-318705 +0-319041 +0:319249 +0-319330 ++0-319284 +0-319111 : +0-318813 4+0°318389 +0-317840 +0:317166 : +.0-316369 +0:315449 +0:314406 : +0-313242 +0-311957 : +0-310552 : +-0-309029 ++0:307387 : +0-305629 6-94 IIs s sass IaISS RSDaRNORARMODS ® ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 237 Bessel Functions. J4(x) and J_,(x)—cont. J4(2) -4.0-073309 +0-079247 : +0-085136 : +0-090974 -+0-096757 : +0-102485 +0-108154 : +0-113764 +0-119311: +0-124795 +0-130212 : +0-135562 : +0-140842 : +0-146051 +0-151186 +0-156246 : +0-161229 : +0-166134 +0-170958 : +0-175701 +0-180359 : +0-184933 : +0-189420 : +0-193819 : +0-198129 +0-202347 +0-206473 +0-210505 +0-214442 : +0-218283 +0-222026 +0-225670 : +.0-229215 +.0-232659 +0-236000 : +0-239238 : +0-242373 +0-245402 : +0-248326 +0-251142: +0-253852 +0-256453 +0-258944 : +0-261326 : +0-263598 : +-0-265759 : +0°267808 : +0-269746 +0-271571 +0-273283 +0-274881 : +0-276366 : +0-277738 +0-278995 : +0-280138 : -+0-281167 +0-282081 +-0-282880 : +0-283565 : J_4(2) +0-299662 -+.0-287483 +.0-284723 +0-272650 +0-262551 +0-255345 +0-251605 +0-247776 +0-231604 +0-227356 +0-218627 +0-209601 +0-204981 +0-200293 +0-195538 +0-190719 +0-155356 +0-150097 +0-139445 +0-123166 -+-0-117668 +0-112138 -+-0-106578 +0-100991 +0-049839 +0-303754 : +0-301765 : +0-297446 : +-0-295119 : +0-292682 : +0-290136 : +0-281858 : +0-278890 : +-0-275820 : +0-269380 : +0-266013 : +0-258994 : +0-243859 : +0-239857 : +0-235771 : +0-223029 : +0-214150 : +0-185837 : +0-180895 : +0-175895 : +0-170839 : +0-:165729 : +0-160567 : +0-144792 : +0-134056 : +0-128629 : +0-095378 : +0-089742 : +0-084086 : +0-078411 : +0-072720: +0-067015 : +0-061298 : +0-055572 : PO Gp QD Bg GD BO Go gp GO Go GP GD BO OP op OP OP oP =I =3 x 7-70 7:72 7-74 7-94 On Pwdwwdrmnmhr Dy DHeHEHeHEHOOOCOOoo SSSRRSRSRRSaSewoeaEene 8-42 @2 0 GO GO CO GO GO OH GD HH & OQ. OHHODAIAAITVAEARSA'S PRWODOENODARDOS J4(x) +0-284135 : +0-284591 : +0-284932 : -+0-285160 +0-285273 +0-285272 : +-0-285158 +0-284931 +0-284591 +0-284138 : +-0-283574 +0-282898 : +0-282111: +0-281215 -++0-280208 : +-0-279093 +-0-277869 -++0-276537 : +-0-275099 : -+0-273555 : +0-271906 : +0-270153 : -+0:268297 -++0°266338 : +0-264279 -++0-262119 -+0-259860 +-0°257503 +0-255049 : -+-0-252500 -+0-249856 : +0-247119: +0-244291 +0-241372 +-0-238364 +-0-235268 -+0-232086 +0-228819 +0-225468 : -++0-222036 +-0-218523 : +0-214932 : -+0-211264 -+0-207520 +0-203702 +0-199812 +0-195851 : +0-191822 +0-187725 : +0-183564 +0-179338 : +0-175051 : +0-170704 : +0-166300 +0-161838 : +0-157323 : +-0-152755 : +0-148137 +0-143470: J-4(x) +0-044101 +-0-038360 +0:032618 : -++-0-026879 +0-021143 : +0-015414 : +-0-009694 + 0-003984 —0:001713 | —0-007394: | —0-013059 —0-018703 : —0-024327 —0-029926 —0-035499 : —0-041045 | —0-046560 —0-0520438 —0:057491: | —0-062903 : —0-068277 —0-073610: | —0-078901 : —0-084148 —0-089348 —0-094500 —0-099601 : —0-104651 : —0-109647 —0-114587 —0-119469 : —0-124293 —0-129055 —0-133754 : —0-138389 : —0-142958 : —0-147459: | —0-151891 —0-156251 : —0-160539 : —0+164754 —0+168892 : —0-172954 : —0-176937 : —0-180841 —0-184663 : —0-188404 —0-192060 —0-195631: | —0-199117 —0-202515 —0-205824 : —0-209044 : —0-212174 —0-215212 —0-218157 —0-221008 : —0-223766 —0-226427 : REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. Bessel Functions. J3(x) and J_4(x)—cont, 10-00 | 10-02 10-04 J 3(2) +0-138757 +0-133999 +0-129198 +0-124356 : +0-119476 -+0-114559 : +0-109607 : +0-104623 : +0-099608 : +0-094565 +0-089495 +0-084400 +0-079283 +0-074146 -+0-068990 +0-063818 : +0-058632 : + 0:053434 +0-048226 +0-043009 : +0:037787 : +0-032562 + 0:027334 : +0-022107 +0-016882 +0-011661 : +0-006447 : +0-001242 —0-003953 —0-:009135 —0-014303 —0:019454 —0-024587 —0:029699 —0-034788 : —0-039853 : —0-044892 —0-049902 —0-054882 —0-059830 —0-064743 : —0-069621 —0-074461 —0-079261 : —0-084020 —0-088735 : —0-093406 : —0-098030 —0-102605 : —0:107131 —0-111604 —0-116024 —0-120388 : —0-124696 : —0-128946 —0-133135 : —0-137263 : —0-141329 —0-145329 : J_4(x) —0-228993 : —0-231462 —0-233833 —0-236105 : —0-238278 : —0-240352 : —0-242325 : —0-244198 —0-245969 —0-247638 —0-249204 : —0-250668 : —0-252029 : —0-253287 : —0-254441 —0-255491 —0-256437 —0-257279 —0-258016 : —0-258649 : —0-259178 —0-259602 : —0-259922 : —0-260138 —0-260250 —0-260257 : —0-260161 : —0-259962 —0-259659 —0-259254 —0-258746 —0-258136 —0:257424 : —0-256612 —0-255698 : —0-254685 : —0-253573 —0-252362 —0-251052 : —0-249646 —0-248142 : —0-246543 : —0-244850 —0-243062 —0-241180: —0-239207 —0-237142 :° —0-234987 —0-232743 —0-230410 : —0-227990 : —0-225485 —0-222894 : —0-220220 : —0-217464 —0-214626 : —0-211709 —0-208713 —0-205639 : J3(2) —0-149264 : —0-153132 —0-156931 —0-160659 : —0-164317 —0-167901 : —0-171412 : —0-174848 —0-178207 —0-181488 : —0-184691 —0-187814 —0-190855 : —0-193815 : —0-196692 : —0-199485 : —0-202193 : —0-204815 : —0-207351 —0-209799 —0-212158 : —0-214429 —0-216609 : —0-218700 —0-220699 —0-222606 —0-224421 —0-226143 —0-227771 : —0-229306 —0-230746 : —0-232092 —0-233343 —0-234498 —0-235557 : —0-236521 —0-237389 —0-238160 —0-238835 —0-239413 : —0-239895 —0-240280 : —0-240569 : —0-240761 : —0-240857 : ~ —0-240857 : —0-240761 —0-240569 —0-240281 —0-239898 —0-239420 —0-238847 : —0-238180 : —0-237420 —0-236566 —0-235619 —0-234580 —0-233449 : —0-232227 : J_3() —0-202490 : —0-199267 —0-195970 : —0-192602 —0-189164 —0-185657 —0-182082 : —0-178443 —0-174739 : —0-170973 : —0-167146 : —0-163260 : —0-159317 —0-155317 : —0-151264 —0-147158 —0-143001 —0-138795 —0-134542 —0:130243 : —0-125901 —0-121517 —0-117092 : —0-112630 —0-108131 —0-103597 : —0-099031 : —0-094434 —0-089808 —0-085155 —0-080476 : —0-075774 : —0-071051 : —0-066308 : —0-061548 : —0-056772 : —0-051982 : —0-047181 —0-042369 : —0-037550 —0-032724 : —0-027894 : —0-023062 : —0-018230 —0-013399 : —0-008572 —0-003750 ++0-001064 : +0-005870 +.0-010664 : +.0-015446 +0-020213 +0-024963 +0-029694 : +.0-034406 +.0-039095 +0-043760 +.0-048399 +0-053011 De a ee pel ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 239 Bessel Functions, J3(z) and J_4(z)—cont. J3(z) —0-230915 —0-229513 —0-228022 —0-226442 : —0-224775 : —0-223022 —0-221182: —0-219258 —0-217249 : —0-215157 : —0-212983 : —0-210728 : —0-208393 : —0-205979 : —0-203487 —0-200918 —0-198278 : —0-195554 —0-192761 : —0-189897 —0-186961 : —0-183956 : —0-180883 —0-177743 —0-174537 : —0-171267 : —0-167935 —0-164541 —0-161087 : —0-157575 —0-154006 —0-150381 : —0-146703 —0-142972 —0-139190: —0-135360 —0-131481 : —0-127557 —0-123588 : —0-119577 —0-115525 —0-111433 —0-107308 : —0-103138 —0-098938 : —0-094706 : —0-090443 —0-086151 —0-081831 : —0-077486 : —0-073118 —0-068727 —0-064315 : —0-059886 —0-055439 : —0-050978 : —0-046504 —0-042018 : —0-037523 : J_3(2) +-0-057593 +0-062144 : +0-066662 : +0-071146 : +0-075594 +0-080008 : +0-084373 +0-088701 : +0-092987 +0-097228 +0-101422 : +0-105569 : +0-109667 +0-113713 : +0-117708 +0-121648 +0-125533 +0-129361 : +0-133131 : +0-136842 +0-140491 : +0-144078 : +0-147602 +0-151060 : ++-0-154453 -+0-157778 +0-161034 : +0-164221 : +0-167337 +0-170381 +0-173351 : +0-176248 +0-179069 +0-181814 : +0-184482 +0-187072 +0-189583 +0-192014 +0-194364 : +0-196633 : +0-198820 +0-200924 +0-202944 -+0-204880 -+0-206730 : +0-208496 +0-210175 +0-211768 +0-213273 : +0-214691 : +0-216021 : +0-217263 +0-218416 +0-219480 +0-220454 : +0-221339 : +0-222134 : +0-222840 +0-223455 : -_ SS i for) J3(z) —0-033020 : —0-028511 : —0-023998 : —0:019483 —0-014967 : —0-010452 : —0-005941 —0-001434 : +0-003066 +0-007557 : +0-012039 : +0-016509 +0-020965 : +0-025406 +0-029829 : +0-034234 : +0-038618 : +0-042980 +0-047318 +0-051630 : +0-055915 +0:060171 +0-064396 +0-068589 +0-072748 : +0-076872 +0-080958 : +0-085006 : +0-089014 +0-092980 +0-096903 -+0-100781 +0-104613 +0-108397 : +0-112133 +0-115818 +0-119451 +0-123031 +0-126556 +0:130025 : +0-133438 +-0-136792 +0-140086 +0-143319 : +0-146490 : +0-149599 +0-152642 : +0-155620 : +0-158532 : +0-161376 : +0-164151 : +0-166857 : +0-169492 : +0-172056 +0-174547 +0-176965 -+0-179308 : +0-181577 +0-183769 : J_3(z) +0:223980 : +0-224415 : +0-224760 +0-225014 : +0-225179 +0-225253 +0-225237 : +0-225131 : +0-224936 +0-224651 : +0:-224277 : +0-223814: +0-223263 +0-222623 : +0-221896 +0-221081 +0-220179 +0-219190 : +0-218116 : +0-216957 +0-215712: +0-214384 +0-212972 +0-211477 +0-209900 +0-208242 +0-206503 +0-204684 : -++0-202787 : +0-200812 +0-198759 : +0-196631 +0-194427 +0-192149 -+0-189797 : -+0-187374 +0-184879 : +0-182315 +0-179681 : +0-176980 : +0-174213 +0-171380 +0-168483 +0-165523 +0-162501 +0-159419 +0-156278 : +0-153079 : +0-149824 : +0-146515 +0-143151 : +0-139736 +0-136269 : +0-132754 +0-129191 +0-125581 : +0-121927 | +0-1182289 : +0-114490 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. Bessel Functions. J3(x) and J_4(x)—cont. J}(z) +0-185885 : -+-0-187924 : -++0-189885 +0-191767 +0-193570 +0-195293 -+0-196935 : -+0-198496 : +0-199976 : +0-201374 : -++0-202690 +0-203923 -+0-205072 : +0-206138 : +0-207120 : +0-208018 : +0-208832 : -+0-209561 : -++0-210206 -++0-210766 +0-211240: +0-211630 : +0-211935 +0-212155 +0-212289 : +0-212339 : +0-212304 : +0-212184 : +-0-211980 +0°211691 : +0-211318 : +0-210862 +0-210322 +0-209698 : +0-208992 : -+0-208204 -+0-207338 : +0-206381 +0-205348 +0-204234 +0-203040 +0-201767 +0-200415 +0-198985 +0-197477 : +0-195893 +0-194232 : +0-192497 +0-190687 +0-188803 +0-186846 : -+-0-184818 +0-182718 : +0-180549 +0-178310 : +0-176003 : +0-173629 : +0-171189 : +0-168684 ; J_4(x) +0-110710: +0-106892 : +0-103037 +0-099146 : -+0-095222 +0-091265 -++0-087277 : +0-083261 +0-079217 +0-075147 : +0-071053 : +0-066937 : +0-062800 : +0-058644 +0-054470 : -+0-050281 ; +0-046078 +0-041862 : -+0:037636 +0-033401 +0-029158 : +0-024910 +0-020658 +0-016404 +0-012149 +0-007895 : +0-003645 —0-000601 —0-004841 —0-009073 —0-013295 : —0-017506 : —0-021704: —0-025888 : —0-030055 : —0‘034205 : —0-038335 : —0-042444 : —0-046531 —0:050593 —0-054629 : —0-058638 : —0-062618 : —0-066567 : —0-070485 —0-074369 —0-078218 —0-082030 —0-085804 : —0-089539 —0-093233 —0-096885 —0-100493 —0-104056 —0-107572 : —0-111041 : —0-114461 —0-117830 : —0-121148 ; J4(x) +0-166115 : +0-163483 : -++0-160790 +0-158036 +0°155222 : -++0-152350 : -++0-149422 -+0-146437 : -+0:143398 : -++0-140306 : -+0-137162 : -+0-133967 : +0-130724 +0-127432 +0-124094 +0-120710: -+-0-117283 : -+0°113814 : +0-110304 -+0-106754 : +0-103167 +0-099543 +0-095884 -+0-092191 : -+0-088467 +0-084712 +0-080928 : +0-077117 +0-073280 -++0-069419 +0-065535 -+-0-061630 +0-057705 : +0-053763 +0-049804 +0-045830 +0-041843 ; +0-037845 +0-033836 : +0-029819 : +0-025796 -+0-:021767 : +0-017735 : +0-013701 : -+-0-009667 +0-005634 +0-001603 : —0-002422 —0-006442 —0-010454 —0-014456 : —0-018448 : —0-022428 —0-026393 : —0-030348 : —0-034276 —0-038190 : —0-042084 : —0-045956 : J_3(z) —0-124418 : —0-127624 —0-130780 —0-133879 —0-136920 : —0-139903 —0-142826 —0-145688 —0-148488 —0-151225 —0-153897 : —0-156505 : —0-159047 : —0-161522: —0-163929 : —0-166268 —0-168537 —0-170736 —0-172863 : —0-174919: —0-176903 —0-178813 —0-180649 —0:182410: —0-184097 —0-185708 —0-187242 : —0-188700 —0-190080 : —0-191383 : —0-:192608 —0-193754 —0-194821 : —0-195809 : —0-196718 : —0-197547 —0-198296 —0-198965 —0-199553 : —0-200061 : —0-200489 —0-200836 —0-201102 : —0-201288 —0-201393 —0:201417: —0-201361 : —0-201225 —0-201008 : —0-200712 —0-200336 —0-199880 —0-199345 —0-198731 —0-198038 : —0-197267 : —0-196419 —0-195493 —0-194490 : ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 41 Bessel Functions. J}(x) and J_4(%)—cont. x J4(x) J_}(z) x J4(x) J_4(x) 15-96 | —0-049806 —0:193411 17-14} —0-190871 —0-026656 : 15-98 | —0-053630 —0-192256 17:16 | —0-191254 : —0-022820 : 16:00 | —0-057428 : —0-191025 : 17-18 | —0-191561 —0-018980 16:02 | —0-061199 —0-:189720 17-20 | —0-191790: —0-015136 : 16:04 | —0-064940 : —0-188341 17-22 | —0-191943 : —0-011291: 16:06 | —0-068651 —0-186888 17-24 —0-192019: —0-007446 : 16-08 | —0-072330 —0-185362 : 17-26 | —0-192018: —0-003602 : 16-10 | —0:075975 —0:183764 : 17-28 | —0-191941 +0-000238 16-12 | —0-079585 : —0-182095 17:30 | —0-191787 +0-004074 16-14 | —0+083160 —0-180355 : 17-32 | —0-191556: +0:007904 : 16-16 | —0-086696 : —0-178545 : 17:34 | —0-191249: +0-011727 16-18 | —0-090194 —0-176667 17:36 | —0-190867 +0:015540 : 16:20; —0-093651 —0-174720 17:38 | —0-190408 +0-019343 16-22 | —0-097066 : —0-172705 : 17-40 | —0-189874 +0-023134 16:24 | —0-100439 —0-1706264 : 17-42 | —0-189264 : +0-026911 16:26 | —0-103767: —0-168478 17-44} —0-188580: -+0-030673 16-28 | —0-107050 —0-166267 17-46 | —0-187821: +0-034418 : 16-30 | —0-110286 —0-163992 17-48 | —0-186988 : +0-038146 16-32 | —0-113474 —0-161654 : 17:50 | —0-186082 +0-041854 16:34 | —0-116613 —0:159255 : 17-52 | —0-185102 +-0-045541 16-36 | —0-119701 —0-156795 : 17:54 | —0-184049 +0-049205 : 16-38 | —0-122738 —0-154276 17-56 | —0-182924 +0:052846 : 16-40 | —0-125722 —0-151698 17-58 | —0-181727 +0-056462 16-42 | —0-128652 —0-149062 : 17-60 | —0-180459 +0-060051 16-44 | —0-131527: —0-146370 : 17-62 | —0-179120: +0-063611 : 16:46 | —0-134346: —0-143623 : 17-64 | —O-177711: +-0-067143 16-48 | —0-137109 —0-140822 : 17-66 | —0-176233: +0-070643 : 16-50 | —0-139813 —0-137969 17:68 | —0-174686 : +0-074112 16°52 | —0-142458 —0-135068 : 17:70 | —0-173071: +0:077546 : 16:54 | —0-145042 : —0-132107 : 17-72 | —0-171389 +0-080946 : 16-56 | —0-147566: —0-129102 17-74 | —0-169640: +0-084310 : 16:58 | —0-150028 —0-126049 17-76 | —0-167826 +0-087636 : 16-60 | —0-152427 —0-122949 : 17-78 | —0-165946 +0-090924 : 16-62 | —0-154762 —0-119804 : 17-80 | —0-164002 : +0-094172 16-64 | —0-157032: —0:116615 : 17:82 | —0-161995 : +0-097378 16-66 | —0-159238 —0-113383 : 17:84 | —0-159926 +0-100542 16-68 | —0-161376: —0-110110 17:86 | —0-:157794: +0-103662 16:70} —0-163448 : —0-106796 : 17-88 | —0-155603 + 0-106737 : 16-72 | —0-165452 : —0-103444 : 17:90 | —0-153351: +0-109766 : 16-74 | —0-167388 —0-100055 : 17:92 | —0-151041: +0-112748 : 16-76 | —0-169254 : —0;096630 17:94 | —0-148673 : +0-115682 16-78 | —0-171051 —0:093170 : 17-96 | —0-146248 : +0-118566 16-80 | —0-172777: —0-089677 : 17:98 | —0-143768 +0-121399 : 16-82 | —0-174432: —0-086153 18:00 | —0-141233 +0-124181 : 16-84 | —0-176016 —0-082598 18:02 | —0-138644 : +0-126910 : 16-86 | —0-177527 —0-079014 : 18-04 | —0-136003 +0-129586 16-88 | —0-178965: —0-075404 18:06 | —0-133310: +0-132206 : 16:90 | —0-180331 —0-071767 : 18:08 | —0-130567 : +0-134772 : 16:92 | —0-181623 —0-068106 | 18:10} —0-127775: +0-137280 16:94 | —0-182840: —0-064422 : 18-12 | —0-124935: +0:139730 : 16:96 | —0-183983 : —0-060717 18-14 | —0-122049 +0-142123 16-98 | —0-185052 —0-056992 18-16 | —0-119116: +0:144455 : 17:00 | —0-186045 : —0-053248 : 18-18 | —0-116140 +0-146728 17-02 | —0-186963 —0-049488 18-20 | —0-113120 +0:148939 : 17-04 | —0-187805 —0-045712 18-22 | —0-110058 : +0-151089 17:06 | —0-188571 —0-041922 : 18-24 | —0-106956 +0-153175 : 17-08 | —0-189260: —0-038120 : 18:26 | —0-103814: +0-155199 17:10 | —0-189874 —0-034308 18-28 | —0-100635 +0-157158 117-12 | —0-190411 —0-030486 18-30 | —0-097418 ; +0-159052 1925 R 242 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. Bessel Functions. J}(x) and J_4(x)—cont. fe J4(x) J_4(x) x J4(2) J_}(x) 18:32 | —0-094167 +0-160880 : 19-18 | +0-059112: +0:172329 : 18:34 | —0-090881 +0-162643 19-20 | -+0-062514 : +0-171024 18:36 | —0-087562 : +0-164338 : 19-22 | -+0-065888 +0-169651 18:38 | —0-084212: +0-165966 : 19-24 | -+0-069232 +0-168212 18-40 | —0-080832 : +0-167526 19-26 | -+0-072544 -+-0-166707 : 18-42 | —0-077424 +0-169017 : 19-28 | -+0-075824 : -+0-165137 : 18-44) —0-073988 : -+-0-170439 : 19-30 | -+-0-079070: +0-163503 18-46 | —0-070526: +0:171792 19-32 | -+0-082282 +0-161805 : 18-48 | —0-067040: +0-173074 19:34 | +-0-085457 : +0-160044 : 18:50 | —0-063531 : -+0-174286 19-36 | +0-088595 +0-158222 18:52 | —0-060001 +0:175427 19-38 | -+0-091694 +0-156337: | 18-54 | —0-056450 : +0-176496 : 19-40} -+0-094753 : +0-154393 18:56 | —0-052881 +0:177494 : 19-42 | +0-097772 +0-152388 : 18-58 | —0-049294 +0-178420 : 19-44} -+0-100748 +0-150325 : 18-60 | —0-045691 : +0:179274 19-46} -+0-103681 +0-148204 : 18-62 | —0-042074 : -++0-180055 19-48 | -+0-106569 : +0-146026 : 18-64 | —0-038444: +0-180768 : 19-50 | +0-109412 +0-143792 18-66 | —0-034803 +0-181399 19-52 | -+0-112208 : +0-141502 : 18-68 | —0-031151: +0-181961 19:54 | -+0-114957 +0-139159 18-70 | —0-027492 +0-182450 19:56 | -+0-117656: +0:136762 : 18-72 | —0-023825 +0:182865 : 19-58 | +0-120307 +0:134313 : 18-74 | —0-020152 +0-183207 : 19-60 | -+0-122906 +0-131813 18-76 | —0-016475: +0-183476 19-62 | +0-125453 : +0-129263 18-78 | —0-012796 +0-183671 19:64) +0-127948: +0-126663 : 18-80 | —0-009115: +0-183792 : 19-66 | +0-130389: +0-124016 : 18-82 | —0-005435 +0-183840 19-68 | -+0-132776 +0-121322 18-84 | —0-001756: +0-183814 : 19-70 | -++-0-135107 +0-118582 : 18-86 | -+0-001919 +0-183715 : 19:72 | +.0-137382 +0-115798 18:88 | -+0-005589 : +0-183543 19:74 | +0-139599 : +0-112970 18-90 | -+0-009254 +0-183297 : 19-76 | . +0-141759 +0-110100 18-92 | -+0-012911 +0-182979 19:78 | +0-143859 : +0-107188 : 18:94 | +0-016559 +0-182587 : 19:80 | -+0-145901 +0-104237 : 18-96 | -+0-020196 : +0-182124 19-82} -+0-147881: +0-101247 : 18-98 | +0-023822: +0-181587 : 19-84 | -+0-149801 : +0-098220 : 19:00 | +0-027434 : +0-180979 : 19:86 | +0-151659 +0-095157 19-02 | +0-031032 -++-0-180300 19-88 | +0-153454 : +0-092058 : | 19-04 | +0-034613: +0-179549 19:90 | -++0-155187 +0-088926 : | 19:06 | +0-038177 : +0-178727 19-92 | -+-0-156855 : +0-085762 : /19-08 | -+0-041722 +0-177834 : 19:94 | +0-158459 : +0-082567 | 19-10 | +0-045246 : +0-176872 19-96 | -+0-159999 +0-079341 : /19-12| +0-048749 +0-175839 : 19-98 | -+0-161473 +0-076088 | 19-14 | -+0-052228 : +0-174738 | 20:00 | +0-162881 -++0-072807 19-16 | -}-0-055683 : +0:173568 ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 243 Lommel-Weber Functions (2,(<) and Q_;(z). The Lommel-Weber function Qy (z) is defined by the integral > )sin (% sin @ J 0 —vo)do. The function Ey (%)= —7Q4(x) was employed by H. F. Weber * in his paper on ‘The Theory of Fresnel’s Interference-phenomena.’ For small values of the argument (21(x) and ©_3(x) were calculated from the ascending series, viz. : Q4y(x) = X4(x) — ITy (x) and Q._4(%) = X3(x) + II;(2). . _2(2u (22)3 (20) ) as x2) = 215 My Fa ‘ _2( (Qn)? (Qx)h (2x8 ) mde) ileg 5 Use To Sere eee | For large values, the two functions were computed from the relations 7 | X4 (20) = C(x)I4(x) — S(x) .T_4(z) . and IJ}(x) = C(a)J_4(x) + S(x).J4(x). O4(2) = — T_a(z) +2 { Bate) + Aula) O24(x)= Iy(x) + 2 {Ba(e)— Ave) } BN (py else te asa heo eet ) where By(z) = 7/1 (xy (2x)8 ~ a6 --E A OE and Ay(z) — 1 {1 1.3.5, 1.3.5.7.9__ | x|2Qe (2x)% - (2x)5 (Nagel : An independent calculation was made from the asymptotic expansions, | _ Asymptotic series begin by converging, but eventually become divergent. If the "remaining terms after the smallest be omitted, the sum of the terms already found 4 presents the value of the function with an error less than the last included term, a it is generally supposed that the degree of approximation cannot be carried beyond this point. In the case of asymptotic series where the signs of the coefficients are- alternately positive and negative, a much closer degree of accuracy can be secured by breaking up the divergent part of the asymptotic expansion into more tractable series, whose summation can be effected by Euler’s method. By this method, a ‘ converging factor ’ can be found which usually takes the form } + a + at thine The product of the least term and the ‘ converging factor’ is equivalent to the divergent part of the series. Even for small values of x, three or four places of decimals can be added to the value of the function obtained by confining the calculation to the convergent terms. For the asymptotic series, when x=2n-+«, WSOPE HUT) 1. TM 0) al aa), eR (a * Vierteljahrsschrift der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Ziirich. Band 24, 1879. Rk 2 ZA REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. the ‘converging factor’ is 1 lod 1 2a t aplat 2-8") + gape gate) When = is an even integer 2n, this becomes st vag enttany! | s 311 _ 1069 24451 4397 4(2x)? 2(2a)8 ~— 8(2x)4 9 4 (Dx)5 — W6(Qa)@ 4(Da)7 * * When 2 is an odd integer 2n — 1, Nigar! 9 11 49 281 at + + For the asymptotic series, when + = 2n + a, 11.3.5 1.3.5.7.9 Qe (2x)? ss (Dx)® SE pee the ‘ converging factor’ is 1 ner Ri 4 42007 _ 142323 2a 4(2r)2? 2(2x)8 8(2ax)4 2(2x)5 16(2x)6 4(Qn)? “°° ata, (1-#) + oa(—gt4e—o?) + oo ( > — 17a + 622) a or when # = 2n + 1, & an odd integer, the series . . when a = 2n, x an even integer, the series . . The functions A(x) and B4(x) are closely related to the Confluent Hyper- +3.) geometric function M (1 = 14204 ORY 4 Coy, Crt eee. The asymptotic expansion is Pray Abad kia al Mus eS eile GP Re / ) : Afra + 3 13 + 3-5 (anh * Ro i A table of M (1.4.2) has been constructed from these series, the latter with a ‘ converging factor’ for large values of the argument. oe ee we ae ee ee x QO4(2) Q_4(x) | « Q4(x) [Prams per rete Sek | Pee ee eA RENE See | [Tans v Vaaeu, Soreaen 6 eee an 0:00 | —0-636620 | +0-636620 | 0:34 | —0-474735: 0-02 —0-628064 +0-645039: || 0:36 —0-464261 0-04 —0-619375 -+-0-653321 : 0-38 —0-453698 : 0-06 —0-610554 : +0-661463 0-40 —0:443051 0-08 —0-601605 : +0-669462 0-42 —0-432321 : 0-10 —0-592530 : +0-677316 0-44 —0-421513 0-12 —0-583331 : + 0-685023 0:46 —0-410628 0-14 —0-574011 : +0-692581 : 0-48 —0-399670 : 0-16 —0-564573 +0-699988: || 0-50 —0-388643 | 0-18 | —0-555019 +0-707242: | 0:52 | —0-377548: 0-20 —0:545351 +0:714341: || 0-54 | —0-366390: 0:22 —0-535573 +0-721284 0:56 | —0:355171: 0-24 —0-525687 -+0-728067 0-58 —0-343895 : 0-26 —0-515695 : +0-734690 || 0-60 —0-332565 0-28 —0-505602 +0-741150 : 0-62 —0:321183 : 0:30 —0-495409 +0:747447 0-64 —0:309753 : 0-32 —0-485119 +0-753578 0-66 —0:298279 : Q_}4(z) +0-759541 : +0-765336 -+-0-770960 : -++0:776413 -+0-781692 : +-0-786797 +0-791726 +0-796478 +0-801052 +0-805446 : -+0-809660 +0-813692 : +0-817542 : +0-821209 : +0-824692 +0-827989 : +0-831101 : Aitdadal 2.0) aaa ae MOO AAAAUARDSSSSAAAAARHRARA ESSSSERVSSSESSLSSRSSSESESS ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 245 Lommel-Weber Functions. (4(x) and Q_4(x)—cont. | Q4(z) Q_4(x) x Q4(z) Q_4(x) —0-286763: | +40-834027: || 1:86 | +0-351472 +0-684430 —0-275209 | +0-836766 ° || 1:88 | +0-359781: | -+0-677081: —0:263620 +0-839317 | 1-90 | +0-367955 +0-669609 : —0-251998: | +0-841680 1-92 | -++0:375990: | -+0-662016: —0-240349 +0-843854: || 1:94 | +0-383887 +0-654306 —0-228674 +0-845840: || 1-96 | +0-391641: | +0-646479: —0-216976: | +0-847637 | 1-98 | +0-399953 +-0-638540 : —0-205260: | +0-849244 2:00 | +0-406719 +0-630491 —0-193529 +0-850661: | 2-02 | +0-414038: | +0-622334 —0-181785 +0-851889 2-04 | +0-421209: | +0-614072 —0-170032 +0-852926: | 2:06 | -+0-428230 -+-0-605707 : —0-158273: | +0-853774 || 2-08 | +0-435099 +0-597243 : —0:146512 +0-854431: || 2-10 | +40-441814: | +0-588683 —0-134751: | +0-854899: || 2:12 | +0-448375 +0-580028 : —0-122995 +0-855177: || 2:14 | +0-454779 +-0-571283 —0-111246 +0-855266 2:16 | +0-461026 | +0-562449 —0-099507: | +0-855165: | 218 | +0-467113: | -0-553529 : —0-087783 +0-854875: | 220 | +0-473040: | +0-544528 —0-076075 +0-854397 2-22 | +0-478806 +0-535446 —0-064387: | -+0-853730: || 2:24 | +0-484409 +0-526288 —0-052724 +0-852876: || 2-26 | +0-489848 +0-517056 —0-041086: | +0-851835 2-28 | +40-495122: | +0-507753 —0-029479: | -10-850607 2:30 | -++0-500230: | -+0-498382 : —0-017905 +0:849193: | 2:32 | +0-505171: | --0-488947 —0-006367: | -+0-847594 2:34 | +0-509945 +0-479449 : +0-005131 +0-845811 2-36 | +0-514549: | +0-469893 : +0-016587 +0-843843: | 2:38 | +0-518985 +0-460281 : +0-027997 +0-841694 2-40 | +0-523249: | +0-450617 +0-039358: | -+0-839362 2-42 | +40-527343: | +0-440902: +0-050667: | +0-836850 || 2-44 | +0-531266 +0-431141 : +0-061922 +0-834157: || 2-46 | +0:535016: | -++0-421337: +0-073118 +0-831287 2-48 | -+0-538594 +0-411492 : +0-084253: | +0-828238: | 2:50 | +0-541998: | -+0-401610 +0-095324: | +0-825013: | 2:52 | +0-545229 +0-391693 : +0-106328: | +0-821614 || 2:54 | -L0-548286 +0-381746 +0-117262: | -+0-818040: || 2:56 | -.0-551169 +0-371770 +0-128123 +0-814294: || 2:58 | +0-553877: | +0-361769 +0-138908 -+0-810378 2-60 | +0-556411 | +0-351746: +0-149614: | +0-806291: || 2-62 | -+.0-558770 +.0-341705 +0-160239 +0-802037: || 2-64 | +0-560954 +-0-331648 +0+170779 +0-797616: || 266 | +0-562963: | -+0-321578: +0-181232 +0-793031 2-68 | -+0-564798 +0-311499 : +0-191595 +0-788282: || 2-70 | +0-566457: | -+0-301414 +0-201865 +0-783372 || 2-72 | -+0-567943 +-0-291325 +0-212039: | +0-778302: || 2:74 | +0-569953: | --0-281936 +0-222116 +0-773075 2-76 | +0:570390: | -10-271150 +0-232091: | +0-767691 2-78 | +0-571353: | +0-261070 +0-241963: | +0-762153: || 2-80 | +0-572143 -+-0-250998 : +0-251730 +0-756463: || 282 | +0:572759: | +0-240939 : +0-261388 +0-750623: || 2-84 | +0:573203: | -0-230895: +0-270934: | +0-744635 2-86 | +0:573475: | +0-220869: +0-280368 > | +0-738501 2:88 | +0-573576 +-0-210865 +.0-289686 +0-732222: || 290 | -10-573506 +0-200884 +0-298885: | +0-725802: || 2-92 | +0-573266 +-0:190930 : +0:307964: | -+40-719243 2-94 | +0-572857 -+-0-181007 +0-316920: | +0-712545: || 2-96 | -10-572279 +0-171117 +0:325751: | -+0-705713: || 2-98 | +0-571533: | +-0-161262: -+0-334455 +0-698748: | 3:00 | +0-570621: | +0-151446: +0-343029: | +0-691653: | 3-02 | +0-569543: | +0-141673 246 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. Lommel-Weber Functions. (4(x) and Q_3(”)—cont. a Oy(2) QO_4(2) w O4(2) O_4(2) 3:04 +0:568301 --+0-1319438 : 4:22 + 0:264430 —0-276967 3:06 +0:566894 : -+0-122262 4-24 -+0:-256738 : —0-280015 3:08 -+-0:565325 : +0-112630 : 4-26 +0-249016 —0-282912: 3:10 +0-563595 +0-103052 : 4-28 +0:241265 —0:285658 : 3:12 +0-561704 : -+0:093530 4-30 +0:233488 : —0-288253 : 3:14 +0-559655 : -+0-084066 : 4-32 +0:225689 —0:290696 : # 3-16 +0-557448 «+0-074664 : 4-34 -++0:217869 : —0-292987 : 3:18 +0-555085 +0:065326 4:36 +0:210032 : —0:295127 3-20 + 0:552567 +0-056055 4:38 +0:202181: —0:297115 3:22 -++-0-549895 +0-046853 4-40 +0-194319 —0-298951 3-24 +0-547071 : +0:037723 4-42 +0-186447 : —0-300635 3:26 +0-544098 -+0-028668 4-44 -+0-178570 —0-302168 3°28 -+0-540975 : +0-019690 4-46 -+0:170689 : —0-303549 : 3°30 +-0:5377085 : -+0:010791 : 4-48 -+0:162809 —0-304779 : 3°32 +0:534290 : +0-001975 : 4-50 -++0-154930 : —0:305859 3°34 +-0:530731 : —0-006756 4-52 -+0:147057 : —0:306788 3°36 +0-527030 : —0-015400 : 4-54 -+0:139192 : —0-307567 3:38 +0-523189 : —0:023955 : 4:56 +0:131338 —0:308196 : 3°40 +0-519210 : —0-032418 : 4-58 ++ 0-123497 —0-308677 3°42 +0-515094 : —0-040787 : 4-60 +0:115672 : —0-309008 : 3-44 +0-510844 —0-049060 : 4-62 +0:107867 —0-309192 : 3°46 +0-506461 : —0:057234 4-64 +0:100083 —0:309229 3°48 -+0-501948 —0-065307 : 4-66 +0:092323 —0:309119 3°50 +0-497306 : —0-073277 : 4-68 +0:084590 : —0-308863 : 3°52 +0-492538 —0-081142 : 4-70 -+-+0-076887 : —0-308462 : 3°54 +0-487645 : —0-088900 4-72 +0:069216 : —0:307917 : 3-56 +0-482631 —0-096548 : 4-74 +0-061581 —0-307229 3°58 +0-477496 : —0-104085 : 4-76 +0-053982 : —0:306398 : 3-60 +0-472244 : —0-111509 : 4-78 +0:046424 —0:305426 : 3°62 -+0-466876 ; —0-118818 : 4-80 -++0:038908 —0:304314 : 3:64 | +0-461395 : —0:126010: 4-82 +0:031437 : —0-303062 : 3°66 +0-455804 —0-133083 : 4-84 +0:024014 : —0-301673 3:68 +0-450108 : —0-140036 4-86 +0:016641 : —0:300146 : 3°70 +0-444297 —0-146866 4-88 +0-009321 —0:298484 3°72 +0-438387 —0-153572 4:90 +0-002055 : —0-296687 : 3-74 -+0-432375 : —0-160152 : 4-92 —0:005152 : —0-294757 : 3°76 +0-426265 —0-166606 4-94 —0-012300 : —0-292695 : 3-78 +0-420058 : —0-172930 : 4-96 —0-019387 —0-290508 : 3°80 -+0-413758 —0:179124 : 4-98 —0-026409 —0-288182 3°82 ++ 0-407366 —0-185187 5-00 —0-033364 —0-285733 : 3°84 +0-400885 : —0-191116 5-02 —0:040250 : —0-283159 3°86 +0-394318 : —0-196910: 5-04 —0-:047066 —0-280459 : 3-88 +-0-387668 —0:202569 : 5-06 —0-053808 —0:277637 : 3-90 -++0-380937 —0-208091 5-08 —0-060474 —0:274694 3-92 +0-374127 —0-213474 : 5-10 —0-067063 —0-271631 3-94 +0-367242 —0-218718 : 5-12 —0-:073572 : —0-268450 : 3-96 --+0:360283 : —0-223822 5-14 —0-080000 —0-265153 : 3:98 +0-353255 —0-228784 5:16 —0-086348 : —0:261742 4-00 -+0-346159 —0-233603 : 5-18 —0-:092601 : —0-258218 : 4-02 +0-338998 —0-238279 5-20 —0:098772 —0-254583 : 4-04 +0-331775 —0-242810 5-22 —0-104853 —0-250840 : 4-06 +0-324492 : —0-247196 5-24 —0:110842 : —0-246990 4-08 -+-0-317153 : —0-251436 5-26 —0-116739 —0-24303¢4 : 4-10 -+-0-309760 = —0-255528 : 5-28 —0-122540 —0-238976 : 4-12 +0-302316 : —0-259474 530 —0-128244 : —0-234817 4-14 +0-294824 : —0-263271 5-32 —Q-133850: —0-230559 4-16 -+-0-287287 —0-266919 : 5334 —0-139356 : —0-226203 : 4-18 +0-279707 —0-270418 : 5:36 —0+144760 : —0-221754 4-20 +0-272087 | —0-273768 5:38 —0-150061 : —0-217211 6-24 SESSESESESSELSSE PRRARAARRAARAADOS ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 247 Lommel-Weber Functions. (4(%) and Q_4(x)—cont. Qy(2) —0-155257 : —0-160347 —0-165328 : —0-170201 —0-174963 —0-179613 —0-184149 : —0-188572 —0-192878 : —0-197068 : —0-201140: —0-205093 : —0-208927 —0-212639 —0-216230 —0-219697 : —0-223042 —0-226262 : —0-229358 —0-232327 : —0-235171 —0-237888 —0-240477 : —0-242939 —0-245272 —0:247477 —0-249553 —0-251499 : —0-253316 : —0-255004 —0-256562 —0-257989 : —0-259287 : —0-260455 : —0-261494 —0-262402 —0-263181 —0-263830 : —0-264350 : —0-264742 —0-265005 —0-265139 : —0-265146 : —0-265026 : —0-264779 : —0-264406 : —0-263908 —0+263284 : —0-262536 : —0-261665 : —0-260672 —0-259556 : —0-258320 : —0-256964 —0-255488 : —0-253895 : —0-252185 —0-250359 —0-248418 Q_4(z) —0-212578 —0-207856 : —0-203048 ; —0-198157 —0-193183 : —0-188131 —0-183001 —0-177796 —0-172518 : —0-167171 —0-161755 : —0-156275 —0-150731 —0-145126: —0-139464 —0-133745 : —0-127973 : —0-122151 —0-116280 ; —0-110363 : —0-104403 : —0-098402 —0-092363 —0-086287 : —0-080179 —0-074039 : —0-067871 : —0-061678 —0-055461 —0-049223 : —0-042968 —0-036697 —0-030412 : —0:024117: —0-:017814: —0-011506 —0-005194 +0-001118 +0-007428 : +0-013734 +0-020033 +0-026322 : -+-0-032600 +0-038863 : +0-045110 +0-051337 : +0-057543 : +0-063725 : +0-069881 : +0-076008 : +0-082104 : -+0-088167 : +0-094195 +0-100184 +0-106133 : +0-112040 +0-117902 : +0-123718 +0-129484 : x 6-58 6-60 6-62 6-64 6-66 6-68 6-70 6-72 6°74 6-76 6°78 6:80 | 6-82 6:84 6°86 | 6°88 6-90 6-92 6-94 | 6:96 | 6-98 7:00 7:02 7-04 7:06 . 7:08 7:10 7-12 7-14 7:16 7:18 7-20 7:64 7-66 7-68 7:70 7-72 Ce: Sa Q4(z) —0-246368 : —0-244196 : —0-241918 : —0-239530 : —0-237034 —0-234430 : —0-231721 : —0-228907 : —0-225991 —0-222973 —0-219855 —0-216639 —0-213326 : —0-209918 : —0-206417 : —0-202824 : —0-199141: —0-195370 : —0-191513 —0-187570 : —0-183545 : —0-179439 : —0-175255 —0-170992 : —0-166655 : —0-162244 : —0-157763 —0-153212 —0-148593 : —0-143910 —0-139168 : —0-134355 : —0-129489 —0-124565 : —0:119587 —0-114556 : —0-109475 —0-104345 : —0-099170 : —0-093951 —0-088690 —0-083389 : —0-078052 —0-072679 : —0:067274 —0-061838 : —0:056374 : —0-050884 : —0-045371 —0-039836 —0-034282 —0-028711 —0-023125 : —0-017527 : —0-011919 : —0-006303 : —0-000682 +0-004942 : +0-010568 : Q_4(z) +0:135200 +0:140862: | +0:146469: | +0°152019: -+-0:157510 -+-0-162939 +0-168304 : +0-173605 +0-178838 : +0-184002 : -+0-189096 +0-194116: +0-199062 +0-203932 +0-208723 : -+0:213435 : --0-218066 +-0-222614 + 0:227077 +0-231454 +0-235748 : +0-239944 +0-244054 +0:248072: +0:251997 +0:255827 : +0:-259562 : -+0-263200 +0-266739 : +0-270179 : +0-273519 +0:276757 +0-279892 : + 0-282924 : +0:285852 +0-288674 +0:291389: +0-293998: +(0-296499 : +0-298891: +0:301175 +0-303348 +0-305411 +0-307363 -+-0-309203 +0-310931 : +0°312547: -+0-314050 : -+0-315440 : +0-316717 -+-0-317880 +0-318929 : +0-319864 : +0-320686 +0-321393 +0-321985 : -+0-322464 : +0-322829 -+0-323079 : 248 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. Lommel-Weber Functions. Q4(x) and Q_4(x)—cont. x O4(x) O_4(2) © O4(x) Q_4(x) 7-76 | -+0-016192 : +0-323216: || 8-94 | +0-273316: | -++0-157745 7-78 | -+0-021813 : 40-323239: || 8-96 | +0-275404: +0-152795 : 7:80 | -+0-027429 +0-323149: || 8-98 | +0-277392 : +0:147809 : 7-82 | -++0-033036 +0-322946: || 9-00 | +0-279281 +-0-142789 7-84 | -+0-038633 : 4+0-322630: || 9:02 | +0-281068 : +0-137736 : 7-86 | +0-044218 +-0-322202 9:04 | +0:282755 : +0-132653 :. 7-88 | -+0-049788 : +0-321662 9:06 | -+0-284340: +0-127542 7-90 | +0-055341 : +0-321010 9:08 | +0-285824 +0-122404 7-92 | -++0-060876 +0:320247: || 9:10 | +-0-287205 +0-117242 : 7-94 | +0-066389 : +0-319374 9:12 | +0-288483 +0-112058 7-96 | -+-0-071879 : +-0-318391 9-14 | +0-289658 : +0-106854 7:98 | +0:077344: | -+0-317299 9:16 | -+0-290730: +0-101631 : 8-00 | +0-082781 : ++0-316098 9:18 | +0-291699 +0-096393 : | 8-02 | +0-088189 +0:314789 9:20 | +0-292563 : +0:091141 : 8-04 | +0-093565 +0-313373 9-22 | +0-293324 : +-0:085877 : 8:06 | -+0:098907 +0-311851 9-24 | +0-293981 : -+-0-080604 8-08 | +0-104213 +-0°310223 9-26 | +0-294534 : +-0-075322 : 8-10 | +0-109481 : -+0-308490: || 9:28 | +0-294983 +-0-070035 : 8-12 | +0-114710 40306654: || 9:30 | +0-295328 +0-064745 8-14 | -+0-119896 : +0-304715 9-32 | +0-295568: | +0-059453 8:16 | -++0-125039 +.0-302674: || 9:34 | +0-295705 : +0:054161 : 8-18 | +0-130136 +0-300532: || 9:36 | -+-0-295739 +0-048872 : 8-20 | -++0-135185 +0-298291 9-38 | -+0-295668 : +0:043588 : 8-22 | +0-140184: 40-295950: || 9-40 | +0-295494: +0:038311 8-24 | +0-145132: +0-293513 9-42 | +0-295217: +0:033042 : 8-26 | +0-150027 +0-290978: || 9-44 | +0-294838 +0:027784 : 8-28 | +0-154866 +.0-288349 9-46 | +0-294356 +-0:022539 : 8-30 | +0-159648 : 40:285625: || 9-48 | +0-293771: +-0-017309 8-32 | +0-164372 +0-282809: || 9:50 | +0-293085 : +0:012095 : 8-34 | +0-169035 40-279901: || 9:52 | +0-292298 +0:006901 8-36 | -+0-173635 : +0-276904 9:54 | -+10-291410 +0:001727 : 8-38 | -+-0-178172 +0-273817 9-56 | +0-290422 —0:003423 : 8-40 | +0-182643 +0-270643: || 9:58 | +.0-289334 —0-008550 8-42 | +0-187046 : +0:267383: || 9°60 | +0-288147 —0-013649 : 8-44 | +0-191381 +.0:264039 9-62 | +0:286861 : —0-018720 : 8-46 | +0-195645 : 40-260611: || 9:64 | +0-285478 : —0-023761 8-48 | +0-199887 : +0:257102: || 9:66 | +0:283998 : —0-028769 8:50 | -+0-203956 : 40:253513: || 9:68 | -++0-282422 —0-033742 : 8-52 | +0-208000 +0-249846 9-70 | -+-0:280750 —0-038680 8-54 | +0-211967 +0-246102 9:72 | +0:278983 : —0-043579 : 8:56 | -+0:215856 4.0-242282: || 9-74 | +0-277123 : —0-048439 8-58 | +0-219666 40:238389: || 9:76 | +0-275170 —0-053257 8:60 | +0-223395 : +0:234425 9:78 | -10-273125 —0-058031 : 8:62 | +0-227042 : +-0:230390 9:80 | -10-270988:- | —0-062761 8-64 | +0:230606 : 40-226286: || 9:82 | +0-268762: —0-067443 : 8-66 | -+-0:234086 +-0-222116 9-84 | +0-266447 : —0-072077 8-68 | +0-237480 +0-217880: || 9:86 | +-0-264044 : —0-076660 8-70 | -+0-240787 +0-213582 9-88 | +0-261554: —0-081191 : 8:72 | +0-244006 +0-209222: || 9:90 | -+0-258979 —0-085669 8-74 | +0:2471365 : +.0:204803 9-92 | -+0-256319 —0-090091 8-76 | +0-250175 : +0-200325: || 9:94 | +0-253575: —0-094456 8-78 | -+0-253123 : +0-195792: || 9:96 | +0-250750 —0-098762 : 8:80 | +0-255980 +0:191205; || 9-98 | -++0-247843 : —0-103008 : 8-82 | +0-258743 +0:186566: ||10-00 | -++0-244857 : —0-107193 : 8-84 | +0-261412 +0:181877 ||10-02 | +0-241793 —0-111315 8:86 | -+0:263986 +0:177139: |/10-04 | -++0-238652 —0-115371 : 8-88 | +0-266464 : +0-172355: |10-:06 | -+0-235435 —0-119362 : 8:90 | +0-268846 +0-167527 {10-08 | -++0-232144 —0-123285 : 8:92 -++0-271130: +0:162656: |10-10 | +-0-228780 : —0-127140 ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. Lommel-Weber Functions. O4(x) and Q_4(x)—cont. Q4 (x) Q_4(2) x Q4(2) Q_4(z) +0-225345 : —0-130924 11-30 —0-041920 —0-199642 : -+-0-221840: —0-134636: || 11-32 —0':046420 : —0-198020 : +0-218267 : —0-138276 11-34 —0-050883 —0-196311 : +0-214627 —0-141841 ; 11-36 —0-055305 : —0-194516: + 0-210921 : —0-145331: || 11-38 —0-059686 : —0-192636 : +0-207152 : —0-148744: 11-40 —0-064024 —0-190672 +0-203321 : —0-152080 11-42 —0-068317 —0-188624 : -+0-199429 : —0-155336 : 11-44 —():072564 —0-186494 : -+-0-195478 : —0-158513 | 11-46 —0-076762 : —0-184283 +0-191470: —0-161608 : 11-48 —0-080912 —0-181991 : +0-187407 —0:164621: || 11-50 —0-085010 —0-179621 +-0-183289 : —0-167551: 11-52 —0-089055 : —0-177172 -+-0-179119: —0-170397 : 11-54 —0-093047 —0-174646 -+-0-174899 —0-173158 11-56 —0-096983 —0;172044 : --+-0-170630 —0-175833 11-58 —0-100862 —0-169368 -+0-166314. —0-178420 : 11-60 —0-104682 : —0-166618 : -+-0-161953 —0-180921 11-62 —0-108443 —0-163796 : +0-157548 —0-183332 : 11-64 —0-112143 —0-160903 : +0-153101 : —0-185654 : 11-66 —0-115780 —0-157941 +0-148615 : —0-187887 11-68 —0-119358 : —0-154910 -+-0-144091 —0-190028 : 11-70 —0-122862 —0:151812 +0-139530 : —0-192079 11-72 —0-126304 —0-148648 -+-0-134935 : —0-194037 11-74 —0-129678 —0-145420 +0-130308 : —0-195903 11-76 —0-132984 —0-142129 + 0-125650 : —0:197675 : 11-78 —0-136219 : —0-138776 : +0-120964 —0-199354 : 11-80 —0-139384 —0-135364 : +0-116250 —0-200939 : 11-82 —0-142476 : —0:131893 : +0-111511: —0-202430 11-84 —0-145495 : —0-128365: -+-0-106750 —0-203825 : 11-86 —0-148440 : —0-124782 +0-101967 —0-205126 11-88 —0-151309 : —0-121144: +0-097165 —0-206331 11-90 —0-154103 —0-117454 : -+0-092345 : —0-207440 11-92 —0-156818 : —0-113713: -+0-087510 : —0-208453 11-94 —0-159456 —0-109923 + 0-082662 —0-209369 : 11-96 —0-162014: —0-106085 +0-077802 —0-210190 11-98 —0:164493 —0-102201 +0-072932 —0-210913 : 12-00 —0-166890 : —0-098272 : +0-068054 : —0:211540: || 12-02 —O0-169206 : —0-094301 : +0-063171 —0-212070: 12-04 —0-171440 —0-090289 +0-058283 : —0-212504: || 12-06 —0-173590 : —0-086236 : +0-053394 —0:212841 12-08 —0-175657 —0-082147 -+0-048504 : —0-213081 : 12-10 —0-177639 : —0-:078021 +0-043616 : —0-213225 12-12 —0-179536 : —0:073860 : +0-038732 : —0:213272 : 12-14 —0-181348 —0-069667 : -+0-033854 —0-213223: || 12-16 —0-183073 —0:065444 -+0-028983 —0-213079 | 12-18 —0-184711: —0-061190 : +0-024121: —0-212838 12-20 —0-186262 : —0-056910 -+0-019271 —0-212502 12-22 —0-187726 —0-052604 -+0-0144338 : —0-212071 12-24 —0-:189101 —0-048278 : +0-009611 : —0:211545 12-26 —0-190388 —0-043921 : +0-004806 —0:210924: || 12-28 —0-191586 —0-039548 : +0-000019 : —0-210210 12-30 —0-192694 : —0-035157 —0-:004747 —0:-209402: || 12-32 —0-193714 —0-030749 —0-009490 : —0-208501: || 12-34 —0-194648 : —0-026326 —0-014210 —0:-207508: || 12-36 —0-195483 —0-021889 : —0-018904 —0-206423: || 12-38 —0-196233 —0-017441: —0-023569 : —0-205247 | 12-40 —0-196892 —0-012984 —0-028206 —0-203980 || 12-42 —0-197461 : —0-008518 : —0-032811 —0-202623 || 12-44 —0-197940 —0-004047 : —0-037382 : —0-201177 | 12-46 —0-198328 : +-0-000428 : REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. Lommel-Weber Functions. 04(x) and Q_3(x)—cont. % Q23(z) Q_4(2) % Q3(z) Q_4(«) | 12-48 —0-198626 : +0-004906 : | 13-66 —0-075097 +0-214142: 12-50 | —0-198834 +0-009385 13-68 —0-071208 : +0-215914 12-52 —0-198951 : +0-013862 : 13-70 —0-067287 : +0-217606 12:54 | —0-198979 -+0-018337 : 13-72 —0-063336 +0-219217 . 12-56 | —0-198916 +0-022807 : 13-74 —0-059355 + 0-220747 : 12-58 | —0-198763 : +0-027271 13-76 —0-055347 +0-222196 : 12-60 | —0-198521: +0;031726 13-78 —0-051312 : + 0-223568 : 12-62 —0-198190 +0-036171 : 13-80 —0-047254 : +0-224848 : 12-64 | —0-197769: + 0-040604 : 13-82 —0-043178 : -++ 0-226050 : | 12-66 —0-197260 : +0-045024 : 13-84 —0-039071 : +0-227169 : | 12-68 —0-196663 +0-049429 13-86 —0-034950 : ++ 0-228205 12-70 | —0-195977: +0-053816 : 13-88 —0-030812 -+0:229156 : 12-72 —0-195204 +0-058185 : 13-90 | —0-026658 +0-230024 : | 12-74) —0-194344 -+0-062538 : 13-92 —0-022489 : +0-230808 12-76 | —0-193397: -+0-066860 13-94 —0-018308 : +0-231507 | 12-78 —0-192364 : +0-071162 13-96 —0-014117 . -+0-232121: | 12:80 | —0-191246: +0-075439 13-98 —0-009916 +0:232651 | 12-82 —0-190043 -+0-079688 : 14-00 —0-005708 +0-233096 12-84 | —0O-188755: -+0-083909 14-02 —0-001494 +0-233456 12-86 —O0-187384 : +0-088099 14-04 | +0-002724 +0-233731 12-88 —0-185930 : +0-092256 : 14:06 | +0-006944 +0-233921 12-90 | —0-184394: +0:096381 14:08 | +0-011164: + 0-234026 12-92 —0-182777 +0-100469 : 14:10} +0-015384 +0:-234046 : 12-94 —0-181078 : +0-104521 : 14:12 +0-019601 +0-233981 : 12-96 —0-179300 : +0-108534 : 14:14; +0-023813: +0-233832 : 12-98 —0-177443 +0-112508 14:16 | +0-028019 : -+0-233599 13-00 | —0-175508 +0-116439 : 14:18 | +0-032218 +0-233281 13-02 | —0-173495 +0-120328 14-20 | +0:036407 -+0:232879 13:04 | —0-171406: -+0-124172 14:22 | +0-040585 ++ 0-232393 : 13-06 —0-169242 +0-127969 : 14:24 | +0-044749: +0-231824 : 13-08 —0-167008 : +0-131720 14:26 | +0-048900 -+0-231172 13-10 | —0-164692 +0-135421 : 14:28 | +0-053034 : +0-230437 13-12 | —0-162307: +0:-139072 : 14:30} +0-057151 -+0-229620 13-14 —0:159852 : +0-142671 : 14:32 | +0-061248 : -+-0-228720: 13-16 —0-157327 -+0-146218 14:34 | +0-065325 +0-227740 13-18 —0:154732 : +0-149709 : 14:36 | +0-069378 : -+0-226678 13-20 —0-152070 +0-:153145: || 14:38 +0-073408 +0-225535 : 13-22 | —0-149341 +0-156524 : 14-40 | +0-077412 +0-224313: 13-24 —0‘146546 : +0-159845 14-42 | +0-081388 : +0-223012 13-26 —0-143688 + 0:163106 14-44 | +0-085336 +0-221632 13-28 —0-140766 : +0-166306 : 14-46 | +0-089253 : +0-220178 : 13-30 | —0-137783 -+0-169444 : 14-48 | -+0-093138 : +0-218638 13-32 —0-134739 + 0-172520 14:50} +0-096990 : +0-217025 : 13-34 | —0-131636 +0-175530 : 14:52 | -+0-100807 +0-215337 : 13-36 | —0O-128475: +0-178476 14:54 | +0-104587: -+0-213574 13-38 —0-125258 : +0-181355 14:56 | -+0-108330 +0-211736 13-40 | —0-121986 +0-184166 : 14:58 | +0-112033: -+0-209824 : 13-42 | —0-118660 -+0-186909 : 14:60 | +0-115695 : +0-207840 : 13-44 | —0-115282 +0-189583 || 14-62 | +0-119316 +0-205784 : 13-46 | —0-111853 +0-192186 14-64 | +0-122892: + 0-203657 : 13-48 —0:108375 +0-194717 14-66 +0-126424 +0-201460: 13-50 | —0-104848 : +0-197176 14-68 | +0-129909 : +0-199194 : 13-52 —0-101276 +0-199562 14-70 | +0-133347 -+0-196860 : 13-54 —0-097658 : -+-0-201873 : 14-72 | +0-136736 +0-194459 : 13-56 —0-093998 +0-204110 14-74 | +0-140074: +0-191992 13-58 —0-090295 +0-206271 14-76 | +0-143361 : +0-189460 13-60 —0-086552 +0-208355 : 14-78 +0-146595 : +0-186864 13-62 —0-082770: +0-210362: || 14-80! -+0-149775: +0-184205 13-64 —0-078951 : +0-212292 || 14:82, +0-152900: +0-181484 : ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 251 Lommel- Weber Functions. Q(x) and Q_3(*%)—cont. Q4(x) Q_4(x) « OQ34() Q_3(x) +0-155969 ++0-178703: || 16-02| +0-210145 | —0-041997 ++0-158980 ++0-175863: | 16-04) -+0-208739 : —0-045761 : +0-161932 : +0-172965 || 16-06} -+0-207261 —0-049495 : +-0-164825 +0-170010 | 16-08| -+0-205709 —0-053197 -++0-167657 +0-166999 16-10 | -++0-204085 : —0-056865 : +0-170426 : +0-163933: || 16-12} -+0-202390: —0-060498 : +0:173133 : +0-160815 16-14 | +0-200625 —0-064095 : +0-175776 : +-0-157644: || 16:16| -+0-198789: —0-067655 +0-178354 +0-154424 || 16-18 | -+0-196885 —0-071175 +0-180866 : +0-151154 | 16-20) +0-194912: —0-074655 +0:183311 : +0-147836 16-22 | -0-192872 : —0-078093 +0-185689 +0-144472 16-24 | -+0-190766 —0-081488 +0-187998 +0-141062: || 16-26| -+0-188594: —0-084839 +0-190237 : +0-137609: || 16-28 | -10-186358 —0-088144 +.0-192407 +0-134114: || 16-30| -+0-184058 —0-091402 : +0-194505 : +0-130578: || 16-32) -+0-181695 —0-094612 : +0-196532 +0-127003 16-34 | +0-179271 —0-097773 : +0-198486 +0-123390 16-36 | -10-176786 —0-100884 : +.0-200367 +0-119740: || 16-38 | -+0-174241: —0-103943 +.0-202174 +0-116056 16-40 | -+0-171638 : —0-106949 : +-0-203907 +0-112338 16-42 | -+10-168978 —0-109901 : +.0-205564 : +0-108588 16-44 | +0-166261 : —0-112799 +-0-207146 : +0-104808 16-46 | -+10-162490 —0-115640 +.0-208652 : +0-100999 16-48 | -+0-160664 —0-118424 +0-210081 : +0-097162: || 16-50) -++0-157785 : —0-121150 +0-211433 : +0-093300: || 16-52| +0-154855 : —0-123816 : +-0-212707 : -++0-089414 16-54 | -10-151875 —0-126423 +0-213904 +0-085505 16-56 | +0-148845 : —0-128968 : +0-215021 : +-0-081575 16-58 | +0-145768 —0-131452 +0-216060: | +0-077625: || 16-60| -+0-142644 —0-133872 : +0-217020 : +0-073658: || 16-62| +0-139475 —0-136229 +0-217901 |, +0-069674: || 16-64 | -++0-136261: —0-138521 +0-218702 +0-065676 16-66 | -++0-133005 : —0-140748 +.0-219423 +0-061664: || 16-68! +0-129708 —0-142908 +.0-220064 +0-057641: || 16-70| +0-126371 —0-145001 +-0-220624 : +0-053609 16-72 | -++0-122995 —0-147026 : +-0-221105 +0-049567: || 16-74] -+0-119581: —0-148983 : +.0-221505 +0-045519: || 16-76} -+0-116132: —0-150871 +0-221824 +0-041466: || 16-78] -+0-112649 —0-152688 : --.0-222063 +-0-037410: || 16-80} -+0-109132: —0-154436 +.0-222991 +0-033352 16-82 | +0-105584 —0-156112 ++0-222299 +-0-029293: || 16-84} +0-102006 —0-157716 : +-0-222296 +-0-025236 16-86 | -+0-098399 —0-159248 : +-0-222213 +0-021182 16:88 | +0-094764 : —0-160708 +-0-222049 : +0-017132 16-90} +0-091104: —0-162094 : +0-221805 : +0-013088: || 16-92} -+0-087420 —0-163407 ++0-221482 +-0-009053 16-94} +0-083713 —0-164645 : +-0-221079 0.005026: || 16-96] +0-079984 —0-165809 : +-0-220596 +0-001010: | 16-98} -++0-076236 —0-166898 : +0-220034 : —0-002992: | 17-00} -+0-072469 —0-167912 : +0-219393 : —0-006981: || 17-02] -+0-068685 : —0-168850 : +0:218674 : —0-010955 17-04 | +0-064887 —0-169713 +0-217877 —0-014911: | 17-06) +0-061074 —0-170499 : +-0-217002 —0-018849 | 17-08| -+0-057249: —0-171210 +0:216049 : —0-022766: || 17-10} +0-053414 —0-171843 : +-0-215020 —0-026662 | 17-12} +0-049569 —0-172401 +-0-213914 : —0-030534: || 17-14| +0-045716 : —0-172881 +-0-212733 —0-034382 17-16 | +0-041858 —0-173285 4-0-211476 : —0-038203: | 17-18] +0-037995 | -—0-173611: 252 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. Lommel-Weber Functions. 4(x) and Q_4(2)—cont. x O34(z) Q_3(2) “ Q34(z) Q_3(x) 17:20 | -+0-034129 —0-173861 : 18-38 | —0-148219: —0-067398 17-22 | -+0-030261 —0-174034: || 18-40) —0-149799 —0-064035 : 17-24} -+0-026393 : —0:174130: 18-42 | —0-151310 —0-060645 17-26 | +0-022527: —0-174149 : 18-44 | —0O-152751: —0-057226 : 17-28 | +0-018664 —0-174092 18-46 | —0-154123: —0-053782 : 17-30 | -+0-014805 : —0-173958 18-48 | —0-155425: —0-050314 17:32 | -+0-010953 : —0-173747 18-50 | —0-156656 : —0-046822 : 17-34 | -+0-007108 : —0-173460 : 18-52 | —0-157817 —0-043309 : 17-36 | -+0-003273 —0:173097 18-54 | —0-158906 —0-039776 17:38 | —0-000552 —0-172658 : 18-56 | —0-159923: —0-036224 17-40 | —0:004365 —0-172144 18-58 | —0-160868 : —0:032654 : 17-42 | —0-008164 —0-171554 : 18-60 | —0O-161741: —0-029069 : 17-44 | —0-011948 —0-170889 : 18-62 | —0-162542 —0-025469 : 17-46 | —0O-015715: —0-170150 : 18-64 | —0-163269: —0-021857 17-48 | —0-019465 —0-169337 18-66 | —0-163924 —0-018233 17-50 | + —0-023194 : —0:168450 18-68 | —0+164505 : —0-014598 : 17-52 | —Q-026903 : —0-167489 : 18-70 | —0-165013 : —0-:010956 17:54 | —0-030589 : —0:166456 18-72 | —0-165448 —0-007306 17-56 | —0-034252 —0-165350 18-74 | —0-165809 —0-003650 : 17-58 | —0-037889 : —0:164172: 18-76 | —0-166096 : +0-000009 17-60 | —0-041499 : —0-162924 18-78 | —0-166310 +0-003671 : 17:62 | —0-045082 —0-161604 : 18-80 | —0-166450: +0:007335 17-64 | —0-048635 —0-160214 : 18-82 | —0-166517 +0-010998 : 17-66 | —0-052157 —0-158755 : 18-84 | —0-166510 -+0-014660 17:68 | —0-055646 : —0-157228 18-86 | —0-166429: +0-018318 : 17-70 | —0:059102 : —0-155632 18-88 | —0:166276 +0-021972 : 17-72 | —0-062524 —0-153969 18-90 | —0-166049 +0-025620 : 17-74 | —0-065909 —0-152239 18-92 | —0-165749 +0-029260 : 17-76 | —0-069256 : —0-1504438 : 18-94 | —0O-165376: +0-032892 17:78 | —0-072565 —0-148582 : 18-96 | —0-164931 +0-036512 : 17:80 | —0-075834 —0-146658 18-98 | —0-164413: +0-040121 : 17:82 | —0-079061 —0-144669 : 19-00} —0-163824 +0-043717 : 17:84 | —0-082246 —0-142619 19-02 | —0-163163 +0-047298 17°86 | —0-085387 —0-140506 : 19-04 | —0-162430 +0-050863 17:88 | —0-088483 —0:138333 : 19-06 | —0-161626: +0-054410 : 17:90 | —0-091533 —0-136100 : 19-08 | —0-160752 : +0-057938 : 17-92 | —0-094536 —0-133809 19-10 | —0-159808 +0-061446 : 17:94 | —0-097490 —0-131459 : 19-12 | —0O-158794 + 0-064932 : 17°96 | —0-100395 —0-129053 : 19-14 | —0O-157710: +0-068395 : 17:98 | —0-103249 —0:126591 : 19-16 | —0O-156558 : +0-071834 : 18-00 | —0-106051 : —0-124075 19-18 | —0-155338 : +0:075247 18:02 | —0-108801 —0-121504 : 19-20 | —0-154051 +0/078633 18:04 | —0O-111497 —0-118882 19-22 | —0-152696 +0-081990 18:06 | —0-114138: —0-116207 : 19-24 | —O-151275 +0-085317 : 18:08 | —0-116724 —0-113483 19-26 | —0-149788 +0-088613 : 18:10 | —0O-119252: —0-110709 19-28 | —0-148236 +0:091877 : 18-12 | —0-121723: —0-107887 : 19-30 | —0-146620 +0-095108 18:14 | —0-124136 —0-105019 19-32 | —0-144940 +0-098303 18°16 | —0-126489 —0-102104 : 19-34 | —0-143197 +0-:101462 18:18 | —0O-128781: —0-099146 19-36 | —0-141392 +0-104584 18-20 | —0-131013 —0-096144 : 19-38 | —0;139525: +0-107667 18-22 | —0-133183 —0-093101 19-40 | —0-137598: +0-110710: 18:24 | —0-135289 : —0-090016 : 19-42 | —0-135612 +0-113713 18-26 | —0-137333 —0-086893 19-44 | —0-133566 +0-116673 18:28 | —0-139312 —0-083731 19-46 | —0-131462: +0-119590 18-30 | —0-141226 —0-080532 : 19-48 | —0-129302 +. 0-122462 : 18-32 | —0-143074: —0-077299 19-50 | —0-127085 : +0-125289 18-34 —0-144856: —0-074031 19-52 —0-124818 : +0-128070 18-36 | —0O-146571: —0-070730 19-54 | —O-122487: +0:-130803 ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL” TABLES. 253 Lommel-Weber Functions. (x) and Q_3(x)—cont. a O42) | Oa) | = | Oe | Qa 19-56 —0-120108 | +0-133487 | 19-80 | —0-087789 +0-161545 19-58 —0-117676: | +0-136121: || 19-82 | —0-084816 : +0-163510 19-60 —0-115193: | +0-138705 | 19-84! —0-081806 | +0-165414: 19-62 —0:112660: | +0-141237 || 19-86 | —0-078759: | -+0-167257 19-64 —0-110078 : +0-143716 19-88 | —0-075678 | -+0-169037 : 19-66 —0-107448: | +0-146141: | 19-:90| —0-072562: | -+0-170754: | 19-68 —0:104771: | +0-148512: || 19-92 —0-069415 -+-0-172408 | 19-70 —0-102049 +0-150828 | 19-94 —0-066236 | --0-173997 19-72 —0-099281 : +0-153087: | 19-96) —0-063027: | +0-175521 | 19-74 —0-096470: | +0-155289: ' 19:98! —0-059790: | -+0-176980 19-76 —0-093617: | +0-157433: || 20-00 | —0-056526: | -+0-178372: 19-78 | —0-090723 : +0-159519 Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere.—Report of Committee (Sir Napier SHaw, Chairman; Mr. C. J. P. Cave, Secretary; Prof. : S. Cuapman, Mr. J. S. Dives, Mr. L. H. G. Dryzs, Mr. W. H. Dives, Sir R. T. GuazEBRook, Col. E. Gop, Dr. H. Jerrreys, Sir J. Larmor, Mr. R. G. K. Lemprert, Prof. F. A. Linpemann, Dr. W. Makower, Mr. J. Patrerson, Sir J. E. Peravet, Sir A. Scnuster, Dr. G. C. Smvpson, Mr. F. J. W. Wureete, and Prof. H. H. TurN=R). _TxE Committee met in the Royal Meteorological Society’s house on April 3, 1925. _ Progress was reported with regard to the suggestions put forward by the Committee _in 1921, in anticipation of the meeting of the International Union for Geodesy and Geophysics at Rome. The appeal for investigation of the air over the sea has met with satisfactory response from H.M. Navy, through the good offices of Commander L. G. Garbett, Superintendent of Naval Meteorological Services in the Meteorological _ Office. The instructions drawn up by the late M. Léon Teisserenc de Bort for soundings _ with balloons at sea have been translated and reprinted at the expense of the Meteoro- - logical Section of the U.G.G.I. Further effort is required to elicit the co-operation of yacht owners, and for the investigation of the upper air of deserts. ’ With reference to the results of pilot-balloon ascents, it was noted that some "questions relative to the transition in the direction and velocity of wind with height Bemuld not be answered by observations at fixed intervals, and the suggestion of the reintroduction of a self-recording instrument was put forward. _ The Committee have had under consideration the scheme of indicator-diagrams, _ proposed by the Chairman for the International Commission on Upper Air, based on entropy and temperature as co-ordinates, and therefore called tephigrams, for the representation of the results of soundings of the upper air in respect of pressure, temperature, and humidity, and they would be glad to have the opportunity of considering further examples of the application of the method. A report on radiation in relation to meteorology was included in the Minutes of Proceedings of the Meteorological Section of the U.G.G.I. in Madrid. An effort should be made to develop the regular and, if possible, automatic registration of solar and terrestrial radiation in this country. A recording instrument costing about 50l., designed by M. Gorczynski, of Warsaw, and made by Richard Fréres, of Paris, was recommended at Madrid. An initial difficulty about the supply of the instrument in this country has been surmounted. The Callendar recorder of the total vertical component of radiation from sun and sky is in use at South Kensington and at Rothamsted. A similar instrument has also been installed at Cambridge. An Angstrém instrument is used for observation at Kew Observatory and at Eskdalemuir; Mr. W. H. Dines makes observations of radiation from sky and earth with an instrument of his own design. A model of Mr. Dines’s instrument was exhibited at the British Empire Exhibition, together with three recent instruments of Professor Callendar’s design; but none of these have as yet been placed upon the market. — 254 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. The Committee have remarked that the presentation of the results of observations of radiation are seldom put in such a form as to be applicable to meteorological prob- lems ; they are of opinion that the definite balance sheet of receipt and loss at the earth’s surface and in the atmosphere might be attempted. In the meantime, they have learned that observations already exist at Oxford of the coefficient of reflexion of the infra-red light from the surface of sea-water, and they hope that the information may be published. The investigation of atmospheric impurity by the Owens dust-counter has been taken up in many countries. In the United States the investigation has been extended to the upper air. The results are included in the report of the Meteorological Section of the U.G.G.I. Finally, the Committee are of opinion that many of the geophysical questions of vital importance to meteorology are quite suitable for investigation in the laboratories which form an ordinary part of the establishment of British Universities, and they desire that an effort should be made to enlist the co-operation of the universities in the study of these subjects. They are assured, for example, that the determination of the amount of hydrogen in the atmosphere, as desired by the Committee in 1921, could be carried to one part in a million parts of air by the cyrogenic apparatus of the Clarendon Laboratory at Oxford. They are further encouraged to look for assistance from existing laboratories by learning that frequent observations of the amount of ozone in the upper atmosphere are made at the Clarendon Laboratory, Oxford, under Dr. Dobson’s superintendence, by the spectroscopic measurement of the absorption in the ultra-violet region. The absorption appears to be in direct relation with the pressure of the atmosphere at the level of about 10 kilometres. The Committee accordingly ask for reappointment with the addition of the names of Dr. G. M. B. Dobson, Commander L. G. Garbett, and Dr. H. Knox Shaw. They ask also for a grant of 551. for the purchase of a self-recording radiometer to be placed in accordance with arrangements made by the Committee. The Stratigraphical Sequence and Paleontology of the Old Red Sandstone of the Bristol District.— Report of Committee (Dr. H. Botton, Chairman; Dr. F. 8S. Watts, Secretary; Miss Epita Botton, Prof. A. H. Cox, Mr. D. E. I. Innus, Prof. C. Luoyp Morean, Prof. 8. H. Reynoups, and Mr. H. W. Turner). Introduction.—This year the Old Red Sandstone occurring in the area enclosed by the horse-shoe shaped ridge of Carboniferous rocks extending from Penpole Point through Westbury to Durdham Down has been examined in great detail. Much of this area is covered by Dolomitic Conglomerate, and evidence is accumulating to prove that the structure is not a simple denuded anticline, but that extensive faults are responsible for outliers of Avonian rocks, within the district. Vertical sections have been prepared from the exposures at St. Monica’s, Durdham Down : the railway sections north of the Durdham tunnel, the large cutting on the new road between Shirehampton and Sea Mills, and its continuation on the railway in the Horseshoe Bend. All the beds are very lenticular, and no correlation has been possible between these exposures. The junction with the Carboniferous is well seen at St. Monica’s, and this exposure has been described in Proc. B.N.S., 4.8.,Vol. VI., Part 2, pp. 179-182. Lithology.—Lithologically every gradation between the following types can be traced—coarse and fine-grained sandstone, conglomeratic sandstone, quartzite, calcareous conglomerate, sandy shales and sandstones with small scattered pebbles of vein-quartz and lenticles or pellets of a fine-grained sandy micaceous shale. Current bedding is common in the more massive sandstone beds. In many of the sandy shales contraction during desiccation has resulted in the rock being traversed by a series of cracks. The major cracks are approximately at right angles to the bedding planes, whilst a minor set, ranged at right angles to the first series, divides the rock into a number of roughly cubical pieces, some 1-2 ems. in length. The resultant rock may be termed a ‘ brecciated shale.’ In some instances these cracks have been filled with calcite and the margins of the cubical pieces have also, to some extent, been impregnated with the same mineral ; on a weathered surface this rock has a concretionary appearance. Both these types are very distinctive in the field and occur at various levels. ON OLD RED SANDSTONE. 255 The pebbles in the caleareous conglomerate consist of quartzite, vein-quartz, and jasper. The majority of the pebbles are rounded and every grade from 12 cms. diameter downwards has been noted. A few of the pebbles have a pronounced dreikanter aspect. There is no definite arrangement of the pebbles in the band, and the deposit is not stratified. Petrology.—In thin section, the quartz grains are mainly of two types, though every intermediate form occurs. The larger (0°80 mm.) are well rounded, with abundant inclusions, and show strain polarisation. The smaller (0-08 mm.) are angular to sub-angular, with fewer inclusions. Grains of vein-quartz, with inclusions and showing strain polarisation are common. The inclusions are generally arranged irregularly (sometimes linearly) and consist of rounded and indeterminate bodies. Amongst the recognisable inclusions may be mentioned apatite and chlorite (kindly identified by Prof. P. G. H. Boswell), which latter occurs in curved green pipes. Small cavities and negative crystals have both been recognised in the quartz grains. Very little felspar is present in these rocks, but orthoclase, microcline, and acidic plagioclase have been determined. Rounded grains of a quartz-schist and a fine-grained chert are of frequent occur- rence. No organic remains have been recognised in the chert. Hematite occurs as a general stain throughout the rock and also as individual grains. Green and white mica and chloritised biotite all occur as twisted laths amongst the more resistant quartz grains. In the coarser grades granular quartz, and in the finer grades calcite (more or less dolomitised) form the chief cementing materials. Scattered grains of calcite and dolomite are both fairly common in all varieties. Re-crystallised calcite plates form the matrix of the calcareous conglomerate ; no traces of organic remains have been found in this matrix. Mineralogy.—The usual methods of separating the ‘ heavy minerals’ by means of bromoform were used, though a modified form of glass separating funnel has been employed. The chief characteristics of the minerals obtained are here briefly noted in order of their relative abundance. Apatite is very abundant at all horizons. The grains are large (0-1 mm.) and generally well-rounded, though prismatic forms occur. They are often full of inclu- sions giving the mineral a cloudy effect. Sometimes these inclusions are congregated in the centre of the grain, which then exhibits a cloudy core. Leucoxene (0:08 mm.) is abundant, and shows the characteristic pitted surface in reflected light. Zircon occurs both as rounded (0-06 mm.) and prismatic grains; some of the latter show well-marked pyramidal terminations with sharp crystal edges. Traces of longitudinal cleavage can often be observed, whilst other grains exhibit a system of curving cracks. Most of the zircons are colourless, though a few purple-coloured grains (generally non-ovoid in shape) have been found. Inclusions are abundant, some being needle-shaped, others rounded, and others were determined as negative erystals. Tourmaline generally occurs as prismatic grains (0°09 mm.), though a few rounded forms have been observed. All the grains of this mineral are intensely pleochroic, yellowish-brown to a dark greenish-brown, pinkish-brown to black, and colourless to green being the chief types noted. Blue tourmaline, only slightly pleochroic, occurs sparingly. Rutile occurs in two forms ; either yellow prismatic grains (0-1 mm.), pleochroic in various shades of yellow, or rounded pleochroic foxy-red grains showing well-marked cleavage lines crossing at 60°. Garnet is only found at a few horizons. Most of the grains are rounded (0-1 mm.), pale pink in colour, and do not show strain polarisation. Some of the grains show marked re-entrant angles and cleavages crossing at 70°. Green mica, muscovite, pyrites, ilmenite, and magnetite have also been noted. Paleontology.—¥our definite fossiliferous horizons have been determined, and the Same type of sediment characterises each level. The rock is a coarse quartzose sandstone with rounded pebbles of quartz, vein-quartz, jasper and pellets of a fine- grained sandy micaceous shale. The fossiliferous bed at St. Monica’s, Durdham Down, is 4 feet thick, and occurs at a vertical distance of 27 feet below the base of the Carboniferous. In the railway section north of the Durdham Down tunnel the fossiliferous levels are 9, 2 and 6 feet thick, and occur at distances of 102, 115 and 152 feet respectively below the Carboniferous. Remains of three species—Holoptychius nobilissimus, Ag., Glyptopomus kinnairdi, Huxley, and Bothriolepis cf. hydrophila, Ag., neye been found, and notes on these have been published in the ‘ St. Monica’s ’ paper (ibid.). 256 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. Lower Carboniferous Zonal Nomenclature. — Report of Commuttee (Professor P. F. Kenpatt, Chairman; Mr. R. G. S. Hupson, Secretary; Mr. W. 8. Bisat, Mr. R. G. Carrutuers, Mr. E. E. L. Drxon, Professor E. J. Garwoop, Miss E. GoopyeEar, Mr. S. E. Hotirneworts, Mr. J. W. Jackson, Dr. G. W. LEr, Miss H. M. Murr-Woop, Mr. D. Parxinson, Mr. J. Prineie, Professor S. H. Reynotps, Principal T. F. Srsty, Dr. Bernarp Suirs, Dr. Sranuey Smits, Mr. L. Smytu, Mr. L. H. Tonks, Mr. F. M. Trotter, Mr. W. B. Wricut) appointed to attempt to obtain agreement regarding the significance to be attached to Zonal Terms used in connexion with the Lower Carboniferous. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) THe work of the above Committee has been chiefly concerned with the upper beds of the Lower Carboniferous, and more especially with the definition and limitation of the Dibunophyllum zone. There is general agreement among the members of the Committee as to the need for a definite upper limit to the Dibunophyllum zone and also for a time-division of the Lower Carboniferous for those beds above the Viséan,* and it is chiefly with these aspects that this report deals. The Upper Limit of the Zone D. The zonal divisions of the Lower Carboniferous were based on the faunal succession of the beds exposed in the Avon Gorge and were originally defined by the dominance of some particular genus or species. They are now regarded as characterised by coral-brachiopod faunal assemblages, which are usually referred to by an index letter such as Z, C, S, or D. In addition to the index letter, the zone is often distinguished by an index fossil. In practically all cases this index fossil is not limited to that particular zone, but is found below and often above. It should, however, attain its maximum development at that horizon. The definition of the zone is based on the occurrence of a number of fossil forms, generally corals and brachiopods, which attain their maximum at that particular horizon. The horizontal distribution of these forms often leads to the absence of one or two of them in some particular area— in some cases the form chosen as an index fossil is absent—but in general the sum of the forms which have their maximum development‘at that level will determine its zonal horizon. The upper zone D was originally defined as co-extensive with the occurrence of Dibunophyllum. No definite upper limit was suggested for this zone, as the limestone containing the coral-brachiopod fauna is replaced at Bristol by a sandstone facies containing practically no fossils. The persistence elsewhere, and more particularly in the North of England, of the coral-brachiopod fauna to higher zones than in the S.W. Province has led the upward:extension of the zone D far beyond the original zone of Vaughan and has been the cause of much confusion. It is therefore proposed that the zone D should be limited and defined by a faunal assemblage, as are most of the lower zones, and not by the occurrence of Dibunophyllum, and that this faunal assemblage should be approximately that contained in those beds originally defined as D in the 8.W. Province.? This limitation of the zone D is facilitated by the fact that where, as in the North of England, the beds above D contain a normal limestone fauna, that fauna is charac- terised by the maximum development of genera and species either unknown or rare in the D zone below. This fauna has been described from various districts in the North of England.* It contains as one of its distinguishing elements the maximum 1 Sub-report I., E. E. L. D. 2 Vaughan, A., ‘The Palzontological Sequence in the Carboniferous Limestone of the Bristol Area,’ Q.J.G.S., vol. lxi., 1905, pp. 197-199, and later papers. 3 Garwood, E. J., and Goodyear, E., ‘The Lower Carboniferous Succession in the Settle District,’ Q.J.G.S., vol. lxxx., 1924, pp. 184-273. 3 Edmunds, C., ‘The Carboniferous Limestone Series of West Cumberland,’ Geol. Mag., 1922, pp. 74-83 and 117-131. 3? Hudson, R. G.8., ‘ Faunal Horizons in the Lower Carboniferous of N.W. York- shire,’ Geol. Mag., 1925, pp. 181-186. ON LOWER CARBONIFEROUS ZONAL NOMENCLATURE. iY development of Orionastrea phillipsi. This coral has been noted from various widely distributed Lower Carboniferous areas, it has been used as a local index, and is one whose contemporaneity of development can be readily tested, the more so as its occurrence is not dependent on any peculiarity of lithological conditions. It is therefore proposed that this zonal fauna which occurs immediately above the zone D shall be denoted by the zonal index O. It should be noted that it is not intended that the zone O should be co-extensive with the development of Orionas(rea phillipsi. For instance, it is probable that the rare occurrence of O. phillipsi in the upper beds of the Lower Carboniferous of the Avon Gorge is an early manifestation of this form, and occurs in D, along with the maximum development of O. ensifer. The applica- tion of this suggested zonal scheme to areas the faunal succession of which has been already described is shown in Table I. The Subdivision of the Zone D. The zone D was originally divided into D, and D,, and these sub-zones possess characteristic faunal assemblages that have been identified in most areas where a normal coral-brachiopod fauna is developed. This subdivision has been departed from in later papers by various authors who have either recognised higher horizons, which they have referred to by such zonal indices as Dy or else expressed the phasal character of the fauna by such symbols as P or D, and D,.3, which latter have been variously used as denoting higher horizons or phasal faunas. Dy has not received general acceptance, and the limitation of the zone D as proposed above excludes the horizons previously denoted by Dy from the zone D. The Committee therefore recommends that it should be abandoned as a zonal index. The question of phasal faunas and their indices is discussed later. There remains the advisability of the use of D,. D,; was originally proposed by Sibly* for a faunal assemblage which occurs in Derbyshire above a normal D, fauna and which he divided off as the zone of Cyathaxonia rushiana. This fauna differs from the normal coral-brachiopod fauna in that it contains numerous Zaphrentids and allied genera and a specialised brachiopod fauna, and generally approaches to a shale fauna. Such a faunal assemblage has been termed a Zaphrentid-phase by Vaughan and Dixon. D, and Ds.3 were later used by other authors as Zaphrentid-phasal indices of high horizon, a use which the Committee recommend should be discontinued. On the other hand, the use of D, for the upper subdivision of the zone D has much to recommend it. In most cases where the fauna of the D zone above D, has been investigated and where it is of the same phase throughout, it has been divided into faunally distinct upper and lower series. This distinction of the two faunal assemblages was noted by Vaughan and I. Thomas. Vaughan divided the upper D fauna of Anglesey into D2, and Dys, while I. Thomas preferred to indicate the same faunas as D, and D,.5 A similar division of the upper D beds is found in the Settle district and has been separated as the - Lower Lonsdaleia beds and the Lamellibranch bed (P. pugilis band).6 The same faunal sequence occurs in the Dale Country’ and in the Whitehaven district.8 It thus seems that where the coral-brachiopod fauna is continued throughout D the upper part contains two distinct faunal assemblages which may be referred to as upper and lower D,, or—and this seems to the Committee more acceptable—D, and D;. It seems probable, too, that D, would then connote a faunal assemblage of the same horizon as that for which Sibly coined the term D,, for it is probable that the zone of Cyathaxonia rushiana is the Zaphrentid-phasal equivalent of D, as defined above and which would thus retain its original horizon. D, is therefore defined as the upper division of the D zone with a faunal assemblage as described by the various authors mentioned above. If there is need of an index form, Lonsdaleia duplicata duplicata is the most suitable, as this form, although occasionally found much earlier, attains its maximum at this horizon. 4 Sibly, T. F., ‘ Faunal Succession in the Carboniferous Limestone of the Midland Area,’ Q.J.G.S., vol. lxiv., 1908, pp. 34-82. 5 Greenly, E., ‘The Geology of Anglesey,’ vol. ii., Mem. Geol. Surv., London, 1919, pp. 608-612. F 6 Garwood, E. J., and Goodyear, E., op. supra cit., pp. 201-295. 7 Hudson, R. G. S., op. supra cit., pp. 182-183. 8 Edmunds, C., op. supra cit., p. 83. 1925 Ss 258 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. Orionastrea phillipsi zone... ... O Orionastrea phillipsi D; Lonsdaleia duplicata duplicata D, Lonsdaleia floriformis floriformis D, Dibunophyllum bourtonense and Cyatho- Dibunophyllum zone ... 540 ean D | phyllum murchisoni Major Divisions of the Lower Carboniferous. The general equivalence of the Belgian Lower Carboniferous with that of the §.W. Province has led to the adoption of Tournaisian and Viséan as time-names for the major divisions of the British Lower Carboniferous. The upper limit of the Viséan is discussed later, but it approximates to that chosen above as the upper limit of the zone D. The Lower Carboniferous of the Bristol district can therefore be included in Viséan and Tournaisian, but that of the North of England and the Midland Province contains a series of beds with a coral-brachiopod fauna higher in horizon than the Viséan of Belgium. The greater part of the Yoredale series and the neigh- bouring successions of Cumberland and Durham are of this age. The extension of Viséan to include these beds is not advisable, as they may be equivalent to part of the Namurian, the next stage in the Belgian succession. The Committee therefore recommends the creation of a separate stage approximately equivalent in time-value to Viséan and Tournaisian, to include these higher beds. The Committee bases its recommendations on the following reasons :— (1) The occurrence in the North of England of a series of beds containing a lime- stone fauna higher in horizon than the Viséan as developed at Visé. (2) The progressive distinction between the limestone fauna of the Yoredalian and Viséan. (3) The general widespread lithological change which occurs approximately at the end of the Viséan (s. str.) in various parts of England. This higher subdivision of the Lower Carboniferous has already been suggested, and the name ‘ Yoredalian’ was proposed for it by Johns,’ and this was tentatively adopted by Vaughan.® Phillips® in 1836 divided on lithological grounds the Lower Carboniferous of North Yorkshire into a lower series, which he called the Great Scar Limestone, and an upper series which he called the Yoredale series. The approxima- tion of the Yoredale series to the proposed upper major division of the Lower Carboniferous was the reason for the adoption of the name Yoredalian by Johns and Vaughan. This term is eminently suitable for the following reasons: The first separation of those higher beds from the rest of the Lower Carboniferous was by Phillips, who called them the Yoredale series; the fauna of the Yoredale series is mainly a coral-brachiopod fauna, and thus the faunal assemblage defining the Yore- dalian is of the same phase as that defining Viséan and Tournaisian ; the series is a - complete one conformable with the Viséan ; and finally, beds containing assemblages both of Zaphrentid-phase and Goniatite-phase occur in the Yoredales and should eventually allow of correlation with the other phasal successions of the Lower Carboniferous. The term Yoredalian is therefore adopted and the type succession is taken as the Yoredale series of North-West Yorkshire.* The Upper Limit of the Visean and the Base of the Yoredalian. The upper beds, V.. of the Belgian Survey, of the Viséan at Visé are not suitable for direct comparison with the North-West Province succession, because the fauna is a knoll fauna of the same type as the brachiopod beds of Derbyshire and the Knolls of Craven. At Anhée, however, in the syncline of Namur, the same horizon is repre- sented by a coral-brachiopod fauna which compares very well with the fauna of ? Johns, C., ‘On the Classification of the Lower Carboniferous Rocks,’ Geol. Mag., 1910, pp. 562-564. 8 Vaughan, A., ‘Correlation of Dinantian and Avonian,’ Q.J.G.S., vol. Ixxi., 1915, pp. 1-52. ne Phillips, J., ‘Tlustrations of the Geology of Yorkshire.’ Part II. London, 6. * It should be noted that the term Yoredalian does not.imply Yoredale conditions of sedimentation ; that is, a lithological succession of shale, sandstone, and limestone alternation. ON LOWER CARBONIFEROUS ZONAL NOMENCLATURE, 259 the D, sub-zone (as defined above). Above the Viséan in both areas is the Namurian, the lower half of which is the Assise de Chokier (H,,, zone or G. diadema) with G. spirale ? at its base. At Visé, as elsewhere in the Liége district, H,, rests possibly unconformably on the Viséan, while at Anhée the succession is apparently an unbroken one. Delépine?® considers the lower part of H,, equivalent to the Yoredales and conformable with the limestone below, but does not discuss the advisability of its inclusion in the Viséan. If this present limitation of the Viséan, as in Belgium, is transferred to the English succession, the top of D, becomes the top of the Viséan and therefore the base of the Yoredalian. It has not, however, been possible to obtain agreement among members of the Committee as to the exact horizon of the base of the Yoredalian. There are three proposals :— (1) The base of the Yoredalian should be placed at the top of the Dibunophyllum zone. No definition of the Viséan is then needed. (2) The base of the Yoredalian should be placed at the top of D, and D, should be included in the Yoredalian. The division then corresponds to the division by Phillips between the Yoredale series and the Great Scar series, and moreover the base of the Yoredalian then corresponds to the base of the zone G. crenistria (the zone P as defined by Bisat) and in many areas corresponds with the oncoming of the Culm facies. (3) The base of the Yoredalian should be at the base of D,. The division is then marked by the Girvanella band, first recognised by Garwood and since mapped over the greater part of the North of England. The Committee recommends that for the time being the base of the Yoredalian should be taken as the top of D,. The application of this zonal scheme to the success- ion in various areas in England is shown in Tables I and II. The Subdivision and Upper Limit of Yoredalian. The establishment of Yoredalian is the result of work on the higher beds of the Lower Carboniferous of the North of England and depends on the persistence of the standard limestone fauna in these beds. The subdivision and definition of an upper limit of Yoredalian depends, therefore, on the faunal grouping of this upper series. Pending further work now in progress, no attempt has been made to show this sub- division of the Yoredalian beyond the definition of the zone O at its base. The beds, such as the Undersett and the Main Limestone, have a coral-brachiopod fauna which is a continuation of that of the Lower Yoredalian and should be included in the Yoredalian. The further extension of Yoredalian to include such beds as that of the Fell Top Limestone characterised by Avulina rotiformis or the separation of these beds as a further division of the Carboniferous is left for further consideration. Phasal Faunas. The Lower Carboniferous is often of such a facies that the coral-brachiopod fauna (standard limestone fauna) is replaced by a faunal phase characterised either by goniatites and lamellibranchs (Culm fauna) or by a Zaphrentid or reef phase. The standard limestone fauna may be replaced by Culm phase or the reef phase only in certain beds, as at Loughshinny and in the Midland Province, or it may be completely replaced, as in the Lower Bolland shales at Pendle. The zonal scheme outlined above is readily applicable only where there is a coral-brachiopod faunal succession. The occurrence of the Culm phase necessitates, for the time being, two parallel and contemporaneous sets of zones, the one set based on the standard limestone fauna and the other, as outlined by Bisat,!! on the goniatites. It remains to be seen how the limits between the goniatite zones compare with those between the standard limestone zones. , 10 Delépine, G., ‘Les formations supérieures du Calcaire carbonifére de Visé,’ Ann. de la Soc. sci. de Bruxelles, 1921, p. 114. 1 Bisat, W.S., ‘The Carboniferous Goniatites of the North of England and their Zones.’ Proc. Y.G.S., vol. xx., pt. I. 1924. 82 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 250 *SUOZIIOY SO} 07 PeuUyUod ATIIESsed8U 4 pue suozoy peuNeZ repnoaed YsInsurystp 0} s10yyNe Aq posn osoyy are ofqey eaoqe oy} ut poyonhb s[issoy ou, ‘gseyd pryuerydez ; a ae - i ‘aseyd of17RIU0‘) 1 | quosvyaunUut ( VOU nsojdas nuyihy unpfiydoywhg qsur'y 831 MA ADAHW TAN WVOS LVAD 1d ——_pyjauna.nj—|-—— 09 UD ad) —— DaUnaliyj—| — paUpaitfg—|——— — oq Daud ates) UVOS AIsaWIT UVOS LVAD) purq oyeys efAv4) snaqupbrb * yo *q snaquphrb "yo "J snaywobrb “yo * snyoons *q svumsofrsoyt | snaqupbrb *y0 “J prajppsuoT sinbuad gq saad < speq ysnoy HTLOIIT HIAVO VFIATVAUSNOT ANMOT od ml ent a! aie Ts ze ee By | sisuauopbuissyy *d | gpueq vozodig a LSWT HLWOOA 1d9Y 99g J PUR DIAps ald *f), nyooydnp = aieys Merpre yy DIa|DpsSUoT qsuryT poyqyod gz syibnd -q | saad ; Mar | purq snowaydsvuay -g | | FIM TVASNOT Wiad | (2a reddy) 10) MVUCUVH , | , PAG YouRsqr our] , | qsuury soToyyogé SNUODISSDAI “'T ( sypbnd * J ed sqysuvy susuabinqapa *q susuabinqapa * I sisuabingapa “dq DUIUMUDIID SE pue . WOLLOGUNAL HNOLSNOWIS sesuabingiape “qT 11ap.09 “fy pue | “ds pauspuowg | snuassyp) *d LSOd WTONIS asdyynyt *O r — pued vaujsnuor4io asdaynyd | | DAASDUOLC a speq ,wnaounl ,i snaqunbrb * J ATACIN ee] TIAHSATMOOD snaqunbb * xe) Ss | speq A104 9% SISUIUOIS]D */T (atWOs) = WVOS > zpueq vruoxnywho znuioo “hp Donde *7F Z aLSWT GUTH snpinn"yo"d STAV AG snpinn “yO "dT SAUAVA F ‘(uoxIq ‘spuntapy) *(poomae 4) *souruue dg *(uospnyx{) -(aeaXpooy) ‘pooarex)) puepoquing “7 eouTAOIg “MN purjeromyse AA epepAopsue qota4stq 919999 (I AIAV.L) NVGSIA Uhddy) ANV NVITVGUUOK AAMOT AHL AO NOILVIGUUOD IVNOAVE 261 S ZONAL NOMENCLATURE. EROU, ON LOWER CARBONIF L D14jsvuaso * qq pypoudnp * spaq podorgoraq J pues 2494999 “q “04a (4) ld pue (semoyy) eq D14381Uad9 * 4) pue DISWUIMD Y4 aseyd DI4swUasd *) (uey8ne,) qzq : Td snqor.ys ouesq {awry > Dypaudnp *T (eq) speq -onsmyds "1 -podoryorig 2Speq "yyhig epiuoxvyphg eeert Tous Za = ayouids *4) \ apo.ids * 4) (Z) Zd ayo.uds * | ‘(uosulyieg ‘yestq) "BaIe 90081) | *(ueyone A) *(ATueer4)) *(uosyor pr SA] qIS) IH erpueg | AuurygsysnoT Aosopsuy ertysAqiaq (% ATa&vL) snssa1diuod asuasappoy * J snssaiduoo S3}1UD99)0L I ‘euney pryyueImde7z souoysproy, 1oddyQ MO]eq Sou0soMII'T eDUDIYSNL *D ULMOUOLIVUL * J UNIPLOUYIDAD T] ANOLSAWTT AdISUTANGdd ‘099 ‘snaqupbwh *yo "gq ‘paupsvind "Wy pure g(ouoys[Ay) Duniysns “9 pure Djnj{S09 “4 euney Goviq-[e100 7q (gsm'] vpise_pueg =) | TSWT NOLYALTAMS~ pouisnand *7, pue evidasinuay “yo “yy | (2) ea Spoq uayrysiuna 7; (q)€a eck nydasinuay * ji “990 ‘9nqooyns “J (x) Tq snqonbyun «gq (semoyL) 2d (ueyqsne A) ezq siwmsofrsopyf *'T snorsaydsrvuay *q { eune} podorqoriq 7q qa snajupbeb -q svuLofrisopf 7 ‘SLOIMLSIG] NAAVAD GNV ANYVTICI]{ OL NVASIA AO LIWIT UIdd~) AO NOILVOIIddy aaLsTODAS 262 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. Zaphrentid-Cyathaxonia phase and Culm phase. If it is felt that there is a need (which is doubtful) of a symbol to indicate the occurrence of a Zaphrentid phase or a goniatite-lamellibranch fauna at any particular horizon, it is suggested that the scheme proposed by Sibly !2 be adopted. Indices such as D, and §, should be indicative of horizon, and faunal phase should be indi- cated by the addition of small letters, e.g. Dox. a Zaphrentid phase of D, age, Ds,, a goniatite phase of D, age, or Hy, a coral-brachiopod fauna of H age. In general, however, and certainly for the goniatite phase, the phasal character should be indicated by the index fossil. There is no agreement among members of the Committee as to the use of the index letter P. Originally detined by Vaughan as the zone of Posidonomya, and including beds now recognised as D, (pars), D, and O ?, it was later commonly used for beds rich in goniatites and lamellibranchs ; that is, it denoted a Culm faunal phase. As the Committee has agreed that such phases should be indicated by the small letter p used after the zonal index, there is no need for P as a phasal index. In 1924 Bisat re-defined P as the zone of ‘ G. crenistria and probably that of any members of the genus Goniatites (s. str.),’ and some members of the Com- mittee are in favour of retaining P as the index letter of that zone, while others favour its total abandonment and the use of an index such as G for the zone of G. crenistria.™ Table II. is a provisional one (pending further work now in progress) showing the general relations between the various areas of the Midland and Craven Provinces, and also their approximate correlation to the Yoredalian. The correlation has been made mainly by the occurrence of the knoll and standard limestone brachiopod faunas and by the occurrence of G. crenistria. No attempt has been made to show the relation of the higher goniatite zones to the Yoredalian. It is probable that the Yoredalian may be, in part, equivalent to part of the Lancastrian (Bisat). 12 “The Carboniferous Limestone of the Cardiff District.’ Proc. Geol. Ass. vol. xxxi., 1920, p. 81. 18 Sub-report II., W. S. B. and others. ON LOWER CARBONIFEROUS ZONAL NOMENCLATURE. 263 Sus-Report I. (E. E.L.D.) I do not think it desirable to tie our hands by adhesion to the use of the term Viséan. The sequence at Visé is abnormal and unlike that found anywhere else in Belgium or in Great Britain. It would probably be generally agreed that were it not that the term Viséan is already in the field, the best horizon at which to separate the Yoredalian would be the base of D,. This should be done, though the use of Viséan for the beds below then becomes impossible, as the Viséan includes D, if it includes anything. It is agreed, too, that Continental names should be used in the exact sense in which they are used abroad. The use of Tournaisian would already appear to be inadvisable, as the Belgian Tournaisian does not include our Cleistopora Zone (K). Consequently, British terms should be used for all the Lower Carboniferous, as for the Upper (e.g. Yorkian instead of Kidston’s Westphalian). Although the separation of a Yoredalian is useful, the Avonian should be divided primarily into two, not three, series, the upper to include the Yoredalian and the beds below down to the base of C,. The Yoredalian is not sufficiently marked off, palaeon- tologically, lithologically, or stratigraphically, from the beds below to warrant its separation as a major division. This is shown by the uncertainty as to the best horizon for its base. To the horizons mentioned might well be added the base of the Great or Main Limestone, adopted by Vaughan and mapped practically wherever the Yoredales are known. The Avonian would then consist of an upper series, comprising the Yoredalian above and an equivalent of the Viséan, less D,, below, and a lower series (=Tour- naisian+K). The Yoredalian, as I conceive it, cannot overlap the Lancastrian. The base of the Lancastrian is defined by Bisat at the entry of a new goniatite-fauna of Upper Carboniferous facies. The Yoredalian, therefore, as a time-division of the Lower Carboniferous automatically comes to an end at this level, in accordance with the generally-received rule that a younger flora or fauna determines a younger formation. This delimitation is supported by the evidence, found in places, of unconformity at the base of the Lancastrian. Whether the Yoredale facies of deposition (as against the Yoredale period) has persisted into Lancastrian time in Scotland remains to be proved. Should the proof be forthcoming, the demarcation must be reconsidered, as the deposits of Yoredale facies of Scotland also are separated in places from the beds above by an unconformity. Sus-Report II. (W.S. B., W.B.W., J. W.S., L.H.T., D.P.) ' The undersigned, having freely discussed among ourselves and with the Secretary, the matters dealt with in this Report, and having, in order to obtain general agreement, accepted much that appeared to us undesirable, have found it at length necessary te take exception to the character of the recommendations made. The Report deals almost exclusively with the coral-brachiopod faunal phase ot the Carboniferous, and even after extensive modifications still clearly seeks to establish this phase as the standard by which the time-divisions of the period are to be defined, and to which the other phases, such as the Culm or Goniatite phase, are to be referred. This is apparent in the failure to obtain agreement in the use of the zone ‘ P’ in the significance originally attached to it by Vaughan, and recently more accurately delimited by one of us in terms of a clear-cut and well-defined fauna. The main reason given for its non-recognition by the Committee is that it has been inaccurately and wrongly used by a number of workers on the coral-brachiopod faunas. ‘P’ is, however, essentially a Culm zone, and the workers on the Culm faunas naturally claim the right to use it, and even re-define it, if they think the procedure is sound. The use and re- definition of it is as justifiable as the use and re-definition of ‘D ’ recommended in the Report, to which we have agreed as a time-division of the coral-brachiopod phase. It appears to us to be more capable of accurate definition and to be traceable over a wider area than the zone ‘D’ and its subdivisions, and much more so than the succeeding coral-brachiopod zone ‘ O,’ suggested by the Committee and accepted by us as a subdivision of that phase in the North-West Province. It is true that in the body of the Report the necessity for ‘ two parallel and con- temporaneous sets of zones, the one set based on the standard limestone fauna, and 264 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. the other on the goniatites,’ is recognised, but the Report certainly does not make clear the necessity for the use of a separate series of symbols for time-divisions in the gonia- tite sequence. We feel that there is a subcurrent of opinion running throughout workers on the coral-brachiopod phase that the major divisions of that phase should be used as time-divisions in the division of the Culm. For instance, the suggestion is made that ‘D3,’ should indicate a goniatite phase of ‘D,’ age. Such a term no doubt would be useful to workers on the Yoredale beds, but it has little significance when applied to theCulm. The division next above ‘ D;,’ namely ‘ O,’ would obviously be hopeless as a time-division of the Culm, and even in the typical Yoredalian no real attempt has as yet been made to define its boundaries in faunal terms. The Culm phase which had been long dominant in Germany and parts of England (Devon and Craven) became far more widespread in the famous Posidonomya zone, now defined in terms of its goniatite succession and, following Vaughan and Matley, designated shortly as ‘ P.’? By this symbol it is now well known to geologists both in the Old and New Worlds. We greatly regret, therefore, that certain workers on the corals and brachiopods should deprecate the use of this term as a time-division. As far as they are concerned, restricted as their activities are to those narrow areas in which corals existed up to the end of the Lower Carboniferous, undoubtedly the term is unnecessary and need not be used, but to the ever-increasing number of workers on the great Culm phase, both in these islands and abroad, the symbol connotes a very definite faunal division, and we feel that any attempt to cast doubt on the propriety of its use is ill-advised. We feel therefore that the Committee ought to accept the definition of ‘P’ in terms of the goniatite fauna given in the Proc. Y.G.S8., vol. xx., pt. I., 1924, and recommend its use to workers. Having very strongly expressed our views to the effect that we considered all correlation to be outside the function of this Committee, we have finally agreed, on the advice of the Chairman, to the introduction of certain tables which might lead to clearness in following the Report. We think, however, that to lead readers to regard them as in any way backed by the authority of the Committee would be undesirable, since correlation can only be based upon an appeal to faunas, and the faunas are only very partially and inadequately stated in the tables. We have urged upon the Committee the desirability of defining the zones in terms of faunal lists included in the Report, and were prepared to supply such lists for the Culm phase. We understand, however, that there are difficulties in the way of this procedure in the case of the coral-brachiopod phase, the faunas being either too ill- defined or composed of undescribed forms. Such clear-cut definition would have aided greatly in the comparison of the two phases and in the interpretation of mixed phases. The absence of such definitions in the coral-brachiopod phase was largely the cause of the confusion which this Committee was set up to rectify, and if confusion is to be avoided in the future, in our opinion much greater precision in the definition of coral zones will be required. Parthenogenesis.—Report of Committee (Prof. A. MrEx, Chairman ; Mr. A. D. Peacock, Secretary; Dr. J. W. Hzstor Harrison and Mr. R. BaGnatt.) FurRTHER work on parthenogenesis in saw-flies and moths is reported as follows : The species Thrinaz miata, K1.,and Thrinax macula, K).—To throw light on various aspects of sex and parthenogenesis, preliminary attempts have been made to cross these two species, but, so far, without success. The amount of macula material has been smaller than anticipated owing to heavy parasitisation, but the experiments do seem to indicate that hybridisation can be induced. Incidentally, further morphological and biological observations have been made. The former comprise detailed studies of the larva of mixta, the adult macula and the external and internal genitalia of mixta; the latter relate to the burrowing habits of mixta, sex ratio in mixta, and parasitism by ichneumons. Papers on the above are in preparation. Continuous thelytokous parthenogenetic reproduction in Allantus (Hmphytus) pallipes, Spin., and Pristiphora pallipes, Lep.—This is the fifth consecutive season for partheno- genetic strains of these species. Strains of the former have reproduced for nine successive generations, and of the latter for thirteen, without resort to sexual methods. ON PARTHENOGENESIS—ANTL-SERA. 265 a No weakening of the strains is perceptible. The former has never yet yielded a male among some 1200 specimens reared. Sexuality of Pristiphora pallipes, Lep.—tIn all, about 900 specimens have been bred, all females except eight males and two sexual abnormalities. All the males, except one, and one abnormality, were produced under circumstances which make it impossible to state decisively whether they were experimental products or not. Studies in the sexuality of these rare males continue, and the evidence is strongly in favour of the view that the species has developed parthenogenesis to such a degree that the males have become superfluous and dispensable, despite the fact that micro- scopic investigation shows that the insects produce spermatozoa. A paper is in preparation. Morphological work on the genitalia of both sexes and of the second abnormality— a gynandromorph with external genitalia pertaining to both sexes—is well forward for publication. Numerous sex-change experiments by the following method have given negative results this season. The eggs laid and reared in an incubator at a temperature of 30° C. have consistently yielded females up to now. (Cf. results cited in previous Report for year 1924 at Toronto.) Pteronidea (Nematus) ribesii, Scop—A detailed study of a gynandromorph obtained in breeding experiments has been written up for publication in the July number of the British Journal of Experimental Biology. This specimen, externally, was predominantly female whilst, internally, it was genetically male. It produced spermatozoa, attempted to pair as a male, and was itself inseminated by a male. The paper also devotes special attention to sexuality in the saw-flies. The germ cells of the gynandromorph also afford material for cytological study, and this is being pursued pari passu with investigations into the cytological conditions of normal specimens from the late Professor L. Doncaster’s and the Secretary’s own material. Parthenogenesis in Lepidoptera.—The following papers have been completed : 1, Animal Parthenogenesis in relation to Chromosomes and Species. American Naturalist, Vol. LIX., No. 662, May-June, 1925. This paper arose out of the Secretary’s contribution to a symposium between Sections D and K at the Toronto meeting of the Association. 2. In collaboration with Dr. J.W.H. Harrison. On Parthenogenesis originating in Lepidopterous Crosses. T'ransactions of the Natural History Society of Northumber- land, Durham, and Newcasile-wpon-Tyne (in the press). In both these papers the results attending certain hybridisation experiments, by Dr.J.W.H. Harrison, with the two moths, Tephrosia bistortata, Goeze, and 7’. crepus- cularia, Bkh., are recounted and discussed from various aspects. The crossings have resulted in an Fl hybrid which, by parthenogenesis, yields F2 offspring which demonstrate segregation in wing colour and pattern and in sex. The first paper suggests how such parthenogenesis and segregation could give rise to new forms, and the second claims to present the first definite proofs of how hybridisation may originate parthenogenesis. Further work is in progress. Pre-natal Influence of Anti-sera on the Eye-lens of Rabbits. —Preliminary Report of Committee (Prof. W. J. Daxtn, Chairman ; Mr. J. T. Cunnineuam, Secretary; Prof. D. M.S. Watson). Drawn up by the Secretary. Ty September 1924 I had obtained four young albino rabbits—two males and two females—and also one doe which was white but not a perfect albino, having some sooty colour on the snout and ears. Although several trials were made, no copulation occurred between these rabbits until February 4, 1925, when one of the does, Albino No. 1, was found to be in heat and was successfully mated. This doe was not injected or made the subject of any experiment, but simply allowed to produce young as a control, to see if the young were normal with regard to the eyes and in other respects. It is usually stated in the practical breeders’ books that the period of gestation in domesticated rabbits is thirty days, and it is stated by biologists that ovulation and fertilisation take place immediately after coition. This doe, however, had no young on the morning of March 6 when the period of thirty days from mating was completed. She had a nest 266 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. with young in it on March 9, but I was unable to decide from the reports of those who fed and tended the animals, exactly at what time between the morning of March 7 and that of March 9 the young were born. On March 10 one of the young was found dead with the legs eaten off in the outer compartment of the hutch. Subsequently I found there were three young surviving, all normal in every respect, completely albino, and with perfect eyes. The second albino doe was mated with one of the bucks on March 3. Injections of pulped lenses were made into hens as follows : February 10.—Two lenses from half-grown rabbit pounded up in mortar, made up to 10 c.c. with salt solution, 2.5 c.c. injected into each of four hens: into peritoneal cavity behind tip of sternum. February 17.—Second injection as before. February 24.—Third injection as before. March 3.—Fourth injection as before. March 10.—One of the hens had died. Injected remaining three fifth time, and a new white hen first time. March 19.—Injected two new hens first time, one white hen second time, one black hen sixth time. Used four lenses from two very young rabbits. Albino 9 No, 2 was injected with serum from blood of the injected hens as follows : Took the blood from one of the injected hens by the method described by Guyer and Smith. Anzsthetised the hen with ether, then plucked the feathers from the neck, washed the skin with spirit, cut through the skin, then through the gullet and trachea, and turned these back ; then with large scissors cut through the neck, and passed the latter quickly into a small cylindrical jar to collect the blood. Subsequently, in taking the blood from other hens, I omitted to cut through the gullet and trachea, merely turning these tubes back with the head when the latter was severed from the neck, and thus avoiding all risk of contaminating the blood collected with septic matter from the gullet or trachea. The blood was left in an ice-chest till next day, then centrifuged and the serum poured off. March 13.—5 c.c. serum from injected hen injected into marginal vein of ear of pregnant female Albino No. 2. March 16.—4 c.c. of serum from same blood injected. Rabbit showed distinct reaction, in quickened respiration and heart-beat, for about half an hour, when it had become nearly normal again. March 18.—5 c.c. serum from blood of another hen injected. March 19.—About 5 c.c. serum from same blood injected. March 21.—The blood of another hen had been left twenty-four hours in the ice- chest without ice; the clot was much contracted, and a quantity of clear serum separated. I injected 7 c.c. of this serum into ear of pregnant rabbit. March 23.—Centrifuged remainder of last lot of blood and injected 6 c.c. serum ine some added salt solution into same rabbit. Had some difficulty in passing the ood. On March 24 the rabbit was not quite well, the ear into which the injection was made was somewhat swollen. She afterwards recovered. This rabbit, Albino No. 2, gave birth to a litter of young on the night of April 3-4. She was mated in the afternoon of Tuesday, March 3. Birth took place, therefore, 31} days from mating, not thirty days, which is usually given as the period of gestation. The number of young was afterwards found to be six, and they were all carefully examined as soon as their eyes were open, which was on the eleventh day after birth. No abnormality could be detected in the eyes of any of them. Another experiment of the same kind was made with the third doe, which had colour on snout and ears. She was mated on April 9, and the same routine was followed as with Albino No. 2. There is no need to give details, as although the mating was complete, no young were produced. Hither fertilisation failed or abortion occurred, but no signs of abortion or prematurely born young were ever discovered in the hutch in which she was kept. At the beginning of May I was obliged to abandon the experiments for a time on account of an attack of iritis. WhileI was absent, Doe No. 3 died. On June 15 I was able to resume the work, and began to prepare more hens to supply serum to be in- jected into Albino No. 1, which produced a litter previously, as mentioned above, without being injected. This experiment is now proceeding, and others will follow. An account of the expenditure of the grant of £20 will be sent later, and it is ON ANTI-SERA—COST OF CYCLING, ETC. 267 requested that any unexpended balance may be retained to defray the cost of the continued experiments. It is proposed to publish a fuller account of the experiments with full details in some publication not yet decided upon. The experiments have been carried out in the Physiological Department of the London Hospital Medical College, by the kind permission of Prof. Roaf, the head of that Department. I desire to thank Prof. Roaf very cordially for his sympathetic interest in the work, and for giving me all possible facilities. Cost of Cycling at Varied Rate and Work.—Report of Committee (Professor J.S. MacponaLp, Chairman; Dr. F. A. Durriep, Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.) In last year’s Report on the ‘ cost of cycling with varied rate and work,’ a graph was published of the data obtained fron two persons performing mechanical work upon a stationary bicycle against a measured and variable brake. The abscissa represented the metabolic expenditure and the ordinates the external work done at the various levels, z.e. 0, °5, 1:0, 1-5, and 2-0 kalories per minute. The experimental points lay practically on astraightline as long as the rate remained the same ; but as three different rates were employed three lines were obtained for each subject. The relative position of the lines and their different slope in the two cases was such as to justify the statement that whereas the cost of mere movement was greater for the heavier subject, the cost of work done was actually less, and thus the efficiency of the heavier subject was greater. At the end of the Report a third subject was referred to, though not by name ; Prebble, whose results, although his body weight was only 46-7 kgm., were intermediate between those of McHugh and Harrison. We have therefore still to deal with the exceptional character of these data, and hope to obtain a further set of experiments from this individual, since this peculiarity makes the results’specially interesting. During the present year work has been done on another person, Wilson, also of light weight (45°5 kgm. stripped). The results from this man are of lower total meta- bolic cost than those of McHugh and_Harrison. | For the purposes_of,comparison these are given here in graph form. CHart I. BRAKE POWER IN KALS. p.m. is) | 2 < 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 METABOLISM IN KALS. p.m. x The experiments on Wilson were performed in precisely the same way as those of the other two, except that each point on the graph is the mean of three determinations in Wilson’s case taken at intervals of 18, 23, and 28 minutes after the commencement of the cycling ; whereas in the other two sets of experiments only one determination was made, and that at 18 minutes after the start. The labour in carrying out this research has consequently been increased ; but the adoption of this procedure 268 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. provides additional criteria for judging the accurdcy of these complicated measure- ments. The graph drawn from the experimental results of these three individuals, McHugh, Harrison, and Wilson, represents the metabolic expenditure at the quick rate of movement only, where the figures are well separated one from another. At the slower rates they fall so closely together as to render charting difficult. Considering these three sets of results only, it is evident that the cost of movement is greater with the increased body-weight of the subject, and that efficiency is less with the subject of smaller weight.! The cost of movement is shown by the distance along the abscissa from the zero to the point where it is cut by the particular line, the efficiency by the slope of the lines. To obtain further information on the factor related to movement experiments were performed on the cycle now fitted with a crank, the length of which could be varied Cuart II. at SS ——— HARRISON 3/8/25 Cc B IN @ iin Hf 3 LENGTH OF CRANK © : SOD A a ; il o \ | Be ites 0) 5° 1-0 5 2:0 METABOLISM 'N KALS. p.m. 4 at will. The lengths employed were 20°32, 17°78, and 15-24 cms., and the rate selected was 62:5 revolutions a minute. The plotted results of these experiments are such as to indicate that the efficiency as shown by the slope of the lines is not very greatly affected, if at all, but the cost of movement is considerably greater the greater the length of the crank and the greater therefore the degree of angular movement. The nature of this modification in the cost of movement is well shown in the results of those experiments in which with different lengths of crank no work was done on the brake. Further holes were bored in the crank so as to permit measurements 1T. S. Macdonald, Proc. Roy. Soc., B. 89, 403, 1916. ON COST OF CYCLING, ETC.—VOCATIONAL TESTS. 269 of the metabolism to be made with greater variations of the crank, i.e. with lengths of 12-7 and 10-16 cms. in addition to those given above. The results of these are tabulated below. | Metabolism in Kals. p.m. average of three determinations Length of crank 1 20°32 2-076 2 17:78 | 1-869* 3 15-24 | 1-745 4 12-70 1-596 5 10°16 1-422 * Only one determination available. From these figures clearly the metabolic expenditure for mere movement varies directly with the length of the crank. On p. 268 is given a graphic representation of this, in which the abscissa is the metabolism in kalories per minute and the ordinates the length of the crank in cms. Vocational Tests.— Report of Committee (Dr. C. 8. MyErs, Chairman ; Dr. G. H. Mixes, Secretary; Prof. C. Burt, Prof. T. H. Par, Mr. F. Warts, Dr. Lt. Wynn Jonzs). Tue following is a brief account of the present position of Vocational Testing. Vocational Testing has developed in two main directions, and is the practical outcome of the fact that certain psychological tests, when applied by trained observers, are capable of bringing to light and evaluating individual mental differences. The information obtained from such tests is utilised when giving Vocational Guidance to those who need help in the choice of an occupation. It is also possible to study an occupation and devise psychological tests which, when applied to candidates, will give information as to their degree of suitability for that occupation. Such tests are being used to supplement the work of Vocational Selection. In America children are given information concerning the vocational possibilities in industrial, commercial and professional life, details of the careers are given, and they are helped in making their own choice. Advice in choosing a High School Curriculum is also given with the same object in view. A psychological examination is being increasingly used. On the Continent more attention is given to the exploration of the children’s mental and physical abilities. For this purpose various tests, based on laboratory tests, have been designed, and the results obtained are used to supplement other information concerning the child. Many additional facts can be derived from these results, but unless the requirements in the various available occupations have been similarly estimated, this method has but little in favour of it, for the older methods of guidance have shown how much is dependent on the accuracy of the counsellor’s knowledge concerning the various occupations. Numerous vocational bureaus have therefore made classifications of occupations from the point of view of estimated requirements. In some districts this classification is carried a step further by actual surveys, carried out by psychologists, of the mental requirements of the industries and occupations. This is undoubtedly an advance on the armchair analysis, though the latter is, of course, helpful as a preliminary step and gives a definite line for action. Closely allied to the work of guidance is that of vocational selection, and this is giving great help by defining more exactly the requirements of a number of occupa- tions and in rendering available numerous tests by which candidates can be selected for these occupations. In America many firms have standardised psychological tests for their new employees. In Germany, for instance, large firms such as Osram, A.B.G., Siemens, Krupps, and also the Post Office and the State Railways, have established psychological laboratories in which their new employees are tested before being allocated to various branches of the firm’s activities. 270 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. In this country a number of large firms, with assistance from the National Institute of Industrial Psychology, have also instituted definite psychological tests for their employees. The exact information gained from such vocational tests will in time be a valuable supplement to the more general work of analysis which is being carried out for the purpose of vocational guidance. In the work of vocational guidance the problem is much wider than in the case of vocational selection. Children of various types and descriptions apply for advice, and the problems are as varied as the types. The field of enquiry is in part deter- mined by the type, e.g. Primary, Secondary, or University ; moreover, it is at present only imperfectly surveyed. There is a further difficulty, that the requirements of the vacancies available are vaguely defined, and closer acquaintance with the problems shows that they are frequently limited in number, so that it may well happen that in examining a group of children a number may be found who are fitted, say, for occupations requiring considerable manual dexterity and a fairly high level of intelligence, whereas economic conditions are such that only a limited field is open for such children. It is therefore necessary to discover rather the general trend of a child’s abilities: and in the same way, after making an analysis of the requirements of the occupations available, it is important that these should be classified in groups which require allied abilities. It is as yet too early in this work, and it is doubtful if it will ever be possible (or desirable) to fit every square peg into the exactly corre- sponding square hole; but from experience in this and in other countries, guidance based on the use of suitable tests, though admittedly imperfect, can reduce the number and extent of misfits very considerably, and the part thus played by psychology is growing in importance. In order to define the position of psychological tests, in schemes of vocational guidance and selection it is important to realise that the school records give only one side of a child’s mental or physical activities. The records are obtained under conditions very different from those obtaining in the outside world, and their value must be estimated accordingly. In the same way a teacher’s estimate of a child’s ability is only valid within his sphere of observation ; similarly with the estimates of parents and guardians. The medical examination can give help mainly in deter- mining for what occupations a child is not fitted. In this sphere there is an enormous ground to be covered before valid positive information can be obtained. Psychology can help in forming a truer estimate of the value of the children’s own wishes and inclinations in determining a choice of occupations, and it can survey more completely and exactly than any other method the child’s mental and physical activities. Psycho- logical tests can be applied which will ascertain, for instance, his level of intelligence, measure his manual dexterity, and to a certain extent estimate his temperamental qualities. This information is, however, of little use unless the extent to which these qualities are required in every-day occupations has also been determined, and this implies a careful analysis of the requirements of the occupations and a classification of those requiring allied ability. When such information is available, reliable advice can be given. With the rapid development in this work that has taken place during the last few years, there has arisen a demand for persons who have received training in the methods of devising, applying and evaluating suitable tests, and a number of bureaus have organised training courses for those who wish to take up this work. In nearly every country of the world! the work of developing vocational tests is proceeding rapidly, and it is felt that in order that workers in this country may keep abreast of the developments here and abroad, full information should be available concerning :— i. Vocational tests that have proved of value in practical use. ii. Research work that has a direct bearing on the development of vocational tests. In order to do this satisfactorily it will be necessary to get in direct touch with all organisations carrying out this work and to obtain, wherever possible, copies of the tests, accurate descriptions, drawings and illustrations of apparatus used, etc. A request is therefore made for a grant of 201. to cover part of the expenses incurred in this work. 1 For accounts and references see Industrial Fatigue Research Board Report, No. 16; Journal of the National Institute of Industrial Psychology, vol. i. Nos. 1-6,.vol. ii. Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 5; International Labour Review, vol. xi. No. 4. —_- ON EDUCATIONAL TRAINING FOR OVERSEAS LIFE. 271 Educational Training for Overseas Life.—Report of Commiitee appointed to consider the Educational Training of Boys and Girls in Secondary Schools for Overseas Life (Rev. Dr. H. B. Gray, Chairman ; Mr. C. E. Browne, Secretary; Major A. G. Cuurcu, Mr. T. S. Dymonp, Dr. Vargas Eyre, Mr. G. H. Garrap, Sir Ricnarp Grecory, Mr. O. H. Latter, Miss McLean, Miss Rita OLpHam, Mr. G. W. Onive, Sir Joun Russett, Rev. Canon H. Sewer, Mr. A. A. Somrrvinir, Mrs. Gorpon Witson). In 1923 a committee was appointed by the Association to consider the educational training of boys and girls in secondary schools for life overseas. A report on the result of an inquiry conducted by this committee was presented at the meeting last year in Toronto. It reviewed the provision made in secondary schools of England and Wales for developing a boy’s natural bias towards life on the land, or for giving girls some practical training in those modern operations which are associated with farm life; and, further, it dealt with the present state of public opinion on the subject from the point of view of the parent, the headmaster, the local educational authority, overseas settlement societies and educational authorities in the Dominions them- selves. (Copies of this report can be had from the Secretary, British Association, Burling- ton House, W.1, price 6d.) The committee summarised at the end of the report certain conclusions based on the information they had received. These conclusions are, for convenience, restated here :— 1. A demand exists on the part of the Overseas Dowinions for boys of the right type with an agricultural bias, if not with training, and coincides with the home country’s need of finding healthy employment within the Empire for a large number of her sons. 2. The public schools and other large secondary schools of Great Britain send into the world every year a considerable number of boys of the right type who love wide open spaces, and dislike intensely the over-crowded city life. 3. There has been no serious attempt in the majority of schools to meet this demand. Schools hitherto have provided only three avenues—literary, mathematical, and scientific—in some places only two. While this is sufficient for many boys, it does not provide for the most practical type, so that numbers find no outlet for their natural ability in that spirit of enterprise and adventure which Dominion life offers. They lack necessary guidance and experience. 4. The undoubted value of agriculture as an educational instrument has been overlooked in the past. Some British schools have made the experiment of adding this new method for educating boys of the latter type. A school farm or science farm has been set up in the working of which boys take an active part. This farm provides material for working in other subjects, such as mathematics and general science ; it encourages reading for a definite purpose, the observation of natural phenomena, the keeping of records, and adds considerably to the appreciation of geography. Thus the school farm, when properly used, is a valuable means of education and appeals to boys on whom the older classical and mathematical methods make no impression. 5. Experience shows that the school curriculum exercises an important influence in deciding a boy’s career. The school farm would, therefore, bring to the notice of boys the possibilities of a career on the land. It would give them sufficient experience of what agriculture means, and so enable them to decide whether they are fitted or not for such a life. 6. The extension of the experiment to other schools is not prevented by lack of land in many cases ; 50 per cent. of the schools have access to suitable land, but only 9 per cent. use it. 7. Development of a school curriculum in this practical direction for a section of a school needs encouragement because—(a) it is educational in a very wide sense ; (6) Empire considerations demand it ; (c) little is being done officially either by the Board of Education or by the majority of Local Education Authorities. 272 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 8. There is need of some organisation to encourage overseas life, to link up the secondary schools with those societies which are able to look after the interests of the prospective emigrant. 9. Whatever agricultural training a boy may receive at school, it should be em- phasised that the training is not technical such as is given in an agricultural college, and that it can be in no sense a substitute for a definite apprenticeship on a farm, whether in Great Britain or in one of the Overseas Dominions. 10. Manual training as an educational instrument does not appear to receive the recognition it should in the majority of schools. Comparatively few have facilities for metalwork, and in the majority even woodwork is optional, and taken during out-of-school time, or, at most, in the lower forms only. In the present report the committee are able to present in more detail the work which is being attempted in certain schools of this country to arouse interest in farm life and in agricultural studies generally. In some cases, through the courtesy of the headmasters, the committee are able to give the syllabus of work followed and the time-tables of the classes affected (Section 5). Since the last report, additional information has been received from the various Overseas Dominions and this has been also incorporated (Section 6). Further con- sideration of the problems involved show that there are many practical difficulties in the way of a general adoption of agricultural studies even where plenty of land is available. These difficulties are briefly dealt with in Section 3. For urban schools, and in the absence of available land for experimental purposes, geography has strong claims to be treated as a useful substitute, and in any case affords a valuable means of opening the minds of boys and girls alike to the possi- bilities of life abroad within the Empire (see Section 4). Much misunderstanding of the claim of agriculture to be considered a proper study for schools arises from a misconception of its aim, method and content. The ’ reasons for the inclusion of agriculture in the curriculum, and the interpretation to be given to the term Agricultural Studies as applied to schools, are briefly stated in Section 1 and 2 below, leaving for a future report a more definite statement and explanation. of their content and method. I. AGRICULTURAL STUDIES—THEIR AIM AND PLACE IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM, (1) A sound education is the thing that matters most for the intending emigrant as it does for everyone else. But no education is sound that does not provide some handwork, especially for those types of boys who can learn little through any other way. Food being the first essential of life, there seems to be excellent reason why some- thing about foodstuffs, their production and comparative value, should be studied in all schools. Land cultivation and stock rearing provide material for study of considerable educational value. They give a widened outlook and enlarge the scope of general science teaching. Agricultural studies when they are directly connected with practical work on a farm introduce to some boys’ minds the only feature in the school curri- culum that can make them feel their work to be real and creative. They direct a boy’s attention to the possibilities of a useful calling in life; they tend to create a better understanding and a broader sympathy between town and country dweller. They can have great value as a factor in moral development, and in other ways be of definite national value. It may also be said that the early association with farm life and work, afforded by such training, is of considerable practical value, especially to those boys who choose farming overseas as their future career. (2) By agricultural studies is not meant ‘ teaching to farm.’ To attempt that would be a fatal error. What is meant is the use of the farm or garden as a laboratory and workshop in the study of physics, chemistry and biology. The farm, and garden, and stock may be as necessary to science teaching as are the ordinary laboratories and their apparatus. It should be emphasised that whatever agricultural work a boy may do at school it must not be considered in any sense a substitute for a definite apprenticeship on a farm whether in Great Britain or in one of the Overseas Dominions. It should have a vocational outlook, but must not take the form of vocational training. Its purpose is educational. This outlook gives vision and reality to study; creates interest and captures reason, but the educational purpose is to make use of the material for intellectual development, for growth of real understanding. ae ON EDUCATIONAL TRAINING FOR OVERSEAS LIFE. 273 The opinion held in the Overseas Dominions on the subject of agricultural studies in schools is in complete accord with these views. The following abstract is made from a memorandum to the Superintendent of Education for British Columbia from the Director of Elementary Agricultural Education for British Columbia :— ‘The study of agriculture is regarded as a valuable and almost essential part of a good, liberal education. Its interests are healthful, and its influence positive and beneficial. It calls out personal initiative and helps to develop self-reliance and resourcefulness. It gives new interests and new meaning to other science studies by affording innumerable examples of science applied. It affords one of the best avenues through which to approach the great biological secrets and mysteries of plant and animal propagation, and the laws of heredity. It develops certain skills incidental to scientific experimentation and to approved practices in farming and gardening. In all these aspects it is essentially and primarily educational and suitable alike to girls and boys, regardless of the particular vocation which each may ultimately choose. On the other hand, it may be of great value in setting up new standards, and new conceptions of the true nature and meaning of agriculture in the mind of these young people as a result of which they may be drawn to choose farming as an occupation. When such an educational and scientific basis has been laid for the farmer of the future the quality of our rural citizenship will advance, and not till then.’ Mr. Frank Tate, Director of Education for Victoria, Australia, states that certain secondary schools have a special agricultural course :— “In these schools the boys carry on many of the farm operations but only to a small extent. It is mainly for educational purposes and not as a sufficient training in the actual handiwork. Undoubtedly this work has greatly improved the boys’ attitude to the general work of the school, it has been an influence for good in their character, and has materially affected for good their after-school life. The reacting effect of the agricultural side upon the ordinary traditional subjects is great and satisfactory. Certainly I have never seen more energy and interest than was displayed by those boys and girls when observed at work. ‘In my opinion the courses of training in agriculture and in domestic arts have proved to be educational to a high degree.’ The same ideas and principles are emphasised by the Superintendent of Secondary Education of South Australia (page 24), by the Under-Secretary to Department of Public Instruction, Brisbane, Queensland (page 23), and by the Director of Educa- tion for Saskatchewan (page 18). II. PRACTICAL WORK ON THE LAND. ‘Practical work on the land is as necessary to any course of agricultural studies as practical work in the laboratory is to chemistry. It is necessary to emphasise this point, as there are signs in some quarters that agriculture may be adopted as a subject for the First School Certificate Examination, thus treating it as an entirely indoor study. Agriculture without practical work out-of-doors loses most of its educational value as a subject in the school curriculum. It is the contact with things, the study of things, not words, that in this case counts forso much. The opportunity afforded by a school farm or garden for bringing most of the science work into close oP with reality is extraordinarily useful. Such work gives purpose and es (1) To the study of botany through the types of plants used for food or that occur as weeds ; (2) To the study of insect life—useful and injurious organisms that play such an important part in the cropping of the land ; (3) To the study of elementary physics and chemistry. School gardens can supply much of the material required in the early stages, but the principle of giving to older boys, say from 15 years upwards, the opportunity of study- ing animal life, and land cultivation on the larger scale afforded by farm conditions, has many claims for serious consideration. The development of the curriculum in a practical direction for at least a section of a school needs encouragement because (a) It is educational in a very wide sense, (6) Empire considerations demand it. Overseas opinion on the subject of practical work is much better informed and more advanced than in England, with the consequence that in the Overseas Dominions a considerable body of experience has been accumulated, which has led the way to 1925 i QTA REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. a definite adoption of practical work on the land wherever possible, for the urban school equally with the rural school. The Director of Education for Ontario in his annual report for 1920 says :— ‘Experimental work is not only far more attractive, but also just as surely educational. The boy who examines by the use of a spade the surface soil and sub- soil with a view towards understanding the water relations will acquire educational experience no less fundamental than the boy who analyses a complex sentence for grammatical relationships. ‘The boy who grows beans on his plot, and, after harvesting the crop, by means of scale and measures calculates the weight per bushel of the seed, will have completed a lesson hardly less important educationally than if he had memorised the chief facts involved in a chapter or two of the Norman Conquest.’ Under the heading of ‘ The Essential Characteristics of the British Columbia System of Agricultural Education ’ (see page 17), the Director expresses the same opinion and points out the fundamental importance of practical work. Ill. DIFFICULTIES IN THE WAY OF A GENERAL ADOPTION OF AGRICULTURAL STUDIES IN SCHOOLS. (1) It will perhaps be wise to state here that the adoption of agriculture for school purposes does not mean the addition of a new subject to an already overcrowded curriculum. It must either take the place of another subject, or else be adopted merely as a method of teaching those larger science subjects which are already part of the school work. In larger schools there is no reason why it should not be taken up as a process of gradual development by a section of the school; just as some boys specialise in pure science, so others will be led to develop a bent towards agricultural science in particular as the natural outcome of the agricultural bias given to science work in the earlier stages of training. (2) In common with all new educational developments, the difficulty of introduc- tion lies in the comparative fewness of masters who possess the requisite qualifications. The slowness of adoption in the case of agricultural studies is due to the considerable number of headmasters who do not really understand what science is, nor possess sufficient freedom and independence to break away from the shackles of the traditional curriculum. A change in the attitude of the headmasters is a gradual process that requires time, though sympathy will accomplish much. Buta suitable staff is the crux of the whole matter; acceleration or retardation is dependent upon the degree to which this kind of work is made real and valuable educationally. A suitable teacher must have knowledge of agricultural conditions, he must be an enthusiast and a man of vision who can stir up the imagination and enthusiasm of boys and girls under his charge. To increase the supply of such men, Cambridge and other schools of agri- culture should be approached, and a scheme devised to turn out a larger number of school-teachers trained and qualified for this particular work. (3) The existing conditions of public examinations are a great stumbling-block, but, if a good case is made out, the First School Certificate Examination might be so modified as to fall in with any reasonable suggestions made. Much might be urged in the interest of the type of boy under consideration. Usually his great stumbling- block is Latin or the more advanced mathematics required for the certificate. School- masters are often well aware that he could never pass the standard required, and yet he is not allowed to substitute a practical subject in which he would excel, simply because there is no machinery for measuring the quality of such work. Yet as far as the boy’s future is concerned it would be of incalculable value to him to have every opportunity of developing his natural gift. (4) The maintenance of efficiency in these agricultural studies may seem a diffi- culty. Work of such a practical type is not easily tested by examination. A fixed syllabus on which such an examination would be based limits the value of the work possible, limits elasticity and exercises a cramping effect. If, however, the school has an elastic syllabus of its own, certificates might be awarded by the school on the results of an annual examination of high standard. In order to satisfy the Local Education Authorities and other grant-awarding bodies, there can be inspection at any time during the year by a County Organiser in agriculture and by an Inspector of the Board of Education or of the Local Education Authority. (5) The financial difficulty is a serious consideration, and with many it might be a serious problem. For instruction in agricultural science within the school the cost is not prohibitive, yet establishment and running of a farm means a large drain on ON EDUCATIONAL TRAINING FOR OVERSEAS LIFE. 275 a school’s resources. But putting on one side the initial outlay on buildings, stock, and machinery, it should at least be possible to make the sale of produce from the farm and gardens balance the cost of labour and expenditure on manures, feeding- stuffs, and seeds. (6) The holiday difficulty is also a serious one. The necessarily intermittent character of the boys’ work on a farm or agricultural holding makes it impossible to keep the land in a proper state of cultivation, and certainly makes it difficult to be up to date in sowings and harvesting without extra assistance. To attempt to depend on boy labour alone entails too much routine work and prevents the proper use of the time for experimental and educational work. It follows that outside labour must be employed, the amount, of course, depending upon the size of the holding. IV. GEOGRAPHICAL TEACHING. Geography may be made to play a very important part in the educational training of boys and girls for overseas life ; it may lead to desire to emigrate, and in schools where practical work on the land is impossible may form a background for much science work. The lack of knowledge in the average parent of the conditions of life in the Overseas Dominions is partly responsible for the fact that comparatively few _ boys and girls from our secondary schools emigrate. This could be partially remedied if the geographical work at various stages dealt with topics concerning life overseas. A detailed study of the resources, occupations, produce, markets, social and economic condition of the British Empire would materially assist in awakening an interest in _ the subject, and not improbably lead to a desire to go abroad. a V. AGRICULTURE IN SCHOOLS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. __ The following particulars of agricultural studies pursued in certain secondary schools of England and Wales have been supplied through the courtesy of the head- masters. There are at least 25 such schools, including six ‘ public schools,’ which have adopted a course in agriculture for some of their boys. In most cases there is no actual field work, or cultural operations by the boys, and few schools have the means for dealing with stock of any kind. (The numeral after the name indicates the number of boys in the school.) 1. At Hion a course of study for a small number of boys about 17-18 has recently been arranged which makes agriculture the chief subject. A laboratory and a plot of land have been set apart for this—field work is limited largely by lack of time. 2. At Harrow there is an agricultural division which studies the theory of agriculture and does laboratory work on soils, crops, weeds, agricultural chemistry and drainage, but there is no organised field work. 3. At Oundle (560) about 120 boys of the Fourth and Fifth Forms study biology with an agricultural bias. There is a farm of 50 acres attached to the school, worked by a staff of 22 men and boys. Cultural operations on the farm are not carried out by the boys of the school, but visits to the farm and gardens are made for observational purposes in connection with the science work. The stock on the farm consists of horses, pigs, and poultry, but the boys take no active part in the rearing or feeding. The following is a time-table for the Agricultural Form :— Period} Monpay TUESDAY | WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY SATURDAY is Scripture. | Applied Agric. French, Biology. Agric. Biology. History. 2, as Applied Applied Maths. | ppt. | Biology or | Biology or | Maths. French. METEBS farm. farm. 4, Surveying Agric. Agric. Applied Agric. Biology. | or Geology.| Chemistry. | Chemistry. Biology or | Chemistry. | farm. 5. French. * — French. — Surveying —- & Geology. 6. Maths. _— Maths. — Maths. _ Te 2 276 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. Two periods in school and one period in preparation are given to biology. Average age of these boys 154. In the Science Sixth Form physics and chemistry are studied with an agricultural bias. 4, At Repton there is a Land Science Class which omits a second foreign language and devotes the time thus liberated to a course of science, underlying the practice of farming and land management. This course consists of lectures, laboratory work, and visits to neighbouring farms. ; 5. At Sherborne agriculture is taken as an alternative to Latin by a small class, but outdoor work is confined to visiting neighbouring farms. 6. At Leeds Boys’ Modern School (558) about five or six boys not up to certificate standard (15 to 16 years of age) are sent every term for three hours every Friday afternoon to the Shadwell Industrial School Farm, where they get an all-round train- ing in agriculture, and tend horses, cows and pigs. 7. Of the smaller secondary schools mentioned in last year’s report as including agriculture in their curriculum the majority do so either in the form of a rural science course or as a subject for the General School Certificate. In some cases, such as at Brewood (55), Paston (174), Shepton Mallet (90), Stamford (240), Hawarden (200), and Wem Grammar School, their experimental plots are used for the study of plants, manurial tests, etc. Usually any outdoor work is done in the Third or Fourth Form (14-15 years of age), and no outdoor work is done in the classes taking the certificate examination. In several cases neighbouring farms are visited, but only for obser- vational work. In one case it is stated that practical work in agriculture is deprecated by the Board of Education. * §. At Hanley Castle (95-100) practically the whole school (excluding the lowest form) is agriculturally organised, so that, although only a small piece of land of three- quarters of an acre is available, all take part in land-cultural operations. The course includes the growth of farm crops under rotation, limited trials of various artificial manures, and varieties of crops, fruit culture, pruning, grafting, and budding. With 14 hours for outdoor work, 14 hours for plant biology, and 24 hours for rural science per week per form, the groundwork of the agricultural science syllabus of the Cambridge SchoolCertificate is fully covered—all candidates taking this subject in the examination. Nature study is taken up by the two lower forms 14 hours per week, the syllabus being a study of the common animals and plants. In rural science practical work in the laboratories includes easy soil tests, examination, etc., of artificial manures, milk, common animal foods, and a groundwork of elementary physics and chemistry. Land- surveying classes are held each summer term; the course includes the use of chain survey, plane table, prismatic compass, etc. The effect on the certificate examination, the Headmaster says, is this—that boys who become really good at agricultural science are unable to obtain any proficiency in French, arid consequently when they attempt the examination they are, much to their disappointment, already foredoomed. 9. At Knaresborough Rural Secondary School for Boys (120) and girls (84) the curriculum is designed with a two-fold aim :— (1) To permit the general school certificate to be taken by the Upper Fifth. (2) To provide an education of a special rural character. French is an optional subject and is taken by practically all pupils. Boys and girls © are taught together in the majority of subjects, but boys take woodwork, surveying, © gardening, and additional physics, whilst the girls take housecraft. Nature study and botany are taken in the lower part of the school (Second and Third Forms), accom- panied by outdoor work for the following syllabus :— Proper and improper use of garden tools. Preparation of land for seeds. Contrast between well-cultivated and badly cultivated plots. Sowing of seeds, depth of sowing, time of sowing, thinning. Distance between plants, transplanting, cultivation of various crops in individual plots, observation on birds, insects seen in the plots, etc. No text-books are used, but observations and experiments are recorded and written by each pupil. Little cultural work on the plots is done in the upper forms; mainly ~ observational work and demonstrations form the practical part of the agricultural syllabus followed in Forms IV and V. Form IVa attends aflecture and demonstration — each week on bee-keeping and Form IVB a lecture on poultry-keeping. % A more detailed description of the organisation of this school is given in the educational pamphlet No. 29, published by the Board of Education, 1915. ; 10. At Friends’ School, Great Ayton (111 boys, 63 girls), the Third Form do two periods of nature study per week. The whole of the Lower IV are allotted three ON EDUCATIONAL TRAINING FOR OVERSEAS LIFE. 277 separate 40-minute periods per week for science introductory to agriculture, viz. geology and biology, and for gardening. Specialisation commences in Upper IV, the agricultural pupils being taught agriculture, botany, surveying, book-keeping, general science, and gardening, whilst the rest of the form are taking rench and science. The agricultural pupils in Lower V (preparing for Oxford Junior) work with the form except for French, during which time they do agriculture, botany and gardening. Those in the Upper V (preparing for the school certificate) do agriculture, botany, book- keeping, and science, while the rest of the form do French and science. About two-fifths of the boys in these upper forms take the subject. The Delegates of the Oxford Local Examination agreed to offer a special school certificate for those taking agriculture identical with the ordinary certificate, except that the requirement that a candidate should have passed Grade II is waived; in other words, these boys need not offer a foreign language. This arrangement is to be regarded as an experiment. The Secondary School Examinations Council has been approached, but recognition has not been obtained from the Board of Education, although the Secretary of the Delegates is prepared at any time to write on behalf of the holders of such a certificate to the authorities of any Agricultural College, stating the conditions on which the certificate is granted. Practical agriculture is studied on farms by each form for two hours weekly. Each form has one period per week for gardening. The agricultural boys of the Fifth Form have two periods for wood-work and metal-work ; those in the higher form take metal-work as a hobby in spare time. The boys take turns in attending to poultry and milk records. 11. County School, Welshpool (105). ‘This school adopts much the same curriculum as that at Great Ayton—the rural bias, an agricultural atmosphere being strongly developed. The lower forms take nature study, and then at about 144 to 15 years boys may choose agriculture instead of Latin; otherwise they follow the same general curriculum. A very complete account of the work done at this school, with details of syllabus of agricultural and science work, is given in a pamphlet published by the Welsh Depart- ment of the Board of Education under the title of ‘The Experiment in Rural Secondary Education at Welshpool County School for Boys,’ 1920, price 2/6 net. In the prefatory note it is claimed ‘ the experiment proved that a strong bias towards the industries of the neighbourhood of the school and a thoroughly efficient course of general education are not only consistent with but helpful to each other.’ The Headmaster writes: ‘ What we are trying here to do is to give every boy a chance of having his eyes opened to what is around him, and training him through his environment and cultivation of his powers of observation. It is remarkable how boys who have little literary bent respond to this rural work.’ He also refers to the same trouble that the Headmaster of Great Ayton has found respecting the foreign language difficulty with some boys. In 1920 they were allowed to offer six subjects at the certificate examination when not offering a subject of Group II, i.e. a foreign language, but since the appearance of the Regulations of the Examinations Council such a pupil has no longer an option in this respect. The agricultural] candidate has a much bigger range of science subjects than the ordinary pupil who takes—say : (1) English Language and Literature. (4) Mathematics. (2) History. (5) Geography. (3) Latin or French. (6) Chemistry. The agricultural pupil would take, in addition to the above, botany and agriculture. 12. At Sexey’s School, Blackford,Somerset, the boys take a general secondary school course in which are included physics, chemistry,and botany. The majority on reaching the Fifth Form are expected to take the school certificate examination, but a few may choose in the form below to join the Farm Vocational Course. These, about eight in number, work then to a special time-table, spending about eight hours in practical work on a farm of 20 acres and five hours on agricultural science in the laboratory. FARM VOCATIONAL COURSE. The work done in agricultural subjects is divided into a two years’ course, these subjects being so arranged as to enable a pupil to take up the work at the commence- ment of any year. 278 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. While the pupils are taught practical work, great care is taken to prevent the course from losing its educational character. The pupils are given practice in the usual manual operations, but are not expected to take the place of workmen on the farm. It is to be understood that the same teaching staff is used for the farm course as for the ordinary school work. Details of the Agricultural Course :— (1) Agricultural Science: Soils, crops, rotations, manures and manuring, live stock, dairying, poultry-keeping, bee-keeping, laboratory work where possible. (2) Practical Work : Butter-making, cheese-making, milking, milk-testing, poultry management, bee-keeping, feeding and care of stock in general, field operations. (3) Horticulture: Common garden crops and their cultivation, orchard manage- ment, varieties of fruit, practical work in planting, pruning, spraying, etc. (4) Zoology : (a) Anatomy and physiology of farm animals, including dentition, simple first-aid, etc. (6) Economic zoology—insect pests of animals and crops. (5) Botany : (a) General botany, with special reference to plants of agricultural importance. (6) Special study of grasses. (c) Economic botany—fungoid diseases of plants. (6) Book-keeping and commercial correspondence. (7) Arithmetic, mensuration, and simple surveying. (8) English—literature and composition. (9) Drawing—art. (10) Woodwork (practical), including simple repairs as they become necessary on the farm. (11) Woodwork drawing and scale drawing. (12) General science, including elementary electricity and mechanics. 13. At Bedales (180).—Outdoor manual work is considered from the educational point of view an essential part of school training for all pupils, as well as fitting some for a particular career. The greater part of two afternoons a week is given to such work throughout the school, and more is arranged for those who choose this line at the age of 15-16, when choice is allowed. In brief, the work consists of : (a) Workshop and out-of-door work—levelling, care of playing-fields, gardens, road-making, etc.; (b) Farm work—haymaking, potato-digging, etc., according to season as required ; (c) General farm-work for those who wish it, including milking and dairy work. There is a farm of 80 acres attached to the school, with a regular farm staff working it. In addition there are gardens and orchard. Two or three senior boys are generally doing regular work on the farm. SyxiitaBus.—The application of live science to the Junior School consists essentially of practical work in the form of nature study in the field and garden, with laboratory work and demonstration where possible. This enables the students to become familiar with the various forms of living matter in so far as the above work concen- trates on wild flowers and their localities, aquaria, growth and forms characterising plant and animal life. On passing into Block 4 instruction takes the dominant form of introducing the physical and chemical aspects of matter and the inculcating of ideas of organic as opposed to inorganic matter. The conclusion of the Block 4 course entails the application of these principles to biological life, taking a typical higher plant and a typical higher animal. The work of Block 3 is that of pursuing and amplifying the line adopted in Block 4. Evolution is emphasised, geographical applications correlated, soils and elementary types of animal and plant life introduced. The essential divergencies and inter- dependences of plant and animal life, together with their practical and commercial applications, form the final points of study in this course. Thus, by the time a student is due to enter the examination form (Block 2) he is fitted to adapt himself to any course requiring live science, whether it be for specialist botany or geological work, work of bacteriological application, medical degrees, honours degrees, or agriculture. Throughout the course the chemistry and physics courses are so correlated that the biological work is built on the student’s knowledge of these subjects, up to any given point. ON EDUCATIONAL TRAINING FOR OVERSEAS LIFE. 279 During the summer terms, and whenever possible in the others, biological excursions are made into the country-side, to study the ecological features of typical communities, and, especially in the case of junior parties, to bring about the familiarity of the students with the typical adaptations to environment of as many forms of life as ossible. The historical aspect of biological science is treated in all the above-mentioned branches, with a view to emphasising the development and progress of science through- out the ages. 14. Dauntsey School (100), West Lavington, Wilts.—This school is organised in six forms, of which the lower three pursue a general education. Of the remaining three, one specialises in agriculture, another in preparing for the General School Certificate Examination, and the third for the Higher Certificate and University Scholarships. The curriculum includes Scripture, English, History, Geography, French, Spanish and Latin (if desired), Mathematics, Mechanics, Engineering, Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, Art and Music. It provides for specialisation in pure science, or agriculture, or engineering, or medicine, and preparation for University Matriculation and Scholarship Examinations. The majority of the boys are boarders. There are three laboratories—(1) Physical and engineering, (2) Biological and agricultural, (3) Chemistry. In addition to the playing-fields there are attached to the school about 30 acres of land, a large portion of which is devoted to experimental and practical farming for both crops and stock. On the school farm the boys learn not only farm practice and principles, but also how to plough, harrow, and perform all cultural operations. They also assist actively with the management of live-stock and assist generally the regular farm staff. New farm buildings and a dairy have recently been constructed, enabling both cheese- making and butter-making to form part of the practical work. There is an excellent plantation for the study of fruit culture and a large area devoted to horticulture. Agricultural engineering constitutes an important branch. Boys learn to over- haul, repair, and examine critically machines and implements. There is a permanent exhibition of new machinery, etc., loaned by different firms, and demonstrations with these are frequent. The specialist agricultural class give 20 hours per week to this subject. In the second year of the agricultural course, sometimes in the first year, the boys spend two or three separate weeks per term entirely outdoors, either (a) on the farm, commencing milking at 6.45 a.m., or (6) in the workshops—on farm mechanics. TIME-TABLE FOR THE AGRICULTURAL CLASS. Time | Monpbay TUESDAY | WEDNESDAY | THURSDAY | FRIDAY SATURDAY 9.15-10 | Workshops) Agric. Maths. Agric. Agric. Bacteriology 10-10.50 a a Geog. Dairying | sf wu 11-12.30 Dairying | Dairying | Engineering Geog. | Agric. English 1:45-9,30 | Anatomy | Agric. ae Dairying | English uy 2.30-3.10 — History = Maths. | Physiology — 3.10-3.50 Agric. Costings _ English | History — 15. Barnard Castile School (360) was founded in 1883 largely for the sons of farmers of the three north-eastern counties. It provides a modern curriculum for its general classes, leading up either to a university education or to direct entry into the public services, or into business and the professions. In addition there are special classes for agriculture and engineering. Boys are placed in the Agricultural Form at the request of parents, at the age of 14} and 280 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. upwards, and some are put there who evidently have little literary ability. The numbers taking agriculture vary, about one in seven goes into the form. The class is under a specially qualified master. The boys continue their general education in English subjects, French, mathematics and drawing, and receive special instruction in chemistry, botany, zoology and geology, doing practical work in the laboratory as well as theoretical in the classroom. This is supplemented by lessons in mensuration, land-surveying and book-keeping. Their studies in the elements of agriculture are illustrated on the school experi- mental plots or by occasional visits to farms, shows, etc., in the neighbourhood. 16. At Christ's Hospital.—The agricultural work at Christ’s Hospital at the present time affects only a comparatively small percentage of the boys in the school. Not more than 40 to 50 boys out of a total of 700 in the Upper School take the subject in any one term. Physics and chemistry have hitherto formed the staple subjects of the science work in the school. When a boy in the Middle School has remained there long enough to have studied the chemistry of air and water he usually gets the opportunity of joining a class for elementary biology in connection with practical work on a small experimental farm of five acres. He is kept in this class for a year if possible, but it often happens that he passes on to the block above at the end of one or two terms only. He may then, if he wishes, join the Agricultural Class proper, with the intention of going on the land when he leaves school. This class consists of about 16 boys. Their time-table enables them to devote two whole mornings per week to agricultural studies either in practical work on the land, tending and feeding a horse, pigs, goats, poultry, and bees, or in biological work in a laboratory or out-of-doors. In addition to that work they spend three hours per week in a special course of chemistry adjusted to their needs in the agricultural work, or in more advanced biological work. TIME-TABLE OF THE AGRICULTURAL CLASS (aex 15 To 17). Period! Monpay TuEsDAY |WEDNESDAY| THURSDAY FRIDAY SATURDAY 1. Scripture Workshop Agric. Workshop | Geography Agric. 2 Biology 3 ) : : Agric. or : ’ + Worksl h t 5 hs. : 7 ; N orkshop| Chemistry Biology Maths Chemistry Agric 5 ) 5 A I Reading English Wine 6 ) fea History nik History OEBEHOp Or N.B.—Periods = # hour. It will be seen that, in addition to the purely agricultural work, these boys spend six hours in the manual school per week, and become expert in making various articles of wood or metal for use on the farm, or school generally. In these classes boys have often shown a natural bent for biology, but make very slow progress in most other subjects. Every boy is interested in animal life, and many also in plant life. It appeals to them in a way no other subject can, and when once an interest is aroused it is found that boys then make more progress with physics and chemistry, because they see that life cannot be thoroughly understood without a knowledge of these subjects, and this increase of mental energy in their general attitude towards study reacts on other subjects in the curriculum; the practical nature of the work has awakened general interest and arouses ambition hitherto lacking. It is only force of circumstances and the general curriculum that prevent more boys taking the subject. Amongst boys of about 14% to 15 without literary or mathematical ambitions it is very popular. During wet weather, when labour is not required, and in short intervals between tasks, discussions and short talks take place. Every boy in his turn is given a responsible post for a term or more. Some of these posts require a good deal of a boy’s spare time. Hach boy is expected to be ON EDUCATIONAL TRAINING FOR OVERSEAS LIFE. 281 able to give information about his special job to the remainder of the form when required. Special posts are— (1) Stockmen for poultry, goats, rabbits, pigs, and bees. (2) Carters, who feed and attend to the horse, stable, and harness. (3) Weather Clerk, who takes meteorological readings, and keeps charts and record books up to date. (4) Book-keepers, who keep accounts of crops and stock records and taphs. Copa side of farming is kept in view, and as an aid to this a Poultry and Livestock Club was started in 1921 by the boys themselves. This club owns the poultry, goats, rabbits, and bees, as well as their habitations and appliances. The fact of ownership and desire for profits have proved an incentive to the study of these animals. BIOLOGICAL RESOURCE. The farm and its surroundings supply almost every kind of plant and animal required for biological work in sufficient quantity for any number of students. They also afford opportunities for studying these in their natural environment instead of having to buy them from a naturalist. 17. Brampton County Secondary School.—This school, maintained by the Cumber- land County Council, draws its pupils mainly from an agricultural district of a population of approximately 8,800. It is a mixed school of 60 boys and 60 girls, established in 1908, with a curriculum of a definitely rural bias. Practical experiments on the land have been carried out largely by boys in the extensive grounds of the school ever since its foundation, and the results have been made use of to illustrate laboratory work in science. In view of the smallness of the school the problem became that of devising a single course in science which should provide for the intending farmer a sure grounding in the sciences underlying modern farm practice, but which would not penalise the boy intending to study pure or applied (other than agriculture) science at a University, or to enter any of the usual trades or professions. The principal difficulty has been that of reconciling the work of the school with the matriculation requirements of the various Universities. The ground was cleared by the Durham University School Examination Committee, who, to meet the needs of the school, added to the syllabus of examination a special science syllabus termed ‘Experimental Science in relation to Agricultural Life.’ The University further agreed to accept a success in this subject at the ‘ credit’ standard for matriculation. Later, other Universities followed this course. The syllabus added below was introduced in 1918 and shows the nature of the work up to the stage of the School Certificate Examination. The tables given illustrate the character of the experiments carried out in the school gardens, “It is important to note that the syllabus is in no sense to be regarded as “‘ final.”’ New methods of approach and fresh sources of lesson material are constantly being sought and tested. Thus, at the present time, since butter-making has been added to the curriculum for the girls, experiments are being made to find how far the course can go in the study of bacteria, etc. “It is unfortunate that few boys intending to take up farming remain at school _ after the age of 16, and consequently post-matriculation developments of the course have not been possible. It is hoped, however, that in this direction there may be improvement in the future. “ Concerning the general work of the school, it only remains to say that it follows that of any other secondary school earning grants from the Board of Education. Religious knowledge, English language and literature, modern history, geography, French, mathematics, music, drawing, housecraft (for girls) and manual instruction (for boys) all occupy the usual place in the curriculum. Latin is taught where necessary, but to selected pupils only.’ ‘ SCIENCE SYLLABUS. The syllabus is based on three main conceptions as to the function of a science course— (1) A fundamental course in the major sciences—physics and chemistry—because of their influence (a) on other sciences ; (6) on the teaching of scientific method ; (c) on the higher work which some pupils will undertake. 282 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. (2) The need for stimulus of contact with objects outside the laboratory, hence the biological, and in a narrower sense agricultural, bias; these supply the means whereby the knowledge and method taught indoors might be applied. The grounds and gardens of the school are therefore treated as an outdoor laboratory in which a variety of interesting experiments may be carried out. (3) Throughout the course individual experimental work is demanded, wherever feasible, in the hope that this will strengthen initiative, self-reliance, etc., in the pupil. Form Ii.—Boys and Girls. Average age, 11. A. An Introduction to Gardening. Hours per week, 14. Simple seasonal activities, e.g. (a) seed-sowing—transplanting seedlings ; (b) cuttings—various; (c) planting bulbs; (d) saving of seed. Care of small area of ground for (e) raising plants from seed—annuals, etc. ; (f) wild garden—weeds. Form II.—Boys only. B. Gardening (working in pairs on plots of 100 sq. yds.). Hours per week, 14. Rotation: (a) potatoes ; (b) beet and carrot; (c) cabbage, garden swede ; (d) green manure. Use and care of tools—digging, trenching, etc. Manuring—preparation of seed-beds—sowing, thinning, etc.—lifting and storing of various crops. Preparation of seed order—planning of plots—weighing and costing produce. Pests and diseases—life histories of some of them. Preparation of labels for plots. (Board of Agriculture Leaflets for work indoors in bad weather.) Form IIb. Boys and Girls. Average age, 12. Hours per week, 3. A. and B. Introduction to Botany. A series of drawings are prepared (loose sheets in portfolio) : (a) twigs from trees in school grounds; (b) bulbs, etc.—crocus, montbretia, hyacinth; (c) flowers—those presenting simple structure, so as to lead up to (1) a complete flower, (2) floral diagrams, (3) floral formule, (4) similarity of arrangement. (Part of the work is done in the drawing classes.) Boys only. Hours per week, 13. C. Gardening—as for Form II. but with greater variety of crops. (N.B.—New pupils starting in this form with no knowledge of gardening are usually placed with more experienced pupils.) Form IIla.—Boys and Girls. Average age, 13. Hours per week, 3. A. Physics. Experimental work dealing with (a) measurement of length, area, volume, etc. ; (b) the balance—weighing ; (c) density and relative density ; (d) Archi- medes’ Law—fluid pressure ; (e) the barometer. B. Botany. The work started in Form IIb. is continued with a view to starting a Flora in Form IV. Boys only. D. Gardening. The boys work a ‘common plot’ with the following rotation: (1) potatoes, (2) beet and carrots, (3) onions, (4) cabbage family. Experimental work on common plot: (a) Variety trials; (6) seed-saving— selection of types ; (c) control of pests and diseases—spraying ; (d) raising of seed potatoes—rogueing ; (e) influence of spacing of crops; (f) simple manurial experiments. In addition each boy prunes, feeds, and generally manages: (1) an apple-tree, (2) a soft-fruit bush—gooseberry or red currant. C. Other activities. (1) The class records’observations made of air temperature and soil temperature ; (2) Raises when necessary supplies of plants having special botanical significance. Form IV. Boys and Girls. Average age, 14. Hours per week, 44. A. Chemistry. (a) Experimental study of the following: The atmosphere, water, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxides, acids, bases and salts, carbon dioxide, ammonia, common calcium compounds ; (6) in addition the following : law of constant composition, chemical change, chemical equations, symbols, formule, atoms and molecules. ON EDUCATIONAL TRAINING FOR OVERSEAS LIFE. 283 B. and C, Plant life, etc. (a) Seeds and seedlings, individual experimental work—e.g. structure of seed —absorption of water by seed—increase in weight and volume—respira- tion of seed, effect of temperature on germination ; (b) plant nutrition —water cultures, sand cultures. Potato experiments—(eight-plot test— law of diminishing returns—observation of same only—results considered in Vo.), photosynthesis, respiration in plants and animals; (c) the use of a flora; (d) work in the garden: (a) raising plants from seed, etc., (b) management of border, (c) experiments arising from the indoor course. Form Vo. Boys and Girls. Average age, 15. Hours per week, 44. A. Chemistry continued. (a) The three mineral acids—preparation, composition and reactions; sodium, potassium—their hydroxides; phosphorus, sulphur, and carbon—their oxides and acids derived from same; phosphates, sulphates, carbonates ; salts of importance in agriculture; (b) organic chemistry—introduction to such materials as proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, by examination of simple foodstufis and vegetable matter. B. Physics. Simple treatment of energy—transformation and conservation of energy— electricity, light, heat, etc., as forms of energy. Heat treated in greater detail: the thermometer—time temperature curves. Change of state— latent heat—boiling points, etc., quantity of heat—specific heat. Expan- sion, conduction, convection, radiation. C. and D. Plant life, etc. (1) Soil—origin—structure—water content—organic content—clay, sand, and humus—pore space, air space. Movement of water in soil—capillarity— surface tension—diffusion—effect of cultural operations on water content. Soil temperature—factors controlling it, drainage—hedges—slope—colour. Micro-organisms present in soil—fermentation, decay—nitrification— denitrification—bacteria in relation to food—milk, butter. (2) Experi- mental results—consideration of numerical results from various experi- ments (chiefly dealing with potatoes). (3) Greenhouse and frames. In relation to radiation, convection, sunshine, humidity of atmosphere, etc. Form Va. and B. Average age, 16. Hours per week, 3. The whole of the previous year’s work revised, with necessary extension and amplification, e.g. the vernier, Boyle’s Law, fluid pressure, comparison of plant ash with soil, physical and chemical processes involved in composition and decomposition of plants and animals. Other elements of importance in plant nutrition, e.g. magnesium, iron—their oxides and common salts. Potato experiments, 1925. Law of Diminishing Returns. Nine plots are used on which potatoes are grown with variable quantities of potash and nitrogen (phosphates constant). The data are used for such problems as 1. Calculation of weight of fertiliser to be applied. 2. Calculation of percentage of potash, phosphates, and nitrates in dressing. 3. Calculations of yield: total crop per acre and ratio of crop to seed. 4. Comparison of yields. 5. Relation between yield, cost, etc. In addition, useful observations are made by the children during the growing season. Variety trials—A number of varieties is grown in sextuplicate on a plot 55 ft. x 205 ft.—six sections. One section is trenched each year—the others are worked one spit deep. At the same time the trenched section has garden refuse worked into the second spit. All sections are dressed with artificial fertilisers in spring. No dung is available, but rape meal has been used during the last year. The yields are calculated on tons per acre and also crop: seed. Since 1919 we have grown more than twenty immune varieties. Varieties for 1925.—Tinwald Perfection, Kerr’s Pink, Catriona, Katu Glover, Ally, Arran Comrade, Kok. Varieties on small plots: Field-Marshal, Majestic, Di Vernon, Arran Chief, King Edward, Ben Lomond, Golden Wonder, Crusader, Ben Cruachan, Immune Ashleaf. Seed size trial—This year we are planting sets of Arran Comrade and Tinwald 284 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. Perfection from tops of known yield. Strong tops and weak tops were selected last year from a plot of the above varieties planted very widely (rows 4 ft., sets 3 ft.), so as to remove any possibility of mutual interference. The tubers, ranging from 1 oz. to 3 oz., have been selected and planted this year in the same way as the previous generation (common plot). Cut set trial.—Tubers were cut so as to have a good sprout on each portion. One group of such portions was exposed to the sun and wind before planting. Another was kept under a damp sack for a similar period of time (dual plots). On the same plots it is proposed to try planting potato sprouts with a very small portion of tuber attached (after suitable period under sack to allow the cut surfaces to seal themselves). VI.—AGRICULTURE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF THE OVERSEAS DOMINIONS. Much valuable and interesting information respecting the trend of educational opinion and practice in the Overseas Dominions has been received by the Committee through the good offices of the High Commissioner for Canada and the Agents-General of Australia. Some particulars were given in last year’s report (see pages 8-10) ; the following extracts are therefore supplementary :— CaNaDA. 1. Abstracts from the 1920 Report of Minister of Education for Ontario with reference to High Schools :— ‘The Agricultural Instruction Act of 1912 provided funds for agricultural education in the different Provinces, applied first to rural schools only, but later successfully o suburban schools. In 1917 the scope of the grant was extended to urban schools. This aspect of the work has developed very rapidly, and as a result of such develop- ment a new view seems to be gaining ground, to the effect that much good might arise in the direction of a better understanding between city and country, and possibly, later on, many of the pupils now studying agriculture in the city schools may be led to take up their life-work in the country. The Teaching Difficulty‘ The chief difficulty in introducing and in maintaining classes in agriculture in secondary schools is lack of qualified teachers. Courses are provided at the Ontario Agricultural College, covering two consecutive summers, of five weeks each. Because of the fact that agriculture is not yet a regular subject on the High School curriculum, summer courses are necessary. In many other respects these courses in agriculture for teachers are the most important and far-reaching of all the agricultural courses given in Ontario, because through the teachers they have much to do with the shaping of the minds of the rising generation in such a way as to develop a mental attitude more in harmony with rural conditions. Not only do these courses so direct the rural mind at an early age, and thereby produce lasting impressions, but they assist materially in showing how the farms may be made more productive, and therefore more profitable, thus providing the economic incentive necessary for a happy life on the farm. ‘As the High Schools are the real source from which teachers are derived, the in- fluence of these schools is paramount in so far as the supply of suitable teachers may be concerned. By the term ‘‘ High Schools ’’ is meant all Secondary Schools, whether they be called Continuation Schools, Collegiate Institutes, High Schools, or Private Schools, carrying on High School work. The course taken in the High School is largely a determining factor as to whether the student eventually becomes a teacher or not, consequently one of the causes of the shortage of teachers has its roots in the course of study in the High School. And, because of the dominating influence of the University in its requirements for matriculation in the various branches of college work leading | to a degree, the course of study in High Schools is shaped largely by the Universities. © The language requirements for matriculation make so large demands upon the time of the pupil while in the High School that the student finds himself unable, for lack of time and energy, to carry on a course which includes agriculture or household science. N.B.—The American State Universities make it possible for a student to offer agriculture as part of his matriculation course.’ 2. Abstracts from Report of the Director of Elementary Agricultural Education for British Columbia for 1921-22 :— ‘ During the past year provision was made for a four-year course in agriculture in the High Schools, which any student may elect and receive credit eitherfor entrance — ON EDUCATIONAL TRAINING FOR OVERSEAS LIFE. 285 into the University, the Normal School, or the Ontario Agricultural College. The result of this change in examination requirements cannot, of course, be seen as yet. The chief difficulty in carrying out the intent of this change is lack of qualified teachers. As the High Schools provide for this change in curriculum the number of elementary school teachers able to teach agriculture in the rural schools will be increased mate- rially from year to year, resulting in an improved rural school. *High School.—The value of agriculture as an educational subject, which develops the mind of the student by teaching him in terms of his everyday surroundings rather than in terms of the abstract and remote, is becoming more apparent each year. One-third of the present public-schools’ teaching staff in Langley are graduates of our High School Course in Agriculture, and by their ease of adaptation to the needs of the rural schools and interesting and practical methods of teaching the course in nature study and elementary agriculture have emphasised to a surprising degree the technical value of the instruction given in our High School Course. ‘The feeling is growing amongst the people generally that if the education of to-day has any relationship whatever to the welfare of the people of to-morrow, then agri- culture both educationally and vocationally is a subject that must not be neglected. ‘The teaching of agriculture in “‘ High Schools ’’ is now well established in all the Provinces of the Dominion, and is meeting with greater success year after year. This is partly due tothe factthat better-qualified teachers are being employed than formerly, resulting in more efficient instruction, and partly to a better understanding of the real nature and value of the work on the part of parents and school authorities.’ REPORT FOR 1922-23. AGRICULTURAL CouRSES IN HicH SCHOOLS. ‘The regular two-year course in agriculture is now carried on in twelve High Schools and one Superior School in the Province, the total enrolment for the year being 510, an increase of fifty-three over last year. The two-year course in agriculture is given in Grades X and XI, and in most cases is preceded by a course of general sciencein GradeIX. Thisintroductory course in science has been found advantageous as an introduction to the study of agriculture as well as to other branches of science, and is usually taught by an agricultural instructor. ‘ The offering of courses in agriculture in city High Schools was looked upon at first as a rather doubtful experiment, and no doubt many were ready to regard it as rather fantastic and quite inappropriate as a subject of study in such schools. Those, of course, who so regarded it were labouring under a wrong impression as to the character and purpose of these courses—the impression that only those boys who were definitely preparing to go on the land to earn their living could possibly be interested in such courses or could hope to be benefited by them. After six years’ experience in the City of Victoria and three in New Westminster, and an even longer period in smaller cities in the Province, there is little room for doubt as to the beneficial character of the work in those cities. Spasmodic efforts are made from time to time by Boards of Trade and other organisations to promote mutual understanding and good-fellow- ship as between the rural inhabitant and the dweller in the city. This, of course, is highly desirable, but in no way can it be as soundly and permanently established as by giving to city-bred boys and girls the opportunity to study at first hand the essen- tials of food production and of rural economics. City boys and girls have responded in a very satisfactory manner in every case where an opportunity was offered them to include the study of agriculture in their elective courses. We should have more agricultural specialists in our city High Schools.’ AGRICULTURAL COURSES FOR GIRLS. ‘We must all, however, confess to a certain amount of surprise at the remarkable degree of success which has attended the study of agriculture by the girls in our various High Schools. In the classroom, in the experimental gardens, and in the judging pavilion they have more than held their own, for they have succeeded on more than one occasion in carrying off the premier honours in examinations and in agricultural judging competitions in which more boys than girls participated. DEVELOPMENT OF A GENUINE RurRAL INTEREST. _ ‘The High School agricultural classes are steadily growing in size and the work is gaining in popularity. Not only is this shown by the increasing number of students selecting agriculture, but also by increasing interest manifested by the ratepayers 286 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. themselves. It is gratifying to know that even during a period of retrenchment, due to poor prices for crops, it was not thought advisable to discontinue the teaching of agriculture. This attitude is in a measure due to the realisation that teaching through and about the daily life of the community is sound pedagogy. “It has been established by years of observation that even the most promising boys who leave the Old Land to go into rural life and work in the Overseas Dominions have not always succeeded, and have had to learn often by disheartening experience many things fundamental to such life and work which they might readily have learned in a large measure in Secondary Schools at home, had they been but given the oppor- tunity. Boys of good physique who are mentally keen and of good character are the lads for overseas and these should be given special training. “It is a matter of common knowledge that a large percentage of the men and women from the Old Land who come to Canada either come directly to the cities or soon gravitate in that direction. If this condition is to be changed so that our rural districts are to become more largely populated as the result of immigration something must be done to develop a genuine interest in agricultural science as applied to the various branches of farming amongst young people of the Old Land before they leave school or before they arrive in Canada. This can be done either by having these young people attend special schools of agriculture for limited periods or by making the study of agriculture part of the regular course in Secondary Schools covering two or more years. The latter is the method now being followed in some of the Provinces in Canada, and particularly in British Columbia. As agriculture itself is a great composite science, it follows that almost all branches of so-called pure science can and should have some reference to it. This is particularly true of the sciences of geology, meteorology, chemistry, physics and biology—sometimes referred to as basic sciences in relation to agriculture. To those may now be added rural sociology and economics. ‘The mere use of appropriate subject-matter for classroom lessons, however, is not sufficient to ensure a real and abiding interest in rural life and occupation. Genuine first-hand knowledge and acquaintanceship with soils and soil constituents, with cultural methods pertaining to field, orchard, and garden crops, and some actual experience in the care and management of poultry and live stock are essential if more than a fancied or fictitious interest is to be established. This can all be included in a good general course of Secondary School grade in all but the largest cities.’ RELIABLE INFORMATION RELATIVE TO THE British DomMINIONS OVERSEAS. “It is difficult even under the most careful instruction for young people to form a correct mental picture of a new country or fully to appreciate the conditions to be met with in such a country, not having seen it. It is important, therefore, that every effort be made to supply reliable information to all young people relative to the British Dominions, and particularly to that particular Dominion to which they may purpose going. The all-important subjects which will be of service in this connection are geography, history, and literature. Young people looking towards Canada, for instance, as their prospective home should give special attention to Canadian geography, to Canadian history, and to the works of Canadian writers both in prose and poetry. The use of the stereoptican and moving-picture machine is most important in helping to make more real scenes and events relative to the new country. TIllus- trated lectures on the British Dominions overseas delivered here and there in Secondary Schools in the Old Land would be of advantage. Magazines and agri- cultural papers published overseas should be on file in the larger schools and, if not already established, there might well be a central bureau of information, say in London, where all teachers}could apply for special information relative to overseas topics.’ GIRLS AS WELL AS BOYS SHOULD BENEFIT BY SPECIAL INSTRUCTION FOR LIFE OVERSEAS. * Having in mind that the rural problems in the Overseas Dominions are concerned with the welfare of men and women alike, it would be the greatest of folly to attempt to plan a special course of instruction for boys who might be looking forward to a life in a new country and not do something similar for girls. Experience in a dozen Secondary Schools in British Columbia, where agriculture as an optional subject has been taught to boys and girls alike, goes to show that the ’teen-age of girls have done quite as well in examinations and also in the practical work undertaken as have the boys. The elements of agricultural science as well as a good working knowledge of household science for girls are almost essential to successful and contented living in rural homes. This does not mean an influx of farmerettes is wanted. It does _ —————E ON EDUCATIONAL TRAINING FOR OVERSEAS LIFE. 287 mean that successful rural homes depend to a large extent upon the ability, training and managerial skill of the housewife. ‘The essential characteristics of the British Columbia System of Agricultural Education are as follows :— 1. Agricultural nature-studies are given some prominence in grades 5, 6, 7 and 8 of the Elementary School Course (see official outline of studies). 2. In grade 9(first-year High School), general science, although optional, is strongly recommended. 3. A two-year course in agriculture is offered in grades 10 and 11, and is valid alike for junior matriculation or for entrance to Normal School. 4. Agricultural instruction in B.C. High Schools is given by graduates of our Canadian Agricultural Colleges. Some of these instructors are also graduates in arts. Those who have had a professional training course in education are very much pre- ferred for this work, although such are not always available. 5. Agriculture as a High School subject is optional with any other science or with a foreign language. All regular High School students must take at least one foreign language—either Latin or French. 6. Girls may elect agriculture in grades 10 and 11, and take the same course with the boys. During the past year the major honours in agriculture, including the competitions in stock-judging, were won by girls. 7. These High School courses in agriculture are now being given in twelve schools to approximately 500 boys and girls. Two of these schools are in cities (Victoria and New Westminster) ; the remaining ten are in rural towns or villages in the best agricultural and fruit-growing districts. 8. The text-book method of instruction in agriculture, which has repeatedly been tried in years past in some parts of Canada and which has always failed and must always fail, has been ruled out in British Columbia. The principle of direct instruction and knowledge at first hand are followed throughout. Every High School offering courses in agriculture is equipped with a good working laboratory classroom where various lines of laboratory experiments and the direct examination of agricultural material can be carried on. This is supplemented by having agricultural experiment grounds or gardens convenient to the school where various aspects of gardening, field husbandry and horticulture are dealt with from year to year, the students them- selves with their instructor doing practically all the work. Class excursions to the best farms in the community in which the school is located, for the purpose of observing and discussing the methods followed in the various lines of farm practice, are frequently conducted. The individual students carry on a well-regulated scheme of home projects in agriculture having direct bearing upon the work taken up at school. In some instances the home projects are standardised and conducted under rules involving a competition in the production of garden or field crops or the raising of young animals or poultry. In such cases the home projects are made the basis of organisations now widely known as Boys’ and Girls’ Agricultural Clubs. In computing the standing of the students in agriculture at the end of the year, 50 per cent. is based upon a uniform provincial examination and 50 per cent. upon term work, the latter being determined by the instructor. 9. Students who elect agriculture for junior matriculation or for the teachers’ High School Course and who afterwards complete the Normal Training Course are granted a special diploma in rural science or elementary agriculture. The agricultural Spe has obvious advantages for teachers who afterwards teach in rural or village schools. 10. The organisation of the Agricultural Educational branch of the Department of Education includes at the present time a Director of Elementary Agricultural Edueation, who has general supervision of the work within the Province, and seven District Supervisors of Agricultural Instruction, whose duties generally are as follows: (a) The teaching of agriculture in the Public and High Schools of their respec- tive districts. (6) Exercising a general supervision over the teaching of nature study and elementary agriculture in those districts and helping the teachers to formu- late and carry out such courses of instruction in those subjects as are best suited to the districts. (c) Conducting High School Extension classes in agriculture during the winter Bey for the benefit of young men and women not attending High chool. 288 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. (d) Giving practical advice and assistance generally to the pupils out of school and to adult members of the community in all matters pertaining to local rural problems, including the organising of agricultural clubs, school and community social functions, sports, etc. There are also three specialists in science and agriculture who have no district super- vision but who spend all their time in their respective High Schools. These men are employed by the School Boards with the approval of the Educational Department, which makes a special grant yearly towards the defraying of local expenses incidental to the agricultural course, such as apparatus and supplies, labour, etc., such grant not to exceed $3,000.00. In such cases one-third of the special instructor’s salary ismet by the Department. In the case of the seven District Supervisors of Agricultural Instruction, who are appointed by the Department of Education, the School Board in each case contribute 50 per cent. of salary and also make a grant of $300.00 a year towards regular travelling expenses, as each District Supervisor uses a motor-car in connection with his district itinerary. A like sum is contributed by the Department towards transportation. ‘Special summer courses of instruction for teachers are held for five weeks during each summer vacation. Courses in almost all school subjects are offered, including elementary agriculture, which in this Province has had the name of rural science. Two such agricultural courses entitle a teacher to a special diploma in that subject. ‘Since the organisation of the work in 1914, the Department of Education has received substantial financial assistance from the Dominion Government in conducting its agricultural education programme, under what was known as the Agricultural Instruction Act. Approximately $20,000.00 per year for several years past has been received for that purpose. The Director of Elementary Agricultural Education has also had the general supervision of school-grounds improvement and beautification, an undertaking which has been attended with considerable success. Every year sees new schools included under the scheme and the results so far have amply justified the expenditures made. In co-operation with this movement for the improvement of school grounds, the Provincial Government maintains a fine nursery connected with the large Government farm in Coquitlam and the adjoining Mental Hospital at Essondale. ’ Maryn Purpose AND OBJECTIVE. ‘ Boys taking the High School course in agriculture are not regarded as prospec- tive farmers, and no special effort is made to induce them to go into farming as their life-work. The study of agriculture as conducted in our High Schools is regarded as a valuable and almost essential part of a good liberal education. Its interests are healthful and its influences positive and beneficial. It calls out personal initiative and helps to develop self-reliance and resourcefulness. It gives new interest and new meaning to other science studies by affording innumerable examples of science applied. It affords one of the best avenues through which to approach the great biological secrets and mysteries of plant and animal propagation and the laws of heredity. It develops certain skills incidental to scientific experimentation and to approved practices in farming and gardening. “Tn all these aspects it is essentially and primarily educational and suitable alike to girls and boys, regardless of the particular vocation which each may ultimately choose. On the other hand it may be of great value in setting up new standards and new conceptions of the true nature and meaning of agriculture in the minds of these young people, as a result of which they may be drawn to choose farming as an occupation. “When such an educational and scientific basis has been laid for the farmer of the future the quality of our rural citizenship will advance, and not till then.’ 3.—ABSTRACT FROM A Report or DrREcTOR OF ScHooL AGRICULTURE FOR SASKATCHEWAN. Introductory. “The field of activity known as Agricultural Education may be roughly divided into two sections or divisions, the chief emphasis in the one being placed on subject- matter or content, in the other on educational values. The former is frequently designated Education in Agriculture and includes all forms of vocational training in Agriculture whether conducted in High Schools or College or through Extension courses. The other, which is quite properly called Education through Agriculture, ON EDUCATIONAL TRAINING FOR OVERSEAS LIFE, 289 embraces the agriculture courses in Elementary and High Schools as well as the project work carried on by Boys’ and Girls’ Clubs. ‘Agriculture as a subject of study in the school grades requires no defence. It is now almost universally accepted as a regular feature of school routine, although frequently found under another name. There is still a difference of opinion as to its content—should it be more of the nature-study type or should it assume the form and methods of science? This problem must ultimately be settled by a consideration of the child rather than the subject, and the work must be graded to suit the mental possibilities of the pupils.’ Elementary and Secondary Schools. (a) A course of nature study is outlined for the lower grades of the Elementary Schools, and serves as an introduction to geography ; a more advanced course in nature study serves as elementary science in the middle grades. A course in agri- culture based on nature study is prescribed for the top grades, and is designed to provide opportunity for the organisation of the information gained by the pupils through direct observation. “(6) Agriculture in the High School presents another phase of the problem. What should be the nature of such a subject ? Clearly it must cease to be of the nature- study type, and assume a more scientific form. After many trials and readjustments it has been incorporated as an integral part of the science course of the first two years, and is compulsory for all students. In the third year it is an elective subject on a par with physics, chemistry, or home economics, i.e. it is merged with chemistry, physics, and biology in the first two years, but emerges again in the third year on a par with physics and chemistry as an optional subject for examination. ‘Thus we have nature study, which aims to make the fullest use of the environ- ment of the pupil, occupying the basic position. And since most of the population live on the land, and the rest are directly dependent upon the success of farming operations, agriculture is the predominant factor in that environment, with the result that it colours and enriches the whole content of the nature study.’ Aim. ‘The instruction should be such as to bring the life and interests of the school more closely into touch with the home life of the pupil. His capacity to enjoy life should be increased by training his powers of observation and by developing a sympa- thetic acquaintance with the things of nature. Through the practice work which must necessarily accompany proper instruction in this subject, useful information will be gained and a respect for farm labour developed. The work should go far to promote the qualities that make for good citizenship, such as consideration for the rights of others, and the principles of co-operation in seeking the common good.’ Method. “The method employed should place the child in contact with natural objects with which he is familiar and lead him to seek his information from them by the use of his senses. The teacher should direct and assist rather than instruct. He should find out what is known, and direct to the unnoticed and unknown. He should gather from the pupil the ‘‘ what” and the ‘‘ how” of phenomena and lead him to seek the “why.” The expression of what has been observed may take the form of oral or written composition, drawing, modelling, or any other form appropriate to the matter.’ CONTENT OR SYLLABUS. The outline of the work is as follows :-— First Year—Part of Science Course. ‘Soil water; experiments to find soluble matter in soil, to measure rainfall; con- sideration of annual precipitation and of conservation of soil moisture. ‘Seeds : structure of the seed and seedlings of the common plants of the district, such as pea, bean, corn, wheat, oat, weeds ; dispersal of seeds; germination ; condi- tions necessary for germination ; seed-testing. ‘Experiments to show: (a) test for carbon dioxide; (b) that carbon dioxide is given off during germination; (c) that seeds contain starch. 1925 U 290 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. eu ‘The plant: forms and functions of roots, stems, leaves, flowers and fruits of the common plants of the district, such as pea, bean, corn, wheat, oat, barley, carrot, turnip, weeds. «Experiments to illustrate osmosis, transpiration, respiration, starch-making and constituents of plants, so as to bring out the relation of the plant to light, water and heat. ‘ Observation of the life-history, habits, and control of common insect pests, such as house-fly, grasshopper, mosquito. ‘Bacteria: simple descriptive lessons on the activities of bacteria in decay, in roots of plants, in milk and in the home generally ; action of yeast.’ Second Year. «Propagation of plants: pollination, fertilisation, cutting, grafting, budding. ‘Farm crops: importance of good seed, rotation of crops, eradication of weeds, prevention of plant diseases, destruction of insect pests, harvesting and storage. Production of wheat and potatoes. ‘Farm animals: horses, cattle, hogs, sheep and poultry, care and management. ‘A study of the cabbage butterfly, the cutworm, the spider, the bird, the gopher. ‘The soil: origin and formation, kinds, weight, texture, colour, porosity. Elements of plant food. Soil water, soil air, soil heat, soil organisms, soil fertility. Tillage and use of farm implements. ‘Farm management: elementary knowledge of the common business transactions of the farm; crop growth; cost of production, of marketing, or operation; buying and selling ; farm labour. Third Year. ‘Review of the work of the first and second years. ‘Consideration of those plants or parts thereof grown for food, clothing, and for building and manufacturing purposes : (a) in the immediate locality, (6) elsewhere in the Province and other parts of Canada, (c) imported into Saskatchewan from outside Canada. Plants grown for ornamental purposes, shelter belts and hedges, annuals, biennials, perennials. Propagation of plants, improvement of plants in quality and quantity, selection of plants and seed, specific reference to wheat, oats, etc. ‘Identification of at least ten noxious weeds; study of root, stem, leaf, flower, seed and seed dispersal, with special reference to best means of eradication. ‘Farm crops: alfalfa and Western rye grass, wheat and oats, potatoes and turnips, onions and lettuce, rhubarb and celery, currants and strawberries, spruce, geranium, crocus. «A study of plant foods and fertilisers with reference to above crops. ‘Consideration of animal products : for food and man, for food for animals and for clothing: (a) in immediate locality, (b) elsewhere in Saskatchewan from outside Canada. Study of types of breeds ; feed and food rations and ratios ; care and manage- ment, improvement and selection, of cattle, horses, sheep, pigs, poultry. ‘ Life-history and control of (a) one or more common plant diseases, e.g. potato blight, cereal rust; (b) one or more common insect pests, e.g. cutworm. Types and uses of farm implements, cost, care and housing of same with a view to economy. Co-operation in buying and selling, farm accounts, cost of production, etc., planning and equipment of home and home surroundings. Study of local rural organisations and their work. “The ultimate success of any phase of school work depends upon the quality of the teaching, hence the necessity for better and more thorough professional training of teachers. By its very nature agriculture cannot become as thoroughly standardised as subjects such as arithmetic, and therefore will suffer at the hands of the poorly trained instructor. The necessity of definite training in agriculture in the Normal Schools has long been recognised, and for many years it has been a regular feature of the course. Consequently every student attending Saskatchewan Normal classes receives some instruction in nature study and agriculture. Further, by means of summer courses, institutes, conventions, and personal advice and assistance, the teachers in the field are afforded opportunity to become more efficient in their task of dealing with this somewhat difficult subject. _ ‘In conclusion, it may be stated without any hesitation that there is a gradual improvement in the teaching of agriculture from year to year. Its real place of importance is becoming better understood. There remains, however, much to be ee a ian et ee Oe ee ny gs wa ae o ON EDUCATIONAL TRAINING FOR OVERSEAS LIFE. 291 done before anything approaching ideal results can be achieved. And, further, there remains to be exploited the great field on the border-line between education through agriculture and vocational agriculture, especially among ’teen-age boys and girls.’ 4.—AUSTRALIA (VICTORIA). The Director of Education reports that regular instruction is given in agriculture and horticulture to all boys and girls in the rural schools of Victoria of ages 12 to 16. The work is carefully organised and systematically carried out under skilful super- vision. Where possible the agricultural work is linked with laboratory work for dealing with problems concerning the soil and its physical and chemical properties. The boys carry on many of the farm operations, but only to a small extent. It is mainly for educational purposes, and not as a sufficient training in actual handiwork. Manual training is commenced at the age of twelve and forms a definite part of the school curriculum. Considerable interest is taken in this work by parents and members of Agricultural Societies and Farmers’ Associations. Agriculture or horticulture isa compulsory subject in the curriculum of the rural schools. It commences in the elementary schools and is continued in the secondary schools. The course combines both mental and manual training. The mental development of the scholar is considered of greater educational import than the acquire- ment of practical skill. The aim is in the direction of promoting initiative and a spirit of independent investigation. Lessons on the great basic principles of plant cultiva- tion are common to every course. The course follows a carefully prepared system, including :— (1) Instruction in the elementary principles of agriculture and horticulture. (2) In school experiments illustrating the principles underlying. successful field operations. (3) Outdoor work in the school experimental plots and in the school garden. Every school has a garden. (4) Extension of outdoor work to home projects. (5) Record work in notebooks. All this is done in the elementary school. When boys pass on to secondary educa- tion in agricultural high schools the syllabus in agriculture is, of course, considerably extended. It includes farm operations, farm machinery, selection and care of stock, etc. In the higher elementary and in the secondary schools woodwork or farm carpentry is taught. This includes the study of useful timbers and a small amount of forestry. The girls may at the age of twelve years proceed to a school of domestic arts, where, in addition to the usual course of English and mathematics, instruction is given in cookery, needlework, dressmaking, millinery, laundry, housewifery, first-aid, personal hygiene, and home nursing. The objective is to train girls to be efficient home-makers. These schools are popular. The mothers of the girls frequently send letters of appreciation to the Education Office. The course is free and may cover a period of three years. The girls may proceed to a higher course of domestic economy or to a High School for academic studies. The courses of training in agriculture and in domestic arts have proved to be educational to a high degree. There is a distinct advantage in allotting part of the school time to a plan of work outlined above. Extracts from a report by Sir R. B. Greig in 1910 on the Ballarat Agricultural High School :— ‘This school is one of a number which have been organised in Victoria since 1906 for the further education of boys and girls, on the assumption that the majority of the boys would become farmers and the majority of the girls would proceed to higher institutions for training as teachers.’ Aim of the School. ‘1. To give boys such education as will direct their interest specially towards the land as an excellent means of gaining a livelihood, and, further, to afford the prac- tical experience and scientific training necessary for success. _ ‘2. To magnify agriculture as an occupation and a profession, so that the boy may leave the school as an interested labourer, or for further study and practice on an experimental farm, in an agricultural college, or at the University. u2 292 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. «3. To providea central institution for the dissemination of agricultural information, by evening lectures, conferences, or literature. «4, To superintend the Government experimental plots and to record and interpret the results. «5. To provide a summer school in agriculture for Primary School teachers:’ Conditions. ‘The pupils must be 14 years of age and show satisfactory evidence that they are qualified to profit by the course of study in each school. Pupils are not resident at the school, but boarded in the neighbourhood under careful supervision. Fees 81. to 101. per annum.’ Syllabus of Instruction. ‘The syllabus of instruction includes the ordinary school subjects to the extent to which they are carried in the ordinary grammar school, although the contents of the subjects are varied and one-third of the pupils’ time is given to agriculture. Sloyd, farm handicraft, and drawing are prominent in the curriculum. The science subjects are chemistry, physical geography, and climatology ; the agricultural science in the syllabus is elementary botany and zoology, and from my observation the methods, which are chiefly experimental and with a strong agricultural basis, are very efficient. The “ principles of agriculture ” deal with soils, particularly Victorian soils, rotations and cultivation of crops, irrigation, feeding and general management of farm livestock, ensilage, first-aid to animals, and the general principles to the valuation of fertilisers, milk and cream, farm crops and animal products. ‘The farm attached to the school is worked in such a way as to illustrate the prin- ciples laid down in each section of the syllabus ; it is used as a centre of experimental work, and where it adjoins the school, as at Ballarat, the boys are constantly at work on it. When it is at a distance, the pupils spend a certain number of hours there each week and sleeping accommodation is provided, so that a limited number may, in turn, see and take part in the whole round of the farm work. As none of the farms are more than five years old, much of the preliminary work of building, clearing, draining, road-making, etc., has been done by the pupils, and at Ballarat the grounds surrounding the school have been laid out, planted, and kept in order by them. The High Schools exhibit produce, experimental material, and students’ work at the show of the Royal Agricultural Society at Melbourne; the competition is very keen and no doubt is one of the factors in stimulating the remarkable interest the boys take in the farm. ‘T have dwelt upon the agricultural side of the school, but it must be kept in mind that most of the girls and some of the boys are hoping to be teachers, or to follow pursuits other than agricultural, and their education is therefore on more general lines, and includes languages, and, in the case of the girls, domestic economy. Mr. Frank Tate, the Director of Education for Victoria and the chief promoter of these schools, says that the reacting effect of the agricultural side upon the ordinary traditional subjects is great and satisfactory, and, encouraged by these results, the Department intends to develop High Schools with a commercial and an industrial side on precisely similar lines. Certainly I have never seen more energy and interest than was displayed by those boys and girls when observed at work. Mr. Tate says, further, that the fault of the vocational school in the past has been to make it narrowly technical— a pregnant opinion.’ 5.—OPPORTUNITIES FOR VOCATIONAL INSTRUCTION IN QUEENSLAND. The Under-Secretary to Department of Public Instruction, Queensland, reports as follows :— ‘Recognising the value and the necessity of vocational training during the latter years of school life, the Department of Public Instruction (Queensland) has, during recent years, amended the previously established courses of Primary and Secondary instruction. Though there remains a direct line connecting Primary, Secondary, and University activities, pupils may diverge at certain points to take up work which is preparatory to vocational employment. ‘The points of divergence lie (a) at or just before the completion of the Primary course, (b) half-way through, or (c) at the end of the Secondary course. Generalising, schools or classes giving instruction in com- mercial subjects are provided in the larger commercial centres ; technical instruction in towns where secondary industries are flourishing or expanding; elementary ON EDUCATIONAL TRAINING FOR OVERSEAS LIFE. 293 agricultural schools (called in Queensland “‘ Rural” schools) at the centres of important agricultural (including dairying) districts. In all these special schools the general education of pupils absorbs the greater part of school hours, but vocational subjects are substituted for the purely academic during the remainder. The underlying principle which is being followed through the experimental stages is, ‘‘ Adapt the instruction and training to meet the probable necessities of pupils in after-school life.” ‘Regarding agricultural education, though the introduction of formal studies bearing more or less directly on practical agriculture does not commence until pupils have attained at least a competent knowledge of the principal rudiments (the three R’s), pupils in the lower classes of elementary schools have had their in- terest aroused in nature study, school gardening operations, and, in many country schools, in milk and cream testing. ‘In the “ Rural ”’ schools (virtually continuation schools) the programme adopted by the Department is as follows :— ‘Upper class children whose circumstances or inclinations or capabilities do not permit of them proceeding to the ordinary secondary schools take up the study of elementary agricultural science and the practice of agricultural operations; they are also employed in learning manual arts, such as carpentry, leather-work, metal-working (including plumbing), fruit-packing. Girls are instructed in domestic arts and science —cookery, laundry-work, dressmaking and millinery, preserving fruit, etc. Both boys and girls learn how to keep household accounts and gain a knowledge of such ordinary commercial transactions as they may be called upon to execute in their future vocations. ‘The young students are not called upon to prepare for any set examinations. The stimulus lies in the obvious connection between their school course and the daily occupation of their elders. Parents likewise appreciate the usefulness and the economic value of the special instruction offered. Hence the demand for ‘‘ Rural ”’ schools has been greater than State finances can satisfy. «As regards secondary education, the Department is arranging Junior (14 to 16 years of age) and Senior (16 to 18 years of age) courses of instruction in agricultural subjects. The work for the Junior Classes is largely cultural rather than vocational, but there is sufficient agriculture to stimulate interest in rural problems. The Senior Course is largely agricultural, though more cultural than any similar course in Austra- lian Agricultural Colleges. In the Senior Course the time of the student is equally divided over lecture periods and practical instruction in farming. Instruction is given in all common farming operations, and, in addition, courses in farm carpentry, blacksmithing, engineering, and tractor-driving. The courses given in English are the equal of those necessary to prepare secondary pupils for the University Senior Public Examination. By means of such Junior and Senior courses it is hoped to make the farmer of the future a well-equipped and skilled worker who suffers not by comparison in culture with what are commonly known as the middle classes. These courses will also furnish the State with a group of young men keenly interested in the application of science to agriculture from whom the official and unofficial leaders of agricultural thought and activity will come. «These Queensland courses, conducted at the Agricultural High School and College, Gatton, will furnish the new-coming youth from Britain, who have a sound elementary education, with a sound knowledge of this State’s agricultural methods and the principles underlying scientific agriculture. ‘At a later stage it is intended to co-ordinate the activities of the Gatton College with those of the University. When completed, the scheme will be capped by the establishment of a Chair of Agriculture. The completion will satisfy matriculation requirements and thus secure for aspiring agricultural students entrance upon a programme of highly scientific agricultural studies.’ : GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. ‘It is suggested that British boys who are sent out to Queensland for the purpose of entering upon agricultural pursuits should be equipped with some knowledge of :— (a) Subjects required by the curriculum of Primary Schools. They should have a sound elementary education. (6) Elementary agricultural operations and elementary principles involved. (c) Climatic conditions and primary products of Queensland. 294 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. (d) Social and industrial conditions and prospects—the scattered nature of the settlements, the various types of crops grown and the localities in which they are grown, the means of communication and the vast dis- tances which intervene between the centres of agricultural activity and the sea-coast towns. The instruction given should accentuate contrasts between agricultural life in Britain and in Queensland. Boys should know something of the hardships and possible absence of conveniences as well as the wider freedom and romance connected with life in a comparatively new colony. (e) The demand for settlers who will help to fill the empty spaces rather than for those who will swell the population of the cities and towns. Occupa- tions for those who seek employment in Queensland cities and towns are not easy to find. Even the native-born find difficulty in securing permanent employment. Schools which may be training young people for “‘ overseas life” should be provided with literature bearing upon the geography and history of the Dominions. Illus- trated pamphlets dealing with various districts in Queensland, their geographical features, productions, and State development, are published by the “ Queensland Tourist Bureau”’ and might be obtained through the Agent-General’s Office, London.’ 6._SOUTH AUSTRALIA. The Superintendent of Secondary Education describes the agricultural course adopted in South Australia as follows :— “The course of study provides that in High Schools where facilities exist the curri- culum may be altered with the permission of the Director of Education to include elementary agriculture. The course will extend over two years, and it is intended to develop in the pupils an interest in rural life and to influence those with a natural talent towards agricultural pursuits. It is not intended to provide a course of training that will equip them for farm life, but rather to quicken their interest in agriculture generally, to teach them the main underlying principles of farm operations and to prepare them for further agricultural training at Roseworthy College or elsewhere. It is further hoped that it will be the means of stemming the tide citywards and of encouraging boys in country High Schools to seek their life’s work in the development of our vast areas. The special feature in any particular school should be determined largely by the nature of the locality and the occupations of the people of the district ; for instance, Murray Bridge, which is situated close to a reclaimed area, will specialise in irrigation, dairying, and fruit culture, whereas in a hill district special attention should be given to dairying and gardening, together with the growing of flax, tobacco, and potatoes. ‘The curriculum is to be divided into three groups :— (a) General studies. These will include English, mathematics, history and civics, geography and drawing. (b) Scientific studies: Chemistry, physics, and botany, in relation to agriculture ; agriculture (study of the soil, tillage, water, manures, irrigation, horti- culture, planting, training young trees, pruning, budding, grafting, spraying, picking, storing and preserving fruit). Animal knowledge, bird and inseot life in their relation to agriculture. (c) Practical work: Farm mechanics, gardening, irrigation, dairying. ‘The following time-table is for students doing agriculture :— Subject. Periods per week. English .. sid ss as i : Mathematics = be History and Civics + 4 Geography and Physiography. . Drawing .. fs af 5s Agriculture Physics . Chemistry Botany Sports KwPRR Pr CROC » _ ON EDUCATIONAL TRAINING FOR OVERSEAS LIFE. 295 7.—NEW SOUTH WALES. A memorandum on the subject of training for overseas life from the Director of Education for New South Wales was given in last year’s Report. 8—THE UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA. The educational authorities of South Africa have very little to offer in the way of advice or suggestion for the educational training of boys and girls for overseas life. The Secretary to the High Commissioner writes :— ‘The Department of Public Education, Cape Town, feels that the inclusion of such subjects as nature study, school gardening, elementary agriculture, woodwork, needlework, domestic science, physiology and hygiene would materially help in producing a type of emigrant who would most easily be able to adapt himself to conditions in the Dominions. It would be desirable that the first three subjects and the last should be studied as far as possible in relation to the Dominion to which the pupils are most likely to go. Schools should also aim at giving intending or possible emigrants a knowledge of the geography and history of the Dominions in general and especially of the one selected. For those who desire to proceed to South Africa some instruction in Afrikaans—the South African form of Dutch spoken by a large propor- tion of the people—would be of great advantage.’ None of the other Provinces or States have any remarks to make. In a further communication from the Government of the Union it is stated that agriculture has not hitherto formed a subject of the secondary school curriculum and has only recently been engaging the attention of the Education Authorities with a view to its early introduction in the school systems. VIIL—THE FIRST SCHOOL CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION. The curriculum in the majority of secondary schools in England, including the public schools, is mainly determined by the character of the First School Certificate Examination or Matriculation Examination of various University Examining Boards, and approved by the Board of Examination. There are seven of these examining bodies, viz. 1. Oxford Local; 2. Cambridge Local; 3. Oxford and Cambridge Schools; 4. London; 5. Joint Matriculation Board of Northern Universities ; 6. Durham; 7. Bristol. The examinations are intended for pupils about the age 16-17 and are very similar _incharacter. The subjects for the First School Certificate Examination are divided into four groups :— A.—English, history, geography, and religious instruction. B.—Languages—Latin, Greek, German, French, etc. C.—Mathematics and science (various branches). D.—Art, music, and other special subjects. This arrangement is practically common to all the examining bodies. A pass is required in at least one subject of each group, A, B,C. For London Joint Matricula- _ tion Board the candidate must pass in at least six subjects, for other Universities only five are required. Usually only one is allowed from Group D. The following special subjects, in addition to the ordinary recognised branches of science, are allowed to count towards the certificate :— Oxford Local—Hygiene, domestic science, housecraft, needlework, agriculture, provided physics and chemistry are offered in Group C Cambridge Local—Agricultural science may be offered without physics and chemistry as separate subjects. Hygiene, needlework. Oxford and Cambridge Schools—No special subjects are accepted other than the science subjects. London—Domestic science and general elementary science are allowed as alternatives to definite branches of science. Northern Universities—Domestic science, housecraft, needlework, agriculture. Durham—Domestic science and needlework. Bristol—Housecraft, needlework, handicraft. 4 It is noticeable that only three Examining Boards include agriculture as a subject that counts towards the certificate, viz. Oxford Local, Cambridge Local, and Northern Universities. Handicraft is encouraged only by Bristol. Domestic science and 296 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. housecraft receive recognition from most Universities, but Cambridge Local and Oxford and Cambridge Schools do not accept them, although they accept needlework. The Central Welsh Board. Similar conditions for the award of a General School Certificate and Higher School Certificate have been adopted by the Central Welsh Board. A pass in each three groups of subjects—I, II, and I]J—is necessary for a certificate. Agriculture is one of the subjects of Group III. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS. SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE. (For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the following list of transactions, see page 388.) Thursday, August 27. 1. Prof. L. 8. Ornstern.—Light Quantum Theory of Dispersion. If we want to discuss the equilibrium of electrons and radiation from the point of view of light quantum hypothesis, it is necessary to put the probability of collision of an electron and a light quantum proportional to the square of its ‘ wave length.’ This result leads us to the hypothesis that a light quantum is a spherical volume of electro-magnetic energy with dimensions of the order of wave length. This hypothesis may be used in order to find the refractive order. If a light quantum strikes over an atom a force will be exercised on the quantum which is proportional to the volume of the atom and to the gradient of the field in the quantum. The order of magnitude of this gradient may be estimated from the hypothesis mentioned. During the interaction the momentum of the quantum is put proportional to _ (A Planck constant, ¢ velocity of light in ether, v velocity in the quantum and wave length). From the above the retardation of a quantum by an atom can be calculated ; and taking into account the probability of collision with the atoms the ordinary formula for the refractive index for long waves can be obtained. On the same base the Rayleigh formula for the scattering of light can be found. In the light quantum theory, dispersion can be obtained by taking into account— just as in the old theory—the inertia of the electric masses in the atom. The influence of damping by radiation, which plays a part in the old theory, also finds its counter- part in our light quantum considerations. 2. Miss Cucitra Pavne.—The Balmer Absorption Series in Stellar Spectra. 3. Prof. H. Barreman.—The Force on a Spinning Electron. 4, Prof. R. W. Woov.—Optical Excitation of Mercury Vapour. 5. Prof. J. PRoupman, F.R.S.—The Effects of Capes, Bays and Islands on Local Tides. 6. Dr. A. T. Doopson.—Tide-predicting Machines. 7. Dr. B. Dasannacuarya.—The Free Path of Excitation to Emission of Light, |, of a Moving Atom of Hydrogen, and the Free Path of its Disturbance. (For abstract see Appendix, page 394.) 298 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. Friday, August 28. 8. Presidential Address by Dr. G. C. Stueson, F.R.S., on The New Ideas in Meteorology. (See page 15.) 9. Sir Frank Dyson, F.R.S.—Fiaing the Position of the Equator. 10. Sir Narrer Suaw, F.R.S.—Trigger Action in the Atmosphere. In discussions of the transformations of energy in the atmosphere it is sometimes suggested in explanation of certain kinds of rainfall that there may be something in the atmosphere analogous to catalytic action by which the transformation is initiated and continued, although the energy which is transformed is not supplied by the initiating agent, but is derived from the interaction of the constituent parts of the rest of the atmosphere. One of the characteristic features of such a condition is the dis- continuity between two states which differ only in the presence or absence of the ‘ catalyser’ or initiating agent. A certain line of real discontinuity in atmospheric conditions is marked by the saturation of the air with water-vapour, the behaviour under the gradual reduction of pressure being fundamentally different when the air is saturated from what it is when unsaturated. Thus the consideration of saturated air in the atmosphere requires the introduction of ideas more or less suggestive of ‘ trigger action,’ and the purpose of this communication is to trace the effect of saturating air with water-vapour as an example of ‘ trigger action.’ Assuming that the condensation of water-vapour to form rain is a consequence of the reduction of pressure, we recognise at the outset that the transformation of energy associated with rain is two-fold in character. There is first the gravitational energy of the environment which forces some portion of the air to rise, and secondly there is the development, in the form of sensible heat during elevation, of what was originally latent in the vapour. The energy of the second kind operates to limit the reduction of temperature, by reduced pressure, to an amount much below that which would be consequent upon the same reduction of pressure if the air were dry, and thereby to maintain or even increase the amount of energy available in the environment for further automatic elevation. The development of ancillary energy in the environment in this way may be so great as to place the originally saturated air in a condition which, without unfairness, may be described as explosive; and it is on that account that the name ‘ trigger action * may be applied to it. But although in this way saturated air may be regarded as a trigger which when properly operative sets the whole transformation in motion or even in commotion, yet the ancillary energy comes from the saturated air itself and the supply is limited by the amount of saturated air available. In a sense therefore the trigger has to expend lee in producing the explosion, and the process is on that account not exactly catalytic. The communication draws attention td the parts which are taken, by the environ- ment and the environed air respectively, in this explosive action, and illustrates the subject by examples derived from the exploration of the pressure, temperature and humidity of the air by sounding balloons, kites or aeroplanes. For this purpose the results of soundings are set out in certain new kinds of diagrams which, for the sake of reference, are called ‘tephigrams’ and ‘ depegrams.’ A tephigram, like an indicator diagram, shows the properties of the environing air in a vertical section of the atmo- sphere referred to (¢) temperature and ($) entropy as co-ordinates, with a background exhibiting the physical properties of saturated air, and a depegram shows the properties of the air in the same vertical section referred to the temperature of its dewpoint (d) and its pressure (p). 11. Sir Girgert WaLker, F.R.S.—Seasonal Variations of Weather in the North Atlantic. Of the three well-established oscillations—that in the southern oceans, that in the N. Pacific, and that in the N. Atlantic—the last is largely independent of the an Ny ae SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS,.—A. 299 other two. Many facts regarding it have been established, of which a summary is given in the paper, and the controlling factor appears to be the pressure distribution rather than the sea temperature ; but the causes of the pressure variation are mostly still unknown. Hildebrandsson’s theory that the conditions are controlled by the quantity of ice seems to present considerable difficulties. 12. Prof. A. E. Kennetty.—Some New Properties of Hyperbolic Func- tions and Integral Series of Numbers, with Applications to Electrical Engineering. 13. Prof. H. Barreman. — A Certain System of Partial Differential Equations. If A and pare constants the equations ol Gr 0g yop On _ Om Oz Oy Oz Ox Oy Oz Om _ Op _ Or, yog_ Ol On Oy Oz Ox Oy Oz Ox On _ Og _ Op, Or _ Om _ ob Oz Ox Cy Oz Ox oy imply that each of the six quantities 1, m,n, p,q, 7 is a solution of the partial differential equation av ov, OV, OV 0x8 * Oy? ' O28 eh reac a oO A set of solutions may be expressed by means of definite integrals of a well- known type. Monday, August 31. 14. Joint Discussion with Section C (see page 314) on Variation in Gravitational Force and Direction and its Relation to Geological History. 15. Report of Seismology Committee (see page 216). 16. Mr. J. H. Suaxpy.—The Diffusion of Suspended Particles and Avogadro's Number. As a suspension settles under gravity a certain number of its particles reach the vertical walls of the containing vessel as a result of their Brownian movements ; they can be made to adhere to it and can thus be counted. Their number increases with depth, since the time during which a given level of the wall is in contact with fluid containing particles is limited by the rate of fall of the upper boundary of the settling cloud. The adherent population thus gives a measure of the diffusion and provides its own time-record if the rate of settling is known. From the theory of diffusion, due to Smoluchowski, Avogadro’s Number can be determined. In the present work the eee used were the minute natural spheres of Staphylococcus. Avogadro’s umber was found to be 5.9x 10. 17. Prof. J. G. Gray.—Some new Gyroscopic Tops (with demonstrations). 300 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. Tuesday, September 1. 18. Prof. W. F.G. Swann.—An Attempt to detect a Corpuscular Radiation of Cosmic Origin. 19, Prof. E. V. AppLeton.—Some Thermionic Valves Problems. 20. Mr. R. L. Smrru-Rosze.—The Study of Wireless Wave Fronts by Directional Methods. 1. Principle of operation of wireless direction-finders. 2. Brief résumé of recent work in direction-finding. (a) Errors due to local conditions. (6) Diurnal variations. (c) Land and sea effects and application to navigation. (d) ‘ Flat minima’ and rotating magnetic forces. 3. Methods for complete determination of the direction of (a) the magnetic force, (b) the electric force. 4. Use of the above methods to study the propagation of waves. (a) Daylight conditions and the earth’s conductivity. (b) Night conditions and the theory of the propagation of waves. 21. Mr. N. K. Jonnson.—A Study of the Vertical Gradient of Tempera- ture in the Atmosphere near the Ground. The paper contains a preliminary discussion of the results obtained from an apparatus which gives autographic records of the vertical temperature gradient over the height intervals 1-2 m. to 7:1 m. and 1:2 m. to 17:1 m. above the ground. The description of the apparatus shows that the temperatures are measured by means of platinum resistance thermometers mounted in special housings and kept continuously aspirated. The autographic records are made on a ‘ thread recorder’ which utilises the out-of-balance current of a Wheatstone bridge network. The records for the years 1923-4 are discussed. Mean hourly values for each month are shown in a series of curves. In winter at midday the mean lapse between lm. and 17m. is 0°7° F. (7.e. 24 times adiabatic), whilst in summer it is about 2°5° F. (i.e. 84 times adiabatic). Throughout the night of both winter and summer there is a mean inversion of about 1°3° F. between the same limits of height. In contrast with these mean values the extreme values recorded during each month are given. Between the heights of 1m. and 17m. lapses of 5-8° F. (20 times adiabatic) have been found and inversions as large as 120° F. Tables are also given showing the frequency of occurrence of gradients of various magnitudes. A number of selected charts are reproduced, and a detailed discussion is given of the various features which they contain, and of the factors which determine the magnitude of the temperature gradient in this region of the atmosphere. 22. Mr. D. Brunt.—Periodicities in Weather. The paper gives a discussion of the results derived from a periodogram analysis of twelve sets of meteorological data each extending over at least 100 years. The data used are temperature at London, Edinburgh, Paris, Berlin, Vienna, and Stockholm ; rainfall at London, Edinburgh, Milan, and Padua; and pressure at Edinburgh and Paris. The periodograms are given in detail in a paper read (in title) at the Royal Society in June 1925. It is found that no periods over 10 years in length are common to all the records, but some short periods, of lengths between 13 and 60 months, occur in a number of temperature records, with sensibly the same phase. An 11-year period, which may be the sunspot period, occurs in the Edinburgh temperatures, but in none of the other records, though a period of between 22 and 23 years, which may be the double sunspot period, occurs in several of the records. Each of the periodograms shows a large number of peaks, indicating a large number of possible periodic variations, and in view of the difficulty of assigning accurate values to the phase and amplitude of each period it is considered improbable that these results can be utilised for forecasting the weather at any future time. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 301 SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY. (For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the following list of transactions, see page 389.) Thursday, August 27, 1. Discussion on Surface Catalysis. Dr. E. K. Ripeat.—The Influence of Surfaces in Chemical Reactions. Although adsorption at surfaces may result in the formation of multimolecular films, the adsorption of the first layer is attended with a much greater decrease in free energy, and it is in this film that chemical reaction at surfaces takes place. This conception has been amplified and extended in two directions. We find accumulated evidence for the conception of orientation and distortion of the molecules in this primary layer ; evidence for the persistence of such orientation but to a less marked extent in the multimolecular secondary layer exists. Again, only asmall fraction of the surface is catalytically active. Both by the method of calculation of the number of effective impacts as well as by the method of selective poisoning, the extent of the active surface can be determined. In this way it has been shown that only 0.01 per cent. of a carefully prepared active nickel surface is effective in promoting the combination of ethylene and hydrogen. About 0.05 per cent. of the surface of active sugar charcoal is autoxidisable, and 40 per cent. can catalyse the oxidation of oxalic acid. Great improvements in catalytic efficiency are thus to be anticipated. The specific effects of promotors can be determined in this way, thus, the active area of iron activated blood charcoal is over twenty times as active as the active area of sugar charcoal in promoting the oxidation of oxalic acid, although the activity per gm. is fifteen and per sq. cm. is only some three times as great. The activation by alternate oxidation and reduction can be ascribed to an exten- sion of the space lattice of the metal. Future work must decide whether active areas are distributed according to the laws of probability or are associated with definite atomic configurations. In addition, more information is required on the mechanism of activation ; our _ present evidence is not sufficient to decide between two hypotheses. In one we can regard every molecule which strikes the active patch with a kinetic energy in excess of a critical value as undergoing reaction; in the other, we may regard adsorption as taking place as a primary action which is followed by activation, by collision, or possibly by collision and by radiation. Mr. C. N. HinsHetwoov.—Surface Catalysis. In homogeneous changes one of the most important factors determining the rate which a reaction can attain at a given temperature is the energy of activation. This can be found from the influence of temperature on the reaction velocity. An analogous quantity must play avery important réle in heterogeneous reactions, but its determina- tion is a more difficult matter. True and apparent heat of activation are distinguished, and the relation between them shown. In certain examples the true heat of activation can be found. The relation between the kinetics of certain reactions proceeding (a) homogeneously, (6) on the surface of catalysts, is discussed. The application of the quantum theory to these phenomena is also discussed. An explanation of some of the phenomena connected with the complete desiccation of chemical systems is suggested. Dr. W.G. Patmer.—A New Method for the Study of Adsorption Films. Further progress towards an explanation of the mechanism of heterogeneous catalysis is heavily impeded by the meagreness of our knowledge of the properties of adsorption films. This has come about chiefly because the examples of adsorption most open to experiment are just those in which a great complexity of relations between 302 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. adsorbent and adsorbed substance is to be expected—namely, adsorption in porous substances with a highly developed ‘ inner surface.’ In the new method to be described, advantage has been taken of the long-known but little-developed ‘ coherer action ’ that occurs when an electric stress is applied to a contact, whose ‘ looseness’ is determined, as has been shown, by a non-conducting gas-film separating the two surfaces of contact. : The most important application of the method lies in the readiness with which the relation between the composition of a mixed gas-film and that of the gas mixture producing it can be ascertained. If the ratio of the partial pressures in the gas mixture ; : Bi Bone eee - a/M. is ?! i the ratio of composition in the initial film is 2 Pi / /M; py where M, and M, are the molecular weights of the gases. The initial film will not, in general, be in equilibrium with the gas mixture: the composition will change until it has reached the equilibrium composition given by the ratio / Mp6 In the majority of the mixtures studied up to the present, this ratio is a constant, independent of composition. When it is not so, complexes containing the two molecules intimately bound together on the surface have to be assumed. These complexes are undoubtedly the precursors of a catalytic combination or interaction of the two gases. Coherer action is of precisely the same character when the contact is immersed in liquids. A study of the effect of mixed liquids in relation to the known surface energies and capillary activities will probably be of interest, but this part of the work has only just been started. 2. Mr. E. A. Ottarp.—The Resistance to Corrosion of Electro-Deposited Chromium. 3. Dr. F. M. Perxin.—Advances in the Treatment of Peat as a Fuel and the Production of By-products. 4, Prof. H. E. Frerz.—The Distillation of Cellulose and Similar Substances in the presence of Catalysts under High Hydrogen Pressure. Cellulose, wood and starch can be distilled completely when mixed with sufficient nickel oxide and heated in hydrogen under a pressure of 100-250 atmospheres. Without pressure, and in the presence of only a small amount of nickel oxide, no result could be obtained. The best conditions were found to be 80 grams of nickel oxide and 500 grams of cellulose (wood, starch, sugar or lignin may also be used). In the apparatus described pressures up to 4,000 atmospheres may be employed. The products of distillation are very complex, consisting of about 30 per cent. clear mobile tar (ca. 9,000 calories), 30 per cent. of gas, and 40 per cent. of water. Analyses showed that practically no hydrogenation takes place. The tar contains 20 per cent. of phenols, 5 per cent. of lower fatty acids, and 70 per cent. of neutral compounds (furane and its homologues). In addition, there have been isolated small quantities of ketones, diketones, alcohols, and glycols, such as methyl, ethyl, and propyl alcohols, acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, and a cyclo pentane diglyccl. The residue remaining after the distillation was less than 2 per cent. of the cellulose employed. Wood and lignin under similar conditions give a higher proportion of phenols and a lower proportion of neutral compounds than cellulose, whilst sugar and starch behave like cellulose. No conclusions with regard to the constitutions of the starting materials should be drawn from these experiments as the method of distillation is — very drastic. It is, however, interesting that very large quantities of furanes are formed, since these occur also in ordinary wood tar, but have been overlooked pre- viously because the products have always been purified by means of concentrated sulphuric acid which destroys the furanes. / a/Mipoo2. - 5 ee ee ee eee ee ITE aie AS eg eats y : oe Cav SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 303 Friday, August 28. 5, Joint Discussion with Section G on The Ignition of Gases. Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S8. During the past three years experiments have been made for the Safety in Mines Research Board on the ignition of gases. I. Adiabatic Compression.—Mixtures of methane and air, and of hydrogen and oxygen, have been fired by rapid compression in steel cylinders by a piston which is stopped and held rigidly at any desired position in the cylinder. By trial there is found a compression which will just fire the mixture. With a rapid self-heating mixture (e.g. electrolytic gas) the clamping of the piston at the end of its stroke has a small but measurable effect ; with a slow self-heating mixture (e.g. methane and air) the clamping of the piston makes an important difference, since the gas during the period of self-heating has time to do work on the piston. When oxygen is added to electrolytic gas, the ignition-point, as calculated from the compression, is continuously lowered; with methane-air mixtures the ignition-point is slightly reduced as the air is increased from 90°5 per cent. (the volume for complete combustion) to 93 per cent., after which the ignition-point rapidly rises. Il. Concentric Tube Experiments.—When a stream of inflammable gas from a narrow central tube is made to enter an atmosphere of air or oxygen in a large cylinder, both gases being heated equally before meeting, the gas will ignite very rapidly (under 15 seconds) on escaping from the orifice so long as the temperature is maintained above a crucial point. On allowing the furnace to cool sufficiently, an appreciable time interval occurs between the turning on of the gas and its ignition. This gradually increasing ‘ lag ’ is noted until the gas fails to ignite in 10 or in 15 seconds. The cylinder is then slowly heated, and a series of diminishing lags is recorded, until the gas ignites again in less than -5 seconds. The means of the falling and rising temperatures observed at corresponding lags are taken as single readings. A steel case has been made to contain the electric furnace and silica cylinder, so that ignitions may be observed both under increased and diminished pressure. An increase in pressure, as a rule, lowers the ignition-point of gases as indicated by theory ; but in many cases, notably with hydrogen, a diminution in pressure down to one-tenth of an atmosphere causes a continuous lowering of the rapid ignition-point. IIT. Incipient Combustion.—Most gases show some visible signs of partial com- bustion before normal inflammation—notably methane. But the only gases with which we have been able to stabilise these incipient flames are mixtures containing carbon disulphide or ether. Prof. W. T. Davin. At Leeds we are working upon an apparatus in which spontaneous ignition tem- peratures of inflammable gaseous mixtures are determined by means of adiabatic compression produced by the flow of compressed air into a tube in which the _ inflammable mixtures are contained. Preliminary experiments with this apparatus show that the spontaneous ignition temperature varies with the pressure. For a 26-5 per cent. mixture of methane and oxygen, the following results were obtained :— Initial pressure of mixture (atmo- sphere) Ee - 2 si 3 Minimum final pressure at which ignition took place (atmospheres) . 10-25 13-2 15-75 21-0 Ignition temperature (°C) . 2 Z 475 400 370 355 Thus, in mixtures of methane and oxygen, the ignition temperature is decreased as the pressure is increased. Experiments are being made upon the ignition temperatures of inflammable mixtures diluted with nitrogen and other gases, but they have not yet progressed sufficiently to enable me to give results. It is possible that the experiments with nitrogen may yield results of great interest in view of experiments whieh, in conjunction with Messrs. S. G. Richardson and 25 *BY cr MBys {10 _ W.’Davies, I have been making upon the effect of radiation on the rate of combustion 304 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. of inflammable gaseous mixtures contained in a closed vessel. These experiments show that the introduction of infra-red radiation into the reacting system speeds up combustion provided (i) that the radiation introduced is of the kind which can be absorbed by the combustible gas, and (ii) that nitrogen is present in the gaseous mixtures. Thus the rate of combustion of mixtures of CO and oxygen and nitrogen is speeded up by 4-44 radiation (which is absorbed by CO), while that of mixtures of CH, and oxygen and nitrogen is speeded up by 3-2u radiation (which is absorbed by CHy,). Hydrogen has no absorption bands, and it is found that the introduction of radiation does not affect the rate of combustion of mixtures of H, and air. No speeding up of combustion is found in any of these mixtures when the nitrogen is replaced by oxygen, argon, or COs. Perhaps the most remarkable result obtained from the experiments is that different types of radiation produce the speeding up in the CH, and CO mixtures. Thus the effect of radiation is not due to the inhibiting of formation of oxides of nitrogen, for if this were the case, the same type of radiation should be effective, whatever the nature of the combustible gas. Rather the experiments suggest that some kind of temporary association between nitrogen and the combustible gas normally takes place during explosion, which association tends to be inhibited when the combustible gas is stimulated by radiation. Dr. O. C. pe C. Exiis.—Notes on the Production of Flame in Closed Vessels. When ignition of a combustible mixture occurs in a closed vessel the rate at which the flame begins to spread is compounded of the rate at which the ignition is communicated from layer to layer of the mixture, and the rate at which the mixture just about to be burnt moves under the expansive force of the burning mixture. The rate at which the flame begins to spread away from the source of ignition is therefore but little different whether the vessel be virtually without walls (as with a soap-bubble) or closed, for the initial combustion takes place at constant pressure. This state of affairs persists in a closed vessel for only a very short time; then the existence of the enclosure manifests itself. The first influence of the enclosure is on the direction of expansion of the burning gas, which is toward the more open space. If the enclosure has an opening in it the mean movement of the flame is toward that opening, and the flame will not travel through the remoter, completely enclosed part of the vessel until its other boundary has passed through the opening. In a strictly closed vessel the flame spreads from the region of ignition as if to reach all parts of the boundary at the same time. This is only a strong tendency, however, and is not actually accomplished except when igni- tion is central and the vessel spherical. It does not occur even then if the rate of spread of flame is so slow that convection currents can influence it. In such circum- stances the flame-front travels upwards more quickly than downwards. : The second effect of the enclosure, very marked in small vessels, is the production of a second phase of slower propagation, following the first rapid spread of the flame. In the first phase we have propagation assisted, in respect of spatial displacement, by expansion ; in the second, it is probable that propagation takes place against a slight recoil. In the first phase the gas burning is of low density ; in the second phase the gas is burning under higher and increasing pressure. It is the second phase which is indicated in a gas explosion by the fairly straight portion of the ascending line of the time-pressure curve. The third effect of the enclosure, most marked in rich mixtures, takes place among the flame-products, and is noticeable as a glow, occupying the space where originally the flame passed during its first phase ; that is to say, it begins near the point of igni- tion. It begins, moreover, well before the flame has completed its passage throughout the vessel, so that it is not an effect of cooling. A dark zone lies between the flame- front and this glow at the core, suggesting that the glowing material comprises the products of combustion of the first phase and the dark zone those of the second. As soon as the flame reaches the boundary of the vessel the dark zone must cool and therefore contract. For this reason, presumably, the glow now expands to fill the entire vessel. It may, and usually does, persist for a period many times as great as that necessary for the complete spread of the flame through the sphere. During this post-flame period its volume gradually grows less and its mass-centre rises. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 305 These effects are not dependent on the presence of nitrogen, nor are they a manifes- tation of changes in the water-gas equilibrium. It can be assumed that with such a mixture as 2CO+0O,+4CO the dissociation of carbon dioxide is very slight (cf. W. A. Bone, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1925, 108 A, 408), but this mixture (when saturated with water-vapour at 22° C.) exhibits the glow very markedly. The mixture 2CO+0,-++-5CO gives an even denser afterglow of approximately the same duration, namely, about thirteen times that of the flame period. With 2CO+0,+6CO the duration is nearly five times that of the flame period, and with 2CO+0,+7CO, nearly three times. That the glow is a concomitant of dissociation is thus the least likely of the several explanations which may be advanced. Comparable with the mixture 2CO+0,+4CO already referred to experiments have been made with a saturation of water-vapour at 45° C. The glow is still very marked, but it is strikingly less both in density and duration. This latter fact sug- gests a third explanation : that burning takes place in the mixture after the flame has passed through it. Certainly radiations that can affect a photographie plate occur after flame has travelled through the mixture. It is conceivable that these radiations are due to the subsequent burning of combustible gas which has escaped the passage of the flame. Experiments to test the possibility of such ‘ residual burning ’ occurring are in progress. This work is being carried out for the Safety in Mines Research Board, under the direction of Dr. R. V. Wheeler. Dr. R. V. WHEELER. Monday, August 31. 6. Presidential Address by Prof. C. H. Duscu, F.R.S., on The Chemistry of Solids. (See page 30.) 7. Mr. J. A. V. Butter.—The Seat of the Electromotive Force of the Galvanic Cell. The discovery of the production of an electric current by galvanic action gave rise to two distinct views of its origin, resulting in a controversy which was waged with considerable zeal for a century, without a decision being reached (cf. Sir Oliver Lodge’s comprehensive report, B.A. Report, 1884). On the one hand, physical theorists regarded as the chief factor a contact P.D. between the metals, identified with Volta’s contact force and an intrinsic property of the metals. On the other hand was the chemical view that the current had its origin in chemical effects at the electrodes. In the course of the nineteenth century, the chemical theory received convincing support from (1) the work of Davy and Faraday, which established the quantitative relation between quantity of electricity and chemical action ; (2) the discovery of the relation between the electrical energy produced and the energy of the reaction going on in the cell [Kelvin (1851) had postulated the equality of these. The exact thermo- dynamical relation was given later by Helmholtz and Gibbs]. (3) The Nernst conception of the process at metal electrodes which accounted for the effect of concentration. The chemical theory thus appeared to be established on all points. The Volta effect itself was explained as due to chemical action at the surface of the metals. For thirty years the metal junction was practically overlooked as an important con- tributor to the e.m.f. of the cell. Recent work on the thermionic and photoelectric properties of the metals (Richard- son, Compton and Millikan) has, however, conclusively demonstrated the existence of - large metal contact P.D’s. How are these to be reconciled with the chemical theory ? The author’s theory, based on statistical considerations, is outlined, which includes as different aspects of the whole truth (1) the existence of metal contact P.D’s between metals, approximately equal to the difference of their thermionic work functions, (2) the relation between e.m.f. and the energy of the chemical reaction expressed in the Gibbs-Helmholtz relation ; (3) the Nernst relation for the effect of concentration. 1925 x 306 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 8. Prof. E. C. C. Baty, F.R.S., Mr. F. M. Jonnson, Mr. H. G. Lirrier, and Miss Epira Morrison.—further Investigations on the Photosynthesis of Naturally Occurring Compounds. The earlier results obtained by Baly, Heilbron, and Barker, on the conversion of carbonic acid into formaldehyde by the action of light, have been adversely criticised. It has now been found that the discrepancies are due to the existence of a photo- stationary state. In the original paper the view was put forward that the synthesis of carbohydrates takes place in two stages, the first being the production of formal- dehyde, which under suitable conditions polymerises into reducing sugars. This view is not correct, since under the action of light the carbonic acid is converted into active formaldehyde which at once polymerises into carbohydrates. In the complete absence of impurities, a photostationary state is set up which can be represented by the equation 6H,CO,===C,H,,0,+60, The removal of the oxygen causes the reaction to proceed from left to right. In the living plant the oxygen is removed from the sphere of action by the plant pigments. Investigation has also been made of the compounds formed by the polymerisation of the active formaldehyde, and it has been found that the first products are hexose sugars. The phenomenon of the photostationary state seems also to exist in the photo- synthesis of nitrogen compounds with activated formaldehyde, reactions in which again oxygen is evolved. Thisis of some importance, because the removal of the oxygen is necessary for the photosynthesis to proceed. The very remarkable influence of the hydrogen ion concentration in the photo- synthetic process has been demonstrated, and it appears that this is one of the most important factors. 9. Prof. JosepH Remziy and Mr. Denis Mappen.—Velocity of Decomposition of Heterocyclic Diazonium Salts. The diazonium salts from heterocyclic amines generally show a close resemblance to similar substances from aromatic amines. Many of the heterocyclic diazonium salts, however, even in ring compounds of a simple nature (e.g. 4 amino 3.5-dimethyl- hydrazole—Morgan and Reilly, J.C.S., 1914, 105, 436), show a remarkable stability, in marked contrast with corresponding benzenoid substances. In our investigations the titration method of Hirsch (Ber., 1891, 24, 324) has not been found satisfactory, ‘The method of Hausser and Muller (Bull. Soc. Chim., 1892 (IIL) 7, 721) was also unsatisfactory, and our first effort was to improve it. Our process consists in heating in a thermostat a solution of the diazonium salt contained in a quartz tube, through which a current of air-free carbon dioxide (prepared by. Farmer’s method, J.C.S., 1920, 117, 1446) is passing and collecting the nitrogen evolved over caustic potash. Owing to the high temperature employed, a condenser was interposed between the tube containing the solution and the water-jacketed azotometer. By the use of the stream of inert gas, it is possible to overcome the difficulties met with by earlier investigators. Thus, by means of a control experiment, the time necessary for the solution to acquire the temperature of the thermostat was determined. A thorough sweeping with carbon dioxide expels the nitrogen formed during this time, so that the true starting-point can be determined. In the first instance, the comparative stability of 4 amino, 1-Phenyl, 2-3 dimethy]l- pyrazolone, 4 amino, 3-5 dimethylpyrazole and 4 aminopyrazole was determined, and the investigation is being extended to other heterocyclic amines and to include the influence of catalysts on the reaction. . As an example of the stability of these compounds under the conditions of the experiment, the following figures for the diazonium chloride from 4 amino, 1-Pheny]l, 3-5 dimethylpyrazolone are given. After five hours heating at 100° C., approximately 45 per cent. of the possible amount of ‘ diazo’ nitrogen is evolved ; after ten hours, approximately 60 per cent.,and after twenty hours, less than 90 per cent. At this stage SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 307 the rate of gas evolution is very small (approx.0.2c.c. per hour), indicating that second- ary reactions have taken place. During the main period of the experiment, the decomposition of the diazonium chloride followed the course of a unimolecular reaction. The decomposition of the diazonium nitrate closely resembles that of the chloride ; in the case of the sulphate, however, the reaction is more rapid at the beginning, and the total evolution of gas smaller, showing increased secondary reaction. The anion in some cases therefore appears to influence the rate of decomposition, unlike the results with benzenoid diazonium salts. (Cf. Cain; Ber., 1905, 38, 2511.) According to Cain and Nicoll (J.C.S., 1902, 81, 1412) the most stable benzenoid diazonium salt of a wide range of aromatic bases investigated by them was that from o-nitro-aniline. We have found that the diazonium chloride from 4 amino 1-Phenyl 3-5 dimethylpyrazolene is of the order of six times the stability of the above-mentioned benzenoid salt at 100° C. This compound, it might be noted, is not the most stable of the heterocyclic diazonium salts (e.g. 3-5 dimethyl pyrazole diazonium chloride), and further work on this substance is in progress. 10. Dr. J. B. Fiera and Mr. H. A. Fretits.—Some Modifications of Form of Sodium Salts expressed from Acid Gel during Drying. Clear silicic acid gel produced by the addition of solutions of hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, nitric acid, and hydriodic acid respectively to pure sodium silicate solution were dried in a desiccator in vacuo. The sodium salts were expressed from the gel in needle-like formations. Sodium Chloride —Long clear needles—majority in the form of capillaries showing weak birefringence and an extinction approximately parallel to the length of the needle. Sodium Bromide—Clear needles showing high double refraction and anisotropic colours: angle of extinction 8-9°—monoclinic, very~ unstable, becoming opaque owing to conversion into rhombic form. Sodium Nitrate—Long clear needles—stable—angle of extinction 41°. Sodium Iodide.—Needle-like formation but opaque. Potassium Iodide—Silicic acid gel impregnated with a solution of potassium iodide ; on drying, the potassium iodide was expressed as fine silky hairs very much distorted. The first three specimens show strain structure under the microscope. Tuesday, September 1. 11. Discussion on The Alternating Effects in Carbon Chains. _ Speakers: Dr. B. Frirscuei, Prof. A. Lapwortn, F.R.S., Prof. R. Rostnson, F.R.S. Dr. B. FLirscHerm. An alternating effect in carbon chains is now generally admitted. Does it consist of alternating amounts of free and bound affinity force (* affinity theory ’), or of varying distributions of electrons (‘ polarity theory ’) ? The polarity theory defines the attractive force between non-ionised atoms as an electrostatic attraction between shared electrons and the atomic nuclei. But instead of forming a bridge between the physical structure of the atom and its chemical behaviour, this conception creates difficulties both physical and chemical. Physically, it conflicts with the Rutherford-Bohr-Sommerfeld theory, as evidenced by the failure of attempts to devise even a stable hydrogen molecule model with shared electrons ; by the impossibility of obtaining identical frequencies in a sub-group of carbon electrons if these were shared with ‘ electro-negative ’ atoms differing materially from each other in their outer electronic frequencies ; by the racemisation of asymmetric carbon without rupture of bonds; by the difficulty of reconciling shared electrons a 308 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. with the precession and rotation of orbits, &c., &c. Chemically, of the various forms in which the polarity theory has been published, those which are unequivocal are contrary to experimental evidence ; the remainder consist of arbitrary alternatives which, in so far as they can be tested at all, are similarly refuted. The affinity theory, accepting the attractive force between non-ionised atoms—like gravitational and magnetic forces—as some given function of the atom, deduces for this force one single mechanism of transmission, in any chain. Its interpretation of chemical reactions is unequivocal, and is found to be in agreement with all well- authenticated observations. Prof. A. Lapwortn, F.R.S. The theory of reaction through activated polar forms is at present being developed by constant comparison with the requirements of modern physical chemistry. It is already of considerable service in grouping together phenomena of the most diverse character and thus helping us to foresee the probable results of new combinations of circumstances. In this respect it is at least on an equality with other recipes with which it has been unfavourably compared; in other respects it is immeasurably superior, especially in its close parallelism with the requirements of the ionic dissocia- tion hypothesis and with those features of the electronic theory of valency on which general agreement has been reached. The ‘ electro-affinity ’ principle of Abegg and Bodliinder—on which principle the author’s system was originally based—is but a special case of the entropy principle. Used mnemonically it is often helpful as a short theoretical cut, but often tends to obscure the real issues. For example, it takes no cognisance of cases where ions are not capable of forming bonds, or (in terms of a familiar theory) are ‘ co-valently ’ saturated. The terms ‘ diffuse’ and ‘ intense,’ as applied to free polar affinities, may be con- sidered from the entropy standpoint. A charged atom, X, in a polarised complex no doubt exerts at certain distances an electrostatic attraction on another oppositely charged atom Y, but may not be able to form a chemical bond with it, for one or more of several reasons ; for example, X may already be bond-saturated, as in ‘ ammonium- nitrogen.’ Putting it quite generally, the union may never be consummated by the formation of a bond if the product of this change would be one with very low entropy. In such cases, approximation between the two atoms would at first lead to a rise in the entropy of the joint system, but within some intermediate position to a fall; in other words, an attractive force must at some point vanish and be replaced by a repulsive force. The term ‘ diffuse’ has hitherto been used to express this property of certain polar free affinities or electrovalencies, and the term ‘ buffered’ is now suggested as a more satisfactory one. Prof. R. Roxtnson, F.B.S. The following points will be considered :— 1. Polarity and reaction mechanism—fundamental principles. 2. The meaning of the phase ‘ polar alternation ’ and of symbols such as A B C D EF, Stability of electronic configurations. fs 3. The electronic theory of activation by polarisation of conjugated complexes and the mechanism of reaction of the polarised phases. 4, The general polar effect—continuous electron displacement. 5. Some prevalent fallacies respecting the polarity theory as illustrated by certain recent publications. 6. Defects of the theory of non-polar alternation and corresponding advantages of the polarity theory. Prof. T. M. Lowry, F.R.S., Prof. C. K. Incoup, F.R.S. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 309 SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. (For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the following list of transactions, see page 389.) Thursday, August 27. Morninc. 1. Presidential Address by Prof.W. A. Parks on The Cultural Aspects of Geology. (See page 55.) 2. Dr. W. Rak Suerrirrs.—Geology of the District round Southampton. 3. Mr. Henry Bury.—The Rivers of the Hampshire Basin. The synclinal fold which has helped to preserve the Eocene Beds of the Hampshire Basin has also determined its main river system. The former longitudinal-consequent river (Frome-Solent) has been largely obliterated by the sea, but many of the tribu- taries, which ran down the slopes on either side, still remain, especially on the northern (mainland) side. These, owing to the asymmetry of the main syncline, are longer and more important than those on the south. As a rule such mainland rivers cut right across the minor folds which flank the central valley, but in the more northern (chalk) areas several small synclinal rivers occur, which Mr. Osborne White regards as remnants of an earlier longitudinal drainage, but which may be only subsequent streams, arising after the former Eocene covering had been denuded off the anticlines. But although the main transverse rivers have all the appearance of © consequents,’ the late Mr. Clement Reid* regarded the Avon as having arisen in two parts—the Upper Avon having reached Southampton Water (‘Southampton River’) by way of the Blackwater, until it was captured by the Lower Avon. None of the usual signs of capture are present, but Clement Reid relied on (1) an alleged alignment of the ‘Salisbury Rivers’ with Southampton Water; and (2) the ‘extremely rapid lowering ’ which ‘ must’ have occurred in the Lower Avon valley, when the Solent River was breached by the sea. As regards (1), only the Wylye and a small portion of the Nadder follow this line, and the alignment of the Upper with the Lower Avon is at least as good ; while as to (2), no appreciable lowering would follow if the breach was made when the Solent valley was an estuary, and its tributaries more or less “drowned ’ by the sea (compare the present condition of the East and West Yar, in the Isle of Wight). The ridge of plateau gravel between Woodfalls (near Downtown) and Picket Corner, which Clement Reid regarded as marking the course of the old river, runs wphill, and is moreover continuous with gravel attributed, by that author himself, to the Avon in its present single form. The hypothesis of a double origin for the Avon has therefore nothing whatever to support it. On the other hand, we see in the striking escarpment of Bramshaw evidence of recent activity in the Blackwater, due no doubt to the shortening of its course to the sea when the latter invaded Southampton Water ; and it is by no means inconceivable that this may in time lead to the capture of the Upper Avon by the Blackwater—a complete reversal of the process imagined by Clement Reid. The exact stage at which the Solent River was breached by the sea cannot be determined ; but the evidence points to a fairly recent date. It is certain, however, that before that time the sea had more than once invaded the valley past Spithead, and it is very desirable that the details of those advances should, if possible, be worked out, as otherwise we cannot determine the relative altitudes of the gravel terraces in different parts of the river system. 4, Mr. E. H. Davison.—The History of Cornish Mining in relation to the Geology of Cornwall. The history of Cornish mining is a record of progress in mechanical invention making it possible to work new types of ore deposit ; it is also intimately related to the geological structure of the district. * * Kaban vale. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—I. 351 pressor reflex appears or not is attributed to whether sufficient diffusion takes place to affect the pressor synapses close by. Doses of 0.005 mgm. applied to the depressor point increase the depressor reflexes, and when applied to the pressor points after cauterisation of the depressor points increase the pressor reflex from the vagus. This is taken to show that strychnine can exercise a stimulating influence on the elements of either pressor or depressor arcs. In particular, since increase in the depressor effect may be caused without rise of blood-pressure or change in the pressor reflexes, it is due to independent increase in the inhibitory phenomenon—not dependent upon an increase in the tone or the field of motor neurons upon which the afferent inhibitory neurons can operate. 13. Dr. F. W. Eprincr-Green, C.B.E.—The Physiological Aspects of the Cause, Prevention, and Cure of Myopia. The eye is similarly placed to the ball of a Higginson syringe. The intra-ocular pressure varies with the arterial pressure. If a finger be placed on the outlet tube of a Higginson syringe when water is being forced in through the inlet, the internal pressure in the ball will be still further increased. -This is exactly what happens to the eye on lifting a heavy weight which is only raised with difficulty. It will be noticed that the veins of the face and neck stand out, thus showing that the return of the blood to the heart is obstructed. If the eyes be able to resist the increased pressure, no harm will result, but if, through weakness of the sclerotic, this stretches under the increased pressure and does not return to its normal shape, myopia will be produced. The direct exciting cause of myopia is, therefore, dilatation of the eyes through intermittent increase of the intra-ocular pressure. Some candidates who, when undergoing the special Board of Trade examination in the vision tests, were found to be myopic, have been put back for six months for further examination instead of being rejected, and have been given careful instructions, with the result that 43 per cent. of those deferred have on re-examination passed, so there is no doubt that the eye possesses the power of returning to the normal, but to what extent remains to be ascertained. AFTERNOON. Sectional excursion to the Anti-Gas School at Tipnor and to the Diving Tender, arranged by the Captain of H.M.S. Excellent. Tuesday, September 1. Morning. 14. Joint Discussion with Section J on The Acquisition of Muscular Skill. Opened by Prof. T. H. Prar. Recent progress in acquiring muscular skill in work and play, and reasons for it. The desirability of recording, describing, and noting skill in a universally accessible language. The uneven rate of progress towards this goal in different skills. The possibility of theoretically predicting new advances in the uses and beauty of bodily activities. The psychology of skill. Muscular skill as a special kind of knowledge. ' Learning skill from descriptions, diagrams, pictures, and the slow-motion cine- matograph. Reasons for success and failure in the pupils may lie in their mental make-up. The possibility of improving methods of illustration and of teaching. The applications of this study to industry. Other speakers: Prof. A. V. Hitz, Mr. E. Farmer, Dr. G. H. Mixes. AFTERNOON. Sectional excursion to the Royal Air Force Base, Calshot. 352 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. SECTION J.—PSYCHOLOGY. (For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the following list of transactions, see page 392.) Thursday, August 27. MornincG. 1. Presidential Address by Prof. C. Spearman, F.R.S., on Some Issues in the Theory of ‘G,’ including the Law of Diminishing Returns. (See page 174.) 2. Miss V. Hazuirr.—sSpecial Abilities in Arts and Science. Note on the Use of Terms.—The term ‘ special ability’ is not meant to imply an innate endowment, or any kind of special psychological process, but a facility developed through special environmental influences and individual interests, acting over a number of years. The terms ‘arts’ and ‘science’ stand for the work involved in preparing for first degrees in the corresponding faculties of the university. The writer makes no assumptions as to any ultimate differences that there may be between science and arts subjects. Tests for the Guidance (as distinct from Selection) of University Students—An account of an experiment to discover tests for the special abilities involved in the work of the arts and the science courses respectively. The experiment was carried out on all students entering Bedford College (Uni- versity of London) in the years 1921-3, and repeated on the first and second group in the subsequent years of the period. Choice of Tests.—This was based on evidence with regard to disabilities of individual students. Description of Tests.—Three for Arts, four for Science, two for ‘ General Ability.’ Results.—The Arts tests are better than the ‘ General’ as a gauge of the students’ success in the Arts Faculty by approximately 25 per cent. The Science tests are better than the “ General’ as a gauge of the students’ success in the Science Faculty by approximately 100 per cent. AFTERNOON. 3. Dr. C. R. McRar.—Some Testing of Physically Defective and of Mentally Defective Children. A.—Mental Tests and Spearman’s Principles of Cognition. Prior to the time of Binet, theory endeavoured to enlighten practice in the field of mental tests and failed. Binet effected an almost complete divorce between practice and current theory, and achieved a phenomenal success. Since then psychologists have been endeavouring, with but little success, to bring about a reconciliation. A possible solution of the problem would appear to be offered in Spearman’s Principles of Cognition, particularly the second and third of the noegenetic principles, as formulated in his book ‘ The Nature of ‘‘ Intelligence ” and the Principles of Cogni- tion,’ pages 63 and 91. For the first time the analysis given herein seems to be sufficiently ultimate. It seems likely, for example, that Ebbinghaus’s Completion Test is a satisfactory mental test not because ‘ intelligence ’ consists in ‘ combination-activity,’ but because the performance of the test is mainly a matter of educing novel correlates. On the basis of these noegenetic principles an a priori analysis was made of the component tests of the Stanford Revision. On these purely theoretical grounds the tests were marked as ‘ satisfactory ’ or as ‘ unsatisfactory.’ A practical measure of the relative value of the tests was then obtained by testing mentally defective and physically defective children. The coefficient of association between the a priori decision and the practical measure was found to be .89. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. 353 It would then seem clear that we have, in these two noegenetic principles of cogni- tion, the most accurate theoretical criterion of the value of mental tests, and the most trustworthy standard according to which new scales of tests may be built. B.—Physical Defect and Mental Efficiency. Tests carried out with children in special schools for the physically defective, and with patients in the Lord Mayor Treloar Hospital at Alton, manifested an appreciable difference of ‘intelligence’ between the two groups of children, and in favour of the Alton children. The difference could not be attributed to social environment and heredity, to educational opportunities, or to the nature of the physical defect. It seems necessary to conclude that physical defect, if widespread and of sufficiently long duration, produces the symptoms of some degree of amentia. This mental inefficiency resulting from physical defect would appear to be appreciably alleviated by exposure to ultra-violet rays. 4, Dr. R. D. Giitesriz.—a Clinical Study of Fatigue. A clinical and laboratory study of twenty-five patients complaining of persistent fatigue or ready fatiguability, infections being excluded. The histories and present _ status revealed emotional disturbance as the other common factor in a very varied _ 7 tater Yes ye as 'S symptomatic setting, ranging from vasomotor disturbance to profound emotional depression. Fatigue complaints sometimes obscured or replaced statements of discouragement and depression which only appeared later, or were elicited by special inquiry. = athe same cases submitted to laboratory tests showed in a majority inadequate postural response of blood-pressure and diminished exercise-tolerance. In a propor- tion of cases only, the blood-pressure was lower and the pulse-rate more rapid at rest than in normals. The red-cell count, hemoglobin and P H of the blood were always within normal limits. The vital capacity was below ‘normal’ in all subjects, and breath-holding time diminished in eighteen. In one third the fall in blood-sugar was abnormally delayed after glucose. The basal metabolic rate was abnormal in six of nine subjects. Visceroptosis occurred in four of fourteen. In two subjects the parasympathetic predominated, and in one the sympathetic was over-active. The irritability to pilocarpin, adrenalin, and atropine was striking, most subjects being abnormally sensitive to one or other of them, and some to all three. Friday, August 28. Morning. 5. Mr. H. Bryns.—The Discrimination of Wool Fabrics by the Sense of Touch. The Psychological aspect of the wool trade, including an unconscious desire on the part of buyers to handle, as well as look at, wool and its fabrics. Softness and elasticity important factors in determining quality and value. Description of Hxperiments.—Subjects : fifty-five wool, top, yarn and piece goods experts; seventy non-trade men and women, mainly teachers. Test cloths: five 1l-0z. 54-inch Botany suitings, each undyed, clear finish and milled finish ; fifteen cloths in all. Object: to define the differences in judgment between members of the trade and the consuming public; to trace also the variations of sectional groups within the main groups. Factors under investigation: smartness of appearance, softness of handle, commercial value. Conclusions.—A striking uniformity between the average judgments of both _ trained and untrained disclosed, especially on ‘softness of handle,’ pointing to a common factor of natural ability capable of development by experience. Results suggested a method of measuring the wool-trade sense of touch. Comparisons of highly sensitive expert touch with the touch of secondary schoolboys on tests lasting _ one and a-half hours under concentrated attention. Importance of ‘ Trade’ opinion and ‘ Decision’ comparable to the ‘sensitivity’ and ‘reliability of judgment’ of psychologists. Practical application. 1925 AA 354 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. 6. Mr. S. J. F. Partporr.—The Cinema in Education. Children were taught by various methods—the cinema, oral lessons, &c.—and they were then asked to write essays on what they had learned. Essays written after the various lessons differ chiefly in (a) the selection and arrange- ment of material, and (b) mode of expression or style. Differences in the actual length of the respective essays are much less marked. This may be due to the child having a normal ‘essay length,’ to which he usually conforms, but it also may be due to the fact that most of the extra details learned from pictorial representations are difficult to put into words, e.g. the subtle character- istics of the human face, &c. Mode of expression was assessed by noting whether statements were particular or general. Cinema lessons inspired essays dealing with the actual details presented, other lessons tended to produce general statements about the subject-matter, and we suggest that there is here evidence of that greater ‘ vividness’ so often claimed for memories of things seen on the screen. The statistical tables are extremely steady. It is clear that factors underlying children’s essays are by no means as fortuitous as their apparent crudeness would lead one to believe. Boys and girls took part in the experiments. It is a well-known fact that there are differences between the sexes in this matter of English composition, and some of those differences come out well in our diagrams, girls, for example, being far more given to particulars than the boys. 7. Dr. S. Dawson.—Some Experiments on Kinaesthetic Memory. AFTERNOON. 8. Mr. A. W. Wotters.—Psychological Unity and Psychological Analysis. 9, Mr. G. D. Morcan.—Notes on a Case of Total Colour-Blindness. 10. Miss HE. A. Atten.—Some Results of an Experimental Research into Character and Temperament. The paper gives the results to date of two years’ work upon temperamental and character traits. The research consisted in giving two tests to each individual : (1) a word-reaction test with an emotion number; (2) a questionnaire. The word-reaction test was treated by a time formula suggested by H. T. Moore and gave two rankings, the first taken from time reaction and the word response, the second from an emotion value given by the subject. : The questionnaire was grouped under categories, ten of which corresponded with the word-reaction test and gave a third ranking. The correlations between these two tests were found, and also those between them and two rankings made by the friends of the individual subjects. The cases were investigated for reliability, breaking up the original tests into odds and evens. From the cases in the reaction and the questionnaire, where the reliability was above -50, the intercorrelations of the ten traits treated in the reaction and the sixteen in the questionnaire have been made. The results of the investigation tend— 1. To confirm Jung’s finding that delayed reaction time discovers conflict of tendencies. 2. To confirm Moore’s suggestion that quickened reaction time gives the leading traits, but only in cases in which the temperament is well marked. 3. The tests fail to give a completely satisfactory objective ground for estimation of temperament, but the correlations between the tests tend to be positive, and suggest a correspondence beyond that due to chance. 4. Detailed examination of the tests reveals something of the complicated nature of the factors determining the correlations between the tests. ee se om SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. co or or Monday, August 31. MorNING. 11. Prof. F. Avetinc.—The Psychology of Conation and Volition. Present state of the psychology of volition and its causes. Necessity of intro- spection in objectively controlled experimental conditions. Distinction between voluntary and involuntary actions and thoughts. Concept of conation, and spon- taneous application of this notion in a teleological view of nature. Since all concepts are derived from experience, the search for conative and volitional relations must be made within consciousness itself. Exclusion of the ‘ sense of effort’ as a basis from which the concept in question is derived. Immediate experience of self (communi- cated to the British Association, Section J, last year) in such a relation. ‘ Conscious- ness of Action’ not an abstract concept, but a concrete experienced relation between self and its goal in process of attainment. General statement of a principle of conation as a tendency to preserve organic integrity. Restatement of the principle as applying on the instinctive level. As outcome of perceptual or conceptual desire. Delay of conation in choice. Values and motives. Interpretation of the phenomenon “consciousness of action’ or alertness as a phenomenon of conation. What, then, is volition ? In certain circumstances it is the condition of a release of conation, and consists in the adoption by, or identification with, the self of the motive or motives for the selection of an alternative. This appears to be what James means by the ‘fiat. The concept of freedom, like all others, derived from experience. Its origin a question for experimental psychology. The experience from which it is derived is the concrete relation self-making motive. 12. Dr. W. Brown.—Suggestion and Personality. AFTERNOON. 13. Joint Discussion with Section L on Recent Investigation wpon Vocational Guidance. (See page 378.) Tuesday, September 1. Mornine. 14. Joint Discussion with Section I on The Acquisition of Muscular Skill. (See page 351.) AFTERNOON. 15. Prof. C. Burt.—The Unstable Child. 16. Dr. R. H. Tuoutess.—The Psychology of Economic Value. The psychological fact generally recognised to underlie the economic fact of an _ article possessing ‘ value’ is that it is the object of ‘ desire.’ More precisely, we must say that it is the object of a persistent seeking reaction (the behaviour tendency whose conscious concomitant is desire). The conditions of formation of market values are obviously highly complex, involving the interaction of many individual and social valuations with conditions ofsupply, &c. This paper will be concerned only with the simpler preliminary problem of the psychological conditions of the resultant price in an isolated exchange. This has been traditionally treated by economists as a very simple psychological problem in which the buyer and seller have each a definite individual valuation of the article exchanged (of which the buyer’s must be the greater), and the price at which the exchange takes place lies between these. Much in this explanation is unacceptable to the psychologist. He cannot admit that the price one is willing to pay for an article is a ‘ measure ’ of desire, for although there are intensive differences between desires, desire is essentially unmeasurable. AA2 356 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J, K. The fixed individual valuation supposed to be operative in individual exchange seems also to be a psychological fiction. A conception of individual valuation consistent with the actual complexity of the psychological relationship between buyer and seller is one which would regard the individual valuations not as a single price at which the individual concerned will be willing to complete his share of the transaction, but as a whole class of possible prices between which the probability of him completing his share of the transaction ranges from zero to one. 17. Mr. H. E. O. James.—Regularity and Rhythmicalness. An attempt was made to investigate the connection between rhythmicalness and regularity, chiefly in regard to temporal regularity in auditory and ‘ motor ’ (muscular) rhythmical series. Controlled irregularities were introduced into otherwise regular series of auditory stimuli producing rhythm, and statements were called for from listeners in regard to the effect of these irregularities upon the rhythmicalness of the series. In the case of motor series a less direct method had to be adopted. The subjects were asked to state which of two consecutive motor series performed by them was the more rhythmical. The temporal irregularity of the recorded movements of the compared series was then measured in order to ascertain whether or not the more rhythmical of the pair of composed series, as stated by the subject, was the less irregular. By such methods it was found in regard to both auditory and motor series that the rhythmicalness of a series varies, on the whole, directly with the temporal regularity of the series. It was possible to show in the case of auditory series that other sorts of regularity are also conditions of rhythmicalness. These various kinds of regularity can be collectively described as ‘regularity of pattern.’ The concept of pattern- dispositions seems useful in accounting for certain phenomena of rhythm, not only phenomena directly related to regularity, but also phenomena of ‘ perseveration ’ and preference. SECTION K.—BOTANY. (For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the following list of transactions, see page 592.) Thursday, August 27. Mornine. 1. Presidential Address by Pror. J. Luoyp Witttams on The Phaeophyceae and their Problems. (See page 182.) 2. Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S.—A Phyletic Grouping of the Filicales. Having made a prolonged study of the Filicales and compared them according to twelve distinct criteria, relating chiefly to the sporophyte, but also in less degree to the gametophyte ; and having checked the results by reference to the observed sequence of related fossils, it is now possible to arrange the class so as to represent what are believed to be their natural affinities. No attempt is made to connect them into a phyletic tree. All that is intended is to place the several families in graphically indicated relations, which express the leading results of comparison. The ferns believed to be the most primitive are placed at the base of the scheme; and suc- cessively those that are more advanced stand higher in the scheme, the succession being from the Simplices to the Gradate and Mixte. To the left are placed those ferns which have, and retain most fully, the marginal position of the sorus, a feature which is characteristic of most relatively primitive types; while those which have a superficial position of their sori are disposed towards the right. Two important lines, the one marginal the other superficial, appear as the modern Schizeacess and the Gleicheniacee. In close relation with the former are the Hymenophyllacee, Loxsomacex, and Dicksoniacez, which are all marginal. With the superficial Gleicheniaces are ranked the Matoniacee and Dipteridaceex, while the SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 357 genera Lophosoria and Metaxya lead on unmistakably to the Cyatheacew, which are also superficial. Between these two main lines may be placed Plagiogyria, which appears as a separate, relatively primitive stock, and finds a natural relation down- wards with the Osmundace, and especially with Todea. The main mass of the Leptosporangiate ferns appear related to these three inter- mediate lines in the following way. They constitute six main sequences, which may be designated after the leading genus of each, viz., the Davallioidee and Pteroidee, which may be linked with the marginal Dicksoniacez; the Gymnogrammoides linked naturally through Llavea and Cryptogramme with Plagiogyria ; the Blechnoidez and Dryopteroidez linked with the superficial Cyatheacez; and lastly, the Dipteroidee, which may be regarded as derivative from some stock of Dipteroid-Matonioid nature. 3. Mr. J. Watton.—Features of Biological Interest in the Foliage of some Paleozoic Plants. A critical examination of fossil Equisetalean foliage of the incrustation-type and a comparison with that of Hquisetum reveals some interesting similarities and differ- ences. The presence of hydathodes in Annularia sphenophylloides, the xeromorphic structure of A. radiata, and the melasmatic (?) tissue in the lamina of A. dubia are some of the features of interest in the group. The peculiarities of some Pterido- sperm foliage are also worthy of attention from the point of view of the information they may give as to environmental conditions. 4, Prof. J. Prinsttry.—Light and Growth. An attempt is made to bring to one common focus the phenomena of etiolation, including the remarkable morphological and structural changes induced by very brief exposures of etiolated plants to light, and the facts of phototropism, as exhibited both in the higher plants and in fungus hyphae. An attempt is made to interpret the phenomena -of phototropism without the employment of the terms ‘ stimulus’ and ‘ response.’ AFTERNOON. Excursion to Eling and Hythe. . Friday, August 28. Mornine. 5. Joint Discussion with Section E on The Evolution and Colonisation of Tidal Lands. (a) Prof. F. W. Ottver, F.R.S. Their great extent; difficulty of definition. The tidal zone a thing apart, having its own physical characteristics, usages, traditions, mentality of inhabitants, &c. The usual plant coverings of accreting and decreting shore lines. Richness of flora in relation to type of shore line. Vegetation, essentially sedentary, here as elsewhere, gives cohesion to and stabilises migrating soils. Its efficiency illustrated by examples of its operations : depots of shingle ; sand dunes; salt marshes and mangrove swamps. Resistance to erosion. Pioneer plants and the successions. Natural and artificial reclamations— Holland and elsewhere. Relation to navigation. Possibilities and limitations in coastal control. (b) Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S. The tidal lands, rendered serviceable and stable by a carpet of vegetation, are due partly to the cutting back of the land by the sea, but mainly to the deposition of sediment in sheltered positions. The main processes are threefold; the formation of a bar which may arise as a deltaic shoal or as a bay-head beach ; the formation of a spit by longshore drift, and sedimentation in the quiet water behind the bar or spit producing estuarian plains with, for a brim, their residual lakes or broads. These / 358 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. processes on the British coast illustrated by the Humber, the Yare, and Chesil beach. The same processes act on a greater scale on continental coasts. Coal formed on tidal lands. Newly formed tidal lands usually more extensive than the areas lost to the sea. E (c) Prof. R. H. Yarr. (d) Dr. VaugHAN CoRNISH. (e) Dr. E. J. Satissury.—The Succession Phenomena of Tidal Lands. The nature of the succession changes and their relation to time and other factors. General conclusions with regard to the succession and their significance with respect to the serial sequence of plant communities in general. (f) General Discussion. 6. Dr. M. Knigur.—A Study of the Life-history and Cytology of certain species of Hctocarpus. The paper deals with certain morphological features of four species of Hctocarpus, and demonstrates the dependence of these features on variable external conditions. The preparatory cytological changes and the relations in time and space governing the production of unilocular and plurilocular sporangia are dealt with, and the fate of released zoospores is indicated. The critical points in the life-history—zeduction division and fusion—are established and the question of alternation of generations for the species is discussed. The results of certain tentative cultural experiments are also included. The latter part of the paper treats of the sexual or asexual nature of the two types of sporangia. 7. Dr. HE. M. Detr.—Sexual Reproduction in the genus Bifurcaria, Stackh. (=Pycnophycus, Kiitz.) There are three species of Bifurcaria (Stackh.), two of which are S. African and one European, the latter occurring as far north as the S.W. coasts of England. These three species have been figured, but little is known of their life-history. Externally very similar, the reproductive organs show well-marked differences, including variation in the number of eggs to the oogonium, in the liberation of the oogonia, and probably also in the germination of the oospore. In P. brassiceformis (Kitz) the oogonia remain attached for some time to the mouth of the conceptacle, in a manner hitherto only described for certain Japanese species of Sargassum and Cystophyllum. Observations are also made on periodicity in the production of fertile shoots in the English species P. tuberculatus (Kiitz). AFTERNOON. 8. Mr. B. Barnes.—A Contribution to the Morphology and Physiology of Acmosporium, Corda and Lachnea, Fries. ee) oe a ee ey Po * ieee It has been shown that a species of Lachnea has a conidial stage which falls into the genus Acmosporium. There is evidence that the appearance in culture of one or other of the stages is in part determined by the composition of the medium, and in part by the amount of light supplied to the culture. An account is given of the morphology of the two forms, with special reference to the development of the conidia and apothecia, and to the mycelial fusions which occur. As both forms have been repeatedly obtained from a single conidium, there is no reason to think that the fungus is heterothallic. 9. Mr. G. Tanpy.—The Cytology of Pyronema domesticum, Sacé. The development of the sexual organs, the entrance of the male nuclei and their subsequent behaviour are described. Evidence is produced of the occurrence of nuclei in pairs at all stages. \ SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 359 In the first meiotic division, seven and fourteen gemini are counted, and in the telophase of the third division, seven chromosomes (the haploid number) are observed ; thus indicating the occurrence of two nuclear fusions in the life-history and the occasional omission of one of them. 10. Miss W. M. Pace.—Contributions to the Study of the Lower Pyrenomycetes. Species of Podospora, Sordaria, and Chetomiwm were grown in culture and fresh material and sections examined. The germination of the spores, development of the mycelium and perithecium initial, and formation of the spores in the ascus are described, together with the growth and heliotropism of the neck with special reference to two-necked forms. 11. Miss E. Green.—Zygorhynchus Meelleri. This fungus was found on soil and cultivated on potato-dextrose agar and other media. ‘The development of the gametangia, the formation of the zygote, and the germination of the zygote and sporangiospore were studied, both in fresh material and in section. 12. Mr. G. B. Wattace.—The Biology of Macrosporium and some Allied Genera. During the year 1924 isolations (single spores) were made of fungi belonging to the genera Macrosporium, Alternaria, and Stemphylium. These were obtained from tomatoes showing rots, except in one case, where a Macrosporium was isolated from Echium vulgare. Several of the forms of Macrosporium and Alternaria isolated exhibit constant differences, by which they may be recognised ; for this reason, and in order that their relationships might be made clearer, each distinct fungus-form was cultured under carefully controlled and reproducible conditions of food and environment. At the same time characters of taxonomic importance have been studied. Named species of each of the three genera were cultured as controls. The subject of saltation was studied, as it was found to occur in representatives of each of the genera studied, and might cause confusion later in diagnoses. 12a. Mr. H. H. Sturcu.—Choreocolax polysiphoniae, Reinsch. Saturday, August 29. Excursion to Petersfield and Ditcham Park. Monday, August 31. Morninea. 13. Dr. A. W. Hitt, F.R.S. — The genus Crantzia, a Study im Geographical Distribution. 14. Miss A. J. Davey.— Seedling Morphology and Anatomy in Juglans spp. Attention is called to certain morphological differences in the form of the plumule. J. regia shows a vertical series of accessory buds above the axil of each cotyledon and the first plumular leaves are of the adult foliage type. J. nigra and J. Hindsii do not produce accessory buds and the plumule bears a series of about eight scale leaves showing transitions to the pinnate foliage leaf. Interest centres in the structure of the vascular strands of these scale leaves in J. nigra. At the node each leaf trace consists of two vascular strands separated by parenchyma in which isolated central protoxylem sometimes occurs. The traces of 360 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. the first two leaves are directly continuous with the intercotyledonary poles of the tetrarch root, but those of the succeeding leaves are not connected with root poles. The occurrence of a ‘double strand’ in epicotyledonary leaves, and more especially in those unrelated to root poles, is of interest in connection with the cases quoted by Dr. Thomas and Prof. Compton, and lends support to the suggestion put forward by Dr. Thomas that ‘ doubleness may be a primitive foliar arrangement.’ 15. Discussion on Adaptive Characters. (a) Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S. At the opening of the discussion it will be well to see clearly what is meant by the words used in its title. The expression ‘adaptive ' is often applied loosely for any character to which a reasonably probable use can be ascribed. Causality in relation to that use is then liable to be assumed, without any evidence being adduced to show that the character actually originated in relation to the conditions which it may effectively meet. To speak thus of a character as adaptive is merely to apply to it a question-begging epithet. Few of those who lightly use the word have ever adduced evidence that the character really is adaptive in the evolutionary sense in any specific case: that is, that the development, individual or racial, originated in accommodation to circumstances. On the other hand, if the character were actually adaptive in this sense, it might be expected that, in the absence of the causal condition, the character should be modified, or even disappear. But it cannot always be presumed that a feature held as adaptive must necessarily disappear: provided that it be not harmful it may persist, even though its primary cause is absent, for it may have passed into the category of inherited characters. Thus we may hold it as possible that fluctuating characters, arising first as consequences of immediate accommodation, may become permanently fixed. The discussion will naturally lead to the question of the in- heritance of characters thus acquired. ‘ It is desirable that the discussion should not be conducted merely along general lines ; but that it should relate first to specific instances, upon which alone any sound conclusions can be based. In the comparative study of ferns, checked by reference to the related fossils, it is believed that evidence has been obtained of the secular inheritance of characters in the first instance acquired and adaptive; and that in the course of evolution, extending from the palsozoic period to the present day, those characters have become permanently fixed. The best instance is in the adoption of a protective superficial position of the sorus, though comparative evidence of ferns, fossil and living, indicates that the distal or marginal position was the original one. Other examples are seen in the adjustment of the vascular tissues in relation to increasing size and in the absence of secondary thickening, so as to maintain a suitable proportion of surface to bulk. Such adjustments have frequently become hereditary. (6) Prof. J. Prirstiry. The fact that the existence of adaptive characters receives a partial explanation upon the hypothesis of natural selection, has led to a much too facile interpretation of structural features of the plant as adaptive. Such an interpretation should always rest upon definite experimental evidence that the structural features concerned per- form the functions assigned to them. The result of such experimental examination has recently been illustrated in the study of various epidermal structures which are interpreted on theoretical grounds as devices for controlling transpiration. Interpretation as an adaptive character still leaves the etructural feature in question open to elucidation upon the lines of causal anatomy. This alternative method of approach is illustrated by a brief examination of the main features of stelar anatomy in the ferns. (c) Dr. D. H. Scorr, F.R.S. The modern reaction against adaptation appears to be due to several causes :— 1. The weakening of the Darwinian position, involving less reliance on Natural — Selection. 2. Distaste for the too facile assumption of hypothetical functions on the part of i some zealous Darwinians. 3. The influence of Mendelism, which has no use for adaptations. -. —= Pa Se ee ee rere SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 361 4. The rise of the mechanical line of investigation, which is concerned only with the becoming of the mechanism, not with its working when in being. Probably the whole controversy is rather a matter of point of view than of any fundamental difference of opinion. That every organism is essentially a mechanism or systems of mechanisms is manifest. There cannot be a mechanism without adaptation, nor can there be physiology without the idea of function. Prof. Priestley is right in insisting on the mechanical side of the question. We want to know both how the mechanism is made and how it works; whether we are dealing with a steam-engine or a living plant. The latter question—the working— is of more general interest, but the scientific value is equal. The physiological study of development is a new departure and has everything still to accomplish. But we also need to make a fresh start with the investigation of function, as is shown, for example, by the doubt recently cast on supposed xerophytic adaptations. Few will be content with the solution ‘ there is no function,’ an assump- tion as facile and perhaps as futile as some of the hypothetical functions imagined by too confident Darwinians of a past period. (d) Mr. G. EK. Briees. (e) General Discussion. AFTERNOON. 16. Rev. Prof. M. C. Porrer.—Temperature Relations in Wound Reactions. Richards investigated the thermal reactions which occur at a wound immediately after it has been made. He detected a rise of "44°C. Stocklasa reinvestigated this problem and found that if the surface of the plant was sterilised before the wound was made no rise of temperature ensued, and that the rise of temperature noted was due to bacterial action. At a recently wounded surface there would be :— 1. A decrease of temperature due to (a) the exposure of moist cells and the con- sequent cooling by evaporation and (b) energy being rendered potential in the block- ing substance, assuming that its formation is an endothermic reaction. 2. An increase of temperature due (a) to accelerated respiration and (b) to bacterial action. The suggestion is made that in the healing of wounded tissues the rise of tem- perature due to increased respiration is more than counterbalanced by the loss of heat under (1), and normally a fall of temperature and not a rise would thus take place. Any rise of temperature such as has been noted would be due to extraneous circumstances such as bacterial action. 17. Dr. J. Larrer.—The Pollen Development of Lathyrus odoratus. A special study of the nucleolus of the pollen mother-cells has revealed the presence of certain nucleolar inclusions which may have an important bearing on the function of this structure. Throughout the early prophase stages, the thickening spireme is attached to a dark-staining body in the nucleolus. This association strongly suggests transference of chromatin from the nucleolus to the thread. In the ‘ brochonema ’ stage, evidence is found for a possible physical basis of ‘ crossing over’ in a form in which the method of chromosome pairing is essentially telosynaptic, and in which the phenomenon of ‘ crossing over’ is well known genetically. The heterotypic spindle appears to be of intranuclear origin. Pollen-tetrad wall formation is brought about by furrowing, the pollen mother-cell being surrounded by a special thickened wall, the nature of which is not known. 18. Mr. T. J. Jenxin. — The Artificial Production of Inter-Generic Hybrids in Grasses. The paper is mainly concerned with the following crosses :— 1. Lolium perenne with Festuca rubra. 2. Loliwm perenne with Festuca elatior var. arundinacea. 3. Lolium perenne with Festuca elatior var. pratensis. F, progeny have been obtained in each of these. 362 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. The hybrids between L. perenne and F. rubra have so far proved to be completely sterile, but an extremely low degree of fertility has been found in hybrids from other crosses. It has thus been possible to raise a very small number of second generation lants. Other intergeneric crosses have been attempted, but so far unsuccessfully. Two types of interspecific crosses which have been made are of special interest and will be referred to. These are :— Phalaris arundinacea with Phalaris bulbosa. Festuca rubra with Festuca elatior var. arundinacea. The hybrids between F. rubra and F.. arundinacea are distinctly weaker than those between fF. rubra and Lolium perenne. 19. Dr. Macerecor Sxenr.—The Supply of Iron in Nutrient Solutions. The successful use of Van der Crone’s nutrient solution for water cultures of oats, and the divergent results obtained by other investigators, led to work on the factors concerned in iron supply. It was found that chlorophyll formation was best in plants to which iron was supplied as citrate ; chloride was less efficient and phosphate least so. The difference was, however, only marked in the early stages of growth. Dry weight was equal in the citrate and chloride plants and lower in those supplied with phosphate. Differences in the solubilities of the three salts do not explain the results. Absorption by the cell wall and the presence of insoluble compounds in contact with the roots are of importance in maintaining the iron supply. 20. Mr. J. C. Watter.—The use of the Katharometer in Studying the Output and Intake of CO, by Leaves. 21. Lecture by Dr. D. H. Scorr, F.R.S., on The Transformations of the Plant World in Geological Time. Tuesday, September 1. Mornine. 22. Discussion on Deviations from the Normal Course of Seaual Reproduction in Plants. (a) Prof. Dame Heten Gwynne-Vavueuan, D.B.E. Conjugation among the lower thallophyta is associated with the formation of a resting cell; among higher plants, in which greater facilities exist for food storage, conjugation ceases to be of value as a means of increasing the food supply, and its chief significance, apart from possible stimulus to development, seems to lie in the opportunities of variation entailed by the association of two unlike sets of chromosomes and their subsequent distribution in meiosis to form new combinations of paternal and maternal elements. Where the organism is not completely adapted to its environ- ment, or where the environment is changing, this may be of special significance, but is ineffective without frequent exogamy. Deviations from the normal course of sexual reproduction in plants appear to be associated in very many cases with the abandonment of exogamy, and often with the disappearance of motile cells. Meiosis may persist, however, after conjugation has ceased to occur, and the latter is then replaced by the fusion of two female nuclei, a female and a vegetative nucleus, — or two vegetative nuclei. Such fusions may be delayed, even though nuclear — association has taken place, until just before meiosis. The diploid nuclear content is not essential to the formation of the sporophyte, anda true parthenogensis or euapogamy may occur in forms with well-marked alternation of generations. Similarly, diploid gametophytes have been recorded. Polyploidy may in certain cases be associated with the occurrence of such forms. Where the gametophyte is the main phase in the life-history, the suppression of — conjugation may be followed by the disappearance of the sexual phase and of the sporophyte ; where the sporophyte is the dominant phase, it may persist by means of budding. > Lata SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 363 (o) Dr. K. BuackBurn.—Apogamy in the Angiosperms. Although cross- or self-fertilisation is normal in flowering plants, many forms are known in which seeds are produced without the aid of fertilisation. This apomixis may be by apogamous development of an embryo from any cell of a haploid gametophyte (haploid apogamy), by similar formation from a cell of a diploid embryo-sac (diploid apogamy), or by vegetative budding from the nucellus or integument. There are no uncontested records of the first type in Angiosperms, but many cases are described in which the omission of the reduction division (apospory) accompanies apogamy ; nucellar budding may also be present in the same ovule and will be con- sidered here as if included in diploid apogamy. Apogamy tends to occur in polymorphic genera, and is frequently accompanied by , polyploidy and pollen sterility. Cytological evidence suggests that in Rosa, Hieraciwm, &c., apogamous forms have been produced by crossing. Having once arisen these new forms would persist because of their apogamy. A further increase of the polymorphism of the genus can take place when these forms have some ovules capable of fertilisation or fertile pollen. Again bud-sports producing seed may have a similar effect. Some segregation has been observed in apogamously produced seedlings in roses and other plants; this is easily explicable if meiosis has taken place but otherwise difficult to account for. (c) Dr. M. Kyiaut.—A pogamy in the Alge. 1. What is the normal course of sexual reproduction in the Algz ? Estimate of the proportionate number of Algz in which sexual reproduction is :— (a) Obligate. (b) Facultative. (c) Not yet determined. 2. The inter-relation of sexual behaviour with variations in the environment. The conditions leading to parthenogenesis. 3. The position of meiosis in the life-cycle of the Alge and its significance. 4, General statement on the lack of precision characterising the relationship between cytological state and nature of reproductive cells in the Alge. (d) General Discussion. 22a. Mr. J. H. Parxer.—The Inheritance of Winter and Spring Types in Barley. 23. Prof. J. McLean THompson.—Some General Problems of the Anguo- spermic Flower. The plasticity of the angiospermic flower in species of varied affinity is con- sidered. Some general problems on the evolution and meaning of modern floral types, which these variations raise, are discussed. 24. Mr. T. A. Spracue.—The Relative Specific Predominance of Phanerogamic Families in the Floras of the World. Results of floristic analyses of 75 Phanerogamic Floras are given. Each table has the Families arranged according to the numbers of their species in that Flora. Composite, Leguminose, Graminee and Cyperacee are high in most Floras. Certain sets of other Families, termed ‘Indicator Families,’ are high only in particular types of Flora. Four main types are recognised. 1. Humid Tropical: Orchidacee, Rubiacee and Huphorbiacew comprising 10-28 per cent. of the total species, and included in the first 3-10 Families. Dry Tropical Floras constitute a less uniform sub-type, and are regarded as derivative. 2. North Temperate (incl. Arctic and Subantarctic): Ranwnculacee, Rosacee, Oruciferce, Cargophyllacee and Umbellifere forming 12-25 per cent., and in the first 9-19 Families. 364 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 3. Australian: Myrtaceew, Proteaceew, Goodeniacee, Chenopodiacee, Epacridacee and Rutacee forming 11-32 per cent., and in the first 14-17 Families. 4. South African: Iridacew, Ficoidacee, Hricacee, Crassulacew, Geraniacee and Rutacee forming 15-20 per cent., and in the first 18-20 Families. The analyses serve to check Floral Regions based*on other criteria. They are consistent with the hypothesis of a former wider distribution of Families, under relatively uniform genial climatic conditions, with subsequent climatic and floristic segregation. AFTERNOON. Excursion to Hurst Castle. Wednesday, September 2. Mornine. 25. Dr. W. L. Batts, F.R.S., and Mr. H. A. Hancock. — Problems presented by the Growth of Seed-hairs. The seed hairs of cotton show various structural peculiarities, which are evidently impressed during the growth of the hair in length. They show no signs of ordinary environmental control, nor are there any genetic differences from one cotton to another. The material is inconvenient for growth studies, but otherwise almost ideal for the recognition of cell individuality in a large homogeneous population of single cells. 26. Mr. and Mrs. H. Hamsnoaw Tuoomas.—On the Ancestry of the Caytoniales. Assuming that the Sagenopteris type of leaf belonged to the plants whose repro- ductive structures are characteristic of the group Caytoniales, and that the structures — known suggest deviation from Pteridosperm ancestors, we may inquire whether such ~ ancestors can be found among Paleozoic plants. In leaf-form Sagenopteris closely resembles the Glossopteris alliance, among which there are several little-known but very interesting leaf-types. The reproductive structures of Glossopteris are still un- — known. The sporangium-like organs found in association with it have been ~ re-investigated and prove to be more like ramental scales than sporangia. At the same time, seeds and winged pollen grains closely similar to those of the Caytoniales — have been found associated with Glossopteris in some fine-grained shales from Natal. — It is probable that Glossopteris was a Pteridosperm, and it is possible that from this — stock the Caytoniales and also the flowering plants have been derived. ; 27. Mr. J. Line.—Soluble Aluminium in Relation to Plant Growth in Culture Solutions and in Acid Soils. 1. The evidence on which the ‘ toxic aluminium ’ theory of acid soils is based. 2. The conditions under which aluminium is precipitated as hydroxide and as phosphate. 3. The addition of aluminium salts to culture solutions ; interaction of plant and such culture solutions. 4. Amounts of soluble aluminium found in acid soils, and the growth of plants in soils so treated. Tee ce 28. Prof. A. H. R. Buttur.—The Phenomenon of Puffing in Sarcoscypha protracta and other Discomycetes. : 29. Mr. N. J. G. Smiru.—The Life-history of some Parasitic Species of . . 1 Helminthosporium. : 4 H. gramineum, which causes leaf-stripe disease of barley, has hitherto been con- sidered to inhabit the growing-point of the host, and thence to infect all the young parts of the plant as they are formed. It is now shown that each leaf is infected from _ SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 365 the leaf or sheath which enclosed it in its younger stages and that if the growing-point of the plant is reached the result is the death of the plant. This disease resembles those caused by H. teres and H. avene more than it resembles smut diseases, and many of the phases of the three Helminthosporiwm diseases can be brought into alignment. H. sativum must now be added to these three as a fourth species parasitising British cereals. Some interesting features of culture work on these organisms, and additions to the knowledge of the conidial, pycnidial, and perithecial forms of fructification will be described. 30. Miss I. Maxweti.—The Distribution and Specialisation of Black Rust in Scotland. The object of this research is to determine whether the specialisation of Puccinia graminis is the same as that recorded for England, and in particular to find out if the strain on the common couch (Agropyron repens) can infect the oat. Infected couch and oat were found growing together and varying in degree of infection in inverse ratio to their distance from the diseased barberry. Either the two strains are identical or the barberry must have carried a double infection. Oats and couch are being grown to try the infection from ecidia produced on barberries which were infected with teleutospores from oat and couch respectively. 31. Miss A. V. Hay.—The Morphology and Anatomy of Juvenile and Adult Leaves of the New Zealand varieties of Sophora tetraptera (J. Mull). A brief account is given of the phenomenon of youth and adult stages common in plants of the New Zealand flora with special reference to those exhibiting the divaricating juvenile growth form, and, in particular, to the varieties of Sophora tetraptera (J. Mull). : The different growth phases of the latter may be set out as follows :—Var. micro- _ phyla (Hook, f.), seedling, juvenile (divaricating shrub), adult (tree); var. grandiflora - (Hook, f.), seedling, adult (tree); var. prostrata (Kirk), seedling, adult (divaricating shrub). : The morphological and anatomical features of the leaves of the different growth _ stages of the varieties microphylla and prostrata are described and discussed in the light of the generally accepted theories of youth and adult forms, and also in relation to _ Cockayne’s theory explaining the phenomenon in the N.Z. varieties of S. ietraptera. : B32. Miss E. D. Braty.—Physiological Zygomorphy in Certain Seedlings. : Working with hypocotyls, it has been found that some react to gravity more readily, when stimulated in the cotyledonary plane, than the intercotyledonary. ; This phenomenon is strikingly shown in seedlings of Lupinus sp., in which the presentation time for the intercotyledonary plane is as much as four times as great as the presentation time for the cotyledonary plane. The latent time is slightly longer in seedlings stimulated in the intercotyledonary plane. Thelarge difference in _ the presentation time indicates that it is the perception of the stimulus, rather than _ the response, which is influenced by the plane in which the hypocotyl is stimulated. 3 Attempts have been made to see how far any correspondence can be traced between _ this eo and the light relations, or with the internal structure, of the various see gs z SUB-SECTION K.—FORESTRY. Thursday, August 27. Morninc. 1. Presidential Address to Section K by Prof. J. Luoyp WILtiaMs on The Phaeophyceae and their Problems. 366 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 2. Mr. Fraser Srory.—Economic Advantages of a Periodical Census of Woodlands. In spite of the extensive use of substitutes the demand for timber increases year by year, and it is now recognised that this country should become less dependent than hitherto on foreign supplies. It is essential, therefore, that a stocktaking of British forest resources should be undertaken periodically. Information of a statistical character was lacking when the Forestry Commission was established in 1919, but considerable attention has been given to the subject since that year. Bulletins have been published on the rate of growth of the principal forest trees, and two inquiries are nearing completion, viz. a census of woodlands and a census showing the quantity and value of home-grown timber used. These inquiries, when complete, should enable us to see how Britain stands as compared with other countries in respect of total area of woodlands, the proportion imported timber bears to the amount produced at home, the distribution of woods throughout the country, and the character and composition of the woods. 3. Mr. ALEXANDER Howarp.—Present and Future Supplies of Timber. AFTERNOON. Visit to the wharves, timber yards, and mills of Messrs. W. W. Howard Bros. & Co., Northam, Southampton. Friday, August 28. Mornine. 4, Dr. M. Witson.—Some Seedling Diseases of Conifers and their Control. There is very considerable loss of seedlings and young plants in forest nurseries as the result of fungal attack, and experiments are being carried out in order to dis- cover the best methods of treatment for the prevention of these diseases. ‘Damping off’ caused by Rhizoctonia sp. and Fusarium sp. frequently occurs in young seedlings, especially in the case of Douglas fir, and has also been met with in Scots pine, larch, and Sitka spruce. Treatment with ‘ Cheshunt Compound ’ has been found of value. Botrytis cinerea causes considerable damage especially to Douglas fir, and is also found on Sitka spruce, larch, and other species. Treatment with ‘Cheshunt Com- pound ’ has been found to be effective. Meria laricis caused considerable damage on European larch during the summer of 1924, and is still more abundant during the present season. It appears to be spreading rapidly. The disease attacks both seedlings and transplants; Japanese larch and the Dunkeld hybrid larch appear to be immune. Treatment with various sprays is being carried out. Keithia thujina has been found attacking Thuja, especially in the west of England and Scotland. Lophodermium Pinastri on Pinus spp. and L. Abietis on Norway and Sitka spruce § Coleosporium senecionis was particularly abundant on Corsican pine during the early summer of 1925. It was also found on Scots pine. The oak mildew is widespread and seriously weakens oak seedlings. It has also ~ been found on beech seedlings. Treatment with ammonium polysulphide and lime sulphur is being carried out. Phomopsis Pseudotsuge has been found attacking Douglas fir in several nurseries. — 5 ‘ cause considerable damage. . 2 # 2 $ Phoma dura has also been found on Douglas fir. Z'helephora laciniata has been found — in several nurseries growing over the soil surface and damaging seedlings. ‘Stem girdle’ disease has been found on Douglas fir, Scots pine, and larch. This _ does not appear to be the result of fungal attack. ; 5. Mrs. N. L. Aucocr.—Successional Disease of Willow. é Willow scab, Fusicladium saliciperdum, Tubeuf., causesa die-back in first year wood, : forming pustules analogous to those in which the fungus of apple scab over-winters. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 357 Cryptomyces maximus, Rehm. This fungus disease is characterised by long raised blister-like patches, black with lobed edges, and the lesions form a means of entry for the semi-parasite. Scleroderris fuliginosa, Karst., which appears frequently round the edge of the scars formed by the Cryptomyces, forming an aggregate of fructifications in size, colour, and shape not unlike rape seed. Apparently this is not a primary parasite, but let in by other fungi, does harm. : Myzxosporium scutellatum (Otth) Petrak., on willow twigs killed or injured by any of the above, or other fungi, forms numerous minute greyish fructifications, saucer- shaped. This appears to be practically a saprophyte. 6. Miss M. J. F. Witson.—Rhabdocline Pseudotsuge Syd., a hitherto unrecorded Disease of Douglas Fir in Britain. This disease first occurred in the south of Scotland about 1920, and appears to have been introduced from N.W. America, where it has been causing defoliation of the Douglas fir since 1911. Up to the present time only the blue Douglas has been attacked in this country, but infection experiments are being conducted in order to ascertain whether the green Douglas isimmune. The parasite is Rhabdocline Pseudotsuge, Syd., a new genus and species of the Phacidiacez, named and described by Sydow in 1922. Asci are produced in May, the ascospores being at first unicellular, later bicellular, some even dividing to three or four cells. Finally one cell becomes dark coloured and produces a germ tube, the others remain hyaline and do not germinate. 7. Mr. J. 8. L. Warvie.—Rhizosphera Sp. causing Leaf Fall among Conifers. Rhizosphera Kalkhoffiti, Bubak, has been found frequently on the glaucous varieties of Picea pungens, which are often grown in this country as ornamental trees. Large numbers are imported from the Continent, and since the fungus is known to be wide- spread in Central Europe, it is probable that the disease has been imported on _ P. pungens. ; The disease causes the needles to become pale in colour and take on a purplish- brown tint, followed by defoliation. The small black fructifications are developed : on the surface of the needle, immediately above the stomata, completely blocking the latter. Numerous minute spores are formed in the fructifications and these : spread the disease. : Rhizosphera sp. has also been found on other species of the spruce, including _ P. Sitchensis and P. excelsa, as well as on Abies pectinata and Pseudotsuge Douglasii. The fungus has been found on trees up to fifteen years old, and there is a danger that _ it may cause defoliation on these important forest trees. | 8. Dr. J. W. Munro.—Recent Work on the Cockchafer. 9. Mr. W. E. Hitey.—Respective Advantages and Disadvantages of Long and Short Rotations. Detailed calculations have been made for European larch to show how much loss is likely to be incurred by prolonging rotations beyond the financial optimum in order that the costs of the silviculturists’ demands may be assessed. The following results _have been given by calculations from a yield table constructed to represent average conditions of growth and market for second quality larch. (1) Plantations may yield 6 per cent. compound interest on a 35-year rotation ; and 5 per cent. on a 70-year rotation, notwithstanding the fact that the sale value of an final crop at 35 years is estimated at £88, and at 70 years £220 per acre. If £30 less than the amount stated were obtained at the thirty-fifth year, the financial yield _ would still be 5 per cent. on the shorter rotation. These rates of interest are very nearly free of income tax. (2) The mean gross income is about £3 13s. per acre per annum on the 30-year rotation and £4 12s. on the 70-year rotation. 1 (3) The mean annual expenditure (exclusive of felling), nearly all of which repre- ora wages, is about 17s, 9d, per acre for a 30-year rotation and 15s. for a 70-year - rotation. 368 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. Thus, although the short rotation yields a smaller net income than the long rotation, this is more than compensated for by the smaller capital involved ; and the annual sum paid in wages is greater on the short than the long rotation. AFTERNOON. 10. The Rt. Hon. Lorp Lovat, K.T.—Review of the Forestry Commis- sioners’ Work and certain Problems to be faced in the near future. The ten-year programme laid down by the Acland Report, and embodied in the 1919 Forestry Act, includes the planting of 150,000 acres by the State, the acquisition of 432,000 acres of afforestable land, the reafforestation of 101,000 acres by local authorities and private individuals, as well as a programme of Research, Education, Publications, and Grants to Corporate Bodies and Private Landowners. A review of the first five years’ work of the Commission shows that this programme can be and, provided there is no further interference, will be carried out for the sum voted by Parliament under the 1919 Forestry Act. The Acland Report did not include the taking over of the Crown woods or the financing of a small holders’ policy in connection with State forests, and an additional grant will be necessary for carrying out a portion of the small holders’ policy authorised by the Labour Government of 1924, and confirmed by the present Govern- ment in 1925. As yet no programme has been laid down for the second ten-year or any subsequent period. Preparations for a planting programme take three years to materialise, and it will be necessary in the next financial year (1926-27) to ask Parliament to consider and come to a decision on what lines the second ten-years’ programme is to run. Eight years ago it was argued that it was necessary to increase the supply of home-grown timber :— 1. To prevent a shortage of timber in time of war or during a period of strained relations—commercial or otherwise—with timber-producing countries. 2. To provide a reserve against the time when the exhaustion of the virgin forests of the world began to be acutely felt. 3. To increase the employment and permanent settlement of the population of rural areas. ; The Forestry Commission believed that to arrive at a considered opinion on the first of these points it was necessary to settle definitely what the home timber resources really amounted to. A census of woodlands was begun in 1920, which will be completed in the course of the year 1926, and for the first time in history a ; complete survey of the woodlands of Britain will be available. A second survey which the Forestry Commission has begun is the collection and co-ordination of statistics of the World’s Coniferous Timber Supply, more especially those of the great exporting countries. Two Empire Forestry Conferences have been held, at both of which resolutions were passed on the importance of accurate surveys of Empire timber resources. These resolutions have been adopted by the Imperial Economic Conference. This survey is being made by the Dominions and non-self- governing Colonies, and it is being carried out on the same lines, and all results will be directly comparable. The Forest Products Laboratory will examine the more important species, so that it will be possible to estimate the potential resources of the Empire in a way never before possible. Forestry offers a new vista for a small holdings’ policy : it gives, on the one hand, permanent and skilled workers to an industry which requires it, and on the other hand it gives an opportunity for earning fair wages under conditions of existence very much more favourable to wage earners than can be obtained in towns; it works in with small holdings agricultural work better than any other industry; labour is employed in the woods in the winter months when the small holder has less to do on his holding, and in the summer months the forest nurseries provide light work for women and children. The Forestry Commission is creating small holdings at the rate of 150 a year, and it will improve on that figure as time goes on. Care will be exercised to ensure that continuity of employment will be maintained from the planting period and on through the thinning period and up to the final felling. In the Forest of Tintern, one of the few State forests in Britain working under a regular forest rotation with approximately evenly distributed age classes, the number of employees is just one man per fifty acres. There is every hope that as rural industries" AR Ruthetve these Pew tn Bip atone N24. sala SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 369 grow, in the case of this and other large forests, that the figure of one man to twenty- five acres may eventually be reached. Part II of the address was directed to the question of how the scenic grandeur and especially the beauty spots of the New Forest, now under the management of the Forestry Commissioners, can best be preserved for all time. 11. Sir Jon Srietinc Maxwett, Bart.—The Use of Manures in Peat : Planting. Practical experiments extending over twenty years have been carried out at Corrour. The valley runs east and west. Its floor is 1270 ft. above sea level. Rain- fall, seventy-seven inches. Geological formation varies from quartz-mica-schist to _ micaceous gneiss and granite. The notes refer to the two latter rocks where the glacial drift underlying the peat is of very poor quality. The depth and quality of the peat vary much and rapidly. The best quality is marked by a strong growth of Molinia cerulea, and a few better grasses with scabious and buttercups, and strong healthy tufts of ling and bog myrtle if these are present. The worst quality bears scirpus sedge and the cross-leaved heath. The medium quality is characterised by stunted growth of heather and certain bog plants such as butterwort and bog asphodel. All types must be drained. The experiments consisted in the addition of two small handfuls of mineral matter, of which one-eighth part was basic slag, the other seven parts being sand or gravel from the nearest available source. The experiments were _ of two kinds :—(1) The application of the minerals round the roots at the time of _ planting or immediately afterwards, and (2) the top dressing of plantations some years : after planting. It has been applied to Scots pine, Norway spruce and Abies nobilis ; all these species respond. The species most difficult to establish on peat are the spruces. They are liable to suffer a severe and prolonged check before becoming properly established when planted in the ordinary way. With the addition of manure the check stage is eliminated on the better type of peat, on the worse types the check occurs when the manure is exhausted unless by that time the plantation has closed up and killed out the surface vegetation. The quantity of mineral and slag supplied at the time of planting is regulated by the amount per tree and not the amount per acre. If each tree receives two ounces of slag the total quantity required per acre will naturally vary with the planting distance. Photographs and actual specimens of trees were shown to illustrate the difference between treated and non-treated plantations. The plants from the untreated _ plantation showed a maximum growth of 10 ft. in height, with a girth at breast height of 53 in. The smallest plants, though twenty-one years old and still alive, were scarcely larger than when they were planted. The treated plantation, though two years younger, showed a height growth of 26 ft., with a girth at breast height of 12 in. The smallest plants showed a height growth of 5 ft., but they were relatively few in number. The soil and elevation in both plantations were similar. There are two planting stations at Corrour, that already referred to and a lower one seven miles distant and 500 ft. nearer sea level. Here the pines and larches grow far more rapidly than in the higher plantations. Not so the spruces planted in peat. The same ‘methods of planting have been followed in both cases, but in the lower group no manures have been added, and the plantations of spruce on peat made before the War are still hovering between life and death. The use of slag as a top dressing in the case of plantations in a chronic check stage was equally striking. 12. Mr. A. C. Forses.—Peat Problems in connexion. with Afforestation. i) Peat covers so large a proportion of the high-lying and poorer soils of the British Isles that one might imagine that little remains to be said either as to its distribution or nature. It is generally recognised that many different causes may have been _ responsible for its origin, but it is not so clearly brought out that a vast difference exists in the productive capacity of peat due to climatic causea, and that of peat due to edaphic or local soil conditions. 7 Climatic peat may be as plentiful in Northern and Western Europe as in the British Isles, but the particular form of it usually known as ‘ mountain peat’ has a _ relatively poor representation outside ScotJand, Ireland, and the North of England, and its influence upon afforestation is correspondingly small. In the British Isles, i ~ 1925 BB 370 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. on the other hand, mountain peat is the prevailing type on most of what is usually known as waste land. Probably the soundest form of afforestation on mountain peat is that determined - by local climatic conditions in the first instance, for unless these are satisfactory no appreciable results can be obtained. When these have been sufficiently studied, the character of the peat and the kind of treatment required to bring it into a productive condition is a matter for local investigation. The belief that mountain land can be safely planted up to 1000, 1200 or 1500 feet as the case may be will not stand the test of experience, and until we know more about our mountain climates it is advisable to proceed with extreme caution in planting them. So far as available evidence goes it would appear that the afforestation of low- lying heaths and well-drained marsh bogs leads on the whole to satisfactory results, timber crops being produced which can pay for the cost of production. The afforest- ation of mountain peat and sphagnum bogs has rarely, if ever, produced material worthy of the name of timber, while the cost has in all cases been great. The work of planting the latter cannot altogether be condemned on financial ground alone, but it is possible that much better results would be obtained if the material being operated upon were more clearly understood in its chemical and biological aspects, and to this end careful research is necessary. 13. Dr. H. M. Sreven.—The Peat Problem in Forestry. Saturday, August 29. Excursion with Section K. Sunday, August 30. Excursion to the New Forest. Monday, August 31. Morninec. 14, Mr. T. Taomson.—The Influence of Weather Conditions on the Growth — in Diameter of Trees. 15. Prof. R. 8. Trourp.—The Management of British Woodlands. In British estate forestry too much stress has been laid on the arboricultural side of the work to the detriment of its economic side. In many instances forest operations have been carried out in a haphazard manner, correct principles of management being ignored. There is need for more efficient management of British woodlands, and it is suggested that this can best be effected by the agency of whole-time forest managers with a complete training in forestry and a knowledge of Continental methods. The cost involved should be more than compensated by the increased returns obtained by economic systems of management. 16, Mr. R. S. Pearson.—The Functions of a Forest Products Laboratory. — AFTERNOON. 4 Excursion to the home-grown timber yard of Mr. Moody, at Durley. : Tuesday, September 1. ‘ MorninG. 4 17. Major T F. Curpp.—Arboretums : (a) Historical, (b) Various Types of Arboretums, (c) Examples of Scientific and Economie Work carri on by means of Arboretums. (1) Definition and concept. (2) Historical Review. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K, L. 371 i. The British Isles, Turner’s list, Gerard’s list, Parkinson, Tradescant, Botanic Gardens, Compton’s arboretum and introductions generally. ii. The chief sources of introductions to the British Isles. li. Overseas arboretums, St. Vincent, Calcutta, Ceylon, Penang, Singapore, the Arnold Arboretum. iv. Summary of historical sketch. (3) Types of Arboretums. (4) Practical Results attained. I. As trial grounds. i. Financial aspect. ii. Influence of climate on introductions. iii. Planting. iv. Pruning. : v. Soil and drainage. vi. Propagation. vii. Atmospheric pollution. viii. Trial of new hydrids. : ix, Specific instances of trials carried out in the British Isles—conifiers—cricket- bat willow—cascara tree—larch. x. Specific instances of introductions through overseas arboretums—Ottawa— Natal—Camphor—Cinchona—Para Rubber—Chaulmoogra Oil—Prof. Troup’s remarks—Trinidad Arboretum. xi. Summary, as trial grounds. Ii. As a living reference museum—specific instances of reference—the compila- tion of works of reference. III. As a research station—pathological work. i. Insect pests on oaks, pines, spruce, birch — Dr. Munro’s reference — Mr. Chrystal’s work. : ii. Fungus diseases—material supplied for experiments—observations on silver leaf. (5) Aesthetic value. . (6) Concept and summary. 18. Mr. N. Curysran.—The Silver Fir Chermes. : SECTION L.—EDUCATION. : (For reference to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the © following list of transactions, see page 393.) A Thursday, August 27. Morninc. , 1. Discussion on The Training of Teachers. Speakers: Dr. Ernest Barker, Mr. F. B. Maui, Miss F. Hawrtrey, Miss E. R. Conway, Dr. M. W. Keatinesr, Mr. E. R. THOMAS. Dr. Ernest Barxer.—The Training of Teachers and the Universities. 1. Should all teachers, in all recognised schools, be university graduates ? The volume of work which this would entail for universities might be overwhelming ; and on the other hand the graduate—more especially the graduate in honours, who has taken a specialised course—might not be best suited to younger children. 2. It is, however, to be desired that, even if all teachers are not graduates, the universities should more and more produce a supply of teachers who have taken a three years’ academic course and a fourth year of professional training not only for BB2 372 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. secondary schools but also for ‘ central’ schools, and generally for schools in which children over the age of 11 are being taught, especially if, as is very possible, a policy of transference of children at the age of 11 from the ‘junior’ elementary school to some place of ‘ post-primary ’ instruction should be adopted. 3. Further, the university should enter into close relations with training colleges in which intending teachers are prepared for certification by a two years’ course. The university might accordingly develop one-year courses (leading to a Diploma) in subjects such as English, History, Geography or Biology, which might be taken by students from training colleges, who would attend for a third year. It might also, through its professor of Education, act as a nucleus or centre for all training of teachers within its area; and in this connexion it might aid in the examination of students in training colleges, developing a form of examination (which the Board of Education, under suitable conditions, might recognise as exempting from its Certificate Examination), in which university teachers and teachers in training colleges might be jointly associated. Mr. F. B. Maio. Few headmasters of public schools make it a condition in appointing a man to their staff that he should have undergone professional training. The most cogent reason—the personality of the teacher is more valuable than his scholarship, his method, or his equipment. Studying methods of education while reading for ‘ finals’ at the University is not compatible with success in either. Post-graduate training is a disadvantage in the market since some schools would always take the untrained man if he possesses high academic honours; the extra year and cost in competition with the offer of openings in business with the prospect of much larger financial rewards would accentuate the present tendency for the ablest men to seek administrative or commercial posts. Training sometimes induces too much teaching. The solid work of learning must be done by the pupil himself. Boys must be accustomed to feed themselves, en- couraged to rely upon themselves, to think for themselves, to work for themselves. It is doubtful whether training under present conditions helps towards this goal. There is an element of soundness in the ‘ heuristic ’ method—boys should be thinking and seeking for themselves, not simply absorbing what is told them by authority. Actual training in method should be the business of the school, but teachers should know something of the history of educational practice, educational theory, and the elements of psychology. If an examination on the last two subjects at the end of the second year of actual teaching experience and the successful candidate thereby — qualifies for registration by the Teachers’ Registration Council, he would approach — the theories of writers on education with greater appreciation and in a more critical spirit. Several active-minded young men reading seriously for such an examination, ~ and employing the results of their reading in criticising the curriculum and aims of ~ the school in which they are serving, might provide a very bracing atmosphere for their senior colleagues and for their headmaster. Miss F. HawtTReEY. There are two types of teachers to be considered : those who are primarily interested in their subject and those who are primarily interested in children. The best prepara- tion for the former is probably a three years’ degree course followed by a year’s vocational education. For the latter, an alternative course might be planned on the following lines :— 1. A general Secondary School education up to 18. Entrance to College by an examination of matriculation standard. 2. A two years’ course of vocational education which should include : (a) the study of those subjects which constitute the essential elements of a child’s education ; ’ (b) the study of hygiene, psychology and social history (showing the connection between the school and other agencies for child welfare) ; (c) some practical teaching under supervision. This course should be recog- nised as of matriculation standard, and those completing this stage shoulc be allowed to teach on the same basis as the present Trained Certificatec Teachers. eT eee ee SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. 373 3. Teachers wishing to go further should, after teaching for not less than two or more than four years, be allowed to return for a third year’s study under the same conditions as those now provided by the Diploma Courses of London University. 4. Those teachers who after another period of teaching return for a fourth year study (which should include some work in psychology based on school experi- ence) should be granted a degree in education on satisfactorily completing the course. The advantages of this course are not only that it provides for those teachers who are primarily interested in children, but that it guards against the exhaustion of that interest by arranging for the degree to be taken in stages, thus preserving for teachers the impetus to learn. On the practical side such a degree course has the further advantages that there would be no sudden influx of graduates of one type such as the Universities dread, nor would there be any sudden increase of expenditure. The recommendations of the Departmental Committee on the Training of Teachers as to a closer connexion between Universities and Training Colleges, open the way to such a development. Should Training Colleges eventually become Schools of the University, teachers both for primary and secondary schools would be brought together for their vocational education. Miss E. R. Conway.—Preliminary Academic Training. A wide course of continued education up to at least 18 years of age in a secondary school and to an increasing extent in universities. Same financial assistance to intending teachers as is available for others training for occupations which demand a similar standard of education. Preferential treatment of intending teachers in the past (i) has led to early earmarking of candidates often found unsuitable ; (ii) has lowered dignity and prestige of teaching profession ; (iii) has tended to depreciate conditions of service in-elementary schools. Examinations—Candidates should pass First Schools Examination at about the age of 16 plus, and a Second School Examination, or the equivaient, at the age of 18 plus, as a minimum qualification for training. Training for Teaching.—Candidates should enter a training college for a course professional in character and aim and calculated to promote skill in the art of teaching. The distinction between training for primary and secondary education should be abolished. There should be included— (i) observation of work of trained experts ; (ii) adequate school practice under supervision in varieties of schools ; (iii) opportunities for study of educational influences in the life of the individual and of the community, including welfare work. 2. Discussion on Diet in Relation to Health in Schools. Dr. G. E. Frienp.—The Public School Dietary and its Relation to Health. Is the dietary supplied efficient for its purpose ? (a) The essential constituents. (6) The amounts of the constituents required. (c) Conditions which govern the amounts required: e.g. exercise, work, amount of sleep, time allowed for meals, and proper cooking and service of food. The essential data in the problem of School Feeding. The amount of food (eaten) ) should equal dane amount of work. f or slightly +The amount of play. The amount of sleep exceed (The rate of growth. The effects of sunlight and fresh air must be taken into account on both sides of _thisequation. The balance (?.e. rate of individual growth and efficiency) will be affected by illness, weather and temperature. Variations from the normal rate will be best shown by the records of weight, illness and fatigue. The normal rate of growth during the period of boarding-school life is, when graphic- ally expressed, an ascending switchback, the maximum lift usually occurring in the summer holiday, and on to November. 374 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. The Commoner Factors affecting Rate of Growth and Efficiency : (a) The Dietary.—If, as is often the case, the diet be drawn up on purely empirical lines, there may be a shortage of one or more of the essential constituents, or there may be an excess. (b) Bad Cooking.—The diet may be admirable on paper, but much of its value as a whole or in part may be destroyed by bad work in the kitchen. (c) Faulty Service.—The diet may be admirable and the cooking fair or even good, yet the value of the food supplied at the table may be diminished considerably by slovenly service, bad carving, or by allowing the food to get cold, or by the imperfect cleaning of utensils. (d) Too little time allowed for the meal to be eaten. This will especially affect the smaller pupil, who requires pro rata at least as much food and also requires longer time in which to eat it than his bigger fellow. (e) Lack of Variety in the Daily Menu.—This is a most important point, and is much too often the case in institutional feeding. (f) Insufficient Seasonal Variation.—One appreciates the vegetable difficulty, but in the great majority of schools not nearly enough use is made of vegetables (cooked and raw) and fresh fruit. (g) Early School and Chapel.—It is entirely wrong to allow any growing child to do any work—mental or physical—or to be exposed to cold or bad weather, &c., on an empty stomach. It is equally wrong to give a snack of fodd at 7 a.m., and then extract an hour’s work before the ordinary breakfast. Mr. D. P. BrErriper.—Lessons Taught by the War upon School Dietary. 1. The ratio given in most text-books that the daily waste of carbon and nitrogen is 15; 1 is probably too low in the case of schoolboys ; the large amount of exercise they take requires more carbon. 2. The chief sources of carbon are (a) fats, (b) carbohydrates ; the average boy prefers the latter, therefore the college ‘ grub shop’ is a useful institution. 3. There is always a tendency for the more well-to-do class to take more nitrogen than is required. This was reflected in the dietary of the more expensive schools in © 1914; the rationing system stopped this, and the general health of the boys improved. 4, It is not sufficient for the schools to provide an adequate quantity of good food ; — it is necessary also to supply good cooking, variety, clean linen and good service. The ‘ cook is almost, if not quite, as important a member of the domestic staff as the matron. { 5. Variety can be obtained best by providing a choice of both meat and pudding i at the midday meal: it is very little more trouble to provide, say, two joints of beef : and one of mutton than to provide three joints of beef ; if this choice is offered, the ~ pupils think they are being better fed simply because they are able to take what : they like best. | Dr. F. C. SHrussaLt.— Diet and Health. Health, growth, and efficiency are dependent: on all the factors on the credit side of balance sheet of metabolism. Where any one of these is conspicuously lacking for { an adequate period there are outbreaks of ill-health. Generally speaking, the standards _ of living have steadily improved in the last century ; at an earlier date some factors improved, others deteriorated. Mankind needs an adequate supply of fresh air, light, and food, the latter having — to be considered from the standpoint of caloric value, vitamin content and balance of cs the salts contained. Certain forms of ill-health are associated with social practices ¥ affecting these needs. Health improved with conditions of housing, largely because of - the better lighting and ventilation. x Caloric value of a diet is not the only consideration ; when necessary foods rich in ~ vitamin and balanced in their mineral constituents are cut off, ill-health follows: when they are supplied, health returns. Vegetable oils and lard will not replace eggs, butter, animal fat, and fresh vegetables. This was exemplified in the War, and is shown even — now in a comparison of town with country. In Denmark ill-health followed the large export of fresh animal fats. In England those who lived in strictly rationed institutions suffered, but the poorer population generally gained by the rationing and SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. : 375 by more even distribution. In former years the country child was of better physique than the town child, since he had fresher food and better air. Now the town house has improved out of proportion, and the countryside sends its fresh butter, and the country child lives on margarine ; thus the situation is reversed. Industrial conditions often produce similar conditions to actual lack of food by reducing the appetite. Sedentary occupations in warm moist atmospheres reduce the general metabolism, and acting through long periods may depress growth and diminish resistance to disease. Open-air teaching counteracts this, the additional light and air stimulates bodily activity. This has been proved again and again in the elementary school, and the same principle applies to teaching institutions of all grades. So far as children are concerned, nothing should be left to their own efforts, the diet supplied should be adequately balanced and appropriately distributed throughout the day. It is common to say a child wants only a proportion of what an adult requires, but the child both grows and works, so that this proportion must often be a very high one, and in later adolescence must equal that of a man at hard work. Friday, August 28. Mornine. 3. Presidential Address by Dr. W. W. Vavenan on The Warp and Woof in Education. (See page 197.) 4. Discussion on The Disciplinary Value of Subjects (Formal Training). Speakers: Prof. R. L. Ancuer, Dr. Kratrnes, Prof. F. A. Cavenacu. Prof. R. L. AncuER.—Thorndike’s denial of ‘ mental discipline’ is based on the assumption that the effect of experience can only be stored either 1. In isolated, uniform and mechanical unconscious habits, or Be In dispositions which operate entirely through consciousness, which alone are plastic. It is now, however, beginning to be recognised that sub-consciousness can perform operations analogous to reasoning, feeling, deciding, and recognition of similarities, and is thus plastic. Innate general factors in mental outfit are now recognised ; and this suggests the possibility of acquired general factors. Such, in fact, appear to exist, and are more important than narrower habits. They are largely limited to the older pupils, and arise rather from the mind of mental activities involved in certain subjects than from the material dealt with by those subjects. Subjects do, however, differ in _ their power of training such general capacities; and the rule may be lost by over- _ specialisation. Secondary education should concern itself more with the development _ of these wider tendencies than with more specialised capacities. ‘ } ‘ Prof. F. A. Cavenacu.—In spite of the results of experiment there remains a doubt as to their validity ; ‘abeunt studia in mores’ we still feel to be true. The _ experiments have, generally, ignored content, interests, sentiments. The theory of _ common factors indeed justifies this view. Thus (i) a thorough training in language is _ essential for every subject, as its lack is a handicap (cf. recent criticisms of examina- tions). Similarly the power of mathematical expression spreads to all the exact _ Sciences. (ii) The increasingly felt unity of knowledge, in spite of increasing specialisa- tion, makes transfer more possible (e.g. the evolutionary aspect of all studies). Absence _ of transfer is thus due to artificial isolation of subjects ; e.g. teaching a science without understanding scientific method, or a purely linguistic treatment of the Classics. AFTERNOON. 5. Prof. J. G. Gray.—New Gyroscopic Apparatus for use in Demon- strating the Principles of Dynamic Rotation. , 376 ‘ SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. Monday, August 31. MorNING. 6. Discussion on Biology as an Element in the Science Curriculum of Schools. Speakers: Mr. G. W. Ouive, Prof. W. J. Daxty, Mr. O. H. Latrerr, Dr. Lintan Ciarxke, Prof. 8. MaugHam, Prof. TatrERsALL, Prof. Laurtisz, Miss C. M. Gipson. Mr. G. W. OLIVE. A knowledge of the main principles of biology is an essential of the intellectual equipment of an educated man—it gives a widened outlook. An appreciation of the wonders and beauties of Nature has an elevating influence, and under proper guidance the study of biology enables a boy to know how to face a scientific problem, and how to apply scientific methods in the proper way. There is a vast field of work before pioneers in biology, but to argue the value of biology as a possible path to livelihood is to show a misconception of the purpose of science teaching. Biology in the service of man, not of Mammon, is the prime consideration. Biology should be taught to all boys up to the age 15-16. It is not sufficient to say that biology should be introduced into the curriculum of every school by the side of other science ‘ subjects’; it should merge imperceptibly into them, be correlated with literature, languages and history, and be linked up with the life of the nation, with economics, and with industrial sociological problems. The dead hand of narrow teaching and the cramping effect of the examination syllabus should not be tolerated. At first there must be no specialising. Each boy will probably possess his own special inclinations, and the ability and interests of the teacher should be wide enough to guide and stimulate these inclinations, so that from whatever angle the boy views biological study he can come to learn the great truths of biology with the fullest meaning and value. It is natural and wise to frame the biological portion of the General Science curricu- lum with special reference to the school’s environment and its general resources. Under keen and capable guidance much can be done to create within theschool andimmediately round about it an atmosphere and environment favourable to real and generous study —within, a living museum, charts of progress, aquaria, vivaria, incubators, &c. ; without, miniature zoological and botanical gardens, a farm, a garden beautiful. Many of these added educational facilities call for only a small financial expenditure. After the age of 15-16 the study of biology may become specialised or be allowed to lapse as necessity dictates, but it will have had, at least, the opportunity to exercise its great educational influence if it has been included in the curriculum to this age. Mr. O. H. Latter. Biology is yearly receiving increased recognition in schools, hence need for dis- cussing methods, new points and limitation. Nature study—the type of biology for junior classes, its function and value. For older pupils human physiology, broadly interpreted, and extended to include the gross structure and functions of the organs of the body and dependence on green plant life, the best taking-off ground for subsequent stages of biological teaching ; hygiene, the chemistry of combustion, solubility, osmotic and kindred phenomena, a certain amount of optics and acoustics in connection with eye and ear are the natural side issues to be developed with this course. Reference to blood corpuscles leads to study of unicellular animals and plants, and thence to the theory of evolution and differentiation of structure. Fundamental differences between animals and plants shown by selection of simple types—iriterdependence of all living things—the geological and economic importance of lower forms of life to man as regards his industries, occupations, agriculture, &c., his sickness, and health. Practical work in the biological laboratory hardly possible, if indeed desirable, with such classes as are under consideration, but instead, abundant demonstration of specimens, and wherever possible experiments, displayed or set up by teacher. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. 377 Prof. W. J. Daxin. By the term ‘ biology ’ is understood the study of animal and plant life. By the expression ‘ biology’ in schools is understood such a judicious combination as will result in a knowledge of the general phenomena of life. The study must include experiment as well as observation, and its bearings upon human life should be clearly indicated. The advantages and the desirability of teaching biology in schools have been stressed by so many authorities and recognised in so many places that it is interesting to look for some of the reasons for its backward position in Great Britain. This backward position is indicated by the following figures, giving the numbers taking the various Science subjects at the examinations of the Joint Matriculation Board of the Northern Universities :— 1921 1922 1923 1924 Physics ar Se AS eles 125289 3,212 3,903 4,355 Chemistry ... seid as .» 3,528 4,773 5,627 6,227 Botany Soe age oot a 1,920 2,735 5,224 3,547 Biology (Natural History) ae 127 233 245 291 In my opinion the neglect of biology is due to :— : I. Lack of accurate information on the part of some who are responsible for the framing of curricula in the schools, and incidentally in the lack of interest in general education shown by the public. Il. The comparative ease of merely following the past. Botany was apparently considered a ‘ lady-like ’ subject six decades ago. This seems, to some extent, responsible for teaching ‘half a subject’ in many schools to-day. III. Failure to recognise that biology must be treated as scientifically as chemistry and physics, and not be supplanted by a sickly kind of nature study. IV. Frequent inability to teach the subject in schools, especially the animal side, on the part of many university graduates appointed to take it. V. The mistaken idea that biology is too difficult to take up and entails considerable expense. _ YI. A peculiar attitude to the study of the animal side of biology taken up by certain officials of the Board of Education, and expressed in a Report (Report of Investigators, 1918). _VII. An idea prevalent in some quarters, that one should preferably teach a subject which offers teaching posts for the few, rather than the subject which certainly enters the lives of all. VIII. Definite dislike felt by some authorities to the handling of animals by the pupils. Of these reasons, No. VIII. is of rare occurrence. Details of the points raised which have been discovered by inquiries amongst the secondary schools were given in the paper. Dr. Lintan Cuarxke. There is need to study biology scientifically in school. In order that plant physiology may become an exact science the same methods must be used as in chemical and physical laboratories. It presents many difficulties, and involves much time and thought on the part of the teacher ; we ought to show that it can be taught so as to afford a training in scientific method. Care must be taken not to generalise on in- sufficient data—that pupils should do typical experiments before any general state- ment is made ; they should then be introduced to previous records made, and only on the consideration of these many results should conclusions be drawn, e.g. pupils should not be told the function of pollen. They can make experiments to see what is the effect of removing stamens, and in other ways study the effect of pollinating, or not pollinating, flowers, using fine muslin to prevent access of insects. At the James _ Allen’s Girls’ School, Dulwich, there are the results of more than 2000 experiments _ on the use of pollen in wallflower, foxgloves, Canterbury bells, sea-campions, snap- dragons, columbines, stocks, blue-bells, buttercups, toad flax, honesty, on which generalisations may be based. Numerous experiments can be made by pupils on the influence of light and gravity on the direction of growths of roots and stems, the presence of pores in leaves, transpiration in plants, &c. But in all experimental work the necessity of rigorous examination of the conditions of the experiment, and the value of control experiments should be acknowledged. 378 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. 7. Report of the Committee upon The Educational Trainng of Boys and Girls in Secondary Schools for Life Overseas. Presented by Dr. J. Vareas Eyre, (See page 271.) Discussion opened by Mr. H. W. Cousins. AFTERNOON. 8. Joint Discussion with Section J on Recent Investigation upon Vocational Guidance. Speakers: Prof. C. Burt, Mr. F. M. Harze, Mr...J., W. Cox, Mr. E. Sauter Davies. Prof. Cvrit Burt.—Vocational Guidance in the School. The development and aims of vocational psychology. Vocational guidance, as distinguished from, and dependent upon, vocational selection. Vocational guidance under the Education (Choice of Employment) Act, 1910. Recent researches on vocational guidance in this country. Methods of investigation at present available. ScHEME oF CAsnE-STUDY. J. Home Conditions. II. Physical Conditions. ILI. Mental Condition. A. Intellectual qualities : 1. Inborn : (a) General: (The use of intelligence tests) ; (6) Specific: (The need for tests for special capacities such as memory, attention, manual dexterity, &c.) ; 2. Acquired : (a) Educational attainments: (The value of standardised scholastic tests) ; (b) Vocational attainments: (The value of tests of occupational acquire- ments, e.g. dressmaking, engineering, shorthand and typewriting). B. Temperamental qualities : The refinement of the methods of the personal interview; the use of rating scales, of key subjects, and of temperamental tests. Mr. F. M. Earie.—Recent Investigations in Vocational Guidance. Problems of vocational guidance vary with the line of approach. Information is required concerning both the person to be advised and occupation to be suggested. Methods of obtaining this information. Place and importance of psychological tests and methods. Account of current experiment in schools, in which these problems are being investigated. Range of inquiry covers, on the one hand, the child’s home and family circumstances, health and physique, school attainments and record, intelligence, character and temperament, hobbies and interests, manual and mechanical abilities, and, on the other, the specific requirements, psychological as well as physical, of the commoner occupations. Mr. J. W. Cox.—Mechanical Aptitude in relation to Education and Vocational Psychology. 1. The ‘ Mechanical Sense.’—Need of defining its psychological nature and relations to other ‘ abilities.’ Deficiencies in existing tests. 2. New Tests of Mechanical Ability.—Description of new tests, together with an account of some experimental facts relating to them. 3. Existence of a Group Factor—The application of Prof. Spearman’s criterion of a single common factor (Proc. Roy. Soc. A, vol. CI., 1922, pp. 97-100) to data collected from various types of schools, together with an analysis of the processes involved in the tests, indicate the existence of a Group factor provisionally termed ‘ mechanical aptitude.’ 4. The Nature of Mechanical Aptitude—Introspective analysis shows that an essential requirement is ability to cognise relations between special characters, and to find a correlate in the case where the given fundaments and relations are mainly spacial. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. 379 5. Bearing on Education and Vocational Psychology.—The Group factor in relation to the school curriculum, the school examination, trade scholarships. The Group factor in relation to certain branches of engineering and allied occupations. Mr. E. Satrer Davies.—Vocational Guidance in a County Area (Kent). Conditions in Kent.—A million people and a million acres. Chief industry ; agriculture (50,000 males). Other industries: engineering, shipbuilding, paper, cement, brewing, building. Education (Choice of Employment) Act, 1910.—Juvenile welfare bureaux—district organisation. Education and Life.—Education prepares for life. Business an important part of life. The school therefore an indispensable part of any organisation for vocational guidance. Nature of Work.—Collection and dissemination of information. Information falls under two categories: (1) young persons—physique, attainments and character. (2) Employment—kind available, qualifications required, opportunities offered. Method adopted.—Talks and lectures by officials, teachers and employers. Voca- tional guidance pamphlets, e.g. agriculture, army, cabinet-making, carpentry and joinery, cement, coal mining, engineering (general, electrical and motor), grocery and provisions, letterpress printing, paper-making, post office, railway, Royal ordnance. Employment often a pis-aller—tImportance of developing outside interests and activities. Juvenile organisations and other voluntary agencies—following-up committees. Statistics for nine months ended May 1, 1925 (Kent).— Registered in bureaux ae oat ..- 11,920 boys and girls. Of these— Between 14 and 16... BS Sis doa RSL Between 16 and 18... ee use 4a 6103 Placed in occupations Ney. oe sea) popDO Of these— Indentured apprentices... ens ae 68 Learners aH ace ee An wee, 1 SEDO In unskilled occupations ... bie one 661 In casualemployment .... aes SHO <) Need for definite and systematic training.—More co-operation wanted between employers and L.E.A.’s. Apprenticeship schemes. Need for closer study by teachers of industry and of factors necessary for success in its various branches. Need for closer study by employers of educational aims and conditions. Importance of human element. 9. Dr. Ernest Barxer.—The Making of National Character. Tuesday, September 1. Morning. 10. Discussion on Conditions of Success of Technical Education. Speakers: Sir Ropert Brarr, Mr. Wickuam Murray, Dr. W. M. VarRLey, Mr. OLIverR FREEMAN, Mr. Cuas. Cougs. Sir Ropert Biarr.—The Problems of Technical Education. Technical education had its origin in the early eighties during a period of popular alarm at the growth of Continental competition in industrial markets hitherto regarded as British preserves. Since then the movement has succeeded, not only in establishing technical schools and colleges as an integral part of our educational system, but its ‘practical spirit has made a contribution to the ideals of education which has had a lasting influence on the older and more ‘ academic’ studies. The general extension 'and improvement of elementary and secondary schools has been accompanied by 380 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. a distinct raising of the level of teaching and attainment in the technical schools; and at the same time these institutions have been endeavouring to adjust their efforts to an expanding and changing but not altogether sympathetic industrial system. It is easy to point to remarkable achievements on the part of particular schools in raising the educational fitness of artisans and technical staffs, and in direct co-operation in industrial problems. But in the absence of any general survey it is not possible to say whether technical education has fulfilled the purposes of its founders, or in what new direction its energies should be turned to capture the sympathies of industrial organisations. The desire to harness science to industry has been responsible for the creation of agencies, mostly independent of technical institutions (including the universities), all engaged in research in industrial (including agricultural) processes and organisation. At least half a dozen Government departments are involved, and it isnot clear whether there is any general supervision of their efforts or what becomes of their findings. If we may take electricity as guide to our success, little comfort on the face of it can be extracted from the report of the Electricity Commission (just issued) which tells us that industry in Britain is electrified to the extent of 20 to 28 per cent., while in the United States the corresponding figure lies between 56 and 65. Lack of sympathy is probably not due solely to any single cause, but it would be a great advantage to bring industry and education into conference to consider whether technical education is not still too scholastic, or whether the rigidity of industrial traditions is not the handicap to closer co-operation. The critics of our educational system may still say that it does not induce students to think and act independently, for such statements are not (at all events easily) capable of proof or disproof, but criticism can hardly go so far as to say that British scientists are not capable of giving assistance, since the results of laboratory work in pure science will compare well with that of any other civilised country, and at the moment the world is stirred with new hope of the conquest of disease by the success of British investigators, yet British industries are languishing and, to give a relevant example, while the first marine engines were balanced by Englishmen and while Parsons turbines are still the foremost of that type of prime mover, continental firms have taken the lead with the Diesel engine, and Americans in the design and manufacture of machine tools. The cause of languishing industries may lie outside the region of education, but the existing trade depression is too serious to permit of any slackness in overhauling the machinery of technical education, or if need be of taking to heart any criticism we deserve. A dis- cussion in a popular assembly ought to be fruitful in ideas and suggestive of possible lines of action. Mr. J. WickHam Murray.—Culture and Examination Requirements. No fundamental difference between technical and any other form of education. It does not aim merely to produce an efficient worker. Probable and actual life-work of a student can be used to cultural ends. Education may never be static ; no system can be successful which ignores the growing complexity of modern life with its mani- fold social and industrial problems. Two divisions of the life-process : ‘ the self which behaves and the environment in which it behaves.’ The necessity of establishing the relationship of technical education (a) to other forms of education, and (b) to industry and commerce. A proposed inquiry. Special qualifications of the teacher. Need of experience in industrial and com- mercial requirements. The technical institution has to satisfy special needs. What are these needs, and how have they been created ? Can they be satisfied in any other way ? Wastage in education. Not every area can have its university. Reasons for a point where the varied educational activities of an area shall have their meeting place. The ‘local college.’ Links with the university. The problem of matriculation. Present conditions. The part-time student. Possibility of an alternative examination. Would alteration of present conditions take away from the cultural side of university life? ‘Cultural’ — subjects which are often ‘ technical ’ in form and content. Dr. W. M. Vartey.—The Local College. The growth and development of mechanics’ institutes, founded during the last century—as much to improve the general education of artisans as to give them know- ledge of principles underlying their work—into the technical schools and colleges of - to-day, has been one of our education features of the last thirty years. Some have ee ee RC IT iT at lle es A ea ‘SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. 381 even become university institutions and others approach university rank, but in others there has been a distinct narrowing of outlook. Higher education would be better understood and appreciated by the rank and file, and would receive a big impetus if, in at least all important non-university towns, the technical institutes became local colleges in a broad sense—centres of educational activities for adolescents and adults, and rheeting grounds for students of many and wide interests, providing not only purely trade and commercial classes, but opportunities of study for learning’s sake. The requisite staff can best be maintained if the college provides day classes of a post- secondary character in as many branches of study as local circumstances warrant, and the day training, even for technical vocations, must develop a wider outlook upon life. All the work should be linked up with the territorial university, and the modern university should be encouraged to extend its tentacles so as to bring such colleges within its purview. The training of teachers and training for agriculture should no longer be segregated in separate institutions, but be brought within the local colleges. The wider the scope and outlook, the better prepared are the men and women turned out to face the world and its many problems. 11. Discussion on Moral Training in Boarding Schools and Day Schools. Speakers: Mr. W. F. Busuert, Dr. W. H. D. Rovuss, Mr. F. J. Hemmines, Mr. R. F. Cootmetey, Mr. H. B. Mayor. Mr. W. F. BusHeti.—It is remarkable that the official report of a school inspection contains little about the moral education supplied; yet this is the basic fact in education. Probably, because principles governing character training are less stereo- typed than those governing class-room teaching. Various types of schools ; those for boarders only—those for day-boys only—with varying percentages of the two in intermediate cases. Real moral training often regarded as hall-mark of boarding schools; but methods not always up-to-date. Tradition less important than often supposed. Schools without tradition have risen to great eminence in last decade. Day schools are largely on the increase; often State-aided, and a State inevitably seems to support a system of uniformity. Too often uniformity implies mediocrity ; does not encourage independence and personality. Home influence more conspicuous at day schools; but the schoolmaster has a keener perception of the right influence than the parent. Day schools tend to lack the ideals of the corporate life, and can easily become offices rather than schools. Opportu- nities more difficult to make them at boarding schools. Résumé of these opportunities contrasted with those at boarding schools. Moral development easier at good boarding schools, but dangers also greater. Majority of boys day-boys, hence experiment desirable, and no neglect of possible opportunities countenanced. Mr. R. F. Cootmetry.—l. Definition of moral training : ‘ The whole purpose of education and training is to evolve reasoned purposeful action in place of instinctive reaction to environment.’ (Prof. J. 8. Bolton.) 2. What part can schools in general take in assisting this evolution ? coat are the characteristic differences between day schools and boarding schools ? 4. How do these differences affect the part played in moral training by (a) the parents ; (b) the teachers ; (c) the pupils themselves ? 5. Two difficulties ; one general, one particular to teachers :— (a) Difficulty of remembering our own childhood. (6) Difficulty arising from natural sedateness of the teaching profession. 6. Character of the Happy Warrior ; bearing of this on the discussion. Mr. F. J. Hemmryes.—Moral training considered mainly from the day-school point of view. The Day School Problem. Moral training implies development of personality. The importance of ideals and unity of purpose and ultimately the theory of life in the development of personality. Hence the special difficulty confronting the day school—conflict of opinion _ between those with whom the boy is in daily contact, as to the purpose of life and more particularly the theory of life which determines (a) the home environment, (6) the school environment. 382 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. M. Tis Solution. (a) Importance of recognition that from the moral training point of view the period of 8-12 years is as important, if not more important, as the years of puberty and adolescence. (b) The necessity for closer contact between parents and school leading to unity of purpose. The value of ‘ parents’ unions ’ to day schools as well as boarding schools. The possibility of the day school and the home being the ideal environment for moral training. (c) ‘The importance of harmony of purpose within the school itself—the special importance of the ideal underlying the organisation of (a) the school curriculum, and (b) corporate life being the same, the object being not so much the encouragement of conscious self-improvement and conformity to traditional type as self-emancipation —the losing of oneself to find oneself. This object attainable in the day school, if it becomes both for work and play a world which appeals to the boy as a world worth serving. The extent to which such an ideal can overcome the disadvantage, so far as moral training is concerned, of lack of harmony between home and school influences. AFTERNOON. 12, Mr. Percy A. ScHotes.—Musical Education by means of the Player- Piano, Gramophone and Wireless. The growing ‘ musical public.’ Its lack of knowledge and of discrimination. The foundations of genuine ‘ appreciation.’ The use of mechanical means to acquaintance with a larger body of the ‘literature’ of music. The structure of music—to what extent does this concern the listener? The history of music—what does the intelligent listener need to know of this ?. The gramophone in the school and the home. Theinfluence of broadcasting. The player-piano, aneglected educational tool. Its two forms—that in which the ‘ interpretation ’ rests with the operator, and that in which the ‘ interpretation ’ of some great pianist is reproduced. Comparison of ‘ interpre- tations’ by different pianists, and the light it sheds upon principles of artistic performance. General conclusions as to the place of ‘mechanical-musical’ aids to education. SECTION M.—AGRICULTURE. (For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the following list of transactions, see page 393.) Thursday, August 27. 1. Joint Discussion with Section F. (See page 329.) Friday, August 28. 2. Mr. R. D. Rece.—A Thermophilic Fungus, and its Action on the Carbohydrates of Straw. 3. Discussion on The Place of Cereal Growing in British Agriculture. Sir Henry Rew, K.C.B.—The Position and Prospects of Corn- growing in England. The extent of land used for agriculture in England and Wales is 70 per cent. of the total area, excluding 13 per cent. used for rough grazing. Of the agricultural land, 42 per cent. is in arable cultivation, of which 50.4 per cent. is under corn crops, and of the land under corn wheat occupies 28 per cent. Fifty years ago 61 per cent. of the land used for agriculture was under the plough. Corn then occupied 51.2 per cent. of the arable land, and wheat formed 42 per cent. of the corn crops. The decline of arable cultivation has been discussed voluminously and volubly. Arable land in ordinary, as distinct from specialised, farming, implies corn-growing, SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. 383 but it does not necessarily imply wheat. This a trite saying to the Scottish farmer, and the English farmer, as the statistics show, has widely accepted it. ‘Constructive’ agricultural policies are commonly supported by two main arguments—(a) the political advantage of greater self-sufficiency in wheat supplies, and (b) the sociological advantage of ‘ keeping the plough going.’ The two arguments do not inevitably lead to the same conclusion. This paper is not concerned with hypothetical political action. It assumes the operation of economic forces, unassisted or unhampered by State intervention. The future of corn-growing depends on three factors, which may be described as (a) practical, (6) scientific, (c) economic. The greatest of these three—for the purpose of the paper which is intended to introduce and provoke discussion—is economic. An attempt is made to indicate the probable effect of economic tendencies on the future of corn-growing in this country, taking not only insular but also international and Imperial conditions into account. It is suggested that the importance of corn as a ‘ cash crop’ is declining, and will continue to decline, but that this is not inconsistent with the maintenance and extension of arable cultivation. Other speakers: Sir Jonn Russe xt, F.R.S., Mr. F. L. Enciepow, Mr. A. W. Asupy, Mr. C. Hetcuam. 4, Miss A. D. MacKenziz.—Fruit Preservation in Natural Colours. These experiments in fruit preservation consist of preserving different kinds of fruits with green foliage in their natural colours, so that each variety can be identified when the fruit is not in season. The work was started in 1923 at the Ministry of Agriculture, the object being to have eventually a complete collection, for educational purposes, of the principal commercial varieties of fruits grown in England. The specimens preserved in 1923 were shown at Wembley in 1924 by the Ministry of Agriculture, and the experiments were continued with the 1924 crop at East Malling Research Station. The specimens preserved in both seasons (1923 and 1924) are now being shown at Wembley, 1925. It cannot be claimed that the collection originally aimed at is as yet complete, _but enough has been done to show that it is possible to preserve different varieties _ of fruit indefinitely, seeing that the fruits grown in 1923 are in quite as good a state of preservation as those of the 1924 crop. The Ministry’s collection now includes most varieties of apples grown in England commercially, several varieties of plums, pears, and gooseberries, some cherries and the black currant types. Experiments have also been successfully carried out with pathological specimens of fruit and foliage. Saturday, August 29. Sectional excursion to Hampshire Farm Institute, Sparsholt, &c. Monday, August 31. 5. Presidential Address by Dr. J. B. Orr on he Inorganic Elements in Animal Nutrition. (See page 204.) 6. Mr. W. Goppren.—The Composition of the Herbage of Cultivated and ' Hill Pastures, with special reference to the Mineral Constituents. _ The analytical data for over three hundred samples of herbage from cultivated and hill pastures are summarised. It is shown that the hill pastures are much poorer in total ash and in each of the ash constituents than the cultivated pastures. Dividing the samples into grass which sheep eat and grass which they do not eat, it is found that the latter are poorer in ash constituents than the former. Compared with the herbage of cultivated pastures, the grass ‘ not eaten’ is relatively poorest in calcium E md chlorine. Similarly the herbage from hill pastures is poorer in ash constituents than that of lowland pastures in the same locality. It is suggested that this deficiency 384 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. in the herbage may be due either to a complete impoverishment of the soil due to continuous grazing without any application of fertilisers or to a relatively great impoverishment in calcium, which then becomes the limiting factor in the growth and composition of the herbage. Soil data are not available for the British samples, but in the case of the Falkland Islands, where the herbage is extremely poor in mineral constituents, and especially in calcium, the soils are very deficient in calcium though containing reasonable percentages of available phosphoric acid and potash. It is shown that there is a definite seasonal variation in the mineral content of four cultivated pastures examined between May and October. This is most clearly shown by calcium, the percentage of which rises to a maximum and then steadily falls, and to a less extent by the silica-free ash, phosphoric acid and sodium. The period at which the maximum content was reached varied in the different fields, and was apparently controlled in great measure by the nature of the grazing. 7. Capt. W. HE. Exxior, M.P., and Mr. A. Cricnton.—The Mineral Requirements of Sheep. An investigation on the mineral content of natural uncultivated pastures has shown that in many of the hill pastures in Scotland and England there is a deficiency of one or more mineral elements which are essential food constituents for herbivora. There appears to be a correlation between this mineral deficiency and the state of nutrition of sheep grazing on these pastures, as shown by size and constitution of the sheep, and the incidence of disease. There is, however, very little experimental data on the influence on nutrition of deficiency of minerals in the diet of sheep. A number of feeding experiments were therefore carried out to determine whether deficiency of calcium and chlorine in the diet of hand-fed sheep would lead to the development of signs of malnutrition. In these experiments the influence of cod- liver oil, which is known to increase the absorption of calcium from the intestine, was studied. It was found that on a diet of turnips, straw and cereal grains (which is relatively deficient in calcium, and to a less extent in chlorine), signs of malnutrition appeared in growing sheep provided the experiment was continued for five to six months. In control groups the addition to the diet of either a calcium-rich salt mixture or cod-liver oil prevented the development of these signs of malnutrition and was accompanied by a more rapid rate of growth. In two cases brought to our notice, in which ‘ bent leg’ (which appears to be similar to rickets) had occurred in hand-fed sheep on farms, a marked improvement in the condition followed the addition of calcium salts to the ration. There is evidence to show that deficiency of mineral elements in pasture is a common cause of malnutrition in herbivora in many pastoral areas throughout the world where the modern type of rapidly growing animal has been introduced into new countries where animal husbandry is being developed on uncultivated pastures. 8. Mr. A. Cricuton.—Mineral Nutrients in the Ration of Dairy Cows. Previous investigations have shown that the mineral part of the ration is an important factor in maintaining health in dairy cows, and in maintaining the maximum _ milk production of which cows are capable. : In this paper there is described an experiment with twelve dairy cows, six of which were fed on an ordinary ration, and six on the same ration with the addition of certain ; minerals in which the ration was considered to be poor. The milk yield over two — lactation periods, the size and vigour of the calves, the health and condition of the cows, and the mineral composition of the milk are discussed. ‘ The results show that there was a tendency in the second lactation for the milk yield of cows receiving the additional minerals to increase, and for that of the cows — without such addition to decrease. Moreover, the cows fed with the minerals showed better condition and greater ability to resist disease. From the results it would appear that the nutritive value of certain rations can — be improved by the addition of minerals. An excess, however, may have a detrimental } effect. 9. Prof. G.S. Ropertson and Mr. R. G. Basxerr.—The Influence of Minerals on the Growth of Chickens and the Egg Yield of Pullets. This paper gives an account of experiments covering a period of two years designed to ascertain the effect on the growth of young chickens of adding minerals and materials rich in vitamins such as cod-liver oil, marmite, &c., separately and together, to a cereal SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. 385 ration. The results show that, compared with the control lot, the addition of cod- liver oil and marmite to an ordinary cereal ration was of doubtful value. The lots receiving the basal ration plus minerals made considerably better growth as measured by gains in weight. The addition of cod-liver oil and marmite to the basal ration plus minerals still further increased the rate of growth, although the cod-liver oil and marmite added to the basal ration alone had little effect. The suggestion is made that the value of cod-liver oil is at least partly due to its effect in facilitating the retention of minerals. The experiments with laying pullets were designed to ascertain to what extent the value of a 10 per cent. addition of fish meal to a cereal ration was due to either the mineral matter, the protein, or both. The pullets were divided into five lots of eight each. Each lot was housed in a laying trial pen and trap nested for a period of a year. The lots were fed as follows :— Lot 1. Basal ration (consisting of cereals only). Lot 2. Basal ration plus 2 per cent. Rowett Mineral Mixture. Lot 3. Basal ration plus Soya Bean Meal plus Rowett Mineral Mixture. Lot 4. Basal ration plus Blood Meal plus Rowett Mineral Mixture. Lot 5. Basal ration plus 10 per cent. Fish Meal plus Rowett Mineral Mixture. The total quantity of mineral matter in Lots 2, 3, 4 and 5 was the same. The protein content of the rations fed to Lots 3, 4 and 5 was also approximately equal compared with Lot 1. The addition of minerals for Lot 2 increased the egg yield by 20 per cent.; Soya Bean and minerals in Lot 3 by 27 per cent. Blood Meal and minerals in Lot 3 reduced the egg yield by 4 per cent., whilst Fish Meal in Lot 5 increased the egg yield by 32 per cent. 10, Dr. N. C. Wricut and Mr. W. L. Lirrtz.— The Calcium Content of the Blood of Cows affected with Milk Fever. The work detailed in this paper had its origin in the observation that the tetany of milk fever presented similar clinical symptoms to those which have been found to be associated with the lowered calcium content of the blood of parathyroidectomised animals. The experimental work consisted in the estimation of the blood calcium content of the cows affected with milk fever, and after recovery. In eight cases the average values were :— Cows ‘down’ with milk fever... --- 5.15 mgm. per 100 gm. of plasma Cows after recovery Sd ee «- 9.60 re a 9 “3 In four other cases (all taken from the same farm) the average values were :— Cows ‘down’ with milk fever... --- 5.40 mgm. per 100 gm. of plasma Cows after recovery ae sas --» 7.60 3 ey a (Note the low normal value in these cases, indicating very slow recovery.) From these results it is apparent that the symptoms of milk fever are accompanied by a very considerable fall in the calcium content of the blood plasma. The cause of this fall is at present uncertain, but the localised nature of the disease, the fact that it occurs chiefly in the spring (i.e., after winter rationing, when calcium assimilation may be defective owing to lack of vitamin and of sunlight), and its common occurrence in high-yielding cows (where calcium depletion may be considerable), point to the possible influence of inadequate nutrition in the incidence of the disease. ” 11. Sir Roserr Greic.—The Elimination of Low-grade Stock. Too many inferior cattle are bred throughout the Empire. The avoidable loss from the use of inferior stock is immeasurable. One inferior animal costs as much ‘to maintain and to look after as a better one, and about as much to produce, But ‘the chief objection to it is that it costs much more to fatten, or, in the case of a cow, it costs more to produce a gallon of milk. The difference between the high-grade and low-grade animal is very great. The publication of milk records has made this apparent. | Efforts have been made in most countries to grade up the live stock, but with the exception of an attempt by Henry VIII to eliminate the scrub bull, it is only within recent years that systematic attempts have been made by administration and legisla- tion to improve the quality of live stock on a comprehensive scale. These attempts by Government departments have taken the form of subsidies or premiums paid to the owners of superior sires, or part payment of service fees, or loans of superior bulls, rams and boars. Still more recently in some countries legislation has been passed to cc 386 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. provide for the actual elimination of inferior sires. This is a considerable interference with the liberty of a stock-owner to do as he likes, but it is justified by the economic importance of the benefit to the community as a whole. mokeitia The question of obtaining legislation in Great Britain to procure the elimination of the scrub bull is now prominent, and an increasing body of opinion is in favour of it. Tuesday, September 1. Mornine. 12. Sir Dante Hatt, K.C.B., F.R.S.—The Future of Arable land Sheep Farming. Other speakers: Mr. L. G. Troup, Mr. H. C. Stiteor. 13. Mr. C. T. GovincHam and Mr. F. Tarrersrirtp. — The Towicity of some Aromatic Nitro Compounds to Insect Eggs. Data are presented indicating the high penetrating power and toxicity of 3 : 5-dinitro-o-cresol and other nitro compounds to the eggs of several species of insects. The results of experiments with these substances on a field scale are also discussed. 14. Mr. C. J. Guerp.—The Importance of ‘Stra’ in Varieties of Strawberry. For some few years a number of strawberry growers in South Hants, where this occupation forms an important branch of agriculture, have complained that ‘ Royal Sovereign,’ which has been the most popular market variety in the district for many years, had lost much of its former vigour and cropping power, with the result that — returns were seriously reduced, and many tests were made with other varieties in the hope of finding one to replace the old favourite. So far no variety tried has proved equal to Royal Sovereign in this district, and several reasons were advanced by growers as to the cause of the falling-off, including ‘comparative shortage of London and similar manure,’ ‘ degeneration as the result of the age of the variety,’ ‘ poor methods of propagation,’ and so on. Probably the trouble is due to a number of causes, but when visiting holdings about 1920 to obtain information about so-called ‘ blindness’ in strawberries, I was struck by the great difference in vigour and cropping of some beds of Royal Sovereign as compared with others, differences which could not, in many cases, be explained by different cultural or manurial treatment. I found, however, that most of the good patches belonged to growers who took more than usual care in the selection of their young stock. When the county fruit station was started at Botley the most insistent demand was for information as to how to bring the strawberry crop again up to the yield of some years ago, and, among other trials, a trial of varieties, including Royal Sovereign from five.different sources, was laid down, the beds being planted in October, 1923. The results as maidens were so striking that Sovereigns from several other more distant sources were planted in October, 1924, and these also show considerable variations already, while the crop weights from the two-year-old beds are far more striking than last year; and though the experiment is young one feels that a partial solution of the problem may be looked for in the planting of better strains or stocks of Royal Sovereign rather than in planting newer but untried varieties commercially, 15. Mr. C. H. Hooprr.—The Order of Blossoming and the Fertilisation of our Hardy Fruits. 1. The relative order of flowering of the different varieties of apples, pears, plums and cherries is nearly the same year by year, and is similar in different parts of th country. 2. Most of the varieties mature little or no fruit with their own pollen, so it i desirable to know which are self-sterile and the relative degree of self-fruitfulness those which are not, also to know which varieties are inter-sterile. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. 387 3. The knowledge of the relative order of flowering of the different varieties is of considerable economic importance, because nearly all varieties fruit better where two or more are in flower at the same time. 4. In planting orchards or fruit plantations, two or more varieties which flower at approximately the same time should be chosen in order to give the best chance of cross-fertilisation, and varieties which are inter-sterile should not be planted together. 5. Suggestions as to which varieties to plant together (based on orchard experience and experiment), and, in the case of existing orchards in which cross-pollination is defective, how to remedy by regrafting. 6. Observations on the insect visitors to the flowers of the different fruits, and the importance of keeping hive-bees where a large area of one kind of fruit is grown. AFTERNOON. Excursion to the Botley Fruit Station. cc2 388 REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. REFERENCES TO PUBLICATION OF COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS AND OTHER REFERENCES SUPPLIED BY AUTHORS. Under each Section, the index-numbers correspond with those of the papers in the sectional programmes (pp. 297-387). References indicated by ‘ cf.’ are to appropriate works quoted by the authors of papers, not to the papers themselves. General reference may be made to the issues of Natwre (weekly) during and sub- sequent to the meeting, in which summaries of the work of the sections are furnished. Section A. 3. Expected to be published in Messenger of Mathematics as § 3 of paper on ‘ An expression for the energy in a new electrostatics.’ 5. Geophysical supplement to Monthly Notices, R.A.S., Dec. 1925, pp. 247-270. 9. Engineering, Sept. 18, 1925. 11. Results expected to be published in Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc. Cf. ‘ Circulation in seasonal variations of weather, ix. A further study of world weather,’ in Memoirs India Meteor. Dept., 24, ix. (1925). 12. Cf. ‘Hyperbolic function numbers and their presentation in Electrical Engineering,’ Proc. Internat. Math. Cong. Toronto, 1924. 13. Expected to appear in Proc. London Math. Soc. ; cf. ibid. 1904. 16. Cf. Dr. J. H. Shaxby. ‘ Sur la diffusion de particules en suspension,’ Comptes rendus, 180, p. 195 (19 Jan. 1925); also Proc. Roy. Soc. (A), 104, p. 655 (1923). 18. Cf. ‘ On the origin and maintenance of the earth’s charge,’ Terr. Mag., 20, pp. 105-126 (1915) ; ‘ On the ionization of the upper atmosphere,’ Terr. Mag., 21, pp. 1-8 (1916); ‘ On the origin of the earth’s electric charge,’ Phys. Rev., 9, pp. 55-57 (1917) ; ‘ Atmospheric electricity,’ Journ. Fr. Inst., 188, pp. 577-606 (1919) ; ‘ Unsolved problems of cosmical physics,’ Journ. Fr. Inst., 195, pp. 433-474 (1923) ; * Ionization — by rapidly moving electrified particles,’ Phil. Mag., S. 6, 47, pp. 306-319 (1924) ; ‘The penetrating radiation and its bearing on the earth’s electric field,’ Bulletin Nat. — Res. Council, no. 17, pp. 54-77 (1922); “On the magnetic and electric fields which ~ spontaneously arise in the vicinity of conducting rotating spheres,’ Terr. Mag., 22, pp- 149-168 (1917); ‘A generalization of electrodynamics consistent with restricted — relativity and affording an explanation of the earth’s magnetic and gravitational j fields and the maintenance of the earth’s charge,’ Math. Congress, Toronto, — Aug. (1924). 19. Expected to appear in Phil. Mag. 20. Electrician, 95, p. 265, Sept. 4, 1925. Cf. R. L. Smith-Rose and R. B. Barfield, ‘ A discussion of the practical systems of D.F. by reception,’ Radio Res. Board, Spec. Report, No. 1 (1923); R. L. Smith-Rose, ‘ The variations of bearings of Radio Trans- — mitting Stations,’ Part I, Radio Res. Board, Spec. Report, No. 2 (1924); Part I, Radio Res. Board, Spec. Report, No. 3 (1925); R. L. Smith-Rose and R. H. Barfield, ‘The effect of local conditions on radio D.F. installations,’ Journ. I.E.E., 61, pp. 179- | 191 (1923); R. L. Smith-Rose, ‘Some radio D.F. observations on ship and shore trans. stations,’ Journ. I.E.H., 62, pp. 701-711 (1924) ; ‘ The effect of the shape of the transmitting aerial upon observed bearings on a radio direction finder,’ Journ. REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 889 I.B.E., 62, pp. 957-963 (1924); ‘The effect of wave-damping in radio direction finding,’ Journ. I.H.E., 62, pp. 923-927 (1925) ; R. L. Smith-Rose and R. H. Barfield, “On the determination of the directions of the forces in wireless waves at the earth’s surface,’ Proc. Roy. Soc., 107, pp. 587-601 (1925). SEcTIon B. 2. Metal Industry, 27, no. 11, Sept. 11, 1925, pp. 253-237 Brass World, 21, no. 8, Aug. 1925, pp. 261-263; Engineering, 120, no. 3118, Oct. 2, 1925, pp. 408-409 ; Mechanical World, 78, no. 2022, Oct. 2, 1925, pp. 269-270; Engineer, 140, no. 3636, Oct. 2, 1925, pp. 236-237; Electrical Review, 97, no. 2493, Sept. 4, 1925, p. 393 ; Chem. Trade Journ., 77, no. 1998, Sept. 4, 1925, p. 264. 8. Published by Morton, Burt & Sons, London, 1925. ; 4. Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., and thesis by Hannig, Zurich, 1924 ; scientific data to appear in Helvetica Chimica Acta, Basle. SEcTION C. 3. To be published in Proc. Hants Field Club, 1926. . 4. Cf. ‘ Geology of Castle-an-Dinas and Belverda Beacon,’ Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Com., 1918 ; ‘ Geology of Castle-an-Dinas Wolfram Mine,’ Geol. Mag., Aug. 1920; * Primary Zones of Cornish Lodes,’ Geol. Mag., Nov. 1921; ‘ Geology of East Pool and Agar Shaft,’ Mining Mag., Dec. 1922; ‘Geology of Magdalen Mine,’ Mining Mag., July 1923; ‘On Cornish Veinstones,’ Geol. Mag., May 1924; ‘ Geology of Roskear Shaft,’ Mining Mag., June 1925. 5, 6. To be offered to Geol. Mag. 8. Expected to appear in Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. ‘ : 7 10. Expected to be published in Records Geol. Surv. India. __ 18. To be published in Geol. Mag. Cf. ‘Some practical aspects of correlation,’ Proc. Geol. Assoc., 1925. t , Srecrion D. ‘ 3. Cf. British Mosquito Control Institute Circular, no. 16. 4. Expected to be published in Proc. Zool. Soc. London. (W 6. Details expected to be published in Proc. Roy. Soc. Cf. Scientific Proc. Roy. “Dublin Soc., 16 (n.s.), pp. 304-322 (1921). ' 10. To appear in substance in Proc. Hntom. Soc, London. 12. To appear in Parasitology. _ 14, Probably to appear in Proc. Zool. Soc. ; ef. Bull. Acad. Imp. Petrograd, 1915 (in Russian). 15. Expected to be published in Q. J. Micros. Sci. Section E. 1. To be published in Ordnance Survey Professional Papers; also in Scott. ig. Mag. 2. To be published in Ordnance Survey Professional Papers, and expected to appear n Geog. Journ. 8. Full summary to be published in Geog. Journ. 8390 REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 5. Cf. ‘Catalogue des Guides-Routiers et des Itinéraires Frangais, 1552-1850.’ (Reprinted from Bulletin de la section de géographie, 1919.) Paris, 1920; Illustrations supplémentaires, Cambridge, 1921. ‘The earliest French Itineraries, 1552 and 1591, Charles Estienne and Théodore de Mayonne-Turquet.’ (Reprinted from Trans. Bibliographical Soc., The Library.) London, 1921. Une Piraterie Littéraire au dix- huitiéme siécle. Les contrafacons de la Liste Générale des Postes de France des Jaillot, 1708-1779. Cambridge, 1922. Listes Générales des Postes de France, 1708-1779, and Jaillot’s Géographes Ordinaires du Roi. (Reprinted from Trans. Bibliographical Soc., The Library.) London, 1922. La Cartographie des Routes de France au dix-huitieme siécle. (Reprinted from Bulletin de la section de géographie, 1925.) Paris, 1925. Catalogue des Guides-Routiers et des Itinéraires Francais, 1552-1850. Illustrations supplémentaires. Deuxiéme Série. Cambridge, 1925. 9. Nature. Cf. Comptes rendus, Acad. Sci. Paris; also ‘ Rate of movement in vertical earth adjustments connected with growth of mountains,’ Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., 62, pp. 63-73 (1923). 10. Dock and Harbour Authority, 5, No. 60 (Oct. 1925). 11. Full summary to be published in Geog. Journ. 13. To be published in Geog. Journ. 14, Cf. G. P. Winship, Cabot Bibliography, 1900, practicaily complete to end of the 19th century. Subsequent works :—(1) General. Payne, E. J., Age of Discovery and The New World, ch. 1 and 2 of the Cambridge Modern History, Vol. I, 1902; Bibliography, pp. 693-9. Biggar, H. P., Voyages of the Cabots and the Corte-Reals, 1903; John Cabot, Encyc. Brit., 11th edn., Vol. IV, pp. 921-3. (2) Critical and cartographical. Harrisse, H., Décowverte et evolution cartographique de Terre Neuve, 1900. Fischer, Jos., Die dlteste Karte mit dem Namen Amerika . . . 1507 und die Carta Marina ...des M. Waldseemiiller .. . 1516, 1903. Stevenson, E. L., The Canerio Map (c. 1502); Text: A critical Study, 1908 ; Early Spanish Cartograghy of the New World, 1909; Portolan Charts: their origin and characteristics, 1911. Heawood, Edward, A Hitherto Unknown Map of a.D. 1506, Geog. Jour., Vol. LXII, pp. 279-93, 1923. The Contarini Map, A Map of the World, 1506, facs., 1924. Srotion F. 6. Cf. I. F. Grant, Everyday Life on an Old Highland Farm, 1769-1782. 7. Morning Post, Sept. 29 and Oct. 5, 1925; cf. C.O.S. Quarterly, Jan. 1923 ; Stockholmstidningen, June 25, 27, 1925; Svenska Dagbladet, July 15, 1925 ; Jirte | and Koch, Sweden’s Economic and Social History during the War, to be published by | Carnegie Endowment Fund for Promotion of International Peace. 11. Manchester Guardian, Sept. 3, 1925. Section G. 5. Electrical Times, Sept. 3, 1925, pp. 247-8; Hlectrical Review, Sept. 4, 11, 1925 : Engineering, Sept. 4, 1925, pp. 283-4; Electrical Industries and Investments, Sept. 9 1925, pp. 1324-8; Hlectrician, Oct. 9, 1925, pp. 415-6. q : 7. Cf. ‘Development of the Steam Turbine’ (Howard Lectures), Roy. Soc. Arts, 923. 9. Cf. ‘Standardisation, its fundamental importance to the prosperity of o : trade,’ Proc. N.H. Coast Inst. Eng. & Shipb., 1922. { 11. Cf. The Iron Bacteria (Methuen, London), and various papers in Proc. Ro y. Soc. Edinb., Centralblatt fiir Bakteriologie, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), Proc. Roy. Phil Soc. Glasgow. k 12. Engineering, Sept. 18, 1925. REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 891 14. Material expected to be published in Engineering, and communicated to Inst. Civ. Eng. (Manchester branch). 15. Engineering, Oct. 2, 1925; Flight, Sept. 10, 1925; Journ. Roy. Aer, Soc., Dec. 1925; Modern Transport, Sept. 12, 1925. The following furthor communications appeared in Engineering (weekly) at or after the time of the meeting :—Nos. 2, 3, 4, 10. Sections F, G (Joint Mertinas on TRANSPORT PROBLEMS). 1. Engineer, Sept. 4, 11, 1925; Surveyor, Sept. 11, 1925; Modern Transport, Sept. 5, 12, 1925; Local Government Journ., Sept. 12, 1925, etc. 2. Engineering. 3. Surveyor, Sept. 18, 1925; Hexham Herald, Oct. 13, 1925; Journ. Inst. Municipal Hng., 2, No. 4 (Jan. 1911). 6. Modern Transport, Sept. 12, 1925; cf. K. G. Fenelon, Economics of Road Transport, Allen & Unwin. Section H. 1. Cf. report to be published in Trans. Glasgow Archaeol. Soc.; S. N. Miller, The Roman Fort at Balmuildy, Maclehose, Glasgow, 1921. 2. Portion of paper dealing with recent work at Caerwent to be published in Archeologia ; with Roman fort at Brecon, in Trans. Hon. Soc. Cymmrodorion. 8. To be offered to Journ. Roman Studies. 4. Ci. Roman pottery made at Ashley Rails, New Forest, and Roman pottery sites at Sloden and Linwood, Chiswick Press. 6. Report to be published by Birmingham Archeol. Soc. 8. Expected to be published in Classical Quarterly. 13. Cf. Liverpool Annals of Anthrop. and Archeol., 12, Nos. 1, 2, pp. 15-36, pl. vii-xix. 14. To be published in Folklore. 18. Expected to appear in Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst.; cf. Australian Musewm Mag., 2, no. 2, Apr. 1924; Stewart’s Handbook of the Pacific. 20. Cf. Geog. Journ., 65, p. 24; also 59, p. 19; 63, p. 426; Scot. Geog. Mag., 38, p. 146; Folklore, 26, p. 225; 38, p. 170; 35, p. 82; Man, 20, Nos. 18, 59; 24, No. 40; 25, No. 84; Discovery, 6, p. 325; also M. W. Hilton-Simpson, Among the Hill Folk of Algeria. 21. Expected to appear in Hibbert Journ.; cf. Hambly, History of Tattooing and its Significance (London, Witherby, 1925). 28. Cf. Bull. Soc. Jersiaise, Oct. 1925, for full account of discovery at La Hogue Bie. 26. Probably to be published in Man. 28. To appear in Trans. Soc. Guernesiaise, 1925; cf. < Our statue menhirs and those of France and Italy,’ Trans. Guernsey Soc. Nat. Sci., 1910 ; * Sculptured lines on capstone of Déhus (Guernsey), Zrans. G.S.N.S., 1917; * Evidence of man in Guernsey during the Bronze and Iron Age,’ Trans. G.S.N.S., 1918; ‘Notes on the recent discovery of a human figure sculptured on the capstone of the Dolmen of Déhus, Guernsey,’ read at Bournemouth Meeting of British Association, 1919, published in ‘ Man,’ 20, no. 9 (66), also in T’rans. G.S.N.S., 1919; * List of dolmens, 392 REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. menhirs and sacred rocks, compiled from Guernsey Place Names,’ Trans. G.S.N.S. 1921; ‘Sculptured stone found in a dolmen in Alderney,’ Trans. Soc. Guern., 1923. 29. Cf. Proc. Univ. Bristol Speleological Soc., 2, Nos. 1, 2 already published, No. 3 to appear May 1926. 31. Cf. ‘ Heredity and the Jew,’ Journ. Genetics, 1, No. 3, Sept. 8, 1911; ‘ Racial Origins of Jewish Types,’ Trans. Jewish Hist. Soc., 9 (1922); ‘ What has become of the Philistines ?’ Palestine Expl. Fund Quarterly Statement, Jan. and April 1925. 83. Material to be published by Rice and Dudley Buxton in Kish Excavation Series, ed. Prof. Langdon (Leroux, Paris). Section I. 1. Proc. Roy. Soc. B, 98, 1, 1925; cf. Journ. Metabolic Research, 2, p. 149 (1922) ; Lang and Macleod in Q.J. Exp. Physiol., 12, p. 331 (1920). 2. Cf. Journ. Indust. & Eng. Chemistry, 17, No. 8, p. 238, Mar. 1925. 4, Cf. Burn and Marks, ‘ Relation of thyroid gland to action of insulin,’ J. Physiol., 60, p. 131 (1925); Marks, ‘ Effect of thyroid feeding on sugar tolerance,’ J. Physiol. (in press, Nov. 1925). 8. To be published in Q. J. Exper. Physiol. and Journ. Physiol. 9. Cf. ‘ Use of the glass electrode in biochemistry,’ Biochem. Journ. 19, no. 4, p. 611. 18. Cf. Lancet, Jan. 26, 1918; Arris and Gale lecture, Roy. Coll. Surgeons, Mar. 5, 1921; Medical World, 1925. SEcTION J. 2. To be published as section of book, Ability (Methuen, 1926). 4. Cf. ‘ Physiological basis of the Clinical Study of Fatigue,’ Journ. Neurology & Psychopathology, 5, p. 103, Aug. 1924. 5. Cf. ‘ Discrimination of wool fabrics by the sense of touch,’ Brit. Journ. Psychol., Jan. 1926; ‘ Wool as a medium for measuring the sensibility of touch,’ Wool Record and Teatile World, July 30, 1925; ‘ Wool sorters’ judgments on greasy and scoured wool,’ ibid., June 4, 1925 ; ‘ Wool standardisation,’ ibid., Jan. 1, 1925; ‘ Estimation of yield of wool,’ ibid., Jan. 22.1925; ‘Stability of judgmert,’ ibid., Aug. 9, 1925; “Measured judgments of practical men in the wool trade,’ ibid., Oct. 2, 1925; ‘ Psychological skill in the wool industry,’ ibid., Aug. 26, 1920; ‘The human factor in the judgment of yarn and cloth,’ Journ. Bradford Textile Soc., 1920-1; ‘Some experiments in the measurement of native ability and acquired skill,’ Journ. Textile Inst., 12, 1; Bines and Raper, ‘Comparisons of visual and textile judgments in individuals of different ages and training,’ Proc. Seventh Internat. Cong. Psychol. ; Binns and Burt, ‘Comparisons of the judgments of children and adultsin the evaluation of cloths,’ Journ. Nat. Inst. Psychol., 1, no.3; Binns and Macpherson, ‘ Experimental enquiry into school and industrial ability,’ Forum of Education, 1, no. 2. 6. Cf. Philpott, The Cinema in Education (Allen & Unwin, 1925). 12. Brit. Journ. Med. Psychol., 5, part 1, 1925. 16. Published as section of book, Social Psychology, a text-book for students of economics (University Tutorial Press, Oct. 1925), 17, Intended to appear in Brit. Journ. Psychol. REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 393 Section K. 2. Cf. book, Ferns, 2 (in the press). 4. To be published in New Phytologist. 8. Cf. ‘ A new aspect of the dung flora,’ Imperial Bot. Conf. Rep., 1924, pp.346-352. 12a. Expected to appear in Annals of Botany; cf. ‘On the life-history of Harveyella pachyderma and H. mirabilis,’ Ann. Bot., 38, no. 149, Jan. 1924. 13. Expected to appear in Kew Bulletin. 15. Cf. chapter on evolution in plants, in Lvolution (Blackie, 1925). 16. Cf. Potter, ‘ On healing of parenchymatous tissues in plants,’ B.A. Rep. 1925 ; Richards, ‘ Evolution of heat by wounded plants,’ Ann. Bot., 11, 1897. 17. Expected to be published in Annals of Botany, Jan. 1926; cf. ‘ Preliminary note on the pollen development of Lathyrus odoratus,’ Brit. Journ. Exper. Biol., 2, p- 199 (Jan. 1925). 18. Cf. ‘ Artificial hybridisation of grasses,’ Welsh Plant Breeding Station, Univ. Coll. Wales, Aberystwyth, Bulletin ser. H., No. 2, 1924. 20. To be published in New Phytologist. 21. To appear in substance in Nature ; cf. Extinct Plants and Problems of Evolution (Macmillan, 1924); ‘The Succession of Floras in the Past,’ Nineteenth Century, Dec. 1924. 29. Cf. ‘ Parasitism of Helminthosporium gramineum,’ Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. (Biol. Sci.), 1, No. 2, Apr. 1924. 80. To be published in Brit. Mycol. Journ. (Iris Maxwell and G. B. Wallace). Sus-Section K (Forestry). __ 2. Probably to be published in Trans. Roy. Scot. Arbor. Soc. ; cf. ibid., 39, part 2 ; Empire Forestry Journ., 4, No. 2. . 8. Reports in Timber Trades Journ. and Timber News; full paper to be published ‘in Royal Arboricultural Journ. S 4. Paper on ‘ some diseases of tree seedlings and their control,’ to be published in Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. Cf. ‘ Phomopsis disease of conifers,’ Bull. 6, Forestry Com- Mission ; ‘Studies in pathology of young trees and seedlings—I. The Rosellinia disease of the Spruce,’ Trans. Roy. Scot. Arbor. Soc., 36, p. 226 (1922). 5 5. To appear in 7'rans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. _ 7. Cf. Fr. Bubak in ‘ Eine neue Rhizosphaera,’ Berichte Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft, 32, p. 188 (1914); A. van Luyk, ‘ Ueber einige Sphaeropsideae und Melanconieae auf Nadelholzern,’ Ann. M ycol., 21, p.133 (1923) ; L. Mangin et P. Hariot, “Sur la maladie du rouge du sapin pectine dans la forét de la Savine (Jura),’ Bull. Soc. Mycol. de France, 33, p. 53 (1907); A. Maublane, ‘Sur la maladie des sapins duite par le Fusicoccum abietinum,’ ibid., p- 160. 12. Probably to be published in Empire Forestry Journ. 17. To be published in Empire Forestry Journ. 18. Phil. Trans. B, No. 412. 394 REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. Section L. 1. (Dr. E. Barker)> Cf. Forwm of Education, Feb. 1925. Srction M. 2. To be published in Ann. Applied Biol. 4. Cf. paper to appear in Journ. Pomology. 6. To be published (modified) in Journ. Agric. Sci. 7. To be published in Journ. Agric. Sct. 8. Cf. Scot. Journ. Agric., July 1925. 10. Brit. Journ. Exper. Pathology, 6, p. 129 (1925). 13. Probably to appear in Ann. Applied Botany; cf. Tattersfield, Gimingham, and Morris, ‘ Studies on Contact insecticides, III,’ Ann. App. Bot., 12, p. 218, 1925. 15. Cf. Fruit Bulletin No. 10 (S.E. Agricultural College), 1925 ; ‘ Notes on insect visitors to fruit blossoms,’ Journ. Pomology, 1, pp. 116-124 (1919). AERONAUTICAL PROBLEMS OF THE PAST AND OF THE FUTURE.’ BY R. V. SOUTHWELL, F.R.S. PART I. The Scope of Aeronautics. 1. Twenty years ago, a man might hope to traverse the whole field of Aeronautics in the space of an hour’s discourse: to-day, that hope would be as vain as the design of Comte and Herbert Spencer, to take all know- ledge for their province. Growing at an amazing rate, under the stimulus of war, Aeronautics has drawn for its sustenance on many sciences and arts : on metallurgy and textile science, for its materials of construction; on thermodynamics and mechanical engineering, for its engines of amazing power; on structural engineering, for designs in which every ounce of unnecessary weight must be eliminated, and the margin of permissible uncertainty is smaller than ever before; on nayal architecture, for hulls which enable its flying boats to skim the surface of the sea at speeds sufficient for their air-borne flight ; on meteorology, for knowledge of the conditions with which it has to reckon in its struggle against the forces of Nature. On each and all of these sciences it has made demands more stringent than any that they had encountered before ; on each it has left, as it were, the impress of its own personality,—the trace of enquiry aimed at some particular goal. No one man can pretend to knowledge pervading all these subjects,—certainly not I; nor, if I did, could I hope to review them even cursorily in the time available to me this evening. Aerodynamics,—the Science of Bodies in Motion through a Fluid. 2. But given all these sciences, Aeronautics has to graft on to them another, which is Aerodynamics,—the science of bodies in motion through a fluid by which they are totally submerged; and this science Aeronautics has so largely dominated that it may almost claim it as its own. But for that fact, there would be little justification for the use of the term Aero- dynamics ; for it is seldom necessary to take account of the air’s compres- sibility, and in the main our results would apply equally well to bodies moving through water. Visitors at times seem surprised to find us testing torpedoes or paravanes in our wind tunnels: the explanation is, that although air 7s elastic (so that many strokes of the pump are required to inflate a motor tyre), yet in its flow past bodies moving at any ordinary speed it undergoes such slight changes of pressure that the corresponding changes in density may be neglected. The torpedo is older than the aeroplane, and its problems, similar in kind, were encountered earlier than those of artificial flight. Nor was it 1 Evening Discourse to the British Association, Southampton, August 28, 1925. 396 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. left for Aeronautics to examine the effects of compressibility,—for pro- jectiles have long been discharged at speeds exceeding that of sound. But the special theories, the new technique, which are the contribution of Aeronautics have come to lead, rather than to follow, the attack on these older problems ; and for that reason it seems fair to speak of the science as Aerodynamics, even at some cost in accuracy. * Applied Aerodynamics ’. I shall attempt to-night a brief review of aeronautical progress from a particular standpoint,—the standpoint of science ; and in the main it is with this new science of Aerodynamics that I shall be concerned. Not with Aerodynamics as a pure science,—the ‘ theoretical hydrodynamics ’ of the mathematician and physicist,—for that is old ; but with “ Applied Aero- dynamics ’,—that is, with the science in its definite modern orientation, an orientation which has been determined by the ambition of man to fly. Just as the whole development of applied electricity was conditioned by the fact that man (unlike Nature) can best utilise a source of power which rotates, so the course of applied aerodynamics has been conditioned by the fact that man has elected to build his aeroplanes ‘ just so’. Historical Study in Science. 3. There is always fascination in the study of a science from the historical standpoint ; in seeing how tentative and isolated advances— some made with immediate success, others in the face of difficulties only surmounted after the lapse of years—have eventually met and coalesced, with the gain of some definite addition to knowledge. The fascination is even greater, perhaps,—certainly the story tends to be more complicated,— when the science is * applied ’, because of this interaction between science (properly pursued for its own interest) and technical development (properly pursued for its own ends). Pure sciences seem to develop, like some natural growth, along orderly and logical lines: a new and revolutionary dis- covery may impair, for the moment, the symmetry of the structure ; but immediately a process of bridging—of ‘cross-connection’—begins. Applied sciences, by comparison, have more likeness to a military campaign. Sometimes there is a halt in the advance, while the existing position is strengthened and reserves of accurate and co-ordinated knowledge are accumulated: at others, these reserves are expended in a supreme and sustained effort, and technical advance is carried up to, or even beyond, any position which could be—in the military phrase— consolidated’, Its Special Importance for Aeronautics. In Aeronautics—the latest of the applied sciences—this campaign has been brief in years, brilliant in its achievement. It is little more than twenty years since the Wright brothers made their first power-driven flight (it did not last one minute) in North Carolina; less than twenty years since Santos Dumont astonished the world by flying a distance of 60 metres against the wind: yet by now an aeroplane has carried its pilot to a height of 74 miles, an aeroplane has been flown at a speed of nearly ON AERONAUTICAL PROBLEMS. 397 280 miles per hour, and aeroplanes have crossed the Atlantic.2 Years must elapse before we shall attain the perspective which is needed for proper historical study; but I hold that even now, and at the risk of some distortion, we ought to keep the historical aspect in view,—for this reason, that the future of Aeronautics is in our hands. Just as the politician ought (if he does not) to study current tendencies in the light of history, so we ought to look to the history of earlier sciences for guidance in our business of directing aeronautical research. The Unusual Circumstances of Aeronautical Research. 4. The future of Aeronautics is in our hands, to make or mar, because practically the whole of aeronautical research and development is financed and directed by Government. State-aided research is, of course, a post-war phenomenon which affects practically all of the applied sciences. But the business of direction is a simpler matter in those which have by now attained a definite position and a “ settled outlook’ ; for reasonably correct lines of development are guaranteed by the stern law of Nature and of Economics,—that only the fit survive: in Aeronautics, which has never yet “ paid its way ’, but has grown, and grows, in the artificial atmosphere of Government subsidy, much time and money may be wasted before the fact is glaringly apparent. The Importance of Proper Direction. Many well-disposed but less well-informed people, especially in Parlia- ment, seem to imagine that progress in Aeronautics is a question, first and last, of money ; technical advance, in a word, is a mercantile commodity, purchasable at a definite amount per thousand pounds. No view could be more fallacious. Unless our programmes of research and development are well-conceived, aiming at the solution of definitely formulated problems, additional money will do us more harm than good. It is pleasant to feel assured of a favourable hearing when we have to ask for money ; but remembering that we have no economic touchstone, as yet, by which to test our schemes, we ought to subject them to criticism all the more ruthless on this account,—to make sure that we have ideas which _ we need money to develop, rather than ask for money as a preliminary to formulating our ideas. The Importance of Public Opinion. 5. There is another factor in the problem which, as I hold, we need _ to consider, and it too arises from the fact that aeronautical research and _ development are dependent on Government funds. As such,in a democratic - country, they are liable to interference (through pressure brought to bear by Parliamentary questions or otherwise) by any interested individual or association ; and because the public interest is stirred by an achievement so recent and so striking as the conquest of the air, this interference ? Official records for aeroplanes at the close of 1924 were :—Altitude : 39,576 feet (France). Speed : 278 miles per hour (France). Distance : 3,293 miles, refuelling during flight (U.S.A.) ; 2,517 miles, without refuelling (U.S.A.). (Cf. Flight, January 29, 1925.) 8398 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. (whether well-meaning or otherwise) is exerted, to an extent which workers in other fields can perhaps hardly realize. Hence, for Aeronautics it is not merely a matter of benevolent interest that public opinion should be well-informed: it may prove to be an essential condition of its own development. I think that we who spend our time in aeronautical research have still to appreciate the importance of this aspect. We are too much inclined to go our own way quietly, studying those problems which we hold to be important, and mildly contemptuous of ‘ aeronautical correspondents ’, with their insistence on the spectacular and the ‘stunt’. So long as aeronautical research and development depend for their existence upon the State, it is not enough to frame a wise policy,—we must be prepared to defend it. We cannot afford to regard with complacent amusement a state of public opinion in which speed is held to be more important than reliability ; in which to talk about non-stop flights to New Zealand is not only better journalism, but better business, than to proceed steadily with the building of a craft which will fly to India ; and in which, while aeroplane accidents continue to exhibit a sinister resemblance, few know that the Aeronautical Research Committee has recently developed a control which gives every promise of a remedy, whilst emphasis is laid on the fact that it did not invent the ‘ slotted wing’, the ‘ Autogyro ’, or the ‘ Rotor Ship’. Aeronautics Needs to ‘ Settle Down’. 6. No doubt, in the main, these things are due to the circumstance that Aeronautics is stillin its infancy. It is one of the many disadvantages of that overrated period, that although heaven may lie about us in our infancy, people are apt to lie about us too; at least, they are apt to make predictions about us then which in our later years we try vainly to fulfil. And this child is so very precocious! It is not surprising if many have come to think that its natural environment is an atmosphere of record- breaking and of ‘ stunts’. But infant phenomena must grow up,—although their invincible habit of doing so has been a recurring embarrassment from the days of Mr. Vincent Crummles to the days of Jackie Coogan! Nor should this fact be regretted. For steady advance and solid achievement, in applied science as in general, seem to be consolations reserved for the comparatively humdrum period of middle age. The spectacular days of the motor-car, no doubt, were those in which one lit up an ignition tube in front and started for a run to Brighton with prayer and the expectation of a day’s hard work; yet there has been more real progress in the relatively unexciting atmosphere of to-day. What Aeronautics needs, most of all, is to ‘ settle down ’,—to quiet and steady advance along natural lines of development. That, if we look deep enough, was what really led to its spectacular achievements in the war: ultimately, those successes were founded on a basis of sheer hard work, done in the days of peace. No other path will lead us surely to success in the future; nor, on examina- tion, do the ‘ stunt ’ predictions of to-day give any real promise of important advance. By way of illustration, let me take some of the questions which bulk largest in aeronautical columns to-day, and briefly assess their importance ON AERONAUTICAL PROBLEMS. 399 from the standpoint of research and development. Subsequently I shall try to indicate what I hold to be questions of more real importance. Helium for Airships. 7. We have seen, in the last few months, a great revival of interest in the airship. Two of these craft, larger than any that have been con- structed hitherto, are known to be on order for the Air Ministry, and R.33—sister of the airship which made, in 1919, the first trans-Atlantic flight—has again been seen in the air. Indeed, she has made history. For by that involuntary but triumphant voyage of last April, when in a gale of unusual violence she was torn from her moorings and blown, with sorely damaged structure, across the sea to Holland, she showed in convincing fashion what an airship, properly handled, can do. Damaged as she was, she maintained throughout a speed of 30 knots, and so, instead of being carried helplessly across Kurope, was able to elude the full force of the gale and eventually to make a safe return to Pulham. Now whenever airships are mentioned in the Press, one may expect to find a digression on the advantages of helium. Hydrogen, with which our airships are inflated, is a highly inflammable gas,—helium is inert; and hence, it is argued, our airships are confronted by an ever- present danger of destruction by fire, which would be completely removed if we could ensure a supply of the rarer gas. It is hard on us that America, who possesses the only known sources of natural helium, should earmark the whole output for her own use. Until recently, one could lessen the force of this contention by saying (what was perfectly true) that the chief danger of fire in an airship arises, not from the hydrogen, but from the petrol carried. But with the development of engines using heavy oil that position becomes no longer tenable. True, there is no case on record in which an airship has perished by ignition of the hydrogen, except during the War, when incendiary bullets were employed. But, it will be answered, we are bound to contem- plate conditions of war, and it is here that helium assumes its greatest importance ; moreover, in the long-distance voyages of the future we shall have to face the dangers of atmospheric electricity. Well, as regards the dangers of atmospheric electricity, we were privi- leged, in March of this year, to hear at first hand the views of Dr. Eckener. Dr. Eckener is the present chairman of the Zeppelin Company, and he has been associated with airship construction in Germany for twenty-five years; he has made over 2,000 separate flights in rigid airships; and in particular, it was he who piloted the Z.R.3 from Friedrichshafen to New York some months ago. He is quite definitely of the opinion that lightning is not dangerous; and his views carry weight, because he has himself ‘piloted airships through thunderstorms. He makes one reservation: he says, “One condition must be given if lightning is to do no harm,—the airship must not let out any gas, either through the valves or through deficient gas cells, for otherwise the electric spark may strike an explosive gas mixture’. And to meet this requirement he makes the interesting suggestion that an airship might carry small reservoirs of helium, only intended for emergency use, in case it should be absolutely necessary to valve gas during a passage through thunderstorms.* 8 R. Aé. Soc. Journal, June 1925, pp. 283-285. : ‘ 400 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. Are there any objections, other than that of scarcity, to the use of helium only, as a complete substitute for hydrogen ? I only know of one, but I think it is fatal: heliwm has less lifting power. As a rough working figure, applicable to hydrogen of ordinary purity and in normal barometric conditions, one may say that every 1,000 cubic feet of hydrogen will keep 68 lb. in the air at ground level: a corresponding figure for helium is 63 lb. Now this at first sight is not a big difference,—but then a mere per- centage does not convey the right idea: so much of the 68 (or 63) lbs. is employed on unavoidable duty,—in lifting the airship structure, the engines, and the crew. Let us see what the difference would have meant to R.33 in her recent flight. She is a ship of 2,000,000 cubic feet capacity, so the difference of 5 lbs. per 1,000 cubic feet means that, inflated with helium instead of hydrogen, she would have had 10,000 Ibs. less of ‘ useful lift’. Other things being equal (and for the most part they leave no choice), she would have had less petrol in her tanks to the amount of 1,430 gallons. Now the published accounts of R.33’s flight state that two hours after she broke away Lieut. Booth reported 1,600 gallons of petrol on board, and that this as a matter of fact was sufficient, but only just sufficient, to bring her home. Inflated with helium, she must have been wrecked ‘somewhere in Europe’: hardly a triumphant vindication of helium from the standpoint of ‘ safety first’! Even in time of war, it is arguable whether we should unquestionably use helium if we could. Airships filled with hydrogen can be set on fire by incendiary bullets, and undoubtedly some will, if they become the prey of hostile aeroplanes. But in war we have to choose between risks of different kinds,—to strike a balance between the danger and the importance of the objective. A five-million ship (such as we are building now) could carry 11 tons more bombs with hydrogen than with helium; with the same weight of bombs it could carry additional petrol, giving it about 24 hours more endurance at cruising speed; with the same weight of bombs and petrol it could fly 2,000 feet higher (and the official altitude record for airships is only slightly over 10,000 feet).4 Is it really certain that these advantages will be forfeited in order to make the airship non- inflammable? I personally will venture the prediction that America herself, if she uses them in war, will inflate her airships with hydrogen, and take special measures for their protection. The Helicopter. 8. I pass on now to the Helicopter, that hardy perennial of the ‘ aero- nautical column’; and in case any one in this hall is unacquainted with the nature of the beast, I have brought a young one with me. (A helicopter model was flown at this povnt.) The full-sized helicopter is not as simple as that, of course, but you will readily grasp the basic idea: the Helicopter is a ‘form of aircraft whose support in the air is derived from airscrews with their axes vertical ’. That is the definition given in the British Standard Glossary of — _ *C£. Flight, January 29, 1925, ON AERONAUTICAL PROBLEMS. 401 Aeronautical Terms ; but the helicopter may also be defined as ‘ a form of aircraft by which all Governments are attracted, and which they endeavour to develop by means of prize competitions’. What is the origin of the attraction | am unable to say. We are told (my source of information is the daily Press) that ‘it is considered to offer great military advantages ’. I personally suspect that what really happens is something like this :-— Members of the Air Council of Ruritania, meeting representatives of the War Office at the Ruritanian Committee of Imperial Defence, say to them, “We quite appreciate the reasons why you find it difficult to enthuse about our hydrogen-filled kite balloons: no one, to say the least, could call them pretty ; they are awkward things to haul in to the winch; and they are almost defenceless against hostile aircraft, by reason of the ease with which they can be set on fire. Now, how would you like to possess a machine which can hover, yet needs no mooring cable or winch; and which can’t be shot down ?”’ What, confronted by this question, could any general reply, except that such a form of aircraft would ‘ offer great military advantages’? But his position is really that of a man who reads an advertisement which says :—‘ What would you say to a shaving-stick which costs only sixpence, lasts practically for ever, and in two seconds gives a creamy lather which can’t rust the razor and doesn’t dry on the face’ ? Of course he wants it ; he has been wanting it for years: but that is not to say that such a thing exists, or will ever exist. The Question of its Military Value. 9. I hope that I shall not be thought to minimize the importance of military aspects: the dullest imagination must see that war, under any conditions which our experience enables us to contemplate, will come more and more beneath the domination of the air. Personally, I do not believe that the helicopter is a form of aircraft which will prove to have great military value. It will not be so easily set on fire as the kite balloon, no doubt; but I think that its restricted field of fire, together with its un- wieldiness and its inability to manceuvre rapidly, will always make it an easy prey to the fighting aeroplane. Its Technical Problems. If I am wrong, as I very probably am, I quite appreciate the necessity for its development ; and if any Government really wants to develop a helicopter, I see no reason why it should not have its desire, provided only that it adopts a reasonable plan for obtaining it, which isnot that of the prize competition. The essence of the helicopter is its lifting screw, and it happens ‘that we know a considerable amount about airscrews; so a properly constituted technical committee could estimate fairly well the performance which is to be expected from a craft of specified size. Again, with assistance from a committee of this kind, any of the well-known designers could, I believe, produce a helicopter which would give something like the esti- mated performance. But the crucial problem of the helicopter, as in climbing trees, is not so much how to get up as how to get down! Engines, regrettable as it is from the disciplinary standpoint, do sometimes fail in the air. DD 402 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. The greatest height to which a helicopter has ascended is stated in official records to be 3.28 feet!® Isuspect that this and other heights which have been attained so far have been disappointing to the inventors con- cerned, Perhaps their luck was not so bad as they imagined,—just as the small boy is not always to be pitied who fails to climb a tree: their engines did not fail in the tests they made, but they might have done! Let us con- sider for a moment what are the prospects for a helicopter-aeronaut whose engines have stopped. The Importance of Stability. 10. Well he has to come down, and he would like to come down slowly ; that is to say, he wants to expose as great a resistance as possible to motion through the air. Surprising as it may seem, his best procedure is to de- clutch the lifting screws. An airscrew free to rotate offers more resistance than one which is stopped: indeed, we have shown by recent experiments at the National Physical Laboratory that it can be made to give a resist- ance approximating to that of a flat plate equal in size to the circle which its tips sweep through as they spin.* So we may hope to provide him with a kind of parachute, and his plight is less dismal than it at first appeared. But resistance to motion is not enough. We must be certain that his descent will be steady,—in technical language, that his aircraft, with engine stopped, is stable. (At this point an illustration was given by means of parachute models of the wmportance of stability.) The Futility of the Prize Competition. 11. Itis this problem of stability which must be solved before anything can be hoped from the helicopter. There is no reason, from what we know of the corresponding problem for aeroplanes, to anticipate that it will present any overwhelming difficulty ; but it must be attacked by systematic research. And such research ought not to be financed by, and therefore kept secret for, the private inventor: if the helicopter has military importance, the knowledge obtained will be of national interest, and pro- vision should be made accordingly. So I come back to the contention with which I started: if there is any future for the helicopter (and of this I personally am not convinced), it is a problem which should be referred to the research committee and to the professional designer. Nothing could be more futile, as a plan for developing it, than the prize competition. The High-Speed Aeroplane. 12. Turning now to another familiar topic, the high-speed aeroplane, we need not pause to consider its military importance: in the air, as in every other form of warfare, victory lies with the side which can manceuvre fastest. On the other hand, it is doubtful whether much assistance can be rendered here by systematic research, except on the side of the engine ; clearly, if we can increase the power developed by an engine of given weight, we shall gain an immediate improvement in speed. The other 5 Cf. Flight, January 29, 1925. * Experiments made since this Discourse was delivered have indicated the — possibility of considerably higher resistances. ON AERONAUTICAL PROBLEMS. 403 way to gain speed is to reduce the resistance of the aeroplane to motion through the air. But this is now, in the main, a question of ‘clean design ’,—that is, of eliminating all excrescences which needlessly add to the resistance of the body ; for we know enough of the principles which govern the design of wings, as they are made to-day, to be fairly certain that we are not paying an excessive price now for a given lifting power. A Case for Competition. 13. Hence, as it seems to me, the high-speed aeroplane is, as the helicopter is not, a suitable subject for prize competitions: year by year, the best designing firms in the country should be induced to bring all their knowledge and experience to bear on this problem of clean design. And so far as we possibly can, we should remove every restriction which makes their problem more difficult: the designer should not be able to complain, as he complains at present, that when he has built an aeroplane of clean design, and is counting on something striking from its speed trials, suddenly a host of experts descends upon the helpless craft, and bedecks it with armament, wireless, and other ‘ gadgets’, until, as he says, it makes its first ascent ‘ looking like a flying Christmas tree’. If you want to discover the limits of possibility in the way of high speed, then you should go for high speed, as they say, ‘bald-headed’. Obviously, an aeroplane on service will have to sacrifice some of its otherwise attainable speed to the needs of armament and wireless; but that is no reason for making these sacrifices in your experimental machine,—rather, the reverse. The principle, fundamental to all physical enquiry, of isolating the different factors of a problem, is one of the hardest lessons to drive home in connection with development work. High Speed and Civil Aviation*. [14. Before we pass from the consideration of high speed, I should like to make one general observation. Military requirements ought always to be recognised for what they are,—counsels of necessity, leading in general to the evolution of types which, except under conditions of the most intense specialization, could not possibly survive. (What con- ceivable use, except for purposes of war, could be made of the ancient triereme, of the modern battleship, or of the still more modern ‘ tank’ ? Like the warriors of certain savage tribes, they are good for killing, but for nothing else.) Especially after a spell of intense development under the stimulus of war, we ought to take care that an abnormal standard of values is not unthinkingly retained, as though it had a fundamental and permanent significance. I think that this critical attitude has at times been rather lacking in what we somewhat optimistically term ‘the period of reconstruction ’. And I fancy that, had it been more in evidence, we might have seen less emphasis laid on speed as a dominating factor in civil aviation. Of course, aviation has in speed an advantage over other forms of transport which it aust be careful to retain; but until commercial flying becomes a real actor in every-day life,—so long as the problem set you by the ordinary 1an is not so much to impress him with what has been done in the air, * For want of time, § 14 of the Discourse was not delivered. DD2 404 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. as to induce him to take a ticket and go up himself,—it is not necessarily the feature on which you should lay most emphasis. Safety, comfort and reliability,—these are the true essentials. Until these can be guaranteed,—so long, that is, as the saving of time which travel by air should render possible is only problematic,—it will have attractions only for the few: given these, any saving of time over the older forms of transport will have its effect. Now high speed militates against all three, besides being very costly; the lower we can afford to make the top speed of an aeroplane, the lower will be its landing speed, on which, primarily, its safety depends. An airspeed of anything over 80 m.p.h., will suffice, in general, to achieve a saving of time over other forms of transport, especially when the journey is such that in the ordinary way delays are caused by customs’ examinations, etc. In relatively undeveloped countries very much less will suffice: indeed, the aeroplane or airship, once established _ as economic and reliable, will hardly have a competitor. Do not these considerations justify the Aeronautical Research Committee in its policy | of placing ‘ safety first’ ? Is it not wiser to aim at satisfying, rather than at creating, a demand ?] The Giant Aeroplane. 15. Wildest of all aeronautical predictions are those which tell of the giant aeroplane. We must all have met, in the illustrated magazines, hair-raising descriptions of monsters which will carry the armament of a first-class cruiser. I fancy that these articles are easy to write,—although their illustrations must call for some ingenuity ; for they proceed on this simple argument: ‘ Already the size of aeroplanes has increased from the earliest types, just capable of taking one man to a height of two or three hundred feet, to monster troop-carriers which can transport twenty-five men, or more, complete with equipment. In another ten years we shall see an entire company of infantry carried in this way; in another fifty, a battalion’. Galileo and the Dimensional Handicap. Now a good fantastic story on the model of Jules Verne has attractions for most of us: itis this argument which we cannot allow to pass. The man who uses it believes, with a feeling of justifiable pride, that he is right in | the van of progress: he would be pained to learn that its foundations were | destroyed nearly 300 years ago, by a certain theoretically-minded | scientist named Galileo! Yet such is the fact: in a memoir published in 1638, Galileo showed conclusively that (in the words of Professor D’Arcy Thompson) ‘ neither can man build a house nor can Nature construct an animal beyond a certain size, while retaining the same proportions and employing the same materials as sufficed in the case of a smaller structure ’.° © Its Operation in Nature. 16. The demonstration is quite simple. Let us start with an ordinary | fox-terrier dog, and imagine that we are endowed with power to create — another of exactly twice the scale,—that is, twice the height, twice the - 5 Growth and Form, p. 19. ON AERONAUTICAL PROBLEMS. 405 length, and twice the girth. Not wishing to waste our somewhat exceptional talent, we create one forthwith. But mark what follows :—The weight of our large-scale fox-terrier goes up as his volume,—that is, eight times ; like his smaller prototype, he stands on four legs ; and the cross-section of each leg is only increased in the ratio of four to one: therefore, each leg is loaded, in relation to its size, twice as heavily as before. It is clear that we cannot continue this process indefinitely : every time we double our fox-terrier, his bones will be loaded—per square inch of cross-section, as engineers would say—twice as heavily as before ; and unless in the begin- ning they were utterly over-proportioned, a time will soon come when they will crack under the strain. What is the remedy ? Clearly this, that as we increase his size we must also thicken his legs, and with his legs his neck, his backbone,—his whole skeleton. He will get steadily less lovely ; all his erstwhile friskiness will evaporate as he braces himself more and more earnestly to the dreadful task of supporting his own weight; and never, while his substance increases, will the demands of gravity relax their embarrassing pressure. Sooner or later the struggle must be given up: no matter how carefully we distribute his material, a time will come when, in literal truth, flesh and bone can do no more. And when that time comes, our fox-terrier will be looking, in size and shape of body, very like an elephant! To quote Professor Thompson again—‘ The elephant, in the dimensions of its limb bones, is already show- ing signs of a tendency to disproportionate thickness as compared with the smallermammals. . . . Itis already tending towards the limit of size which the physical forces permit ’.” If Mr. Wells had written ‘ Gulliver’s Travels’, I fancy that the men of Lilliput would have had legs as slender as those of our smaller birds: what he would have done about the Brobgingnagians I am unable to conjecture. For made of human bone and tissue they could not possibly stand erect; gravity must win. And this, in the end, will be the fate of all endeavours after greater size. Using steel, we succeed in building bridges of a span which Nature nowhere approaches ; but there is a dimen- sional restriction on engineering structures as on animals, and we shall never bridge more than some limited span. Now the body of an aeroplane, like that of a bird, is a bridge, transmitting weights to the lifting surfaces of its wings and tail; and it too is subject to the dimensional handicap. How- ever cunningly we distribute our loads, we make our problem harder by going to greater size. The Additional Handicap of ‘ Necessary Speed ’. 17. As a matter of fact, the problem is made harder by another factor still. The larger bird flies faster than the smaller: not merely because it can, but because (like Old Man Kangaroo in the ‘Just-So’ story) ‘zt has to’. Let us again assume the power of creation, and decide to construct a sparrow of four times normal size. Its weight, as before, goes up as its volume,— that is, in this instance, it is multiplied by sixty-four. But the area of its wings (to which, at any given speed, their lifting power is proportional) is only multiplied by sixteen; so they are loaded, like our fox-terrier’s legs, with an intensity proportional to the scale,—that is, four times as 7 Growth and Form, p. 21. 406 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. heavily as before. And since the efficiency of the wings is, for practical purposes, independent of their scale, they cannot develop the required lifting power except by moving faster through the air: to increase their ‘lift’ four times they must move twice as fast. This is the ‘ principle of necessary speed ’,—that for the maintenance of level flight a bird must fly at a speed proportional to the square root of its linear dimensions. And, as Helmholtz showed, the rate at which it has to do work will increase as the power 34 of its linear dimensions,® whilst its capacity for doing work, which depends on the mass of its muscles, only varies as the third power.® On creatures which aspire to fly, increasing size brings to bear an ever-increasing handicap : life in the air, | a thing of buccaneering adventure for the midge and the mosquito, has already proved too strenuous for the ostrich ! Borelli and the Aeroplane. 18. Borelli, who wrote in 1685, recognised these facts; in one of his chapters he develops the proposition—‘ It is impossible that man should ever fly under his own power’.!° And the coming of mechanical flight has done nothing to disprove the existence of the dimensional handicap, although the extraordinary efficiency of the internal combustion engine, as compared with Nature’s equivalent of lungs and muscle, has greatly increased the size at which that handicap is felt. I do not say that we have yet reached a limit in respect of size of aeroplanes: new materials, new principles of construction, and above all, new types of engine, may relieve the pressure of the laws which I have been discussing. All that I am concerned to show is that this pressure will be merely ‘ postponed’ ; that it is idle to talk gaily of size as an advantage which nothing but our ignorance withholds from our grasp to-day. The Giant Airship. 19. Outside the pages of the monthly magazines these principles, of course, are generally recognized. At all events, there is recognition of an element of risk,—of adventure, if you are in favour of taking it: of gambling, if you are not,—which attends every advance to greater size. And in particular, doubts are expressed as to the wisdom of the Air Ministry policy which, after four years of complete stagnation in airship construction, is now embarking on the adventure of ships just twice as large as any that have been built hitherto. As to that four years’ stagnation, the less said the better. A nation which looks to attain economy by the road of Anti- Waste agitations in the illustrated newspapers, culminating in a Geddes Committee and the Geddes Axe, gets nothing but its plainest deserts when these stupidities result. What concerns us now is not the fact that we have thrown away the potential advances of those four years, but that we are trying to repair our blunder: are we wise to make our first step one of definite advance ? 8 128 for the large-scale sparrow. ® 64 for the large-scale sparrow. 0 De Motu Animalium, I, prop. cciv., ed. 1685, p. 243. (Growth and Form, p. 28.) ——— ON AERONAUTICAL PROBLEMS. 407 Galileo and the Whale. 20. It may seem that I have answered this question already, by the argument which I gave just now. And the man of conservative instincts, who objects to the building of giant airships as an unnecessarily dangerous adventure, seems at times to take his stand on these dimensional laws. I say ‘seems’, because his argument cannot in the nature of things be clear, since it is in fact erroneous: Galileo has another word to say, which effectively disposes of him too. We saw just now that Nature, confined to her materials of bone and muscle, seems to have exhausted her inventive powers in designing the elephant. It may have crossed your minds, as I was speaking, that I failed to take account of the whale. But Galileo saw, and drew attention to, the very different conditions which obtain when an animal, instead of fighting gravity on land, eludes its enemy by taking to the water. To quote Professor Thompson once again: *.. . if the animal be wholly immersed in water, . . . then the weight is counterpoised to the extent of an equivalent volume of water, and is completely counterpoised if the density of the animal’s body, with the included air, be identical (as in a whale it nearly is) with the water around. Under these circumstances there ts no longer a physical barrier to the indefinite growth in magnitude of the animal,’ 11 Influence of Scale on the Strength of an Airship. 21. Turning from zoology to aeronautics, we find here a reason for the fact that the airship has already left the aeroplane so far behind in the scale of size. The parallel is not exact, for reasons which I have not time to elaborate; but it is sufficiently exact for our purpose. Relying for its ‘lift’ upon its buoyancy, the airship experiences a rela- tively insignificant ‘ dimensional handicap’ in the stresses which it has to sustain,—whether these arise from the loads which it carries, or from the _ air forces which it encounters as it turns. By doubling every dimension, we obtain an airship which will carry eight times as much load, and can withstand winds of the same strength as before. Incidental Advantages of Size. 22. Indeed, there is a certain advantage in respect of strength which comes from increased size. Suppose that we took an existing airship _(R.33 say) and decreased every dimension by two. According to dimen- sional theory it could still fly and it would have adequate strength ; but in reality its structure would have become impossibly flimsy. It is difficult to realise how slight the members are already : the total cross-section of all the duralumin girders used as longitudinal members of R.33 is only 8 square inches! Divide this by four, and you would have material which the slightest corrosion would weaken almost to vanishing point. Conversely, by increasing the size, and employing material of stouter " gauge, we lessen the importance of corrosion as a factor in our calculations ; _ we render possible methods of construction which were not practicable 11 Growth and Form, p. 21. 408 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. before (so that steel can be contemplated as the material of the new giant airships, although it has not been used hitherto); and lastly, since our whole construction has become more robust, we lessen the chance of acci- dental damage. This last is a factor which dimensional theory does not assess, but it is a very important one: whatever the scale of your airship, it will be flown by men of a constant size and of a constant clumsiness ! We have no recognized term to represent the capacity for damage which is latent in one standard air-mechanic and a large spanner; but it is a physical unit of very real significance, and it decreases in importance as the ship becomes more robust. Influence of Scale on Speed. 23. So far, we have not considered the question of speed, or (what is the same thing) of endurance. Herbert Spencer pointed out another advantage which is possessed by the aquatic animal, in that the larger it crows the greater is the speed at which it can travel ;!* it is not, like our larger bird, obliged to travel faster, but it can. So with our bigger airship : if we double every dimension, its resistance at the same speed is increased by four, its petrol capacity by eight ; flying at the same speed it will have twice the endurance of the smaller craft,—that is, it can fly twice as far. The New Airships. 24. Certainly we must take no unnecessary risk in planning the airships with which we hope to fly to India in 1927. Air Ministry policy in regard to lighter-than-air craft has fluctuated violently in the past, and although at the moment it is pressing on with their development, there seems little reason to believe that it has sufficient determination to resist the shock of another set-back like the loss of R.38. But greater size, as it seems to me, is not in itself an added risk at all. The R.38 disaster has left us faced with the necessity, unless we are content to take our problems abroad, of dispensing with previous experience; we must tackle this business from the very beginning, and trust to such intelligence as we can muster for its solution. So we do not make success more problematic—rather, less— when we depart from orthodox Zeppelin construction, of which we know little, in favour of steel, which we have used with success in aeroplanes for several years. We must design by theory, and in these larger ships we can employ a type of construction which lends itself better to theoretical treatment ; we must develop afresh the technique of girder construction, and by using stouter material we can employ more of the experience which we have already. It is my privilege to see a good deal of the Air Ministry design now in progress; and what gives me most hope of its eventual success is the completeness with which all concerned appear to recognize the magnitude of their undertaking. As someone put it recently, ‘The atmosphere generally is one of healthy cold feet’. We know that we have little experience in this country,—but we are determined to make up our deficit, so far as we can, by hard thinking and hard work; we know that our task would have been easier if airship research had been allowed 12 Growth and Form, p. 22. ON AERONAUTICAL PROBLEMS. 409 to proceed without interruption in the last four years,—but we are facing up to the necessity of doing this research now, and at full pressure. Seldom, I imagine, can new construction have been projected in the spirit which obtains at Cardington to-day. A Great Adventure. 25. I wish that the public could be induced to take a similar view of this airship construction,—-to see it as a great adventure. For this is what it is: the goal, ability to fly to India, in comfort and without change, in the space of 100 hours; the problem, to design and construct a ship of vast capacity, with little help from past experience, by sheer hard thinking and hard work. According to Samuel Butler, ‘ Life is the art of drawing sufficient conclusions from insufficient premises’; Professor Unwin borrowed the epigram, and applied the description to engineering generally ; it is most true of airship construction. If this were the common view, we should be spared the wearisome controversy and propaganda which at present cloud the airship horizon. Having embarked in this country on a definite programme of two large ships, surely common-sense would suggest that we ought, for the next two years, to leave the design staffs in peace to do their best ; that silence on their part, while their plans develop, is a mark of health. But it seems to be deemed essential that public interest shall be stimulated by doses of pictorial ‘ dope ’, showing, in wondrous detail, what the new craft will be like ; and no one asks the question, ‘ If you know in such detail what these ships will look like, why don’t you start to build them straight away ?’ PART II. Recapitulation. 26. I have dealt with some of the commoner topics of aeronautical discussion, and I have given my reasons for the view that not want of appreciation, but too complete an appreciation of their significance, may be the reason why they do not find a place in the forefront of our research programmes. I need hardly confess, to this audience, that much of what I have said is controversial: I have tried to form an honest judgment, but I have only expressed a point of view. If my remarks have seemed _ unduly positive, I must plead in excuse that freedom to indulge in con- | froversy is a new experience for me, and its temptations have been too . strong! After all, if I am wrong, little harm will have been done; a problem _ which is really important will not be obscured by my blunders. But if I am right? Admitting that these are not the most important topics from _ the standpoint of aeronautical research, what do I suggest in their place ? The Proper Aim of Research. 27. Well, I have already given it as my opinion, that what Aeronautics needs most of all is to ‘settle down’, to steady advance along natural lines of development. Having spent so much of your time in insisting on the vanity of long-distance prediction, I do not propose now to make 410 ' REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. guesses at the directions in which those lines will lead. But I will state my conviction of the aim which should govern research: I hold that that aim should be, not so much to achieve, as to understand. If we devote our efforts, in research, to settling questions of detail which arise in technical development, we shall get improved designs, no doubt, but we shall commit ourselves to travel along those paths which we are following to-day. If, on the other hand, we adopt the standpoint of science, which is not content with achievement, unless it be the result of wnder- standing, then we shall start from the unsolved problems of to-day, but we shall not attempt to control the course of our inquiries : we shall follow where they lead. And only so, I maintain, can we keep that freedom of outlook which is essential to continued progress. ‘Fundamental’? and ‘ad hoc’ Research. 28. Let us admit, straight away, that there is much to be said on the other side. Indeed, this contest between the claims of science and of practical development, between fundamental investigations and experi- ments ad hoc, is one of the greater battles of our time. It is so hard to convince the practical man, who would use existing resources to settle the details of next year’s designs, that there can be any stronger claim! He always feels that this academic desire to understand, harmless and even laudable though it may be, can afford to wait. But our views have gained ground in the last few years, and they receive complete recognition, I am glad to say, in the new organization of research at the Air Ministry under a Director of Scientific Research. It is insisted, now, that definite equipment and staff shall be ear-marked for those investigations which are recommended by the Aeronautical Research Committee, and that Committee has been reorganized on a purely scientific basis. How can we justify that decision, and what are we doing with the resources thus made available ? I have strained your patience already, and in dealing with these questions I must be very brief. To the first I propose to reply by describing what are, in my view, the three most signal triumphs, up to the present time, of the scientific attitude i in Aeronautics ; to the latter, by stating what I hold to be the most important problems of the mam edipte future. Scientific Triumphs of the Past.—I. Stability. 29. First, among the successes of the past, I place the attainment of automatic stability in aeroplanes. You have seen how, of my two model parachutes, that one which at a first glance might seem the more promising, as offering the greater resistance to motion through the air, actually met with disaster for want of stability. So with the aeroplane: it is not — enough to know that it has the lifting surface, and the power, to carry its load when flying steadily ; we must be sure that it will fly steadily, or at least that it can be made to do so. To Professor Bryan belongs the credit for having first directed attention to the importance of inherent stability,—that is, of our being able to design an aeroplane which will fly itself, without assistance from the pilot. He, first, examined this problem as an application of the dynamics of a rigid ON AERONAUTICAL PROBLEMS. 411 body, and his analysis is the foundation of all succeeding work. On Professor Bairstow and his colleagues at the National Physical Laboratory devolved the task of interpreting Bryan’s work in terms of physical measurement,—of finding, that is to say, means for determining, on model aeroplanes in a wind tunnel, the stability factors (‘ derivatives’, as they are called) which Bryan had endeavoured to estimate by purely mathe- matical methods. Finally, to the Royal Aircraft Factory at Farnborough —and in particular, to the late Captain Edward Busk—it fell to translate this new knowledge into practice. Not long before the War, we heard with amazement that Busk had a machine which he could fly, for miles at a stretch, ‘ hands off’ and writing notes; the aeroplane, for the first time, could look after itself, like those intelligent horses which used to pull our London cabs. Let me indicate by two models what it means to have a stable aero- plane; what is the difference in respect of fatigue to the pilot, or of his safety if put temporarily out of action by wounds or indisposition. (Stable and unstable aeroplane models were flown at this point.) Its Importance. 30. We still have work in progress which elaborates the ideas of Bryan and of Bairstow ; but already it may be said that any designer, at will, can design a stable aeroplane. Indeed, it may be said that familiarity has bred, not exactly contempt, but perhaps a tendency to forget how this knowledge was come by. It was not a matter of straightforward develop- ment,—of authorities saying ‘ Let us build a stable aeroplane’. It was the result of scientific curiosity,—of the desire of Bryan and Bairstow, and those who have followed them, to understand. II. The Elucidation of the ‘ Spin’. 31. When we talk of a stable aeroplane, we mean, in general, ‘ stable below the stall’. Bitter experience in the War showed us that even a stable aeroplane (in this sense) may become very dangerous if accidentally * stalled’; for accidental ‘ stalling’, even of aeroplanes flown at home, led to a terrible number of accidents of the type known as ‘ spinning into the ground’, The motion of an aeroplane which has ‘ gone into a spin’ is perfectly steady, but it is of a kind which spells disaster unless a recovery is made. I shall try to show its nature by means of another model. (A spinning aeroplane model was shown at this point.) ‘ Stalling ’ Explained. 32. In explaining what I mean by ‘ stalling ’, I shall be directing your attention to the source of the trouble: it is the phenomenon known as *autorotation’. When a wing is exposed to a horizontal current of air, the force exerted on it in a vertical direction (that is, its lift) depends upon the angle at which it is inclined to the current. There is one attitude : in which it will not ‘ lift’ at all ; as the angle increases, the lift also increases for a time; but eventually a limit is reached, beyond which further 412 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. increase in the angle does not increase, but decreases, the lift. The wing is then said to ‘stall’, and the limiting angle is known as ‘stalling incidence ’. The business of the elevators in an aeroplane is to control the angle at which the wings are inclined to the relative wind: when we set the elevators ‘up’, the tail is pushed down-by the wind, but the resulting change in the attitude of the wings causes a net increase of ‘lift’, and the aeroplane ‘climbs’. But if a pilot tries to climb too rapidly, he will ‘stall’ his wings. Down goes his nose, and he begins to descend, still with his wings at a large angle to the relative wind. © Autorotation ’. 33. Now comes in the tendency to ‘ autorotation ’, which I can explain with the aid of this apparatus (Fig. 1). Here is a model wing which I can expose to a horizontal jet of air; the purpose of the honeycomb is to straighten the jet, which otherwise would have a swirl in it, picked up from the fan. Suppose that I set the wing at a small angle to the wind- stream, and giveitaspin. You will realise that the side which is travelling down to meet the wind is meeting it at a greater angle than before; the side which is travelling up, at a smaller angle. Hence the lift is greater on the downward moving side, and the rotation is quickly damped out. But now let me set the wing at an angle close to the stalling incidence. Now, the downward-moving side is ‘ stalled ’, and its lift is largely reduced ; so the air forces tend to maintain the motion. And this is true whatever be the direction of the initial spin. We shall find, when the wind is turned on, that the wing exhibits a considerable amount of nervousness and indecision ; if, however, I start it spinning, it will settle down contentedly to a steady rate of rotation; and it is equally ready to rotate in either direction. Application to the ‘ Spin ’. 34. Let us apply this result to the aeroplane which we have imagined to be accidentally ‘ stalled’. We have seen that it begins to descend, with its wings at a large angle to the relative wind. Any tendency to rotate, in either direction, will now be seized upon by the wings, and the aeroplane — will descend, steadily turning, in a state outside the pilot’s power of control. And this is the important point: his instinct is to try to pull his nose wp, to avoid the ground; but we can see that his only chance of safety is to put it down, so as to reduce the angle of his wings to the wind. Now that this is understood, spinning, except close to the ground, has no terrors for the skilled pilot: previously, it was responsible for an endless succession of fatal accidents. To Professor Bairstow belongs the credit for this elucidation of the spin, and I claim it as another triumph for the attitude which seeks to understand. : III. The Attainment of Low-Speed Control. 35. But nothing can save the pilot whose machine begins to spin teo close to the ground. We have seen that he must put his nose down, and this involves a rapid loss of height while his aeroplane is gaining the — British Association : 94th Report, Southampton, 1925. [Pram ¥, Fia. 1. Apparatus for illustrating the phenomenon of ‘ Autorotation ’. Illustrating Address on Aeronautical Problems of the Past and of the Future. (To face p. 412 [PLATE 2 MAR26 a A 4, 47 uN Fia. 5. Stanton’s Experiments. Fie 6. Karmdan’s Experiments. 168 ON AERONAUTICAL PROBLEMS. 413 speed required for steady flight. So we need to go further, and to provide him with means for checking that tendency to spin which we have seen to be characteristic of the ‘ stalled’ condition. This is the problem of low-speed control,—a problem which only in the last few months has yielded to attack. At Farnborough, now, you may see an aeroplane flying steadily and straight, or performing normal evolutions, equally as well above as below stalling incidence. The credit for this result is due, in the main, to a small panel of the Aeronautical Research Committee which has been occupied with the problem, under the leadership of Professor Melvill Jones, since 1920; and throughout that time the aim of the panel has been, first of all, to understand. When we began our work, we had not even a language in which to express our difficulties ; not only had we no experimental data,—we did not clearly see what data we required, how the necessary data could be obtained, or how presented in diagrams when found. So for some years we seemed to be making little headway ; but gradually the fundamental idea presented itself, that something different from the conventional controls is needed, in that we must give the pilot power to ‘roll’ his machine (that is, to turn it as my model wing has been turning on this spindle) without introducing any tendency to ‘ yaw’ (that is, to turn to left or right). Even when this requirement had been formulated, much hard work and hard thinking was necessary before it could be satisfied ; but at last we achieved success, combining in one control two devices which had been discovered previously,—by Messrs. Handley Page and the Bristol Company. Though much remains to be done, we have the satis- faction not only of having found an effective device, but of understanding why it is necessary and how it works. Problems of the Future. 36. Finally, what of the future? Along what paths are we directing our inquiries now ? Well, much work still remains to be done before these problems of stability and of control can be said to be completely understood, and that work takes a high position in our programmes. Ultimately the aim is that we shall be able to predict, from a knowledge of the characteristics of its wing and tail sections, what will be the characteristics of the complete aeroplane. Our experiments, that is to say, are aimed at making similar experiments unnecessary in the future. Why does an Aerofoil Lift ? 37. This seems a sufficiently ambitious aim. There are those who regard it as Utopian, and would have us hitch our wagon to a more accessible star. As a matter of fact, it does not content us in these post- War years. We want to go back further still,—for we are not content to accept the characteristics of aerofoil sections as the ultimate verities, beyond which human intelligence cannot probe. We are not satisfied to know that a given aerofoil will lift a given weight, and needs a given thrust to push it forward. Why does an aerofoil lift at all ? Evidently the cause lies, somewhere, in the reactions which arise between the aerofoil and the air through which it moves. The aerofoil ALA REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. cleaves the air, and constrains the fluid to move in curved paths round it: if we could calculate those paths, we should have a sufficient theory. of lift and drag. The Importance of Viscosity. 38. Now if air were only frictionless, so that it offered no resistance to the sliding of one layer over another, we should have, already, a sufficient theory ; for, although the labour is heavy, we do know now how to calculate, in these special circumstances, the paths which are taken by the fluid. My next illustration (Fig. 2) shows a simple example, the theoretical stream-lines (as they are called) for air moving past a long circular cylinder. Fic. 2. Irrotational Flow past Circular Cylinder. And air is substantially frictionless, so far as concerns the sliding of air on air. Mr. Bryant and Mr. Williams have explored the paths actually taken by air in its passage past a very long aerofoil (or wing), and they have compared these with the predictions of theory (Fig. 3): except in the immediate neighbourhood of the surface of the aerofoil, and in a narrow region behind it (termed the ‘ wake ’), the motion is such as could occur in a fluid practically devoid of friction. Mr. Fage and Mr. Simmons have recently extended this work to the case of a short aerofoil (Fig. 4). Again, except in the immediate neigh- bourhood of the aerofoil, and in the ‘ wake’, the effects of air friction are negligible.” 8 In Fig. 4, the full lines show the lines of flow in a transverse plane (situated at a distance behind the aerofoil equal to one-third of the total span), as these would be seen by an observer facing ‘up’ or ‘down wind’. 415 ON AERONAUTICAL PROBLEMS. “‘pofosapy apuyuy ysod NOT jynNjIp—E “O17 EE : Les z ; UOIQIANIG <= PuUim DS Jad SpsiOyd 93'S SI [10jOIBE BYA WIZ SOUCISID Feaib © Je piniy 2uq JO AqID0|an Ou]. QMeEM JUZINGANA QQ si esse papeusS (Ping 9523100) pomew Tesaqoe;g Ag ----—--~- “SQUDWIOINGSCAW JOUUNAL “SOUIWNDIAS PedF2IODUL Pure jouunAL Jo vOsisedwoy REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 416 Gp) Z - y yj. ; oe: Z YY / oe ea ae Ke ae Z g Yj) Ulli Ca YW) V/s WU: WY Mond etalon bases) O29 a7 k= ys og ; me OG i714 ASE ES SS OO Es ae ie in ee MESSI OE | RS (EY ES ie) FSA CF A ea [eet ae ed | SB ~ ABp Buipes OfO1Dy JO PI4~ eS iS AGL : uaiboyy . Y YY Yj é MY | Wie om ieee 58 Ss AWI194I0\, Z yy Soul 1S YELL Tt 'S vt es a) 2 iz @ “5 os ° A ON AERONAUTICAL PROBLEMS. A417 The ‘Boundary Layer ’. 39. The reason why these regions of frictional effect exist is, that although air offers little resistance to the sliding of different layers over one another, it has a strong objection to sliding over the surface of the aerofoil. In fact, as Whetham showed thirty years ago, fluids refuse entirely to slide over solid surfaces at all. So the air which is in contact with the aerofoil is stationary, whilst at a very small distance away it is moving very fast ; and hence, within the immediate neighbourhood of the boundary there is rapid sliding, and air friction has important effects. We must not bemoan this fact, hard though it makes our theoretical problem ; for if air could slip over the surface of the aerofoil, we should find little resistance to motion, it is true, but we should equally find no ‘lift’. What happens close to the surface of the aerofoil? That is, really, the ultimate problem of Aerodynamics. Somehow or other, in a film of air whose thickness is measured in thousandths of an inch, are generated those forces which produce the lifting power of an aeroplane. Osborne Reynolds’ theory of lubrication shows us that there is nothing impossible in this notion ; but our problem is immensely harder than his. Look, for example, at what friction does to modify the flow past a circular cylinder (Fig. 5) : these are two photographs kindly lent to me by Dr. Stanton. By the kindness of my friend Professor Karmdn, I am able to show some more slides (Fig. 6) in illustration of this phenomenon of ‘ eddy motion’. In his experiments, a circular cylinder was moved through water with continually increasing velocity, and the motion of the fluid was rendered visible by means of powder. The successive stages in the formation and ‘ break-away’ of the eddies are clearly revealed. The School of Prandtl.—Conclusion. 40. Professor Prandtl has shown, in brilliant fashion, how much can be done with the theory of frictionless fluids towards “’xplaining the ‘lift’ of an aeroplane, provided that we are content to take these boundary effects for granted. It is he who now leads, with Professor Karman, the new attack,—the attempt to elucidate, by mathematical investigation, thé microstructure of the ‘ boundary layer’. To some this may seem a purely academic inquiry,—even as Sorby’s researches into the microstructure of steel were deemed to be academic sixty years ago; but remembering how completely the microscope has come to dominate metallurgy, I think they would be well advised not to be too dogmatic ! To me it seems the most fundamental and the most important problem in Aeronautics to-day. I wish that I had time to say more about it; but perhaps I have said enough to suggest that, both for its intrinsic interest and for its difficulty, it deserves study by minds as{numerous and as inventive as those which are probing the structure of the atom. 1925 EE CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. SOUTHAMPTON, 1925. The Conference met in King Edward VI Grammar School, Southampton, on Thursday, August 27, at 2 p.m., Sir Daniel Hall, K.C.B., F.R.S., President, in the chair. Thirty-two delegates were present, representing thirty-seven societies. The President delivered the following address :— On Corresponding Societies and the Schools. In addressing the representatives of the Corresponding Societies here assembled, perhaps I may be allowed to direct your attention to some questions which have not, as a Tule, fallen within the purview of your Societies, but with which I am personally very intimately concerned. I refer particularly to agriculture, and more specially to certain educational developments in connection with it, because I should like to take this opportunity of trying to enlist the assistance both of individuals and of societies. No one who is in touch with English life can fail to be aware of the amount of devoted work which is latent in the many societies existing in this country and dealing with such subjects as Natural History and Archeology, yet the opportunities for work in these directions may be said to be growing less and less. Our fauna and our flora have been very fully explored, and the possibilities of an individual making any original contribution to knowledge in these directions cannot be other than rare and accidental. Scientific research is growing steadily more remote from the ordinary man, and more and more dependent upon the resources of an organised laboratory. It is the pride of scientific research in Great Britain that many of the most notable con- tributions have been made by amateurs, yet the inevitable trend of events is making it increasingly difficult for the non-professional man to establish himself in the fields even of Botany and Zoology. Again, the main lines of archeological research in this country have been explored, although much patient observation yet remains to be carried out and gathered together by the societies in order to put the pre-history of Britain upon a scientific basis. Here again opportunities for men with a taste for personal investigation are becoming limited. I want to indicate a direction in which valuable work of a local character can still be done. This is, briefly, the recovery before it is too late of the detailed agricultural history of the country with a view to rendering it available for the purposes of education. ® There is a very general feeling held that our country schools, whether they be the elementary school or the country grammar school, ought to do something to use their environment in their education and not base it exclusively upon urban needs and the urban outlook. Educationally, we never seem to think of the land, and yet a very considerable proportion of our population still goes upon the land either here or in the Dominions, and a much larger proportion of the boys educated in country schools take service in some of the businesses or professions dependent upon the land, so that they would be the better for learning at school some understanding of and sympathy with the work of the farm. I am not for amoment claiming that our schools, even those situated in the country, should give a vocational training calculated to turn out farmers or farm labourers; I am simply holding a brief for a form of education that makes use of the surroundings of the rural school as instruments of education whereby the instruction is made real and the school is linked on to the life of the district. Again, I regard it as a matter of some importance that every boy in a rural school, elementary or secondary, should arrive at some appreciation of the fact that our landed system and our farming is a matter of growth, which has its roots far back in the past and represents an ordered development in response to the physical and economic environment. Let me give you an instance of what I mean. I should like to see on the walls of every village school a series of parish maps. There would, first of all, be the normal cadastral map, the Ordnance Survey on the 1-inch or 6-inch scale, on which antiquities and any connections with wider history are specially indicated. Alongside this map should be a geological map, the Drift Edition if available, with some manuscript indications of the variations of soil as far as they are | CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES. 419 correlated with the geological indications of the map. In certain areas the local Agricultural College would be able to supply a good deal of information about the characteristics of the soils of the parish, but as yet there has been no systematic soil survey all over the Kingdom. The next map should be a vegetation map, and, naturally, it will be closely con- nected with the geological or soil map. It should indicate the prevalence of woodland, marsh or pasture, the characteristic weeds of the arable land, the special features of the flora of the wild land, and the types of grasses characteristic of the pastures. Of course, there are parishes so uniform in their soil that this vegetation map may be of the simplest character, but there are many parishes possessing great and characteristic diversities of vegetation which children soon learn to recognise, especially as so many parishes were originally formed as strips cutting across the outcrops so as to provide a portion of each kind of soil for the needs of the parish. Alongside this map should be one showing the actual cropping followed in the parish in any particular year, the fields being coloured on a system and the crops being ascertained by actual inquiry. Lastly—and here is the point on which I desire particularly to address myself to the members of the Corresponding Societies—one would like to see a map or maps that would bring out the original settlement of the land, the manors, and the system of cultivation adopted before enclosure, and the date and method of enclosure. In all these matters the schoolmasters need the kind of help that can be provided by the Corresponding Societies and their members. Few rural schoolmasters are in a position to get all the information necessary for the maps I have indicated, but some local stimulus, help and sympathy would quickly produce a result in a good many schools, and once the work got a fair start, it would quickly spread. It is on this last point, the early agricultural history of the parishes, that assistance is most needed, not merely in the interests of the school but in order to preserve information which may easily become lost. It is to be remembered in this connection that the Law of Property (Amendment) Act of 1924, by extinguishing copyhold and practically doing away with the manor as a legal entity, at once renders unnecessary the preservation of a good number of early documents recording the customs of the manor. It is true that the Master of the Rolls is empowered by the Act to give instructions for the preservation of the manorial records and is taking steps to that end. But it is uncertain whether a list of all manors can be prepared, and in any case it is all too probable that many pertinent documents may be overlooked or removed from their place of origin as to make them difficult to trace. During the last few years, again, many of the great estates have been sold and broken up. This, then, is the opportunity for anyone interested in the past history of a particular parish to appeal to the stewards of manors, family solicitors and the like, for information as to records and estate maps, which may throw light on the enclosures and the early history of the land. In no case can one be sure of success ; even when an enclosure map and award is preserved, it only gives the state of the land after apportionment, which may not show any trace of the old open-field farming. Still, much more exists than is commonly supposed among title deeds and estate records, and I venture to submit that local societies could carry out a valuable piece of work by a systematic collection of such evidence as remains. The societies can do this far more effectively than individuals: a request from one of them would carry far more weight than one from a private person, being a guarantee that the inquiry is made for some general purpose which cannot be dismissed as idle curiosity. JI am able to show you copies of existing manorial records which will illustrate better than anything I can say the interest of the information that may be obtainable. But besides the documentary evidence, there still exists in many parishes " actual physical traces of the old farming. There are, of course, a few instances of manors still unenclosed, as in the well-known areas in the Isle of Axholme, or the less known parish of Crimscote, Warwickshire, where the heavy land has gone entirely out of cultivation, and has become a jungle of thorns and briars over the steep-sided strips of the old selions. But more often only a single field is left in which the old _ strips and baulks are evident, or even the word Common persists in a field name, where it is evident that it never meant common in the usual sense of waste of the manor. There are, again, fields now in grass showing the curved endings of the old ridge and furrow where the long ox-teams began to turn before the boundary was reached; or even the Lynchets, which are regarded as traces of a still earlier cultivation. Field names like Vineyard and Hop Garden speak of crops that have now disappeared. All these vestiges of the old social order should be noted down and made to play their ° EE2 420 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. part in education. History gains a new meaning when it is found that the village itself had a history. Did time permit, I might also plead for the presentation of the older farming implements that are fast disappearing, as the local wheelwright is giving place to the centralised factory. The old four-wheeled wagon is practically dead, yet it is so toughly built that many fine specimens can still be found slumbering to decay in yards and implement sheds. It was a monument of craftsmanship and adaptation to special ends, and for once in a way the story of its building has been well and truly written down by George Street, the Farnham wheelwright. I will not elaborate my point any further, but once again plead with the local societies for the study of the antiquities of the land and of farming before it is too late. At the second meeting, on Tuesday, September 1, at 2 p.m., twenty-three delegates were present, representing twenty-eight societies. A discussion, initiated by the North Staffordshire Field Club and opened by their delegate, Dr. A. Scott, took place on the Effect of Broadcasting on the work and membership of Corresponding Societies. A representative of the British Broadcasting Company, Mr. L. W. Hayes, was present, and the discussion revealed both willingness and opportunity for co-operation between scientific societies and the company. The following resolutions were submitted by delegates, approved, and passed through the Committee of Recommendations to the General Committee of the Association :— 1. To request the Council to represent to the Ministry of Agriculture and to the Board of Education the facilities offered by local scientific societies on matters bearing upon local geography, natural history, and historical antiquities, which should be made supplementary to the treatment of these subjects in the curriculum of schools, and to inquire in what way this information may be more generally and effectively utilised. 2. To call the attention of the County Council of Devon and of the local district councils to recent spoliation of ancient monuments on Dartmoor by roadmenders, and to ask for effective protection of these monuments. 3. To recommend that the British Association should take steps, through the Corresponding Societies Committee, to secure the establishment and facilitate the extension of regional researches, especially in the districts which it visits. 4. To ask the Council of the Association and the Corresponding Societies to inquire into the threatened extermination of many of the rarer British species of plants and animals and to take steps to ensure their protection. 5. That all Corresponding Societies be recommended to present one copy of all papers published to such bodies as prepare annually or otherwise bibliographies of particular subjects, for example, to the Geological Society in the case of geological literature. The General Committee adopted the above resolutions, gave instructions for immediate action to be taken upon Nos. 2 and 5, and referred Nos. 1, 3 and 4 to the Council for consideration, and, if desirable, for action. A resolution requesting that the attention of H.M. Government be called to the damage resulting from the pollution of coastal waters with oil was not recommended by the Committee of Recommendations, on the ground that H.M. Government was already fully advised in this matter. The Conference supported the application of Section H (Anthropology) for the _ appointment of a Committee to investigate Kent’s Cavern, Torquay, which was duly appointed by the General Committee. The Conference considered the List of Papers bearing upon the Zoology, Botany and Prehistoric Archeology of the British Isles, which had been appended to the Report of the Conference for several years past; and resolved to make the usual application for a grant of £40 for the preparation of the list, but to ask the Corresponding Societies Committee to consider whether in its present form the list should be continued, and whether it would be sufficient to prepare a card index instead of printing the bibliography in the Association’s proceedings. f + This matter was subsequently referred to the Council of the Association, which decided to discontinue the list after the present issue. A card index will not be prepared. LIST OF PAPERS, BEARING UPON THE ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, AND PREHISTORIC ARCHAOLOGY OF THE BRITISH ISLES, ISSUED DURING 1924, By T. SHEPPARD, M.Sc., F.G.S., The Museum, Hull. ; Zoology. Anon. Herring in Relation to its Animate Environments: Food and Feeding Prrrermr yt e ele | et tit Habits. Fishery Investigations. DMinis. of Agric. and Fish. Ser. Il. Vol. 7, No. 3, pt. 1, pp. First Report_on Young Herring in the Southern North Sea and English Channel: Distribution and Growth of Larval and Post Larval-stages, tom. cit. Vol. 7, No. 4, pt. 1, pp. Silver Water Beetle (H. piceus). Amateur Aquarist. May, p. 5. Margined Diving Beetle, tom. cit. Sept., p. 46. Under the Lens: Hydras v. Daphniz and Cyclops, tom. cit., p. 50. Caddis-flies (Trichoptera), tom. cit. Aug., p. 34. Freshwater Pearls, tom. cit., p. 38. Ladybird. Animal World. July, p. 75. Sectional Meetings and Field Work [Report]. Proc. Ashmolean Nat. Hist. Soc. 1923, p. 20. Reports of Meetings, 1924. Proc. Berwick. Nat. Club. Vol. XXV., pt. 11, pp. 185-227. Protection of the Skylark. Bird Notes and News. Vol. XI., No. 1, p- 4. Bird Sanctuaries, tom. cit. Vol. XI., No. 1, pp. 12-13. Bird Protection viewed Imperially and Nationally, tom. cit. Vol XI., No. 2, p. 19-25. Gal enace, tom. cit., pp. 28-32. Bird Sanctuaries, tom. cit., pp. 35-36. Economic Ornithology, tom. cit., pp. 36-38. Field Excursions [Report]. Ann. Rep. Bristol Nat. Soc. Vol. VI. pt. 1, pp. 20-21. Soupors in Scotland. Brit. Birds. Jan., p. 191. Little Owl Breeding in Yorkshire, loc. cit. ; Recovery of Marked Birds, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 186-191. British Museum (Natural History). Instructions for Collectors: No 4, Insects. 7th Ed., 12 pp. Instructions for Collectors: No 8, Spiders, Centipedes, Peripatus, etc., 4th Ed, British Museum Handbook. 4 pp. Proceedings of the Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Journ. Conch. Mar. pp. 120-124; pp. 125-127; July pp. 159-160; Nov., p. 186. Eels and Sand Eels. Country Life. Jan. 19, p. 108. Beetles Beneficial in the Garden, tom. cit. Feb. 23, pp. 295-296. | Squirrel Secrets, tom. cit. Mar. 22, p. 453. Nest Building of Birds, tom. cit. Mar. 22, p. 453. Spring Days, tom. cit. Mar. 29, pp. 468-472. Tar and Feathers [Sea Birds] tom. cit. Mar. 29, p. 490. Bird Arrivals in Richmond Park, tom. cit. Apr. 19, p. 625. Farmer’s Friend [Lapwing]. tom. cit. May 3, pp. 682-683. Rooks Feeding on Sea Beaches, tom. cit. May 31, p. 872. Bird Superstitions, tom. cit. June 14, p. 978. Gulls and Grouse Eggs, fom. cit. July 26, p. 151. Marten, tom, cit. Aug. 2, p. 192. Belated Cuckoo, tom. cit. Aug. 23, p. 304. Marten in Sussex, tom. cit. Aug. 23, p. 303. Goldfinches in Kensington, tom. cit. Noy. 8, pp 699-701, 422 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Anon. Bird Life of the Broads, tom. cit. Nov. 29, pp. 830-833. ——— Protection of Green Plover, tom. cit. Nov. 29, p. 855. —— Otiorrhynchus raucus F. Attacking Cultivated Rhubarb. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Apr., pp. 87-88. ——— South London Entomological Society [Report]. Hnt. Rec. Jan., pp. 13-14; Feb., pp. 29-30; Mar., p. 42; Apr. p. 64; May, p. 80; July, p. 116; Sept. pp. 129-130; Oct., pp. 147-148; Dec., pp. 172-173. Entomological Society of London [Report], tom. cit. Jan., p. 13; Mar., p. 41; Apr., pp. 62-64; June, pp. 94-96; Sept. pp. 130-131; Nov., p. 160; Dec., 171-172. —t— (Id). Ladybirds Hibernating in the House, tom. cit. Feb., p. 27. WT PELLLEPETTE EEE EET Philophora plumigera in Surrey, loc. cit. Nola confusa in Hyde Park, loc. cit. Sosia andrenarformis, tom. cit., p. 28. Calymia trapezina, loc. cit. Essex Field Club—Reports of Meetings. Hsseax Nat. Mar., pp. 276-287. Essex Field Club: Reports of Meetings, tom. cit. Apr., pp. 14-22; Oct., pp. 77-90. Fungus Foray in Epping Forest, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 90-92. Field Days, 1922-23. Zoological Section [Report]. Rep. Felsted School Sci. Soc. No. 28, pp. 15-16. Farne Islands as a Proposed Bird Sanctuary. Field. Jan. 17, p. 84. Great Crested Grebe in Dorset, tom. cit. Feb. 7, p. 179. Migration of Birds and Foot and Mouth Disease, tom. cit. Feb. 14, p. 212. Wild Cats in Inverness-shire, tom. cit. Feb. 21, p. 218. Redwing in London, tom. cit. Mar. 6, p. 315. White-fronted Geese Observed at Kempton Park, loc. cit. [See also p. 372.] Great Spotted Woodpecker in Peebles-shire, loc. cit. : Notes on the Freshwater Shrimp. Field. Mar. 27, p. 403. Bird Sanctuaries in London, tom. cit. Apr. 3, p. 430. Willow Wren, tom. cit. Apr. 17, p. 522 (fig.) The Longevity of Deer, tom. cit. May 1, p. 584. Spoonbill in Anglesey, tom. cit. May 1, p. 585. Sea Trout Caught at Folkestone, tom. cit. May 1, p. 597. Black-tailed Godwit in Ireland, tom. cit. May 15, p. 654. Eel Travelling Overland in Daytime, tom. cit. May 15, p. 666. Leeches on Trout, tom. cit. May 29, p. 749. Eagle Attacking Sheep Dog, tom. cit. May 29, p, 755. Unusual Site for a Thrush’s Nest, tom. cit. June 5, p. 793 (fig.). Blackcock’s Display, loc. cit. Fearless Wagtails, tom. cit. June 12, p. 839. Brave Duck, tom. cit. June 26, p. 944. Red Admiral in June, tom. cif. July 3, p. 12. Ptarmigan at Beauly, tom. cit. July 3, p. 12. Curlew Perching on a Tree, tom. cit. July 24, p. 156. Scilly Isles: Their Seabirds and Seals, tom. cit. July 24, p. 156. Silence of Nesting Jays, tom. cit. July 31, p. 200. Late Nesting of Whinchat, tom. cit. July 31, p. 200. Great Ouse Sturgeon, tom. cit. Aug. 14, p. 266. Curlew Perching on Trees, iom. cit. Aug. 14, p. 276. Late Nesting of Whinchat, tom. cit. Aug. 28, p. 357. Golden Kagle. Field. Aug. 28, p. 357. Montagu’s Harrier in Essex, iom. cit. Aug. 28, p. 357. Late Nesting of Norfolk Plover, tom. cit. Aug. 28, p. 357. Spoonbill at Whitby, Yorkshire, tom. cit. Aug. 28, p. 357. Curiosity of a Stoat, tom. cit. Sept. 4, p. 389. Absence of House Martins, fom. cit. Sept. 4, p. 389. Behaviour of Nesting Birds, tom. cit. Sept. 11, p. 402. | ‘The Sward ” of Holy Island, tom. cit. Oct. 2, p. 517. Seven-Pounder at Blagdon, tom. cit. Oct. 2, pp. 525-526, Supposed Osprey in Hants., tom. cit. Oct. 2, p. 533. Late Stay of Swifts, tom. cit. Oct. 16, p. 629. Scarcity of Landrail, tom. cit. Oct. 23, p. 640. LIST OF PAPERS, 1924—ZOOLOGY. 423 Anon. Green Plover, tom. cit. Nov. 6, p. 713. joie me pr Phe eer EPSPS i E LETTT ET 4 - Abnormal Stag’s Head, tom. cit. Nov. 13, p. 749. Montagu’s Harrier Filmed, tom. cit. Nov. 13, p. 778. Late Martins and Swifts, tom. cit. Nov. 20, p. 807. Black Redstart in Devon and Cornwall, tom. cit. Dec. 4, p. 886. Supposed Golden Oriole in Pembroke, tom. cit. Dec. 4, pp. 886-887. Late Swallow, tom. cit. Dec. 18, p. 978. Peregrine Falcon, tom. cit. Dec. 11, p. 978. Summary of Progress of the Geological Survey of Great Britain and the Museum of Practical Geology for the Year 1923. Mem. of Geol. Survey. 173 pp. Tertiary and Post-tertiary Geology of Mull, Loch Aline and Oban. Geol. Survey Mem. 445 pp. Trish Grouse. [Abs.] Jrish Nat. Jan., p. 7. Rough-legged Buzzard in Co. Wicklow, tom. cit. Mar., p. 31; Abs. in Brit. Birds. Sept., p. 115. Royal Peiilogtoal Society of Ireland [Report]. tom. cit. Feb., p. 24; Dec., p. 138. Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club [Report], tom. cit. Mar., p. 29; Sept., p. 100; Oct., pp. 111-112; Dec., p. 139. Ornithological Chestnut [‘ Cuckoo’ Hatching Eggs], tom. cit. Sept., p. 96. Dublin Naturalists’ Field Club [Report], tom. cit. Dec., pp. 140-141. Beaked Whales, tom. cit. Dec., p. 142. Birds of Epping Forest: Summary of Hight Annual Reports. London Nat. 1923, pp. 36-41. Nineteenth Annual Report of the Manx Museum. 24 pp. Dilachnus picee. Rep. Marlborough College Nat. Hist. Soc. No. 72, p. 101. Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union’s Sixty-Second Annual Report for 1923. Nat. Jan., pp. 23-30. Norfolk * Albatross,’ tom. cit. Feb., p. 39. x In Memoriam: Sir William Herdman, F.R.S., fom. cit. Sept., pp. 280-281. Wolf-fish. [Abs.] tom. cit. July, pp. 196-198. Life History of the Eel. [Abs.] fom. cit. Aug., p. 225. Obituary : Mr. William Morfitt. Nature. Jan. 12, p. 57. (A. D.). Mr. Arnold T. Watson. [Obituary], tom. cit. Apr. 19, p. 576. Royal Society Conversazione, tom. cit. May 24, pp. 766-767. River Pollution, tom. cit. Dec. 20, pp. 885-886. Excursions[Reports]. Trans. North Staff. Field Club. Vol. LVIIL., pp. 134-153 Proceedings of the Perthshire Society of Natural Science [Report]. Trans. Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci. Vol. VIII., pt. 1, pp. i-xiii. Proceedings of the Quekett Microscopical Club. Journ. Quekelt Micros. Club. Nov., pp. 109-139. Excursion Secretary’s Report, tom. cit. Nov., pp. 143-144. School Nature Study Union [Report]. School Nature Study. Jan., pp. 7-9. Partial Migration of Grouse. Scot. Nat. Jan., p. 10. Shall the Bittern be Allowed to Recolonise Scotland ? tom. cit. Mar., p. 33. Spread of the Larch Longicorn Beetle, tom. cit., p. 60. Egeg-laying Vagaries of Birds: A Problem for the Field Naturalist, tom. cit. May, pp. 65-67. Additions to the Museum. Proc. Somerset. Arch. and Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. LXIX., pp. Lsiii-lxxii. Sessional Meetings. Proc. Spelaeological Soc. Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 96-97. Guide to the Torquay Natural History Society’s Museum, with plan and notes on Kent’s Cavern. 5th Ed. 15 pp. Wallis Club [Report.] Vasc. Jan., pp. 59-61; July, pp. 124-125; Oct., . 27-28. Baw thorn Dene, tom. cit. July, pp. 121-122. Biology [Report and Exhibits]. Handbook to Exhibition Pure Science [Wembley], pp. 210-228. Additions to Museum and Library. Wilts Arch. and Nat. Hist. Mag. Dec., pp. 625-626. Yorkshire Museum: Report of the Museum Committee for the Year 1923. Ann. Rep. Yorks. Plul. Soc. May, pp. 18-25. _Axzsort, Sypney. Amphipyra tragopogonis in January. Hnt. Feb., p. 47. 424 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Apport, SypNEY. Vanessa io reared for Varieties, tom. cit. Mar., p. 66. Protection of British Butterflies, tom. cit. Dec., p. 279. Aprty, V.R. AnInland Gannet. Field: Nov. 20, p. 807. Actanp, CLemMENCcE M. Nest-Building Habits of the Long-tailed Tit. Brit. Birds. Mar., p. 244. — Wrynecks in Surrey, tom. cit. pp. 251-252. — Black Guillemot in Pembrokeshire, tom. cit. Oct., p. 143. Grassholm. Field. Oct. 9, pp. 587-589. and Satmon, H. Morrey. Grassholm Gannets in 1924: A Great Increase, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 178-185. Apam, Ropert Moyrs. Mingulay of the Long Island. Country Life. Aug. 30, pp. 333-336 ; Sept. 13, pp. 391-394. Apams, W. H. F. Little Owl in Montgomeryshire. Field. Dec. 11, p. 920. Apcock, 8. See E. H. Warrington. Apxry, Ropert. Hemming Collection. Ent. May, pp. 118-119. —— Nygmia phaeorrhoea at Eastbourne, tom. cit. July, p. 162. —— late Spring of 1924: Some Comparisons, tom. cit., p. 165. ——-— Colias crocea at Eastbourne, tom. cit. Aug., p. 186. —— Apple Fruit Attacked by the Larva of Tortrix heparana, tom. cit., pp. 188-189. —— White Butterflies Flying in from over the Sea, tom. cit. Sept., p. 205. —— Devastation of Oak Trees by the Larve of Tortrix viridana, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 236-237. Polygonia c-album in Sussex, tom. cit. Nov., pp. 257-258. Manuca atropos in Sussex, tom. cit., p. 259. Where does the Humming-bird Hawk Moth (Sesia stellatarwm) Spend the Night in Nature? Ent. Mo. Mag. Sept., p. 212. ALEXANDER, GEORGE. Crymodes exulis var. assimilis. Ent. Oct., pp. 235-236. AtpxanpeR, H. G. Late Immigration of Sky-larks into Kent. Brit. Birds. Apr., p- 274. — Woodpeckers and Pine-cones, tom. cit.,p. 276. — Birds on North Worcestershire Reservoirs, 1922 and 1923, tom. cit., pp. 282-283. | Status of the Water-Pipit in England, tom. cit. May, pp. 304-305. Ring-Ouzels in Kent in Winter, tom. cit., pp. 308-309. Atkins, W. E. Note on the Discovery of a Colony of Vitrea lucida (Drap) at Arnside, Westmorland. Journ. Conch. July, pp. 157-158. AuLeN, Frep 8. Late Swift. Field. Nov. 27, p. 859. Attn, J. W., and Nicnorson, G. W. Tachys micros Fisch. (Gregarius Chaud.): An addition to the List of British Coleoptera. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Oct., p. 225. — Chlaenius schranki Dufts. (nitidulus Schrank) on the Dorset Goast, tom. cit. p. 281. Sitones gemellatus Gyll. in South Devon, loc. cit. Auston, A. N. On the Genetal System of Lyctus brunneus Steph., with a Note on Lyctus linearis Goeze (Coleoptera). Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. No. 238, pp. 581-596. Amprosn, W.GrrRatp. Snake Hunting a Lizard. Field. Dec. 18, p. 978. ANDERSON, JOSEPH. Colias crocea: At Chichester. Hnt. Oct., p. 234. Beetle pupates in and emerges from a Piano. Hnt. Rec. Nov., p. 159. Anprewes, H. E. New British Trechus. Trans. Ent. Soc. Aug., pp. lviii-lix. Anprews, H. W. Agathomyia elegantula Fall. and other Diptera from North Kent. Ent. Mo. Mag. Mar., p. 65. —— Lutolmus rufibarbis Mg. in North Kent, tom. cit. Dec., p. 279. ANNANDALE, N. Occurrence of Valvata piscinalis £. alpestris Blauner in Scotland. Journ. Conch. Nov., p. 168. ArmitaGE, J. Mobbing of the Tawny Owl. Field. May 29, p. 755 (Figs.) ARMITAGE, JOHN. Notes onthe Chough. Field. Aug. 7, p. 235. Armour, G. Dennorm. Abnormal Head of Stag. Feld. Oct. 30, p. 677. Armstrong, A. Lustre. Exploration of Harborough Cave, Brassington. Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst. Vol. LIII., pp. 402-413. Arrow, GILBERT J. Vocal Organs in the Coleopterous Families Dytiscide, Hrotylide, and Endomychide. Trans. Ent. Soc. Aug., pp. 134-143. ARTINDALE, R. H. Little Owl Again. Field. July 10, p. 83. See F. L. Blaythwaite. —— See i. W. Hendy. LIST OF PAPERS, 1924—ZOOLOGY. 425 ArtinpALr, R.H. See Ronald Morris. Asup, G. H. Food Plant of Crytocephalus fulvas Goeze. Ent. Mo. Mag. Apr., p. 87. — Ptinus sexpunctatus Panz. at Hartlebury, loc. cit. — Coleoptera in Worcestershire. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Nov., p. 261. —— and Barnes, A.J. Entomology [Report]. ec. of Bare Facts. Caradoc and S.V. Field Club. No. 33, p. 12. — Coleoptera [Report], tom. cit., p. 13. Asurorp, W. J. Red-throated Divers and Waste Oil. Field. Feb. 14, p. 211. AsnuwortsH, J. H. Modern Zoology: Some of its Developments and its Bearings on Human Welfare. Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1923, pp. 108-125. Asrrrtey, M.N. See A. Webb. Astiry, A. Intervals Between the Broods of Double and Treble-brooded Birds Brit. Birds. Aug., pp. 72-73. Astiey, Huperr. Birds at Brinsop Court. Avic. Mag. Feb., pp. 25-30. — Thrushes. Avic. Mag. Sept., pp. 206-218. — Cuckoo Calling in July. Country Life. Aug. 2, p. 192. — Scoter Inland, tom. cit. Aug. 23, p. 303. Atkins, W. R. C., and Lesour, Mariz V. Habitats of Limnea truncatula and L. pereger in relation to Hydrogen ion Concentration. Sci. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc. Mar., pp. 327-331; Abs. in Nature. May 3, p. 656; Abs. in Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc. Nov., pp. 499-500. Arrryson, GeorceT. Autumn Herring Fishery. Country Life. Oct. 25, pp. 625-627 Artes, H. G. [and others]. Arrival of Summer Birds. Field. May 29, p. 755. Austin, P. A. See Wilfred Rushton. Aupen, J. L. Beasts and Birds of Skomer Island. Field. Oct. 30, p. 678. — Smew in Nottinghamshire, tom. cit. Mar. 6, p. 315. Baccuvus, Doveias. Strongylocoris luridus Fall. (Hemipt.-Heteroptera) in Cornwall. Ent. Mo. Mag. Mar., p. 65. Bapaer, C. W. Buff-Coloured Common Hare. Scot. Nat. May, p. 68. - Baenatt, Ricwarp §. Genus Melanothrips, with Description of a New Species. Ent. Mo. Mag. Jan., pp. 9-11. — Some New or Little-known British Thysanoptera, tom. cit. May, pp. 113-116; Nov., pp. 251-252; Dec., pp. 269-275. — and Harrison, J. W. Hxestor. New British Cecidomyiide. 5. Hnt. Rec. : Mar., pp. 36-38 ; Apr., pp. 53-55. _— New British Cecidomyiide 6, tom. cit. July, pp. 99-102. - BagsHaw, Waurer. General Guide to Wilton Park Museum, Batley. 36 pp. — Case Illustrative of Nesting Colonies of Sea-birds on the Yorkshire Cliffs. Guide to Wilton Park Museum, Batley, pp. 24-28. Battny, Wm. SHore. Curious Behaviour of Grey Plover. Avic. Mag. Apr., pp. 84-85. Barrp, D. Weasel v. Swallows. Field. Sept. 11, p. 402. Baker, CiceLy. Greedy Young Cuckoo. Country Life. Aug. 16, p. 267. Baker, C. See A. Webb. Baker, E. C. A., and Turnputt, Hupert M. Influence of Weather upon the number of Eggsina Clutch. Brit. Birds. Nov., pp. 170-171. Baxer, E. C. Stuart [Secretary]. Fourth Report of the Committee on the Nomen- clature and Records of Occurrences of Rare Birds in the British Islands, and certain necessary Changes in the Nomenclature of the B.O.U. List of British Birds. Jbis. Jan., pp. 152-158. Baker, Herpert W. Manduca atropos in East Suffolk. Hnt. Nov., p. 259. Baker, L. Y. Preliminary Report on Investigations at Goatchurch Cavern, Burrington Combe, Somerset. Proc. Speleological Soc. Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 60-64. Browne, V. Batrour. Weather and Antlers. Field. Jan. 17, p. 64. Barz, Artuur L. Death’s-Head Hawk Moth. Field. Nov. 13, p. 778. Banorort, J. Blood Pigment of Arenicola. Proc. Roy. Soc. Ser. B. B. 672. Feb., pp. 28-42. Bannerman, Davin, and Wirurersy, H. F. Irish Sparrow-Hawk. Bull. Brit. ; Ornith. Club. July 7, pp. 93-96. Bankes, E.R. See A. Webb. Barina, Cuctz. Woodcock Breeding on Lambay. Jrish Nat. May, p. 54. Barnus, A. J. See G. H. Ashe. 426 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. : Barnes, H. F. Some Observations on the Mating Habits and Oviposition of the Limnobiide (Diptera) I. Ent. Mo. Mag. Mar., pp. 71-72; Apr., p. 73. — Gonomyia bispinosa Barnes: Change of Name, tom. cit. June, p. 140. —— Preliminary List of the Crane-flies of Carnarvonshire, N. Wales, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 225-227. —— Some Facts about Pollenia Rudis, Fabr. Vasc. Jan., pp. 34-38. : Barnett, F. Leeds Natural History Records. Nat. Apr., p. 127. Barrett, C.G. Deilephila livornica in Norfolk. Ent. Aug., p. 186. BaRTHOLOMEW, JAMES. Colours of Grey Lag-Geese. Scot. Nat. Jan., p. 8. — Colour-variety of Rook, tom. cit. July, p. 127. BaRTLETT, CHARLES. Entomological Section, 1923 [Report]. Ann. Rep. Bristol Nat. Soc. Vol. VI., pt. 1, p. 14. Bartuert, J. See A. H. Macpherson. Barton, H.D.M. Spotted Crake in Ireland. Field. Oct. 16, p. 629. Bares, [D. H.]. [Cheshire Birds]. Chester Soc. Nat. Sci. 53rd Ann. Rep., p. 13. Barren, H. Mortimer. Stoat. Journ. Minis. Agric. Feb., pp. 1028-1035. Home Range of Wild Animals, tom. cit. May, pp. 177-181. — Badger: Its Habits and Life History, tom. cit. Sept., pp. 572-577. — Lapwing, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 663-667. —— March Cuckoo. field. Apr. 10, p. 488. Bats Taking Insects from the Ground, tom. cit. June 12, p. $39. Young Hedgehogs, tom. cit. Aug. 7, p. 235. Standing of the Wild Cat, tom. cit. Nov. 20, p. 807. Baxter, Evetyn V., and Rixtoui, Lronora JErrrey. Spread and Distribution of the Woodcock as a Breeding Bird in Scotland since the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century. Scot. Nat. Jan., pp. 13-20; Mar., pp. 47-51; Abs. : in Brit. Birds. Sept., p. 116. | Northern Golden Plover in Scotland, tom. cit. Mar., pp. 35-36. Wood-lark in East Fife, tom. cit. May, pp. 75-76; Abs. in Brit. Birds. Sept., p. 114. Report on Scottish Ornithology in 1923, tom. cit. July, pp. 105-120; Sept., pp. 137-161. Third Record for Britain of the Subalpine Warbler, tom. cit., p. 126. Bayrorp, E. G. Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union: Entomological Section. Ent. Mo. Mag. Jan., pp. 20-22. —— Note on the Rearing of Exallonyx ater Nees. tom. cit. Oct., p. 233. Bayiis, H. A. Some Considerations on the Host-range of Parasitic Nematodes. [Abs.] Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1923, p. 453. —— Colour-Production in Lepidoptera. Ent. Jan., pp. 2-6; Feb., pp. 29-34; Mar., pp. 52-56; Apr., pp. 78-81. —— Some Considerations on the Host-distribution of Parasitic Nematodes. Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. No. 239, pp. 13-23. BrapNeELL, Ernen. White Blackbird. Country Life. Nov. 22, p. 813. Bears, T. Hupson. Cryptocephalus pusillus ¥. and its Varieties. Ent. Mo. Mag. Jan., p. 11. Beaton, Joun. Albino Examples of Shag or Scart. Scot. Nat. Nov., p. 189. Beprorp, M. Alpine Swifts in Wigtownshire. Scot. Nat. May, p. 84; Abs. in Brit. Birds. Sept., p. 114. Brpwe tu, KE. C. Additional Records of British Hemiptera-Heteroptera. Ent. Mo. Mag. Feb., p. 39. Brrver, Grorcr. On Keeping Pheasants. Coleoptera. July, p. 128; Oct., pp. 31-32. Wanatyn, L. Lustre. Stranded Rorqual. Field. July 10, p. 83. Warp, Francis. Infancy of Fishes. Country Life. Oct. 4, pp. 523-525. — Fishing Cormorant, tom. cit. Nov. 8, pp. 710-712. Warp, J. Davis. Platychirus tarsalis Schumm. in Lancashire. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Apr., p. 88. Warp, Spee and Conerrve, W. M. Cannibalistic Propensity of a Redbreast. Brit. Birds. Mar., p. 251. Pile || 462 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Warp, 0. F.M. Wild Duck on the Chelsea Embankment. Field. July 24, p. 156. Warmineton, E. H. Chiff-chaff in Ireland in January. field. Jan. 24, p. 112. —— See A. Webb. —— [and many others]. Arrival of Summer Birds. Field. Apr. 24, p. 556. Warranpd, K.C. Unusual Nesting Sites. veld. June 12, p. 839. Warren, 8. Hazzumprne. LElephant-bed of Clacton-on-Sea. Hssex Nat. Apr., . 32-40. — Plaatecsus Classifications. Proc. Geol. Assoc. Dec., pp. 265-282. Waters, ArtouR Wm. Ancestrula of Membranipora pilosa, L. and of other Cheilo- stomatous Bryozoa. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Dec., pp. 594-612. Waters, E. G. R. Micro-Lepidoptera in Merioneth, Aug.-Sept., 1923. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Jan., pp. 12-14. —— fuchloris pustulata Hufn. on Beech, tom. cit. Mar., p. 64. — ‘Tineina in the Oxford District, 1912-23, tom. cit. Apr., pp. 93-96; May, pp- 97-103. Warrins, P. Moraan. See J. H. Crow. Watney, CHarLes. Rooks Feeding on the Beach [Hastings]. Country Life. May 24, p- 832. [See also tom. cit., May 31, p. 872.] Watson, ArNoxtD T. (Obituary). See Anon. (signed A.D.). Watson, C. L. Zoological and Ecological Surveys and their Relation to Agriculture. Vasc. July, pp. 103-106. Watson, H. G. See Ronald Morris. Watson, J. B. Sandwich Tern Breeding in Suffolk. Field. June 19, p. 876; — Abs. in Brit. Birds. Nov., p. 174. — Absence of House Martins. Field. Oct. 2, p. 533. Bearded Tit extending its Breeding Range, tom. cit. Nov. 6, p. 714. Watson, J. R. New Bregmatothrips (Thysanoptera) from England and Holland. Ent. Mo. Mag. Nov., pp. 253-254. Watson, W. G. Little Bunting in Northumberland. Brit. Birds. May, p. 308. — Notes from Holy Island, Northumberland, tom. cit. June, pp. 19-20. — Record of a Migrant rush at Holy Island, Northumberland, between November 8 and 11, 1923. Scot. Nat. May, pp. 89-90. Watt, Huca Boyp. American Grey Squirrel in Yorkshire. Nat. Feb., p. 62. Wauvcuorpn, D. A. Black Redstart in Midlothian. Scot. Nat. May, p. 76; Abs. in Brit. Birds. Sept., p. 114. Wess, A. [and many others]. Arrival of Summer Birds. Field. May 8, p. 636. Wesster, A. D. Kingfisher Flying against Window. Field. July 17, p. 122. Wepp, C. B., and Kine, W. B. R. Geology of the Country around Flint, Hawarden and Caergwrle. Mem. of Geol. Survey. 222 pp. Wetcu, Freprerick D. Thieving Falcon. Avic. Mag. May, pp. 109-110. Variations of Hunting by Kestrels, tom cit. June, pp. 140-142. Flesh-food eaten by Rooks, tom. cit., pp. 147-148. Common Gulls Perching, tom. cit. July, p. 171. Food of Birds, tom. cit. Nov., pp. 302-304. Leptophyes punctatissima Bose at Longfield, Kent. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Dec., pp. 278-279. Humming Bird Hawk Moth; Swallow, Martin, Swift. Rochester Nat. No. 130, pp. 45-46. Wetcu, Jno. Kemp. See Ronald Morris. ; Wetcu, R. J. Great Shoals of Fish near Glenarm, Co. Antrim. Jrish Nat. Jan., Pua p. 7. Wetts, J. E. Early Nesting of the Tit. Field. June 5, p. 793. Wenner, M.V. Large Gathering of Ravens in Denbighshire. Field. Dec. 4, p. 887. WentwortH-Day, J. Lure of the Grey Geese. Country Life. Nov. 15, pp. 749-750. —— National Trust and Wicken Fen. Field. Apr. 3, p. 430. : Western, W. H. See Rose Laverock. WestHorRPE, 8. Death’s-head Hawk Moth in Ireland. Nov. 6, p. 714. Weyer, B. VAN DE. Cuckoos Returning to the Same Summer Quarters for Six and Five Years. Brit. Birds. June, pp. 30-31. Weyer, J. VAN DE. Pied Fly-catcher in Berkshire. Brit. Birds. June, p. 30. WHEELER, GERVASE. Buzzard. Country Life. Feb. 2, p. 183. WHEELER, R. E. Mortimer. Seventeenth Annual Report of the National Museum of Wales. 38 pp. LIST OF PAPERS, 1924—ZOOLOGY. 463 Wuisx, F. H. L. Ivory-gull in Gloucestershire. Brit. Birds. Apr., p. 288. Wuiraker, F.O. See C. H. Grinling. Waitaker, J. Manx Shearwater near Rainworth, Notts. Field. Oct. 2, p. 533. Warrr, Apam. Recovery of Ringed Woodcock. Scot. Nat. Mar., p. 36 Werte, H: J. Ospornz. Geology of the Country near Brighton and Worthing. Mem. of Geol. Survey. 114 pp. Wauitr, W. Watmestry. Surf-Scoters in Devonshire. Brit. Birds. May, pp. 311-312. — Early Breeding of Cuckoo in Devonshire, tom. cit. July, pp. 57-58. Wicutman, A. J. Protection of British Butterflies. Hnt. Dec., pp. 279-281. Win, Ottver H. Glaucous Gull in East Lothian. Scot. Nat. Mar., p. 36. — Observations on the Humble-Bees of Bute, tom. cit. Mar., pp. 53-60. Wittrorp, A. H. Little Grebe at Home. Country Life. May 17, pp. 766-767. WILLFORD, ce Hy. Photographing a Kingfisher. Country Life. May 17, p. 791. Wiutams, B. 8. Anisoxya fuscula Ill. at Harpenden. Ent. Mo. Mag. Mar., p. 63. — Coleoptera Collected in the Harpenden District during 1921, 1922, 1923, tom. cit. Apr., pp. 76-80. — Anthicus bifascitus Rossi at Wicken, tom. cit. Oct. p. 231. Wiuu1ms, C.K. Curious Birds at Wimbledon. Field. Nov. 6, p. 714. Wiuiams, H. B. Brenthis ewphrosyne, L. Ab plumbea, Cockayne. Ent. Rec. Feb., p. 27. — Preliminary Observations on the British Vanessids. London Nat. 1923, p. 35. Wuuiamson, J. F. Jacksnipe near London. Field. Apr. 10, p. 488. Wittovensy-Eiuis, H. Insect Food of the Little Owl, Athene noctua, Scop. Trans. Ent. Soc. Aug., p. viii. — Teratological Specimen of Agabus melanarius Aub., loc. cit. Wuson, A. H.R. Late Nesting of Woodcock. Brit. Birds. Oct., p. 142. Wimsuovrst, F. M. New British Aphid [Macrosiphum galiophagum nov. sp.]. Ent. Mo. Mag. Mar., pp. 62-63. — Myzus cerasi ¥. on Galiwm aparine and afterwards on protected plants, tom. cit., p. 65. Winokwortn, R. Lepton squamosum (Montagu). Journ. Conch. July, p. 158. Winter, W. P. Plant Galls [in Teesdale]. Nat. Nov., pp. 347-348. Winton, R. P. DE. Grouse Killed by Collision. Field. Jan. 24, p. 97. Wircnet, EK. N. See A. H. Macpherson. —— See A. Webb. Wiruersy, H. F. ‘ Velvet-Scoter’ Breeding in Scotland. Bull. Brit. Ornith. Club. Jan. 24, pp. 45-46. — See David Bannerman. — British Blue Tit in Alderney. Brit. Birds. Jan., p. 190. — Pine-Cones‘and Woodpeckers, tom. cit. Feb., p. 208. — ‘British Birds’ Marking Scheme: Progress for 1923, tom. cit. Mar., pp. 231-242. , — Waxwings in England, tom. cit. Apr., p. 275. — Distinctions of American Snipe and its Occurrence in Britain, tom. cit., pp. 283-288. Wirrycomss, C. L. Further Notes on the Biology of some British Neuroptera. Ent. July, pp. 145-152. Womerstey, H. Apterygota of the South-West of England. Ann. Rep. Bristol Nat. Soc. Vol. VI., pt. 1., pp. 28-37. —— Anisolabis annulipes and Prolabia arachidis at Bristol. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Sept., Woop, n Worstey. Plusia ni at East Sheen. Ent. Mar., p. 68. Woop, W. Large Clutch of Linnet’s Eggs. Brit. Birds. Aug., p. 74. — Black Redstart Inland in Kent, tom. cit. Dec., p. 193. Woopnnan. See Buckley. Woopwarp, Artuur SmirH. Some Remarks on the Pleistocene Mammalia. Hssex Nat. Apr., pp. 1-12. Woopwakb, Bernarp BarHam. See Alfred Santer Kennard. — See J. A. Thompson. Woopwarp, Grorce C. Entomological Notes for the Season 1923. Ent. Rec. Jan., pp. 4-6; Feb., pp. 20-21. 464 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Woorner, L. R. See F. L. Blaythwaite. —— See K. W. Hendy. —— See J. H. Crow. —— See J. Green. —— See A. H. Macpherson. Worxman, W.H. Reevein Co. Down. Brit. Birds. Dec., p. 195. — Spotted Crake in Co. Louth, tom. cit., p. 196. — Ringed Woodcock. Irish Nat. Apr., pp. 44-45. — Rooks’ Air Route, tom. cit., pp. 45-46. Worms, C. pz. Great Crested Grebe at Camberley. Field. July 10, p. 83. Worssam, Crom. Holiday in North-West. Cornwall in 1924. Hnt. Rec. Oct., pp. 142-143. — Aberration of Aglais urtice, tom. cit., p. 143. Wricut, WILLIAM BourKE. Age and Origin of the Lough Neagh Clays. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Dec., pp. 468-488. Wricut, W. Rees. Mosquitoes of North Wales. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Sept., pp. 208-210. Wrictry, ArtHuR. Note onthe Eocene Depositsof Upnor. Rochester Nat. No. 130, pp. 48-49. Wricuey, J. Hoopoes in Oxfordshire. Field. May 29, p. 755. Wyatt, C. rFoRDE. Catocala fraxini in Surrey. Ent. Oct., p. 235. Wyunzg, A. 8S. B. F.P. Anticlea badiatain May. Ent. June, p. 140. — Lepidoptera and Bats, tom. cit. July, p. 164. Rare Mites in Notts, tom. cit. Sept., p. 209. Wyse, L. H. Bonaparte. See Oliver E. Janson. Yatss, J. M. St. Jonn. Dotterel on the Increase. Field. June 19, p. 876. See A. Webb. Youne, B. Wessex Bird Notes. Field. Nov. 20, p. 807. Youne, Joun W. Wild Swans on the Barrow. Irish Nat. Apr., p. 44. —— Wild Swans in Queen’s Co. Field. Feb. 14, p. 212. Prehistoric Archeology. Anon. Hallstatt Brooches in Britain. Antig. Journ., Jan., pp. 50-51; Abs. in Sussex Arch. Coll., Vol. LXV., pp. 253-254. Early British Masterpiece. [Bronze mirror.] Antig. Journ. Apr., pp. 151-153.. Hampshire Gravels, tom. cit. Apr., pp. 160-161. Celtic find in Scotland, tom. cit. July, p. 273. Excavations at Danesborough Camp, Bucks, tom. cit. Oct.. p. 418. Reports of Meetings, 1924. Proc. Berwick Nat. Club. Vol. XXV., pt. 1., pp. 185-227. Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club. Proc. Dorset N.H. & Ant. F. Club. Vol. XLY., pp. xxix-lxxxiii.. Essex Field Club: Report of the Council. Hssex Nat. Apr., pp. 23-24. Tertiary and Post-Tertiary Geology of Mull, Loch Aline and Oban. Geol. Survey Mem, 445 pp. Route Naturalists’ Field Club. [Report.] Irish Nat. Apr., p. 42. Nineteenth Annual Report of the Manx Museum. 24 pp. Obituary : William Morfitt. Museums Journ. Feb., p. 211. Danish Bronze Celt in England. [Abs.] Nat. Maz., pp. 67-68. Obituary : Mr. William Morfitt, Nature, Jan. 12, p. 57. Lord Abercromby [Obituary], tom. cit. Oct. 25, pp. 617-618. Works of Early Man in Kast Anglia, tom. cit. Dec. 13, pp. 878-879. Summary of Proceedings. Proc. Prehistoric Soc. Hast Anglia. Vol. IV., pt. 0., pp. 241-245. Excavation at Danesborough Camp. Rec. of Bucks. Vol. XI., No. 6, p. 351. Small Hoard of British or Gaulish Coins found near Rochester. [Abs.] Rochester Nat. No. 130, pp. 46-47. Additions tothe Museum. Proc. Somerset. Arch. and Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. LXIX., pp. lxiii-bxxii. Sessional Meetings. Proc. Speleological Soc. Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 96-97. Additions to the Museum, 1920-1924. Sussex Arch. Coll. Vol. LXV., pp. xlviii-xlix. Reports of Local Secretaries, tom. cit. Vol. LXYV., pp. 260-264. a Heddeia dee ie delet LIST OF PAPERS, 1924—PREHISTORIC ARCH AOLOGY. 465 Anon. Guide to the Torquay Natural History Society’s Museum, with Plan and Notes on Kent’s Cavern. 5th Ed., 15 pp Biology. [Report and Exhibits.] Handbook to Exhibition Pure Science. [Wembley], pp. 210-228. Stonehenge as a Temple of Serpent Worship. [Abs.] Wilts Arch. and Nat. Hist. Mag. June, p. 520. New Theory of Avebury, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 591-592. Additions to Museum and Library, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 625-626. Spring Annual Meeting [Report]. Trans. Woolhope N.F. Club. J uly, pp. xlvii- xlix. Field Meetings [Reports], tom. cit., pp. lxiii-Ixxxvii. Report on Broadwater Excavations. Second Ann. Rep. Worthing Arch. Soc., . 5. Yorkshire Museum. Report of the Museum Committee for the Year 1923. Ann. Rep. Yorks Phil. Soc. May, pp. 18-25. Cave Explorations: I. New Discoveries. II. Other Expeditions. Yorks Ramblers Club Journ. Vol. V., No. 16, pp. 154-156. Assortr, W.J. Lewis. Chalky Boulder Marl at Hastings. Nature. Aug. 30, pp.312-313. ApercromBy, Lord. For Obituary, see Anon. ; Autorort, A. Haprran. Circus on Buckland Bank. Brighton and Hove Archeologist. No. 2, pp. 29-40. Anprrson, A. WuitrorD. Cinerary Urns found near Letchworth. Antig. Journ. July, pp. 268-269. —— Flint Implement from Hertfordshire, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 426-427. Armstrone, A. Lestiz. Exploration of Harborough Cave, Brassington. Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst. Vol. LIII., pp. 402-413. —— Distribution of Bronze Age Implements. [Abs.] Hep. Brit. Assoc., 1923, pp. 412-413. — Bronze Palstave from Grindleford. Journ. Derbyshire Arch. Soc. No. XLVL., pp. 115-116. —— Percy Sladen Memorial Fund Excavations. Grimes’ Graves. Norfolk, 1924. Proc. Prehistoric Soc. East Anglia. Vol. IV., pt. 1., pp. 182-193. —— Further Excavations upon the Engraving Floor (Floor 85), Grimes’ Graves, tom. cit. Vol. IV., pt. 11., pp. 194-202. _— and Fave, R.V. Sepulchral Cave at Tray Cliff near Castleton. Journ. Derby- ? shire Arch. Soc. No. XLVI., pp. 124-125. Austin, P. A. See Wilfred Rushton. Baker, L. Y. Preliminary Report on Investigations at Goatchurch Cavern, Burring- ton Combe, Somerset. Proc. Speleological Soc. Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 60-64. Banton, J. T. Notes on the Gravels of the Gt. Ouse Basin. Geol. Mag. J uly, pp. 328- 330. Barnus, A. §., and Mor, J. Rem. Mr. 8. Hazzledine Warren’s Views on Eoliths: a Reply to Mr. S. E. Glendenning. Man. May, pp. 78-79. Baytor, E. A. C. Bronze found near Richborough. Antig. Journ. Oct., p. 420. Bzckert, J. H. Reports of Sections: Archeology. J'rans. North Staff. Field Club. LVIII., pp. 123-125. Benton, G. Montagu. Cinerary Urns of the Late Bronze Age discovered at Shalford, ¢ Essex. Antiq. Journ. July, pp. 265-267. — late Bronze and Early Iron Age Pottery discovered at Shalford. Trans. Essex Arch. Soc. Vol. XVIL., pt. m., pp. 125-128. Buiatr, Rogerr (Obituary). See John Oxberry. Brentnatyt, H.C. Excavations on the Line of Wansdyke. Rep. Marlborough Coll. . Nat. Hist. Soc., No. 72, pp. 90-97. Brewis, Parker, and Spain, G.R.B. Curator’s Report. Arch. Aeliana. Vol. XX., pp. Xix-xxii. REWIS, PARKER. British Brooches of the Blackworth Type in the Black Gate Museum, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Arch. Aeliana. Vol. XXI., pp. 173-181; Abs. in Nat., Sep., pp. 261-262. Some Impressions of the Prehistoric Museum, Copenhagen. Museums Journ. Jan., pp. 168-171. Broprick, Haroup. Fox Holes, Clapdale. A Rock Shelter. Yorks Ramblers Club , Journ. Vol. V., No. 16, pp. 112-116. ROMEHEAD, C, EK. N, See Henry Dewey. Els eee FY ————e er 466 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Brown, W. V. Diccan Pot, Selside. Yorks Ramblers Club Journ. Vol. V., No. 16, . 117-124. Euckine Guana CHEETHAM, PEARSALL, WoopHEAD. Age of the Peat. Antigq. Journ. Oct., pp. 416-417. Bucokuey, Francis. Nature and Making of Graving Tools found in the Huddersfield District. olson Memorial Museum (Huddersfield) Pub., pp. 87-92. Burcwet, J. P. T. Gravels at Reculver, Kent. Proc. Prehistoric Soc. Hast Anglia. Vol. IV., pt. m., pp. 203-210. Bur«irt, Mires C. Further Notes useful for the Study of the Chronology of Palzo- lithic Cultures in relation to the various Glacial Deposits. Man. Jan., pp. 2-3. — Danish Type of Axe in England. Man. July, p. 114. See J. KE. Marr. BurRELL. See Buckley. Bury, Henry. Paleolithic Flakes. Nature. Mar. 1, p. 310. Burcuer, Cuartes H. Essex Bronze Implements and Weapons in the Colchester Museum. Colchester Museum Pub., No. 1, 12 pp.; Abs. in Nature, Mar. 15, p. 403; rev. in Naturalist, Apr., p. 102; rev. in Nat., Apr., p. 102. Cater, J. Bernarp. Pygmy and other Flint Implements found at Peacehaven. Sussex Arch. Coll. Vol. LXV., pp. 224-241. Carus-Witson, C. Sarsen Stones. Nature’s Monuments used by Man. Conquest. Feb., pp. 142-143. Cuatwin, C. P. See Henry Dewey. CureEtTHaM. See Buckley. CiarkK, J. G. D. Notes on the Flint Implements on Granham Hill and around Panterwick. Rep. Marlborough Coll. Nat. Hist. Soc. No. 72, pp. 85-89. CuaRKE, L. G. G. See Cyril Fox. Cray, R. C. C. Flint Implement from Pucknall, Hants. Man. Sept., p. 133. —— Early Iron Age Site on Fifield Bavant Down. Wilis Arch. and Nat. Hist. Mag., June, pp. 457-496. —— Four unrecorded Barrows in 8. Wilts, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 598-599. Cottrnewoop, R.G. British Frontier in the Age of Severus. Journ. Roman Studies. Vol. XIII, pt. 1, pp. 69-81. Coox, W. H., and Kimicx, J. R. On the Discovery of a Flint-working site of Palzo- lithic date in the Medway Valley at Rochester, Kent, with notes on the — Drift-stages of the Medway. Proc. Prehistoric Soc. Hast Anglia. Vol. IV., — pt. I., pp. 133-154. ' Coorrr, A. N. Curiosities of East Yorkshire, 114 pp.; Abs. in Nat., Sept., p. 284. ' CraAwForD, 0. G.S. Stonehenge Avenue. Antig. Journ., Jan., pp. 57-59; Abs. in — Wilts Arch. and Nat. Hist. Mag., June, pp. 520-521. —— Perforated Stone in Shropshire. Antig. Journ. Oct., pp. 405-406. —— See P. H. G. Powell-Cotton. CRAWSHAY, DE BaARRI. Outline of the Life and Work of Benjamin Harrison, of Ightham, Kent, including an Account of the Original Discovery of Eoliths. [Abs.] Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1923, p. 477. —— Koliths from the South Ash (Kent) Pit, 1921 [Abs.] tom. cit., p. 477. — Eoliths found ,‘in situ’ at South Ash, Kent. Proc. Prehistoric Soc. Hast Anglia. Vol. 1V., pt. 0., pp. 155-162. Cunninaton, B. Howarp. ‘Blue Stone’ from Boles Barrow. Wilts Arch. and Nat. Hist. Mag. June, pp. 431-437. Cunnineron, M. E. Objects recently given to the Museum, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 599-601. : Curie, A. O. Two Late Neolithic Vessels from the Thames. ——.. Botany (Holme- on-Spalding Moor) [Report]. Yorks Nat. Un. Cire. No. 313, p. 2. _——- - , and Rostyson, J. FRASER. Botany [Report]. Nat. Feb., pp. 59-60; Mar., p. 73. —— See Buckley. 4 Curisty, Miter. Common Polypody in Essex: Why is it Decreasing? Essex ; Nat. Mar., pp. 287-292. —— Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus L.) in Britain. Journ. Ecol., Jan., pp. 39-94; Abs. in Journ. Bot., Vol. LXII., pp. 118-119. _— Primula elatior Jacquin: Its Distribution in Britain. Journ, Ecol. July, pp. 314-316. Corn, L. W. See V. S. Summerhayes. Comprr, N. M. See A. G. Tansley. Coox, W. R. I. See R. E. Chapman. Corris [A.]. Walk from Dyke to Poynings. Botanical. Ann. Rep. Brighton and Hove Nat. Hist. Soc. 1924, pp. 18-19. ‘Datiman, A. A. Gagea lutea Ker. (=Fascicularis Salisb.) and its Parasite. Nat. Aug., p. 240. —— Plant Galls [at Holme-on-Spalding Moor], tom. cit. Sept., p. 271. Datrymete, G. H. Gladiolus illyricus. Gardening Illustrated, pe 23; Abs. in Journ. Bot., Oct., pp. 307-308. DaRBisHiRe, O. V. "Some Aspects of Lichenology. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. Sept., pp. 10-28. — Report on some Plant Specimens from Read’s Cavern. Proc. Speleological Soc. Vol. 2, No. 1, p. 59. Day, C. D. See R. D’O. Good. Day, W. R. Watermark Disease of the Cricket-bat Willow (Salix cwrulea). Oxford Forestry Memoirs, No. 3. 30 pp. Deane, ArtHur. Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, 1821-1921. Centenary Volume. 212 pp. Der, E. Marion, and Gruss, VioLetT M. Spermatia of Rhodymenia palmata Ag. Ann. Bot. Apr., pp. 327-335. Dettow, Mare@aret KE. See Walter Stiles. Drxon, H. N. Miscellanea Bryologica. Journ. Bot. Aug., pp. 228-236. Drew, Kata~tnEeN M. Abnormal Pro-embryonic Branch on Chara vulgaris L. Ann. Bot. Jan., pp. 207-209. Druce, G. Cuariper. Report of the Botanical Section for 1923. Proc. Ashmolean Nat. Hist, Soc. 1923, pp. 16-17. Orchis Fuchsii Druce. Journ. Bot. July, pp. 198-201. Lotus siliquosus L. in Berks, tom. cit. Oct., p. 309. Orchis maculata L. and O. Fuchsii Druce. Rep. Bot. Soc. and Ex. Club. Nov., pp. 322-328. Foundation of the Oxford Botanic Garden and its Tercentenary, tom. cit. (Supplement), pp. 335-366. Carex microglochin Wahl. A species new to Scotland. Tvans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. Vol. XXIX., pt. 1., pp. 1-3. Scottish Taraxaca, tom. cit., pp. 4-7. Rare British Plants [Exhibited]. Linn. Soc. Circ. No. 438, pp. 2-3. and many Others. Plant Notes for 1923. Rep. Bot. Soc.and Ex, Club, Nov., pp. 24-76. —— AT A CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Duncan, J. B. Mosses and Hepatics of Berwickshire and Northumberland. Proc. Berwick. Nat. Club. Vol.gXXV., pt. 1., pp. 271-279. Duntop, G. A. Principal Additions to the Museum Collections, 1922-24. Rep. Warring- ton Museum, 1924, pp. 13-19. , Dymzs, T. A. On Collecting and Curating Fruits and Seeds for the Study of Local Dispersal. Hssex Nat. Apr., pp. 43-48 ; Oct., pp. 49-59. —— _ Seed of Orchis latifolia. [Abs.| Linn. Soc. Cire. No. 435, p.2. Nature. July 19, . 109. EDEN, TOMAR, Edaphic Factors accompanying the Succession after Burning on Harpenden Common. Journ. Heol. July, pp. 267-286. Exuiorr, Bayriss. See J. Ramsbottom. Exits, Davip. Iron-Bacteria. Discovery. Oct., pp. 237-240. Investigation into the Structure and Life-history of the Sulphur Bacteria. I. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb. Vol. XLIV., pt. 0., pp. 153-167. Erprman, G. Studies in the Micropaleontology [? Micropaleobotany] of Postglacial Deposits in Northern Scotland and the Scotch Isles, with especial reference to the History of the Woodlands. Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. No. 311, p. 449. [Abs.] Nature, June 28, p. 947; Abs. in Nat., Aug., p. 230. Ewine, J. See W. H. Pearsall. Fanconrer, W. Plant Galls Committee [Report]. Nat. Mar., pp. 73-74. —— Plant Galls of the Huddersfield District, tom. cit. May, pp. 151-156; July, pp. 215-218. Fenton, E. Wyttte. Evolution and Plant-breeding. Trans. Torquay Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. IV., pt. 1., pp. 175-182. Firts, Jon. Winter Purslane (Claytonia perfoliata). Nat. Jan., p. 18. Frintorr, R. J. Ulex minor Roth. in Yorkshire. Nat. Dec., p. 356. Forxarp, C. W. ‘ Bleeding” of Cut Trees in Spring. Nature. Apr. 5, p. 492. Forsrs, Henry O. Is Orchis Fuchsii (Druce) a Valid Species of Orchidacez ? Nature. Oct. 4, pp. 610-611. Foster, Nevin H. Hieraciwm pellucidum and H. serratifrons in Co. Down. Irish Nat. Apr., pp. 47-48. Fraser, J. Notes on British Mints. Rep. Bot. Soc. and Ex. Club. Nov., pp. 240-244. Fry, E. Jennie. Suggested Explanation of the Mechanical Action of Lithophytic Lichens on Rocks (Shale). Ann. Bot. Jan., pp. 175-196. Furzn, Pavn. South Devon’s Orchises. Wild Flower Mag. Dec., pp. 14-16. Ganautex, N. See H. G. Thornton. Garrett, F.C. See Grace C. Leitch. Gates, R. Rueeuus. Species and Chromosomes. Nature. Sept. 6, pp. 353-356. Grrr, A. See 8. Greves. Gurnny, F. G. F. Reeds in the Fen Dykes. Country Life. Jan. 12, p. 69. Goprrery, M. J. Orchis latifolia L.: A Historical Study. Journ. Bol. Feb., pp. 35-41. —— Orchis Fuchsit Druce, tom. cit. July, pp. 201-202. —— SrepHenson, T., and StepHENson, T. A. British Dactylorchids. Journ. Bot. — June, pp. 175-178. Goon, R. D’O., and Day, C. D. Notes on the Ecology of Radipole Lake, Weymouth. Journ. Heol. July, pp. 322-328. —— Germination of Hippuris vulgaris Linn. Linn. Soc. Bot., Abs. in Nature, — Jan. 5, p. 33; No. 311, pp. 443-448. : GRAINGER, J. Plant Galls [at Scarthingwell Park]. Nat. Nov., p. 344. | Gregory, E. 8. Violet Notes for 1924. Rep. Bot. Soc. and Ex. Club. Nov., pp. 319-320. | Greie, J. Russexy. Note on the Association of Tilletia tritici with “ Epileptiform Convulsions ” in the Dog. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. Sept., pp. 121-122. Greves, 8.,Gupp, A.,and Smrrn, A. Lorrary. Summary of Current Researches relating to Zoology and Botany (principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), Micro- scopy, ete. Journ. Roy. Micros. Soc. Mar., pp. 53-109. Grierson, G. A. Lessons from a Limited Area. Trans. Lincs Nat. Union. 1923, pp. 9-18. Grirritss, Benyamin Miniarp. Studies in the Phytoplankton of the Lowland Waters of Great Britain. No. III. The Phytoplankton of Shropshire, Cheshire and Staffordshire. Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. No. 312, pp. 75-98. Nid —— Free-floating Microflora or Phytoplankton of Hornsea Mere, East Yorks. Nat. Aug., pp. 245-247. LIST OF PAPERS, 1924—BOTANY. A475 Grirritas, Brngamin Miitarp. Note on the Periodicity of lLeaf-form in Taraxacum officinale. New Phyt. July, pp. 153-156. — Flora and Fauna of Throckley Reeth. Vasc. Jan., p. 58. — Diatoms and Desmids, fom. cit. Apr., pp. 75-79. Grinuine, C. H., and Wurraxer, I’. O. Report of Botanical Section, 1923-24. South- Eastern Nat. Vol. XXIX., pp. xix-xxx. Grovus, JAMEs, and Butitock-Wnsster, G. R. Notes on British Charophyta. Journ. Bot. Feb., pp. 33-35. Gruss, Viotet M. See E. Marion Delf. Happen, Norman G. Notes on some New and Rare Fungi and Mycetozoa in West Somerset. Proc. Somerset. Arch. and Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. LXIX., pp. 70-72. Harnus, J. W. Paradise [Gloucester]. Proc. Cotteswold N.F. Club. Vol. XXI., pt. m., pp. 201-211. Hattows tt, EH. Birds and Plants near Sowerby Bridge. Nat. Jan., pp. 17-18. Hamer, 8. H. National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty Report. 1923-1924, 76 pp. Harris, G. T. See W. R. G. Atkins. Harrison, J. W. Hestop. Our Garden Roses. I. The Hybrid Perpetuals and Hybrid Teas. Vasc. Jan., pp. 55-57. — Notes and Records: Botany, tom. cit., pp. 62-64; Flowering Plants, July, pp. 126-127. See Kathleen B. Blackburn. Hartine, E.M. Addition to the British Flora. [Carex microglochin.] Country Life. Jan. 12, pp. 68-69. —— Early Wild Flowers, tom. cit. Mar. 15, p. 415. Hawtey, H. C. Flora of a Blackbird’s Nest in August. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. Aug., pp. 239-240; Abs. in Journ. Bot., Nov., p. 331. Hermie, R.L. Botanical Section[Report]. Trans. Torquay Nat. ‘Hist. Soc. Vol. 1V., pt. 1., pp. 192-193. Henry, Auaustins. Ancient Oaks in Kent. Country Life. Mar. 1, pp. 333-334 ; Mar. 8, p. 376. Hixcauirr, Mmprep, and Prizsttey, J. H. Further Notes upon the Vascular Plants characteristic of Peat. Nat. July, pp. 201-209. Hoarr, A. H. Watercress and its Cultivation. Journ. Minis. Agric. Mar., pp. 1147-1153. Howarp, Henry J. Norfolk Mycetozoa. Journ. Bot. Sept., pp. 257-264. Howartu, F. Sexuality of Ustilago. [Abs.] Linn. Soc. Cire. No. 426, pp. 1-2. Howarrn, W. O. Occurrence and Distribution of Festuca ovina L., sensu ampliss. Hack. in Britain. [Abs.] Linn. Soc. Circ. No. 431, pp. 3-4. — On the Occurrence and Distribution of Festuca rubra, Hack. in Great Britain. Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot., No. 309, pp. 313-331; Abs. in Nature, Apr. 26, p. 626. — On the Occurrence and Distribution of Festuca ovina L. sensu ampliss., in Britain, tom. cit. No. 312, pp. 29-39. Howxtins, E.M. Omphalia pseudoandrosacea, etc., in Yorkshire. Nat. Jan., p. 18. Hueearp, Lustir. Galiwm uliginosum in Co. Wexford. Irish Nat. Jan., p. 9. Ho, J. E. Obituary: Charles Robson. Vasc. Apr., pp. 80-82. — “Big Bud,” tom. cit. July, pp. 111-114. — Records: Flowering Plants, tom. cit., p. 127; Oct., p. 31. Horst, C. P. Fungi [Report]. Rep. Marlborough College Nat. Hist. Soc. No. 72, pp. 50-60. — Plant-Galls, Mosses, Hepatics, Lichens, Uredinales, tom. cit., pp. 101-102. —— Wiltshire Lichens in the Department of Botany at the British Museum. Wilts Arch. and Nat. Hist. Mag. June, pp. 427-430. — Savernake Forest Fungi, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 543-555. Hyarr, Joun B. Microscope in Plant Disease. American Gooseberry Mildew. Conquest. Mar., pp. 203-204. Hypx, H. A. Audible Spore-discharge by Geopyxis coccinea. Journ. Bot. May, E p. 148. —— See R. C. McLean. Jerreriss, F. See Rose Laverock. Jounson, J. W. Haran. Problems of River Pollution. Nature. June 7, pp. 817-818 476 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Jounston, H. H. Additions to the Flora of Orkney, as recorded by Watson’s ‘ Topo- graphical Botany,’ Second Edition (1883). Y'rans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. Vol. XXIX., pt. 1., pp. 83-95. Jonres, Roopa. See R. G. Stapledon. Jonrs, W. Nemson. Regeneration of Roots and Shoots in Cuttings of Seakale. [Abs.] Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1923, p. 486. JORGENSEN, OuGA M. Estuarine Plankton of River Coquet. Rep. Dove Marine Laboratory. XIII., pp. 116-119. Keresie, FREDERICK. Plant Commonwealth and its Mode of Government. Nature. July 5, pp. 13-15; July 12, pp. 55-57. Kipp, M. N. Apple Rot Fungi in Storage. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. Sept., pp. 98-118. Kirkpatrick, R. Biology of Waterworks. 3rd Ed. British Museum Handbool:. Econ. Ser. No. 7. 58 pp. Kyicut, H. H. Lichens of the Windsor Foray. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. Sept., uue — Field Meeting at Leckhampton Hill [Report]. Proc. Cotteswold N.F. Club. Vol. XXI., pt. m., pp. 190-191. Kyicut, Marcery. Studies in the Ectocarpacee. I. The Life-history and Cytology of Pylaiella litoralis, Kjelm. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. Vol. LIII., pt. m., pp. 343-360. Kyicut, R. C. Response of Plants in Soil and Water-culture to Aeration of the Roots. [Abs.] Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1923, p. 495. Know.es, M. C. Geranium sylvaticum—aA Correction. Irish Nat. Jan., p. 9. —— Erica stricta. Irish Nat. Apr., p. 48. —— Spiranthes Romanzoffiana, tom. cit. July, pp. 75-76. Lane, W. H. On some Deviations from the Normal Morphology of the Shoot in Osmunda regalis. Mem.and Proc. Manch. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Vol. LXVIIL., . 53-67. ieee Rosz, JEFFERIES, F., and Western, W. H. Field Meetings of 1923. Proc. Liverpool Nat. Field Club, 1923, pp. 32-45. Laverock, W.S. Presidential Address: The British Association for the Advance- ment of Science. Liverpool, 1896 and 1923. Proc. Liverpool Nat. Field Club, 1923, pp. 10-31. Lea, E. E. Notes on the History of the Wyre Forest. Trans. Worcestershire Nat. Club. Vol. VIII., pt. 1., pp. 63-80. Leacu, W. Anatomical and Physiological Study of the Petiole in certain Species of Populus. New Phyt. Dec., pp. 225-239. Lez, BEATRICE, and PrrestLEy, J. H. The Plant Cuticle: Its Structure, Distribu- tion, and Function. Ann. Bot. July, pp. 525-545. Ler, Witt1am A. Irish Sphagna. Irish Nat. Sept., p. 98. Lerrcu, Grace C., and Garrett, F. C. Nectar and Honey. Vasc. July, pp. 108-110. Lister, G. Mycetozoa of the Windsor Foray. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. Sept., pp. 8-9. Lirtiz, J. E. Rumesx obtusifolius L. x R. Pulcher L. Journ. Bot. Nov., pp. 330-331. Lone, H. C. Hoary Pepperwort: A Weed Menace in the 8.E. Counties. Journ. Minis. Agric. Apr., pp. 29-33. Lown, E. E. Twentieth Report to the City Council of the Leicester Museum and Art Gallery. 66 pp. Lownpes, A. G. pH Values or Hyrdogen Ion Concentration. Rep. Marlborough Coll. Nat. Hist. Soc. No. 72, pp. 98-100. McCrea, R. H. Abnormal Flower of the Honeysuckle (Lonicera periclymenum L).. New Phyt. July, pp. 159-160. — Flowering in the North of England in 1922 and 1923, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 207-216. Macerecor, M., and ANDERSON, E. M. Economic Geology of the Central Coalfields of Scotland. Area VI. Geol. Survey Mem. 134 pp. McLean, R. C., and Hypr, H. A. Vegetation of Steep Holm. Journ. Bot. June, pp. 167-175. Marquanp, C. V. B. Report for 1923 of the Botanical Exchange Club. The Botanical Society and Exchange Club of the British Isles. Vol.: VIL, pt. 0., pp. 369-414. MarspEn, D. Lincolnshire County List. Wild Flower Mag. Dec., pp. 2-3. Se LIST OF PAPERS, 1924—BOTANY. ATT M[fason], F. A. Acetifying Bacteria: The Genus Acetobacter and its Relationships. Bull. Bureau Bio-Tech. Feb., pp. 75-77. — Red + hee of Barley and Malt with some Notes on related Fungi, tom. cit., pp. 78-86. Mason, F. A. Geaster rufescens var. minor Pers. in Yorkshire. Nat. Feb., pp. 45-47. —— Fungi [at Earby], tom. cit., Aug., p. 250; at Scarthingwell Park, Nov., p. 344; [in Teesdale], Nov., pp. 346-347. — See W. H. Pearsall. Marruews, J. R. The Distribution of Certain Portions of the British Flora: Plants restricted to Scotland, England, and Wales. Ann. Bot. Oct., pp. 707-721. — Flora of the City Parish of Aberdeen [Review of]. Journ. Bot. May, pp. 151-153. Mercaw, W. R. Mosses of Rathlin Island. Irish Nat. Dec., p. 144. Metvit, J. Cosmo. Botany [Report]. Rec. of Bare Facts. Caradoc and S.V. Field Club. No. 33, pp. 4-11. — Four Shropshire Aliens. Jowrn. Bot. Aug., pp. 242-243. Menzies, JAMES. Some recent additions to the Discomycetes of Perthshire. Trans. Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci. Vol. VIII., pt. 1., pp. 8-9. Minter, W. D. Some Scottish Rarities Visited, 1923. Rep. Bot. Soc. and Bx. Club. Nov., pp. 249-251. — Botanical Section [Report]. Proc. Somerset. Arch. and Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. LXITX., pp. liv-lviii. Miriean, H. N. Handbook to the Freshwater Aquaria and Vivaria. Horniman Museum Pub. No. 3, 3rd Ed. 54 pp. Misom, F. E. Bryology [Report], Nat., Mar., p. 73; [at Ravenscar], Sept., p. 277. — Yorkshire Bryologists at Grassington, tom. cit.. Mar., p. 95; at Ingleton, Sept., p. 244; at Holmbridge, Nov., p. 336. MircHett, Marcaret R. Note on the Lateral Lines of the Petioles of Ferns. Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. Vol. XXITX., pt. 1., pp. 105-112. Morrat, C. B. Silene noctiflora in Co. Dublin. Irish Nat. Oct., p. 110. Moss, E. H. Fasciated Roots of Caltha palustris L. Ann. Bot. Oct., pp. 789-791. Murray, James. Hepatice of Carlisle District. Nat. May, pp. 157-158. — Cumberland Mosses, tom. cit. Sept., p. 283. —— Blasia pusilla Linn. in Cumberland, tom. cit. Dec., p. 356. — Some Bryophyta of the North Tyne. Vasc. Apr., pp. 73-75. Netson, ALEXANDER. ‘“ Hard Seeds” and Broken Seedlings in Red Clover. Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. Vol. XXIX., pt. 1., pp. 66-68. Norrs, J. L. Water Plants and Water Birds. Amateur Aquarist. Aug., p. 36. Octiviz, Francis G. Educational Value of Regional Survey. South-Eastern Nat. Vol. XXIX., pp. 33-42. Oginyin, LAawRENCcE. Observations on the “ Slime-fluxes” of Trees. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc., Mar., pp. 167-182; Abs. in Nature, May 10, pp. 691-692. Orpz-Powtert, Nicrt A. Dog’s Mercury. Field. Nov. 13, p. 749. Oxtey, Vera M. Epping Forest Museum of the Essex Field Club, Queen Elizabeth’s Lodge, Chingford. School Nature Study. Jan., pp. 18-20. P[srKker], T. Suppression of Insect Pests and Fungoid Diseases. Bull. Burear Bio-Tech. Feb., pp. 91-96. Paterson, J. Dow. Fish Maladies. Amateur Aquarist. Vol. I., No. 6, p. 56. Parron, Donaup. Vegetation of Beinn Laoigh. Rep. Bot. Soc. and Hx. Club. Nov., pp. 268-319. — See H. J. A. Stewart. Pavutson, Rosert. Tree Mycorrhiza. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. Aug., pp. 213-218. — Teasel Cups. South-Hastern Nat. Vol. XXIX., pp. 47-52. Prarsatt, W.H. Botanical Survey [Report]. Nat. Mar., p. 73. — Micro-Botany [Report], tom. cit., p. 74. — Botany [at Holme-on-Spalding Moor], tom. cit. Sept., pp. 271-272. — Plant Ecology [at Ravenscar], tom. cit., pp. 276-277; [in Teesdale], Nov., . 346. —— Pie siteniis of River Pollution. Natwre. Mar. 29, pp. 460-461. — Ages of Peat Deposits, tom. cit. Dec. 6, pp. 829-830. —— Phytoplankton and Environment in the English Lake District, Revue Algologique, I., pp. 53-67; Abs. in Journ. Roy. Micros. Soc., June, p. 237. 478 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. PxEARSALL, W. H., and Ewrye, J. Diffusion of Ions from Living Plant Tissues in Relatton to Protein Iso-electric Points. New Phyt. Oct., pp. 193-206. and Mason, F. A. Yorkshire Naturalists and Geologists at Earby. Nat. June, p. 181. — Yorkshire Naturalists at Holme-on-Spalding Moor, tom. cit., Sept., pp. 269- 272; [at Ravenscar], pp. 272-278; [at Scarthingwell Park], Nov. pp. 343-345 ; [in Teesdale], Nov., pp. 346-350. PEARSALL, W. Hanonp. See W. Harrison Pearsall. Prarsautt. See Buckley. PrarsatL, W. H. See A. G. Tansley. PEARSALL, W. Harrison, and PrarsaLtt, W. Haroxip. Phytoplankton of the English Lakes. Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. No. 312, pp. 55-73. Prarson, A. A. See J. Ramsbottom. Prcx, A. E. Mycology [Report]. Nat. Mar., p. 74. — Beetles and Stinkhorn, tom. cit. Nov., p. 331. Mycologists at Sheffield, tom. cit., pp. 337-341. Preton, James A. Early Man in the District of Huddersfield. Jolson Memorial Museum (Huddersfield) Pub., 95 pp.; Abs. in Nature, Dec. 13, p. 872. See Nat., Mar., 1925, p. 66. Puitiips, R. A. Some New County and Vice-county Records for Irish Plants. Trish Nat. Apr., pp. 33-38. —— New Localities for some Rare Plants in Ireland, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 129-131. Puitiies, REGINALD W. Ceramidium of Polysiphonia. New Phyt. July, pp. 142-149. Pine, A.W. Fungi. Proc. St. Peter’s School Sci. Soc. No. 6, pp. 13-14. — Flora of York and District, tom. cit., pp. 17-18. Porta, M. Defoliation of Oaks. Country Life, Aug. 2, p. 191; tom. cit., Aug. 9, . 231. PRAEGER, R. Luoyp. Rosa rugosa as a Colonist. Irish Nat. Jan., p. 9. —— Southern Plants in Eastern Ireland, tom. cit. Sept., pp. 97-98. PrankaRD, T. L. Ontogeny of Gravitational Irritability in Osmunda regalis. [Abs.] Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1923, p. 494. Pratt, Cuara A. The Staling of Fungal Cultures: The Alkaline Metabolic Products and their Effect on the Growth of Fungal Spores. Ann. Bot. Oct., pp- 599-615. Priestley, J. H. “ Bleeding ” of Cut Trees in Spring. Nature. Apr. 5, p. 492. —— Vegetative Propagation of Flowering Plants [Abs.], fom. cit. Apr. 26, p. 626. —— Kcology of Moorland Plants, tom. cit. Nov. 8, p. 698. —— Fundamental Fat Mctabolism of the Plant. New Phyt. Feb., pp. 1-19. —— First Sugar of Photosynthesis and the Role of Cane Sugar in the Plant, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 255-265. —— and Rapciirre, Frances M. Study of the Endodermis in the Filicinee, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 161-193. —— and Scort,Lorna I. Leaf and Stem Anatomy of Z'radescantia fluminensis Vell. [Abs.] Nat. Sept., p. 258. —— See Mildred Hinchliff. —— See Beatrice Lee. —— See A. G. Tansley. —— See R. M. Tupper-Carey. Puestry, H.W. Rumex elongatus x obtusifolius. Journ. Bot. Feb., p. 55. —— Crocus vernus All. in Surrey, tom. cit., pp. §2-83. —— Notes on Pembrokeshire Plants, tom. cit. Apr., pp. 102-105. —— New Statice in Britain, tom. cit. May, pp. 129-134. —— Gentiana uliginosa Willd. in Britain, tom. cit. July, pp. 193-196. Limonium transwallianum, nom. nov., tom. cit. Sept., p. 277. Puastey, H. H. Undescribed Siatice from Pembrokeshire. Linn. Soc. Cire. No. 427, p. 4. Abs. in Nature. Feb. 23, p. 293. Rapcrirrn, Frances M. See J. H. Priestley. Ramsporrom, J. Fungus Flora of British Woodlands. Linn. Soc. Circ. No. 426, pp. 3-4. Abs. in Nature. Feb. 16, p. 258. —— Pearson, A. A., and Erxtiorr, Bayuiss. Bristol Foray [Report]. Tyvans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. Mar., pp. 129-133. Rayner, M. C. Contributions to the Biology of Mycorrhize in the Ericacew. [Abs.] Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1923, p. 486. LIST OF PAPERS, 1924—BOTANY. A479 Rayner, M. C. Vascular Plants characteristic of Peat: A Criticism. New Phyt. Dec., pp. 288-292. Rea, CaRLeTon. Fungi of Wyre Forest. Trans. Worcestershire Nat. Club. Vol. VILL, pt. 1., pp. 16-40. Reap, Erany F. Trees planted by a Squirrel, Country Life. May 10, p. 750. Reaper, H. P. Saline Flora of Staffordshire. Trans. North Staff. Field Club. Vol. LVIII., pp. 40-41. Renvtze, A. B. Hybrid between Carex remota and C. divulsa in Sussex. Linn. Soc. Cire. No. 435, p. 1. Rerynoips, Brernarp. Norfolk Plants. Rep. Bot. Soc. and Ex. Club. Nov., pp. 252-253. Ricwarpson, Nrtson Moore. President’s Address: Botanical Notes. Proc. Dorset N.H. and Ant. F. Club. Vol. XLV., pp. Ixxxvi-evili. Rippxz, Vioter P. Kentish Oaks. Cowntry Life. May 10, p. 749. River, W. T. Boypon. Reports of Sections: Botany. Trans. North Staff. Field Club. Vol. LVIII., pp. 106-107. —— North Staffordshire Flora, Part III., tom. cit. Appendix, pp. 48-66. Ripitey, H. N. Lotus siliquosus L. in Berks. Journ. Bot. Aug., p. 246. Ritzy, L. A. M. Meristic Floral Variation in Galiex. Journ. Bot. Jan., pp. 20-21. Riverr, M. F. Root-tubercles in Arbutus Unedo. Ann. Bot. Oct., pp. 661-677 Rosertson, F. C. Forp. Hormodendron olivaceum (Corda) Bon.—A New British Record. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. Mar., p. 187. Rostnson, J. Fraser. See C. A. Cheetham. Roz, T. B. Rare Yorkshire Fungi. Nat. June, p. 190. Ronyicer, K. Contributions to the Knowledge of the Genus Thymus. Rep. Bot. Soc. and Ex. Club. Nov., pp. 226-239. Roper, Ina M. Spartina Townsendi in West Gloucestershire. Ann. Rep. Brisiol Nat. Soc. Vol. VI., pt. 1., pp. 49-50. Rosrn, D. See F. E. Weiss. Satispury, E. J. Anemone nemorosa var. caerulea. Journ. Bot. Sept., pp 265-266. — Influence of Earthworms on Soil Reaction and the Stratification of Undisturbed Soils. Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. No. 311, pp. 415-425. — See A. G. Tansley. Satmon, C. E. Arabis ciliata in Wales. Journ. Bot. 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THE FREE PATH OF EXCITATION TO EMISSION OF LIGHT, , OF A MOVING ATOM OF HYDROGEN, AND THE FREE PATH c OF ITS DISTURBANCE. By Dr. B. DasannacHarya.' If hy is the element of energy and /, the distance traversed by an hydrogen atom before it is excited to emit this amount, then the actual emission € per cm. is given by : 38: oe where ) is the free path of decay of light emission according to the classical theory and ¢ that of disturbances which work on an emitting atom and make it cease to emit further. Or A may be looked upon, according to the quantum theory, as the f.p. of quiescence and ¢ as the f.p. of disturb- ance during the quiescence. I, and ¢ are to be looked upon as inversely proportional to p, the pressure in the atmosphere in which the atom is moving; then, for light of a particular wave-length and a constant velocity of the emitting atom, Gee VORSUA icy BHO. 70) (2 Sh A+= : P A is known from previous measurements by W. Wien, and if the relative values of € are measured at different values of p, then ¢ can be calculated from the relation (2). Further, if € can be measured at any one pressure, I, can also be calculated from (1). The Canal Rays of hydrogen were used as the source of moving hydrogen atoms. They were led into a space which could be maintained at any desired pressure with hydrogen or any other gas. The light emitted from the moving atoms was studied photographically through a spectrometer and distinguished by the Doppler displacements of its wave-length. The number of atoms which take part in the emission of light was calculated from the amount of the current carried by the Canal Rays and from a previous knowledge of the ratio of the charged to the uncharged atoms in the rays under similar conditions of equilibrium. The light from an electric oven was used as a standard in order to evaluate C in absolute measure. The lengths c and /, were determined for H«, Bg and Hy for velocities 1 Abstract of Paper in Section A (p. 297, no. 7). 112 484, APPENDIX. v corresponding to discharge voltages of 13, 21.5 and 30 kilovolts. The following relations have been found to hold good :— cv (n—2) =C : : (3) The Law of Disturbance. and __ (n—2)' = in A : ‘ : : (4) The Law of Excitation to Emission of Light. n= 3, 4, 5, etc., for Hx, Hs, Hy, etc., namely the quantum numbers. In (3) and (4) A and C are independent of velocity and wave-length. Substituting for c and J, values from (3) and (4) in (1), one gets (hy)? DP 6