fa ieh tee a . ui Hitt He i] : abbey thas Shit tere res tt ; aos sei a Sees eee Flighee = ele EE — } 4 3 ; : aim - — J en i Sal FIFTEENTH MEETING BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; HELD AT CAMBRIDGE IN JUNE 1845. LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1846. PRINTED BY RICHARD AND JOHN E. TAYLOR, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. 4 CONTENTS. oi Page OssEcts and Rules of the Association .......scssessscsesseceseeeeseeens v Peekeery and Connell. 5 ssusdcsdescyishasidceveesenvsesoaysabanove tae eseosicnagyel Vill Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement ...........000e0e ix Table of Council from commencement .........602seeseceeeceeeeeceeeenees x Treasurer’s Account es : abewnbe xii Officers of Sectional Committees a waite dha ‘NeiiieNs Seen xiv Recommendations for Additional Reports and Researches in Science XV Synopsis of Money Grants . aide seransiown ses KX Arrangement of the Beads 1 Evening Meetings Senceaednsign spaleal tacage tc (eae Address of the President... esin any tanemw ba nigsbidets Stateline ask dntaielannani:- hare REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir J. HERScHEL, Bart. ; the Master or Trinity CoLtrece, Cambridge; the DEAN or E ty, the AsTRONOMER Royat, Dr. Luoyp and Colonel Sasine, appoint- ed to conduct the cooperation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ...... 1 On some Points in the aaperer of 5 mene a Lieut.-Colonel SaBinE, R.A., F.R.S. . 73 Report on the Physiological ‘Askion of Medicines. By J. Buaxs MLE B., eaeC 4 &C. WC. 2 ceiseens baa 82 On the Comet of 1843. By Dr. von Bocustawsxi of rica, Corre. sponding Member of the British Association .............:ccceeeeseeesene 86 Report on the Actinograph. By Mr. Ropert HUNT .........c0c00e00 90 On Ozone. By Professor ScuénsEIN of Basle. ; 91 On the Influence of Friction upon Thermo- foe a Paut ERMAN I i Sia haan 0 Sd Cah RAMAN hia Geico salts aun sic ose diablo wate HE On the Self-registering Meteorological Instruments deariliead in the Observatory at Senftenberg. By the Baron SENFTENBERG ......0., 108 Second Report on Atmospheric Waves. By Wittram Rapciirr Birt 112 Sketch of the progress and present extent of ee Banks in the United Kingdom. By G. R. PORTER, F.R.S. ......scesseeeeeresseeeens 129 ' iv CONTENTS. Report on the Gases evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the Theory of the Smelting of Iron. By Prof. Bunsen, of Marburg, Hesse Cassel, and Dr. Lyon PLayrair, of the Museum of Giconomie Geology, department of Her Majesty’s Woods and Forests ............ Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan. By Joun Ricuarpson, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., &c., Medical bictiiics of Naval PAOMENGHIS -odccsucasscuse Report of the Bioinenietie: Seicieking of Prof. Doe Prof. rE Foams Dr. Lanxester, Mr. R. Taytor, Mr. TuHompson, Mr. BAL, Prof. AtiMAN, Mr. H. E. SrrickLanp, and Mr. BasinerTon, appointed for the purpose of Reporting on the oa of Periodical Phe- nomena of Animals and Vegetables... ss scene Fifth Report of a Committee, nacianaes of i. E. ae oe Prof. DausEeny, Prof. Henstow and Prof. Linp.ey, oe thai to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds..., snails Page 142 arbor . 32] . 337 OBJECTS AND RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. —_——_»——. OBJECTS. Tue Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by other Institutions. Its objects are,—To give a stronger impulse and a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an- other, and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind _ which impede its progress. ——__ RULES. ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES. All Persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be- come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to con- form to its Rules. The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So- cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Members of the Association. The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem- bers of the Association. All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Council or Managing Committee, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem- bers of the Association. e Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Association, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the approval of a General Meeting. COMPOSITIONS, SUBSCRIPTIONS, AND PRIVILEGES. Lirz Memsers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be pub- lished after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the offices of the Association. Annvat Susscrisrrs shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds, and in each following year the sum of Qne Pound. They shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this Subscription in any particu- lar year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and all Future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association gratis : b Vi RULES OF THE-ASSOCIATION. but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any sub- ‘sequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the sum of One Pound. ‘They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association. Associates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound. They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office. The Association consists of the following classes :— 1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid on admission Five Pounds as a composition. 2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, shall pay on ad- mission ‘en Pounds as a composition. 8. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to the payment of One Pound annually, [may resume their Membership after inter- mission of Annual Payment. ] 4. Annual Members admitted or to be admitted in any year since 18359, subject to the payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each following year, [may resume their membership after intermission of Annual Payment. ] §. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound. 6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council. And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’) price, according to the following specification, viz, :— 1. Gratis. —Ol\d Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo- sition for Annual Payments, and Two Pounds as a Book Subscrip- tion. New Life Members who shall have paid Ten Pounds as a composition. Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Subscription. 2, At reduced or Members’ Prices.x—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a composition for Annual Payments, but no Book Subscription. Annual Members, who, having paid on admission Two Pounds, have intermitted their Annual Subscription in any subsequent year, Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for that year only. ] Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries. MEETINGS, The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee at the pre- vious Meeting; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Offi- zers of the Association. GENERAL COMMITTEE. The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the following persons :— 1. Presidents and Officers for the present and preceding years, with au- thors of Reports in the Transactions of the Association. 2. Members who have communicated any Paper to a Philosophical Society, which has been printed in its Transactions, and which relates to such subjects as are taken into consideration at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. 3. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, altogether not exceed- ing three in number, from any Philosophical Society publishing Transactions. RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. Vii 4. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, not exceeding three, from Philosophical Institutions established in the place of Meeting, or in any place where the Association has formerly met. 5. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who are specially nominated in writing for the meeting of the year by the Presi- dent and General Secretaries. 6. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections are ex officio members of the General Committee for the time being. SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Committees, con- sisting severally of the Members most conversant with the several branches of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof. The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation they would particularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and brought under consideration at the next Meeting. The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of particular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons, for the information of the Annual Meetings. COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS, The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science. All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re- searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects, shall be submitted to the Com- mittee of Recommendations, and not gee into consideration by the General Committee, unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recommen- dations. LOCAL COMMITTEES. Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings. Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire. OFFICERS. A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the General Committee. COUNCIL. _ In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the Meeting. PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS. The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve his right of property therein. ACCOUNTS. The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors pperinted by the Meeting. b2 Vili OFFICERS AND COUNCIL. OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1845-46. —@—— Trustees (permanent).—Sir Roderick Impey Murchison, G.C.S,, F.R.S. John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S. The Very Reverend G. Peacock, D.D., Dean of Ely, F.R.S. President. —Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—The Right Hon, The Earl of Hardwicke. The Right Reverend the Lord Bishop of Norwich. The Rev. John Graham, D.D., Master of Christ’s College. Rev, Gilbert Ainslie, D.D., Master of Pembroke Hall. G.B. Airy, Esq., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal. Rev. Adam Sedgwick, F.R.S., Woodwardian Professor. President Elect.—Sir Roderick Impey Murchison, G.C.S., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents Elect.—The Marquis of Winchester. The Earl of Yar- borough. Viscount Palmerston, M.P. Lord Ashburton. The Bishop of Oxford, F.R.S., F.G.S. The Right Hon. the Speaker, Charles Shaw Le- fevre, M.P., F.G.S. Sir George T. Staunton, Bart., M.P.,D.C.L. Professor Owen, M.D., F.R.S. Rev. Professor Powell, F.R.S. General Secretaries. { vient «Cot. Sabine, For. Sec. R.S., Woolwich. Assistant General Secretary.—John Phillips, Esq., F.R.S., York. General Treasurer.—John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S., 2 Duke Street, Adelphi, London. Secretaries for the Southampton Meeting in 1846.—Henry Clark, M.D. T. H. C. Moody, Esq. ; Treasurer to the Meeting in 1846.—John Sadleir Moody, Esq. Council.—Professor Ansted. Sir H. T. De la Beche. Dr. Daubeny. Professor E. Forbes. Professor T. Graham, H. Hallam, Esq. Rev. W. V. Harcourt. James Heywood, Esq. Dr. Hodgkin. Eaton Hodgkinson, Esq. William Hopkins, Esq. Leonard Horner, Esq. Robert Hutton, Esq. Sir Charles Lemon, Bart. The Marquis of Northampton. The Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D., Dean of Ely. Sir John Richardson, M.D. Dr. Roget. Prof. J. Forbes Royle, M.D. H.E. Strickland, Esq. Lieut.-Col. Sykes. William Thompson, Esq. H. Warburton, Esq. Professor Wheatstone. Professor C. J. B. Williams, M.D. Professor Willis. Local Trreasurers.—William Gray, jun., Esq., York. Dr. Daubeny, Ox- ford. C. C. Babington, Esq., Cambridge. Charles Forbes, Esq., Edinburgh. John H. Orpen, LL.D., Dublin. William Sanders, Esq., Bristol. Samuel Turner, Esq., Liverpool. William Hutton, Esq., Newcastle-on-Tyne. James Russell, Esq., Birmingham. Professor Ramsay, Glasgow. Henry Woollcombe, Esq., Plymouth. G. W. Ormerod, Esq., Manchester. James Roche, Esq., Cork. Auditors.—Professor Ansted. Leonard Horner, Esq. Lieut.-Col. 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II. Table showing the Names of Members of the British Association who have served on the Council in former years. Acland, Sir Thomas D., Bart., M.P., F,R.S. Adamson, J. Adare, Viscount, M.P., F.R.S. Airy, G. B., D.C.L., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal. Ainslie, Rey. Gilbert, D.D., Master of Pem- broke Hall, Cambridge. Ansted, Professor D. T., M.A., F.R.S. Arnott, Neil, M.D., F.R.S. Ashburton, Lord. Babbage, Caprlcg, F F. ie Ss. Babington, C. C., F.L.S. Baily, Francis, F. 7 S. Barker, George. Bengough, George. Bentham, George, F.L.S. Bigge, Charles. Blakiston, Peyton, M.D. Brewster, Sir David, K.H., LL.D., F.R.S. Breadalbane, The Marquis of, F. R. 8. Brisbane, Lieut.-General Sir Thomas M., Bart., K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L., F.R.S, Brown, Robert, D.C.L., F.R.S. Brunel, Sir M. L., ERS. Buckland, Very Rev. tae, D.D., Dean of Westminster, F.R.S Burlington, The Earl of, MM. A., F.R.S., Chan- cellor of the University of London. Carson, Rev. Joseph. Catheart, The Earl, K.C.B., F.R.S.E. Chalmers, Rev. T., D.D., Professor of Di- vinity, Edinburgh. Christie, Professor 8. H., M.A., Sec.R.S. Clare, Peter, F.R.A.S. Clark, Rev. Professor, M.D. (Cambridge). Clark, Henry, M.D. Clark, G. T. Clift, William, F.R.S. Colquhoun, J. C., M.P. alone Rey. W, D., M.A., F.R.S. Corrie, John, F.R.S. Currie, William Wallace. Dalton, John, D.C.L., F.R.S. Daniell, Professor J. ., F.R.S. Dartmouth, The Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S. Daubeny, Professor Charles G.B., M.D., E.R.S. De la Beche, Sir Henry T., F.R.S., Director of the Ordnance Geological Survey of Great Britain. Drinkwater, J. E. Durham, The Bishop of, F.R.S., Egerton, Lord Francis, F.G.S. Egerton, Sir Philip de M. Grey, Bart., F.R.S. Bliot, Lord, M.P. Faraday, Professor, D.C.L., F.R.S. Fitzwilliam, The Earl, D.C.L., F.R.S. Fleming, H., M.D. Forbes, Charles. Forbes, Professor Edward, F.R.S. Forbes, Professor J. D., F.R.S. Fox, Robert Were. Gilbert, Davies, D.C.L., F.R.S Graham, Rey. John, D.D., Master of Christ’s College, Cambridge. Graham, Professor Thomas, M.A., F.R. 8. Gray, John E., F.R.S. Gray, Jonathan, Gray, William, jun., F.G.S. Green, Professor Joseph Henry, F,R.S. Greenough, G. B., F.R.S. Hallam, Henry, M.A., F.R.5. Hamilton, W. J., M.P,, Sec. G.S. Hamilton, Sir William R., Astronomer Royal of Ireland, M.R.I.A. Harcourt, Rey. William Vernon, M,A., Hardwicke, The Earl of. Harford, J. S., D.C.L., F.R.S. Harris, W. Snow, F.R.S. Hatfeild, William, F.G.S. Henslow, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.L,S. Henry, W. C., M.D., F.R.S. Herbert, Hon. and Very Rey. William, Dean of Manchester, LL.D., F.L.S. Herschel, Sir John F.W., Rart., D.C.L., F.R.S, Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., ERS. Heywood, James, F.R.S. Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D. Hodgkinson, Eaton, F.R.8. Hodgson, Joseph, F.R.S. Hooker, Sir William J., LL.D., F.R.8. Hope, Rev. F. W., M.A., F.R.S. Hopkins, William, M.A., F.R.S. Horner, Leonard, Pres. G.S., V.P.R.S, Hovenden, Y. F., M.A. Hutton, Robert, F.G,S. Hutton, William, F.R.S. Jameson, Professor R., F.R.S. Jenyns, Rey. Leonard, F.L.S. Jerrard, H. B. Johnston, Professor J. F. W., M.A., F.R.S. Keleher, William, Lardner, Rey. Dr. Lee, R., M.D., F.R.S. Lansdowne, The Marquis of, D.C.L., F.R.S. Lefevre, Right Hon. Charles Shaw, M 1 eae Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. Liddell, Andrew. Lindley, Professor, Ph.D., F.R.S. Listowel, The Earl of. Lloyd, Rev. Bartholomew, D.D., Provost of Trinity College, Dublin. Lloyd, Rev. Professor, D.D., F.R.S. Lubbock, Sir John W., Bart., M.A., Y.P.R.S. Luby, Rey. Thomas. Lyell, Charles, jun., M.A., F.R.S. MacCullagh, Professor, D.C.L., M.R.LA. Macfarlane, The Very Rev. Principal. MacLeay, William Sharp, F.L.S. MacNeill, Professor Sir John, F.R.S. Meynell, Thomas, jun., F.L.S. Miller, Professor W. H., M.A., F.R.S. Moilliet, J. L. Moody, T. F MEMBERS OF COUNCIL. xi Morley, The Earl of. Morpeth, Viscount, F.G.S. Moseley, Rey. Henry, M.A,, F,R.S, Mount Edgcumbe, The Earl of. Murchison, Sir Roderick I., G.C.S., F.R.S, Neill, Patrick, M.D., F.R.S.E. Nicol, Rey. J. P., LL.D. Northampton, The Marquis of, President of the Royal Society. Northumberland, The Duke of, K.G., M.A., E.R.S, Norwich, The Bishop of, President of the Linnean Society, F.R.S. Ormerod, G, W. Orpen, Thomas Herbert, M.D. Owen, Professor Richard, M.D., F.R.S. Oxford, The Bishop of, F.R.S., F.G.S. Osler, Follett. Palmerston, Viscount, M.P. Peacock, Very Rev. George, D.D., Dean of Ely, V.P.R.S. Pendarves, E., F.R.S. Phillips, Professor John, F.R.S. Powell, Rey. Professor, M.A., F.R.S. Prichard, J. C., M.D,, F.R.S. Ramsay, Professor W., M.A. Rennie, George, Y.P. & Treas. B.S. Rennie, Sir John, F.R.S., President of the Institute of Civil Engineers. Richardson, Sir John, M.D., F.R.S. Ritchie, Rev. Professor, LL.D., F.R.S. Robinson, Rev. J., D.D. Robinson, Rev. T. R., D.D. Robison, Sir John, Sec. R.S. Edin. Roche, James. Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., Sec.R.S. Ross, Capt. Sir James C., R.N., F.R.S. Rosse, The Earl of, F.R. s. Royle, Professor John F., M.D., F.R.S. Russell, James. . Sabine, Lieut.-Colonel Edward, R.A., For. Sec.R.S. Sanders, William. Sandon, Lord. Scoresby, Rev. W., D.D., F.R.S. Sedgwick, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.R.S. Selby, Prideaux John, F.R.S.E. Smith, Lt.-Colonel C. Hamilton, F.R.S. Staunton, Sir George T., Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S. Stevelly, Professor John, LL.D, Strang, John. Strickland, H. E., F.G.S. Sykes, Lieut.-Colonel W. H., F.R.S. Talbot, W. H. Fox, M.A., F.R.S. Tayler, Rev. J. J. Taylor, John, F.R.S. Taylor, Richard, jun., F.G.S. Thompson, William, F,1u.S. Traill, J. $., M.D. Turner, Edward, M.D., F.R.S. Turner, Samuel. Turner, Rev. W. Vigors, N. A., D.C.L., F.L.S. Walker, James, F.R.S. Walker, J. N. Warburton, Henry, M.A., M.P., F.R.S. Washington, Captain, R.N, West, William, F.R.S. Wheatstone, Professor, F.R.S. Whewell, Rey. William, D.D. »Master of Trinity College, Cambridge. Williams, Professor Charles J.B., M.D.,F.R.S. Willis, Rev. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S. Winchester, The Marquis of. Woolleombe, Henry, F.S.A.. Wortley, San Hon. John Stuart, B.A., M.P., F.R.S. Yarrell, William, F.L.S. Yarborough, The Earl of. Yates, Rev. James, M.A., F.R.S. BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE TREASURER’S ACCOUNT from RECEIPTS. Bs he pas oe Syn aes To Life Compositions received at the York Meeting and since 781 0 0 To Annual Subscriptions ...... Ditton... Ditto...... Ditto...... 452 2°0 To Ladies’ Tickets..........+000. Ditto...... Ditto...... Ditto...... 260 0 0 To Sections’ Ticket ............ Ditto...... Ditto...... Ditto... vc 10 0 To Minors’ Tickets ............ Ditto......Ditto...... Ditto...... 8 0 0 To received Compositions for Books (future publications) ... 164 0 0 To received Dividends on £5500 in the 3 per cent. Consols, 6 months to January 1845 (less Income Tax) ............ 80 1 11 To received from the Sale of Reports, viz. TSG WOl!s AACN gy. tes cocve cdc onesvanve Tiieeie 211 3 PONG IMO ARE ca sencaweisenwesstaas esses snite- Strats 25: 3.0 «0 3rd vol 413 0 MITES owe aaidy geen cae vou asts cans oacuntadaehn tte ate os 315 8 Sth Vol. weccecesece Switaid 6th vol. 615 4 7th vol. (fie | gaa) 8th vol. 713 0 9th vol. 12 3 0 10th vol. . 9 LY 8 11th vol. “¢ 13 11 3 DET OLGES on abasaeettensccoDapepnaccass essenoee seecen 47 13 10 ‘ 13th vol. ........ Betieertesett ss beeeedausgre sone i lie Lithographs...........+0 Syes sree pasebeubeeer ep oes 1 13, .0 Dublin Communications.......... ospereas sorecceee 0 2 0 — 132 18 8 Balance carried GOWN ....e.ssseeseeseesees 360 10 5 ) £2239 13 0 On Account of the Printing To Balance of the grant from Her Majesty’s Government brought on from TASt GCCOUNL ascescrveetonerovssesiscecsccessesosasusessocssescrsedessestersrsssrene 984 2 0 £934 2 0 British Association for the To Balance in hand of the Account for Printing Lalande and Lacaille’s Catalogues 'i...5))cciscces: £634 2 0 ROBERT HUTTON, 7] LEONARD HORNER, $ Auditors. LIEUT.-COLONEL SYKES, J ’ ‘ ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 26th of September 1844 to the 19th of June 1845. PAYMENTS. By Balance due on the General Account brought on .......+. By Sundry Disbursements by Treasurer and Local Treasurers, including the Expenses of the Meeting at York, Adver- tising, and Sundry Printing ...........sseeeeee nudawies te Son? By Printing, &c. of the 13th Report (12th vol.) ........ plat By Engraving, &c. for the 14th Report (18th vol.)........... 3 By Salaries to Assistant General Secretary, Accountant, &c. 6 months to end of December 1844 .........06 Se declan? A By Paid to Committees on Account of Grants for Scientific purposes, viz. for— Publication of the British Association Catalogue of Stars Meteorological Observations at Inverness ...... ee evecsovees ee Magnetic and Meteorological Co-operation ....... Schocken Meteorological Instruments at Edinburgh.........ssssesseees 3 Reduction of Anemometrical Observations at Plymouth ... Electrical Experiments at Kew Observatory ...........00. . Maintaining the Establishment in...... ditto...,.0006 see eoder For Kreil’s Barometrograph ..........s00005 ees ataek eancaecdan Gases from Iron Furnaces .......sesecesessoneesseessees cuentas Experiments on the Actinograph ...........00. Geenredtascsses Microscopic Structure of Shells ....... BUSA ICOLO. pocut Gace Exotic Anoplura...... Hewebousecve Sai Rive canbe va on oe ee ooeee 1843 Vitality of Seeds .........ccscessveccscvaeecsees eM Ran mek cits 1843 Ditto...... ditto 3.7... Eertcor Witsd hate heaeeckegss 1844 Marine Zoology of Cornwall ......sesccesssecveseeevees fonts tse Physiological Action of Medicines......... At croc neice Statistics of Sickness and Mortality in York....... aguieibeerc Registration of Earthquake Shocks ......ssessseeseaeee 1843 of Lalande and Lacaille’s Catalogues of Stars. 478 1 5 286 12 10 397 13 6 70 15 6 175 0 0 351 14 6 30 18 11 16 16 8 18 11 9 25 0 0 43 17 8 149 15 0 25 0 0 50 0 0 15 0 0 20 0 0 10 0 0 20 7 7 0 0 10 0 0 20 0 0 20 0 0 15 14 8 ————_ 831 9 9 £2239 13 0 By Paid on Account of Printing, &c. since last Meeting.......c.sssesseseee see §=9800 0 0 Balance ......... 634 2 0 Advancement of Science. By Balance due on the General Account ssccssessecaseenecensees By Balance in the Bankers’ hands ......... Nidegne tacos gsm Ditto...... General Treasurer’s hands............ss0006 Ditto......Local Treasurers’ hands .....sesesecseseecees _ £934 2 0 360 10 5 246 19 10 14 3 10 12 7 11 — 27311 7 £634 2 0 xiv OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES AT THE CAMBRIDGE MEETING. SECTION A.——-MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE. President.—The Very Rev. the Dean of Ely. Vice-Presidents.—Sir D. Brewster, K.H., F.R.S. L. & E. Sir Thomas M. Brisbane, F.R.S. L. & E. Professor Challis. Professor J. D, Forbes, F.R.S. L. & E. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Astronomer Royal of Ireland. Secretaries.—Rev. H. Goodwin. Professor Stevelly, LL.D. G. G. Stokes, Esq. SECTION B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE, INCLUDING ITS APPLICATION TO AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS, President.—Rey. Professor Cumming. Vice- Presidents. —Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S. Professor Faraday, D.C.L., F.R.S. Professor Thomas Graham, F.R.S. L. & E. Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A., F.R.S. Professor Miller, M.A., F.R.S. Secretaries.—Robert Hunt. J.P. Joule. Professor Miller, M.D., F.R.S. E. Solly, F.R.S. SECTION C.— GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. President.—Rev. Professor Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S. ; Vice-Presidents.—Captain Sir George Back, R.A,, V.P.R. Geog. S, _ Rev. W. Buckland, D.D., F.R.S. The Earl of Enniskillen, D.C.L., F.R.S. L. Horner, F.R.S. W.J. Hamilton, M.P., F.R.S. Secretaries.—Rev. J. G. Cumming, M.A. A.C. Ramsay, F.G,S. Rev. W. Thorp, F.G.S. SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. President.—The Rev. Professor Henslow, F.L.S. Vice-Presidents.—Bishop of Norwich, F.R.S. Professor E. Forbes, F.R.S. C. C. Babington, F.L.S. Rev. L. Jenyns, F.L.S, W. Ogilby, F.L.S, Secretaries.—E. Lankester, M.D., F.L.S. J. V. Wollaston, B.A. SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY. President.—Professor J. Haviland, M.D. Vice-Presidents.—Professor Clark, M.D. Professor Fisher, M.D. Thomas Hodgkin, M.D. R. G. Latham, M.D. Secretaries.—R. Sargent, M.D. Dr. Webster. ‘ SECTION F.—STATISTICS. President.—Ear] Fitzwilliam, M.A., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Lord Sandon, M.P. Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. Professor Pryme. Secretaries,—Joseph Fletcher, Esq, W. Cooke Taylor, LL.D. SECTION G.—MECHANICS. President.—George Rennie, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Wm. Fairbairn. Sir John J. Guest, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. J. Scott Russell, F.R.S. Edinb. Professor Willis, F.R.S. Secretary.—Rev. W. T. Kingsley, M.A. RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. KV CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. Professor Agassiz, Neufchatel. M. Arago, Paris. Dr. A.D, Bache, Philadelphia. Professor Berzelius, Stockholm. Professor Bessel, Kénigs- berg, Professor H. von Boguslawski, Breslau. Professor Braschmann- Moscow. Professor De la Rive, Geneva. Professor Dove, Berlin. Pro- fessor Dumas, Paris. Professor Ehrenberg, Berlin. Professor Encke, Berlin. Dr. A. Erman, Berlin. Professor Henry, Princeton, United States. Profes- sor Kreil, Prague. M. Kupffer, St. Petersburg. Dr, Langberg, Christiania. M. Frisiani, Milan. Baron Alexander von Humboldt, Berlin. M. Jacobi, St, Petersburg. Professor Jacobi, Kénigsberg. Dr. Lamont, Munich. Baron von Liebig,Giessen, Professor Link, Berlin. Professor Girsted, Copen- hagen. M. Otto, Breslau (deceased). Jean Plana, Astronomer Royal, Turin. M. Quetelet, Brussels. Professor C. Ritter, Berlin. Professor Schumacher, Altona. Baron Senftenberg, Bohemia, Professor Wartmann, Lausanne. RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL CoMMITTEE AT THE Cam- BRIDGE MEETING IN JunE 1845. Involving Applications to Government and Public Institutions. MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES. Resolutions adopted by the Magnetic Conference. 1. That the Magnetic Observatory at Greenwich be permanently con- tinued, upon the most extensive and efficient scale that the interests of the Sciences of Magnetism and Meteorology may require. 2. That it be earnestly recommended to the Provost and Fellows of Trinity College, Dublin, to continue the Magnetical and Meteorological Ob- servations at the Observatory instituted by that University. 3. That it be recommended to continue the Observatory at Toronto upon its present footing until the 31st of December 1848, unless in the mean time arrangements can be made for its permanent establishment. 4, That it be recommended to continue the Observatory at Van Diemen’s Land until the 31st of December 1848, unless in the mean time arrange- ments can be made for its permanent establishment. 5. That it be recommended that the Obseryatory at St. Helena should be continued upon its present establishment for a period terminating on the 31st of December 1848, for special Meteorological objects. 6. That it be recommended that the building and materials of the Mag- netical and Meteorological Obseryatory at the Cape of Good Hope should be transferred to the Astronomical Observatory there, to which an Assistant, should be added, for the purpose of making absolute Magnetical Determi- nations, 7. That it be recommended to the Court of Directors of the East India Company, that the Observatories of Simla and Singapore be discontinued at the end of the present year; but that the Magnetic and Meteorological Observations now made at Bombay and Madras be permanently continued in connexion with the Astronomical Observations at these Stations, and that it be further recommended to the Court of Directors, to sanction the pro- posal made by Mr. Elliot, for a Magnetic Survey of the Indian meas to -commence at the close of the present year. 8. That it be recommended that the Canadian Survey be continued until - the connexion of Toronto with the American Stations be completed. XV REPORT—1845. 9. That it be recommended that advantage should be taken of every op- portunity of extending Magnetic Surveys in regions not hitherto surveyed, and in the neighbourhood of Magnetic Observatories. pide 10. That it be strongly recommended that the Staff of Colonel Sabine’s establishment at Woolwich be maintained, with such an increased force as may cause the observations which have been made, and those which shall hereafter be made, to be reduced and published with all possible expe- dition. 11. That this Meeting have recommended the reduction of the Establish- ments at present attached to some of the Magnetical and Meteorological Observatories, in the full confidence that if, after careful discussion of the Observations made to the end of 1845, there should appear to be reason for restoring some of those Establishments, and for forming new ones, the British Government and the East India Company will give their aid with the same liberality which they have displayed in the maintenance of the existing Observatories. 12. That the cordial cooperation which has hitherto prevailed between the British and Foreign Magnetic and Meteorological Observatories, having produced the most important results, and being considered by us as abso- lutely essential to the success of the great system of combined observation which has been undertaken, it is earnestly recommended that the same spirit of cooperation should continue to prevail; and that the President of the British Association be requested to make application to the British Govern- ment, to convey the expression of this opinion to the Governments of those other countries which have already taken part in the Observations. 13. The British Association, assembled at Cambridge, cannot permit the proceedings of this Meeting to terminate without expressing their sense of great obligation to the eminent Foreign Gentlemen who have taken part in the discussions of the Conference, and whose unwearied attention has been most effectively bestowed on every part of the proceedings. 14. That the Committee which has hitherto conducted the cooperation of the British Association, in the system of combined observations, be re- appointed, for the purpose of preparing a report to accompany the presenta- tion to the British Government and to the Directors of the East India Com- pany, of the resolutions passed at this Meeting, and that the Marquis of Northampton, Professor Christie, and Sir John Lubbock, Bart., Professor J. D. Forbes, be added to the Committee. Resolved, in conformity with the express opinion of the Magnetic Con- ference, sanctioned by the Committee of Recommendations— “ That it is highly desirable to encourage by specific pecuniary reward the improvement of Self-recording Magnetical ‘and Meteorological Apparatus ; and that The President of the British Association, and The President of the Royal Society, be requested to solicit the favourable consideration of Her Majesty’s Go- vernment to this subject.” GEOLOGY. That the President of the British Association cooperate with the President of the Royal Society, the President of the Geological Society, the President of the Royal Asiatic Society, Sir H. T. De la Beche, the Rev. Dr. Buck- RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. xvii land, and R. I. Murchison, Esq., in making a representation to Her Majesty’s Government for a grant in further aid of the publication of the Researches of Dr, Falconer and Captain Cautley of the Bengal Artillery, on the Fossil Fauna of Northern India. That the President of the British Association, the General Secretary, the President of the Geological Society, the Director of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, the Professors of Geology in Oxford and Cam- bridge, G. B. Greenough, Esq., R. Griffith, Esq., Major S. Clerke, T. Sop- with, Esq., with power to add to their number, be requested to act as a Committee, for the purpose, with special reference to Steam Navigation and Steam Power for manufacturing industry, of laying down, by means of - coloured signs upon a Map of the World, every region in which coal, capable of being used as fuel, is known to exist, and to accompany the Map, when completed, with an explanatory Report; showing the geographical and geological position of such coal deposit in the several regions and its . superficial extent; the amount in number and thickness of the workable seams, so far as the same can be ascertained, and the facilities of working them; the nearest large towns and sea-ports, and the means of transport from the mines to the sea-ports; the mineral.and economical properties of the coal; and whether ores of iron exist in the deposit, accompanied by ready access to limestone. That the Committee be authorized, on the part of the British Association, to solicit the assistance of Her Majesty’s Government in carrying this object into effect. The President of the Geological Society to be the convener of this Com- mittee. ; Recommendations for Reports and Researches not involving Grants of Money. That M. Dove be requested to carry out his offer to reduce, in the manner stated by him, the Meteorological Observations at the Van Diemen’s Land Observatory. That the Astronomer Royal be requested to reduce, in the same manner, the Observations at the Greenwich Observatory. That Reports be requested from— Professor Challis—On the Progress and Present State of Astronomy, from the period embraced in the Report by the Astronomer Royal. Mr. G. G. Stokes—On recent Researches in Hydrodynamics. The Dean of Ely—On the recent Progress of that branch of Analysis which relates to the Theory of Equations. Mr. Phillips—On the instrumental Methods which have been employed in Anemometry. Mr. Ellis—On the recent Progress of Analysis. That Mr. T, Stevenson be requested to continue his Experiments on the Force of Waves at different depths. That Reports be requested from— Mr. Mallet—On the Corrosion of Iron Rails in and out of use. Mr. Hunt—On the Influence of Light upon the Growth of Plants. Mr. Hunt—On the Result of Observations with the Actinograph. Dr. Perey, Rev. W. V. Harcourt, and Prof. W. H. Miller-—On the Re- sult of,an Examination of Crystalline Slags. ‘ “oie Hodgkin and Dr. R. G. Latham—On the Varieties of ‘the Human ace. xviii REPORT—1845, Prof. Owen, Prof. E. Forbes, Dr. Lankester, Mr. R. Taylor, Mr. Thomp- son, Mr. Ball, Prof. Allman, Mr. H. E. Strickland, Mr. Babington, Rev. L. Jenyns, and Rey. Prof. Henslow—On the Registration of Periodical Pha+ nomena in Animals and Vegetables. Dr. Latham—On Ethnographical Philology. Dr. Royle—On the Geographical Distribution of Plants in India. Prof. E. Forbes—On the Results of the Dredging Operations in the British Seas. Mr. Porter—On the Statistics of the Iron Trade. Mr. Rennie, Mr. Paxton, Mr. J. Taylor, jun., Mr. Russell, and Mr. Eaton Hodgkinson—On the Hydrodynamical Phenomena of the Reservoir and Fountain at Chatsworth. That the following Communications, presented to this Meeting, be printed entire in the Transactions of the Association, viz.— M. Boguslawski—On the Comet of 1843. M. Paul Erman—On the Effect of Friction on Thermo-Electricity. Baron Senftenberg—On the Self-Registering Instruments in use at Senf- tenberg. Baron Waltershausen—On Etna. Colonel Sabine—On the Meteorology of Bombay. Mr. Porter—On Savings’ Banks. ee That Section E. be in future entitled the ‘ Section of Physiology.’ That it be referred to the Council to take into consideration previous to the next Meeting the expediency of discontinuing the Kew Observatory. That a Committee, consisting of Sir J. Herschel, the Astronomer Royal, and Lieut. Stratford, be requested to arrange. for the gratuitous distribution of 150 copies of the British Association Catalogue of Stars to Public Insti- tutions, and 25 copies to individuals. That 10 copies of the British Association Catalogue be placed at the dis- posal of Lieutenant Stratford. Recommendations of Special Researches in Science, involving Grants of Money. KEW OBSERVATORY. That the sum of £150 be placed at the disposal of the Council for the purpose of maintaining the establishment in Kew Observatory. MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE. That Mr. Birt be requested to continue his Researches on Atmospheric Undulations, with £7 at his disposal for the purpose. _ me That M. A. Erman, Corresponding Member of the British Association, be requested to superintend the computation of the Gaussian Constants for 1839, and of the probable errors of the values so deduced, with £50 at his disposal for the purpose. ; That certain expenses incurred by Mr. Osler in completing the ar- rangements for Anemometry at Plymouth and Edinburgh, amounting to £11 17s. 6d., be paid. CHEMICAL SCIENCE. That Dr. Schunck be requested to continue his investigations on Colour- ing Matters, with £10 at his disposal for the purpose. RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. xix GEOLOGY. That a Committee, consisting of Mr. Murchison, the Earl of Enniskillen, and Dr. Buckland, be requested to obtain the continuation and completion, by M. Agassiz, of the examination of the Fossil Fishes of the London Clay, as compared with those of the Calcaire grossier of the Paris Basin, with £100 at the disposal of the Committee for the purpose. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. That Dr. Carpenter be requested to pursue his investigations on the Mi- eroscopie Structure of Recent and Fossil Shells, with £10 at his disposal for the purpose. That a Committee, consisting of Prof. E. Forbes, Mr. Goodsir, Mr. Pat- terson, Mr. Thompson, Mr. Ball, Mr. J. Smith, Mr. Couch, Dr. Allman, Mr. M‘Andrew, Mr. Alder, and the Rev. F. W. Hope, be requested to con+ tinue their investigations on the Marine Zoology of Britain by means of the dredge, with £10 at the disposal of the Committee for the purpose. That a Committee, consisting of Dr. Hodgkin, Dr. R. G. Latham, Dr. Prichard, Prof. Owen, Dr. H. Ware, Mr. J. E. Gray, Dr. Lankester, Dr. A. Smith, Mr. A. Strickland, and Mr. Babington, be requested to continue their investigations into the Varieties of the Human Race, with £15 at the disposal of the Committee for the purpose. That a Committee, consisting of Prof. Owen, Prof. E. Forbes, Sir C. Lemon, and Mr. Couch, be requested to aid Mr. Peach in his Researches into the Marine Zoology of Cornwall, with.£10 at the disposal.of the Committee for the purpose. That a Committee, consisting of Capt. Portlock, Prof. E. Forbes, Mr. Thompson, and Mr. Ball, be requested to pursue their Researches on the Marine Zoology of Corfu by means of the dredge, with £10 at the disposal of the Committee for the purpose. _ That a Committee, consisting of Mr. H. E. Strickland, Dr. Daubeny, Prof. Lindley, Prof. Henslow, Mr. Babington, Prof. Balfour, Mr. Mackay, and Mr. D. Moore, be requested to continue their experiments on the Vi- tality of Seeds, with £10 at the disposal of the Committee for the purpose. MEDICAL SCIENCE. That certain expenses incurred by Mr. Erichsen during Researches on Asphyxia, amounting to £6 16s. 2d., be paid. STATISTICS. That a Committee, consisting of Dr, Laycock, Dr. Alison, and Mr. E. Chadwick, be requested to continue their inquiries into the Statistics of Sick- ness and Mortality m York, with £20 at the disposal of the Committee for the purpose. ' MECHANICS, That Mr. Hodgkinson be requested to continue his Experiments on the Strength of Materials, with £60 at his disposal for the purpose, xx i SYNOPSIS. Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Oljects by the General Committee at the Cambridge Meeting, June 1845, with the Name of the Member, who alone or as the First of a Committee, as entitled to draw for the Money. Kem Observatory. For maintaining the establishment in Kew Observatory under the direction of the Council.....cceseseccecccceccoees Mathematical and Physical Science. Birt, W.—For Researches on Atmospheric Undulations...... Erman, A.—For Computation of the Gaussian Constants for DS OOeit epetoketeietere’s eis cle eeeee eeeeseeseeeeeeeeseeeeeeee Oster, Mr.—Expenses attending Anemometer ..++eeeeeeee Chemical Science. Scuuncx, Dr.—For Investigations on Colouring Matters...... Geology. Morcuison, R. I.—For obtaining the completion of the Exa- mination, by M. Agassiz, of the Fossil Fishes of the London Clay eeeeeeeesaeeeeeeeeereeseeeeeeereseeeseeeeeeeeeee Zoology and Botany. Carpenter, Dr.—For investigations on the Microscopic Struc- ture of Recent and Fossil Shells....... Me es Forszs, Prof. E.—For investigations into the Marine Zoology of Britain by means of the Dredge ...-+.++sseeeeeeeeeese Hopvexin, Dr.—For investigations into the Varieties of the Human Race ......c0ceccssccccescosecccccccces Owen, Professor.—For Researches into the Marine Zoology of GMC, sais sinja-ciho)s. 6.5m. cnnin Pyne gi megie s © oie eis aap PorttLock, Captain. —For Researches into the Marine Zoology of Corfu by means of the Dredge ......-0.-sseeee- Srricktanv, H. E,—For continuing Experiments on the Vi- Pap iteeOer ae ais woah nme Saa'se ee secccecusumn Medical Science. Ericusen, I. E.—For Expenses incurred in Researches on AsphyXia se cecccecccescceccsescvcccnrcusressccess Statistics. Laycock, Dr.—For inquiries into the Statistics of Sickness and Mortality in York ..ccsececcccccce revs eccrcceceene Mechanics. Hopextnson, E.—For continuing Experiments on the Strength | Ofer teniahe iai'eva\ oe wehaleloeeto tails terevélis loxplee stele se 'o,sveceyezeimiejaness £ s ad 150 0 0° 7 0 0 50 0 0 1117 6 10 0 0 100 0 0 10 0 O 10 0 0 15 0 0 T0""O "70 10 0 0O 10 0 O 616 2 20 0 90 60 0 0 Total of Grants ...see++e+e-£480 13 8 GENERAL STATEMENT. General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants for Scientific Purposes. 1834. £ os. ad, Tide Discussions .... 20 9% 0 P 1835. Tide Discussions 62 0 0 BritishFossillchthyology 105 0 0 ictal ahaa 1836. Tide Discussions ..-- 163 0 0 BritishFossilIchthyology 105 0 0 Thermometric Observa- aiieRan «0 een. 00 00. 0). Experiments on long- continued Heat .... 17 1 O Rain Gauges .....+-- 913 0 Refraction Experiments 15 0 0 Lunar Nutation ...... 60 0 0 Thermometers ...--.- 15 6 0 £434 14 0 1837. Tide Discussions...... 284 1 0 Chemical Constants .. 2413 6 Lunar Nutation ...... 70 0 O Observations on Waves. 100 12 0 Tides at Bristol ...... 150 0 O Meteorology and Subter- ranean Temperature. 89 5 0 VitrificationExperiments 150 0 0 Heart Experiments. . 8 4 6 Barometric Observant 30 0 0 Barometers......---- 1118 6 £918 14 6 1838. Tide Discussions...... 29 0 O British Fossil Fishes .. 100 0 0O Meteorological Observa- tions and Anemometer (construction) .-...+-+ -100 0 0 Cast Iron (strength of). 60 0 0 Animal and Vegetable Substances (preserva- MON GE) | sis ois, s areieie e ~ My -4e10 Carried forward £308 1 10 1845. Cc £ s. d. Brought forward 308 1 10 Railway Constants .... 41 12 10 Bristol Tides ........ 50 0 O Growth of Plants 75.0 0 Mud in Rivers ...... 3 6 6 Education Committee... 50° 0 0O Heart Experiments.... 5 38 0 Land and Sea Level .. 267 8 7 Subterranean Tempera- Line Goh awe es azutbiee hie 6 0 Steam-vessels ......-- 100 0 O Meteorological Commit- CEG isi rananee leo weg lg WOU beh Thermometers ...e-. 16 4 O £956 12 2 1839. Fossil Ichthyology .... 110 0 0 Meteorological Observa- tions at Plymouth .. 63 10 0 Mechanism of Waves.. 144 2 0 Bristol Tides ........ 385 18 6 Meteorology and Subter- ranean Temperature. 21 11 0 VitrificationExperiments 9 4 7 Cast Iron Experiments. 100 0 0 Railway Constants.... 28 7% 2 Land and Sea Level .. 274 1 4 Steam-Vessels’ Engines. 100 0 0 Stars in Histoire Céleste 331 18 6 Stars in Lacaille...... 11 0 0 StarsinR.A.S.Catalogue 6 16 6 ‘Animal Secretions .... 1010 9 Steam-engines in Corn- Wall asia ojeiers.o use’ via) 100.) O48 Atmospheric Air...... 16 1 0 Cast and Wrought Iron, 40 0 0 Heat on Organic Bodies 3 0 O Gases on Solar Spec- Lenya ee le ove ar rales Oe ORD Hourly Meteorological Observations, Inver- ness and Kingussie.. 49 7 8 Fossil Reptiles ...... 118 2 9 Mining Statistics...... 50 0 0 £1595 11 0O £1235 10 11 £ 539 8. SACS aos xxii -REPORT—1845, &~s. 'd. 1840. Brought forward Bristol Tides ........ 100 0 0 | Fossil Reptiles ...... Subterranean Tempera- Foreign Memoirs .... tHTE § 2. 2.00 scccnccs) WAG 6)| Railway, Sections .... Heart Experiments.... 18 19 0 | Forms of Vessels Lungs Experiments .. 8 13 0 | Meteorological Observa- Tide Discussions...,.. 50 0 0 tions at Plymouth .. Land and Sea Level .. 611 1 | Magnetical Observations Stars (Histoire Céleste) 242 10 0 | Fishes of the Old Red Stars (Lacaille) ...... 415 0 Sandstone: ........ Stars (Catalogue) 264 0 O | Tides at Leith....... ° Atmospheric Air...... 15 15 © | Anemometer at Edin- Water ondron..4.....:° 10-0 0 Pn oun ina Heat on Organic Bodies 7 0 0 | Tabulating Observations Meteorological Observa- Races of Men........ fipnisots f.3:.0' 52 17 6 | Radiate Animals...... Foreign Scientific Me-. WMDIFS) }. sstiewnd aoervdl2s:1. | 6 Working Population .. 100 0 0 1842. School Statistics ...... 50 0 0 Dynamometric Instru- Forms of Vessels .... 184 7 0 WHENES! « See, Experiments on the Vi- Microscopic Structure of tality of Seeds...... 9 0 8 DHEA ia i5 30 Marine Zoology of Corn- Experiments on the ee hahaa 10 0 0 Strength of Materials 100 © 0 | Physiological Action of Completing Experiments Medicines ........ 20 0 0 on the Forms of Ships 100 0 0 | Statistics of Sickness and Inquiries into Asphyxia 10 0 0 Mortality in York .. 20 0 0 Investigations on the in- Registration of Earth- ternal Constitution of quake Shocks ..1843 15 14 8 NICEAIS «setae whic ga) Oe, CO £831 9 9 Constant Indicator and ——e Morin’s Instrument, Ty AG gees ewe ee ee £981 12 8 Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee. Committees and individuals to whom grants of money for scientific pur- poses have been entrusted, are required to present to each following meeting of the Association a Report of the progress which has been made ; with a statement of the sums which have been expended, and the balance which re- mains disposable on each grant. Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific purposes from the funds of the Asso- “=r EXTRACTS FROM RESOLUTIONS OF GENERAL COMMITTEE. XXV ciation expire at the ensuing meeting, unless it shall appear by a Report that the Recommendations have been acted on, or a continuation of them be ordered by the General Committee. In each Committee, the Member first named is the person entitled to call on the Treasurer, John Taylor, Esq., 2 Duke Street, Adelphi, London, for such portion of the sum granted as may from time to time be required. In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate the payment of personal expenses to the Members. In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua- tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named shall be deemed to include, as a part of the amount, the specified balance which may remain unpaid on the former grant for the same object. On Thursday evening, June 19th, at 8 p.m, in the Senate House, Cam- bridge, the late President, the Very Rev. George Peacock, D.D., F.R.S. (Dean of Ely), resigned his office to Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., F.R.S., who took the Chair at the General Meeting, and delivered an Address, for which see p. xxvii. On Friday evening, June 20th, in the same room, G. B. Airy, Esq., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal, delivered a Discourse on the recent Progress of Terres- trial Magnetism. On Monday evening, June 23rd, in the same room, R. I. Murchison, Esq., F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on the Geology of Russia. On Wednesday evening, October 2nd, at 8 p.m., in the same room, the Concluding General Meeting of the Association was held, when the Pro- ceedings of the General Committee, and the grants of money for scientific purposes, were explained to the Members. The Meeting was adjourned to Southampton, in the month of September, 1846. eOzel RPP ie ae i) had Hidhine call AEA ieee Ae} bet pains ey) Me yo dal AL igs tle AE te tet “ee Ae oe abit titi y shyt rt, io eis doatbast ag th ee , a hi tbh Shite ne wif; cate Re mantel ive ey ca a a sath tas Waa ania) pyre ie Bret i iil Aba rant igi 2 ms ae t "4 Asad v ie} yi"; i3P ak . ‘ x POA tees Bas hs a ttt RA oe | atin a 4 } Ara Let * ae prvi ie se ta sea tage seit 7. ire! PePPE EN See pei ¥ litera, ON ote autre dp inst Abst dl uksole he ike voto YY (RR ESE 7 ae 274 & ripke kad: OPER a She? a ; : pis Des SAGE ot ae? Laser, x fra) ViiZ ee Peat? bey nt shies ( ay ete iz hat Rae Uh oes he pou Dh) ae horqane OL oor £ ite a apt sp yuey anil 40 ; 259 a vying ris). abe Mt, § sos 22 18 deat tert ADDRESS BY SIR JOHN F. W. HERSCHEL, BART., F.R.S., &C. &C. GENTLEMEN,—The terms of kindness in which I have been introduced to your notice by my predecessor in the office which you have called on me to fill, have been gratifying to me in no common degree—not as contributing to the excitement of personal vanity (a feeling which the circumstances in which I stand, and the presence of so many individuals every way my su- periors, must tend powerfully to chastise), but as the emanation of a friend- ship begun at this University when we were youths together, preparing for our examinations for degrees, and contemplating each other, perhaps, with some degree of rivalry (if that can be called rivalry from which every spark of jealous feeling is absent). That friendship has since continued, warm and unshadowed for a single instant by the slightest cloud of disunion, and among all the stirring and deep-seated remembrances which the sight of these walls within which we are now assembled arouse, I can summon none more every way delightful and cheering than the contemplation of that mutual regard. It is, therefore, with no common feelings that I find myself now placed in this chair, as the representative of such a body as the British Association, and as the successor of such a friend and of such a man as its late President. Gentlemen, there are many sources of pride and satisfaction, in which self has no place, which crowd upon a Cambridge man in revisiting for a second time this University, as the scene of our annual labours. The de- velopment of its material splendour which has taken place in that interval of twelve years, vast and noble as it has been, has been more than kept pace with by the triumphs of its intellect, the progress of its system of instruction, and the influence of that progress on the public mind and the state of science in England. When I look at the scene around me—when I see the way in which our Sections are officered in so many instances by Cambridge men, not out of mere compliment to the body which receives us, but for the in- trinsic merit of the men, and the pre-eminence which the general voice of society accords them in their several departments—when I think of the large proportion of the muster-roll of science which is filled by Cambridge names, and when, without going into any details, and confining myself to only one branch of public instruction, I look back to the vast and extraordinary de- velopment in the state of mathematical cultivation and power in this Uni- versity, as evidenced both in its examinations and in the published works of its members, now, as compared with what it was in my own time—I am left at no loss to account for those triumphs and that influence to which J have alluded. It has ever been, and I trust it ever will continue to be, the pride and boast of this University to maintain, at a conspicuously high level, that sound and thoughtful and sobering discipline of mind which mathematical studies imply. Independent of the power which such studies confer as in- struments of investigation, there never was a period in the history of science XXVl REPORT—1845. in which their moral influence, if I may so term it, was more needed, as a corrective to that propensity which is beginning to prevail widely, and, I fear, balefully, over large departments of our philosophy, the propensity to crude and over-hasty generalization. To all such propensities the steady concentra- tion of thought, and its fixation on the clear and the definite which a long-and stern mathematical discipline imparts, is the best, and, indeed, the only proper antagonist. That such habits of thought exist, and characterize, in a pre- eminent degree, the discipline of this University, with a marked influence on the subsequent career of those who have been thoroughly imbued with it, is a matter of too great notoriety to need proof. Yet, in illustration of this disposition, I may be allowed to mention one or two features of its Scientific History, which seem to me especially worthy of notice on this occasion. The first of these is the institution of the Cambridge University Philosophical Society, that body at whose more especial invitation we are now here as- sembled, which has now subsisted for more than twenty years, and which has been a powerful means of cherishing and continuing those habits among resident members of the University, after the excitement of reading for academical honours is past. From this Society have emanated eight or nine volumes of memoirs, full of variety and interest, and such as no similar col- lection, originating as this has done in the bosom, and, in great measure, within the walls of an academical institution, can at all compare with; the Memoirs of the Ecole Polytechnique of Paris, perhaps, alone excepted. Without under-valuing any part of this collection, I may be allowed to par- ticularize, as adding largely to our stock of knowledge of their respective subjects, the Hydro-dynamical contributions of Prof. Challis—the Optical and Photological papers of Mr. Airy—those of Mr. Murphy on Definite Integrals—the curious speculations and intricate mathematical investigations of Mr. Hopkins on Geological Dynamics—and, more recently, the papers of Mr. De Morgan on the foundations of Algebra, which, taken in conjunc- tion with the prior researches of the Dean of Ely and Mr. Warren on the © geometrical interpretation of imaginary symbols in that science, have effectu- ally dissipated every obscurity which heretofore prevailed on this subject. The elucidation of the metaphysical difficulties in question, by this remark- able train of speculation, has, in fact, been so complete, that henceforward they will never be named as difficulties, but only as illustrations of principle. Nor does its interest end here, since it appears to have given rise to the theory of Quaternions of Sir W. Hamilton, and to the Triple Algebra of Mr. De Morgan himself, as well as to a variety of interesting inquiries of a similar nature on the part of Mr. Graves, Mr. Cayley, and others. Conceptions of a novel and refined kind have thus been introduced into analysis—new forms of imaginary expression rendered familiar—and a vein opened which I can- not but believe will terminate in some first-rate discovery in abstract science. Neither are inquiries into the logic of symbolic analysis, conducted as these have been, devoid of a bearing ov the progress even of physical science, Every inquiry, indeed, has such a bearing which teaches us that terms which we use in a narrow sphere of experience, as if we fully understood them, may, as our knowledge of nature increases, come to have superadded to them a new set of meanings and a wider range of interpretation. It is thus that modes of action and communication, which we hardly yet feel prepared to regard as strictly of a material character, may, ere many years have passed, come to be familiarly included in our notions of Light, Heat, Electricity and other agents of this class; and that the transference of physical causation from point to point in space—nay, even the generation or development of attractive, repulsive or directive forces at their points of arrival may come to be enumerated among their properties. The late marvellous discoveries in eee ’ ADDRESS. XXIX actino-chemistry and the phenomena of muscular contraction as dependent on the will, are, perhaps, even now preparing us for the reception of ideas of this kind. Another instance of the efficacy of the course of study in this University, in producing not merely expert algebraists, but sound and original mathema- tical thinkers (and, perhaps, a more striking one, from the generality of its contributors being men of comparatively junior standing), is to be found in the publication of the Cambridge Mathematical Journal, of which already four volumes, full of very original communications, are before the public. It was set on foot in 1837, by the late Mr. Gregory, Fellow of Trinity College, whose premature death has bereft science of one who, beyond a doubt, had he lived, would have proved one of its chief ornaments, and the worthy re- presentative of a family already so distinguished in the annals of mathemati- cal and optical science. His papers on the ‘Calculus of Operations’ which appeared in that collection, fully justifies this impression, while they afford an excellent illustration of my general position. Nor ought I to omit men- tioning the Chemical Society, of whom he was among the founders, as indica- tive of the spirit of the place, untrammeled by abstract forms, and eager to spread itself over the whole field of human inquiry. Another great and distinguishing feature in the.scientific history of this place, is the establishment of its Astronomical Observatory, and the regular publication of the observations made in it. The science of Astronomy is so vast, and its objects so noble, that the practical study of it for its own sake is quite sufficient to ensure its pursuit wherever civilization exists. But such in- stitutions have a much wider influence than that which they exercise in for- warding their immediate object. Every astronomical observatory which publishes its observations becomes a nucleus for the formation around it of a school of exact practice— a standing and accessible example of the manner in which theories are brought to their extreme test—a centre, from which emanate a continual demand for and suggestion of refinements, delicacies, and precautions in matters of observation and apparatus which re-act upon the whole body of science, and stimulate, while they tend to render possible an equal refinement and precision in all its processes. It is impossible to speak too highly of the mode in which the business of this institution is carried on under its present eminent director; nor can it be forgotten in our ap- preciation of what it has done for science, that in it our present Astronomer Royal first proved and familiarized himself with that admirable system of astronomical observation, registry, and computation, which he has since brought to perfection in our great national observatory, and which have ren- dered it, under his direction, the pride and ornament of British science, and the admiration of Europe. Gentlemen, I should never have done.if I were to enlarge on, or even at- tempt to enumerate the many proofs which this University has afforded of its determination to render its institutions and endowments efficient for the pur- poses of public instruction, and available to science. But such encomiums, however merited, must not be allowed to encroach too largely on other objects which I propose to bring before your notice, and which relate to the more immediate business of the present meeting, and to the general interests of science. The first and every way the most important, is the subject of the Magnetic and Meteorological Observatories. Every member of this Associa- tion is, of course, aware of the great exertions which have been made during the last five years, on the part of the British, Russian, and several other foreign governments, and of our own East India Company, to furnish data on the most extensive and systematic scale, for elucidating the great problems of Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology, by the establishment of a system of XXX REPORT—1845. observatories all over the world, in which the phenomena are registered at instants strictly simultaneous, and at intervals of two hours throughout both day and night. With the particulars of these national institutions, and of the multitude of local and private ones of a similar nature, both in Europe, Asia, and America, working on the same concerted plan, so far as the means at their disposal enable them, I need not detain you: neither need I enter into any detailed explanation of the system of Magnetic Surveys, both by sea and land, which have been executed or are in progress, in connexion with, and based upon the observations carried on at the fixed stations. These things form the subject of Special Annual Reports, which the Committee appointed for the purpose have laid before us at our several meetings, ever since the commencement of the undertaking ; and the most recent of which " will be read in the Physical Section of the present meeting, in its regular course. It is sufficient for me to observe, that the result has been the accu- mulation of an enormous mass of most valuable observations, which are now and have been for some time in the course of publication ; and when thoroughly digested and discussed, as they are sure to be, by the talent and industry of magnetists and meteorologists, both in this country and abroad, cannot fail to place those sciences very far indeed in advance of their actual state. For such discussion, however, time must be allowed. Even were all the returns from the several observatories before the public (which they are not, and are very far from being), such is the mass of matter to be grappled with, and such the multitude of ways in which the observations will necessarily have to be grouped and combined to elicit mean results and quantitative laws, that several years must elapse before the’ full scientific value of the work done can pos- sibly be realized. Meanwhile, a question of the utmost moment arises, and which must be » resolved, so far as the British Association is concerned, before the breaking- up of this meeting. The second term of three years, for which the British Government and the East India Company have granted their establishments —nine in number—will terminate with the expiration of the current year, at which period, if no provision be made for their continuance, the observations at those establishments will of course cease, and with them, beyond a doubt, those ata great many—probably the great majority—of the foreign establish- ments, both national and local, which have been called into existence by the example of England, and depend on that example for their continuance or abandonment. Now, under these circumstances, it becomes a very grave subject for the consideration of our Committee of Recommendations, whether, to suffer this term to expire without an effort on the part of this Association to influence the Government for its continuance, or whether, on the other hand, we ought to make such an effort, and endeavour to secure either the continuance of these establishments for a further limited term, or the per- petuity of this or some equivalent system of observation in the same or dif- ferent localities, according to the present and future exigencies of science. I term this a grave subject of deliberation, and one which will call for the exercise of their soundest judgement ; because, in the first place, this system of combined observation is by far the greatest and most prolonged effort of scientific co-operation which the world has ever witnessed ; because, moreover, the spirit in which the demands of science have been met on this occasion by our own Government, by the Company, and by the other governments who have taken part in the matter, has been, in the largest sense of the words, munificent and unstinting ; and because the existence of such a spirit throws upon us a solemn responsibility to recommend nothing but upon the most entire conviction of very great evils consequent on the interruption, and very great benefits to accrue to science from the continuance of the observations. ADDRESS. . XXXl Happily we are not left without the means of forming a sound judgement on this momentous question. It isa case in which, connected as the science of Britain is with that of the other co-operating nations, we cannot and ought not to come to any conclusion without taking into our counsels the most eminent magnetists and meteorologists of other countries who have either taken a direct part in the observations, or whose reputation in those sciences is such as to give their opinions, in matters respecting them, a commanding weight. Accordingly it was resolved, at the York meeting last year, to invite the attendance of the eminent individuals I have alluded to at this meeting, with the especial object of conference on the subject. And in the interval since elapsed, knowing the improbability of a complete personal reunion from so many distant quarters, a circular has been forwarded to each of them, proposing certain special questions for reply, and inviting, besides, the fullest and freest communication of their views on the general subject. The replies received to this circular, which are numerous and in the highest degree in- teresting and instructive, have been printed and forwarded to the parties replying, with a request for their reconsideration and further communication, and have also been largely distributed at home to every member of our own Council, and the Committee of Recommendations, and to each member of the Council and Physical Committee of the Royal Society, which, conjointly with ourselves, memorialized Government for the establishment of the ob- servatories. In addition to the valuable matter thus communicated, I am happy to add, that several of the distinguished foreigners in question have responded to our invitation, and that in consequence this meeting is honoured by the personal presence of M. Kupffer, the Director-General of the Russian System of Mag- netic and Meteorological Observation ; of M. Ermann, the celebrated cireum- navigator and meteorologist ; of Baron von Senftenberg, the founder of the Astronomical, Magnetic, and Meteorological Observatory of Senftenberg ; of M. Kreil, the director of the Imperial Observatory at Prague; and of M. Boguslawski, director of the Royal Prussian Observatory of Breslau, all of whom have come over for the express purpose of affording us the benefit of their advice and experience in this discussion. To all the conferences be- tween these eminent foreigners and our own Magnetic and Meteorological Committee, and such of our members present as have taken any direct theo- retical or practical interest in the subjects, all the members of our Committee of Recommendations will have free access for the purpose of enabling them fully to acquaint themselves with the whole bearing of the case, and the ar- guments used respecting all the questions to be discussed, so that when the subject comes to be referred to them, as it must be if the opinion of the con- ference should be favourable to the continuance of the system, they may be fully prepared to make up their minds on it. I will not say one word from this chair which can have the appearance of in any way anticipating the conclusion which the conference thus organized may come to, or the course to be adopted in consequence. But I will take this opportunity of stating my ideas generally on the position to be assumed by this Association and by other scientific bodies in making demands on the national purse for scientific purposes. And I will also state, quite irrespective of the immediate question of magnetic co-operation, and therefore of the fate of this particular measure, what I conceive to be the objects which might be accomplished, and ought to be aimed at in the establishment of pHysicaL OBSERVATORIES, as part of the integrant institutions of each nation calling itself civilized, and as its contribution to Terrestrial Physics. , It is the pride and boast of an Englishman to pay his taxes cheerfully when he feels. assured of their application to great and worthy objects. And as XXXil REPORT—1845. civilization advances, we feel constantly more and more strongly, that, after the great objects of national defence, the stability of our institutions, the due administration of justice, and the healthy maintenance of our social state, are provided for, there is no object greater and more noble—none more worthy of national eflort—than the furtherance of science. Indeed, there is no surer test of the civilization of an age or nation than the degree in which this con- viction is felt. Among Englishmen it has been for a long time steadily in- creasing, and may now be regarded as universal among educated men of all classes. No government, and least of all a British government, can be in- sensible to the general prevalence of a sentiment of this kind ; and it is our good fortune, and has been so for several years, to have a government, (no matter what its denomination as respects party), impressible with such con- siderations, and really desirous to aid the forward struggle of intellect by placing at its disposal the material means of its advances. But to do so with effect, it is necessary to be thoroughly well-informed. The mere knowledge that such a disposition exists, is sufficient to surround those in power with every form of extravagant pretension. And even if this were not so, the number of competing claims, which cannot be all satisfied, can only harass and bewilder, unless there be somewhere seated a discrimi- nating and selecting judgement, which, among many important claims, shall fix upon the most important, and urge them with the weight of well-esta- blished character. I know not where such a selecting judgement can be so confidently looked for as in the great scientific bodies of the country, each in its own department, and in this Association, constituted, in great measure, out of, and so representing them all, and numbering besides, among its mem- bers, abundance of men of excellent science and enlightened minds who be- long to none of them. The constitution of such a body is the guarantee both for the general soundness of its recommendations, and for the due weighing of their comparative importance, should ever the claims of different branches of science come into competition with each other. In performing this most important office of suggesting channels through which the fertilizing streams of national munificence can be most usefully conveyed over the immense and varied fields of scientific culture, it be- comes us, in the first place, to be so fully impressed with a sense of duty to the great cause for which we are assembled, as not to hesitate for an instant in making a recommendation of whose propriety we are satisfied, on them ere ground that the aid required is of great and even of unusual magnitude. And on the other hand, keeping within certain reasonable limits of total amount, which each individual must estimate for himself, and which it would be unwise and indeed impossible to express in terms, it will be at once felt that economy in asking is quite as high a “ distributive virtue” as economy in granting, and that every pound recommended unnecessarily is so mueh cha- racter thrown away. I make these observations because the principles they contain cannot be too frequently impressed, and by no means because I con- sider them to have been overstepped in any part of our conduct hitherto. In the next place, it should be borne in mind that, in recommending to Govern- ment, not a mere grant of money, but a scientific enterprise or a national establishment, whether temporary or permanent, not only is it our duty so to place it before them that its grounds of recommendation shall be thoroughly intelligible, but that its whole proposed extent shall be seen; or at least if that cannot be, that it should be clearly stated to be the possible commence- ment of something more extensive ; and besides, that the printing and publi- cation of results should, in every such case, be made an express part of the recommendation. And, again, we must not forget that our interest in the matter does not cease with such publication. It becomes our duty to forward, ADDRESS. Xxxili _ by every encouragement in our power, the due consideration and scientific _ discussion of results so procured—to urge it upon the science of our own country and of Europe, and to aid from our own resources those who may be willing to charge themselves with their analysis, and direct or execute the numerical computations or graphical projections it may involve. This is ac- tually the predicament in which we stand, in reference to the immense mass of data already accumulated by the magnetic and meteorological observa- tories. Let the science of England, and especially the rising and vigorous mind which is pressing onward to distinction, gird itself to the work of grap- pling with this mass. Let it not be said that we are always to look abroad whenever industry and genius are required. to act in union for the discussion of great masses of raw observation. Let us take example from what we see going on in Germany, where a Dove, a Kamtz and a Mahlmann are battling with the meteorology, a Gauss, a Weber and an Ermann with the magnetism of the world. The mind of Britain is equal to the task; its mathematical strength, developed of late years to an unprecedented extent, is competent to any theoretical analysis or technical combination. Nothing is wauting but the resolute and persevering devotion of undistracted thought to a single ob- ject, and that will not be long wanting when once the want is declared and dwelt upon, and the high prize of public estimation held forth to those who fairly and freely adventure themselves in this career. Never was there a time when the mind of the country, as well as its resources of every kind, answered so fully and readily to any call reasonable in itself and properly urged upon it. Do we call for facts? they are poured upon us in such pro- fusion as for a time to overwhelm us, like the Roman maid who sank under the load of wealth she called down upon herself. Witness the piles of un- reduced meteorological observations which load our shelves and archives; witness the immense and admirably arranged catalogues of stars which have been and still are pouring in from all quarters upon our astronomy so soon as the want of extensive catalogues came to be felt and declared. What we now want is thought, steadily directed to single objects, with a determination to eschew the besetting evil of our age—the temptation to squander and di- lute it upon a thousand different lines of inquiry. The philosopher must be wedded to his subject if he would see the children and the children’s children of his intellect flourishing in honour around him. The establishment of astronomical observatories has been, in all ages and nations, the first public recognition of science as an integrant part of civili- zation. Astronomy, however, is only one out of many sciences, which can be advanced by a combined system of observation and calculation carried on uninterruptedly ; where, in the way of experiment, man has no control, and whose only handle is the continual observation of Nature as it developes itself under our eyes, and a constant collateral endeavour to concentrate the records of that observation into empirical laws in the first instance, and to ascend from those laws to theories. Speaking in a utilitarian point of view, __ the globe which we inhabit is quite as important a subject of scientific inquiry | as the stars. We depend for our bread of life and every comfort on its eli- _ mates and seasons, on the movements of its winds and waters. We guide _ ourselves over the ocean, when astronomical observations fail, by our know- _ ledge of the laws of its magnetism; we learn the sublimest lessons from the records of its geological history; and the great facts which its figure, magnitude, and attraction, offer to mathematical inquiry, form the very basis of Astronomy itself. Terrestrial Physics, therefore, form a subject every way worthy to be associated with Astronomy as a matter of universal interest and public support, and one which cannot be adequately studied except in the _ way in which Astronomy itself has been—by permanent establishments XXXIV REPORT—1845. keeping up an unbroken series of observation :—but with this difference, that whereas the chief data of Astronomy might be supplied by the establishment of a very few well-worked observatories properly dispersed in the two hemi- spheres—the gigantic problems of meteorology, magnetism, and oceanic movements can only be resolved by a far more extensive geographical dis- tribution of observing stations, and by a steady, persevering, systematic attack, to which every civilized nation, as it has a direct interest in the result, ought to feel bound to contribute its contingent. I trust that the time is not far distant when such will be the case, and when no nation calling itself civilized will deem its institutions complete without the establishment of a permanent physical observatory, with at least so much provision for astronomical and magnetic observation as shall suffice to make it a local centre of reference for geographical determinations and trigono- metrical and magnetic surveys—which latter, if we are ever to attain to a theory of the secular changes of the earth’s magnetism, will have to be re- peated at intervals of twenty or thirty years for a long while to come. Ra- pidly progressive as our colonies are, and emulous of the civilization of the mother country, it seems not too much to hope from them, that they should take upon themselves, each according to its means, the establishment and maintenance of such institutions both for their own advantage and improve- ment, and as their contributions to the science of the world. A noble ex- ample has been set them in this respect, within a very few months, by our colony of British Guiana, in which a society recently constituted, in the best spirit of British co-operation, has established and endowed an observatory of this very description, furnishing it partly from their own resources and partly by the aid of government, with astronomical, magnetic, and meteorological instruments, and engaging a competent observer at a handsome salary to work the establishment—an example which deserves to be followed wherever British enterprise has struck root and flourished. The perfectly unbroken and normal registry of all the meteorological and magnetic elements—and of tidal fluctuations where the locality admits— would form the staple business of every such observatory, and, according to its means of observation, periodical phenomena of every description would claim attention, for which the list supplied by M. Quetelet, which extends not merely to the phases of inanimate life, but to their effects on the animal and vegetable creation, will leave us at no loss beyond the difficulty of selec- tion. The division of phenomena which magnetic observation has suggested into periodical, secular, and occasional, will apply mutatis mutandis to every department. Under the head of occasional phenomena, storms, magnetic disturbances, auroras, extraordinary tides, earthquake movements, meteors, &ce., would supply an ample field of observation; while among the secular changes, indications of the varying level of land and sea would necessitate the establishment of permanent marks, and the reference to them of the actual mean sea level which would emerge from a series of tidal observations, carried round a complete period of the moon’s nodes with a certainty capable of de- tecting the smallest changes. The abridgement of the merely mechanical work of such observatories by self-registering apparatus, is a subject which cannot be too strongly insisted on. Neither has the invention of instruments for superseding the necessity of much arithmetical calculation by the direct registry of éotal effects. re- ceived anything like the attention it deserves. Considering the perfection to which mechanism has arrived in all its departments, these contrivances pro- mise to become of immense utility. The more the merely mechanical part of the observer’s duty can be alleviated, the more will he be enabled to apply himself to the theory of his subject, and to perform what I conceive ought to .\ ADDRESS. XXXV- be regarded as the most important of all his duties, and which in time will come to be universally so considered—I mean the systematic deduction from’ the registered observations of the mean values and local co-efficients of di- urnal, menstrual, and annual change. These deductions, in the case of per- manent institutions, ought not, if possible, to be thrown upon the public, and their effective execution would be the best and most honourable test of the zeal and ability of their directors. Nothing damps the ardour of an observer like the absence of an object appreciable and attainable by himself. One of my predecessors in this chair has well remarked, that a man may as well keep a register of his dreams as of the weather, or any other set of daily pheenomena, if the spirit of grouping, combining, and eliciting results be absent. It can hardly be expected, indeed, that observers of facts of this nature should themselves reason from them up to the highest theories. For that their position unfits them, as they see but locally and partially. But no other class of persons stands in anything like so favourable a position for working out the first elementary laws of pheno- mena, and referring them to their immediate points of dependence. Those who witness their daily progress, with that interest which a direct object in view inspires, have in this respect an infinite advantage over those who have to go over the same ground in the form of a mass of dry figures. A thou- sand suggestions arise, a thousand improvements occur-s-a spirit of inter- change of ideas is generated, the surrounding district is laid under contribu- tion for the elucidation of innumerable points, where a chain of corre- sponding observation is desirable ; and what would otherwise be a scene of irksome routine, becomes a school of physical science. It is needless to say how much such a spirit must be excited by the institution of provincial and colonial scientific societies, like that which I have just had occasion to men- tion. Sea as well as land observations are, however, equally required for the effectual working out of these great physical problems. A ship is an itinerant observatory ; and, in spite of its instability, one which enjoys several eminent advantages—in the uniform level and nature of the surface, which eliminate a multitude of causes of disturbance and uncertainty, to which land observa- tions are liable. The exceeding precision with which magnetic observations can be made at sea, has been abundantly proved in the Antarctic Voyage of Sir James Ross, by which an invaluable mass of data has been thus secured to science. That voyage has also conferred another and most important ac- cession to our knowledge in the striking discovery of a permanently low barometric pressure in high south latitudes over the whole Antarctic ocean— a pressure actually inferior by considerably more than an inch of mercury, to what is found between the Tropics. A fact so novel and remarkable will of course give rise to a variety of speculations as to its cause; and I anticipate one of the most interesting discussions which have ever taken place in our Physical Section, should that great cireumnavigator favour us, as I hope he will, with a vivdé voce account of it. The voyage now happily commenced under the most favourable auspices for the further prosecution of our Arctic discoveries under Sir John Franklin, will bring to the test of direct experiment a mode of accounting for this extraordinary phenomenon thrown out by Colonel Sabine, which, if realized, will necessitate a complete revision of our whole system of barometric observation in high latitudes, and a total recon- struction of all our knowledge of the laws of pressure in regions where ex- cessive cold prevails. This, with the magnetic survey of the Arctic seas, and the not improbable solution of the great geographical problem which forms the chief: object of the expedition, will furnish a sufficient answer to those, ifany there be, who regard such voyages as useless. Let us hope and pray, that it may please Providence to shield him and his brave companions from XXXVi REPORT—1845. the many dangers of their enterprise, and restore them in health and honour to their country. I cannot quit this subject without reverting to and deploring the great loss which science has recently sustained in the death of the late Prof. Daniell, one of its most eminent and successful cultivators inthis country. His work on Meteorology is, if I mistake not, the first in which the distinction between the aqueous and gaseous atmospheres, and their mutual independence, was clearly and strongly insisted on as a highly influential element in meteorolo- gical theory. Every succeeding investigation has placed this in a clearer light. In the hands of M. Dove, and more recently of Colonel Sabine, it has proved the means of accounting for some of the most striking features in the diurnal variations of the barometer. The continual generation of the aqueous atmosphere at the Equator, and its destruction in high latitudes, furnishesa mo- tive power in meteorology, whose mode of action, and the mechanism through which it acts, have yet to be inquired into. Mr. Daniell’s claims to scientific distinction were, however, not confined to this branch. In his hands, the voltaic pile became an infinitely more powerful and manageable instrument than had ever before been thought possible; and his improvements in its construction (the effect not of accident, but of patient and persevering experi- mental inquiry), have in effect changed the face of Electro-Chemistry. Nor did he confine himself to these improvements. He applied them: and among the last and most interesting inquiries of his life, are a series of electro-che- mical researches which may rank with the best things yet produced in that line. The immediate importance of these subjects to one material part of our business at this meeting, has caused me to dwell more at length than perhaps I otherwise should on them. I would gladly use what time may remain without exciting your impatience, in taking a view of some features in the present state and future prospects of that branch of science to which my own attention has been chiefly directed, as well as to some points in the philosophy of science generally, in which it appears to me that a disposition is becoming prevalent towards lines of speculation, calculated rather to bewilder than enlighten, and, at all events, to deprive the pursuit of science of that which, toa rightly constituted mind, mustever beone of its highest and most attractive sources of interest, by reducing it to a mere assemblage of marrowless and meaningless facts and laws. The last year must ever be considered an epoch in astronomy, from its having witnessed the successful completion of the Earl of Rosse’s six-feet reflector—an achievement of such magnitude, both in itself as a means of discovery, and in respect of the difficulties to be surmounted in its construc- tion (difficulties which perhaps few persons here present are better able from experience to appreciate than myself), that I want words to express my ad- miration of it. I have not myself been so fortunate as to have witnessed its performance, but from what its noble constructor has himself informed me of its effects on one particular nebula, with whose appearance in powerful telescopes I am familiar, I am prepared for any statement which may be made of its optical capacity. What may be the effect of so enormous a power in adding to our knowledge of our own immediate neighbours in the-universe, it is of course impossible to conjecture ; but for my own part I cannot help contemplating, as one of the grand fields open for discovery with such an instrument, those marvellous and mysterious bodies or systems of bodies, the Nebule. By far the major part, probably at least nine-tenths of the nebu- lous contents of the heavens, consist of nebule of spherical or elliptical forms presenting every variety of elongation and central condensation. Of these a great number have been resolved into distinct stars, and a vast multitude = Se : ADDRESS.. Xxxvll more have been found to present that mottled appearance which renders it almost a matter of certainty that an increase of optical power would show them to be similarly composed. A not unnatural or unfair induction would therefore seem to be, that those which resist such resolution do so only in consequence of the smallness and closeness of the stars of which they con- sist; that, in short, they are only optically and not physically nebulous. There is, however, one circumstance which deserves especial remark, and which, now that my own observation has extended to the nebule of both he- mispheres, I feel able to announce with confidence as a general law, viz. that the character of easy resolvability into separate and distinct stars is almost entirely confined to nebulz deviating but little from the spherical form ; while, on the other hand, very elliptic nebulz, even large and bright ones, offer much greater difficulty in this respect. The cause of this difference must, of course, be conjectural, but, I believe, it is not possible for any one to review seriatim the nebulous contents of the heavens without being satisfied of its reality as a physical character. Possibly the limits of the conditions of dynamical stability in a spherical cluster may be compatible with less numerous and comparatively larger individual constituents than in an elliptic one. Be that as it may, though there is no doubt a great number of elliptic nebule in which stars have not yet been noticed, yet there are so many in which they have, and the gradation is so insensible from the most perfectly spherical to the most elongated elliptic form, that the force of the general induction is hardly weakened by this peculiarity; and for my own part I should have little hesitation in admitting all nebule of this class to be, in fact, congeries of stars. And this seems to have been my Father's opinion of their constitution, with the exception of certain very peculiar-looking objects, re- specting whose nature all opinion must for the present besuspended. Now, among all the wonders which the heavens present to our contemplation, there is none more astonishing than such close compacted families or communities of stars, forming systems either insulated from all others, or in binary con- nexion, as double clusters whose confines intermix, and consisting of indivi- dual stars nearly equal in apparent magnitude, and crowded together in such multitudes as to defy all attempts to count or even to estimate their numbers. What are these mysterious families? Under what dynamical conditions do they subsist? Is it conceivable that they can exist at all, and endure under the Newtonian law of gravitation without perpetual collisions? And, if so, what a problem of unimaginable complexity is presented by such a system if we should attempt to dive into its perturbations and its conditions of stability by the feeble aid of our analysis! The existence of a luminous matter, not ‘congregated into massive bodies in the nature of stars, but disseminated through vast regions of space in a vaporous or cloud-like state, undergoing, or awaiting the slow process of aggregation into masses by the power of gra- vitation, was originally suggested to the late Sir W. Herschel in his reviews of the nebulz, by those extraordinary objects which his researches disclosed, which exhibit no regularity of outline, no systematic gradation of brightness, but of which the wisps and curls of a cirrhus cloud afford a not inapt deserip- tion. The wildest imagination can conceive nothing more capricious than their forms, which in many instances seem totally devoid of plan—as much so as real clouds,—in others offer traces of a regularity hardly less uncouth and characteristic, and which in some cases seems to indicate a cellular, in others a sheeted structure, complicated in folds as if agitated by internal winds. _ Should the powers of an instrument such as Lord Rosse’s succeed in resol- ving these also into stars, and, moreover, in demonstrating the starry nature of the regular elliptic nebule, which have hitherto resisted such decomposi- tion, the idea of a nebulous matter, in the nature of ashining fluid, or conden- 1845. d XXXVill REPORT—1845. * sible gas, must, of course, cease to rest on any support derived from actual observation in the sidereal heavens, whatever countenance it may still receive in the minds of cosmogonists from the tails and atmospheres of comets, and the zodiacal light in our own system. But though all idea of its being ever given to mortal eye, to view aught that can be regarded as an outstanding portion of primeval chaos, be dissipated, it will by no means have been even then demonstrated that among those stars so confusedly scattered, no aggre- gating powers are in action, tending to draw them into groups and insulate them from neighbouring groups; and, speaking from my own impressions, I should say that, in the structure of the Magellanic Clouds, it is really difficult not to believe we see distinct evidences of the exercise of such a power. This part of my Father’s general views of the construction of the heavens, therefore, being entirely distinct from what has of late been called “ the nebulous hypothesis,” will still subsist as a matter of rational and philoso- phical speculation,—and perhaps all the better for being separated from the other. Much has been said of late of the Nebulous Hypothesis, as a mode of re- presenting the origin of our own planetary system. Anidea of Laplace, of which it is impossible to deny the ingenuity, of the successive abandonment of planetary rings, collecting themselves into planets by a revolving mass gradually shrinking in dimension by the loss of heat, and finally concentrating itself into a sun, has been insisted on with some pertinacity, and supposed to receive almost demonstrative support from considerations to which I shall presently refer. Iam by no means disposed to quarrel with the nebulous hypothesis even in this form, as a matter of pure speculation, and without any reference to final causes; but if it is to be regarded as a demonstrated truth, or as receiving the smallest support from any observed numerical rela- tions which actually hold good among the elements of the planetary orbits, I beg leave to demur. Assuredly it receives no support from observation of the effects of sidereal aggregation, as exemplified in the formation of globu- lar and elliptic clusters, supposing them to have resulted from such aggrega- tion. For we see this cause, working itself out in thousands of instances, to have resulted, not in the formation of a single large central body, surrounded by a few much smaller attendants, disposed in one plane around it,—but in systems of infinitely greater complexity, consisting of multitudes of nearly equal luminaries, grouped together in a solid elliptic or globular form. So far, then, as any conclusion from our observations of nebule can go, the re- sult of agglomerative tendencies may, indeed, be the formation of families of stars of a general and very striking character; but we see nothing to lead us to presume its further result to’ be the surrounding of those stars with plane- tary attendants. If, therefore, we go on to push its application to that extent, we clearly theorize in advance of all inductive observation. But if we go still farther, as has been done in a philosophical work of much mathematical pretension, which has lately come into a good deal of no- tice in this country*, and attempt “to give a mathematical consistency ” to such a cosmogony by the “ indispensable criterion” of “a numerical veritica- tion,’—and so exhibit, as “necessary consequences of such a mode of for- mation,” a series of numbers which observation has established independent of any such hypothesis, as primordial elements of our system—if, in pursuit of this idea, we find the author first computing the time of rotation the sun must have had about its axis so that a planet situate on its surface and form- ing a part of it should not press on that surface, and should therefore be in a state of indifference as to its adhesion or detachment—if we find him, in this computation, throwing overboard as troublesome all those essential con- * M. Comte, Phil. Positive, ii. 376. . ADDRESS. XXXIX siderations of the law of cooling, the change of spheroidical form, the internal distribution of density, the probable non-circulation of the internal and ex- ternal shells in the same periodic time, on which alone it is possible to execute such a calculation correctly ; and avowedly, as a short-cut to a result, using as the basis of his calculation “the elementary Huyghenian theorems for the evaluation of centrifugal forces in combination with the law of gravitation ” ; —a combination which, I need not explain to those who have read the first book of Newton, leads direct to Kepler’s law ;—and if we find him then gravely turning round upon us, and adducing the coincidence of the result- ing periods compared with the distances of the planets with this law of Kepler, as being the numerical verification in question,—where, I would ask, is there a student to be found who has graduated as a Senior Optime in this Uni- versity, who will not at once lay his finger on the fallacy of such an argu- ment*, and declare it a vicious circle? I really should consider some apo- logy needed for even mentioning an argument of the kind to such a meeting, were it not that this very reasoning, so ostentatiously put forward and so utterly baseless, has been eagerly received among us+ as the revelation of a profound analysis. When such is the case, it is surely time to throw in a word of warning, and to reiterate our recommendation of an early initiation into mathematics, and the cherishing a mathematical habit of thought, as the safeguard of all philosophy. A very great obstacle to the improvement of telescopes in this country has been happily removed within the past year by the repeal of the duty on glass. Hitherto, owing to the enormous expense of experiments to private indivi- duals not manufacturers, and to the heavy excise duties imposed on the manufacture, which has operated to repress all attempts on the part of prac- tical men to produce glass adapted to the construction of large achromatics, our opticians have been compelled to resort abroad for their materials— purchasing them at enormous prices, and never being able to procure the largest sizes. The skill, enterprise and capital of the British manufacturer have now free scope, and it is our own fault if we do not speedily rival, and perhaps outdo the far-famed works of Munich and Paris. Indeed, it is hardly * M. Comte (Philosophie Positive, ii. 376, &c.), the author of the reasoning alluded to, assures us that his calculations lead to results agreeing only approximately with the exact periods, a difference to the amount of one-forty-fifth part more or less existing in all. As he gives neither the steps nor the data of his calculations, it is impossible to trace the origin of this difference,—which, however, must arise from error somewhere, if his funda- mental prince le be really whathe states. For the Huyghenian measure of centrifugal force 2 ( F acy ) “combined” with “ the law of gravitation” ( oo a =), replacing V by its é R equivalent, = can result in no other relation between P and R than what is expressed in the Keplerian law, and is incompatible with the smallest deviation from it. Whether the sun threw off the planets or not, Kepler’s law must be obeyed by them when pare fairly detached, and the sun concentrated into a spherical nucleus, such as we now nd it. In the above reasoning, the consideration of the sun’s varying oblateness has been omitted as complicating the argument. It is easily taken account of, but with no benefit to the theory contended against. It should moreover be noticed that the actual time of rotation of the sun on its axis stands in utter contradiction with that theory. ~ How, then, can their actual observance of this law be adduced in proof of their origin, one way or the other? How is it proved that the sun must have thrown off planets at those distances and at no others, where we find them,—no matter in what times revolving ? That, indeed, would be a powerful presumptive argument ; but what geometer will venture on such a ¢owr d’analyse? And, lastly, how can it be adduced as a numerical coincidence of an hypothesis with observed fact to say that, at an unknown epoch, the sun’s rotation (not observed) must have been so and so, if the hypothesis were a true one? + Mill. Logic, ii. 28.—Also, ‘ Vestiges of the Creation,’ p. 17. d2 xl REPORT-—1845. possible to over-estimate the effect of this fiscal change on a variety of other sciences to which the costliness of glass apparatus has been hitherto an ex- ceeding drawback, not only from the actual expense of apparatus already in common use, but as repressing the invention and construction of new appli- cations of this useful material. A great deal of attention has been lately, and I think very wisely, drawn to the philosophy of science and to the principles of logic, as founded, not on arbitrary and pedantic forms, but on a careful inductive inquiry into the grounds of human belief, and the nature and extent of man’s intellectual faculties. If we are ever to hope that science will extend its range into the domain of social conduct, and model the course of human actions on that thoughtful and effective adaptation of means to their end, which is its funda- mental principle in all its applications (the means being here the total devo- tion of our moral and intellectual powers—the end, our own happiness and that of all around us)—if such be the far hopes and long-protracted aspira- tions of science, its philosophy and its logic assume a paramount importance, in proportion to the practical danger of erroneous conceptions in the one, and fallacious tests of the validity of reasoning in the other. On both these subjects works of first-rate importance have of late illustrated the scientific literature of this country. On the philosophy of science, we have witnessed fhe production, by the pen of a most distinguished member of this University, of a work so comprehensive in its views, so vivid in its illustrations, and so right-minded in its leading directions, that it seems to me impossible for any man of science, be his particular department of inquiry what it may, to rise from its perusal without feeling himself strengthened and invigorated for his own especial pursuit, and placed in a more favourable position for discovery in it than before, as well as more competent to estimate the true philosophical value and import of any new views which may open to him in its prosecution. From the peculiar and @ priori point of view in which the distinguished author of the work in question has thought proper to place himself before his subject, many may dissent; and I own myself to be of the number ;—but from this point of view it is perfectly possible to depart without losing sight of the massive reality of that subject itself: on the con- trary, that reality will be all the better seen and understood, and its magni- tude felt when viewed from opposite sides, and under the influence of every accident of light and shadow which peculiar habits of thought may throw over it. Accordingly, in the other work to which I have made allusion, and which, under the title of a ‘System of Logic,’ has for its object to give “a con- nected view of the princyples of evidence and the methods of scientific investi- gation,” its acute, and in many respects profound author, taking up an almost diametrically opposite station, and looking to experience as the ulti- mate foundation of all knowledge—at least, of all scientific knowledge, in its simplest axioms as well as in its most remote results—has presented us with a view of the inductive philosophy, very different indeed in its general aspect, but in which, when carefully examined, most essential features may be recognised as identical, while some are brought out with a salience and effect which could not be attained from the contrary point of sight. It cannot be expected that I should enter into any analysis or comparison of these re- markable works ; but it seemed to me impossible to avoid pointedly mention- ing them on this occasion, because they certainly, taken together, leave the philosophy of science, and indeed the principles of all general reasoning, in avery different state from that in which they foundthem. Their influence indeed, and that of some other works of prior date, in which the same gene- ral subjects have been more lightly touched upon, has already begun to be fe 7 ADDRESS. xli and responded to from a quarter where, perhaps, any sympathy in this respect might hardly have been looked for. The philosophical mind of Germany has begun, at length, effectually to awaken from the dreamy trance in which it had been held for the last half-century, and in which the jargon of the Abso- lutists and Ontologists had been received as oracular. An “ anti-speculative philosophy ” has arisen and found supporters—rejected, indeed, by the Onto- logists, but yearly gaining ground in the general mind. It is something so new for an English and a German philosopher to agree in their estimate either of the proper objects of speculation or of the proper mode of pursuing them, that we greet, not without some degree of astonishment, the appearance of works like the Logic and the New Psychology of Beneke, in which this false and delusive philosophy is entirely thrown aside, and appeal at once made to the nature of things as we find them, and to the laws of our in- tellectual and moral nature, as our own consciousness and the history of mankind reveal them to us*. Meanwhile, the fact is every year becoming more broadly manifest, by the successful application of scientific principles to subjects which had hitherto been only empirically treated (of which agriculture may be taken as perhaps the most conspicuous instance), that the great work of Bacon was not the completion, but, as he himself foresaw and foretold, only the commencement of his own philosophy ; and that we are even yet only at the threshold of that palace of Truth which succeeding generations will range over as their own —a world of scientific inquiry, in which not matter only and its properties, but the far more rich and complex relations of life and thought, of passion and motive, interest and actions, will come to be regarded as its legitimate objects. Nor let us fear that in so regarding them we run the smallest danger of collision with any of those great principles which we regard, and rightly regard, as sacred from question. A faithful and undoubting spirit carried into the inquiry will secure us from such dangers, and guide us, like an in- stinct, in our paths through that vast and entangled region which intervenes between those ultimate princinles and their extreme practical applications. It is only by working our way upwards towards those principles as well as downwards from them, that we can ever hope to penetrate such intricacies and thread their maze; and it would be worse than folly—it would be treason against all our highest feelings—to doubt that to those who spread themselves over these opposite lines, each moving in his own direction, a thousand points of meeting and mutual and joyful recognition will occur. But if Science be really destined to expand its scope, and embrace objects beyond the range of merely material relation, it must not altogether and obstinately refuse, even within the limits of such relations, to admit conceptions which at first sight may seem to trench upon the immaterial, such as we have been accustomed to regard it. The time seems to be approaching when a merely mechanical view of nature will become impossible—when the notion of accounting for a// the phenomena of nature, and even of mere physics, by simple attractions and repulsions fixedly and unchangeably inherent in material centres (granting any conceivable system of Boscovichian alterna- tions), will be deemed untenable. Already we have introduced the idea of heat-atmospheres about particles to vary their repulsive forces according to definite laws. But surely this can only be regarded as one of those provi- sional and temporary conceptions, which, though it may be useful as helping us to laws and as suggesting experiments, we must be prepared to resign if ever such ideas, for instance, as radiant stimulus or conducted influence * Vide Beneke, Neue Psychologie, s. 300 ef seg. for an admirable view of the state of metaphysical and logical philosophy in England. f xl REPORT—1845. should lose their present vagueness, and come to receive some distinct scien- tific interpretation. It is one thing, however, to suggest that our present language and conceptions should be held as provisional—another to recom- mend a general unsettling of all received ideas. Whatever innovations of this kind may arise, they can only be introduced slowly, and on a full sense of their necessity ; for the limited faculties of our nature will bear but little of this sort at a time without a kind of intoxication, which precludes all rec- tilinear progress—or, rather, all progress whatever, except in a direction which terminates in the wildest vagaries of mysticism and clairvoyance. But, without going into any subtleties, I may be allowed to suggest that it is at least high time that philosophers, both physical and others, should come to some nearer agreement than appears to prevail as to the meaning they intend to convey in speaking of causes and causation. On the one hand we are told that the grand object of physical inquiry is to explain the phz- nomena of nature by referring them to their causes; on the other, that the inquiry into causes is altogether vain and futile, and that Science has no concern but with the discovery of Jaws. Which of these is the truth? Or are both views of the matter true on a different interpretation of the terms ? Whichever view we may take, or whichever interpretation adopt, there is one thing certain,—the extreme inconvenience of such a state of language. This can only be reformed by a careful analysis of this widest of all human gene- ralizations, disentangling from one another the innumerable shades of mean- ing which have got confounded together in its progress, and establishing among them a rational classification and nomenclature. Until this is done we cannot be sure, that by the relation of cause and effect one and the same kind of relation is understood. Indeed, using the words as we do, we are quite sure that the contrary is often the case; and so long as uncertainty in this respect is suffered to prevail, so long will this unseemly contradiction subsist, and not only prejudice the cause of science in the eyes of mankiid, but create disunion of feeling, and even give rise to accusations and recri- minations on the score of principle among its cultivators. The evil I complain of becomes yet more grievous when the idea of law is brought so prominently forward as not merely to throw into the back- ground that of cause, but almost to thrust it out of view altogether; and if not to assume something approaching to the character of direct agency, at feast to place itself in the position of a substitute for what mankind in general understand by explanation: as when we are told, for example, that the suc- cessive appearance of races of organized beings on earth, and their disappear- ance, to give place to others, which Geology teaches us, is a result of some certain law of development, in virtue of which an unbroken chain of gra- dually exalted organization from the crystal to the globule, and thence, through the successive stages of the polypus, the mollusk, the insect, the fish, the reptile, the bird, and the beast, up to the monkey and the man (nay, for aught we know, even to the angel), has been (or remains to be) evolved. Surely, when we hear such a theory, the natural human craving after causes, capable in some conceivable way of giving rise to such changes and trans- formations of organ and intellect,—causes why the development at different parts of its progress should divaricate into different lines,—cawses, at all events, intermediate between the steps of the development—becomes im- portunate. And when nothing is offered to satisfy this craving, but loose and vague reference to favourable circumstances of climate, food, and general situation, which no experience has ever shown to convert one species into another ; who is there who does not at once perceive that such a theory is in no-respect more explanatory, than that would be which simply asserted a miraculous intervention at every successive step of that unknown series of f q ; ADDRESS, xlii events by which the earth has been alternately peopled and dispeopled of its denizens ? A law may be a rule of action, but it is not action. The Great First Agent may lay down a rule of action for himself, and that rule may become known to man by observation of its uniformity : but constituted as our minds are, and having that conscious knowledge of causation which is forced upon us by the reality of the distinction between zntending a thing and doing it, we can never substitute the Rule for the Act. Either directly or through delegated agency, whatever takes place is not merely willed, but done, and what is done we then only declare to be explained, when we can trace a process, and show that it consists of steps analogous to those we observe in occurrences which have passed often enough before our own eyes to have become familiar, and to be termed xatural. So long as no such process can be traced and analysed out in this manner, so long the phenomenon is unexplained, and remains equally so whatever be the number of unex- plained steps inserted between its beginning and its end. ‘The transition from an inanimate crystal to a globule capable of such endless organic and intellectual development, is as great a step—as unexplained a one—as un- intelligible to us—and in any human sense of the word, as miraculous as the immediate creation and introduction upon earth of every species and every individual would be. Take these amazing facts of geology which way we will, we must resort elsewhere than to a mere speculative law of develop- ment for their explanation. ; . Visiting as we do once more this scene of one of our earliest and most agreeable receptions—as travellers on the journey of life brought back by. the course of events to scenes associated with exciting recollections and the memory of past kindness—we naturally pause and look back on the interval with that interest which always arises on such occasions; “ How has it fared with you meanwhile?” we fancy ourselves asked. ‘‘ How have you prosper- ed?” “Has this long interval been well or ill spent?” “ How is it with the cause in which you have embarked? ” “ Has it flourished or receded, and to what extent have you been able to advance it?” To all these questions we may, I believe, conscientiously, and with some self-gratulation, answer— Well! The young and then but partially fledged institution has become established and matured. Its principles have been brought to the test of a long and various experience, and been found to work according to the ex- pectations of its founders. Its practice has been brought to uniformity and consistency, on rules which, on the whole, have been found productive of no inconvenience to any of the parties concerned. Our calls for reports on the actual state and deficiencies of important branches of science, and on the most promising lines of research. in them, have been answered by most valu- able and important essays from men of the first eminence in their respective departments, not only condensing what is known, but adding largely to it, and in a multitude of cases entering very extensively indeed into original in- quiries and investigations ; of which Mr. Scott Russell’s Report on Waves, and Dr. Carpenter's on the Structure of Shells, and several others in the. most recently published volume of our Reports, that for the York meeting last summer, may be specified as conspicuous instances. _ Independent of these reports, the original: communications read or ver- bally made to our several Sections have been in the highest degree interest- ing and copious ; not only as illustrating and.extending almost every branch of science, but as having given rise to digéuissions and interchanges of idea and information between the members present, of which it is perfectly im- possible to appreciate sufficiently the influence and value. Ideas thus com- municated fructify in a wonderful manner on subsequent reflection, and be- xliv REPORT—1845. come, | am persuaded, in innumerable cases, the germs of theories, and the connecting links between distant regions of thought, which might have other- wise continued indefinitely dissociated. How far this Association has hitherto been instrumental in fulfilling the ends for which it was called into existence, can, however, be only imperfectly estimated from these considerations. Science, as it stands at present, is not merely advanced by speculation and thought; it stands in need of ma- terial appliances and means; its pursuit is costly, and to those who pursue it for its own sake, utterly unremunerative, however largely the community may benefit by its applications, and however successfully practical men may turn their own or others’ discoveries to account. Hence arises a wide field for scientific utility in the application of pecuniary resources in aid of private research, and one in which assuredly this Association has not held back its hand. I have had the curiosity to cast up the sums which have been ac- tually paid, or are now in immediate course of payment, on account of grants for scientific purposes by this Association since its last meeting at this place, and I find them to amount to not less than 11,1672. And when it is re- collected that in no case is any portion of these grants applied to cover any personal expense, it will easily be seen how very large an amount of scien- tific activity has been brought into play by its exertions in this respect, to say nothing of the now very numerous occasions in which the attention and ’ aid of Government have been effectually drawn to specific objects at our instance. As regards the general progress of Science within the interval I have alluded to, it is far too wide a field for me now to enter upon, and it would be needless to do so in this assembly, scarcely a man of which has not been actively employed in urging on the triumphant march of its chariot-wheels, and felt in his own person the high excitement of success joined with that — noble glow which is the result of companionship in honourable effort. May such ever be the prevalent feeling among us! ‘True Science, like true Reli- gion, is wide-embracing in its extent and aim. Let interests divide the worldly and jealousies torment the envious! We breathe, or long to breathe, a purer empyrean. The common pursuit of Truth is of itself a brotherhood. In these our annual meetings, to which every corner of Britain—almost every nation in Europe sends forth as its representative some distinguished culti- vator of some separate branch of knowledge; where, I would ask, in so vast a variety of pursuits which seem to have hardly anything in common, are we to look for that acknowledged source of delight which draws us together and inspires us with a sense of unity? That astronomers should congregate to talk of stars and planets—chemists of atoms—geologists of strata—is natural enough ; but what is there of egual mutual interest, egually connected with and equally pervading all they are engaged upon, which causes their hearts to burn within them for mutual communication and unbosoming? Surely, were each of us to give utterance to all he feels, we should hear the chemist, the astronomer, the physiologist, the electrician, the botanist, the geologist, all with one accord, and each in the language of his own science, declaring not only the wonderful works of God disclosed by it, but the delight which their disclosure affords him, and the privilege he feels it to be to have aided in it. This is indeed a magnificent induction—a consilience there is no re- fusing. It leads us to look onward, through the long vista of time, with chastened but confident assurance that Science has still other and nobler work to do than any she has yet attempted ; work, which before she is pre- pared to attempt, the minds of men must be prepared to receive the attempt, —prepared, I mean, by an entire conviction of the wisdom of her views, the purity of her objects and the faithfulness of her disciples. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Proceedings connected with the Magnetical and Meteorological Con- ference, held at Cambridge in June 1845. CONTENTS. Seventh Report of the Committee of the British Association..........0000sseeee ok Appendix :— Correspondence previous to the Conference in Cambridge ......+++... conceal be The Marquis of Northampton to Sir R. Peel-........ssseceeeceeeeeeceeeeeeenees 67 Sip I, Elerachel to soit Eve (PGC. dickabs cea ccteescena con ddccceececseidcsedevacsivenccns 67 Resolutions of the Magnetic Conference presented to Her Majesty’s Go- VEIMMENE cee seceeecerceeeeeeneeeees cdeeccencnecsnsncsecescessecsscceses PePererys 6 Report of the Committee accompanying the same —«..seeseresesseeereeeserees 69 Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Sin J. HERSCHEL, Bart. ; the Master or Trinity CoLtuece, Cambridge; the DEAN or Exy, the Astronomer Roya, Dr. Luoyp and Colonel ‘SaBINE, appointed to conduct the cooperation of the British Associ- ation in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations. Arctic Expedition. Ir having been resolved upon by government to equip a new Arctic Expe- dition, under the command of Sir John Franklin, with a view to the comple- tion of the discovery of a north-west passage, two ships, the Erebus and Terror, the former commanded by Sir J. Franklin, the latter by Captain Crozier, have been commissioned for the purpose, and provided not only with every former means of security and comfort, but with a means of applying the power of steam for availing themselves of occasional favourable opportunities for its application. _ So far as relates to the prosecution of magnetic and meteorological observa- _ tion, they go provided with all the necessary instruments and instructions. _ The officers, five in number, who will be charged with their use, have availed themselves with all diligence and assiduity of the instructions afforded them _ by Colonel Sabine, and should the Expedition pass the winter in the Arctic _ Sea, to the north of America, the opportunities afforded of observing mag- a _ netic disturbances, in near proximity to the Magnetic Pole and in the region of the Aurora, will be in the highest degree interesting, and will call for every practicable exertion in watching for and observing simultaneous disturbances in Europe and America, wherever magnetic observation is at the time in progress. Among the instruments with which this Expedition is provided, B 4 REPORT—1845. is one of a novel description, contrived by Professor Lloyd, for determining the absolute total force by direct observation in dips from 80° to 90°. The interesting discovery of Sir James Ross, of a barometric pressure in the Antaretic Seas lower by more than an inch than at the equator, will render the barometric observations of this Expedition especially important, in con- sequence of attention being drawn to circumstances in the usual mode of executing barometric observations in severe colds, which have been supposed capable of partially masking this peculiarity, and upon which we shail now be enabled to pronounce definitively. As the Magnetic Pole will be again probably approached in this Expedition, an opportunity will be afforded of ascertaining (at least by subsequent calcu- lation) whether any and what change has taken place in the situation of that important point since the date of Sir James Ross’s observations, and should the Expedition be successful in making their passage home by Behring’s Straits, an invaluable series of data along the northern coast of America to the Straits in question will be secured. New Stations for Meteorological and Magnetic Observations. _ The Astronomical and Meteorological Society of British Guiana have re- cently established an observatory in that colony for the purpose of making astronomical, meteorological and magnetic observations, and have (partly by the grant of magnetic and other instruments used by Sir R. Schomburgk in his survey of the colony, partly at their own cost) furnished it with in- struments. Not content with this, however, they have engaged a competent and well-recommended observer, at a liberal salary, so that we have here an example which it may be hoped our other colonies will eagerly imitate, of scientific cooperation, voluntarily undertaken, in a highly interesting region, from which the best results may be hoped. The prospect of a colonial observatory at Colombo in Ceylon, though not yet realized, appears by a letter received by Colonel Sabine from Capt. Pick- ering, dated January 18, 1845, to be still entertained, since that gentleman has received the Governor's directions to prepare estimates for the building and establishment. It is assuredly much to be desired that such of our colonies as are capable of bearing the expense of such institutions, should be encouraged by such examples to take part in the great and important work which remains to be done, in order to place terrestrial magnetism and meteorology in the rank of permanently progressive sciences. The government observatories, by im- proving the instruments and methods of observation and chalking out the course of observation most desirable to be pursued, have laid the foundations of a system which must, sooner or later, be carried out in all climates and in every part of the globe. But the system is yet susceptible of further perfec- tion, which it has been and is receiving. Several important defects have been remedied, and as far as the magnetic observations go, a definite and well-directed course is taken. The meteorological system is also beginning to assume a more distinct and regularly improving form ; distinct notions of im- portant objects to be attained, and improvements introduced into the instru- mental departments, which by degrees will fit them for objects they are not yet competent to. Should the government observatories at Toronto and Van Diemen’s Land ultimately come to be handed over to their respective colonies as part of their domestic institutions, not only would a permanent contribution of data be secured to science, but incalculable benefit would arise to the colonies themselves, in the possession of establishments in which the art of | observing has been wrought up to elaborate perfection, and in which practice ON MAGNETI CAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 3 going hand in hand with theory, would act as a powerful engine of public instruction. Magnetic Surveys. The completion of Lieut. Lefroy’s North American Survey has furnished data in the highest degree satisfactory. Above 100 stations have been ob- served by him, at which the three elements have been determined within the isodynamic oval of 1°7 in North America. The examination which has been instituted of these shows the observations to be satisfactory. His magnetome- trie observations, made hourly during the winter, show some extraordinary disturbances; one on the 17th April 1844, gave changes of 8° 10’ in declina- tion and 0°16 of horizontal force. Lieuts. Moor and Clerk sailed on the 9th of January from the Cape, on the magnetic survey of that portion of the Antarctic Ocean left unexplored by Sir James Ross, to which allusion was made as contemplated in our last report. This survey will complete our knowledge of iso-magnetic lines in the South Seas. In the United States Prof. Renwick has occupied himself with the obser- vation of the three magnetic elements at the stations of the Trigonometrical Survey from Rhode Island southward to Annapolis in Maryland, while Prof. Bache carries on the same process from Annapolis southward, and in the course of the current year will probably have extended his operations to the Gulf of Mexico. The former of these zealous cooperators in our cause has proposed to establish, at Columbia College, a barometrical record simultaneous with that at Toronto, in which instruments carefully compared with our standards, by means of a portable barometer making the circuit of London, New York, Toronto, New York, and London, will be employed. Publication of Magnetic and Meteorological Observations. The Toronto observations of 1840, 1841 and 1842, are printed, and in the hands of most of our correspondents. So are also the first volume of ‘ Extra- ordinary Magnetic Disturbances at the Government. Stations,’ and two vo- lumes of the ‘ Greenwich Observations,’ containing those of 1840, 1841 and 1842. An immense arrear remains, and must remain, in spite of every exer- tion, unless an increase in the superintendent’s establishment afford the means of greater despatch. Representations have been made with the view of pro- euring such increase, the result of which is not yet known. Should it prove, as it is hoped, successful, the work of reduction and publication will proceed with all desirable alacrity, and the world be speedily put in possession of the whole results. _ The Honourable the Court of Directors of the East India Company has _ been applied to on the part of the Royal Society, to authorize the printing of _ the observations communicated from the four Indian establishments. The pro- position has been entertained, and estimates are in course of preparation. No final decision has been yet however come to, though there seems no reason to _ fear that it will be unfavourable. The observations which have been received _ from these observatories have been partially examined by Dr. Lloyd, and _ awaiting the appearance of the observations themselves in a public form, _ the following remarks on them, so far as that examination has gone, will pro- _bably be considered interesting to the Association :— Extracts of a Letter from Dr. Lloyd to Sir J. Herschel. Bay is, “ Trinity College, Dublin, Feb. 12, 1845. __ “The observations made during the first year and a half at the East India ‘ompany’s Observatories were transmitted to me from the Royal Society, and B2 4 : REPORT—1845. their examination has, I hope, enabled me to be of some use to the observers, in the correction and improvement of their methods of observing. Much valuable time however was lost at the commencement, owing to some diffi- culty respecting the transmission of the observations, of the nature of which I am not aware; and, as the last of the records sent were those of June or July 1842, I am unable to say how far the instructions suggested by the perusal of the earlier observations may have turned to account. These cir- cumstances, over which I had no control, prevented me from sending (as I otherwise should) any report on these observations to the Royal Society, as I felt that any report, founded upon the data which had come before me, would necessarily be unsatisfactory, and in some degree unjust, to the very zealous directors of the observatories. “J shall best perhaps fulfil the wish expressed in your letter, by. sending a few notes extracted from the memoranda which I made at the time of the perusal of the observations, which you can use as you think fit. “ The observatory at Simla, under the direction of Major Boileau, is in all respects admirably organized, and has furnished a larger amount of work than perhaps any of the whole cooperation. ‘In order to save time, Major Boileau erected a temporary wooden build- ing at Simla on his arrival, and commenced his series of observations there the Ist of January 1841. Meanwhile, the site of the permanent observatory was selected, the stone available for the building carefully examined for mag- netism, &c.; the building erected on a judicious plan, and the observations begun there the Ist of July 1841. “ At this station the mean height of the barometer is only 23°2 inches; I need not observe upon the value of an extended and complete series of mete- orological observations made at this altitude (8000 feet about). .The many questions, the solution of which has been but partly obtained by the observa- tions of meteorologists upon the Faulhorn and the St. Bernard, may be ex- pected to receive a complete answer in the Simla observations. ‘** Major Boileau has added much to the usual routine of observatory work. In September 1841, he commenced observing every fifteen minutes! and has, I believe, continued that immense labour to the present time. He also made, daily, two series of corresponding observations taken every five minutes, and each lasting one hour. One of these was made in correspondence with the Van Diemen’s Land Observatory, and the other with Singapore and Trevan- drum. He has made a very complete comparison of the wet-bulb and of Daniell’s hygrometer, and has constructed an elaborate table for reducing the results obtained with the former instrument. «« Among the remarkable results which appear on the face of the observa- tions, I may mention that, generally, during magnetic storms, the changes of intensity preponderate over those of direction in the results; while it seems to be otherwise in the regular hourly variations. “ Smart shocks of earthquake were felt at Simla on the 19th of February and 5th of March 1842, which disturbed all the magnets violently. Their mean positions were however unaltered, so that the effect was merely me- chanical. “Of the true magnetic disturbances, Major Boileau says, that that of the 2nd and 4th of July 1842, was ‘the greatest which occurred since the esta- | blishment of the observatory.’ It was also the greatest observed in Dublin ; considerably greater than that of September 1841. “The absolute observations of declination and inclination at Simla are ex- _ cellent. Those of intensity are less so, owing to defects in the method of ob- servation, which have been since remedied. ——_ ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 5 “ Madras. “Lieut. Ludlow waited for the completion of the building of his observa- tory, and accordingly his regular series of observations commenced only in March 1841. He took the precaution of observing the time of vibration of all'his magnets in Dublin before starting, and on his arrival at Madras, and was thus enabled to select for use those whose magnetism was most steady. “You are aware that a perfect determination of the changes of the third element has been a serious desideratum in most of the observatories, the in- strument devised by me for the determination of the variations of the vertical component of the force having in most cases failed. The value of the results in this case depends entirely on the individual instrument, and I do not know any that have given good results, with the exception of those belonging to the observatories of Toronto, Madras and Singapore. This circumstance adds much value to the results of these observatories, inasmuch as the observations made with this apparatus cover a space of nearly three years, and of course it furnishes an argument for the publication of the Madras and Singapore ob- servations. : “Lieut. Ludlow cautiously avoided all the difficult. work of absolute deter- minations, until he found himself master of the methods; and accordingly his results of this kind are free from the errors which are to be found in the earlier observations made elsewhere. The absolute determinations commenced at Madras with the year 1842, “ Singapore. “The observations made at Singapore, under the direction of Lieut. Elliott, commenced earlier than either of the other Indian stations, namely, in December 1840, and (as regards term observations) in the month preceding. “The vertical force instrument has worked at this station perhaps better than at any other, and accordingly the results have a peculiar value. “The diurnal changes at Singapore are remarkable for their regularity, so much so, that the diurnal curve may be obtained satisfactorily from a very limited number of observations. “ After the example of Major Boileau, Lieut. Elliott has had observations taken every fifteen minutes, commencing in April 1842. I am not aware whether he still continues this labour. “ Lieut. Elliott has made, from time to time, a considerable series of obser- vations (simultaneous with those of the observatory) at Java, Borneo, and other places. “The atmosphere at Singapore is loaded with moisture. Lieut. Elliott has taken numerous observations of the actinometer ; but the place is unfavoura- ble and the observations unsatisfactory. “ Believe me to be, “ Dear Sir, very truly yours, “ H. Luoyp.” A letter from Professor Bache to Colonel Sabine announces the gratifying fact, that the Senate of the United States has ordered the publication, in full, at the expense of that government, of the magnetic and meteorological observations at Girard College, Philadelphia, and at Washington ; both which publications are now proceeding. M. Plantamour has commenced the publication of the observations at Ge- neva. M. Kreil has published the fifth volume of the Prague observations. As regards the circulation of the printed observations, arrangements have been made by the Royal Society for the regular communication of the Green- wich observations in this department to all the institutions and persons named 6 ; REPORT—1845. in the annexed list, and as the demand for them will in all probability be hereafter greater than at present, an additional number will henceforward be printed. List of Observatories, Institutions and Individuals, entitled to receive a Copy of the Magnetical and Meteorological Observations made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. Algiers Altona Armagh. . Berlin Bogoslowsk . Bombay . Barnaoul . . Breday; sis Breslau . Brussels . Cadiz . Cairo . Cambridge . Cambridge . Cape of Good Hope : Catherineburgh Christiana Cincinnati . Copenhagen Coimbra . Dorpat Dublin Gotha Hammerfest Hanover . Heidelberg . Helsingfors . Hobarton Hudson College WMasan os |. Kaw)... KG6nigsberg - Kremsmunster . Leipsic . Lougan . Madras . Manheim Marburg Marseilles Milan Munich . Nertchinsk . Nikolaieff Oxford . Palermo . Paramatta . ‘Paris 3) - ee OBSERVATORIES. M. Aimé. M. Schumacher. Dr. Robinson. M. Encke. G. Buist. M. Prang, Ist. M. Quetelet. M. Cerquero. M. Lambert. J. Challis. United States. T. Maclear. M. Rochkoff. M. Hansteen. Mr. Locke. M. Oersted. M. Madler. Sir W. R. Hamilton. M. Tiedemann. M. Nervander. Van Diemen’s Land. United States. M. Simonoft. Observatory. M. Bessel. M. Weber. J. Ludlow. M. Carlini. M. Lamont. M. Prang, 2nd. M. J. Johnson, Esq. M. Arago. ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. Peking | V/s \ferhinne Philadelphia . . M. Gachkévitche. — Bache, Esq. Prague . . - + ‘ M. Kreil. Pulkowa. . = - ‘ M. Struve. St. Helena . ‘ St. Petersburgh M. Kupffer. Seeberg . . M. Hansen. Sttola 4, //-," she . J. H. Boileau. ~ Singapore : C. M. Elliot. Sitka . Messrs. Homann and Ivanoft. Stockholm i Peflisreyeh ihe Toronto. . -« M. Philadelphine. Lieut. Lefroy. Trevandrum J. Caldecott. Tubingen . 7 Upsal . Vienna : . M. Littrow. Wilna .. . Zlatoouste . INSTITUTIONS. Aberdeen : . University. Berlin 7 . Academy of Sciences. Board of Ordnance . London. Bologna . Academy. Boston . Academy of Sciences. Bowden College United States. Dublin University. Edinburgh . Edinburgh . Astronomical Institution. Royal Society. Edinburgh . University. Glasgow .« University. Gottingen ih « - University. Harvard College . United States. Leyden . University. aT acts is! uses Academy of Sciences. Paris . Board of Longitude. Paris... Dépét de la Marine. Philadelphia . Philosophical Society. Queen’s Library . London. Royal Institution . . London. Royal Society . 3) 9 St. Andrews . University. St. Petersburgh . Academy of Sciences. Savilian Library . Oxford. Stockholm . : Academy of Sciences. Trinity College, Library Cambridge. Upsal Society of Sciences. Waterville College ‘ : United States. INDIVIDUALS. Bessel, Prof. . - iis Brisbane, Sir Thomas Fa ee KOnigsberg. Makerstown, Kelso. REPORT—1845. Brittingham, Lieutenant, R.A. . Newfoundland. Lowndes Professor of Astronomy Cambridge. Plumian Professor of Astronomy Cambridge. Colebrook, Sir W. - . . .. New Brunswick. Dove, M. Piratierteteed see ee erie Erman,M... . ish. berlin: ox, RoW... Be, Falmouth. Harris, W. Snow, Esq. nek Plymouth. Howard, Luke, Esq. . 4 . Tottenham. Humboldt, Baron . we. 23). %Berlin: Kaemtz, M. . as igs . Dorpat. Lloyd, Rev. H. . . . University, Dublin. Loomis, —, Esq.. - - . . New York. Lubbock, Sir John W., Bart . . London. MacCullagh, James, Esq. - + « University, Dublin. Phillips, John, Esq. . . o'¥) 5/4) PORN Pickering, Captain, R.A. . . . Ceylon. Redfield, W. C., Esq. . - « New York. Reid, Lieutenant-Colonel . . Bermuda. Smyth, W.H., Captain R.N. . . London. South, Sir James. f - London. List of Meteorological and Magnetical Observations in the possession of the Royal Society. Meteorological Observations. Observatories. Periods of Observation. Observers. Bombay. 1842, 1843. G. Buist. Cape of Good Hope.|February 7 to November 1841, Lieut. Wilmot. Cochin. July 1842 to January 1844. J. B. Taylor. Erebus and Terror. |October 1839 to November 1842. ‘Ross and Crozier. Lucknow. June 1842 to October 1843. R. Wilcox. Madras. January to December 1843, to June 1844. (J. Ludlow. Niger Expedition. |May to July 1841. Penang. April 1843 to January 1844. \J. B. Taylor. Port Arthur. 1840. J. Lempriére. Ross Bank. October 1840 to December 1842. Capt. Ross. St. Helena. February to October 1840. Lieut. Lefroy. Singapore. 1841, 1842, 1843 to October 1844. C. M. Elliot. Simla. 1841,1842, Juneto Dec. 1843, Jan. to Nov.1844.|J. H. Boileau. Toronto. Jan. 1840 to August 1842. \Lieut. Riddell. Magnetical Observations. Observatories. Periods of Observation. Observers. Bombay. November 1841 to April 1842, Sep-/G. Buist. tember 1842 to May 1844. Borneo. October 1842. C. M. Elliot. Lucknow. June 1842 to December 1843. R. Wilcox. Madras. 1841, March 1842 to December 1843.|J. Ludlow. Singapore. {1840 to June 1842, August 1842 to/C. M. Elliot. December 1844. Simla. September 1841 to April 1843, June|J. H. Boileau. 1843 to October 1844. Trevandrum. |May 1841 to March 1842. John Caldecott, Esq. ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 9 The Board of Ordnance has given orders that copies of all the observations at the Ordnance observatories shall henceforward be sent to the governors of all our colonies, to be by them deposited in the most accessible public li- braries for colonial reference. They have been hitherto, and will in future continue to be presented to the directors of all foreign magnetic and meteoro- logical observatories officially instituted, and to eminent persons in those sciences. Approaching conclusion of the present system of magnetic and meteorological establishments, and considerations thereby rendered necessary. The second term of three years for which the British Government and the East India Company have granted the existing establishments will conclude with the expiration of the current year; and as the termination of the British system of observation will in all probability carry along with it the cessation of many or most of the other European series of observations, it has been an anxious subject of deliberation with your Committee what course to recom- mend to the Association under such circumstances. On the one hand there is the serious responsibility of advising the continuance of very heavy expense, both to the Government and the East India Company, and of a vast devotion of time and labour of eminent individuals in science, and of energetic and devoted observers. On the other, the high importance of the objects in view, the interest which they yearly continue to excite more and more in the pub- _ lie mind, and the perception that the great problems they propose to resolve Sa ee a 4 are of a nature to yield only to continued and persevering inquiry. Under these considerations it was resolved at the last meeting of the Association to request a conference of the most eminent foreign magnetists and meteorolo- gists on the subject, viz. Messrs. Gauss, Weber, Humboldt, Dove, Erman, Hansteen, Plana, Plantamour, Kamtz, Gillis, Bache, Loomis, Kupffer, Arago, Quetelet, Kreil, Lamont, Boguslawski and Baron Senftenberg, to be held at this meeting, and invitations were issued accordingly, the gratifying effect of which has been to procure a prospect of the personal attendance at their deliberations, of Messrs. Kupffer, Kreil, Dove, Erman, and Baron Senften- berg. 4 addition to this, an extensive correspondence has been entered into on the part of your Committee for the purpose of learning the sentiments both of them, and of such other high authorities in the practical and theoretical de- partments of these subjects, on the important matter under deliberation. This correspondence will be found attached as an appendix to the present report, and it has afforded your Committee the means of presenting to the conference for discussion the principal features of the subject in a more methodical order than would probably have been the case without some pre- liminary communication of the kind. A careful and minute analysis of the several letters received has enabled them to classify the various and valuable suggestions contained in them, and to arrange under distinct heads the ques- tions which will have to be decided on in case the general opinion should prove favourable to the longer continuance of the system. It has therefore appeared to your Committee advisable to propose for con- ‘sideration at the approaching conference, the following heads of inquiry, without prejudice to such other points relative to the general question as the experience and judgement of any of their distinguished coadjutors may suggest for discussion. % I. Under all the circumstances, is it the opinion of the conference that the combined system of magnetic and meteorological observation ought to be continued longer? 10 REPORT—1845. Should their opinion be in the negative, there is of course no room for further deliberation, except in so far as may relate to any changes of appa- ratus, methods, &e. which it may be worth while to make, or any experiments to perform in the short interval to the end of the year. In order therefore to give room for any further inquiry, it is necessary to suppose, at least provi- sionally, that some considerable amount of opinion in favour of continuance is manifested, which, should it prove to be the case (as the general tenor of the correspondence would appear to indicate), it may perhaps be advisable still to wave coming to any final conclusion on this principal head, until the subordinate subjects shall have undergone discussion ; and this, if for no other reason, because, agreeing in the general principle, it may be found impossible to reconcile all opinion respecting the details. Assuming then provisionally an affirmative opinion on the general principle, the following are the general heads under which it would appear most convenient to arrange the subjects of consideration :— A. The general system of magnetic observation at fixed stations. a. The daily observations. 6. The absolute determinations. e. Term observations. d. Disturbances. e. Instruments. Jf. Additional observations. B. The general system of meteorological observation at fixed stations. a. The daily observations. 6. Term observations. e. Instruments. d. Additional observations. C. Stations, and duration of the system. a. The Ordnance stations. b. The Admiralty stations. c. The East India stations. d. Permanence or temporary duration of the stations. e. Observers and assistants. D. Surveys and auxiliary stations. a. Magnetic surveys by land and sea. 6. Auxiliary barometric stations. E. Problems solved and to be solved. F. Particular suggestions which deserve consideration. Under each of these general heads and their subdivisions, particular sug- gestions have been made and alterations proposed or objected to, giving rise to questions a great deal too numerous and extensive to admit of their being each discussed in full detail at a conference so limited in time as this must be. Nevertheless it will be proper to specify under each, in the manner of a re- sumé, what are the particular questions which have arisen in the minds of our correspondents or have been subsequently suggested, with a view to selecting those of most importance ; and these are as follows :— A a. Daily observations.—Should they be made hourly, two-hourly, four-, six- or eight-hourly ? by night as well as by day ? at Gottingen time or that of the place? at constant or variable hours with the season of the year? Should they be made two-hourly for a certain time and subsequently changed to four- or six-hourly ? A b, Absolute determinations—Should they be made monthly, or how often? For what elements? What methods should be pursued in their de- termination ? ne ee — 43 39 336°62 3°78 | 338°50 4°61) i ! * For calculating, as at Toronto, by the heights of mercury in the barometer, corrected only for temperature (viz. reduced to 0° R.) but not for differences in the intensity of gravity. ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 4] The pressure of the whole atmosphere at Toronto is therefore, as was to be expected, superior to that of the Pacific and inferior to that of the Atlan- tic in the same latitude. The pressure of vapour at this point, however, is considerably less than under the same latitude in either of the two oceans. This circumstance is explained, partly, by the hygrometrical observations giving the humidity of the air at Toronto = 0°78, and on the ocean at 40° lat. = 0°84, and on the ocean at 45° = 0°85; partly by the mean temperature of the continent at Toronto having been found to be considerably lower than under the same parallel at sea. You will pardon these superficial reflections, considering how difficult it is to avoid the temptation of making a preliminary use of a treasure like the Toronto observations, even when hoping to devote one’s leisure to its further study and development. In conclusion, I avail myself of your kind permission to submit two pro- posals relative to future magnetical and meteorological labours. 1. The determinations of mean magnetic values for the year 1829 have not yet been completely applied to the deduction of the Gaussian constants of terrestrial magnetism for the same year. A comparison of the magnetical maps, representing the empirical results on the one hand and those calculated by the Gaussian constants on the other, is still far from presenting a perfect agreement. For the above year there is still wanting, therefore,— _ 1. Those values of the constants which best correspond to the existing observations; and 2. The probable errors of each of those first bases of the theory. This deficiency appears to me a material one as regards science. The English and Russian observations combined will afford the most probable values of these constants for the year 1845, and it is consequently most de- sirable to learn, by a comparison with equally probable values of the same for the year 1829, their annual variation. Even should these values for 1829 be somewhat less exact than the later ones, this circumstance is not of mate- rial importance, if the amount of their probable error is ascertained. Now both these requisites, the best possible determination of the constants for 1829 and the calculation of their probable error, can be effected in the following manner :— 1. By forming from each magnetic element observed in 1829 an equation containing on the one hand a known numeric value (i. e. the difference between the observed value of this element and the same calculated theoretically with the assumed preliminary amounts of the constants), and on the other certain given multiples of the corrections to be ap- plied singly to each of the 24 Gaussian constants ; and 2. By resolving, according to the method of least squares, the linear equa- tions with 24 unknown elements, obtained in this manner (amounting in all to about 1000). By this means we shall obtain not only the most probable corrected values of the above constants, but likewise the probable error of each of them. In Schumacher’s Astronomical Notices (Astron. Nachrichten, Nos. 4.50, 452 and 4.54:), the commencement of this undertaking has been published as exe- cuted at my request with exemplary zeal by a scientific young friend of mine. At my own suggestion, however, the prosecution and conclusion of this work has been deferred to a period when it might be performed without a ruinous sacrifice of time and trouble on the part of the individual engaged in it. It became evident indeed that a calculation of this extent would necessitate an entire devotion to the task of one or two years, for which the pecuniary assist- ance of some government would be indispensable. If you should be of the 42 . REPORT—1845, same opinion as I am concerning the importance of this undertaking, you would confer an essential obligation on me by expressing your approval in a manner that would give it a sufficient weight to induce some government to grant the requisite means; 40/. or 50/. a year, for the term of two years, would suffice for a person residing in this country, and I could guarantee the com- plete and satisfactory performance of the whole, if completed in the same manner as it was begun. I leave it to the decision of the Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science to recommend this work to the attention of one of the two governments (the English and Russian) that have already displayed their zeal for the advancement of the magnetic science, or to some other, the Prussian for instance, that may wish to follow so laudable an example. At all events, I am convinced that the reeommen- dation of a committee enjoying so deserved a reputation as yours would be attended with the most complete success, a success so desirable for the ad- vancement of science. The second desideratum that occurs to me, refers to the form of publica- tion of meteorological observations at sea. Such observations having been regularly made during the many scientitic expeditions of later years, the journals of these voyages would easily furnish us with the diwrnal value of the observed phenomena, accompanied by a section of the latitude, longitude and date on each day of observation. The acquisition of similar tables, as afforded by the different voyages, is in my opinion of the greatest possible value as regards all questions of scientific meteorology. What imparts particular importance to the meteorological ob- servations as made at sea is, 1. The equal elevation of the instruments ; 2. The equal constitution of the surface on which the observations take place. As such tables would greatly facilitate the due combination of the observa- tions, I consider them in fact as indispensable. I am, Gentlemen, Your most obedient servant, A. ERMAN. XII. M. Gauss to Sir John Herschel. Gottingen, March 14, 1845. Dear Sir,—In answer to your letter of December 5th, 1844, I shall begin by replying to your /ast question, that I have no objection against your making what use you please of this letter, were it not my consciousness of its utter insignificancy. At all events, as I do not pretend to correctness in writing in your idiom, I beg your leave to put down what little I may have to say in German, the more so as yourself are perfectly master of the language of your forefathers. ° So sehr ich mich geehrt fiihle, dass Sie auf mein Urtheil in Beziehung auf das langere Fortbestehen der mit grossartiger Munificenz von der Britischen Regierung in fremden Welttheilen errichteten magnetischen Anstalten einen Werth zu legen scheinen, so leid thut es mir dass ich ausser Stande bin, auf die mir vorgelegten bestimmten Fragen eben so bestimmte Antworten zu geben, und zwar hauptsachlich aus dem Grunde, weil mir die Resultate der bisher in jenen Anstalten ausgefiihrten Arbeiten noch fast giinzlich unbekannt sind. In der That sind mir zwar der erster Band der zu Greenwich gemachten mag- netischen Beobachtungen und ein Band ausserordentliche magnetische Sto- rungen zu seiner Zeit richtig zugekommen, wofir ich meinen ergebensten ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 43 Dank abstatte, allein der erste Band der Beobachtungen auf den aussereuro- piischen britischen Stationen, dessen Empfang Ihr giitiges Schreiben mich vor Schluss des vorigen Jahres hoffen liess, und der nach einem spatern Schreiben des Herrn Obristlieutenants Sabine spatestens bis zum 25 Februar hier eintreffen sollte, ist bis diese Stunde noch nicht angelangt. So lange aber noch nicht die Beobachtungen aus einer Anzahl von Jahren wirklich vorliegen, und, wie ich hinzusetzen muss, bevor solche nicht einer in gewissem Grade schon ins Einzelne gehenden Verarbeitung unterworfen sind, lisst sich un- méglich ein Urtheil dariiber fallen, ob und in welchem Maasse die vorgeset- sten Zwecke bereits erreicht seien. Von meinem Standpunkte aus muss ich demnach, gerade dieser Ungewiss- heit wegen, dringend wiinschen, dass diese Arbeiten wenigstens noch einige Jahre in der bisherigen Art und Ausdehnung fortgesetzt werden. Ich muss aber noch weiter gehen, und meine unversichtliche Hoffnung aussprechen, dass das Britisches Gouvernement vorzugsweise diesem Zweige wissenschaftlicher Bestrebungen eine fortdauernde Pflege zuwenden, und jenen Anstalten auf unbestimmte Zeit ihren Bestand sichern werde, mochte es auch nur mit gewissen Einschrankungen sein. Sollte es, der Kosten we- gen, fiir nothige erachtet werden, gewisse Beschrankungen eintreten zu las- sen, so wiirden solche meines Erachtens sich auf die Terminsbeobachtungen und auf die stiindlichen Aufzeichnungen beziehen k6nnen, und zwar so, dass man die erstern demnachst ganz aufhéren liesse, die letztern aber, anstatt wie bisher von 2 zu 2 Stunden, kiinftig nur von 6 zu 6, oder allenfalls auch nur von 8 zu 8 Stunden ausfiihrte, in Folge welcher Abinderungen das Personal und die Unterhaltungskosten wesentlich wurden verringert werden konnen. Ob aber diese Einschrankungen schon sofort, oder erst nach einigen Jahren eintreten sollen, dariiber kann ich, aus oben angefiihrten Griinden, fiir jetzt noch kein bestimmtes Urtheil aussprechen. Neben jenen tiglich drei oder viermahl, in gleichen Zwischenzeiten zu machenden Aufzeichnungen der magnetischen Elemente, wiirde die jahrlich mehreremahl mit dusserster Sorgfalt auszufihrende absolute Bestimmung derselben das Hauptgeschiaft bilden, unbeschadet derjenigen andern Arbeiten, welche die Vorsteher der Anstalten nach gemeinschaftlich unter sich zu tref- fenden Verabredungen ausfiihren méchten, und wobei haufiger wechselseit- iger Austausch von Magnetstaben und Apparaten manche lehrreiche Resul- tate geben, auch die Thatigkeit und die Geschicklichkeit der Vorsteher vielfach bewahren und controlliren kénnten. Dass iiberhaupt denjenigen Vorstehern, die auf angemessene Art ihre Talente und ihrer Kifer schon bewahrt haben, ein etwas freierer Spielraum fiir ihre Thatigkeit gelassen wurde, mochte ich fir sehr rathsam halten. Die Griinde fiir das nachhaltige Fortbestehen dieser Anstalten liegen iibri- gens so nahe,.dass es unnéthig scheint, sie weitlauftig zu entwickeln. Unsere kenntniss des Erdmagnetismus ist nur erst ein diirftiges Stiickwerk, so lange wir uns nur auf eine bestimmte Zeitepoche beschrinken, und nicht die schon nach wenigen Jahren sich merkliche machenden Siacularanderungen mit gleicher Sorgfall und Liebe verfolgen. Allerdings ist dazu das Zusammen- wirken sehr vieler Wissenschaftsfreunde an sehr vielen Punkten der Erdober- flache nothwendig, und ein halbes oder ganzes Dutzend magnetischer Obser- vatorien iiber die ganze Erde zerstreuet kann fiir sich allein betrachtet nur einen kleinen Beitrag liefern. Aber diese Muster Observatorien werden zu- gleich die Pflanzschulen von vielen tiichtigen Beobachtern werden, die ihre Thatigkeit tiberall hin verbreiten. Sie werden ferner reisenden Beobachtern zu Wasser und Lande Gelegenheit geben, ihre Instrumente zu priifen urid zu berichtigen, und ihre Beobachtungsgeschicklichkeit zu bewahren und zu ver- 44 REPORT—1845. vollkommnen. Sie werden endlich dazu beitragen den Sinn fiir Erreichung moglich grosster Scharfe, der sonst nur in der Astronomie und hohern Geo- dasie zu treffen war, auch fiir die andern Theile der Naturwissenschaften zu beleben, zu nahren und zu verbreiten. ; Die Privatthitigkeit im Felde der magnetischen Beobachtungen liegt ubri- gens was Deutschland und die benachbarten Linder betrifft seit einer Reihe von Jahren offenkundig vor. Obgleich man nicht sagen kann, dass die Bri- tischen Anstalten dieselbe erst erweckt haben, da sie bekanntlich schon vor denselben vorhanden war, so haben doch diese Anstalten an mehrern Orten Erweiterung jener Thatigkeit veranlasst. ~ Daran aber ist jedenfalls nicht zu zweifeln, dass wenn die Britische Regierung ihre aussereuropiischen An- stalten eingehen liesse, dies auch einen entmuthigenden Einfluss auf die in Deutschland und anderwerts bestehenden Anstalten haben wiirde, um so mehr, da das Erscheinen des Organs dieser Thitigkeit, der Resultate des Magnetischen Vereins, seit der Entfernung des Professors Weber von Gottin- gen auf unbestimmte Zeit suspendirt ist. This indeed is all I have to say under present circumstances. I had de- layed my reply, which you expected to receive before 10th March, till today, in hopes to get the promised volume for inspection. But I can tarry no longer now (though Mr. Sabine’s letter seems to prorogate the ultimate term to 31st March), because, even if that volume should arrive tomorrow or in the next days, I am for the next weeks so overcharged with other affairs, that it would be impossible to give it a close examination. I conclude therefore with the assurance that I ever remain Faithfully yours, Cu. Fr. Gauss. ( Translation.) Much as I feel honoured by your appearing to attach a value to my judge- ment in regard to the longer continuance of the magnetic establishments which the munificence of the British government has founded in different parts of the world, my regret is equally great that I cannot give to your questions answers as definite, and this chiefly because the results of the work executed in those establishments are still almost wholly unknown to me. I have as yet only received the Ist volume of the Greenwich magnetic obser- vations, and one volume of extraordinary magnetic disturbances, both which arrived duly, and I return my best thanks for them; but the 1st volume of the observations of the extra European British stations, which your letter made me hope for before the close of the year, and which, by a later letter from Colonel Sabine, should have arrived at latest on the 25th of February, has not yet reached me. But until the observations of some years are actually seen, and I must add, until they have undergone a certain degree of discus- sion and examination in detail, it is impossible to pronounce a judgement as to whether, and how far, the proposed objects are already obtained. In my present position, therefore, and on account of this very uncer- tainty, I can only urgently desire that these labours may be continued at least for some years longer, in the same manner and to the same extent as hitherto. But I must go stili further, and must express my confident hope that the British government will apply to this branch of science especially its perse- vering care, and that it will secure these establishments for an indefinite period, even should it be with certain limitations, should such be thought necessary. on account of expense; if so, the reductions might, I conceive, apply to terms and to hourly observations, discontinuing the former altogether, ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 45 and reducing the latter to six-hourly or even eight-hourly records, which would materially lessen the personal staff and therefore the expense. But whether such reduction may take place yet, or whether only at the end of some years longer, is a question concerning which for the reasons already given I can pronounce no decided opinion at present. The principal employment at each observatory, in addition to the daily observations at equal intervals of six or eight hours, will be to make, several times a year, absolute determinations with the most extreme care, and this without prejudice to other work which the directors of the different establish- ments may concert together; among which, frequently-repeated interchange of magnetic bars and apparatuses will give many instructive results, and will also keep up and check the activity and the skill of the directors in many ways. Ishould also think it very advisable that those directors who have shown in a suitable manner their talents and their zeal, should be allowed somewhat freer scope for their activity. The reasons for continuing such establishments are so direct, that it seems unnecessary to develope them at much length. Our knowledge of terrestrial magnetism is but a fragment, so long as we confine it to one period of time only, and do not follow with equal care and interest those secular changes which make themselves felt even in the course of a few years. There is in- deed required the concurrence of very many friends of science at very many points on the earth’s surface ; and half a dozen, or even a dozen observato- ries scattered over the whole earth can, if taken alone, give only a small con- tribution. But these normal observatories may at the same time be schools for many good observers, who will extend their activity over a wider range. They will also afford to travelling observers the opportunity of testing and correcting their instruments, and keeping up and perfecting their skill in ob- servation, and they will contribute to arouse, to nourish, and to extend to other parts of natural knowledge that desire for the greatest possible accuracy in observation which was formerly met with only in astronomy and the higher geodesy. Private activity in the field of magnetic observation has, it is well known, existed for several years in Germany and the adjacent countries; but though it cannot be said to have been first awakened here by the British under- takings, since it existed before them, yet they have caused its further exten- sion. It cannot be doubted that if the British government were now to dis- continue its extra-European-establishments, this would have a discouraging influence on the existing establishments in Germany and elsewhere; the more so, as the publication of the organ of their activity (the ‘ Resultate des Magne- tischen Vereins’) has been indefinitely suspended since the removal of Pro- fessor Weber from Gottingen. XII. M. Kreil, Director of the Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory at Prague, to Lieut.-Colonel Sabine. VEREHRTER Herr, Prag, 23 Marz, 1845. Ich erhielt vor wenigen Tagen die werth vollenmagnetischen und me- teorologischen Beobachtungen von Toronto 1840-41-42, und beeile mich nun das Schreiben zu beantworten, womit mich unterm 5 Dec. 1844, das magnetische Comité beehrte, und in welchem meine Ansicht uber einige dort vorgelegte Fragen gewiinscht wird. Mit grossem Vergnigen durchblatterte ich den Band, so wie auch den schon friiher erhaltenen der ‘ Observations on days of unusual disturbances; 46 REPORT—1845. denn ich ersah daraus, dass den hochgespannten Erwartungen, die ich von den Leistungen dieser Anstalten hegte, nicht nur entsprochen, sondern dass sie in vieler Beziehung noch iibertroffen worden waren. Die Geschichte der Wissenschaften biethet kaum ein zweites Beispiel dar, wo so viele und mit so reichen Mitteln versehene Kriafte gleichzeitig und fiir denselben Zweck waren in Bewegung gesetzt worden ; und da ein machtiger Impuls in der physischen wie in der moralischen Welt seine Wirkungen stets nach allen Seiten hin dussert, so haben auch die grossartigen Anordnungen, wit welchen England auf die von aussen her ergangenen Aufforderungen antwortéte, auf dem euro- piischen Continente wieder manche Bestrebungen hervorgerufen, welche nicht ohne wesentlichen Nutzen fiir die Wissenschaft voriiber gehen werden. Um nur die nachsten dieser Bestrebungen zu nennen, so besitzen wir in der dstreichischen Monarchie zwei Anstalten fiir magnetische und meteorolo- gische Untersuchungen, Kremsmiinster und Senftenberg, von denen die erste wohl schon seit einem Jahrhunderte fiir Astronomie wirksam in den letzten Jahren ihre Thitigkeit auch dem Magnetismus zugewendet, und ihre Leist- ungen in den ‘ Annalen fiir Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus’ bekannt gemacht; die zweite aber, wenn gleich erst ein Jahr alt, doch ihre Erstlings- friichte bereits der Oeffentlichkeit titbergeben hat. Bei beiden ist es mehr als zweifelhaft, ob sie ohne dem vorziiglich durch Englands Beitritt hervorge- brachten Ausschwunge, sich dem magnetischen Vereine angeschlossen hat- ten. Auch die nun in Aussicht stehende Bereisung der 6streichischen Monarchie zu magnetischen Zwecken, welche ich in diesem oder dem nach- sten Jahre zu beginnen hoffe, wiirde kaum zur Wirklichkeit gebracht worden seyn, hiitte man nicht auf England's Beispiel hinweisen konnen. Ich beschranke mich hier diese unserem Staate angehorigen Beispiele als Beweise aufzufiihren, dass die von der grossbritanischen Regierung errich- teten Anstalten manche andere Bemihungen ins Leben gerufen haben, von denen die wissenschaftwerthvolle Resultate theils schon erhalten hat, theils noch erwarten kann, und Uberlasse es anderen Gelehrten diese Thatsache durch die in ihrem Gebiethe vorfindigen Beweise noch mehr zu bekraftigen. Wenn aber gleich durch das Zusammenwirken so vieler ausgezeichneter Gelehrter fast aller gebildeten Nationen, berithmter Gesellschaften und er- leuchteter Regierungen im Fache des Magnetismus und der Meteorologie in den letzten Jahren mehr geleistet worden ist, als in irgend einem andern wissensschaftlichen Zweige in so kurzer Zeit je erreicht wurde, so darf man sich doch nicht schmeicheln, viel weiter als, wenigstens in den meisten Fallen, zur Erkenntniss der ersten, in die Augen fallendsten Thatsachen gelangt zu seyn. Der vorliegende Band der Toronto Beobachtungen liefert hiezu selbst den Beweis, da in vielen Fallen die bisher ausgefiihrte dreijahrige Beobach- tungsreihe noch nicht ausreichend erscheint zur Erziehung sicherer Ergeb- nisse ; so musste die Erkenntniss der jahrlichen Periode der Declinations- inderung (pag. 11), manche Einzelnheiten bei den Storungserscheinungen (pag. 21, 49), die Aenderungen der Vertical-Kraft (pag.62.) und der Inclina- tion (pag. 65.) einer langeren Beobachtungsreihe vorbehalten bleiben. Es ist zu vermuthen dass die Jahre 1843-45 die tiber manche dieser Punkte schwe- benden Perioden eingeschlossenen, sogenannten Sacular-Aenderungen so vollstiindige Aufklirung zu geben, dass sie fir alle in Zukunft dartiber anzu- stellenden Untersuchungen eine vollkommen feste Grundlage bilden kénnten. Um nur ein Beispiel anzufiihren, so wurde in diesen drei Jahren die Sacular- Aenderung der Inclination in Toronto so klein gefunden, dass aus den Beo- bachtungen nicht erkannt werden konnte in welcher Richtung sie vor sich gienge. Daman doch nicht annehmen kann, dass eine solehe Aenderung gar nicht bestehe, oder immer zu klein sey, um sich in einem dreijahrigen Zeit- ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 47 raum selbst durch so scharfe Beobachtungen zu offenbaren, so muss man vor- aussetzen, dass sie an diesem Orte eben jetzt im Stillstande begriffen sey. Diess ist aber fiir alle zukiinftigen Untersuchungen tiber die Natur der mag- netischen Kraft ein eben so wichtiger Moment als z. B. die Erforschung der Sonnennihe eines Planeten zur Bestimmung seiner Bahn, und ein Abbrechen der Beobachtungen ehe dieser, und so viele andere nicht minder wichtige Punkte gehorig festgestellt sind, wiirde von den Gelehrten unseres und der kiinftigen Jahrhunderte, welche ihre Thatigkeit diesem Zweige widmen, hochlich bedauert werden. Wenn aber auch manche Punkte ihrer Natur nach nicht durch eine sechss jahrige Beobachtungsreihe festgestellt werden konnten, so sind doch gewiss andere dadurch zur volligen Evidenz gebracht worden, und was daran noch fehlt, ist nur der Mangelhaftigkeit der Instrumente zuzuschreiben, welche noch nicht jenen Grad von Vollendung erlangt haben, den wir an den fiir andere Beobachtungen bestimmten Apparaten zu sehen gewohnt sind. Dahin gehoren die tiglichen Aenderungen und die davon abhangigen Grdéssen. Selbst von vielen der in langere Perioden eingeschlossenen Aenderungen wie z. B. den monatlichen und jahrlichen wurden die meisten Umstande wo nicht mit Gewisheit doch mit einem hohen Grad von Wahrscheinlichkeit erkannt. Wenn also, wie gewiss alle Theilnehmer an ahnlichen Untersuchungen hoffen und wiinschen, das Bestehen der von der grossbritanischen Regierung errichteten magnetischen und meteorologischen Observatorien noch um einige Jahre verlingert wird, so sollten die sdculdéren Aenderungen und die Gesetze der Storungen als Hauptzweck im Auge behalten werden, und es ware die kiinftige Thatigkeit der Austalten diesem Zwecke gemiass einzurichten. Demnach scheint es mir hinreichend zu sein, statt stiindlichen oder zwei- stiindigen Beobachtungen, vierstiindige, also an jedem Tage sechs Beobacht- ungen auszufiihren, um Mittag, 4", 8", Mitternacht, 16%, 20", und zwar nicht nach Gottinger- sondern nach Ortszeit, weil es sich vorzugsweise um eine grindliche Kenntniss der Erscheinungen handelt, wie sie am Beobachtungsorte vor sich gehen, und weil fast alle riicksichtlich ihrer Periode von dem Stande der Sonne gegen den eigenen Meridian, nicht gegen einen fremden abhangen, ein Grundsatz, den man schon von jeher bei Ausfiihrung der meteorologischen Beobachtungen befolgt hat. Beiden magnetischen Terminsbeobachtungen war eine strenge Gleichzeitigkeit der Ablesungen allerdings wiinschenswerth, bei den taglich zu fixen Stunden anzustellenden Beobachtungen aber, glaube ich, sollte man sich eben so an die Ortszeit halten, als man es bisher bei den meteorologischen Terminen gethan hat. Hiebei ware es gut, wenn die sechs zu fixen Stunden anzustellenden magnet. Beobachtungen doppelt ausgefiihrt wiirden, namlich jedes Element sollte nach 5 Minuten zum zweitenmale beo- bachtet werden, weil die in der Zwischenzeit eingetretene Aenderung sehr oft das Vorhandenseyn einer Storung anzeigt, welche bei einer einfachen Beo- bachtung unbemerkt bleibt, und weil bei gut aufgestellten und gegen Luft- stromungen gehorig geschiitzten Apparaten diese Aenderungen auch iiber den taglichen Gang naheren Aufschluss geben kénnen. Die magnetischen Terminsbeobachtungen, welche hauptsachlich zur ge- naueren Erforschung der Gesetze der Storungen eingefuhrt wurden, haben diesem Zwecke nicht vollkommen entsprochen, weil wenige Storungen gréss- erer Art an den fiir diese Beobachtungen vorausbestimmten Tagen eingetroffen sind, daher viele Mihe vergebens angewendet wurde. Da man voraussetzen darf, dass die Beobachter sich fiir den Erfolg ihrer Arbeiten selbst interessiren, und alles aufbiethen werden, was sie fiir die Wissenschaft niitzlich machen kann, so diirfte man, wie ich glaube, die ausser den festgesetzten sechs Beo- bachtungsstunden anzustellenden Storungsbeobachtungen ihrem eigenen Er- 48 REPORT—1845. messen tiberlassen, und ihnen héchstens tiber die Zeit-Intervalle, in welchen ~ die Ablesungen zu geschehen haben, und welche bei gut aufgestellten Ap- paraten die moglichst kiirzesten seyn sollen, einige Instruction ertheilen. Thr Hauptaugenmerk soll hiebei auf die Wendungspunkt, d. h. jene Zeit-Momente gerichtet seyn, wann ein Wachsen in ein Abnehmen und umgekehrt iibergeht. Will man aber noch ferner Beobachtungen an vorherbestimmten Tagen an- stellen lassen, so koénnte diess versuchsweise, d. h. so geschehen, dass man an diesen Tagen zu jenen Stunden, an welchen die Storungen am 6ftesten ein- zutreten pflegen, naimlich von 4 bis 10" Abends so beobachtet, wie es bisher bei Terminen zu geschehen pflegte, und die Beobachtungen nur in dem Fulle iiber 24 Stunden ausdehnt, wenn sich Spuren einer Stérung zeigen. Da barometrische Storungen dieselbe Wichtigkeit haben, wie magnetische, wenn gleich ihr Umfang nicht so ausgedehnt ist, so wire es wiinschenswerth, dass auch an Tagen, wo solche eintreten, die Ablesungen des Barometers in kiirzeren Intervallen als gewohnlich ausgefiihrt wiirden, etwa von Stunde zu Stunde, und in der Nahe de Wendepunkte, welche auch hier ganz besonders beriicksichtigt werden sollen, noch Ofters, weil aus der Vergleichung niher gelegener Beobachtungsorte die Richtung und Schnelligkeit der Luftwellen erkannt werden kann. In Hinsicht auf Instrumente scheint es mir zweckmissiger zu seyn, die ein- mal eingefihrten so lange zu behalten, als nicht eine neue Erfindung sie we- sentlich verbessert hat, weil bei Differenzbeobachtungen, um welche es sich hier vorziiglich handelt, der Nachtheil, den eine Unterbrechung und die An- wendung eines verschiedenen Apparates herbeifiihrt, nicht immer durch die grossere Genauigkeit des letzteren aufgehoben wird. Ueberall sollte man, so gut es angeht, die Arbeit durch Autographen zu erleichtern und zu vervoll- standigen trachten. Wenn die von hier nach England gesandten Exemplare der Baro- Thermo- und Hygrometrographen sich als zweckmissig bewahren, so ist fiir die Meteorologie viel gewonnen, und sie sollten verbreitet werden. Ich habe manche Versuche angestellt, nach demselben Principe auch magne- tische Autographen zu verfertigen; allein diese Versuche fiihrten zu grds- seren Auslagen, als ich bestreiten konnte. Ich musste sie aufgeben, ohne von der Unmoglichkeit des Gelingens iiberzeugt zu seyn. In England, wo die practische Mechanik auf einer so hohen Stufe steht, wiirde man leichter damit zu Stande kommen. Die Mittheilungen der Beobachtungen und ihrer Resultate haben stets um so grosseres Interesse, je frischer sie sind, und oft kann eine Vergleichung der Wahrnehmungen, so lange der erste Eindruck noch nicht erloschen ist, auch zu nicht unwichtigen Folgerungen fiihren, welche uns entgehen, wenn man die Vergleichung bloss nach den Ziffern austellen muss. Deshalb konnte vielleicht die Herausgabe der Beobachtungen in kleineren Parthien und in kiirzeren Fristen, nach Art einer Zeitschrift, etwa von Monat zu Monat ge- schehen. Da durch die Vereinfachung des Beobachtungssystems wahrscheinlich mehrere Beobachter disponibil werden, so konnte man diese vielleicht dazu verwenden, die Umgebungen des Beobachtungsortes zu bereisen, und einen magnetischen Survey auszufiihren. Meines Erachtens ist die Vervielfiltigung dieser Reisen, und die damit verbundene Untersuchung iiber die Vertheilung des Erdmagnetismus, derjenige Schritt, welcher in diesem Fache zunachst zu thun ist. Die Beobachtungen sollten sich hiebei nicht nur tiber alle mag- netischen Elemente, sondern wo méglich auch iiber die geognostische Be- schaffenheit des Bodens ausdehnen, weil der Zusammenhang zwischen dieser und dem Erdmagnetismus ein Punkt von der grossten Wichtigkeit ist. Diess sind die Ansichten welche ich tiber diese grosse wissenschaftliche ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 49 Unternehmung hege, und die ich hiemit frei und unumwunden ausgesprochen habe. Findet die Association es fiir zweckmassig sie ganz oder theilweise zu veroffentlichen, so stebt von meiner Seite nichts im Wege. Mit ausgezeichneter Hochachtung, Ergebenster, KREIL. ( Translation.) Prague, 23rd March, 1845. Dear Sir,—I received a few days ago the valuable ‘ Magnetical and Meteorological Observations at Toronto, 1840-42,’ and I now hasten to reply to the communication with which the Magnetic Committee have honoured me under date of the 5th of December 1844, in which my views respecting some questions therein proposed were requested. I have looked over this volume and that which I had previously received, entitled ‘Observations on Days of unusual Magnetic Disturbance’ with great pleasure, for I have seen by these volumes that the highly-wrought expecta- tions of the results of these establishments which I cherished, are not only met but have in many respects been even exceeded. The history of science hardly offers a second example where so many and such richly-provided forces have been put into action simultaneously and for the same object; and asa powerful impulse, whether in the physical or in the moral world, always ex- tends its effects on every side, so the great system of action by which England has responded to the call which proceeded from hence has reacted on the con- tinent of Europe, and has called forth several efforts which will not pass away without having done essential service to science. Among these I will name only the two which fall most immediately under my notice. We have in Austria two establishments for magnetical and meteorological researches, Kremsminster and Senftenberg ; at the first of which places astronomy has been actively followed for a century, magnetism only since the last few years, and its results are published in the ‘ Annalen fiir Meteorologie und Erd- magnetismus.’ The Senftenberg establishment, though only a year old, has already published its first fruits. It is more than doubtful whether either would have joined the magnetic cooperative system, had it not been for that great development which is due to England especially. The magnetic survey of Austria, which I hope to begin either this year or the next, would hardly have been brought to pass if we had not been enabled to point to the example of England. I confine myself to adducing instances belonging to our own state, to show that establishments and other endeavours which have pro- duced, or which promise to produce, valuable results, have been stimulated by the example of England ; and I leave to other cultivators of science to con- firm this fact by instances more particularly belonging to their own spheres of observation. But although the concurrence of so many distinguished men of science, and of almost all the civilized nations, illustrious societies, and enlightened governments, has done more for magnetism and meteorology than was ever accomplished for any other branch of science in so short a time, yet we ought not to flatter ourselves that we have done more, at least in the majority of eases, than arrive at the knowledge of the first and most obvious facts. The | volume of the ‘ Toronto Observations’ now before me itself affords proof of this, for in many cases it appears that the series of three years’ observations is not sufficient to afford assured results; the knowledge of the annual period of declination changes (p. xi.), of some peculiarities in the phzenomena of 1845. E 50 REPORT——1845. disturbances (pp. xxi. and xlix.), the variations of the vertical force (p. Ixii.), and of the inclination (p. Ixv.), require a longer series of observations. We may hope that the years 1843-45 will have done much to clear away the doubts remaining on these particular points, but they certainly cannot afford such a complete elucidation of the variations comprehended within longer periods, otherwise called secular variations, as may be capable of forming a perfectly solid foundation for all future researches. To allude only to one instance; the secular change of the inclination at Toronto during the last three years has been found to be so small, that it cannot even be discovered in which direction it takes place. As we cannot assume that there is no such change, or that it is always so small as to escape detection even by such exact observations during an interval of three years, we must suppose that at To- ronto the inclination was stationary at that time. But such a moment is, for all future investigations concerning the nature of the magnetic forces, of an importance similar for instance to that of the perihelion of a planet for the determination of its path, and to break off the observations before this and so many other no less important points are properly established, would be greatly lamented by those men of science who may devote their activity to this branch of science either in the present or in the ensuing century. If however there are many points which from their very nature cannot be settled by a six years’ series of observations, there are others certainly for which the evidence will be complete ; or if anything be still wanting, it will be owing solely to the incompleteness of the instrumental means which have not yet attained to that high degree of perfection to which we are accustomed in the apparatus belonging to other kinds of observation. The diurnal varia- tion and all the quantities depending thereon are of this class; and even for the variations comprised by longer periods, the monthly and annual variations for example, most of the circumstances belonging to them will be known, if not with certainty, yet with a high degree of probability. If, then, as is assuredly wished and hoped by all who take part in investi- gations of this nature, the magnetical and meteorological observatories esta- blished by the British government be continued for some years longer, the secular variations and the laws of disturbances should be regarded as the principal objects to be kept in view, and the activity of the different establish- ments should be directed accordingly. In this view it might suffice if four- hourly observations were substituted for hourly or two-hourly, taking for in- stance, 0, 44, 84, 12, 16" and 20%, and employing not Gottingen time but the time of the station, as the special object in view is to obtain a thorough know- ledge of the phenomena as they present themselves at the place of obser- vation, inasmuch as their march depends in almost all cases on the position of the sun relatively to their own meridian, not to that of another and distant station, a principle always followed in meteorological observations. In mag- netic terms, no doubt strict simultaneity of reading is always desirable, but the daily observations at fixed hours should I think be taken by the time of the station, as has hitherto been done in meteorological terms, The magnetic observations, if made at fixed hours each day, might be taken doubly by re- peating the reading of each element at the end of five minutes. By this means, the presence of disturbance, which might escape detection by a single observation, would often be discovered, and with well-established instruments properly protected against currents of air, the alterations taking place in those short intervals would also furnish inferences concerning the diurnal march, The magnetic term days, which were principally designed for the more accurate investigation of the laws of disturbances, have not perfectly answered to this view, because few of the greater disturbances occurred on the pre- Kon ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 51 scribed days of observation, so that much labour has been bestowed in vain. As we may assume that the observers are themselves interested in the results of their labours, and will willingly supply all the useful service to science in their power, we may, I think, leave to themselves what they may do at times of disturbance, in addition to the six daily observations, directing them at the utmost in some degree as to the intervals at which the readings should be taken, and which, with well-established instruments, ought to be as short as possible. The chief attention of the observers should be directed to the turning points, i.e. to the moment of time when an increase is changed into a decrease, and vice versd. If however it be still desired to institute obser- vations on prescribed days, it might be done tentatively, ¢.e. by observing on such days, in the manner hitherto followed on term days, at those hours when disturbances most frequently begin, i.e. from 4 to 10 p.m., completing the twenty-four hours of observation only when indications of disturbance are perceived. As barometric disturbances have the same interest as magnetic ones, al- though their range is more limited, it would be desirable on days when they occur to take more frequent readings than usual, it may be every hour, and oftener near the points of turning, which ought to receive especial attention, as the comparison of neighbouring stations of observation may make known the direction and velocity of the atmospheric wave. In respect to instruments, it appears to me better to retain those already in use, unless newly-devised ones offer very important improvement ; because in differential observations, which are chiefly in question, the disadvantages at- tendant on breaks and on the introduction of a different apparatus, are not always compensated by the greater exactness of the new instrument. As far as can be done, it will be desirable to lighten the work, and to render it more complete by the use of self-registering apparatus. If the barometro- thermometro- and hygrometro-graphs sent to England are found to answer, their advantage to meteorology will be great, and their use ought to be extended. I have made many trials at constructing magnetic autographs on the same principle, hut have found the experiment too expensive, and have therefore relinquished it, though without being convinced of the impossibility of success. In England, where there are such good artists, it might be less difficult. The earlier the observations and their results are communicated the greater will be their interest, and it may often happen that a comparison made while the first impression is still fresh on the mind may lead to not unimportant de- ductions, which escape when the comparison has to be made with the figures merely. Possibly it might be advantageous to publish the observations in smaller parts after the manner of a periodical journal,—it might be monthly. As the simplification of the system of observation would probably leave several observers at liberty, they might perhaps devote the time thus gained to the execution of magnetic surveys in adjoining districts. The multiplica- tion of such journeys and their results concerning the distribution of terres- trial magnetism appears to me to be the step most immediately needed. These observations ought to include, besides all the magnetic elements, a notice of the geognostic character of the ground, as its connexion with terrestrial mag- netism is a point of great importance. “IT have now given freely my views respecting this great scientific under- taking, and if the Association would think it useful to publish them, either in whole or in part, they are entirely at their disposal. mt With highest esteem, yours, KREIL. ria tt] EQ 52 REPORT—1845. XIV.—G. B. Airy, Esq., Astronomer Royal, to Sir John Herschel. Royal Observatory, Greenwich, April 7, 1845. My pear S1r,—I have to acknowledge the receipt of the circular letter issued by you on the part of a Committee of the British Association, dated 5th December 1844, and proposing certain queries regarding the propriety of continuing the existing magnetic and meteorological observatories beyond the termination of the present year, to which answers are invited. In the answers which I subjoin, I beg leave to refer to the numbers at- tached to the questions in your letter. : In reply to question 1. Several important points have already been made out from the observa- tions; and undoubtedly, by continuing the observations, these same points would be established with an accuracy somewhat (but not much) greater than at present. I do not expect to obtain anything new; but it is scarcely possible yet to tell, for want of reduction and digestion of the observations as far as they are made. It seems not improbable that a great part of what future theory may suggest can be made out by simultaneous observations conducted at a comparatively trifling expense: at the same time it is certain that great light has been cast upon the interpretation of the simultaneous ob- servations by using them in conjunction with the hourly and two-hourly observations. All things considered, I do not see sufficient ground for con- tinuing the systematic two-hourly observations. In reply to question 2. If by “private research” is meant “research by persons not officially con- nected with the various Magnetical, &c. Observatories,” I do not believe that private research has been stimulated in the smallest degree. The research of persons connected with the observatories, in subjects nearly related to but not exactly included in the routine of the observatories, has naturally been much stimulated. In reply to question 3. I am totally unable, from want of discussion of the observations already made, to suggest anything. I perceive that strict simultaneity of observations and precisely similar construction of instruments are desirable; and I urge the latter point the more strongly, because there has been a sensible change in the construction of the instruments adopted for many observatories, and be- cause it is far more difficult to carry out any general regulation regarding the instruments than anything which depends on mere personal arrange- ments. I now advert generally to the general question, as requested in the last paragraph of the circular letter. First, it must be remarked that the object of these observatories is totally different from that of astronomical observatories. It is not intended to attach very great importance to the accurate determination of the present state of certain elements, or of their secular changes (as in astronomical determina- tions), not because they are unimportant, but because they can be determined in a very much less expensive way. It is scarcely an object to ascertain the co-efficients or argument-epochs of inequalities following known laws (as in astronomy), because the present state of the science does not admit of it. The object is, to make out such laws as we can, to use our discoveries for the suggestion of other observations, and from these to make out other laws, &e. Now it is to be remarked that we shall have at most of the observatories full five years of continuous and simultaneous observations. I certainly do think that these are sufficient to give us, with reasonable accuracy, the first ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 53 laws to which I have alluded above (if they are not, I can hardly conceive that any number of years would be found sufficient). And if they are suffi- cient, then I see that very great mischief is done by continuing them. At pre- sent, by the greatest efforts which it is possible to make, the Prague observa- tions are published in a roughly reduced form, only as far as 1843 ; those of Toronto and Greenwich as far as 1842, and no other so far. While the ob- servations continue, with the existing establishment of computers, there is no possibility of hastening this reduction and publication. Now we want leisure to complete the publication (to the same extent to which it has already gone). We want leisure further to discuss with reference to more scientific principles the observations at each station. We want leisure calmly to compare the results obtained at different stations. And above all, we want leisure to unite all by some such comprehensive theory as that by which Gauss united the then accessible observations of declination, dip, and intensity, all over the earth. As long as the observations shall be continued, so long a¢ leasé will those discussions be delayed, and so long aé /east will the real intellectual pro- gress of the science be put off. I am therefore clearly of opinion that it is desirable to terminate the pre- sent system of observations at the end of the present year. In thus terminating the existing system of observations, I do not consider that the attention to the subject is at all suspended. I consider that the at- tention is diverted to a more favourable direction ; and I look to the resump- tion of the observations at some future time as a probable consequence of it. Such observations would probably be undertaken under very different cir- cumstances from those of the present series. | New points of theory would. have been suggested, new stations selected, new instruments adopted ; and the object of the new series of observations would be, to make out the new laws to which I have alluded above. In all that I have said thus far, I have alluded only to the interests of sci- ence as involved in the decision as'to the time of terminating the observations. But I think that I should be wrong if I omitted to call attention to the ex- pense of the. observations. The annual expense of the Greenwich Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory, including printing, is almost £1200. This expense, while the observations and reductions are printed in the same detail, can scarcely be diminished. I request that you will use your discretion as to printing the whole or any part of this letter. i I am, my dear Sir, Very truly yours, G. B. Arry. XV.—Lieut.-Colonel Sabine to Sir John Herschel, Bart. Woolwich, April 21, 1845. My pear Srr,—It has been intimated to me that the consideration of the questions now before the Committee may be materially aided by such a brief notice as I may be able to take in the compass of a letter, of what the colonial observatories will have accomplished at the close of 1845, towards the fulfil- ment of the objects originally proposed; and of what further they may be expected to accomplish if their continuance is prolonged for another period. I propose to comply with this suggestion, and at the same time to state the opinions to which my own judgement at present inclines. I. Magnetical Observations.—We shall have determined the absolute values of the different magnetic elements at the several stations with as much, or 54 REPORT—1845. almost as much precision, as such determinations can be made with the most recent instruments, and in a manner which will probably leave little to be de- sired on that head. We shall also have determined satisfactorily the mean values of the diur- nal variations ; including under that expression, the effects both of the so- called irregular disturbances, now ascertained* to have a sensible mean influ- ence on the diurnal variation of the magnetic direction and force, and of the more regular diurnal fluctuation connected with the sun’s hour angle. In the first two years of the Toronto Observations these effects have been in a great degree separated from each other, and the mean values of each ascertained. ' In respect to secular changes, we have learnt that neither the instrumen- tal means which were originally furnished, nor the methods of observation originally directed, were fully competent for this part of the inquiry; and we have substituted a system of absolute determinations made monthly with instruments subsequently contrived, combined with the observations of the differential instruments used with various precautions stated in the pub- lished volume of the Toronto Observationst. This process has already been some months in operation, and we are able to say with confidence that it will accomplish the purpose, if a sufficient time be given. I fully con- cur with those who consider,,that the endeavours which we are making, to place on record and transmit to posterity the present magnetic state of the globe, would be deficient in a most essential particular, if they failed to deter- mine the secular changes which are at present taking place at our stations of -observation. There is also a very important class of determinations which are in progress of accomplishment by the same improved means that have been resorted to for the secular changes, which yet require some further time for their satis- factory completion. I allude to the annual variations of the magnetic ele- ments. The evidence brought forward in the volume of the Toronto Observa- tions appears to leave little doubt of the general fact, that the terrestrial magnetic force is at that station considerably greater in summer than in winter, and that the annual variation forms a regular progression intimately connected with the march of the temperature{. The complete establishment of this important fact in terrestrial physics, and a satisfactory measure of its mean value at each of the stations, together with similar determinations in respect to the annual variation of the magnetic direction (which is also indi- cated at Toronto, though in a less decided manner), may be confidently expected by perseverance in the means which have been adopted in the last few months. For the sake therefore of the secular and annual changes, I concur in opi- nion with those who desire a somewhat longer continuance of the magnetic observations at the stations which are now occupied ; though I am at the same time of opinion that an observatory starting with our present instruments, and our present methods of observation, might be expected to satisfy in a reason- able manner ail the desiderata which have been mentioned, in a period of five ears. i With respect to the sémultaneous observations made at the periods now fa- miliarly known by the nate of magnetic term-days, the objects sought were of a less definite character, and it is therefore not so easy to say to what ex- tent the purposes which called them forth have been fulfilled by what has already been done. Much has undoubtedly been learned respecting the phae- * Toronto Observations, pp. xxvii and xlix. T Pp. xi. xxxiii. 1. vii. (note). t Pp. xxxvii. ef seq. aie ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 55 nomena of disturbances. They have been shown by the Toronto observa- tions to follow a certain order, in frequency, in force, and in direction, con- nected with the hours of the day. The comparison of the observations at Toronto and Van Diemen Island, in the volume of ‘ Unusual Magnetic Dis- turbances,’—the intercomparison of the observations at the several European stations in the ‘Resultate’ of MM. Gauss and Weber,—the comparison of the American stations with each other and with a European station in the Toronto volume,—have all shown that highly interesting and important conclusions are derivable from this class of observations. It cannot be doubted that a more general and elaborate examination of what has been already done, will both add to the number of these conclusions, and will point out special problems to be solved by a continuance, and possibly by some modification, of the system of simultaneous observation. Meanwhile it may perhaps be desirable to dis- continue, for the present at least, pre-arranged term observations, and to sub- stitute for them the most comprehensive and assiduous observation of the phenomena at times of great disturbance that the strength of each observa- tory will permit; holding all things ready, however, to cooperate in any pro- position of conjoint observation, that may grow out of the further examina- tion to which the great body of observations already collected will doubtless be subjected. Whilst the Arctic Expedition is in the northern seas, the phenomena during periods of great disturbance ought to be particularly at- tended to at stations in high magnetic latitudes in Europe and America, and specially at Toronto; as, should the Expedition be detained during a winter, their instruments will be established in a locality which may render simulta- neous observations of extraordinary interest and value. ~I think also that it may be more advantageous on some occasions to observe the precise instants of the occurrence of remarkable phenomena, than to record the indications of the instruments at fixed intervals of regular recurrence. Il. Meteorological Observations—The periods during which hourly ob- servations have been maintained at our observatories is probably sufficient in the greater part of instances to meet the problems now presenting themselves ; if so, the attention bestowed on them might now be advantageously directed to observations having more special objects in view. I feel by no means con- fident, however, that more than three and a half years of hourly observation may not be desirable at Toronto, to meet questions which, if not already be- ginning to be considered, are not unlikely to be so in the rapid march which this science is now making; and I am inclined to think that it may be ex- pedient that there should be a full series of at least five years of hourly ob- servation, obtained at some one station in Europe and another in America; and that for the latter, Toronto is remarkably well situated. There are a variety of special problems requiring systematic observation, of which the solution is extremely important in theoretical respects, and in- dispensable if anything like completeness is desired in the record to be left by our observatories. 1°. The separation of the pressures of the air and vapour, which united constitute the barometric pressure, has only been feasible since the invention of instruments to measure the tension of the vapour. The facts which this most important addition to our instrumental means has disclosed in the different observatories, some portion of which is already before the public*, are sufficient to show that a new era has opened in scientific meteor- ology ; that observations conducted as they have been at the observatories reveal as their immediate fruits the laws of the periodical and systematic va- riations of the aqueous and gaseous pressures, and their connection with the variations of the temperature and those of the direction and force of the wind. * Brit, Assoc. Reports, 1844, pp. 42-62, 56 REPORT—1845. » There are however many points yet to be ascertained, which have grown out of the observations already made, and which are essential to our perfect acquaintance with the mutual relations and dependencies of the periodical variations; such, for example, as a more precise knowledge of the several turning periods of the different variations. These are now occupying atten- tion, and will require some further time. 2°. A meteorological record can scarcely be considered as otherwise than imperfect that does not show, with some satisfactory degree of approximation, the volume of air which, on the average of the year, passes the station of observation, and the direction in which it moves. For this purpose our instrumental means need, and are re- ceiving, further improvements. 3°. The investigations into the laws of storms have shown the importance of continuous records being made of the several meteorological phenomena at periods of great atmospherical disturbance : at Toronto in particular these are likely to be very valuable, on account of the excellent field afforded by the North American continent for the prosecution of this inquiry. I have named a few of the meteorological objects which are likely to be obtained by a prolongation of the term for which the observatories have been sanctioned. Other objects have been pointed out in the letters of several of the correspondents who have addressed the Committee. Those which I have mentioned are all more or less involved in the original instructions, though the instrumental means, or the methods of observation, required to carry them out, may not have been so clearly perceived then as they are now. Amongst these may also be classed, observations on the important subject of atmo- spherical electricity. I am of opinion, therefore,—with reference to the observatories originally recommended by the British Association,—that it is now desirable to recom- mend,— Ist. That the time for which the observatory at Toronto is sanctioned should be prolonged. Qnd. That the time for which the observatory at Van Diemen Island is sanctioned should also be prolonged; but that the establishment of that ob- servatory should be reduced to a director and one assistant, reducing the routine of daily observation proportionally. The personal establishment of this observatory is on a different footing from that of the Ordnance observatories, and the reduction will there be attended with a considerable saving of expense. 3rd. That one, at least, of the observatories at the Cape of Good Hope and St. Helena should be continued. If the astronomical observatory at the Cape will undertake the monthly absolute magnetical determinations, and their con- nexion by means of the differential instruments, the Ordnance observatory at the Cape may be discontinued, and that at St. Helena maintained. Before I close this letter, I wish to advert to the expediency of extending the system of observation now in operation at Toronto, St. Helena, and the Cape of Good Hope, to other of the British colonies, where the same objects can be accomplished in an equally effective and economical manner. In cases where the institution of similar establishments is strongly urged by the governor of a colony,—where competent persons are present and dis- posed to superintend the observations,—and where soldiers of the artillery are stationed whose services may be available, and whose employment has now been shown to be economical and effective in a high degree in the execution of a laborious and exact routine of observation,—there is wanting only a sup- ply of instruments,—the temporary allotment of a building to contain them,— extra pay such as the individuals at the above-named observatories receive,— ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 57 and an authoritative connexion with the head-quarter establishment, whence they may derive instruction and guidance. The cost of one of the Ordnance observatories (including 100J. a-year for incidentals of all kinds) is 3920. a-year, exclusive of publication. It may be assumed that five years of hourly observation is a sufficient time of continu- ance for obtaining in any particular colony the mean values of the magnetical and meteorological elements, and their diurnal, annual, and secular variations, as well as the peculiarities of climate bearing on the health and industrial oc- cupations of man. If the observations were printed zz full detail for the five years, they would occupy two quarto volumes; but if it were thought suffi- cient that duplicate or triplicate manuscript copies should be deposited in different public libraries, and that publication should be confined to abstracts and an analysis, the cost of the publication would form but a small addition. The colonies of Ceylon, New Brunswick, Bermuda, and Newfoundland are in the described case ; their respective governors are recommending the esta- blishment of magnetical and meteorological observatories in them; competent directors are on the spot; and they are all artillery stations. The volume of the Observations at Toronto in 1840-1842 is now before the public, and affords a fair example of what these institutions accomplish at the above-named cost*. It furnishes also the means of estimating the ad- vantages to the sciences of magnetism and meteorology, of accomplishing the same objects in other and different parts of the globe, at an expense which is small in comparison with that of civil establishments, and which may in some instances at least (as at Ceylon) be offered from the colony itself. Believe me, my dear Sir, sincerely yours, s EDWARD SABINE. XVI.—Professor Dove to Lieut.-Colonel Sabine. Berlin, April 21. Aur Ihren Wunsch fiige ich diesen Zeilen noch einige Bemerkungen iiber die Toronto Beobachtungen bei, welche ich so wie die beiden Theile des Greenwich Magnetical and Meteorological Observations erhalten habe, fiir welche Geschenke ich mich auf das Dankbarste verpflichtet fihle. Ich ersuche Sie, diese Bemerkungen nur als meine individuelle Ansicht anzusehen, und tberzeugt zu sein, dass ich mein Urtheil bereitwillig dem der Manner unterordne, von welchen dieses grossartige Unternehmen veranlasst worden ist und geleitet wird. Die meteorologischen Beobachtungen in Toronto sind nach meinem Urtheil vollkommen geeignet, um weiter in demselben Weise fortgesetzt, jede Frage zu beantworten, welche in Beziehung auf die barometri- schen, thermischen und hygrometrischen Verhaltnisse der Atmosphire in Riicksicht auf die periodischen Veranderungen derselben auf dem jetzigen Standpunkte der Wissenschaft aufgeworfen werden konnen. Auch lasst die Redaction derselben in dieser Beziehung, so viel ich sehe, nichts zu winschen e * £392 is the annual amount of the sum paid by the public for one of these establish- ments, which would uot be paid if the establishment did not exist. It does not include the _ regimental pay (nearly an equal sum) of the officer and men employed in the observatory, _ because they continue to form a part of the peace establishment of the regiment of artillery, _ and of the available strength of the corps in the particular colony. A discretionary power has been given by the Master-General of the Ordnance to the commanding officer of artillery in each colony, to stop the work of an observatory on the occurrence of an emergency requiring the military services of all; but at all other times, whilst thus temporarily occupied in rendering scientific services, their military duties are performed gratuitously by their brother officers and soldiers, and form to that extent a contribution to science on the part of the whole regiment. 58 REPORT—1845. ubrig, denn sie ist vollkommen iibersichtlich und gewadhrt die bedeutende Erleichterung einer bereits bereckneten Elasticitaét der Dampfe. Detaillirte Beobachtungsjournale dienen aber ausserdem dazu, die mit den periodischen Veranderungen sich verwebenden Verainderungen kennen zu lernen, welche vorzugsweise von einer Anderung in der Windesrichtung abhangen. Ziehe ich zum.Beispiel an allen den Tagen, an welchen Mittags N.W. beobachtet wurde, die vorhergehende Ablesung des Barometers um 10" von der Mittagsbeobachtung, oder diese von der um 2? erhaltenen ab, so werde ich unmittelbar erfahren, ob auch in Nordamerika mit N.W. das Barometer steigt d. h. ob der N.W. der Uebergang eines wirmeren leichteren Windes in einen schwereren kiilteren ist. Bei den grossen Bogen, durch welche die Windfahne sich dreht, sind nahe abstehende Beobachtung wiinsch- enswerth, und bei der Seltenheit mancher Richtungen wird man bei solchen Rechnungen so viel Aufzeichnungen der Windesrichtung wiinschen, als iiber- haupt Ablesungen andrer Instrumente erfolgt sind. In Beziehung auf die Auffindung der Gesetze der von der Windesrichtung abhingigen Verin- derungen, scheint es mir daher héchst wiinschenswerth, auch samtliche Auf- zeichnungen der Windesrichtungen zu erhalten. Um den Raum zu ersparen, konnte zugleich the pressure etwa so angegeben werden, SW, SW, wo die danebenstehende Zahl den Druck bezeichnete. Was bei dem grossartigen Englischen und Russischen Unternehmen, denen sich die Stationen Briissel, Miinchen und Prag so verdienstlich angeschlossen haben, mir vorzugsweise wiinschenswerth scheint, ist dass das erhaltene Beo- bachtungsmaterial nicht blos publicirt werde, um wie die Mannheimer Ephemeriden fast ein halbes Jahrhundert unbenutzt zu liegen, sondern dass sobald als méglich Resultate daraus gezogen werden, um zu zeigen, was auf diesem Wege geleistet werden kann. Die grossen damit verkniipften Reck- nungen verlangen aber eine Theilung der Arbeit. Ich wiirde daher vorschla- gen, dass die British Association diese Vertheilung tibernehme, wie sie in ahnlicher Weise in Beziehung auf die Sterncharten von der Berliner Akade- mie ausgegangen ist, Um zum Beispiel also die von der Windesrichtung abhingigen Veriinderungen des Druckes der Luft und der Dampfe, ebenso die der Temperatur kennen zu lernen, miisste z. B. fiir jede Windesrichtung die Veranderung jener drei Grdssen in 4 Stunden berechnet werden. Um aber die periodische Veranderung zu eliminiren, missten die Beobachtungen um 12, 2, 4.... noch nicht zu einem gemeinsamen Mittel vereinigt werden. Ich wiirde mich z. B. gern anheischig machen, fur eine der Stationen in jedem Jahre diese Rechnung zu iibernehmen. Nach einem Zeitraum von 5 Jahren kénnten die so gesammelten Data dann vereinigt werden und man wurde durch die Stationen Greenwich, Newfoundland, Toronto, Van Diemen’s Land, Petersburg, Barnaul, Nertchinsk, Peking, Briissel, Miinchen, Prag eine sehr geniigende Beantwortung der Frage erhalten, welchen modificirenden Einfluss die Lage an der Ost- oder Westseite eine Meeres, im Innern der Continente oder an der Kiiste, auf der nérdlichen oder stidlichen Erdhalfte habe. Da man annehmen darf, dass, so wie zwischen den Tropen die Luftmenge, welche unten nach dem /Zquator hinfliest, compensirt wird durch einen ent- gegengesetzten Strom in der Hohe, auch die neben einander liegenden Stréme in der gemissigten Zone einander in der Weise das Gleichgewicht halten, dass, was innerhalb eines Jahres iiber gewisse Stellen eines Parallels dem Pole zufliesst, uber andre Stellen desselben Parallels zum /Equator zuriick- kehrt, so sollte man zunachst mit Beriicksichtigung der Intensitit entweder an keinem Orte eine vorherschende Windesrichtung erwarten, oder an einigen eine der andern entgegengesetzte. Aber die Luft, welche vom AZquator ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 59 her den Parallel tiberschreitet, kommt bei diesem mit einer hohen Tempera- tur an; welche sie bei ihrem weitern Fortschreiten nach dem Pole immer mehr an den Boden, iiber welchen sie strémt, abgiebt, welche sie daher bei ihrer Rickkehr zum Parallel nach dem AZquator hin nicht wieder mitbringt. Kal- tere Luft nimmt einen geringeren Raum ein als warmere. Der Luftstrom ist daher, wenn er vom Pole zum Zquator fliesst, schmaler als wenn er dem Pole zustrémt. Findet diess Hin- und Herstrémen in verianderlichen Bet- ten statt, so wird derselbe Beobachtungsort nothwendig 6fter in einem Sud- strome sich befinden, als in einem Nordstréme, die Anzahl der siidlichen Winde also im ganzen Jahre die der nérdlichen tbertreffen. Da aber aus- serdem die siidlichen feuchten Winde in immer erneuerten Niederschlagen ihren Wasserdampf in Form von Regen, &c. absetzen, so kehrt zwar in dem trocknem nérdlichen Winde dieselbe Luftmasse nach dem Aiquator zuruck, welche als Siidstrom dem Pole zufloss, aber das, was als luftférmiger Begleiter auf dem Hinwege mit die Quecksilbersaiile hob, fliesst theilweise unter dem Gefisse des Barometers als tropfbar Flussiges zurick, ohne zur Hebung des Quecksilbers mitzuwirken. Bei Erwagung der eben besprochenen Verdnder- ungen, welche die Luft zwischen Hingang nach den Polen und Rickkebr yon ihnen erfahrt, sieht man ein, dass in der ganzen gemassigten Zone die mittlere Windesrichtung eine eequatoriale sein kann, welche wegen der Dre- hung der Erde in der nérdlicher Erdhalfte eine stidwestliche, in der sudli- cher eine nordwestliche wird. Es ist aber klar, dass innerhalb einzelner Theile der jahrlichen Periode an einem Ort die Luft nach dem Pole, an andern nach dem Aiquator strémen wird, ja es scheint diess im Allgemeinen in der Weise stattzufinden, dass wihrend in Nordamerika im Sommer die Windesrichtung verhdltnissmassig sudlicher ist als im Winter, das Umgekehrte in Europa stattfindet. Bei der Veradnderlichkeit der mittlern Windesrichtung iberhaupt lasst sich diese Frage nur durch gleichzeitige Beobachtungen entscheiden, ein neuer Grund die beobachteten Windesrichtungen in aller Vollstandigkeit 2u erhalten. Bezeichnet 5, 6, 6,6, ....6, den mittleren Barometerstand respective bei den Winden S.S.W. W.....S.E, 2, 2,...., die Anzahl der beobachteten Richtungen, so wird der mittlere Barometerstand ee nb, + n, b, + ny b;.s.. + ng bg : i N, + Ny + ----Ns werden. Hitten also Winde gleich oft geweht, so wurde die Windesrichtung keinen Einfluss auf den Barometerstand gehabt haben. Es wire dann da n, =n, = n,... =n, der Barometerstand 6, = oe. Der Unterschied 6 = 6, giebt also den Einfluss der mittleren Windesrichtung auf den mittleren Barometerstand. Besitzt man also eine barometrische Windrose, so kann man entscheiden, ob der mittlere Druck ein auf diese Art normaler oder afomaler ist. Dasselbe gielt fiir Temperatur, Feuchtigkeit. Aber an solehe Berechnungen ist nut zu denken, wena die Windesrichtungen mit den entsprechenden Ablesungen vollstandig publicirt sind. Ob der so ungenugsam Einfluss erheblich oder nicht ist, ist ganz gleichgiltig, denn es ist ein eben i solcher Fortschritt, wenn man eine moégliche Erklarung als ungenugsam _ beseitigt, als wenn man eine vermuthete rechtfertigt. Die Aufnahme der Intensitatsbestimmungen verindert die Aufgabe. Bis jetzt nennt man die _ mitlere Temperatur eines Ortes das arithmetische Mittel einander nahe lie- gender gleichweit abstehender Beobachtungen innerhalb der zu betrachtenden Periode. Da aber wihrend der Wind stiirmischer weht mehr Luft iiber den Beobachtungsort strémt als bei langsamen Luftstrome, so ist die Zahl, welche 60 REPORT—1845. die mittlere Temperatur der iiber den Beobachtungsort stromenden Luft angiebt eine andre als das was man als mittlere Temperatur des Zeitraumes bis jetzt allein betrachtet hat. Es ist nicht unwahrscheinli¢h, dass bei gewisse meteorologischen Fragen es sich um diese Zahlen handelt, und es wird daher ein wenn auch anniherndes Intensitatsmaass ein wichtiger Beitrag wo aber ebenfalls jede Intensitaétsmessung mit der gleichzeitige barometrischen, ther- mischen und hygrometrischen combinirt werden muss. Die wichtige Frage, ob bei horizontaler Bewegung der atmospharischen Luft eine Sonderung der trocknen Luft und der ihnen beigemengten Was- serdimpfe zu machen sei, wie es bei den periodischen Anderungen wohl nun erwiesen ist, wird durch die angestellten Beobachtungen ebenfalls erledigt werden. Diess sind die Grinde welche es mir wiinschenswerth erscheinen lassen, den speciellen Angaben des Standes der Instrumente auch noch die der Windes- richtungen hinzuzufigen. Es ist diess aber auch der einzige Wunsch, der mir bei einer aufmerksamen Prufung erheblich schien. Vortrefflich ist, dass ausser die quantitative Bestimmungen auch eine Art Commentar dem Jour- nale beigefiigt ist. Die Physionomie des Wetters lasst sich nur so beschrei- ben und es ist dabei wieder hochlich anzuerkennen, dass die vortrefiliche Terminologie von Howard beibehalten ist. Die Beobachtungen von Van Diemen’s-land erwarte ich mit der grdssten Spannung. Ein meteorologisches Journal von der siidlichen Erdhilfte in sol- cher Vollstindigkeit fillt eine Licke aus, welche seit lange so sehr fuhlbar war. Auch die Station St. Helena ist sehr glucklich gewahlt, in der Passat- zone ohne Monsoons und dabei das Cap als Controlle an der aussern Grenze des Passat. Entschuldigen Sie alle diese fliichtigen Bemerkungen, die ich deutsch schreibe, um den Brief nicht aufzuhalten. Ich freue mich im Voraus an den Besprechungen Theil nehmen zu konnen, welche uber ein so grossartiges Unternehmen unter Mannern stattfinden werden, die im Stande sind unter so verschiedenen Himmelstrichen der Natur Fragen vorzulegen. Das einzige was ein deutscher Naturforscher zu bringen im Stande ist, ist das Versprechen sich bei den Arbeiten, welche nun erfodert werden, zu betheiligen, so weit diess der Sache forderlich sein kann. Meteorologische Untersuchungen kénnen im ginstigsten Falle von einem Einzelnen wohl angeregt werden, sie bedurfen aber zu ihrer weitern Forderung des Zusammenwirkens einer Gesammtheit. Dass die Meteorologie diess finden wurde, war immer bei mir eine stille Hoffnung, dass sie es aber so bald und in so grossem Maasstabe gefunden hat, ist selbst uber meine kuhnsten Erwartungen. Believe me, sincerely yours, H. W. Dove. ( Translation.) Berlin, April 21. At your wish I add some remarks on the Toronto Observations, which I have received, as well as the two volumes of the ‘Greenwich Magnetical and Meteorological Observations,’ for all of which I return my grateful thanks. I desire that the following remarks may be regarded as only my own individual views, which I submit to those of the persons by whom this great undertaking has been promoted and guided. The meteorological observations at Toronto, continued in the same manner, appear to me to be perfectly fitted to answer every question which, in the present state of science, can be proposed concerning the barometric, thermic and hygrometric relations of the atmosphere, in respect to their periodical ee ee ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 61h changes. The redaction also leaves nothing to be desired in this respect, for it is perfectly lucid, and has the great advantage of the tension of the vapour being already computed. But detailed observation-journals offer the further advantage of enabling us to trace the changes, depending chiefly on variations in the direction of the wind, which are mixed up with the periodical changes. If, for example, on every day when the direction of the wind at noon was north-west I deduct the preceding or 10* reading of the barometer from the noon-observation, or the noon-observation from that at 2 hours, I shall infer directly whether in North America, as in Europe, the barometer rises with the north-west wind, 2. e. whether north-west is the passage from a warmer lighter wind to a heavier colder one. Considering the large arcs through which the wind-vane moves, it is desirable to have observations near together, and the rare occurrence of several directions is an additional reason why we should have as many records of the direction of the wind as of the readings of the other meteorological instruments. With the directions the pressures also may be given, and to save space they might perhaps be thus recorded: SW, SW,, where the num- ber expresses the pressure. That which appears to me most desirable in the great English and Russian undertaking, to which Brussels, 'Munich and Prague have so meritoriously joined themselves, is, that the materials gathered should not only be published as was done with the Mannheim Ephemerides, which remained unemployed for more than half a century afterwards, but that results should be deduced from them as soon as possible. The extensive calculations connected here- with will require a division of labour: I would propose that the British As- sociation should undertake the distribution of the parts, as the Berlin Aca- demy did in regard to the maps of the stars. For example; in order to learn the variations in the pressures of the air and vapour, and in the temperature, dependent on the direction of the wind, we must not combine in a common mean the values at the several observation-hours when any particular wind has blown, but we must first eliminate from these values the periodical varia- tions by which they have been affected. I would willingly offer to undertake this calculation for each year for one station. If at the end of five years the data from the stations of Greenwich, Newfoundland, Toronto, Van Diemen Island, Petersburg, Nertchinsk, Pekin, Brussels, Munich and Prague were combined, we should obtain from them a satisfactory reply in respect to the modifying influence of situation, whether on the east or on the west side of the sea,—whether in the interior of a continent, or on the coast,—whether in the northern or in the southern hemisphere. As within the tropics the lower current of air flowing towards the equator is compensated by an opposite current above, so we may assume that in the tem- perate zone the equipoise is maintained by currents on the same level flow- ing in opposite directions, and thus that the air, which in the course of the year passes over certain stations on a given parallel towards the pole, returns towards the equator, passing over other stations on the same parallel. We should expect, that if we find (taking the intensity into account) a prevailing direction of the wind at some stations, we should find an opposite direction at _ other stations. But the air which passes over the parallel coming from the _ equator brings with it a higher temperature, which it gradually parts with as it flows over the surface of the earth, and which it cannot therefore bring back with it when it passes the same parallel on its return towards the equator. Now colder air occupies less space than warmer air, and therefore the current of air flowing from the pole to the equator is narrower than when it flows from the equator to the pole. If the beds in which these opposite currents 62 REPORT—1845. flow are shifting ones, the same station will necessarily be oftener in a south- erly than in a northerly current (in the northern hemisphere), and the pro- portion of southerly wind will in the course of the year exceed that of north- erly. Moreover the southerly winds bring with them a quantity of vapour, with which they are continually parting in the form of rain and other preci- pitations: the returning northern dry winds do indeed bring back the same mass of air, but without its aériform companion, which having now assumed the form of liquid, no longer contributes to raise the column of mercury in the barometer, On considering the above-described alterations to which the at- mosphere is subjected on its passage from and return to the equator, we see that throughout the temperate zones the mean direetion of the wind may be from the equator, converted by the rotation of the earth into a south-westerly direction in the northern, and a north-westerly in the southern hemisphere. It is plain, however, that taking the year in detached parts, the air may be flowing towards the pole in one place and towards the equator in another: and we do find that in summer the direction of the wind in North America is relatively more southerly than in winter; whilst the contrary is the case at the same season in Europe. To arrive at decided conclusions, however, on this point, we require simultaneous observations, and on account of the great variability, the full record of the direction and pressure of the wind. If 6, 6, b, b, . . . . b, denote the mean height of the barometer respect- ively for the winds S., S.W., W.,. ...S.E., 2, 2 .... 2%, the number of the observed directions, then the mean height of the barometer b will be — 114) + Me by + ty by ores + tg by MR, + My +My 220. + Mg If all the winds had blown with equal frequency, the direction of the wind would have had no influence on the mean height of the barometer. If, then, b,+6,+ b5..+.+0% 8 Thus the difference 6 — 5’ gives the influence of the mean direction of the wind on the mean height of the barometer. If we thus possess a barometrie wind-rose, we are enabled to decide whether the mean pressure is in this way normal or anomalous. The same holds good for temperature and moisture. But such calculations require the directions of the wind to be given as fully as the corresponding readings of the other instruments. No matter whether the result be to find a material influence or not, for progress is equally made by a proposed possible explanation being set aside as insufficient, or by its being justified and confirmed. The taking in determinations of intensity alters the problem. Hitherto we have regarded as the mean temperature of a place, the arithmetical mean of observations at equal and short intervals during the period under consideration. But inasmuch as when the wind blows strongly more air passes over the place of observation than when the eurrent is slower, the number which should give the mean temperature of the air flowing over the station may differ from that which is given by the arith- metical mean of the observations. It is not improbable that in certain meteo- rological questions these hitherto unconsidered values may be those treated of, and hence even an approximate measure of intensity may be an im- portant contribution; in this case also every measurement of intensity must be combined with the corresponding barometric, thermic and hygrometric record. These observations will also determine the important question, whether, in_ the horizontal movement of the atmosphere, we are to separate the dry air n, = N,=N,.-...=%,, the barometric height b’= ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 63 and the aqueous vapour mingled therein, as has been proved to be just with respect to the periodical changes. These are the reasons for which it appears to me desirable that the direc- tions of the wind should be given in every instance in addition to the other observations. But this is the only wish which I can form after attentive ex- amination. It is excellent, that besides the quantitative determinations, a kind of commentary has been added to the journal. It is only thus that the phy- siognomy of the weather can be described, and it is deserving of acknowledge- ment, that in this commentary the approved nomenclature of Howard has been employed. I await the observations of the Van Diemen Island observations with the greatest earnestness. A meteorological journal of such completeness from the southern hemisphere supplies a want which has long been greatly felt. St. Helena also is very happily chosen, being in the trade zone without mon- soons; and the Cape being at the outer limit of the south-east trade will be valuable as a check. Excuse these passing remarks being written in German, not to delay the letter. I rejoice in the anticipation of being enabled to take part in the con- versations and discussions which will take place at Cambridge on the subjeet of this great undertaking, between men who are in the position to interrogate nature in such various regions of the earth. All that a German cultivator of science can bring is the promise to take part in the work which may be now | required, so far as may aid the furtherance of the cause. Meteorological in- vestigations may indeed in the most favourable cases be excited by one indi- vidual, but for their more extended prosecution they need the cooperation of many. ‘That meteorology should receive this advantage was always with me a hope, which I scarcely ventured to express; but that she should find it so soon, and on such a scale, has indeed surpassed my boldest expectations, . Believe me, sincerely yours, H, W. Dove, XVII.— Extract from a Letter from Dr. Lamont to Lieut.-Colonel Sabine. Munich, April 26, 1845, My pear Sir,—I have received a short time ago the volume which you had the kindness to send me, containing the observations of ‘loronto, 1840- 1842, and can assure you that the results have greatly surpassed my expecta- tions. Indeed, I believe that very few European establishments have been conducted with so much skill and care and scrupulous attention to the various circumstances on which the accuracy of the observations depend. This is deserving of particular acknowledgement, because those entrusted with the care of the observatory might have contented themselves with simply exe- cuting the instructions of the Royal Society; in this way also a series of ob- servations would have been made, but the value of the results would have ‘been yery different, The historical details prefixed to the Toronto observa- tions agree perfectly with what has been experienced at other observatories, _and particularly at ours: the same difficulties were met with and the same reforms gradually introduced. At present the Toronto observatory, by the "accounts given in the Introduction to the Observations, must be considered as being in the most efficient state; all the arrangements seem to me to be ery judiciously made. It must be considered as an immense advantage, that € same observations can be made with different instruments: the agreement f the results obtained in different ways affords the best means of judging how ‘ar confidence can be placed in the observations, I have been comparing the 64 REPORT—1845. daily changes at Toronto with those observed at Munich and other places in Europe, but do not think that any law can be found out till a greater num- ber of places in both hemispheres can be compared. * * * * # * The beginning of this letter might, if you think proper, be added to the one I wrote you in answer to the questions of the Committee. Believe me, my dear Sir, Yours most sincerely, Lamont. XVII.—From Professor Ch. F'. Gauss to Lieut.-Colonel Sabine. Gottingen, May 5, 1845. My prar Srr,—It has been long a nourished favourite wish of mine to pay once at least a visit to your happy island, the seat of so much grandeur in all pursuits that ennoble and embellish life, and certainly there could not be a more favourable opportunity than the congregation of the British Asso- ciation, where almost all, eminent in science, may be expected to be met with. The invitation of the President, and your kind offers to clear perplexities a stranger might be exposed to, have therefore been very strong temptations to me, and I have long balanced before submitting to the weighty reasons my state of health opposes at present to undertaking such a journey. Be pleased therefore to express to the President my excuses, and my deep regret for my not being able to profit by the honourable invitation, and accept yourself my warmest thanks for your kind intentions. Also I feel highly obliged to you for the volume of ‘'Toronto Observations,’ and the VIth part of your Contributions, which I received a few weeks ago. Beset as I have been by a train of urgent business, I could till now only look over hastily these precious materials. My anxious wishes for the permanent continuance of the Foreign British Magnetic Establishments have indeed been strengthened by the inspection of the ‘Toronto Observations ;’ but a work of this description deserves and requires a much closer scrutiny than at this moment is in my power to afford. For this same reason, and in consi- deration of the extremely short term prescribed by Sir John Herschel (which would have left only two or three days for gathering materials and writing down the note he desired), I felt disqualified to send any important addition to what I had already written on that head. Probably Dr. Weber will be under less impediment than myself to be pre- sent at the approaching meeting of the British Association, in which case I hope he will take his road by Gottingen, and favour me with some sojourn here. We may then confer between ourselves on the matter in hand, and exchange and rectify our views on that head, so that he may take to the de- bates the result of our joint opinions. Believe me to remain always, dear Sir, Your obliged, faithful servant, C. F. Gauss. — XIX.—Baron A. Von Humboldt to the Committee of the British Association. Par, le 15 Mai, 1845. InFINIMENT sensible aux marques de confiance bienveillante dont j'ai été honoré de la part du Committee of the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science, je ne puis plus explicitement répondre a la question qui m/a ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 65 été addressée par cette illustre societé qu’en exprimant le plus vif désir de voir continuer les observations des stations magnétiques au dela du terme de année 1845. Tout ce quia été publié jusqu'ici aux frais et par la noble munificence du Gouvernement Britannique est d'une si haute importance pour I’étude des perturbations simultanées dans les regions les plus éloignées du globe que cette importance meme suffit pour motiver le désir que j’ex- prime. Il ne me parait pas douteux que le gouvernement Russe s’associera a cette continuation des observations magnétiques et météorologiques de sorte que pendant le séjour du Capitaine Franklin dans les régions arctiques ; les stations restées en activité dans les deux hémisphéres offriront des points de comparaison dont il serait bien regrettable de se priver lorsqu’il s’agit d’un interét si généralement reconnu. Je supplie le Committee et individuellement mon excellent ami Sir John Herschel d’agréer /hommage de mon respectueux dévouement. Lr Baron DE HuMso.pr. XX.— From W. C. Redfield, Esq. of New York to Lieut.-Colonel Sabine. New York, March 13th, 1845. Received at Woolwich, June 5th. Srr,—I had the honour to receive by the last steamer a letter from the President of the British Association relating to the combined system of mag- netical and meteorological observations, which will close on the first of January next, and inviting my attendance at the consultations which are pro- posed to be held on this subject by the principal cultivators of the sciences of magnetism and meteorology at the next meeting of the Association in the University of Cambridge, on the 19th of June. I regret to say that pressing engagements will prevent me from being pre- sent on that interesting occasion, and compel me to forego the pleasure of attending the proceedings and deliberations of that distinguished body. But I ardently desire that some means may be devised for procuring the further continuance of this invaluable system of combined observations in magnetism and meteorology. These observations, if continued, appear likely to have an important influence upon the progress of these sciences, and their suspension at this early period, when the difficulties of concerted action have been so far overcome and the importance of the observations has begun to be realized, would be greatly lamented by the friends of science throughout the world. I have long desired that these combined observations might be made avail- able for determining the course of the main current of the lower atmosphere, in different regions, as shown by the observed courses of the clouds, apart from the particular and varying directions of the winds at the earth’s surface, and also as apart from the low scuds or cumuli which are borne by the sur- face winds, for I deem this knowledge as being perhaps essential to a just estimate of the laws or forces which control the circulation of our atmosphere, _. With my best wishes for the continued prosperity and usefulness of the Association, and with sentiments of high consideration and regard, I have the honour to be, Sir, your most obedient servant, f W. C. REepFIELD. ih. Lieut.-Col. Sabine, Woolwich. ' ‘XXI.—In compliance with a resolution passed at a meeting of the General ommittee of the British Association at York in October 1844, the following stter has been addressed to those foreign gentlemen who have taken a leading 1845. F 66 REPORT—1845. part in the combined system of ‘magnetical and meteorological observations now in progress. ‘« Cambridge, February 22nd, 1845. “ Str,—As the second triennial period of the combined system of Mag- netical and Meteorological Observations will close on the 1st of January 1846, it becomes extremely desirable to ascertain, as far as may be practicable, the opinions of the various distinguished philosophers who have taken a promi- nent part in suggesting or making them, with respect to the expediency of continuing them for a longer term. “It was with this view that a letter was addressed to you, Sir, by Sir John Herschel, the President Elect of the British Association, respectfully request- ing your opinion, as far as the results of the observations had come to your knowledge, of the extent to which you considered the objects for which they were instituted as already accomplished, and also of the advantages which the sciences of Magnetism and Meteorology might derive from their longer con- tinuance. “ Considering, however, the great difficulty of communicating by writing the latest results of observations made at such distant stations, and of con- centrating into one view the united experience of so many observers, the British Association at their last Meeting at York unanimously adopted a suggestion made by M. Kupffer of St. Petersburg, to invite the attendance at their next Meeting in the University of Cambridge on the 19th of June, of the principal cultivators of the sciences of terrestrial magnetism and meteor- ology, for the purpose of conferring together upon the course which they might judge to be most expedient hereafter to pursue, and of recommending to their respective Governments such measures as they might consider best calculated to give full effect to this great scientific operation. “T have been, consequently, requested by the Council of the British Asso- ciation to solicit the honour of your attendance at their next meeting at Cam- bridge, which begins on the 19th and closes on the 25th of June; and I beg further to inform you that arrangements will be made by Lieut.-Colonel Sa- bine and the Staff of Computers placed under his orders by the British Go- vernment, to bring under your notice the results of the observations brought down to the latest possible period, and to furnish every information which an extensive correspondence with the observers and others interested in this important inquiry may place at his disposal. ‘‘ | have reason to believe that the railway between London and Cambridge, and between Yarmouth and Cambridge, will be opened before the 19th of June; and [ am further authorized to state that the leading Members of the University of Cambridge will feel highly favoured by your appearance amongst them, and will endeavour to make every arrangement in their power which may contribute to your comfort and convenience during your visit. “ If it should be your intention to attend the proposed conference, I should feel obliged to you if you would communicate your intention to Lieut.-Colonel Sabine at Woolwich, who will gladly furnish you with any further informa- tion which you may require. **T have the honour to be, Sir, *‘ With the greatest consideration and regard, “Your most obedient servant, (Signed) “GEORGE Pracock, “« President of the British Association.” ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 67 From the Marquis of Northampton, President of the Royal Society, to the Right Honourable Sir Robert Peel, Bart. London, July 3, 1845. Dear S1r,—The Council of the Royal Society having had before them the resolutions of the Magnetic Conference at Cambridge, to which, as a member of that Conference, I drew their attention, entirely concur in the recommendations that they contain, and request the favourable consideration of Her Majesty's Government to the subject, to which they attach the highest importance. The Council of the Royal Society having named the same gentlemen to draw up an accompanying explanatory report as the British Association, it is of course the report of the Royal Society. I am, dear Sir, Yours truly, (Signed) NorTHAMPTON. From Sir J. Herschel, Bart., President of the British Association, to the Right Honourable Sir Robert Peel, Bart. London, July 3, 1845. Srr,—I have the honour to forward for your perusal the accompanying resolutions of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, as- sembled at Cambridge on the 25th ult., and respectfully to request your favour- able consideration of them on the part of Her Majesty’s Government, and more particularly of the Ist, grd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th, and 14th, in which the aid and countenance of Government are solicited in favour of the continuance of the magnetic and meteorological operations now in progress, and which terminates on the 31st of December 1845. Accompanying this letter, 1 have moreover the honour to enclose the re- port alluded to in resolution 14th, explanatory of the proceedings which have led to this application, and which I trust will place their whole bearing in a distinct and satisfactory light. I have the honour to be, Sir, Very respectfully, your obedient and humble Servant, (Signed) J. F. W. HerscHet, President of the British Association. Resolutions of the Magnetic Conference, adopted by the General Committee of the British Association, June 25th, 1845. 1. That it be recommended that the Magnetic Observatory at Greenwich e permanently continued upon the most extensive and efficient scale that the interests of the sciences of Magnetism and Meteorology may require. _ 2. That it be earnestly recommended to the Proyost and Fellows of Trinity _ College, Dublin, to continue the magnetical and meteorological obseryations at the Observatory instituted by that University. An ae __ 3. That it be recommended to continue the Observatory at Toronto upon its present footing until the 3lst of December 1848, unless in the mean _ time arrangements can be made for its permanent establishment. _ 4. That it be recommended to continue the Observatory at Van Diemen’s . ; F2 68 REPORT—1845. Land until the 31st of December 1848, unless in the meantime arrangements can be made for its permanent establishment. 5. That it be recommended that the Observatory at St. Helena should be continued upon its present establishment for a period terminating on the 31st of December 1848, for special meteorological objects. 6. That it be recommended that the building and instruments of the Mag- netical and Meteorological Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope be trans- ferred to the Astronomical Observatory, to which an assistant should be added, for the purpose of making absolute magnetic determinations. 7. That it be recommended to the Court of Directors of the Honourable East India Company, that the Observatories of Simla and Singapore be dis- continued at the end of the present year; but that the Magnetic and Meteo- rological Observatories now made at Bombay and Madras be permanently continued in connexion with the Astronomical Observatories at those stations ; and that it be further recommended to the Court of Directors to sanction the proposal made by Lieutenant Elliot for a magnetic survey of the Indian Seas, to commence with the close of the present year. 8. That it be recommended that the Canadian survey be continued until the connexion of Toronto with the American stations be completed. 9. That it be recommended that advantage should be taken of every opportunity of extending magnetic surveys in regions not hitherto surveyed, and in the neighbourhood of magnetic observatories. 10. That it be strongly recommended that the staff of Colonel Sabine’s establishment at Woolwich be maintained, with such an increased force as may cause the observations which have been made, and those which ‘shall hereafter be made, to be reduced and published with all possible expedition. 11. That this Meeting have recommended the reduction of the establish- ments at present attached to some of the magnetic and meteorological obser- vatories, in the full confidence, that if, after careful discussion of the observa- tions made to the end of 1845, there should appear to be reason for restoring some of those establishments and for forming new ones, the British Govern- ment and the East India Company will give their aid with the same liberaity which they have displayed in the maintenance of the existing observatories. 12. That the cordial co-operation which has hitherto prevailed between the British and Foreign Magnetic and Meteorological Observatories having produced the most important results, and being considered by us as abso- lutely essential to the success of the great system of combined observation which has been undertaken, it is earnestly hoped that the same spirit of co- operation will continue to prevail; and that the President of the British Association be requested to make application to the British Government to convey the expression of this opinion to the governments of those other countries which have already taken part in the observations. 13. The British Association assembled at Cambridge cannot permit the proceedings of this Meeting to terminate without expressing their sense of great obligation to the eminent foreign gentlemen who have taken part in the discussions of the Conference, and whose unwearied attention has been most effectively bestowed on every part of the proceedings. 14. That the Committee which has hitherto conducted the co-operation of the British Association in the system of combined observations, be reappointed, for the purpose of preparing a report to accompany the presentation to the British Government and to the Directors of the Honourable East India Com- pany, of the resolutions passed at this meeting ; and that the Marquis of North- ampton, Sir John Lubbock, Bart., Professor Christie, and Professor J. D. Forbes, be added to the Committee. J. F. W. HerscHec. . ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 69 Report, explanatory of the proceedings which have led to an application on the part of the British Association and of the Royal Society to Her Majesty's Government and to the Honourable Court of Directors of the East India Company, for a continuance of the Magnetic and Meteorological Observa- tions now carrying on under their respective sanctions: drawn up by a Committee appointed by those bodies, consisting of Sir J. Herschel, the Marquis of Northampton, the Dean of Ely, the Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, Col. Sabine, Dr. Lloyd, the Astronomer Royal, Sir J. Lubbock, Professor Christie, and Professor J. D. Forbes. It being understood that the second term of three years for which the Magnetic and Meteorological Observatories established under Her Majesty’s Board of Admiralty at Greenwich and in Van Diemen’s Island, those sup- ported by Her Majesty’s Board of Ordnance at Toronto, St. Helena, and the Cape of Good Hope, and those of the Honourable East India Company at Simla, Madras, Bombay and Singapore, was granted, will terminate at the expiration of the current year, unless provision be made for their continuance, and that with their cessation the combined system of British and Foreign co- operation for the investigation of magnetic and meteorological phenomena, which has now been five years in progress, must be broken up,—it be- came a subject of deep consideration to the British Association, in which the conception of this operation was matured, and at whose instance, conjointly with that of the Royal Society, it was set on foot and supported by the mu- nificence of the Government and the Honourable East India Company, whether it were consistent with the interests of science that they should suffer this term to expire without an effort on their part to procure its continuance, or the contrary. Connected as the science of Britain is with that of the other nations whose Governments have taken an interest in these operations, it appeared alike un- just to those nations and unsatisfactory in itself to come to any conclusion without calling for the opinion and judgement, not only on those of our own countrymen who have most distinguished themselves in these departments of science and have taken active part in the observations, but also of the most . eminent magnetists and meteorologists of other countries, especially such as have superintended observatories established for these objects. Accordingly it was resolved, at a meeting of the British Association held at York in the year 1844, to invite to a conference on the subject all the most eminent persons in those sciences in Russia, Germany, Prussia, Belgium, France, Italy and America, who had taken any part in the observations, and some others particularly distinguished in the sciences of Magnetism and Me- teorology whose opinions appeared entitled to great weight ; and in the mean- time also to solicit the written communication of their sentiments on the sub- ject in question, as a further guide to the formation of a well-considered opinion. In reply to the request for written communications, which was also made to such of our own countrymen as were known best to understand the subjects _ and to have advanced them by their researches, a number of very valuable letters were received, which were forthwith printed (with translations of _ those written in the German language) and placed in the hands of every person likely to take any part in the discussion or effective consideration of _ the subject, including the President and Council of the Royal Society, and also the members of the Committee of Physics of the Royal Society, and the Council and Committee of Recommendations of the British Association itself. Pursuant to the invitation of the Association above alluded to, the follow- 40 REPORT—1845. ing gentlemen attended the proposed Conference, which was held at Cam- bridge in the week terminating on the 25th of June, viz.— M. Kupffer, Director-General of the Magnetic Observatories of the Em- pire of Russia. M. Kreil, Director of the Meteorological and Magnetic Observatory at Prague. Baron von Senftenberg, Founder of the Astronomical, Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory at Senftenberg in Bohemia. : Dr. Adolphe Erman, Professor of Physics in the University of Berlin, and author of a work entitled ‘ Reise um die Erde in den Jahren 1828 bis 1830. Physikalische Beobachtungen.’ Herr Dove, Professor of Physics in the University of Berlin, author of a work entitled ‘ Ueber die nicht periodischen Verander ungen der Temperatur Vertheilung auf die Oberflache der Erde.” Dr. von Boguslawski, Conservator of the Royal Observatory at Breslau, and Professor of Astronomy of that University. The Conference was also attended by the Baron von Waltershausen, a gen- tleman who has taken part in the magnetic observations of Messrs. Gauss and Weber at Gottingen, and executed a magnetic survey of portions of Italy and Sicily. ar ranidg In addition to these gentlemen and to a Committee consisting of Sir John Herschel, Bart., the Very Rev. the Dean of Ely, Dr. Lloyd, Dr, Whewell, Lieutenant-Colonel Sabine, and the Astronomer Royal, the following gentle- men, eminent as magnetists or meteorologists, were also requested especially to attend the meetings of the Conference, viz.— J. Phillips, Esq., author of several works on magnetism and mete- orology. Sir Thomas Macdougall Brisbane, Bart., P.R.S. Edin. J. A. Broun, Esq., Director of Sir T. Brisbane’s Magnetic and Mete- . orological Observatory at Makerstown. J. D. Forbes, Esq., Professor of Natural Philosophy at Edinburgh. Capt. Sir James C. Ross, R.N. The Rev. Dr. Scoresby, author of several well-known publications on _ Magnetism. A. Lawson, Esq., Founder of a Meteorological Observatory at Bath. Lieut. Riddell, R.A., Assistant-Superintendent of Ordnance Magnetic Observatories. W. Snow Harris, Esq., author of several well-known publications on meteorology. The Conference was also attended by the Marquis of Northampton, Pre- sident of the Royal Society, and by Colonel Sykes, one of the Directors of the Hon. East India Company. And to secure at once the due publicity for its discussions by the attendance of persons whose opinions are entitled to weight, but who might be acci- dentaily omitted in the above list, and an impartial judgement by that body on whose recorded judgement the British Association is accustomed to rely in matters of scientific importance, every member of the Committee of Re- commendations of that Association was requested to attend the meetings of the Conference, which were held at Cambridge on the 20th, 21st, 23rd, 24th, and 25th of June, and in which every part of the subject underwent discus- sion upon a plan previously arranged and placed in the hands of all present, in the report drawn up for that purpose by the Magnetic Committee. In these meetings the following opinions of the Conference were recorded, | ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 71 on an understanding that the general question of continuance should be de- ferred till it should appear whether or not the members of the Conference were sufficiently agreed on the details of the observations desirable to be pur- sued to enable them to come to any affirmative conclusion thereupon :— In reference to the daily magnetic observations, after discussing a variety of stiggestions as to the hours at which observations might most advantage- ously be made, in case the curtailment of the two-hourly system were deemed necessary; it was agreed that the Conference was tifiable to suggest a scheme less comprehensive than the one- or two-hourly system, which would provide with sufficient security for the accomplishment of all the objects of the daily observations ; and that therefore, in observatories whose strength will permit, it is expedient that the system be carried on henceforth as heretofore, and at the Gottingen hours. In reference to the. absolute magnetic determinations, it appeared to be the general opinion that such determinations of the declination and horizontal force should be made at least monthly, in connexion with the differential magnetometers, and that observations of inclination should be made weekly, and that care should be taken that all absolute determinations should be made beyond the influence of the other magnets and with separate instruments. In reference to the subjects of term-observations and disturbances, it ap- peared to be the opinion of the greater part of the members of the Confer- ence, that it is expedient to continue the same yearly number of term-days as at present, and with the intervals which are in use, and that it is very de- sirable to continue to give the same attention as hitherto to observations of unusual disturbances, leaving however the intervals and mode of observation during disturbances to the discretion of the directors of observatories. In reference to the magnetic instruments most desirable to be used in the observatories, it appeared to be the general opinion that the differential in- struments had better continue as at present ; that the absolute determinations of declination and horizontal force should be made with distinct instruments, and that the léngths of the bars of the latter should be left to the discretion of the directors. The employment of bars of small dimensions; having short times of vibra- tion, was strongly recommended for observations during disturbances. It appeared to the members desirable that an instrument should be con- trived to serve the purposes of an alarm on the occurrence of disturbances exceeding a certain limit.’ Such an instrument would be particularly useful in observations where the observing staff was smaller, and where therefore the daily observatories were not made hourly or two-hourly. The importance of obtaining observations of the third element (viz. of the vertical force) and the occasional imperfection of the balance magneto- meter, appear to render it the opinion of the members that Dr. Lloyd's in- duction inclinometer might be advantageously employed in the observatoriés in addition to the balance magnetometer. In reference to the question, whether atiy and what additional magnetic observations should be made in future, it did not appear that any were deemed desirable. As regards thé system of meteorological observation and instruments, the _ recorded opinions of the Conference were as follows :— ___ That the instruments and times of observation at present in use should be continued. _ That it is very highly important that self-recording meteorological instru- _ ments should be improved to such a degree as to enable a considerable por- _ tion of the observing staff of an observatory to be dispensed with; and that 72 REPORT—1845. it might be desirable to hold out some specific pecuniary encouragement for the invention or improvement of such instruments, under such regulations as might seem most likely to be effective for the purpose. That it is desirable to add to the meteorological observations now made, observations of the thermometer and wet bulb hygrometer, at more than one height above the ground, and to register the temperature below the surface by means of long thermometers, sunk in the ground at depths of three, six, twelve, and at extra-tropical stations twenty-four French feet below the surface. That the meteorological instruments should be observed at short intervals in disturbed states of the atmosphere, during extreme depressions or eleva- tions of the barometer, and during rapid changes; and that the simultaneous directions of the wind should be carefully noted. That instruments for the observation of atmospheric electricity on the prin- ciple of the apparatus at Kew should be employed in the observatories, and that an instrument should be devised and employed for the purpose of indi- cating the variations in the electricity induced from the earth. That it is desirable to have rain-gauges established at different heights, the heights to be dependent on local circumstances. As regards the general question of the continuance of the system, the sta- tions and their duration, surveys and auxiliary stations, and other points con- nected with the prolongation of the observations, fourteen distinct resolutions were entered into by the Conference, which are contained in the paper marked (A) accompanying this report ; all which were subsequently adopted by the Committee of Recommendations, and being thus brought before the General Committee of the British Association, were further adopted as part of the proceedings of the Association, and as such are hereby most respectfully submitted to the favourable consideration of those authorities by which alone they can be carried into effect. Among particular suggestions deserving consideration, it was agreed that Professor Erman’s offer to act as a committee to superintend certain calcula- tions connected with the Gaussian constants for 1829 with a grant of £50 per annum, to be placed at his disposal, out of the funds of the British Association for two years, ought to be accepted and recommended for adoption. And it was accordingly subsequently adopted by the Committee of Recommendations and by the General Committee. M. Dove’s offer to reduce the meteorological observations at one station, viz. Van Diemen’s Island, was also recommended to be accepted, as well as a similar offer from the Astronomer Royal to do the same on the same plan for those at Greenwich; and both were accordingly accepted and placed on the list of recommendations not involving grants of money for the year. During the continuation of the Conference, in an interval of its meetings, an inspection took place by its members of several magnetic instruments of recent construction. Among these were a dipping-needle by Repsold, Dr. Lamont’s apparatus for magnetic surveys, and several of the smaller instru- ments in use in the British Colonial observatories. The Committee appointed to prepare this report cannot conclude it with- out recording their opinion of the very great and important advantages se- cured to science by the zeal and disciplined regularity of the officers, non- commissioned officers, and men of the Royal Regiment of Artillery and of the Naval and East India Service, who have been employed on the duties of the observatories ; advantages which could hardly have been secured in so eminent a-degree at all the stations by other means. Nor ought they to omit attributing their due share of merit to those officers and non-commissioned ' ON SOME POINTS IN THE METEOROLOGY OF BOMBAY. 73 officers, who by voluntarily performing the duties of their absent comrades, have enabled them to undertake and perform the duties of the observatories without detriment or inconvenience to the service in general. # Signed, on the part of the Committee, J. F. W. HerscHe. On some Points in the Meteorology of Bombay. By Lieut.-Colonel Sanine, R.A., F.R.S. [A communication read to the Mathematical and Physical Section, and ordered to be printed entire amongst the Reports. | In a communication which I had the honour to make to the Section at the York meeting of the British Association, on the subject of the meteorological observations made at Toronto in Canada in the years 1840 to 1842, I noticed some of the advantages which were likely to result to the science of meteor- ology, from the resolution of the barometric pressure into its two constituents of aqueous and of gaseous pressure. It was shown that when the constituents of the barometric pressure at Toronto were thus disengaged from each other and presented separately, their annual and diurnal variations exhibited a very striking and instructive accordance with the annual and diurnal variations of the temperature. The characteristic features of the several variations when projected in curves were seen to be the same, consisting in all cases of a single progression, having one ascending and one descending branch; the epochs of maxima and minima of the pressures being the same, or very nearly the same, with those of the maxima and minima of temperature; and the corre- spondence in other respects being such as to manifest the existence of a very intimate connexion between the periodical variations of the temperature, and those of the elastic forces of the air and vapour. The curve of gaseous pres- sure was inverse in respect to the other two; that is to say, as the tempera- ture increased the elastic force of the vapour increased also, but that of the air diminished, and vice versd ; and this was the case both in the annual and the diurnal variations. Such being the facts, I endeavoured to show, in the case of the diurnal va- riations, that the correspondence of the phenomena of the temperature and gaseous pressure might be explained, in accordance with principles which had been long and universally admitted in the interpretation of other meteo- rological phenomena, by the suppositions,—of an extension in height and consequent overflow in the higher regions of the atmosphere of the column of air over the place of observation, during the hours of the day when the surface of the earth was gaining heat by radiation,—and of a contraction of the column during the hours of diminishing temperature, and consequent re- ception of the overflow from other portions of the atmosphere, which in their turn had become heated and elongated. According to this explanation there should exist, during the hours of the day when the temperature is increasing,—|st, an ascending current of air at the place of observation, of which the strength should be measured by the amount of the increments of temperature corresponding to given intervals of time; and 2nd, a lateral influx of air at the lower parts of the column, of proportionate _ ‘velocity, constituting a diurnal variation in the force of the wind at the place of observation, which should also correspond with the variations of the tem- perature in the epochs of its maximum and minimum, and intermediate gra- dation of strength. The anemometrical observations at Toronto were shown to be in agreement with the view which had been then taken, confirming the ¥4 REPORT—1845. existence of a diurnal variation in the force of the wind, corresponding in all respects with the variation of the temperature. Admitting the explanation thus offered to be satisfactory in regard to the diurnal variations, it was Obvious that the correspondence of the annual va- riations of the temperature and pressures might receive an analogous expla- nation. A comparison of the results of the observations at Toronto with those of the observations of M. Kreil at Prague in Bohemia, (published in the Mag. und Met. Beob. zu Prag, and in the Jahrbuch fiir Prag. 1843,) showed that the characteristic features of the periodical variations at Toronto were not peculiar to that locality, but might rather be considered as belonging to stations situated in the temperate zone and in the interior of a continent. The annual and diurnal variations at Prague were also single progressions, and the same correspondence was observable between the variations of the temperature and of the gaseous pressure. The publication of the volume of magnetical and meteorological observa- tions made at Greenwich in 1842, which took place shortly after the meeting of the Association at York; enabled me to add a postscript to the printed statement of my communication in the annual volume of the Association Reports; showing the correspondence of the results at Greenwich with the relations which had been found to exist in the periodical march of the phe- nomena at Toronto and at Prague. From the concurrence of these three stations, it was obvious that a consider- able insight had been obtained into the laws which regulate the periodical variations in the temperate zone, and into the sequence of natural causes and effects, in accordance with which the annual and diurnal fluctuations of the elastic forces of air and vapour at the surface of the earth depend on the va- riations of temperature: and from these premises it was inferred, that the normal state of the diurnal variations of the pressures of the air and vapour and of the force of the wind, in the temperate zone, might be regarded as that of a single progression with one maximum and one minimum, the epochs of which should nearly coincide with those of the maximum and minimum of temperature *. * Since this communication was read at Cambridge I have received from M. Dove a copy of a paper read to the Academy of Berlin, entitled ‘ Ueber die periodischen aenderungen der druckes der Attiosphare im Innern der Continente,’ in which the remarkable facts are stated, that at Catherinenbourg and Nertchinsk (on the mean of several years), and at Barnaoul (in the years 1838 and 1840), the mean diurnal darometric curve itself exhibits but one maxi- mum and one minimum in the twenty-four hours; the maximum coinciding nearly with the coldest, and the minimum with the hottest hours of the day. At these stations therefore, and in the years referred to, the forenoon maximum disappeared, and the barometrie curve as- similated in character to the curve of the dry air in other places in the temperate zone. These stations are situated far in the interior of the greatest extent of dry land on the surface of our globe, and at a very great distance from an expanse of water, from whence vapour can be supplied. The diminished pressure of the dry air produced by the ascending current and overflow as the temperature of the day increases, is not therefore compensated by an increased elasticity of vapour, and the curve of the diurnal variation of the barometer ap- proximates to the form assumed when the elasticities of the vapour at the several hours of observation are abstracted. This assimilation in character of the barometric and (inferred) gaseous curves, which is thus found to take place in cases where, from natural causes, the influence of the vapour is greatly lessened, appears a confirmation of the propriety of sepa- rating the effects of the elastic forces of the dry air and vapour in their action on the bard- meter. M.; Dove considers that the single progression of the diurnal barometric curve, which takes place at the three Asiatic stations referred to in this note, is characteristic of a true continen- tal climate. Itis, without doubt, characteristic of an extreme climate, and as such is highly instructive. There appears reason to doubt whether an extreme climate of corresponding character exist at all in the temperate latitudes of the continent of America. If, however, we examine the record of the observations made hourly in the year 1842 at Oj Se ae = Se = ee a - ON SOME POINTS IN THE METEOROLOGY OF BOMBAY. 45 That exceptions should be found to this state of things in particular loca- lities in the temperate zone was far from being improbable; it could not be expected that the influences of temperature should always be so simple and direct as they appeared to be at Toronto; and a more complex aspect of the phznomena might particularly be looked for, where’a juxtaposition should exist of columns of air resting on surfaces differently affected by heat (as those of land and sea), and possessing different retaining and radiating pro- perties. In such localities within the tropics, the well-known regular occur- rence of land and sea breezes for many months of the year made it obvious that a double progression in the diurnal variation of the force of the wind must exist, and rendered it highly probable that a double progression of the gaseous pressure would also be found. It was therefore with great pleasure that I received, through the kindness of Dr. Buist, a copy of the monthly abstracts of the two-hourly meteorological observations, made under that gentleman’s superintendence at the observatory at Bombay in the year 1843 ; accompanied by a copy of his meteorological report for that year, possessing a particular value, in the full account which it gives of the periodical varia- tions of the wind, and in the means which it thereby affords of explaining the diurnal variation of the gaseous pressure. This pressure presents at Bombay an aspect at first sight more complex thah at the three above-named stations in the temperate zone, but I believe it to be equally traceable to va- riations of the temperature, and to furnish a probable type of the variations at intertropical stations similarly circumstaiiced in regard to the vicinity of the sea. _ weet The observatory at Bombay is situated on the island of Colabah, in N. lat. 18° 54! and E. long. 72° 50! at an elevation of thirty-five feet above the level of the sea. In the copy of the observations received from Dr. Buist, the nonthly abstracts are given separately for each month, of the standard ther- mometer,—of the wet thermometer, and of its depression below the dry,—and of the barometer. In Table I. I have brought in one view the thermometrical and barometrical means at every second hour; and the mean tension of the vapour and méan gaseous pressure at the same hours. The tension of the vapour at the several observation hours has been coniputed from the monthly means, at the same hours, of the wet thermometer and of its depression below the dry thermometer. The valiies are consequently somewhat less than they would have been, had. the tension been computed from each indi- vidual observation of the wet and dry thermometers, and had the mean of the tensions thus obtained been taken as the value corresponding to the hour. The difference is however 80 small, that for the present purpose it may be regarded as quite insignificant. It would not aniount in a single instance to the hundredth part of an inch; and as in every instancé the difference would be in the same direction, the relative values, which are those with which we Catherinenbourg, Barnaoul and Nertchinsk, in the ‘ Annuaire Magnétique et Météorologique de Russie,’ we find that at Catherinenbourg in that year the barometer exhibits a double pro- gression, but that the morning maximum, which occurs at the observation hour of 8" 22™ a.m., exceeds the antecedent minimum only by a quantity less thai 0°003 in. At Barnaoul there is also a double progression in the barometric mean in that year, the morning maximum being still small, and taking place between the observation hours of 95 54™ and 10554" a.m, At perecansl also there is a morning maximum occurring at the observation hour of 9° 17" a.m. n all the three cases the double progression shown by the barometer disappears wholly in the curve of the dry air, which curve exhibits at these three stations, as well as at Toronto, Prague and Greenwich, but one maximum and one minimum in the twenty-four hours. At the three stations of extreme dryness cited by M. Dove, therefore the vapour was still suffi- cient to impart, in the year 1842 at least, a double progression to the diurnal variation of the barometer; but the hour of the morning maximum was earlier than where the increase of __-vapour, as the day advances, is greater. 76 REPORT—1845. are at present concerned, would be scarcely sensibly affected. The pressures of the dry air (or the gaseous pressures) are obtained by deducting the ten- sion of the vapour from the whole barometric pressure. Tas_te I. Bombay, 1843.—Mean Temperature, Mean Barometric Pressure, Mean Ten- sion of Vapour, and Mean Gaseous Pressure at every second hour. Hours of Mean Bombay Tension of Gaseous aa A 1 — Temperature. | Barometer. Vapour. Preemie! i in. in. in. 18 78-4 29-805 0:750 29°055 20 79°6 29-840 0:766 29:074 22 81:8 29°852 0-771 29-081 0 83:2 29°817 0-768 29-049 2 84:1 29°776 0°795 28-981 4 83:9 29°755 0-800 28-955 6 82:3 29°74 0-802 28:972 8 81:2 29-806 0801 29-005 10 80°3 29°825 0:780 29°045 12 79'8 29°809 0-775 29-034 14 79°4 29°786 0-766 29-020 16 73:9 29:778 0:761 29:017 Mean of the year ...| 81:1 29:802 6-780 29-022 The sun is vertical at Bombay twice in the year, viz. in the middle of May and towards the end of July. The rainy season sets in about the commence- ment of June (in 1843 on the 2nd of June), and terminates in August, but with heavy showers of no long duration continuing into September. During the rainy season, and in the month of May which immediately precedes it, the sky is most commonly covered with clouds, by which the heating of the earth by day, and its cooling at night by radiation, are impeded, and the range of the diurnal variation of the temperature is greatly lessened in com- parison with what takes place at other times in the year. The strength of the land and the sea breezes in those months is also comparatively feeble, and on many days the alternation of land and sea breeze is wholly wanting. Du- ring the months of November, December, January and February, the diurnal range of the temperature is more than twice as great as in the rainy season, and the land and sea breezes prevail with the greatest regularity and force. In addition to the monthly tables, we may therefore advantageously collect in one view, for purposes of contrast, the means of the months of May, June, July and August, as the season when the sky is generally clouded,—and of the months of November, December, January and February, as the season of opposite character, wheu the range of the diurnal temperature is greatest, and the land and sea breezes alternate regularly, and blow with considerable strength. These seasons are contrasted in Table II. If we direct our attention to the diurnal variations, commencing with those of the temperature, we find them exhibiting a single progression, having a minimum at 18" and a maximum at 2"; the average difference between the temperature at 18" and 2" being 7°77 in the clear season, 3°71 in the clouded season, and 5°°7 on the mean of the whole year. When however we direct our attention to the gaseous pressure, we perceive, very distinctly marked, the characters of a double progression, having one maximum at 10" and another at 22"; one minimum at 4° and another at 16%. ON SOME POINTS IN THE METEOROLOGY OF BOMBAY. 77 The double progression is exhibited both in the clouded and in the clear seasons, with a slight difference only in the hours of maxima; the principal maximum in the cloudy season being at 205 instead of 29%, and the inferior maximum in the clear season being at 12" instead of 10%. diurnal variation, like that of the temperature, is more than twice as great in the clear as in the clouded season, marking distinctly the connexion subsist- ing between the phenomena of the temperature and of the gaseous pressure. TABLE II. The range of the Bombay, 1843.—Comparison of the Temperature and of the Gaseous Pres- sure in the months of May, June, July and August, when the sky is usually covered with clouds; and in November, December, January and February, when the sky is usually clear. Hours PE Mean Time at __-‘Temperaturen ombay. Astronomical Reckoning. Peers Eg eae bay te oly 18 741 81-9 20 75°3 83:1 22 781 84:3 0 80°8 85°1 2 81:9 85°6 4 81:7 85°4 6 79°6 84:3 8 78-4 83-4 10 76:9 83:0 12 76-2 82:7 14 75°7 82-6 16 74:9 82:2 Means .......0. 2.5 778 83°7 Gaseous Pressure. \November, December, |May, June, July January and February.| and August. in. 29-344 29-368 29°391 29-353 29-230 29-195 29-199 29-248 29308 29°316 29-295 29-285 29-298 in. 28-782 28-806 28-798 28°782 28-746 28-724 28-740 28-754 28-800 28-775 28-754 28°753 28°763 If we now turn our attention to the phenomena of the direction and force of the wind, we find by Dr. Buist’s report, that for 200 days in the year there is a regular alternation of land and sea breezes. usually about 104, or between 10” and 14", blows strongest and freshest towards daybreak, and gradually declines until about 994, at which time the direction of the aérial currents changes, and there is generally a lull of an hour or an The sea breeze then sets in, the ripple on the surface of the water indicating its commencement being first observed close hour and a half’s duration. in shore, and extending itself gradually out to sea. The land breeze springs up The sea breeze is freshest from 2" to 44, and progressively declines in the evening hours. The diurnal variation in the force of the wind during these 200 days is therefore obviously a double progression, having two maxima and two mi- nima; one maximum at or near the hottest, and the other at or near the cold- est hour of the day,—being the hours when the difference of temperature is greatest between the columns of air which rest respectively on the surfaces of land and sea; and two minima coinciding with the hours, when the surface temperature over the land and over the sea approaches nearly to an equality. In the remaining portion of the year the diurnal range of the temperature is most frequently insufficient to produce that alternation in the direction of the wind, which prevails uninterruptedly during the larger portion. There appears however to have been only one month, viz. July, in the year 1843, in which there were not some days in which the alternation of land and sea breezes was perceptible. The causes which produce the alternation are not 78 REPORT—1845, therefore wholly inoperative, though the effects are comparatively feeble du- ring the clouded weather which accompanies the south-west monsoon*. If we now view together the diurnal variations of the wind and gaseous pressure, as shown in the Plate, we find a minimum of pressure coinciding with the greatest strength of the sea breeze ; a second minimum of pressure coinciding with the greatest strength of the land breeze; and a maximum of pressure at each of the periods when a change takes place in the direction of the aérial currents; or, otherwise stated, we find a decrease of pressure coin- cident with the increase of strength both of the land and sea breezes, and an increase of pressure coincident with their decline in strength. The facts thus stated appear to me to admit of the following explanation :— the diminution of pressure which precedes the minimum at 4" is occa- sioned by the rarefaction and ascent of the column during the heat of the day, and its consequent overflow in the higher regions of the atmosphere, which is but partially counterbalanced in the forenoon by the influx of the sea breeze at the lower part of the column. Shortly after the hottest hour is passed, the overflow above and the supply below become equal in amount, and the diminution of pressure ceases. As the temperature falls towards evening, the column progressively contracts, when the influx from the sea ’ breeze more than counterbalances the overflow, and the pressure again in- creases until a temporary equilibrium is restored, when the sea breeze ceases and the pressure is stationary. As the night advances, the air oyer the land becomes colder than over the sea; the length of the column over the land contracts, and the air in its lower part becomes denser than in that over the sea: an interchange then commences of an opposite character to that which prevailed during the day. The outward flow is now from the lower part of the column, or from the land towards the sea, causing the pressure to diminish over the land ; it continues to do so until towards daybreak, when the strength of the land breeze is greatest, because the air over the land is then coldest in com- parison with that over the sea. As the sun gains in altitude and the tempe- rature of the day advances, the land heats rapidly; the density of the air over the land and sea returns towards an equality ; the land breeze declines in strength, and the drain from the lower part of the column ceases to coun- terbalance the overflow which the land column is at the same time receiving in the higher regions; the pressure consequently haying attained a second minimum at or near the hour of the greatest disproportion of temperature, again increases until the temperature and height of the column over the sea and land are the same, and the pressure again becomes stationary. But now the rarefaction of the column over the land continuing, its increase in height above the less heated column with which it is in juxtaposition, and its con- sequent overflow, occasion the pressure to decrease until the minimum at 4. o'clock is reached. We have thus therefore at Bombay a double progression of the diurnal variation of the gaseous pressure ; the principal minimum occurring at 4 o'clock in the afternoon, occasioned by an overflow from the column in the higher regions of the atmosphere ; and the second minimum occurring at 18%, occa- sioned by an efflux from the lower part of the column. The first minimum is similar to that which has been shown to take place at Toronto, Prague and * There are no data in Dr. Buist’s report from which the diurnal variation in the force of the wind may be judged of in the days during the south-west monsoon, when no alternation takes place in its direction. It would seem probable that on such days the variation should be a single progression, weakest towards daybreak, and strongest about the hottest hour of the day. - ON SOME POINTS IN THE METEOROLOGY OF BOMBAY. 79 Greenwich, and is similarly explained: the second minimum, which does not take place at the three above-named stations, is owing to the juxtaposition of the columns of air over the sea and land, which differ in temperature, and therefore in density and height, in consequence of their resting respectively on surfaces which,are differently affected by heat. The Plate shows the curve of the gaseous pressure, and the curve of the elastic force of the vapour; and between them is placed a diagram illustrating the hours of prevalence and of the greatest strength of the land and sea breezes. At Toronto and at Greenwich the diurnal curve of the vapour is a single progression, having its maximum at or near the hottest hour of the day, and its minimum at or near the coldest hour. We perceive in the Plate which represents the phenomena at Bombay, the modification which takes place in consequence of the supply of vapour brought in by the sea breeze continuing until a late hour in the evening, and prolonging the period during which the tension is at or near its maximum. ‘The minimum occurs as usual at or near the hour of the coldest temperature. If, then, the explanation which I have offered to the Section, of the physical causes which produce the diurnal variation of the gaseous pressure at Bom- bay, be correct, the diurnal variation of the barometric pressure occurring there is also explained, since it is simply the combination of the two elastic forces of the air and of the vapour. The solution of the problem of the diurnal variation of the barometer is therefore obtained by the resolution of the barometric pressure into its con- stituent pressures of vapour and air; since the physical causes of the diurnal variation of the component pressures have been respectively traced to the variations of temperature produced in the twenty-four hours by the earth’s revolution on its axis, and to the different proper ‘ties possessed by the mate- rial bodies at the surface of the globe in respect to the reception, conveyance, and radiation of heat. Annual variation—We now proceed to the annual variations, which are shown in the subjoined table. Taste III. | Monthly Means greater (+) or less ce) (—) than the Annual Means. 1843, Tempera-| Vapour | Gaseous Barometer. ‘9 ture. Pressure. | Pressure. 5 |Tempera-{| Vapour | Gaseous x ture. Pressure. | Pressure. January 76-4 | 0578 | 29-352 | 29:930 | 67 | —47 | —6-202 | +6329 February 777 0648 | 29-246 | 29894 | 71 | —3-4 | —0-132 | +0:223 March ...... 79:7 0-710 | 29:128 | 29-8388 | 74) —1:4 | —0-070 | +0:105 April ......| 84:2 0°853 | 28-961 | 29:814 | 76] +3:1 | +0073 | —0-062 May 0.0.40. 85-9 | 0-921 | 28-743 | 29-664 | 78) +4:8 | +0-141 | —0-280 June......... 85:4 0:935 | 28:718 | 29653 | 80} +43 |+40:155 | —0:305 Wenig 8025: 82:1 | 0896 | 28-737 | 29-633 | 85 | 11-0 |+0-116 | —0-286 August ...... 81:2 0:859 | 28869 | 29°728 | 84) +0-1 0:079 | —0:154 September..| 81:1 0:859 | 28:920 | 29:779 | 84 0-0 |-+0:079 | —0:103 October ...| 822 | 0819 | 29-096 | 29-845 | 78 | +1:1 | -+0-039 | 0-003 November..| 805 | 0-675 | 29-213 | 29-888 | 67| —0:6 | —0-105 | +0-190 December..| 76:6 | 0592 | 29368 | 29-960 | 67| —4:5 | —0-188 | 10-345 81:1 0:780 | 29:023 | 29:803 | 76 We here perceive that the leading features of the phenomena ar clearly analogous to those which have been seen to present themselyes at Pay 80 REPORT—1845. Prague and Greenwich ; viz. a correspondence of the maximum of vapour pressure and minimum of gaseous pressure with the maximum of tempera- ture,—and of the minimum of vapour pressure and maximum of gaseous pressure with the minimum of temperature; and a progressive march of the three variations from the minimum to the maximum, and back to the mini- mum again. The epochs, or turning-points of the respective phzenomena, are not in every case strictly identical ; but their connexion, which is the subject immediately before us, is most obvious. We have thus a further illustration of the universality of the principle of the dependence of the regular periodical variations, annual as well as diurnal, of the pressures of the dry air and of the vapour, on those of the temperature *. * In the tropics and in the temperate zone the heat of summer produces and accompanies a low gaseous pressure, and the cold of winter a high gaseous pressure. When we consider how large a portion of the northern hemisphere is occupied by land, which becoming greatly heated in summer rarefies the superincumbent atmosphere, causing it to overtop the adjacent less heated masses, and to overflow them, we should be led to expect that in parts of the Arctic Circle situated to the north of the great continents, the gaseous pressure should be increased in summer, and that the curve of annual variation should become the converse of what it is in the lower latitudes. It appears from the meteorological observations made in 1843 by Messrs. Grewe and Cole, and presented to the British Association at the York meet- ing by Dr. Lee, that such is the case at Alten, near the north cape of Europe. The barometer and thermometer were observed three times a day, from October 1842 to December 1843 inclusive. The hours of observation were 9 a.m., 3 p.m. and 9 p.m. No hygrometric observations were made, but we are able to infer the approximate tension of the vapour from the record of the thermometer. The quarterly means of the barometer and thermometer in 1843 are as follows; the barometer being reduced to the level of the sea, and corrected for gravity :— Barometer. Thermometer, in. December, January, February...... 29°375 24 F. March, April, May .........00 wcoeee 29°948 27-7 June, July, August .....s..eeseeee -- 29:905 52°4 September, October, November... 29°716 34:2 Mean of the year ......... pesscancdeeel (ea 4a0 34:6 Assuming the humidity in each quarter of the year to be 75, or the vapour to be in each case three-fourths of that required for saturation at the respective temperatures, we should have the following gaseous pressures :— in. December, January, February ........sseeseeeenee. 29°257 March, April, May ...cccccccsesesceesece Sigaivcres> 29-804 June, July, August .......csccceeeseeees sessesecneee 29'616 September, October, November, December ... 29°566 29-561 It appears therefore that in the six summer months the mean barometric pressure exceeded that of the winter months by 0°381 inch; and the mean gaseous pressure of summer ex- ceeded that of winter by about 0°3 inch. As in this case the curve of the gaseous pres- sure, as well as that of the aqueous vapour, accords in character with the curve of tempera- ture, i.e. ascends with ascending temperature, and descends with descending temperature,— the barometric annual range is greater than the gaseous annual range, which is contrary to what takes place in the temperate and equatorial zones. It is not improbable that in the Antarctic Circle the phenomenon which we have just noticed as taking place in the Arctic Circle, viz. the summer increase of the gaseous pressure,—may not be found in the same degree, if at all; for the two hemispheres present a remarkable contrast in their respective propor- tions of sea and land, and the rarefaction of the atmosphere over the middle latitudes of the southern hemisphere during its summer must be greatly less than in the same latitudes of the northern hemisphere in the corresponding season. The barometrical observations made by Sir James Ross in summer in the Antarctic Circle accord with this inference ; since after cor- recting them for the shortening of the column of mercury by the increased force of gravity in the high latitudes, and abstracting the small tension of vapour corresponding to the tem- perature, the mean gaseous pressure deduced from them, though nearly equal to the mean gaseous pressure of the year at Bombay, does not exceed it; whereas at Alten it is only im a — — oo _ eS ee ON SOME POINTS IN THE METEOROLOGY OF BOMBAY. 81 The humidity exhibits also a single progression ; but may perhaps be rather characterized as evidencing a very dry season from November to February, and a very humid one from June to September, the latter season being that of the rains. The average degree of humidity in the year is very slightly lower than either at Toronto or at Greenwich, but is still closely approaching to a value expressing the presence of three-fourths of the quantity of vapour required for saturation. The mean gaseous pressure in 1843, derived from the two-hourly obser- vations, appears to have been (29:023 + 0:025, an index correction which Dr. Buist gives as that of the barometer with which the observations were made =) 29:048 English inches; or, measured by the height of a mercurial column in the latitude of 45°, 28°988. The height above the sea is thirty-five feet, and the latitude 19° N. The mean height of the barometer in the year 1843, derived from obser- vations at every second hour, appears to have been (29°803 + 0:025=) 29828, or, with the correction applied for gravity, 29°768, the elevation being thirty-five feet above the sea. This is less than what is generally received as the average height of the barometer in the same latitude. From the careful comparison described in Dr. Buist’s report of the standard barometer with several other barometers, there seems great reason to believe that the mean height shown by it must be a very near approximation at least to the true mean atmospheric pressure in the year 1843 at Bombay. The mean height of the barometer in the four clouded months of May, June, July and August, is 29°667 ; and in the four clear months of November, December, January and February, 29°921. The mean vapour pressure in the same seasons is respectively 0°904 and 0°623, and the gaseous pressure consequently 28°763 and 29:298. There is therefore between the two sea- sons a difference of 0°535 in. of gaseous pressure, and of 5°84 of tempera- ture; the lowest pressure corresponding to the highest temperature, and vice versd. If we may allow ourselves to make a rough proportion drawn from a single case, we may estimate a decrement of 0:1 in. of pressure to an in- crement of 1° F. The highest temperature and lowest pressure are accom- panied for nearly the whole of the period by the southern monsoon; the lowest temperature and the highest pressure are accompanied by the north- ern monsoon. The curves of the annual variation of the gaseous, barometric, and vapour pressures, which are represented in the Plate, show how much of the influ- ence produced on the gaseous pressure, by the alternation of the overflow in the high regions of the atmosphere as either side of the equator becomes heated in its turn, is masked in the barometric curve by the combination in the latter of the vapour pressure, the variations of which take place throughout the year in the opposite direction to those of the gaseous pres- sure. From this cause the range of the barometric curve during the year is only 0°327 inch, whilst that of the gaseous pressure is 0°650 inch. . . The analogy of the annual and diurnal variations, considered in respect to the explanation which has been attempted of the latter, is too obvious to be _ dwelt upon. The decreased gaseous pressure in the hot season is occasioned _ the winter months that the gaseous pressure descends so low as to approximate to the usual mean gaseous pressure of the tropical regions. itis much to be desired that the zealous observers at Alten should observe the wet ther- _ mometer at the same time as the barometer; the register would also be rendered much more complete by the addition of another observation-hour, about 6 a.m., which might not perhaps be inconvenient. The atmospheric pressure and the tension of vapour at or near the coldest hour of the twenty-four, are important data in meteorological discussions. 1845. G 82 REPORT—1845. by the rarefaction of the air over the land whilst the sun is in the northern signs, and its consequent overflow in the higher regions, producing a return current in the lower strata; and the increased pressure in the cold season. is occasioned by the cooling and condensation of the air, whilst the sun is on the south side of the equinoctial, and its consequent reception of the overflow in the upper strata from the regions which are then more powerfully warmed, and which is but partially counteracted by the opposite current in the lower strata. In concluding this communication, I beg respectfully to submit to the con- sideration of the eminent meteorologists here present, that it is very important towards the progress of this science, that the propriety (in such discussions as the present) of separating the effect of the two elastic forees which are considered to unite in forming the barometric pressure, should be speedily admitted or disproved. ‘The very remarkable fact recently brought to our notice by Sir James Ross, as one of the results of his memorable voyage, that the mean height of the barometer is full an inch less in the latitude of 75° S. than in the tropics, and that it diminishes progressively from the tropics to the high latitudes, presses the consideration of this point upon our notice; for it is either explained wholly or in greater part by the diminution of the vapour constituent in the higher latitudes, which diminution appears nearly to correspond throughout to the decrease of barometric pressure observed by Sir James Ross; or it is a fact unexplained, and I believe hitherto unat- tempted to be explained, on any other hypothesis, and of so startling a cha- racter as to call for immediate attention. If, by deducting the tension of the vapour from the barometric pressure, we do indeed obtain a true measure of the pressure of the gaseous portion of the atmosphere, the variations of the mean annual gaseous pressure, which will thus be obtained in different parts of the globe,—and the differences of pressure in different seasons at individual stations,—may be expected to throw a much clearer light than we have hitherto possessed on those great aérial currents, which owe their origin to variations of temperature proceed- ing partly from the different angles of inclination at which the sun’s rays are received, and partly from the nature and configuratioa of the material bodies at the surface of the earth: and a field of research appears to be thus opened by which our knowledge of both the persistent and the periodical disturbances of the equilibrium of the atmosphere may be greatly extended. Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines. By J. BLAKE, M.B., F.R.CS. &c. &c. Tue present report is but a continuation of that which was read at the last Meeting of the Association, and which has since been published in the Trans- actions. The investigation of the action of medicines has been confined to the observation of the effects that follow their direct introduction into the blood, by means of injections into the arteries or veins, and in most instances the hemadynamometer has been used, in order to ascertain more accurately the effects produced on the heart and vascular system. Although this view of the subject may appear to be of no practical utility, yet I trust that the results arrived at will justify the course that has been pursued. In my for- mer memoirs on this subject I have endeavoured to prove that isomorphous substances, when introduced directly into the blood, exert an analogous in- fluence on the animal economy. The experiments I am about to bring for» ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF MEDICINES. 83 ward afford additional confirmation of the views I have already advanced, and, with the facts that have been published, will, I trust, constitute a sufficient amount of evidence to firmly establish the truth of the law in question. The experiments I have now to bring forward have been performed with the tartrate of antimony, the salts of palladium and platinum, and with the chloric, hydrochloric, bromic and iodic acids. Tartrate of Antimony.—This substance when injected into the veins gives rise to exactly the same phenomena as would the arsenic or phosphoric acids, and which have been detailed in the last report. The quantity required to cause death was about a drachm of the salt. Chloride of Palladium—This salt is very poisonous, for when introduced into the veins it possesses the power of arresting the action of the heart, in smaller doses than any other substance I have experimented with. On inject- ing half a grain, dissolved in half an ounce of water, into the jugular of a dog, the action of the heart became rather fluttering after a few seconds, and then slower ; there was no expression of pain. On injecting a grain of the salt, the action of the heart was arrested in about 12". The respiration is often sus- pended for a minute or two, and then recommences, continues regularly for about a minute, and is again suspended. I have observed this to recur five times after the injection of two doses of a quarter of a grain each ; the animal lay on its side without the slightest expression of pain, although perfectly sensible; there were no convulsions: after death the heart was found quite still, the blood in the left cavities of a dirty scarlet, showing that the heart had not been arrested from asphyxia; it coagulated slowly; the lungs were almost white and anzemic. On injecting a solution containing half a grain into the arterial system, violent spasm was immediately produced: the pressure rapidly increased from 5 to 12 inches, as indicated by the hemady- namometer* ; respiration continued at intervals, and the pressure in the arterial system gradually fell, but was still at six inches four minutes and a half after all regular respiratory movements had ceased. The salts of pla- tinum give rise to precisely similar pheenomena when injected into the arteries and veins; they do not appear to be so poisonous as those of palladium, as it requires three or four grains to be injected into the vein before the action of the heart is arrested. Osmium and iridium, the other members of this isomorphous group, have not been experimented with on account of their great rarity. I have only now to notice the phenomena that are produced by the well- known isomorphous group—iodine, chlorine and bromine. The forms under which these substances have been used are as iodic, bromic, chloric and hydrochloric acids. I shall only allude to the effects that have been ob- served after the introduction of the iodie acid into the veins and arteries, as the acids of chlorine aud bromine give rise to effects perfectly analogous. _Todic acid and the substances that are related to it present an analogy with the salts of silver and soda in their action on the animal economy; they are however perfectly distinct in one or two particulars, in which also they closely _ agree amongst themselves, _. When injected into the veins, iodic acid evidently exerts an influence on _ the passage of the blood through the lungs: immediately after the injection _ of a solution containing 10 grains of the acid into the veins, the pressure in _ the arteries becomes lowered. In a short time we have most unequivocal roofs of its action on the lungs, by the escape of a quantity of frothy fluid m the air-passages, which soon causes the death of the animal by asphyxia. ; oo The pressure in the arterial system is given in inches of mercury, as ascertained by the dynamometer. G2 84 REPORT—1845. If the dose be larger (25 grains of iodic acid for instance), the passage of the blood through the lungs becomes at once arrested, and the animal rapidly dies from congestion of the venous system. After death the lungs are found congested and red, serous effusion having taken place in their tissue as well as in the air-passages. The heart generally contains a medium quantity of dark blood, which coagulates firmly. If the thorax is opened immediately after death, the ventricles are found beating rhythmically, although the auri- cles have lost all trace of irritability,—a fact which forms a curious exception to the general rule, and which has only been observed in connection with this class of substances. When injected into the arteries, the phenomena produced by iodic acid are very extraordinary. The first effect that followed the introduction of six grains of the acid into the artery was an immediate diminution of the pressure in the arterial system: in the instance alluded to, it fell in the course of a few seconds from six to eight inches down to two, the heart’s action being very slow ; the animal cried, respiration became sus- pended, and in about a minute it lay to all appearance quite dead ; after an- other minute however the pressure in the arterial system suddenly increased to nine inches, the heart beating quite regularly, although the animal still lay as if dead; the pressure gradually diminished, and at four minutes after the in- jection, and three minutes after every external sign of life had ceased, it had again sunk to five inches. A most curious phenomenon now presented itself, viz. a sudden rise of full three inches, in the pressure of the blood in the arterial system. This increase in the pressure was followed by two respira- tory movements, and by slight motion in the legs and tail. After this the pressure gradually sunk, and the heart stopped seven minutes after the injec- tion. The chloric and bromic acids give rise when injected into the arteries to phenomena exactly analogous to those just described: with hydrochloric acid the action of the heart does not continue so long after respiration has ceased, nor has the augmentation in the pressure after the cessation of re- spiratory movements been observed with this substance; this might possibly be owing to its not containing oxygen. Having now brought forward the facts which have been ascertained since my last report, in support of the analogous action of isomorphous substances on animals, I propose to take a general review of the whole of the evidence we are now in possession of relating to this law, and also of those facts which appear to militate against it; merely premising, that, in the present imperfect state of our knowledge as regards the isomorphous relations of bodies, it is not to be expected that a first attempt to arrive at any generalization found- ed on these properties should not present many anomalies and apparent contradictions, which it will require further investigations to clear up, or which may lead to important modifications in the expression of the law itself. The evidence in favour of the law is derived from the following facts :—first, the similarity of action of the following isomorphous substances belonging to the magnesian class; viz. magnesia, lime, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, zine, cadmium, copper and bismuth,—substances which present striking differ- ences in their ordinary chemical affinities, but which agree in being isomor- phous, and also in producing analogous phenomena on animals when intro- duced directly into the blood. The salts also of another well-marked isomor- phous group, viz. lead, strontia and baryta, closely agree in their actions on the animal system. Palladium and platinum, in the effects they produce when introduced directly into the blood, lend their support to this law. Phosphorus, antimony and arsenic, a strictly isomorphous group, give rise to analogous reactions on the animal economy. ‘The chlorine group also fully bears out the law, at least as regards iodine, bromine and chlorine, for fluorine ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF MEDICINES. 85 has not been experimented with. The salts of soda and silver also agree in the effects they produce, although presenting a more striking contrast in many of their chemical properties than is to be found in any other class. On the other hand, potash and ammonia, two substances between which well-marked isomorphous relations exist, differ to a certain extent in the phenomena they give rise to when introduced into the blood. It is possible that the compound nature of the radical of ammonia, differing so completely as it does from the other inorganic radicals, may introduce certain modifications in its relation to organized compounds. The only other fact that my investigations have made me acquainted with, which appears to oppose itself to this law, is, the analogy that exists to a certain extent between the salts of lead and the chlorine group and silver. As regards the more marked phenomena pro- duced by the salts of lead, they are such as its connection with strontian and baryta would lead us to suppose ; but in one respect, viz. in their action on the lungs, they resemble the salts of silver. As regards this anomaly I would merely observe, that galena and sulphuret of silver are found under the same form. Such is the evidence with which my researches have furnished me, in sup- port of the law of the analogous action of isomorphous substances on organized beings, and I think it sufficient to justify us in admitting that the molecular reactions that take place between the elements of living bodies and inorganic substances are to a great extent independent of chemical affi- nity, but are connected with those properties of matter which are expressed by its isomorphous relations. It is evident that this law must lead to important modifications in the investigation of physiological phenomena: in considering the action of unorganized substances on organized beings, it is clear that our attention must not be so exclusively directed to the chemical properties of these substances: it must not be as alkalies or acids or salts that their action on organized beings must be investigated, but as regards their isomor- phous relations, or those properties of matter which are evidently connected with the form it assumes, and which have recently been elucidated by the researches of Kopff. But whilst this lay would tend to remove the inves-_ tigation of physiclogical phenomena from the domain of pure chemistry, it is far from leading us to conclude that the reactions that take place amongst materials of which organized beings are composed are essentially of a different character from those which we observe amongst the simpler forms of matter. The difference between the more simple combinations of the elements with One another and those they form with the more complicated compounds of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen that exist in the living body, seems ' to be, that in the former instance they combine under the influence of che- mical affinity, whilst in the latter it would appear to be a physical polarity that influences the formation of the compound:: it is the former power that gives rise to the union of sulphuric acid and soda, whilst the latter causes the compound to assume a definite crystalline form. It would appear, in fact, as if the force of chemical affinity was more or less neutralized in living __ beings, and that their elements are held together by other forces than those _ which prevail amongst unorganized compounds. In the present early stage __ of these researches, I would not attempt to generalize this law beyond that j velass of facts to which it has been proved experimentally to apply ; it may admit of a far more extended application, embracing in its expression not merely the combinations of the compound elements of organized beings, but also the combinations of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen, of which _ these elements consist. In the present imperfect state of our knowledge, it uld be hazardous to offer an opinion on the nature of the compounds 86 REPORT—1845. that are formed under the influence of this law, when inorganic substances are introduced into the blood ; it remains even to be proved if the pheno- mena they give rise to are owing to the formation of any definite compounds between them and the elements of the blood and tissues. In the absence’ of all direct proof on this point, I would offer one or two considerations which would tend to indicate that the probability is in favour of the formation of definite compounds between the inorganic element and the blood and tissues. The researches of Mulder on the composition of albumen and fibrine prove, that the presence or absence of certain elements in very small pro- portions may essentially alter the properties of the protein compounds. The whole of the fibrine, for instance, in the blood of a small animal does not contain more than two grains of sulphur, which however appears to form as essential an element in its composition as it does in sulphuric acid ; if there- fore we introduce into the blood any substance which should deprive the fibrine of its sulphur, either by combining with the sulphur itself, or by re- placing it in the protein compound, we should immediately have a fluid cir- culating over the body which would not contain any fibrine, and which might be totally unfitted for carrying on the vital phenomena; two or three grains of baryta for instance, supposing it capable of producing such a reaction, would suffice to defibrinize the whole of the blood. Another consideration that would favour the supposition that isomorphous substances form certain definite analogous compounds with the blood and tissues, is, that we gene- rally find that the different substances belonging to the same isomorphous group give rise to certain physical changes in the blood which are readily recognizable ; thus the whole of the magnesian family agree in depriving the blood in a greater or less degree of its property of coagulation ; the same re- marks will apply to most of the other groups. It is highly probable that these physical changes are owing to the formation of certain definite com- pounds between the elements of the blood and the substances mixed with it. A careful analysis of the organs on which different classes of substances ap- pear more particularly to act, would probably elucidate this point. Before concluding, I would offer a remark on the relative poisoning powers of the substances that have been experimented with. The salts of palla- dium, platinum and baryta are those which prove fatal in the smallest doses ; and it is a curious fact, that, under an isomorphous point of view, these three substances are those which have the least analogy with the elements that enter into the formation of the animal solids and fluids ; on the other hand, arsenic, which might have been supposed to be rapidly fatal, is so inert when introduced into the blood that it will not speedily produce death, unless indeed it is injected in quantities sufficient to directly coagulate the blood. It re- mains for future experiments to determine if this is owing to its being iso- morphous to one of the elements of the fluids and solids, the phosphorous. On the Comet of 1843. By Dr. von Bocustawski of Breslau, Cor- responding Member of the British Association. [A communication made to the Mathematical and Physical Section at Cambridge, and ordered to be printed entire amongst the Reports.] Tue great Comet of 1843 was regarded with much interest by the whole world, more particularly by astronomers, and has left us some very import- ant questions to solve; that is, we require to know whether it be periodic or not, and the marvellous appearance of its magnificent tail should be ON THE COMET OF 1843. 87 explained. The series of observations of the comet is far too short to enable us to derive from it a calculation on the ellipticity of the orbit. Some attempts have given negative results, and even a hyperbola, which is however less probable than that the observations were imperfect. The review would have promised better success, if there had been any comets in former days whose appearances resembled this, since this inquiry is extremely limited, from unavoidable reasons. The principal are these :— The comet of 1843 is one of those whose visibility in broad daylight near the sun at the time of perihelion is incontestably proved. In ovr hemisphere it can never be seen near midnight, either before or after. Nor can it ever be seen to the north of the ecliptic ; and even in the south of the zodiac there are but few constellations in which it can rise above our horizon; only in ridanus, or in the feet of Cetus during the months of February and March; d afterwards in Corvus, and in Hydra during the months of October and November. Guided by these considerations, in the excellent ‘ Cometography ’ of Pingré we meet with the comet of 1695, seen in Brazil, in India, at Macao, and in the islands of St. Anne in America, pursuing its path through Corvus into Hydra. The magnificent tail upholds the supposition that the head was in the prin- cipal extremity. On the 7th of February 1106, a comet appeared in Palestine (and was after- wards seen in China) which occupied that part of the heavens in which the sun sets in winter. From it there proceeded a long whitish ray resembling a linen cloth, which came to an end below the constellation of Orion. Aristotle makes use of nearly the same words in describing (in his ‘ Meteor- ology’) the comet which appeared 371 years B.c. ‘In the severest part of the winter,” says he, “this prodigious star was seen to appear in the evening. It set soon after the sun; but its light extended something like an avenue of trees over a third of the heavens. It rose up to the belt of Orion and then disappeared.” Thus we have two striking portraits of the comet of 1843 ; but resemblance alone decides nothing. OF the three comets here cited, only that of 1695 affords us details of its apparent path through the heavens. Three Jesuits, who it appears possessed astronomical knowledge,—Father Noel at Macao, Father Bouvet at Surat, and Father Jacob at All Saints’ Bay in Brazil,—give us a learned description of it according to the taste of their time; whilst an anonymous observer on one of the islands of St. Anne in America, carefully notes down five or six times, between the 2nd and 19th of November, those stars of Corvus and Hydra through which the head of the comet had continued its route. Pingré owns that he attempted in vain to combine these observations, in order to derive from them some approximation to the comet’s orbit ; and yet the whole of them, including the daily progress of the comet, are represented in the most satisfactory manner by the elements of the comet of 1843; that is, supposing the same distance of perihelion, the same longitude for the peri- helion and for the ascending node, and the same inclination, and admitting the 24th of October 1695 as the day of the perihelion passage. The elements of an entirely different orbit, caleulated by Mr. Burckhardt from the inedited observations of Mr. Delisle, do not give at all the same re- sults, and perhaps owe their existence to the same cause which M. Bessel has revealed in the ‘ Ast. Nach.’ of Schumacher. The details of my calculations will. soon appear in that work, and will prove the great probability of the assertion which, in the presence of this illustrious Association, I have today made for the first time. __» Meanwhile I may be permitted to draw the conclusion that the period of ~ 88 REPORT—1845. the last revolution occupied 147 years and 127 days, and to mention the consequences which result therefrom. Four anterior revolutions of 147 years and 5 months, conduct us to the comet of the year 1106, of which we have already spoken ; and from thence, ten revolutions of 147 years and 9 months, carry us back to the comet of Aristotle, 371 years B.c. The difference of several months between the earlier times of revolution and those of the present day, far from disturbing our hypothesis, serve to confirm it. It is the effect of the resisting medium in space, which has already manifested itself in the comets of Encke and Biela, and which we might ex- pect to find acting with far greater force on a comet which buries itself in the densest beds of zther which surround the sun. This may perhaps afford a new opportunity for studying this interesting force, which, by ee the excentricity of the orbits, and constantly decreasing the time of their r volutions, will accomplish in the course of ages the reunion of these celestial bodies, which possess very large resisting surfaces, but very small masses, with the great centre of general gravity. Other comets have also appeared at intervals corresponding to a number of complete revolutions, the probability of whose identity with that of 1843 is greater or less according to the circumstances which accompany them. These are,—the great comet of 1548, or that of the Turks; that of 1401, during Lent; the comet which appeared before the death of Pope Innocent IV. in 1254; that of 367 seen im broad daylight; the comet of 219; and finally, that of the year 74 a.p. If I may be allowed to include these, we have accounts of fen reappearances of this famous comet from the time of Aristotle up to the present day ; and it is worthy of remark that all were seen, as it appears, ONLY after the epoch of the perihelion. Perhaps, when I shall have furnished them with the demonstration of my assertion, astronomers may like to name this comet after Aristotle, and to look upon it as the symbol of that immortal philosopher. If it is considered that the ellipticity of this comet’s orbit is established, it is declaring it at the same time to be both more esoteric and more exoteric than any other vassal of the sun with which we are more closely acquainted. Immersed on the day of perihelion in the photosphere of the sun itself, our comet hastened, with a velocity of more than 414 English miles in a second of time, to escape from the great attractive force, making the semi-cireuit of the sun in the short space of one hour and a half, in order to pursue its distant route in an ellipse, whose length exceeds the breadth by nearly 57 times, the latter not being equal to the diameter of the earth’s orbit; whilst the aphelion is 5,316,000,000 English miles from the sun,—nearly three times more than the orbit of the most distant planet discovered by William Herschel of immortal memory. There our comet proceeded at the very slow pace of 74 English feet in a second, which however was just the means of reconducting it to the sun. If this be true, our posterity will see it return in the summer of 1990, that is to say, if accident favour it at a season when the comet is never above the horizon during the absence of the sun; but it will be more surely seen in the autumn of the year 2137, when it will present a similar appearance to that of 1695. I trust I may be allowed to trespass on a little more time, in order to add a few words on the tail of this comet, which reasonably enough attracted so much general attention. How is it that no one saw either the comet or its magnificent tail before the perihelion, neither in Europe, nor even in the tropics? Was it impossi- SSS ON THE COMET OF 1843. 89 ble? Notatall. Beginning from the 27th of January, the comet appeared above our horizon, and rose up higher day by day. The visibility of the tail should have commenced still sooner, and with a splendour surpassing that which it assumed in the month of March, increasing daily through the month of Fe- bruary, crossing the meridian every evening with the stars in the constellation Lepus. Nothing of all this occurred. It was seen suddenly immediately after the perihelion in full daylight only a few degrees from the sun, five or six degrees in length, which probably answers to more than ten times as much seen in the night time. The spectators of it in tropical countries know not how to find words to express the greatness and magnificence of its appear- ance. When it unfolded itself to our eyes towards the 18th or 19th of March, it was already much diminished in splendour, as we find by the unanimous assertions of witnesses, and yet it excited general surprise in these countries. On the 21st of March my pupils observed the tail, already sensibly shortened to the naked eye, as far as n Leporis, whilst 1 could follow it in the finder beyond Sirius, leaving that star to the south. Thus the naked eye only saw a length of tail=23 the distance of the earth from the sun, whilst the finder showed it sia times the radius of the orbit of the earth, or 581 millions of English miles, being of far greater extent than the orbit of Jupiter. And assuredly my finder would not show the extreme limit of this phenomenon, which manifested on this occasion the common law of all the tails of comets, that of taking a direction exactly opposite to the sun, followed by the comet from the first day of its appearance after the perihelion. But where was its tail before this epoch? will be demanded at each reappearance. Is it always lost during the long absence from the sun, and regained by the reunion? Where is the force which has each time engendered a body of such gigantic dimensions; the:force, in a body so feeble and unshapen as the comet, which can project an enormous luminous mass in a short*space of time as far as beyond the orbit of Jupiter; to conduct it half round the sun in 12 30™ 395 for the extreme limit perceived by the finder, a route of 1826 millions of English miles? That is a celerity of more than a third of a million of English miles in a second,—a velocity which surpasses that of light by three-fourths! This really pronounces the impossibility of a mechanic nature in comets’ tails; it ranges them amongst dynamic appearances. However, nothing is as yet explained by this assertion. I consider even that only a profound study and perfect knowledge of the works of the late Brandes of Breslau, of M. Bessel’s calculations of Halley’s comet before the perihelion, and Sir John Herschel’s after this epoch (including the aspect of the comet of 22nd January 1836 just like a fixed star), can conduct us to a more or less plausible theory of this most highly interesting phenomenon. Nevertheless, in such a case it appears to me necessary to endeavour to establish a tolerably probable hypothesis, and which may explain a certain number of the facts according to the new principle. It will serve, not only to show by an example the possibility of the new conjecture, but also to guide us, when there is a discordance amongst the observations, to points of view more just and more admissible. It is now some time since I endeavoured to demonstrate, that, from the circumstance of there being no loss of intensity nor refraction from a ray of light passing through the volume of a comet, the law of the intensity of their light (which as with the planets follows that of the inverse ratio of the square of the distance from the sun, but in an abnormal manner that of the _ simple distance from the earth) leads us to regard these stars as an accumu- _ lation of an immense number of very small bodies, of which each one possesses sufficient mass to play the part of a central body, and which all move round 90 REPORT—1845. their common centre of gravity in regular orbits, whilst this dynamic centre describes the cometary orbit round the sun. What we see at the head of the comet is the brightness formed by these numerous particles being lighted up by the sun, each one being too small to be distinguished separately. Thence the cause of the nebulous aspect of comets, resembling that of the accumulations of stars, which often from the same cause are seen as nebula. The form of each individual of these corpus- cles decides the fact of its having a rotatory movement or not. The form must be amorphous or crystalline, according to the matter and conditions at the moment of the first formation. This formation may be renewed as often as these atoms are put into a state of fusion, or subjected to a species of ce- mentation, which might very possibly occur when a comet passes very near thesun. Endowed with the facets of crystals, and obliged by their form always to preserve the sume direction towards the sun, these corpuscles may unite all the requisite conditions up to an entire reflexion of the solar rays. He who knows how much may be united in this phenomenon of entire re+ flexion, will understand the considerable illumination which it may spread to the greatest distance in space. We have only to admit that the atoms which form the zodiacal light, seen lighted up only by simple rays of the sun, are spread over far more distant spaces, to enable us to explain a dynamic origin for the tails, thus placing them amongst the phenomena of the zodiacal light, the parhelia, halos, the rainy bands of the Indian summer, and even the general world of atoms lighted up by the sun. Thus may comets be perhaps the grand reflectors of our solar system, sent us from time to time by the Creator of the world to throw light upon hitherto unknown parts of his Creation, too immense for our senses, and even for our minds! Report on the Actinograph. By Mr. Rospert Hun. Many circumstances have conspired to prevent the author from completing any observations with this instrument. A few rough experiments made with a view of testing the merits of it, comprise all that has as yet been done, The importance of a method of registering the amount of chemical in- fluence associated with the solar rays, is evident. When we consider the ever-varying conditions of these radiations, producing remarkable pheeno- mena, not merely during the changes of the year, but over the vegetable world, within the brief period of a day—when we find the practical photo- graphist stating that two hours before noon he can produce effects, which he cannot produce two hours after the sun has crossed the meridian, it will be clear to every one, that some accurate means of registering the relations be- tween the amount of light and actinic (chemical) power, which are evidently not in strict ratio to each other, is desirable. The instrument constructed for the Association, although not yet com- plete, answers this purpose remarkably well. It consists essentially of a fixed brass cylinder, about which is wound a piece of prepared photographic paper. This paper is so prepared with the bromide of silver, that it is equally sensitive to all the rays of the prismatic spectrum. Over this is placed another cylinder which is driven by clock-work, and it performs a revolution in twenty-four hours. In the moveable cylinder is a triangular — slit, the largest part being exactly one hundred times the size of the smallest, which is a mere point, and this opening is divided by bars into one hundred ; _ ON OZONE. 91 parts. In passing round, the opening exposes regularly to solar influence different parts of the photographic paper,—the smallest part of the opening allowing the influence to be exerted for considerably less than a minute, whilst the largest part admits of the action of the sun’s rays for more than an hour. The paper, by experiment, is so adjusted, that the greatest amount of actinic power darkens it completely during the shortest exposure, whilst the weak light of winter is just sufficient to produce the effect during the passage of the longest part of the opening. The degrees between these points become of course, under the ever-varying conditions of solar radia- tion, unequally darkened, and the paper being carefully marked to the hours of the day, it is quite easy to register numerically the varying effects pro- duced. It will not therefore be necessary to have recourse to any plan of fixing the impressions made, which is always an uncertain process. It is hoped that by the next meeting of the Association the author will be enabled to furnish registers complete for twelve months, and he thinks he shall then be enabled to show that the actinic influence is one which must be taken into account in many inquiries, and to prove that thé actinic or chemical power, and the phenomena of luminous and thermic action, are not found in any constant ratio in the solar rays, but that they are liable to continual variation. On Ozone. By Professor ScHONBEIN of Basle. Tue British Association has done me the honour of inviting me to prepare a report on my researches regarding a peculiar agent to which I have given the name “Ozone.” Flattering as such a charge must have proved to me, I undertake its execution with great diffidence, less on account of the subject of the report itself, than in consequence of my being obliged to make use of an idiom which I am not in the habit of speaking. Having fully experienced on former occasions the kindness of the same Association I have now the honour to address, I count upon your indulgence, and am convinced that you will receive with your wonted urbanity the very imperfect communica- tion of a man who is certainly in one respect an alien to this country, but who feels himself nevertheless intimately connected with your land by many ties of friendship and scientific intercourse, and considers old hospitable England as his second home. Were I not actuated by such feelings, I would not have ventured to come forward on this occasion, and it is to those feelings alone*that I owe the courage requisite for a stranger who is to speak before an Association count- ing amongst its members the very essence of British philosophers. In taking the liberty to give you an account of the results obtained from researches _ with which I have been occupied these last six years, I shall chiefly keep in ' view the most novel facts I have been fortunate enough to ascertain, and I shall try to be as concise and clear as possible in stating them. Now and then, as the occasion occurs, I intend to enter into theoretical considerations and draw inferences from the phenomena observed. After having made you fully acquainted with the subject of my report, I need not say how much you will oblige me by making any observation or suygestion calculated to clear up a matter which I readily allow is yet very far from being thoroughly un- derstood and sifted to the bottom. I shall feel myself fully repaid for the many pains I have taken these last five or six years in investigating the nature of the electrical smell, if I happen to succeed in convincing you that _ my subject is worthy of philosophical research and likely to open a new field — 2. >= eS 92 REPORT—1845. of inquiry. First of all permit me to state the reasons which induced me to undertake that series of investigations, the principal results of which will form the substance of my communication. The peculiar smell developed during electrical discharges and the pecu- liar odour disengaged by lightning, have been the subject of a good deal of conjecture; but as far as I know, philosophers have not yet succeeded in clearing up the nature of that smell. The obscurity in which that phe- nomenon is enveloped, and the fact, I think first stated by myself, that on elee- trolysing water an odour makes its appearance very like to that called the electrical smell, excited my curiosity so much the more, that the circumstances under which the two sorts of smells are produced are apparently so very different from each other. I made up my mind to investigate the subject as closely as possible, and in spite of its peculiar difficulty and many fruitless endeavours, 1 succeeded at last in ascertaining some facts which seemed to open a path for further and accurate inquiry. These facts were,—1, that the odoriferous principle developed during the electrolysis of water is only disengaged at the positive electrode; 2, that the same principle may be preserved in well-closed bottles for any length of time; 3, that this principle polarizes negatively gold and platinum; 4, that the odoriferous substance is destroyed by heat and a number of oxidizable bodies; 5, that the electrical brush has the same odour as the oxygen dis- engaged at the positive electrode; 6, that the brush has the power of polar- izing negatively gold and platinum; 7, that on heating the points out of which electricity is passing into the atmosphere, they no more develope the electrical smell. From these and some other facts, I was inclined to infer that the electrical brush produces the same principle which is disengaged at the positive electrode during the electrolysis of water, and as chlorine, with regard to its voltaic bearings, acts very similarly to this odoriferous principle, I sus- pected the latter to be a body analogous to chlorine. To decide on the cor- rectness of that conjecture, there seemed to be no other way left open than to isolate the principle in question; but considering the infinitely small quantities in which the odoriferous substance is produced under the cir- cumstances mentioned, the carrying into effect that isolation assumed the appearance of a thing lying beyond the reach of possibility. Yet after many trials undertaken with a view of producing more abundantly and by other than electrical means, my peculiar principle, I succeeded at last in doing so, and phosphorus proved to be the substance most convenient to obtain that end. And from the discovery of the most remarkable action which that body under certain circumstances exerts upon common air, I was led to ascertain the whole series of the curious and rather surprising facts Iam about to state, and to arrive, if not at the complete solution of my problem, at least at the opening of the path which will ultimately lead to that goal. And now I am touching upon that part of my report which, as to its mat- ter of fact contents, is the more interesting one of the whole of the commu- nication I have to make to you, and I beg leave to call your attention to the following statements :— 1. If at a temperature of 32° a piece of phosphorus, having a clear surface, be placed in a bottle filled with common air, a peculiar smell makes its ap- pearance which is considered to be due to the vapour of phosphorus; at the same time that the included air assumes the power of polarizing positively a plate of platinum or gold which happens to be brought in contact with it. 2. Everything remaining in the state indicated, except the temperature being raised to about 60°, a change will very soon take place both with re- ON OZONE. 93 gard to the smell of the air and the electro-motive power of the latter. The former will resemble the electrical smell, and the air will now be able to po- _ larize negatively gold or platinum. 3. Atmospheric air completely deprived of its moisture and put in contact with phosphorus, does not give rise to the production of the electro-negative principle. 4, Atmospheric air, which contains only small quantities of the vapours of zther, alcohol, olefiant gas, sulphurous acid, nitrous acid, sulphuretted, phos- phuretted or seleniuretted hydrogen, is not ‘capable of developing the elec- trical smell, or assuming the state of the electro-negative polarity. 5. A mixture of oxygen and carbonic acid, or of oxygen and hydrogen, acts with regard to phosphorus like the common air, or an artificial mixture of oxygen and nitrogen. 6. Pure oxygen, or nitrogen, or hydrogen, or carbonic acid gas, whether moist or anhydrous, being placed i in contact with phosphorus, becomes posi- tively polarized ; but none of those substances produce our electro-negative principle or the electrical smell. 7. To generalize the circumstances under which phosphorus is prevented from generating the said principle, it may be said that anything that stops the slow combustion or the emission of light of phosphorus at the common tem- perature, also renders impossible the development of the electrical smell, whilst the latter is always produced in an atmosphere in which phosphorus exhibits in the dark the phenomenon of a lively emission of light. 8. The positive polarity and alliaceous odour assumed at zero by common air in contact with phosphorus, is most likely due to the vapour of that body, whilst the negative polarity and the electrical smell developed at a higher temperature in the same air, originate in that peculiar principle, which, on account of its strong odour, I have called ozone. As far as my experiments go they show that ozone enjoys the following _ properties :— a 1. Stripes of blue litmus paper, being plunged into an ozonized atmosphere, are within a very short time completely bleached without being reddened in the least degree. Stripes of paper, having been coloured blue by a solu- tion of indigo, and placed under the same circumstances, turn white. A solution of indigo or of litmus, being shaken with an ozonized air, loses also its colour exactly in the same way as if the solution had been treated by chlorine. 2. Most metals, silver even not excepted, being in a state of minute me- chanical division and put in contact with ozone, almost instantaneously de- stroy that principle at the common temperature. Silver being changed under the circumstances into a compound containing nothing but metal and oxygen, it seems that the other metals are also oxidized by ozone. 3. Iodine put into an ozonized atmosphere is changed into iodic acid. 4. Powder of charcoal very rapidly destroys ozone. 5. Phosphorus quickly takes up ozone, being transformed into phosphoric oe 6. Sulphuretted, seleniuretted, phosphuretted, carburetted, and ioduretted hydrogen rapidly destroy ozone, and are themselves decomposed by that principle. 7. Sulphurous acid and ozone being mixed together disappear and produce Malpdniric acid. 8. Nitrous acid and ozone destroy each other with instantaneous quick- hess, producing nitric acid. ~ 9. A number of metallic protoxides being put in contact with an ozonized 94 REPORT—1845. atmosphere are changed into peroxides. Solutions of the alkaline bases, as potash, soda, baryta, &c., take up rather slowly ozone, producing peroxides. The hydrates of the protoxides of manganese, lead, cobalt, nickel, or silver, being attached to stripes of paper and suspended in an ozonized atmosphere, are rather-rapidly changed into the peroxides of those metals. Potash takes up ozone and water too. 10. A solution of iodide of potassium is rapidly decomposed by being treated with ozonized air, iodine being eliminated. At the same time iodate’ of potash is produced, which production is however preceded by the forma- tion of a peculiar compound most likely consisting of iodide and peroxide of potassium. Hence it comes that paste of starch being mixed up with some iodide of potassium and exposed to ozonized air, instantaneously turns blue, and proves to be the most delicate test for ascertaining the presence of ozone. 11. Crystals of bromide of potassium, put into paste of starch and exposed to the action of ozone, colour that paste orange-yellow. 12. A solution of the yellow ferro-cyanide of potassium readily takes up ozone, yielding the red ferro-sesquicyanide. 13. The white cyanide of iron, being exposed to the action of an ozonized atmosphere, is instantaneously changed into the blue one. 14. The salts of the protoxides of iron and tin rapidly destroy ozone, and are transformed into peroxide salts. 15, A great number of metallic sulphurets, being put in contact with ozo- nized air, lose their colour and are changed into sulphates; a piece of paper having been written over with a solution of acetate of lead and blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen, rapidly turns white within ozonized air. 16. A number of organic substances, both of vegetable and animal origin, being placed within ozonized air, almost instantaneously destroy the odori- ferous principle; for instance, saw-dust, straw, ulmin, vegetable mould, albu- men, fibrine, caseous matter, and therefore blood, milk and common cheese. 17. If ozonized air be caused to pass through a narrow tube into the open air, that current, of course, produces all the chemical reactions before men- tioned; but if part of the tube of emission is heated not quite red-hot, the peculiar smell of the current disappears at once, and along with it all the chemical and voltaic properties belonging to ozone. Its bleaching and po- larizing power, its capability of decomposing iodide of potassium, &c., are one. . 18. Common air, being as richly as possible charged with ozone, has a smell resembling very much that of chlorine, bromine and iodine; but if ozone is much diluted with common air, its smell cannot be distinguished from that developed near points of electrical emission. 19. If common air, strongly charged with ozone, be inhaled only in mode- rate quantities, effects are produced similar to those caused by the respira- tion of chlorine, ¢. e, coughing, and an inflammation of the mucous mem- branes. Small animals put into richly ozonized air die very soon. I sawa mouse, which had been placed in a large bottle filled with strongly ozonized air, succumbing within the space of five minutes. As the quantity of the ozone which killed the animal must have been immeasurably small, it appears that this principle proves highly deleterious to the animal system. 20. Chemically pure water, being acidulated by pure sulphuric acid or phosphoric acid and electrolyzed, yields oxygen charged with the same prin- ciple, which is produced when phosphorus acts upon common air; for that oxygen enjoys all the properties belonging to ozone engendered by the agency of phosphorus. ‘To obtain ozone by voltaic means, it is necessary that the acidulated water employed for that purpose be entirely free from any sub- ee ee ON OZONE. 95 stance having a tendency to unite with oxygen or ozone, and that besides the temperature of the liquid to be electrolyzed be as low as possible. When the conditions indicated are fulfilled, the disengagement of ozone taking place at the positive electrode will last as long as the current continues to pass through the said liquid. Hence it follows that no production of ozone will take place if the electrodes consist of other metals than gold or platinum, or if the liquid to be electrolyzed contains small quantities of sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphurous acid, proto-sulphate of iron, zther, alcohol, &c. An aqueous solution of potash does not yield a trace of ozone, because free ozone is taken up by that solution. 21. The electrical brush developes, as is well known to philosophers, a peculiar odour which cannot, as I have already mentioned, be distinguished from that of diluted ozone, be that ozone produced by the agency of phos- phorus or by the electrolysis of water. But the chemical and voltaic reac- tions exhibited by the electrical brush are also quite the same as those pro- duced either by chemical or voltaic ozone. Platinum foil being exposed to the action of that brush assumes the state of negative polarity, a piece of litmus paper is bleached, iodide of potassium or hydro-iodic acid decomposed, iodine being eliminated, the ferro-cyanide of potassium transformed into the sesqui-cyanide, the hydrate of protoxide of lead changed into the brown peroxide, provided the substances mentioned be sufficiently long acted upon by the electrical brush. If only small quantities of sulphurous acid, nitrous acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, olefiant gas, or vapour of zther or alcohol are present in the air into which the electrical brush is passing, the latter does not develope the peculiar electrical smell, neither does it produce any of the chemical or voltaic reactions before mentioned. A point of electrical emis- sion being heated not quite red-hot, yields a brush which has no smell what- soever, has no polarizing or bleaching power, does not decompose iodide of potassium, &c.; but as soon as the point in question is suffered to cool down again below a certain degree of temperature, the peculiar smell reappears, and along with it we obtain again all the reactions peculiar to ozone. From these facts we are allowed I think to draw the inference, that the odoriferous prin- _ ciple disengaged by the electrical brush is identical with the odoriferous sub- stance which is developed at the positive electrode during the electrolysis of water, and identical also with the electro-uegative principle resulting from a peculiar action exerted by phosphorus upon the moist atmospheric air. In order to ascertain the nature of that remarkable principle, I have tried a variety of methods with the view of procuring it in an isolated state, but all my endeavours made to that effect have hitherto failed, and I am not yet able to give quite a decisive answer to the question, What is ozone? That principle being developed by phosphorus within a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen, but not in pure oxygen; having in many experiments obtained no ozone from electrolyzing water which had been boiled and deprived of its atmospheric air; producing the same principle within the atmosphere by the agency of common electricity; and considering the striking analogy which exists between ozone and chlorine; I was for a time induced to think the former to be an elementary substance forming a constituent part of azote, and _to give up my first idea, according to which I considered ozone as a peculiar compound consisting of oxygen and hydrogen. ‘ _ The impossibility of isolating the principle, and the fact that nothing but oxidizing effects could be obtained from making ozone to act upon a great ‘number of substances, induced me to resume the first view I took of the subject in question, and to institute a series of experiments with the intention of ascertaining more accurately the conditions required for the formation of 4 a 96 REPORT—1845. ozone. In that inquiry I found that the presence of water is quite indispen- sable for engendering ozone, and that it is the more abundantly produced the larger the quantity of water which is put into contact both with phosphorus and common air. I likewise ascertained that no ozone is formed by phos- phorus if free oxygen be excluded. Nitrogen may be replaced by carbonic acid or hydrogen without stopping the generation of ozone. Hence it fol- lows that nitrogen has directly nothing to do with the production of ozone, and that the latter cannot be a constituent part of azote. From the fact that dry ozone passing along a heated tube is found to be destroyed, we must also infer that it is no elementary principle. Now, taking together all the facts regarding both the circumstances under which ozone is formed and the chemical effects produced by that substance, we can hardly help admitting that the odoriferous principle is a compound consisting of oxygen and water. The experiments made independently of myself by my friend, the excellent and accurate chemist of Geneva, M. Ma- rignac, and by M. de la Rive also, have led to results quite in accordance with the view I originally took of the nature of ozone. Marignac and De la Rive have ascertained that acidulated water, containing not the slightest trace either of free nitrogen or azotic matter, yields ozone as long as a voltaic current is made to pass through that liquid, provided however it be kept as cold as possible. M.Marignac has also found that mixtures of oxygen and hy- drogen, or oxygen and carbonic acid gas, charged with aqueous vapour, pro- duce ozone as well as a moist mixture of oxygen and azote. That able chemist has further ascertained that silver in a state of minute mechanical division readily takes up ozone, yielding nothing but a compound of'silver and oxy- gen. Agreeably to my own experiments, M. Marignac has shown that ozone transforms iodide of potassium into iodate of potash. Now these facts, combined with those ascertained by myself, seem to leave hardly any doubt about the nature of ozone, and confirm the view I took of it Six years ago. Thenard has made us acquainted with a compound consisting of one equi- valent of water and one of oxygen. The question now is, whether the known peroxide of hydrogen be identical with my ozone. According to Thenard’s own statements, peroxide of hydrogen has no odour, is soluble in water in any proportion, is less volatile than the latter, in decomposing itself it de- composes oxide of silver, reduces the peroxide of lead to a lower degree of oxidation, is not affected by iron, tin, or antimony, does not oxidize silver, but is decomposed by that metal, undergoes a spontaneous slow decomposition at the common temperature, and cannot exist at the boiling-point of water. The experiments of Becquerel and my own have shown that platinum, on being plunged into dilute oxygenized water, assumes the state of positive po- larity. On the other hand, ozone has a strong and peculiar odour, is insolu- ble in water, exists, as far as we know, always in a gaseous state, readily oxi- dizes iron, tin, antimony, and even silver at the common temperature, changes the hydrates of the protoxides of lead and silver into the peroxides of those metals, seems not to be acted upon at all by gold or platinum, or the per- oxides of lead and silver, and can bear a temperature considerably higher than that of boiling water without suffering decomposition; it seems to be stable at the common temperature, is decomposed not only by fibrine, but also by albumen, caseine and a variety of organic substances, and polarizes nega- tively gold or platinum. Now these facts seem to prove that ozone is dif- ferent from peroxide of hydrogen. Whether the former contains more or less oxygen than the latter, or whether it is an isomeric modification of oxy- genized water, can only be ascertained after having submitted isolated ozone 8 ON OZONE. 97 - to analysis; I am however inclined to think that ozone will turn out to be a compound isomerical with peroxide of hydrogen, a conjecture which seems to be supported by the fact, that the odoriferous principle acts in so many cases the part of chlorine. On that subject however I shall speak hereafter. As to the production of ozone, we must, as far as our experiments go, account for it in the following manner:—Phosphorus, being placed under certain cir- cumstances, enjoys the peculiar faculty to determine a chemical combination between oxygen and water. ‘The same compound is produced in a secondary way on electrolyzing water ; part of the oxygen, being in a nascent state and eliminated at the positive electrode, unites with water, and ozone, being inso- luble in the latter liquid, is disengaged along with another part of oxygen that does not combine with water. It is possible that gold or platinum acting the part of the positive electrode may have something to do with the fact, that not the whole quantity of oxygen set free by the action of the cur- rent is united with water and transformed into ozone, for it may be that ozone being in a peculiar state (for instance, in the fluid state), happens to be decomposed by the metals mentioned just in the same way as common peroxide of hydrogen is. Common electricity passing through atmospheric air acts upon that mix- ture like phosphorus, 7. e. determines part of the atmospheric oxygen to unite with aqueous vapour to form ozone. Before concluding the first part of my report, allow me to say a word or two about the well-known phenomenon which phosphorus exhibits when placed in moist atmospheric air. At the common temperature, and under the circumstances mentioned, that substance gives out in the dark rather a lively light, and is changed into a mixture of phosphoric and phosphorous acids. In dry atmospheric air scarcely any emission of light takes place, and in oxygen none at all. My experiments have invariably shown that no ozone is produced if phosphorus does not shine in the dark, and that the emission of light is the more lively the more richly common air or any other gaseous mixture happens to be charged with ozone. As phosphorus, like all other readily oxidizable substances, quickly takes up ozone at the common temper- ature, there can be entertained hardly any doubt that the shining of phos- phorus which takes place within moist atmospheric air chiefly depends upon the reaction exerted by ozone on phosphorus, and that the oxidation of that substance is effected less by the free atmospheric oxygen than by the oxy- gen contained in ozone. By dint of some peculiar power, phosphorus de- termines, first, the formation of ozone out of the oxygen and aqueous _yapour of the air; and so soon as this compound is generated, part of it be- _ gins to act upon phosphorus, and change the latter into acid, whilst another portion of ozone is dissipated into the surrounding air. If the bottle con- ‘taining common air and a sufficient quantity of phosphorus happen to be _ completely closed, the production of ozone and its subsequent decomposition _ effected by phosphorus will continue so long as there is free oxygen present ‘in the air; and we find therefore, after a certain time, in the bottle nothing but nitrogen and phosphatic acid. According to this view, the disappear- ance of the atmospheric oxygen is not due to the direct oxidation of phos- _ phorus, but to the previous formation of ozone determined by that element, and to the subsequent decomposition likewise brought about by phosphorus. As to the cause of the emission of light alluded to, I am quite confident that lies in*the ozonization of phosphorus, if I am allowed to use that expres- sion, that is to say, in the oxidation of phosphorus being effected by the agency of ozone. _ + The correctness of that explanation is put beyond a doubt, by the fact that 1845. H &. >. OS 98 REPORT—1845. a number of gaseous substances being mixed with common air, phosphorus is prevented from shining in the dark. Gaseous, nitrous, or sulphurous acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, olefiant gas, hydro-iodice acid gas, vapour of ether, or alcohol, have this effect. Now according to the results of my experiments, all the substances mentioned instantaneously take up or destroy ozone, and such being the case, we can easily conceive why those gases and vapours present in the atmospheric air do not prevent phosphorus both from shining in the dark and from being changed into phosphatic acid, No ozone is or can be produced under those circumstances ; for if that compound did ever happen to exist in that air, it would be instantaneously destroyed by the agents mentioned. Any gaseous substance therefore which readily unites with free ozone will prevent phosphorus from shining in that atmosphere, and of course also hinder the formation of ozone, Water being an indis- pensable ingredient for the generation of ozone, we can now easily see why in completely dry air the shining of phosphorus is nearly imperceptible. It is true, under these circumstances, some emission of light takes place, but it is exceedingly slight if compared to that exhibited in moist air. It is possible that that feeble phosphorescence results from a very small portion of oxygen directly uniting with phosphorus. As ozone, in its action upon metals and a variety of other bodies, exhibits a very striking similarity to that which chlorine exerts upon the same sub- stances, and as the remarkable analogy existing between these two principles extends itself even to the way of producing them, I shall take, on a future occasion, the liberty to submit to you some considerations regarding that subject, and bearing upon the two rival theories which have been founded with reference to chlorine. On the part which Ozone acts in the Atmosphere. Paste of starch, being mixed up with some chemically pure iodide of potas- sium and exposed for some time to the action of the open air, turns blue, whilst the same paste, shut up*in a bottle filled with atmospheric air, re- mains colourless. Pieces of white linen, having been drenched with a so- lution of pure iodide of potassium, and left for some time in the open air, assume a brownish tint, which is due to iodine set free under the cireum- stances mentioned. That elimination of iodine does not, as far as my expe- riments go, take place in air inclosed within a bottle, though that air should contain even half its volume of carbonic acid gas. Iodide of potassium, after having for some time been exposed to the action of the open air, re- tains traces of a peculiar peroxide of potassium, of iodate and carhonate of potash, whilst in iodide of potassium kept in well-closed vessels nothing of the kind is found. From these facts it appears that the before-mentioned elimination of iodine, and the formation both of peroxide of potassium and jiodate of potash, are not due to the action of free atmospheric oxygen nor to that of carbonic acid. According to my former experiments, air having been artificially ozonized, and made to pass through a solution of pure iodide of potassium, eliminates iodine, and causes the production of the said perox- ide, iodate and carbonate of potash. Hence it follows that ozone produces, with the iodide of potassium, the same chemical changes as those which are effected by the open air, and between the two actions there is a difference of degree only and ‘not of kind. Now neither free oxygen, nor azote, nor carbonic acid being able to pro- duce that effect, we must conclude that there is something peculiar in the atmosphere which causes the decomposition of our iodide, and has up to this present moment escaped the attention of chemists. But of what nature is ON OZONE. 99 that oxidizing agent? My experiments have shown that during the electri- cal discharges which we effect by artificial means within atmospheric air, ozone makes its appearance, and from that fact we are allowed, I think, to draw the inference that ozone is also produced as often as the electrical equi- librium of the atmosphere suffers disturbance from natural causes. Now electrical discharges of that description continually taking place in that at- . mosphere, it follows that the odoriferous principle is continually formed there. This conclusion, taken together with the before-mentioned fact, that iodide of potassium is changed by ozone exactly in the same way as it is by atmo- spheric air, renders it highly probable, if not altogether certain, that the pe- euliar oxidizing agent contained in our atmosphere is nothing but ozone produced by atmospheric electricity. Starting from that supposition, it is very easy to see why the freely circulating air only acts upon the iodide, and why stagnant or inclosed air does not. The quantity of ozone contained in a small volume of air must be exceedingly minute, and large quantities of air are therefore required to pass over a particle of iodide in order to cause a perceptible elimination of iodine. If ozone is to be considered as a constituent part of our atmosphere, and it be a well-ascertained fact that ozone is capable of oxidizing a great number of substances at the common temperature, we can hardly help ascri- bing to that subtle agent many slow oxidations which are effected in the atmosphere. As electrical discharges take place not only during a thunder- storm, but daily and hourly, and as those discharges give rise to the produc- tion of ozone, that principle would by degrees accumulate to an alarming amount, and so as to endanger animal life, if nature had not taken care to remove it almost as quickly as it is formed. That removal is principally effected by the large quantities of organic matter which cover the surface of the earth, and which are suspended in the waters of the ocean. Not one single elementary body, and very few oxidizable compounds, com- bine at the common temperature with free oxygen; oxidizable substances must be more or less heated in order to unite with that element. And it isa well-known fact, that oxygen, being in certain states of combination, is able to combine at the common temperature with a great variety of substances. Such being the case, we must be rather surprised at the facility with which organic substances, placed in contact with the atmosphere, are decomposed and transformed into carbonic acid and water, and that circumstance must strike us still more if we consider that carbon and hydrogen require high temperatures to be united with free oxygen. On account of the facts men- tioned, it is rather difficult to admit that it is the gaseous oxygen of the at- mosphere which combines with the carbon and hydrogen of organic mat- - ters. According to the statements I have made, ozone has the power to de- stroy all vegetable colours, and is taken up by a variety of organic substances. I think there can be hardly any doubt that the reactions mentioned are due to the oxygen of ozone being thrown upon the oxidizable constituent parts of vegetable and animal matter, and it is therefore very likely that atmospheric _ ozone acts some part in the slow decomposition which organic substances _ undergo in the open air, and that atmospheric ozone has also something to _ do with the common bleaching process. I however do not mean to say that the mentioned oxidations are exclusively to be ascribed to that ozone which _ is produced by the agency of atmospheric electricity. _- We know that ozone may be produced in another than electrical manner, namely, by what the French call action de présence, or by the catalytic force _ of Berzelius. Phosphorus, in its action upon moist atmospheric air, exhibits the most interesting example of the kind, so that we may consider it as a H2 100 REPORT—1845. fundamental phenomenon which will best serve us to develope our ideas re- garding the course of the slow oxidations which take place in the atmosphere. Though phosphorus be one of the most readily oxidizable substances, it does not, to a perceptible degree, combine at the common temperature with the oxygen of atmospheric air, if the latter be completely deprived of its moisture. But no sooner has aqueous vapour been added to that air, than the oxidation of phosphorus begins, and along with it the emission of light and the production of ozone. Of that agent we know that it oxidizes readily at the common temperature even silver and iodine, and of course phosphorus too. Hence it appears that ozone, at the very moment of its being formed under the catalytic influence of phosphorus, out of atmospheric oxygen and water, reacts upon phosphorus, and causes both the formation of phosphatic acid and the emission of light. Every chemist knows the fact that dry atmospheric air is not capable of oxidizing at the common temperature even the most oxidizable metals, and that under the same circumstances dry organic matters are not acted upon by anhydrous atmospheric air. Hence we conclude, that besides the atmo- spheric oxygen, water acts an important part in the slow oxidations which both the inorganic and organic substances undergo in the open air. As far as I know, chemists entertain the opinion that in the cases men- tioned water acts only a secondary part, that is to say, the part of a solvent for oxygen. It is supposed that the gaseous state of that body weakens consi- derably its affinity for the oxidizable substances, and it is said that the affinity is much increased by depriving oxygen of its gaseous condition, for instance, by dissolving that body in water. As long as we had not been acquainted with the remarkable action exerted by phosphorus upon moist atmospheric air, the notions alluded to appeared to be plausible enough, and notably the rapid acidification which phosphorus at the common temperature undergoes in humid air could satisfactorily be accounted for in the way mentioned. But in the present state of science we can no longer keep up that view, and are obliged to admit that the slow com- bustion which phosphorus undergoes in damp air is principally, if not exclu- sively due to the exalted oxidizing power of ozone engendered by the cata- lytic force of phosphorus. Now if phosphorus enjoys the power of deter- mining the atmospheric oxygen to unite with water into ozone, I think the conjecture is not over-bold which ascribes the same faculty to some other oxidizable substances. In this respect shining wood offers a very remarkable case. It is well known that the substance mentioned exhibits the slow com- bustion under circumstances very similar to those under which phosphorus undergoes the same change. Water being taken away both from atmo- spheric air and the rotten wood, that wood ceases to shine in the dark, and the formation of carbonic acid is also stopped. Now we cannot say that it is the want of water on account of which the oxidation of the wood is prevented, because out of the product of the slow combustion a protecting film is formed round the combustible matter, as might be said regarding phosphorus ; car- bonic acid, being a gaseous substance, leaves the wood as soon as it is produced. It seems not unlikely that the peculiar bearing of shining wood is due to the same cause to which phosphorus owes its remarkable properties, and if that conjecture is allowed to be made, we may go further, and admit the possibility that the organic substances which undergo a decomposition in the open air possess the power of producing ozone out of free oxygen and water, and that it is on this account that those substances require, besides oxygen, some water, in order to be resolved at the common temperature into carbonic acid and water. ON OZONE. 101 ‘Why that power is not enjoyed by uncombined carbon or hydrogen we know no more than we can as yet give a good reason for the fact that oxygen, being in a certain state of combination, is more apt to unite with oxidizable substances than uncombined oxygen. The phosphorescence of the sea, which never fails to strike with astonishment every man who witnesses for the first time that beautiful pheenomenon, seems to originate in organic matter, which in a state of minute mechanical division is mixed up with the waters of the ocean. If Iam not mistaken, one of the first-rate philoso- phical observers of the day, Ehrenberg, takes that view of the subject. The intensity of this phosphorescence is not everywhere the same; in the tropical climates the phenomenon is more brilliant than in the seas of the colder regions. It is also well known that the phosphorescence of the sea is inti- mately connected with the motion of its waters, or to speak more properly, that the phenomenon is dependent upon the particles of those waters being brought in immediate contact with the atmosphere. When a ship moves about, or the wind happens to agitate the sea, the surface of the brine is continually renewed, and consequently new particles of organic matter are every moment brought into contact with the surrounding air. As under these circumstances the phosphorescence is always called forth, the German philosopher has come to the conclusion that the phenomenon mentioned is principally due to an action exerted by the atmosphere upon the waters of the ocean, and ingeniously enough Ehrenberg considers that phosphorescence as the effect of a sort of respiration of the sea. If the waters of the ocean were found to contain phosphorus dissolved, nobody would doubt in the least that the phosphorescence in question depended upon the slow com- bustion of that substance taking place at the surface of the sea, and we could easily see why the motion of its waters, the temperature, &c., exert an in- fluence upon the phenomenon. Now as we have got in shining wood an organic matter which, like phosphorus, undergoes the slow combustion in moist air, and as it is not unlikely that phosphorus and shining wood act in the same way upon atmospheric air, that is to say, that both substances pro- duce ozone out of the oxygen and aqueous vapour of the atmosphere, it ap- pears not improbable that there exist some other organic substances enjoying the property of shining in the dark. The organic matter occurring in the waters of the sea, and originating in the remains of a countless number of animal beings which are daily dying in the depths of the ocean, may very possibly enjoy that property, so much the more as that matter happens to be in a state of extremely minute mechanical division. According to the conjecture suggested, we may consider that animal matter, with regard to its bearing to the atmosphere, as a representative either of phosphorus or shining wood, and we can account for the phosphorescence of the sea in the same way as we have explained the slow combustion which phosphorus undergoes in moist atmospheric air. Agreeably to that view, the light given out by the waters of the ocean must be considered as the effect of a process of oxidation taking place on a most extensive scale, which process is carried on less by the free oxygen of the atmosphere, than by that of the ozone which we suppose to be produced by the catalytic force of the animal matter of the sea. It is possible that the glow-worm and other animals shining in the dark generate a matter which acts upon atmospheric air in the same way as phos- _ phorus does. ; peat is one of the facts best known, that carbonic acid is continually pro- _ duced in the animal body, and that the formation of that compound is inti- ‘mately connected both with the functions of respiration and the change of 102 REPORT—1845. blood. Wherever that carbonic acid may be produced, certain it is that the carbon required for its production comes from the body, and that the oxida- tion of that element takes place at a temperature at which carbon, being in a free state, does not combine with oxygen. From the large quantities of carbonic acid produced during the respiration of an,animal, and the minute quantities of free ozone inhaled, it appears that that carbonic acid cannot be engendered by atmospheric ozone. May we be allowed to suppose that blood being put in contact with atmospheric oxygen acts upon the latter as phosphorus does upon the same oxygen? Is it perhaps to ozone being formed in the way alluded to that the carbonic acid breathed out owes its origin? May we compare, in a chemical point of view, phosphorus placed in atmospheric air to an animal breathing in the same air? Strangely as these questions may sound, we can hardly help putting them, after having discovered in ozone so powerful an oxidizing agent, and found in phosphorus so remark- able a means to produce it. In spite of the floods of light which recent chemical and physiological re- searches have thrown upon the function of respiration, we are still very far from understanding thoroughly that phenomenon, and for that very reason every fact which promises to unveil further that mystery is, in my opinion, highly worthy of all the attention both of physiologists and chemical philo- sophers. And as the subject I have treated of is such as to remind, as it were of itself, of its possible bearings to respiration, I think it will not be left entirely unnoticed. Considering the great importance of the part which the atmosphere acts in different departments of organic and inorganic nature, it is very desirable that it should become more and more the subject of the most careful and ex- tensive researches, and that chemists in particular should direct their atten- tion to those phenomena which take place in atmospheric air, or are depen- dent upon the latter; for much as modern science has done in that field of inquiry, it cannot be denied that the greatest mysteries are yet to be unveiled in it. Holding the opinion that the extraordinary action which phosphorus exerts upon atmospheric air discloses to us a fundamental phenomenon, I am inclined to believe that that action, once fully understood, will give us an insight into the cause of a series of phenomena which at this present moment are yet enveloped in utter darkness. On the Influence of Friction upon Thermo-electricity. By Pauu Erman of Berlin. [A communication read to the Mathematical and Physical Section, and ordered to be printed entire amongst the Reports. ] Are the forces that govern the interior constitution of bodies wo in number, and essentially distinct; or do the effects usually called chemical, proceed from the same cause as those to which we give the appellation of mechanical ? The future progress of science depends on the solution of this problem, which the recent development of physics has brought almost entirely within the province of electricity. In this province, the two schools, the chemical and the contact of theorists, rival each other in the sagacity and energy they display in the defence of their tenets. Let us indicate however a strategical position, the importance of which the contact party do not appear to have sufficiently seized. Friction is merely a repeated molecular contact, so that the mathematical expression of its effects would perhaps only consist in higher ‘ON THE INFLUENCE OF FRICTION UPON THERMO-ELECTRICITY. 103 powers of the quantity that expresses the effect of contact. We have known from time immemorial that it developes heat, without understanding the reason of its so doing ; subsequently it was found that it developes the static electricity of isolators; and at length Mr. Faraday has found that it modifies equally the dynamic electricity produced by the contact of thermo-electrical conductors. In spite of the importance of this last fact and the weight of so great a name, it does not appear to have met with sufficient attention in scientific circles. Some observers, who appeal to the authority of Mr. Em- met, express what they consider to be the law of this action, by saying that thermo-electricity of contact is changed invariably into the opposite state by the friction of the two metallic factors. Others, on the contrary, deny in toto the influence of friction on thermo-electric phenomena. Thus it was recently adverted to in a scientific journal as a highly paradoxical fact, that in a given case the friction had caused a change of sign in the thermo-elec- tric declination produced by the contact of two heterogeneous metals; but at the same time this “ unheard-of” fact, as it was called, was explained by supposing gratuitously that the friction had been effected whilst keeping the metal to be rubbed in the naked hand, and in thus producing an accidental change of temperature. This explanation was offered on the assumption that friction in itself is not capable of producing any effect. Between the two extremes of tribothermo-eleetric omnipotence and nullity, I have tried to discover the middle course of truth. If Iam bold enough to call your atten- tion to some of the preliminary results of these labours, it is solely with a view of contributing to the more general discussion of this question, and with the hope of some observers joining me in these researches, and con- trolling, rectifying, and extending my experiments. For the experiments now to be mentioned, one of Nobili’s thermo-electric multiplicators of particularly delicate structure is requisite. Being furnished with an instrument of this kind, I proceeded in the following manner. A bar of bismuth was joined to that branch of the rheophore of this instru- ment where the silver of a voltaic element (silver and zinc) produces an eastern deviation, and a bar of antimony to the other branch of the rheo- phore. Both these bars were provided with handles, so that they could be employed without undergoing any change of temperature in the manipu- lation. When, through these being stationed in the same room, the two bars had previously arrived at the temperature of the surrounding space, no de- viation whatsoever was produced by their contact, but the slightest friction of either of them against the other gave immediately an eastern deviation. This latter extended even to an entire revolution of the needle in the same sense if the friction proceeded rather more rapidly. By gently raising the common temperature of the two bars to 30° or 35° of Reaum. scale, their contact in a state of repose always produced a stationary eastern deviation of about 30°, which by rubbing was further increased to 60°, and there likewise remained invariable as long as friction continued. At length, when I cooled the bars (below the temperature of the room) by the evaporation of naphtha vitrioli, their contact continually produced a western deviation, which by rub- bing was instantaneously changed into a contrary or eastern one of apparently the same amount as before, and this likewise remained stationary as long as the friction continued, but by the interruption of it the western deviation was immediately restored. This simple sketch of the phenomena of changes of intensity or even of sign, which friction at the point of contact gives to the deviation of a multiplicator’s needle, will already suffice to exhibit it as a mere consequence of the heat produced by the action of rubbing. Indeed, by joining to the point of contact of the two metals a button somewhat warmed 104: REPORT—1845. LNT KO or cooled (in comparison with the surrounding space), the influence on de- viation was just as the above-mentioned effects of friction might lead us to expect. Iwas confirmed in this position by operating on many groups or eombinations of the substances which form the thermo-electric series. Thus, for instance, the sulphuret of molybdenum, which when joined to bismuth gives no deviation by difference of temperature, appeared likewise with- out any influence when rubbed on the same metal. The sulphuret of lead (galena), which alone in the whole series makes bismuth negative by heat, renders it also negative by friction. Omitting for the present some very interesting details, which I reserve for a monograph of tribothermie elec- tricity, it seems evident, therefore, that in these experiments the metallic conductors of electricity are thoroughly devoid of such specific or direct faculty of producing positive or negative electrodynamic actions, as the iso- lating substances possess for producing electrostatic effects ; if you should not incline, with some of our philosophers, to regard even the electricity pro- duced by friction of isolators as but a modification of heat. But postponing this question, let us see in what manner the theory, and perhaps even the practical application of electricity, may be promoted by the researches on tribothermic electrization. For this purpose we must enter into some further details :—1. The tribothermical effect is an instantaneous one. Indeed, at the very beginning of friction of any intensity, the needle moves. There is no trace whatever of the retardation undergone by heat when spreading through the mass of any substance. 2. The tribothermic effect is likewise in- dependent of the masses putin action. The point ofa needle rubbed against a considerable heterogeneous mass, gives immediately the deviation ; and an increase of extent of the surfaces in friction does not appear even to add materially to the intensity of electrization. 3. The deviation vanishes quite as instantaneously as it commenced, and the immediate return of the needle to its primitive station is even one of the most striking features of the phzno- menon. These three facts are very instructive, and seem by far more likely to be effected by a vibratory motion of molecules, than by the continuous efflux of a calorific fluid. Indeed, if we suppose any mass imbued with a given quantity of heat, and producing, when brought into contact with the other elements of a couple, a certain deviation proportionable to this quan- tity ; the slightest increase of deviation would then require a considerable addition of heat, and, such addition taking place, the deviation could but augment very slowly, while, on the contrary, we find by experiment that the slightest friction produces a strong deviation. Moreoyer, supposing once more that the very quantity of heat, represented by the temperature and by the mass of the whole body, were the efficient cause of the deviation, the in- crease of deviation produced should be durable, while by experiment we always see it instantaneously vanish when friction ceases, just as should be the case were it produced solely by a molecular action of the rubbing-points. In the event of the refrigerated metal giving a western deviation, which a mo- mentaneous friction inverts into an eastern one, but only as long as the fric- tion lasts, the result is still more paradoxical, and we have probably no other explanation of it, but by admitting a specific difference between the mode of production of heat in this-case on the one hand, and in that of heat per- manently residing in the body on the other. The type of molecular vibra- tions will once more, and very naturally, be recalled by this remarkable fact. 4. The tribothermic deviations attain in every case amaximum, which under similar circumstances is different for different couples of metals. Indeed the friction produces, while it exists, new increments of heat which must give rise to increments of deviation. These latter however become more and more ae ON THE INFLUENCE OF FRICTION UPON THERMO-ELECTRICITY. 105 insensible, and at length seem only active in causing the persistence of the maximum of deviation. I found the values of the maxima for different couples just in the same proportion as their thermo-electric effects. The four above-mentioned facts require an assiduous inquiry, supported by numeric determinations. The quantity of permanent heat, which by a friction of given duration accumulates in the metals, should be measured, and it must be ascertained whether this residue is equal in each of them; in other words, whether at the end of a continued friction the needle returns precisely to its primitive position, or only approaches to it ; and, if an excess of temperature is denoted, in which of the two metals it has taken place. Any one who knows the difficulty of managing such delicate instruments, will understand why, after innumerable essays, I am not yet able to give a categorical answer to these questions. After a friction somewhat prolonged the needle does not return imme- diately to its original position, but the difference is very trifling, and some- times doubtful or ambiguous. Whenever, by a very efficacious friction, I had carried the deviation to a maximum of 60°, the needle, on the friction ceasing, underwent a vibration of six or eight degrees, but as the slowness of these oscillations enabled the temperature to become equal for the two bars, the first position of equilibrium remained ambiguous. In one apparatus a dise of bismuth was uniformly rubbed during twenty minutes on a disc of antimony. When the friction ceased, I immediately inserted between the two metals a highly susceptible thermopile, and it appeared by this process that antimony was constantly the most heated. Nevertheless, I regard this point as not yet fully proved. In excusing the defectiveness of my results by the arduous nature of the observations required, I consider it my duty to indicate to the philosophers who would co-operate in the eminently important tribothermical researches, a circumstance which most decidedly contributes to their difficulty. ‘The metals to be examined must be joined to the multiplicator by rheophoric wires, and these are mostly heterogeneous to the metals, as bismuth, antimony and cobalt cannot yet be wiredrawn by any known process. In employing wires of cop- per, of platinum, or of nickel, we might hope that their specific action on the thermo-electrical elements could be neglected, and that therefore the observed deviation might be assumed to result only from the temperature, or from the friction of the thermo-electric couple. A course of rather tedious experiments has shown me that this supposition is most erroneous and utterly deceptive, when applied to refined investigations and highly susceptible instruments. A multitude of contradictory and incoherent facts accumulated themselves like a chaos, before I arrived at the source of error. Thus, when I broke a bar of chemically pure antimony in the middle, and rubbed against each other the once contiguous surfaces of these two parts, I obtained very sensible deviations, but sometimes positive and sometimes negative. It was the same with the bismuth when similarly treated. It appeared at length that these strange results were merely owing to the action of the thermo-electrie metals on their heterogeneous rheophores, for two copper elements with copper rheophores, and two zine elements with rheophores of zinc, never give the slightest trace of tribothermo-electric effect, whilst any of these two metals produces a strong deviation, when after friction it is singly applied to the button of the multiplicator. A voluminous journal of attempts to decide the questions treated in the former part of this paper was nullified by the unex- _ pected thermo-electric influence of the rheophores destroying its value. The best means I ultimately discovered for reducing this source of error, whose entire: elimination is impossible, consists in the interposition of a plate cut 106 REPORT—1845. from a piece of pure graphite, between the thermo-electric agent and its rheophore. The graphite acts but very feebly by its contact with heteroge- neous substances, and at the same time proves an excellent conductor for electricity excited in any other manner. It is desirable that other means may be found to obviate the impediments resulting from the extreme sensibility of the apparatus which must be necessarily employed, as a minute absolute in- tensity is a characteristic feature of all tribo-electric actions, and can alone explain the reason of their having been so long either unnoticed or errone- ously estimated. When, by immersion in a vessel of warm water, the tempe- rature of a bar of bismuth and of another of antimony is elevated to upwards of 45° R., they will give by this contact a very strong eastward deviation, but the friction will not cause it to increase any more in asensible degree. When, on the contrary, the same two bars are greatly refrigerated by being plunged in triturated ice, their contact gives a strong negative or western deviation, but the friction in this case, far from inverting this effect, is not even able to di- minish it in any material degree. The calorific increments produced by fric- tion are in themselves very feeble; the tribothermic multiplicator acts, in respect to them, as a microscopic apparatus ; but the fact that its indications are circumscribed within certain limits, and becomes insensible when these limits are passed, is of striking importance. We need only to ascertain by very careful experiments the degrees of heat and of refrigeration given to the metals, by which their friction loses its influence on the needle, in order to obtain for a scale of tribothermic production of heat, two fixed points which can be reproduced in any instance, in exactly the same manner as the fixed terms of our ordinary thermometer. The philosophers who may apply them- selves to tribothermic experiments, will not fail to meet with the paradox of two electric currents acting simultaneously in contrary directions. In the frequent cases where the contact produces a deviation of the needle in a certain sense and the friction in the contrary one, we can so modify these actions that the needle remains in equilibrium in an intermediate position, obeying the two currents that travel along the same wire in contrary directions. As to the obscure question of the relation between the direction in which the heat moves, according to the received terminology of the thermo-electric phenomena, and the direction in which electricity proceeds, it is not impossible, although highly improbable, that tribothermo-electric researches may throw some light upon it. The following Table presents the state of this question :— Being at the temperature Being heated, of the surrounding space. p ‘ The contact gives an eastern deviation. totes) ae 4 Beat loses heat and gains electricity. ? ‘ The contact gives an eastern deviation. eee “eign ‘Ban gains heat and gains electricity. Being at the t tur Being refrigerated. of the sitergundirg spdde, ati) Bismuth h eilinan The contact gives a western deviation. Lem tr Y-+ ) Bismuth gains heat and /oses electricity. . : The contact gives a western deviation. Saou | ee 1 Bismoth loses heat and loses electricity. The friction increases the eastern deviations and changes all the western into eastern ones, that is to say, that bismuth becomes equally positive by an increase or a diminution of heat. May it be inferred that heat when nascent by the act of friction has a property specifically different from that of heat residing previously in a metal? Are we perhaps on the eve of finding at length something analogous to the brilliant discovery of Peltier, that gal- vanic electricity produces heat in proceeding from antimony to bismuth, ON THE INFLUENCE OF FRICTION UPON THERMO-ELECTRICITY. 107 and cold when travelling inversely, by which M. Lenz has produced conge- lation ? The electric telegraph is becoming popular at present, but it generally re- quires an apparatus which is variable in its effects and expensive in its employ- ment. It would therefore be advantageous to substitute the purely mecha- nical principle of the tribothermic telegraph. For by removing the stopper of a wheel-work, a disc of bismuth rubs against another of antimony, and at the same instant the needle at the opposite extreme of the rheophore is put in motion. I have ascertained the instantaneousness of this operation for tolerably considerable distances. Employed as a signal, it would have the advantage, that after the interval of some days or months, when the clockwork is put in motion, the effect of friction would take place, whereas in the vol- taic telegraph there would be a chance of the combination having lost its efficacy by the lapse of time. P.S.—Berlin, August. A highly competent judge (Mr. Grove) being of opinion that I have imperfectly explained the grounds for my suspicion of a possible analogy between certain effects of the heat which is generated in the act of friction and the discovery of M. Peltier, I regret that in my paper I have affected a form too strictly aphoristic. I shall endeavour to remedy this by selecting, among many others, one tribothermo-electric fact, whose very para- doxical character first induced me to suppose such an analogy. Let a erystal of sulphuret of lead (galena) be placed at one of the poles of the multiplier, and at the other pole (to be alternately placed in action) of the rheophore a bar of bismuth and a bar of antimony ; the bismuth being rubbed against the crystal, takes immediately a negative electric charge. This exception was already known for the same metal heated. Fromall the analogies hitherto known, it results that antimony being rubbed in the same way should become positive, and that to obtain by it a negative declination of the magnetic needle, it ought to be refrigerated. Now I find by experiment that the friction of antimony against a crystal of galena gives absolutely the same declination as the bismuth: in fact, the direction, the intensity and the quickness of the effect, are in the two cases sensibly equal; and we cannot deny that in this very paradoxical case, it appears that an increment of nascent heat produces in the antimony the effect of cooling. The singular effects which are ob- served when uncrystallized masses of sulphuret of lead are substituted for the single crystal of galena, confirm the supposition that the effects of friction depend on molecular movements. I am anxious that more practised observers may succeed. in obtaining tribothermical effects by simple internal vibration of elastic sound-plates. I have not yet succeeded in this. But the great prize in this race of discovery would fall to him who should discover a dif- ference of thermo-electric action, according as a magnetically polarized bar should be rubbed (that is, molecularly heated) at the one or the other of its poles. The magnet-stone and the magnetic sulphuret of iron, exert, when rubbed, a strong thermo-electric action. I have employed these substances, as well as magnetic steel bars, in this curious investigation, but hitherto without success. Utter 108 REPORT—1845. Ou the Self-registering Meteorological Instruments employed in the Observatory at Senftenberg. By the BARon SENFTENBERG. [A communication read to the Mathematical and Physical Section, and ordered to be printed entire among the Reports. ] Ir any branch of natural philosophy can derive advantage from comparison of observations made at different localities, this is particularly the case with meteorology. Isolated observations made at one and the same spot may furnish valuable data; but the ultimate benefit that can by them accrue to science, however carefully they be made, is only obtained by their combina- tion with corresponding ones, made at more or less remote stations on our globe, thus establishing a first basis, succeeded by others, to form the links of that chain of arguments which may lead to the discovery of the primary causes of atmospheric changes. Itis by this process that we have already been enabled to ascertain that me- teorological phenomena are but the wheels of that great mechanism, whereof change of temperature is the motive power, whence the greater commotions extending over vast regions, as well as also minor local alterations, can be traced. Although the results of phenomena included in the first class are in general of higher importance than those in the second, these latter ones are not the less deserving of minute attention, for the purpose of arriving at a just perception of the process that takes place in the higher regions of the atmosphere, and are even indispensable for ascertaining the effect of local causes, from which each single observation must first be cleared before it can be made use of in com- parison with others made possibly under different influences. For this pur- pose observations made at two observatories at no great distance, but in other respects very differently situated, whereof the one is in a valley, the other on a mountain, or the one on an island surrounded by a great extent of water, the other on an extended level sandy plain, may lead to important results ; and such have indeed already been derived from comparative observations made at Geneva and at the Hospice on the St. Bernard. The success to be derived from such observations depends, however, mainly on their regularity and multiplicity at both stations at stated intervals; for phenomena arising from local causes are generally of short duration, and would escape the notice of an observer who makes but two or three observations in the course of a day, and of others he would have seen but the beginning or the end, which would furnish but imperfect data for comparison. It is on this account that self-registering instruments, regularly compared with the usual ones, afford great advantages, as no phenomenon, of however transient a duration, can occur without being registered by them. Such instruments have for nearly two years been in use at the Senftenberg Observatory, and the proofs of what can be accomplished by them are detailed in vol. v. of the Magnetic and Meteorological Observations at Prague, which contain, however, only those made with the barometrograph. More recently thermo- and hygrome- trographs have also been in active use there. Of course such instruments are complicated in their construction, and require practice in their manage- ment, whence the first series of observations are not so regular as those made with the usual ones, nor are the specimens now produced* intended to fur- nish the foundation for establishing new data or hypotheses; they are only intended as specimens to show what results might be obtained by these means under more favourable circumstances. A detailed description of these in- struments is contained in the third and fourth volume of the Magnetic and * Consisting of a selected series of tables, and diagrams of observations recorded contem- poraneously at Prague and Senftenberg. 8 : J ¥ < ON SELF-REGISTERING METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS. 109 Meteorological Observations made at Prague; it is therefore deemed suffi- cient now only to state that they register from five to five minutes the va- riations of pressure, temperature and moisture of the atmosphere. The appended numerical Tables contain the hourly variations, and are of course only extracts made from the original curves marked from five to five minutes by the autograph, which was deemed sufficient for ascertaining the numerical value of any point of the curve. The series now submitted to observation is selected from and confined to days when considerable atmospheric changes occurred, so as to afford a proof of the advantage to be derived by em- ploying such instruments. On other days, where the variations are more confined to the ordinary rates, fewer observations and at greater intervals are sufficient to make these apparent, us on such days the differences in variation at less distant places are so insignificant that they become scarcely percepti- ble; no doubt however the medium of extended regular observations would afford the means to appreciate such, but for the present and first attempt and trial, days when the atmosphere was more agitated seem better suited for the proposed purpose. [Table II. contains the Observations for the 18—-19th June as an example. ] The two stations where these observations were made are,—1. Senftenberg, which is nearly due east 100 English miles from Prague, a distance quite sufficient to produce variations in these phenomena, which are however in- creased by other local causes. The observatory there is situated on the centre of the property on the river Adler, 1281 Paris feet above the level of the sea, in latitude 50° 5! 8!'-8, and longitude, east of Greenwich, 1" 5! 46!"-98. Its immediate site is on lias and mica slate, but at no great distance it is more or less surrounded by higher ground with granite, gneiss and old red sand- stone, and considerable forests. 2. Prague, situated in a more level country, and the river Moldau flowing through the town with a breadth of about 200 fathoms, is only 524 Paris feet above the level of the sea, without much woodland in its neighbourhood, the lower strata of the surrounding hills being principally lias, sandstone and argillaceous schist,—all circumstances which may produce influence on the atmospheric variations. After these preliminary remarks, a little attehtion to the curves described by both barometrographs will soon convince us that they run nearly parallel, and that it is more particularly the deviation from parallelism which should be more nearly examined. The pressure of the air at Prague being 0°9 inch greater than at Senftenberg, and the curve of Prague being the lower one, their approach towards each other when the curves are rising proves that the rising commenced earlier at Prague than at Senftenberg ; whereas an approach when the curves are descending denotes a quicker diminution of the pressure at Senftenberg. This is applicable to the extreme bends, or those points of the curve where a maximum in either sense has taken place, where the rising passes into falling, or the reverse ; and in those cases when a curye that was before running nearly in a horizontal direction gradually begins to rise or fall; but if two curves continue for a while both to rise or to fall, a gradual convergency or divergency must also be accounted for by the weight of the atmosphere undergoing a change of the same nature at both places, but a greater one in the one than the other. Variations, how- ever, observed during a longer period, embracing a succession of days, are generally so nearly of the same value at both stations, that by present expe- rience no decided opinion can be expressed in which of them the total _ amount of change is greatest. = Me py] e annexed Table shows the amount of barometric variation during forty- five days, by which it appears that the medium at Prague was only 0°005 inch H 110 REPORT—1845. greater than at Senftenberg, a difference so small that no conclusion ean by it be arrived at to determine at which of the two stations it was greater. It may thus be concluded that the deviation of the curves from parallelism is produced by the difference in time at which the maximum and minimum took place at the two stations. By a closer inspection of the curves, it ap- pears that when they are either approaching to or receding from each other, this is produced by a minimum which has taken place sooner at Prague than Senftenberg. Thus the first curve on the 18th and 19th of June at Prague shows a minimum between the hours nineteen and twenty, whilst in the Senftenberg curve it is not perceptible till the hours of twenty-two to twenty- three, This fact becomes still more conspicuous on other days, for on the 24th and 25th of August, where a minimum occurs in Prague at 4 o'clock, and at Senftenberg only at 10 o'clock, on the 29th and 30th of September we find the minimum at Prague already at the eleventh hour, which was only reached at Senftenberg on the nineteenth hour. Further, Oct. 3 and 4, minimum at Prague at the fifteenth hour, at Senftenberg at the sixteenth hour; Oct. 7 and 8, minimum at Prague at the second hour, at Senftenberg at the fifth hour ; Nov. 8 and 9, minimum at Prague at the seventeenth hour forty-five minutes, at Senftenberg at the nineteenth hour ; Nov. 13 and 14, minimum at Prague at the twelfth hour, at Senftenberg at the thirteenth hour; and Nov. 15 and 16, minimum at Prague at the sixteenth hour, at Senftenberg at the twenty-second hour. [The curves for the 18—19th June, 24-95th June, and 25th—26th June, are given in Plate II. as examples. ] These facts have recurred so regularly, that although the number of ob- servations is not great, the law may be established between the above-named two places of observation with a degree of certainty the more to be relied on, as it invariably takes place whatever the direction of the wind may be. It thus follows that it has its crigin in the higher regions, and is independent of local influences. A change in the opposite direction, that is, a transition from rising to falling, does not appear greatly to affect the parallelism of the curves ; at all events no decisive proofs to that effect can be traced from the maxima of Sept. 30 and Oct. 1, Oct. 3 and 4, Oct. 4 and 5, Oct.6 and 7, Oct. 7 and 8, Oct. 14 and 15, and Nov. 15 and 16. But it is not only the minima terminating a long-continued decrease of a curve that follow the above-mentioned law, but also disturbances that hitherto have been considered as proceeding from local causes, such as transient gales of wind, thunder-storms, sudden changes of temperature and moisture, all which are indicated earlier at Prague than at Senftenberg by the autographs. It must however be owned, that the number of such eases hitherto observed is too small to draw certain inferences from. As an instance, the barome- tric curve at Prague on the 24th and 25th of June shows between the hours twenty and twenty-one a sudden transitory increase of pressure of the air, oc- casioned by a storm which came from the west-north-west wheeling round toa breeze from the east-north-east. The barometer at Senftenberg did not begin to rise before the twenty-first hour and thirty minutes, and continued to do so till the twenty-third hour, the wind at east-south-east. On the following day both places were visited by thunder-storms, which greatly affected the state of the barometer, causing it alternately to rise and fall. At Prague the first indications in the curve were perceptible at 7 o'clock, and the undu- lations extended to 10 o’clock. The phenomenon occupied the southern part of the hemisphere, the wind at south-west. In Senftenberg the thunder- storm lasted from 9 till 11, and at 9 o’clock the wind was north-west. On the 27th of June the thermometrograph at Prague indicated a rapid decrease of temperature between 3 and 4 o’clock, which was also perceived at Senf- = ne ee ee ee ON SELF-REGISTERING METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS. 111 tenberg between 4 and 5 o'clock, and this falling lasted for one hour and twenty minutes. The beginning of this phenomenon was marked so pre- cisely by the autographs, that no uncertainty greater than five minutes could have occurred. These first trials are only intended as examples to show the method of using such instruments with the view of furnishing dates for the advancement of science. The proposed object to be effected by the hourly observations for thirty-six successive hours, at a fixed time, may by such instruments be more readily and minutely attained. It is hardly to be expected that the phznomena suited for such studies should exactly occur on such days as have been previously selected, whilst by the assistance of such instruments they cannot fail to be registered at all times and whenever they may occur. The example here furnished may suffice as a first attempt to show in what manner such an apparatus may be applied for the promotion of science by multiplying the materials fit to be studied. If they should be deemed of too voluminous a nature, the consideration should not be lost sight of, that such studies have never suffered from too great a multiplicity of useful data, but frequently from the contrary cause. Taste I. Barometric Maxima and Minima at Senftenberg and Prague, August 1844. Senftenberg. Prague, Difference. Senftenberg. Prague. Diffarenge. Max. | Min. | Max, | Min, |Senf.! Prag. Max. | Min. | Max, Min. Senf. Prag, 0. 333-56) 321-68] 344-50 331-50| 6°88) 1-00 Oct. 7.| 391-47] 316-76 381-23] 387-01) 471 | 429 . | 321-88] 319-44| 331-95 328-71) 2-44! 3-24)| ,, 8. | 821-61] 319-07, 331-71/ 329-88) 2:54) 1:83 . | 319-28] 317-66] 328-90, 327-61] 1-62 1-29] ,, 11.| 321-32) 317-86 331-41) 327-21] 3:46 | 4:20 . | 319-33] 315-24| 328-54| 325-05] 4-03) 8-49] ,, 12, | 322-14] 320-34| 332-27| 330-80] 1:80 | 1-47 . | 318-25) 315-47| 328-37 325-78] 2-78, 2-59)| ,, 15,| 318-42) 315-69) 328-23) 325:33) 2-738 | 2:90 6. | 318-79] 315-72) 328-92 326-70) 3-07| 2:22) ,, 20, | 320-15] 316-05) 330-16) 25:56, 4:10} 4-60 . | 319-48] 317-75] 329-33| 328-00) 1-73) 1:33] ,, 29, | 322-16] 319-62 332-47/ 3830-16} 254 | 231 . | 321-69] 319-24] 332-29 329-00) 2-45| 3:29] Noy. 1.| 321-96] 318-71 332-14) 328-49) 3:25 | 3°65 . | 319-00] 318-64] 329-40 328-59/0°36| 0-81] ,, 2, 318-58] 315-62! 828:31/325-18] 2-96 | 313 3. | 321-06) 317°34| 330-79) 328-09 3:72)2-70) ,, 3, | 815-53) 313-95, 325-69) 323-62/ 1:62 | 2-07 9.| 319-34] 317-76| 329-60 32873] 1-58/0:87| ,, 8. | 319-02] 316-30 329-17) 325-48) 2-72 | 369 1. | 319-09} 317-50) 329-75| 326-95) 1:59 2-80) ,, 9, | 316-21} 314-42 325:33/324-42) 1:79 | 0-91 4,| 318-15] 316:21| 328-71} 325°80| 1:94/2:91 ,, 9,|316-34) 314-42 326-04| 324-42; 1:92] 1-62 6. | 318-06] 315-63) 328-91) 325-72) 2-43 3-19] ,, 10,| 318-13) 316-25 327-33, 326-42) 1°88 | 9-91 2. | 319-90| 318-94) 329-51 328-69] 0-96|0-82| ,, 14.|322-92/ 317-75 333-69|327°88| 5°17] 5°81 . | 321-09] 318-62) 331-10' 328-72] 2°47/2:38| ,, 15.| 825-08] 328-04 335-84] 33386] 2-02 | 1-98 8. | 324-04! 321-82| 333-99) 331-35] 2-22, 2°64) ,, 15,| 3825-08] 323-09, 335-84|332-49| 1:99 | 3:35 . | 821-71| 320-00) 331-25) 329-67] 1-71) 1-58!) ,, 16,| 322-66) 320-73 332°31/ 331-64) 1:93 | 0-67 0. | 32306) 319-60) 334-05) 329-70| 3-46, 4°35) ,, 16, | 322-76) 320-73, 333-96 331-64, 2°03 | 2-32 1, | 323-68] 321-89] 334-25| 331-87| 1-79, 2°38) ,, 17./324:36 322°97) 335-06 33413] 1:39 | 0-938 4 | 2. | 321-77| 316-49] 331-69) 326-17) 5°28, 5°42| ,, 20.|324-27| 322-13 334-72, 332-47) 2-14 | 2-25 8. | 317-81] 315-49) 328:51|326-00| 2:32, 2-51) ,, 21.|321-84) 318-59| 332-23/ 329-60) 3:25 | 2-63 4, | 321-22) 315-30) 331-78] 826-04) 5-92) 5-74) Dec, 30, | 323-43) 320-95) 333-54) 380-94) 2-48 | 2-60 5. | 322-28) 320-74! 332-23| 330-32) 1-54) 1-91 Sum! 119-91 | 122-58 oe 320-49| 331-42| 330°35| 1-20) 1-07 Mean .| 2498| 2-554 3 112 Senf. . 321-88 . | 21:87 . | 21°86 21:85 21-84 21:83 21°82 21°81 21°68 21:59 21-49 21:38 21:19 20:99 20-80 20°65 20:30 20:22 20-10 20-02 20-00 19-92 19°65 19-44 . (319-28 18°97 18°81 18°57 18-29 18:13 17:96 17:80 17°79 W777 17°66 17°69 17°78 17:86 18:05 18:20 18:35 18:50 18°65 parent regularity of the flowing of the waves, producing certain of the maxima — Prag. 331-95 31-94 31-94 31:87 31-79 31:79 31-60 31-62 31:63 31-44 31-25 31-05 30°81 30-44 30-23 29:98 29-67 29:52 29-40 29:22 29-05 28-96 28:87 28-71 328°51 28°32 28°26 27°95 27°85 27-80 27°65 27:65 27°61 27-69 27°77 28-10 28:21 28°57 28°65 28°75 28°85 28°88 28-90 State of Barometer. P.—S. — 10°07 10:07 10-08 10:02 9-95 9-96 9:78 9°81 9:95 9°85 9-76 9:67 9-62 9-45 9-43 9°33 9:37 State of Thermometer. Senf.} Prag. 70\4 9:0 6-4 8°6 6:0 8-1 58 76 6:0 7:3 6:0 69 70) 71 9:3 8°5 10:0} 105 11:2} 11:7 12:0; 12:9 12°8| 14:0 13:7} 15:2 145} 16:4 15:2] 166 15°5| 18:2 15°77) 18:2 150} 18:5 147| 17:8 14:0} 16°5 12°0| 15:3 94) 14:8 86| 14:3 8:8] 13°6 va [412-9 «| 123 see 11:8 ose 11-4 J 111 age 11:0 et SO. 15-2} 12°6 Ppp ee a we | 147 ; 22:7 Priel a 5°) . 12-4 12-4 12:5 12:7 126 12°9 12-6 REPORT—1845. TaB_e II. 18th June, 1844. Relative Humidity. Ran Nol Papal P,—S. ||Senf. |Prag.|P.—S. ‘Senf. Prag.| p.—S. +2-0|| 76 | 64 | —12/ 2°86 [2°54 | 0-02 422)| 75 | 64 | —11|2°69 )2°74 |40-05 42:1]! 75 | 66 9 ||2-60 |2°71 |4.0-11 41:8|| 74 | 71 | — 3|)2°53 [2°81 | 40-28 +1:3|| 76 | 74 | — 2||2°64 |2-86 | 40-22 +0-9|| 77 | 73 | — 4|/2°67 |2°68 |+0-01 +0-1|| 75 | 72 | — 3]'2-82|2°74 |—0-08 —0°8 || 71 | 66 | — 5|/3-20 [2-80 | — 0-40 40:5 || 64 | 60 | — 43-00 |2-93 |—0-07 +05 || 55 | 50 | — 5/282 |2-68 |—0-14 40-9 || 57 | 41 | —16||3-14 |2-42 |_0-72 +1-2|| 51 | 40 | —11 ||2-98 |2-56 |_0-42 +15 || 54 | 40 | —14|/3-37 |2-77 |—0°60 41-9|| 45 | 39 | — 6//2-99 |2°64 |—0-35 41-4|| 48 | 88 | —10]3:36 |2-93 |—0-43 4+2-7|| 45 | 33 | —12|/3-38 2-91 |—0-47 +2-5|| 41 | 36 | — 5||3-00 [3:22 |4.0-22 +35 || 44 | 82 | —12|/3-03 |2-89 |—0-14 +3:1|| 50 | 35 | —15 |3-38 |3-05 | 0-338 42-5 || 62 | 42 | —20|\3-97 |3-27 |—0-70 43:3 || 72 | 50 | —22|/3-96 |3-97 |--0:39 45:4|| 85 | 54 | —31 |/3-86 |3-66 |—0-20 +5°7 || 88 | 59 | —29 |\3-76 |3°84 | 40-08 | 44:8 || 81 | 64 | —17||3:54|3-96 | 40-42 88 | 70 | —18]| ... |4:138 88 | 78 | —10]| ... |4:38 $6 | 81 }— 5] ... |4:38 80 | 80 Ol] ... 4°19 76 | 80|+ 4|| ... [4:09 73 | 80|+ 7]| ... {4:05 70 | 80 | +10}! ... }4:07 65 | 74 | + 9/455 [4:25 65 | 71 |+ 6]| ... |4:58 65 | 68 |+ 3]| ... |4:59 60 | 77 | +17 451 50 | 81 | +3] 4:53 .. || 50 | 85 | +35 4-75 57 | 82 | 425 4:68 73) 81\4+ 8 5°19 TG | fol 2 4°35 80 | 70 | —10 4-05 80 | 74 | — 6 4:36 80 | 78 | — 2 4-04 Second Report on Atmospheric Waves. By WiuuiaM Rapcuirr Birt. Tue Report which I have the honour to present to the Association on the present occasion will consist of three portions :— Ist. Of some remarks on the regular monthly altitude of the barometer above 30 inches, as observed at Greenwich by the Astronomer Royal ; the ap- Senf. —E— N.W. 0.8.0. | || 0.8.0. | Direction of ind. Prag. i R- ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. ‘113 and their intervals; also the determination of the direction in which they move, from observations at the three stations, Greenwich, Prague, and Munich. Qnd. Of the recurrence of the symmetrical wave observed in November 1842, in November 1843, and October 1844, with the mean wave deduced from combining the three. 3rd. Of an extension of the investigation of the waves A 1 and B 1, forming the subject of the last report. This portion is confirmatory of the views then advanced, and will include evidence of the existence of two larger waves on which those noticed last year were superposed. . Section I. Rise of the Barometer above 30 inches. In Table IV. of the abstracts of the results of meteorological observations made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 1840 and 1841, Mr, Airy has shown that in every month the barometer rose above 30 inches. The same result is shown in Table V. of the abstracts for 1842. The observations made at the Colonial Observatory at Toronto indicate the same general fact ; in every month during 1841 and 1842 the barometer rose above 29°750. ‘The altitudes, when reduced to the level of the sea, agree with those at Greenwich, showing a rise on both sides of the Atlantic above 30 inches in every month. When, however, the dates of the maxima at the two stations are compared, -we find in almost all instances considerable difference, that is, the absolute maxima at both stations are generally several days’ interval from each other. On turning to the daily records of barometric pressure at both stations, we find maxima occurring at but few days’ interval from each other, so that cor- responding to the greatest altitude for the month at one, we obtain shortly before or after a maximum at the other. This leads us to a fact of a very interesting nature, and one that is generally borne out by the Greenwich ob- servations, namely, that ¢wice in each month the barometer passes a maximum above, or but very slightly depressed below 30 inches, but more usually above. Upon subjecting the Toronto observations to a closer scrutiny and clearing them from every extraneous influence, so that the pure gaseous pressure may alone be contemplated, the rise to this gauge-point (30 inches, or with the tension of the aqueous vapour deducted 29°900) is much more frequent, and there are but few exceptions to the general fact, that the pressures at the epochs of maxima are confined to small excursions, seldom amounting to *1 inch above or below the mean—30°030, including those observations that are evidently of an extraordinary character—29°983, excluding them and the lower readings marked (+) in the following Table, which includes all such _ maxima observed at Toronto during the period of the regular flowing of the waves at Greenwich, hereafter to be noticed. The observations, as recorded in the volume of Toronto observations, have been reduced to the level of the sea ; the tension of aqueous vapour has been subtracted in each case, and the gaseous pressures resulting have been corrected for the diurnal and annual oscillations as determined from the two years’ observations. During the pe- riod embraced by the table at the station Toronto, the gaseous pressure appears to have passed a maximum about or not far removed from the 3rd _ of each month, and another about the 16th or 17th; intermediate maxima, 5, about the 10th and 27th, have also been observed, but with less regularity. From observations made during so short a period at only one station it would be premature to draw any conclusions. It however appears very desirable that some approximation to the Canadian normal wave should be attempted, by combining the observations in a manner somewhat similar to that which I - part of this report). i 1845. I ey adopted with regard to the great November wave (see the second —_ ae : 114 REPORT—1845. - : TABLE I. Maxima of the Gaseous Atmospheric Pressure observed at Toronto between January 24 and September 15, 1841, corrected for the Annual and Di- urnal Oscillations, and reduced to the level of the sea. Month. Epoch. | Altitude. Month Epoch. | Altitude. | ad h in. h in. January ....| 25 18* | 29:912 | May......... 18 20 29°900 - 28 8% | 29994 || _ ,, 29 0» | 29:932 February.... 3 22* | 30098 | June......... 2 20° | 30°036 4 7 22 30°245* || ,, 9 0 | 29-978 % 17 12 29-994 pS 16 14 | 29-999 F 24 0 30°011 E 20 16° | 29-923 March......| 1 22 299900 | July... 2 208 30°067 af | 420° | 30345* % 7 18 29°868t < |; $18 29-977 5 10 42 | 29-986 e | 9 20° | 30-019 93 16 222 | 29-980 7 | 11 8* | 380°103* s 20 4 30°048 BS | 16 20 30°383* is 26 0 30°003 . / 30 6° | 30-025 » 27 22 29:988 April s.ussss 2 18 29°914 | August...... 1 223 | 29-950 “ 5 22 SY ali | ie 11 14% | 29-942 ;, 15 2 30:410* | ,, 15 18 29°923 * 22 0 30°245* > 19 16% | 29°853+ ie 27 18" | 29:875t ||, 23 18 30°156* May..-.sss-s 3 6 30°029 |September | 14 18 30:148* | 620 | 30011 | Upon carefully collating the Greenwich observations for the same period and reducing all maxima above 29:800 to the level of the sea, we obtain the results recorded in the following Table. ‘The same frequency of rise above the gauge-point (30:000) noticed at Toronto is observable at Greenwich; and to a certain extent there is some agreement in the epochs of the maxima; epochs differin.; less than 30 hours, both series being reduced to Gottingen mean time, are marked (*) in both tables. TaBLe If. o Barometric Maxima observed at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, between January 23 and September 20, 1841, reduced to the level of the sea. Month. Epoch. | Altitude. Month. Epoch. | Altitude. dh in. dh January ...| 24 22% | 30437 || June........{ 3 228 ‘ 28 0? 304 J 8 10 x 31 18 “452 " 13 20 February 3 4 ‘114 % 15 22 ra 10 0 “123 > 21 208 i‘ 21 22 | 30-452 . 27 14 March...... 3 227 | 29-988 diily cease. 2 128 Wy 10 22° | 30572 . 9 128 M4 24 0 | 30-329 " 16 208 nae 28 0 | 29-998 a 24 10 5) 30 2? | 29°998 || August ....) 1 20% | April ....... 9 22 80-183 > 12 10° ee 13 10 202 " 18 228 bei 18 0 “O11 7 26 10 > | 26 10 +180 September; 1 0 | 4 27 228 294 A, | § 20 a4 29 20 240 * | 10 22 May «e+... | 10 0 235 w | 16 22 3 13 20 44] » 19 22 + 23 20 |- -260 | = 28 22" | 30-168 #® Maxima more than ‘1 inch above 30 in. + Maxima more than ‘1 inch below 30in. ~ ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 115 The passages of maxima about or not far removed from the 3rd of each monta, appears to have failed at Greenwich for April and May. On turning, however, to the Greenwich records we find maxima within 12 hours of the epochs at Toronto of the following values, when corrected for sea level. April 2, 14 hours, 29:815 ; May 3, 4 hours, 29°851. It consequently appears that the two series so far agree in the general fact, that about the 3rd of each month for the period included in the tables, the barometer passed maxima on both sides of the Atlantic, the excursions above or below the gauge-point at Green- wich being much greater than those at Toronto. Upon a still closer comparison of the maxima at both stations, it appears highly probable that, with few exceptions, they are nearly contemporaneous, the excursions at Greenwich being, as just noticed, by far the greatest. It is a matter of regret that at present this most interesting subject cannot be followed out in all its details, and that the announcement cannot extend much beyond the high probability that during nearly eight months of the year 1841 the barometric movements on both sides of the Atlantic (Toronto and Green- wich being at present the extreme stations) were connected, in so far as the observations indicate a tendency to increased pressure at both stations at nearly the same epochs, and that these epochs appear to observe some regu- larity, exhibiting a periodicity of about 30 days’ interval, especially that of maximum pressure, about the 3rd of each month, which is clearly traced at both stations. The greater excursions at Greenwich, the insular station, are perfectly in accordance with facts of a similar character developed in the course of the reduction of meteorological observations (see Sir John Her- schel’s Report in the volume for 1843). A comparison of the Table of Barometric Maxima in the Greenwich Abs- tracts, with a similar table in the 15th volume of the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Brussels, p. 17, leads to the same result as that obtained from a comparison of the Greenwich and Toronto observations, in so far as the absolute maxima at both stations, Greenwich and Brussels, are not in all cases contemporaneous, or separated only by a short interval. The table alluded to gives only one maximum in the month, the highest reading. In the Greenwich records we find corresponding maxima to these, with short intervals between the transits at each station. From a consideration of the two series of maxima the following Table has been formed. Tas_e_e IIL. Exhibiting the symmictrical disposition of Barometric Waves on each side a central Axis, June 3: 22, 1841. ; Month. Epoch. Altitude. | Interval. | Wave. a in. dh March...... 10 22 30°572 138 2 6 es 24 0 329 20 10 5 April .......) 13 10 +202 13 0 4 Ht 26 10 180 17 10 3 May.........| 13 20 441 10 0 2, Es 23 20 260 ll 2 1 JUNE seceeee 3 22 426 Axis. B 15 22 289 12 0 1 a8 27 14 ‘179 11 16 2 July ........ 912 | ‘019 11 22 3 s 24 10 +232 14 22 4 August ..... 12 10 010 19 0 5 £ 26 10 30°353 14 0 6 12 * 116 REPORT—1845. The barometric curve accompanying the Greenwich observations for 1840 and 1841, exhibits a considerable interval between the minima of January and February in the latter year; this interval is 36 days, and may be advantage- ously compared with a long interval between the maxima of September 19 and October 21, of 31 days 16 hours. This long interval is remarkable for a considerable and symmetrical depression of the barometer, nearly midway between the two maxima, namely from October 5,22 hours 57 minutes to 23 hours 55 minutes ; the reading uncorrected for sea level was 28°697. If we consider the point equally distant from the January and February minima to be the summit of a normal wave, we shall have the epoch of its transit January 28:18: now the period from this apex to the depression in October will equal 250 days. The middle point of this period falls on the 2nd of June; on the 3rd of June, 22 hours, the barometer passed a maximum. On each side of this maximum are 6 maxima with a mean interval of 14 days 1 hour. It is interesting to observe, that the minimum of the 16th of February, and that of the 5th of October, are the boundaries of the period of least range; mean range for the seven months 1:029. Upon the hypothesis that the maxima were the crests of waves, it appears that during the period of least range sixteen waves traversed England, having a mean interval between their crests of 14: days 5 hours. The column of intervals clearly exhibits a considerable regu- larity in the succession of these waves, as well as their symmetrical position relative to the axis, and their altitudes support the same idea. Taking the middle wave June 3 : 22, we find corresponding altitudes on either side; thus the highest wave passed Greenwich on March 10: 22, altitude 30°572. Six waves on the other side of the axis, we also have the highest reading, namely August 26 : 10, altitude 30°353. The following Table places this regularity both as respects altitudes and intervals in a clearer light. Taste IV. Altitudes of Waves equally distant from the Axis, June 3:22. ; Mean Mean Wave. Epoch. Altitnde. Altitude. | Interval. th. |March ...... 2 : : August...... 26 10) -353 ¢| 20°62 | 14 1 5th. |March ...... 24 0 329 August...... 12101 -olos| 30169 | 14 8 ve Titty co, 34 10) aap f] 80217 | 12 18, SN ffaiywccce, 8 13] up {| 80009 | 12 8 mjunes 87 14] 79 f| 80810 | eT, 18 22] aay f] 80874 | 1118 Axis, [June......... 3 22| 30-426 On pursuing the investigation beyond the period of least range and ex- tending it into that of the great winter oscillations, the same regularity of perturbation is still apparent; there appears to be a symmetrical movement ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 117 of the barometer on a large scale, of a somewhat similar character to that of the great November wave. The oscillations on each side the central maximum June 3: 22 have evidently a symmetrical relation, and are to be distinguished from the monthly maxima before alluded to. It is highly probable that a further examination of the Toronto observations will furnish us with the Ca- nadian type of atmospheric waves, in the same manner as Sir John Herschel found various continental types, and that in some localities (Hanover for in- stance) the barometric curves were exceedingly anomalous, arising most pro- bably from an interference of different systems of waves. It is also pro- bable that a further examination of the Greenwich observations relative to the monthly maxima will develope the corresponding British type, and that an investigation of the greater symmetrical movements will conduct us to phenomena of a highly interesting character. Directions of Waves. The apparent regularity of the flowing of these waves, has induced the hope that by a more detailed examination of the transits of the maxima at distant stations, a tolerable idea may be formed of the direction in which they move, and thus a step may be gained in ascending to their causes. If we take Greenwich, Prague and Munich, as three stations, the order of transit will vary, as the direction of the axis of translation of each wave varies. The following appear to be some of the phzenomena presented by waves mo- ving in different directions. I. Waves from W.N.W., or nearly so.—The crests will first pass Green- wich, and at a considerable period after they will pass Munich and Prague; these stations they will pass about the same time; Munich and Prague will therefore have simultaneous maxima. II. Waves from 8.W.—The crests will pass the stations in the following order: Greenwich, Munich, Prague. III. Waves from S.S.W.—The crests will pass Greenwich and Munich simultaneously, and afterwards Prague. IV. Waves from S. by W.—The crests pass the stations in the following order: Munich, Greenwich, Prague. V. Waves from $.—The crests will pass the stations nearly at the same time. VI. Waves from S.S.E.—The crests pass the stations in the following or- der: Munich, Prague, Greenwich. The fact that numerous systems of waves traverse Europe at the same time renders it very difficult to determine the intervals between the transits of two successive maxima of the same system ; the only mode appears to be, to ar- range all the maxima and minima, and to classify and examine those that are moving in the same direction and that transit the stations under the same circumstances. Table V. exhibits the maxima and minima that passed Munich between the transits of two minima, which apparently marked the passage of the an- terior and posterior troughs of a normal wave; the altitudes are converted into English inches and reduced to the level of the sea. During this period we find three maxima from the §.S.W.; the intervals between them are nearly equal ; the first 104 hours, and the second 97 hours. The middle wave is the highest, 30°667 ; those on each side are nearly of the same altitude 30°304 and 30275; the central wave is the highest of the series, which opens with a small wave from W.N.W. Table VI. exhibits the features of this wave. 118 REPORT—1845. TABLE V. Barometric Maxima and Minima observed at Munich during the transit of a supposed normal wave *. No.| Phase.} Direction. | Epoch. moet Rafer. Wave. EEE, RR EE a ee ee hE ee ee 1 | Min. | w.n-w. | March. 18 4 | 380/103 R. 2] Max.| w.xn.w.| , 18 28 +238 re 1 3| Min. | weew.| ,, 19 4 ‘171.4, ig Pl ee ah ee GY Abeer ea Re cia Cae | 5 | Max. | w.n-w. $3 19 20 304 I. 3 6 | Min. | s.w. po i AS 238 ie 7 | Max S.W. - 21 11 342 Il. 4 8 | Min s.w. . 22 4 218 Il. 9 | Max. | s.s.w. * 23 22 “667 III. 5 10 | Min. | w.n.w. ss 27 «4 “123 A 11 | Max. | s.s.w Ex 27 23 275 Ill. 6 12 | Min. | w.n.w. Bs 30 4 218 I. 13 | Max. | w.N.w. 3 30 18 +390 ip 7 14 |} Min S.W. 31 14 *027 II. 15 | Max s.w. | April 110 | 30-095 Il. 8 16 | Min. | w.n-w. 5 212} 29-884 I. TasLe VI.—First Wave from W.N.W. Anterior Trough (A). Posterior Trough (P). Station. |EpochofTransit.| Altitude. |/EpochofTransit.| Altitude. ||Epoch of Transit.| Altitude. . dh |Eng, in. d hjEng. in. d h/Eng. in. Greenwich .|March 17 18) 29°501 ||March 18 14} 29-721 ||March 18 20 29-682 Prague....-. » 18 4) 30009 || ,, 18 22) 30089 || ,, 19-1) 30-071 Munich ..... Ma 18 4} 30°103 eS 18 23} 30-238 " 19 4| 30171 ee ea BC ot ei ce I Co-ordinates. Altitude from | Amplitude} Diff. Anterior and Station. | anterior Trough.| in Time, | Posterior Troughs. ng. in. ho’ P—A. Eng. in. | Greenwich . “220 26 ‘l Munich ..... 135 24 068 Prague...... 080 21 062 It is probable that as the posterior slope of this wave passed off, it was met by the anterior slope of the first S.S.W. wave, so that the true posterior trough was not observed, the minimuin being anticipated and the readings being higher than they would otherwise have been. It is also probable that this wave rode on the anterior slope of a normal wave. Thesucceeding maxima4and 5, from S.S.W.and W.N.W., passed Greenwich and Prague at both stations about the same hour, and Munich within six hours of each other. The posterior troughs of both were obliterated by a well-developed wave from S.W., interval 37 hours, after which the 2nd S.S.W. wave appeared, * It appears probable that the maxima recorded in Table III. indicated the crests of normal waves. The maxima and minima in this Table are those resulting from secondary waves. ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 119 TABLE VII.—Wave from S.W. Anterior Trough (A), Crest. ' | Posterior Trough (P). £ Station. |Epochof Transit.} Altitude. ||Epoch of Transit.| Altitude, |/Epoch of Transit,| Altitude, j d h{Eng. in, d h Hing. in. d h/|Eng. in. Greenwich .|March 20 0} 29°672 ||March 20 22*| 29-718 '|March 21 20) 29-420 Munich ..... 5 20 15| 30:238 » 2111 | 80342 | ,, 22 4) 30-218 Prague....| . 21 2) 30038 |) ,, 2118] 30112 | ,, 22 16| 29°988 Co-ordinates. Altitude from {Amplitude | Diff, Anterior and Station, PosteriorTrough.} in Time. | Posterior Troughs. Eng. in. hours. |A—P. Eng. in. Greenwich . +298 44 +252 Munich ..... 24 37 020 Prague....+- 124 38 050 The next and fifth wave that transited the area was from the S.S.W,; the anterior trough was obliterated, as before noticed ; shortly before the crest of the succeeding wave of this system passed ; the W.N.W. system again made its appearance ; the anterior trough of the third observed wave passed Munich March 27:4. The following Table exhibits its features: it is altogether a much larger wave than the first. TasBLeE VIII.—Third observed Wave from W.N.W. Anterior Trough (A). Crest. Posterior Trough (P). Station. [Epoch of Transit.} Altitude. |/Epoch of Transit.| Altitude. Epochof Transit.) Altitude. h | Eng. in. - d h | Eng. in. ' d_ hj Eng. in. d Greenwich .|March 26 4] 29°631 ||March 30 2| 29-998 ||April.. 1 16 | 29°596 Munich ..... ” 27 = 4| 30°123 “4 30 18} 30:390 + 2 12 | 29°884 Prague....-- on 27 «6| 29-947 re 30 20) 30-071 ei 2 10 | 29:674 Co-ordinates. Station. Altitude from |Amplitude | Diff. Anterior and PosteriorTrough.| in Time, | Posterior Troughs. P Eng. ineh. hours. |A—P, Eng. inch. Greenwich . 402 156 035 Munich ..... 506 152 239 Prague...... 397 148 273 The minimum from W.N.W,, March 30:4, appears to have been of a secon- dary character, that is, it was not a true trough, but was most probably pro- duced by the apex of the third S.S.W, wave which transited during the pas- sage of the anterior slope of the wave. During the transit of the posterior slope, the anterior slope of a small wave from S.W. passed. The 10th of March was characterized by exhibiting the highest barometri- cal reading during the year. The two highest readings of the month occurred * A maximum occurred March 20 : 2, two hours after the transit of the anterior trough, altitude 29°699. The very short interval between the anterior trough and this maximum most probably arose from the depressing influence of the posterior slope of the 8.S.W. wave, ‘which passed Greenwich March 19:14, The semi-interval of the S.S.W. wave would oc- ‘easion its minimum to pass Greenwich March 21 : 16, four hours earlier than the posterior trough of this, so that it is highly probable that the great depression then observed resulted é from both troughs. 120 REPORT—1845. onthe 10th and 24th, with an interval of fourteen days; the semi-interval would give the included minimum onthe 17th. Upon the assumption that the crest of the normal wave passed the stations on the 24th, the preceding crest having passed on the 10th, we have the normal trough passing on the 17th: the numbers in Table V. appear to indicate a gradual rise and fall preceding and succeeding the highest reading of the 24th, such as might be expected from the transit of a large wave, the anterior and posterior slopes being indented and masked by the transits of smaller waves flowing in various directions. The numbers and directions in the table convey the idea of a certain regularity in the flowing of these secondary and superposed waves. During the transit of the normal wave three systems of waves appear to have traversed the area included by the stations, from W.N.W., S.W. and 8.S.W. The crests of the latter system (3 waves) were only observed, but the intervals being so nearly equal, induces the opinion that they succeeded each other with great regularity, and were accompanied with troughs, although those troughs were masked and concealed by the other systems. It is also probable that the altitudes of these waves were nearly equal, the apex of the central wave being elevated by that of the normal. The W.N.W. system appears to have been a system the waves of which were increasing in size; the altitudes do not appear to have been sufficiently high to have occasioned them to ride above the upper por- tion of the normal wave. The waves of the S.W. system were rather larger than the earliest W.N.W. wave. If we consider the low readings of the 18th to mark the anterior trough of the normal wave and the maximum of the 24th to indicate its crest, we have the following elements and co-ordinates. TABLE IX.—Normal Wave. Anterior Trough, Crest. Co-ordinates. Station. Ep sen a Tt Altitude. pene Teeit, Altitude. || Altitude. | Semi-interval. d hj} Eng. in. d h{| Eng. in. || Eng. in. hours. Greenwich .|March 17 18] 29501 |\March 24 0} 30-329 f 150 Munich ..... » 18 4| 30-103 |} , 23 29] 30-667 || 564 138 Prague...... + 18 4) 30-009 _ 25 8) 30-400 |, -391 172 The close of Table V. gives the lowest reading for the period included by it, and did not the barometer continue to fall, we might consider this point as the posterior trough of the normal wave. ‘The following are the altitudes of the wave from this point, with the semi-intervals. Station. Altitude. |Semi-interval. Eng. in, hours, Greenwich ....| °733 208 Munich ........ 783 230 Prague.,....... 726 194 It is clear that the above elements of the normal wave, as well as those of the superposed or secondary waves, are greatly modified, the first by the secondary waves, and these again by the normal wave, and by each other. There is great reason to believe that the troughs of the S.S.W. waves were concealed. It will be shown in another part of this report, that by compa- ring observations at two stations and examining their barometric differences, the passage of a crest or trough may be rendered apparent, which by this mode of investigation remains concealed. Nevertheless it is highly probable’ * ae ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 121) that, by discussing a long series of observations in this manner, a tolerable idea of the succession and systems of waves may be formed, and the general fea- tures of the normal waves made out. The one under consideration appears to have had an interval of fifteen days. The great symmetrical wave of Nov. 1842 had nearly the same interval, and succeeding waves, possessing a simi- larity of character both in interval and curve, were observed about the same period of the year in 1843 and 1844. The examination of these recurring atmospheric movements forms the subject of the next portion of the report. Secrion II. Recurrence of Symmetrical Wave. The diagram which accompanies this report (see Plate III.) exhibits three curves to a great extent similar, at least in so far as there is a general tendency in the barometer to rise during the period of the anterior half, and a similar tendency in it to fall during the period of the posterior half. From what has just been advanced, as well as from the discussions which were reported last year, there is great reason to consider the indentations on the anterior and pos- terior slopes of the curve of 1842 as distinct secondary and superposed waves ; the same may be said of the indentations on the curves of 1843 and 1844. Now it is probable that were we to separate the barometric effects of these waves, we should obtain a much clearer conception of the form and general elements of the normal wave which on the three occasions recorded passed London. For this purpose the following steps have been taken. The gene- ral contour of the curves indicates that the respective maxima passed about the following dates. 1842. November 18, noon. 1843. ” 14, 5 1844. October 27, ” These days (noon) are therefore assumed as the axes of the curves, and the altitudes at intervals of two hours have been carefully read off from the original projections, and a mean of the three taken, from which the follow- ing Table has been constructed. The table is arranged in two compartments, the first containing the ordinates of the anterior slope, the second those of the posterior. The first column in the first compartment indicates the hours before the transit of the crest (—) ; the second the mean ordinate correspond- ing to any given hour. In like manner, the first column in the second compart- ment indicates the hours after the transit of the crest (+ ), and the second the mean ordinate corresponding to any given hour after transit. These num- bers have been used in the construction of the fourth curve, which exhibits to the eye the general form of the normal wave, freed to a certain extent of the effects of the superposed waves. There are several drawbacks to the value of any conclusions that may be drawn from these numbers and projections in their present state :— Ist. They are deduced from unreduced observations. The projections of the three upper curves are laid down from observations as read off from the scale without any reduction whatever, and the mean curve has been obtained from these unreduced observations. 2nd. The observations themselves were made at irregular intervals, so that in deducing the mean, the quantities observed have not been used. The altitudes at the given hours of the curves drawn through the points indicating these observed quantities, are the quantities from which the mean has been obtained. 3rd. The curves, and consequently the mean, consists of two distinct ele- ments, namely, the pressure of the gaseous atmosphere and the pressure of 4 i 122 - REPORT—1845. the aqueous vapour. The normal wave of the gaseous atmosphere is there- fore greatly modified by the pressure of the aqueous vapour in these projec- tions, TABLE X. Ordinates of the Mean Normal Curve, deduced from the recurring Curves | of 1842, 1843, 1844, November. | (ones Pe | altitudes, ||, Hours af | attitudes. | Hours be: | attitudes. | pours af | altitudes. hours. in. i hours. in. | hours. in, hours. in. Apex 30°321 ||Apex 30°32] || 76 — | 29°775 + | 29-789 pee 330 | 2 + 302 || 78 — ‘766 || 78 + 788 : by ioe ‘331 | res ‘301 | 80 — 758 || 80 + 771 ! oe $27 || 6 + 298 || 82 — 758 || 82 + “755 ee 323 || 8 + 295 || 84 — ‘761 || 84 + 733 cee 321 || 10 + 302 | 86 — 763 || 86 + 717 1g jen 314 || 12 + 300 || 88 — ‘760 || 88 + 696 PAs cs 299 || 14 + 296 || 90 — 748 || 90 + 667 Ae 274 || 16 + 278 || 92 — 747 || 92 4+ -630 1s. 2 229 || 18 + 26] || 94 — 735 || 94 + 590 20 — 204 || 20° + 236 || 96 — -730 || 96 + “555 22 = 169 || 22) + 204 || 98 — 722 || 98 + 548 24 — “152 | 24 + 169 ||100 — 712 100 + 546 2% — “132 || 26 +4 -130 [102 — 689 ||102 + “555 28 — 106 || 28 + 091 |104. — “682/104 + -562 a0. s 081 || 30 + 061 1106 — ‘687 106 + 558 32 — 057 || 32 + | 30031 }108 — -687 |108 + 565 pg -026 || 34. + | 29986 |110 — 681 |110 + 571 36 — | 30-006 || 36 + 968 |112 — 675 |112 + 576 38 — | 29-991 || 38 + 941 114. — 664 114 + 583 40 967 || 40 + 933 |116 — 669 |116 + 590 a= ‘941 || 42 4 934 |118 — 685 |118 + 589 44 — ‘919 || 44 4 943 | 120 ~— -728 |120 + 578 a 909 || 46 + ‘956 |122 — 744 |\122 0 +4 552 ag 908 | 48 + 950 |124 — 74) 1124 538 50 — 900 || 50 + 932 |126 — 734 126 -498 cee “892 || 52 + 932 |128 — 722 |\128 + +459 4 i 883 || 54. + 924 |130 — 711 130 + 405 56 — 866 || 56 + ‘914 |132 — “688 132 + "332 58 — 853 || 58 4 895/134 — “659 {1134 + 60 — 843 || 66 + 883/136 — 625 136 + 62 — 835 || 20 + 871 138 — 588 [138 + Gd ws “821 | 64 + 870 |140 — 532 140 + 179 66 — 811 || 66 + 862 [142 — 482/142 + 214 68 — 809 || 68 + 845 [144 — “455 144 4 +240 70 — “791 | 70 + 841/146 — 428 |146 + 255 : ee 794 | 72 + 829/148 — | 29-411 /148 +4 | 29-282 74 — | 29-791 || 74 + | 29-803 || | 4th. The curves are projected for one station only. It is not only proba- ble, but in the case of the curve for 1842 it has been ascertained, that even for comparative short distances N.E. and S.W. of the line joining Dublin and Munich, the symmetry is considerably departed from, as will be shown in the further examination of that curve; it is therefore important, as well as deducing the mean normal curve from a combination of the three curves at one ‘station, to examine the character of the superposed waves at several stations previous to drawing any conclusions relative to the normal wave. 5th. The projections are affected by the diurnal and annual variations of — gaseous and aqueous pressure, the causes of which are known. a We have however the means of obtaining at four important stations, the © & : ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 123 elements of this normal wave freed from all extraneous cireumstances. At Munich we possess barometric records every hour for the three years ; these are reduced to the freezing temperature and accompanied with observations from which the tension of the vapour may be obtained. It will be.necessary for the three periods embraced in the diagram to express the barometric al- titudes in English inches, and reduce them to the level of the sea. When so reduced the vapour pressure must be deducted, leaving the gaseous pres- sure only, and this must be further corrected for the diurnal and annual variations of the gaseous pressure; we shall thus obtain three curves repre- senting the variations of gaseous pressure, the causes of which we are seeking, and the mean of these three curves will to a certain extent be freed from those indentations which appear to result from the passage of secondary waves. The same process must be adopted with respect to the observations at Prague, Brussels. and Greenwich ; when this is accomplished we shall obtain four normal curves, the comparison of which will be highly instructive and important. The curve of 1842 is tinted for the purpose of indicating the prevalent wind during the period occupied by one coloured portion. There does not appear much apparent relation between the colours and the flexures of the curve. Two points, however, claim our especial attention,—the change in the direction of the wind to nearly the opposite point, on the transit of the crest,—and the calms intervening between that and other changes nearly of a similar character. N.E. winds are coloured blue, S.W. pink, and S.E. green, The direction has been obtained from the Greenwich observations. Sir John Herschel has shown in his ‘ Report on the Reduction of Meteoro- logical Observations’ (Report, 1843, p. 99), that there must be a close and purely dynamical connexion between the advancing form of the wave and the molecular movement of the air; the character of the molecular movement will greatly depend on the order of the wave. In the absence of data for deter- mining the precise characters of the waves under consideration, it may not be uninteresting to offer a few remarks on the two points to which our atten- tion has been directed :—1st. The calm preceding the reversion of wind on the transit of the crest, Nov. 18th, 1842. A very casual comparison of the direc- tion of the wind at several stations marked on the area, shown in Plate XLII. (Report, 1844), indicates that the molecular movement was directed towards the point of least pressure, a result to be expected, and perfectly in accordance with the beautiful deductions of Col. Sabine (see his Report on the Meteor- ology of Toronto, Report, 1844). Now in the case of a large wave stretch- ing over an extensive area, the anterior and posterior troughs would mark out parallel or nearly parallel lines of least pressure; the molecular movement would be strongest in these troughs, and directed towards them from each side; at stations removed from them the force of the wind would be greatly diminished, and at the intervening crest it would be so small as to be inap- preciable ; but however small it might be, upon the crest passing any station, the direction of the wind at that station would be reversed, and it would in- crease in intensity until the transit of the posterior trough. In this manner it is apprehended that the reversion of the wind, and the calm preceding it, Noy. 18th, 1842, are explained. The Greenwich observations offer a fine illustration of the increase of intensity. November 19th, 6 and 8 hours, the ‘anemometer recorded a pressure of 2 to 4lbs. to the square foot 30 hours after transit. Qnd. The remaining calms in the diagram may be explained n the same way, but the synchronous traversing of different systems of waves masks the effects and prevents the relations between the wind and the advan- 124 REPORT—1845.. cing wave-form becoming so perceptible, as in the first instance, namely the transit of the crest of the normal wave. ee Section III. Investigation of secondary Waves A.1, A 2, B 1 (reported last year). In my letter to Sir John Herschel published in the last Report, I stated that the coloured projections indicated three things as connected with the disposi- tion of the atmosphere :—“ Ist, the depth or extent of colour will show the depression of the lower station below the upper ; 2nd, the intersections of the curves will indicate that at the time of intersection the stations had an equality of pressure; and 3rd, the change of the position of the same colour will point out that the station which exhibited or experienced the higher or lower pressure, afterwards experienced the lower or higher, with its amount.” In addition to these three indications, the coloured projections and the barometric differences they exhibit may be very extensively and advantageously used in this investigation, as at the time when any one intersection of the curves shows an equality of pressure at the respective stations, the intersection also indicates that either a crest or trough was passing between them. Now if, from other considerations, it is found that at any intersectionatrough is passing, the next intersection will exhibit the passage of the crest; the differences therefore between the curves, or in other words, the differences of pressure between the stations, will augment and decrease as the anterior slope passes, the greatest differences occurring as the middle of the slope transits. The same result will obtain as the posterior slope passes, but the affections of pressure will be altered; the station which exhibited the greatest pressure under the anterior slope will manifest the Jeas¢t under the posterior. This ' principle will indicate the passage of a wave independently of the state (7. e. rising or falling) of the barometer at the time. The mereury may be falling from the transit of the posterior slope of a wave passing in a certain direc- tion, and this may occur at both stations; yet, although both curves may be descending from a posterior slope in one direction, the opening between them may indicate the transit of an anterior slope in another. Wave B°. The last report brought the investigation as far as the determination of the waves A 1 and B 1 (Report, 1844, p. 273). The dimensions and velocity of the latter were given; also the character of the trough between A 1 and A. Inthe note to (24.), page 274, it is shown that these waves, especially B 1, were small waves superposed on much larger ones. The principle just alluded to enables us to determine the phases of the larger wave on which B 1 rolled, not however uninfluenced by the transits of others, but sufficiently well-marked to contemplate it in its individuality as it passed over the area from the 8.S.W. This wave we shall call Be. Wave B°. Between Scilly and Longstone. Anterior Trough. Crest. Posterior Trough. 1842. Between h h h m Nov. 6: 15. Nov. 9: 18 and 19. Nov. 11 : 0: 30. 7 OS ZL. Amplitude in time ..... 102 hours (about). ss space..... 2600 miles fs Velocity, about 25 miles per hour. N.B. The above determinations subject to correction in examining this wave at other stations. ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 195 TasBLe XI. Wave B°. Barometric Differences arising from the Anterior and Posterior Slopes of B®. Epochs. |Longstone.| Scilly. Scilly +. Phases. 1842, ewe d h | in. in. in, Noy. 6 _ 30°316 | 30°276 |— -040 | Anterior trough. 306 |m *324 | + -018 7 3 266 283 | + -017 9 “215 270 | + -055 15 | 30054 |m -241 |+ -187] . 21 | 29-983 |m -273 |+ -290| 2 8 3] -889 170 |4 -281 | 3 9} °-747 | 30-066 |+ -319| x 15 470 | 29849 | 4 °379 | “E 21 +296 702 |-+ -406} = Greatest curve of 9 2 m ern m oe £ a : Re ea eS ' 707,106 is yo 414.808 gy Sth: 35 NOME Mest 4. <2. 1,205,960 iow BRIS GY Sth iy a Se ei 1,632,166 é ebstebnig02) ci oSth: yo) 184 oo was) 1,089-448 Me Metioneh, ovis Sth. jhe) I8B cows 2,586,219 foil os (576i Sth 9 BBQG > .sdleviiz 1,261,290 nie 5, 5th ,, BBO?!) assure. 526,155 Peaabvasis eo Sth) » ¥ BBQB2! sitive 979,641 Rigi 5) 5th’ °,, LOQD sd tivee.s 931,361 Rion: go VIDAINEHE (1:r39) MOBBBOD sf -o!a. 4. 450,137 OF qu adie 5 5th it) Cie 549,459 ” forming am aggregate sum of 15,677,503/., the greater part of which appears to\have been permanently lodged, since the sum remaining in deposit on the 20th of November 1830, is stated to have been 13,507,565/., so that the sums withdrawn must have amounted in all that time to but little more than two millions in addition to the interest allowed. 7 132 ~ REPORT—1845. eal ni From and after the 20th of November 1829, detailed ‘statements have been made up from year to year, showing the sums remaining in deposit in- cluding interest, and the number of depositors in various classes according to the amount of their deposits, in each division and in each county of the kingdom. The aggregate numbers of depositors and sums deposited are shown in the following summary. ia: England. Wales. Treland. Scotland. United Kingdom, meer | r TT ee Oe 4 20th | Deposit-| amount. |Deposit-| Amount. |Peposit-| Amount. |Deposit-| Amount. | Deposit- | Amount. Noy.| ors. ors. ors, ors. ors, ae | ES | | S| | £ # #£ &L #£ 1830:367,812 {12,287,606'10,204 [314,903 |34,201| 905,056]... |... | 419,217|13,507,565 1831 380.130 |12354,617\10,374 (322,546 |38,999 1,042,332| |... | ... | 499:503113;7191495 1832)373,704 11,956,289/10,014 |301,509 |43,755 |1,178,201)_ ... mee 427,473|13,435,999 1833(402,607 |12,680,512111,015 (329,887 |49,170 1,327,122]... | |... | 462,792114,337.52)| - 1834'434,845 |13,582,102|11,183 |336,976 |53,179 (1,450,766) ... ee 499,207|15,369,844 1835 466,862 |14,491,316|12,173 [356,135 |58,482 1,608,653)... ... | 587,517/16,456,104 1826 515,444 |16,491,949|13,110 |422,585 [64,019 1,817,264] 6,753| 74,086) 599,326|18,805,884| 1837 544,449 |17,178,041|13,963 [455,846 [64,101 1,829,226]13,553 | 160,902] 636,066|19,624,015 1838 599,425 |18,566,490|15,232 |498,359 |69,933 2,048,469|22,646 | 279,994) 703,236|21,393,312 1839 622,468 |19,246,221 15,893 [525,320 |75,296 2,218,239|34,739 | 436,032) 748,396|22,495,812 1840 662,338 |20,203,438|15,825 |521,918 |76,155 2,206,733|43,737 | 588,961| 798,055/23,471,050 18411695,791 |21,036,190|16,220 \527,688 |78,574 2,302,302150,619 | 608,509) 841,204/24,474,689 1842 723,374 |21,780,373)/16,434 \531,928 [80,604 2,354,906/54,303| 652,129) 874,715|25,319,336 1843'773,551 23,344,273 17,077 |555,849 [82,486 2,447,110/62,236| 830,083] 935,530)27,177,315 1844 832,290 |25,112,865|18,690 (599,796 (91,248 2,749,017 |69,824 |1,043, 183 1,012,047 29,504,861 Ne Mist ieatesd Ney peel els he ced ee a he The number of savings’ banks existing in the different divisions of the kingdom on the 20th of November of each year, beginning with 1830, was as follows :— England. Wales. Treland. Scotland. Total. TSS. se ok BLO ee casos os plete eaeuetiks gl ip gies. 51 cy sl acre ee TSSE spe soy, DO. ann Hib h eid, dieses.) NO y| gi mia alae tate MBO on GO Sovathrey, BAe ema per J cha iene cube oy A lanier TESS wa mic Oy OU) Lunia Pens RAW Mig OE: Ua eiegiene oii SS > eee ae DOB oe econ need DN ho aydising vert tn ete tm. ola 1 mye 90 4niarr oe tele TBSD. v0 5.ee. [OOD so we Meee, Genes 0) \ Dy ale « sie. ihe tial TES Sy. on win, See hee Song ol MER oe eteias. yates piomsie: (eee ee LEE NRL 12 | TSE ESOS RE: Eee 9) ech TSS oc srovosmne te Cation a MLO dente ¢ gti y 52, ohet ah eater nakt caer DBO aia, sty yp Ay om ae OO uae ©) ees = /pies | pene oe DEAD on cine BL eins ROD canes we.) Pa eiasayb ine, (oO a alee TEAL cree ua el. Calais. nae p:.) Bary <0 ogi eased ty eek UD site OE oti ok OO) cane "fhe © atmlmiah)? Oe sie TM ics te ES ie nbn bo Ou, ine il, PO ie mbid. GA ciate ana 1844 .. BOD Nema tiy isegt) GLO. nein sO oe eee In addition to the numbers and the amounts shown in the foregoing sum- mary should be reckoned certain friendly societies, which, during the last five years, have been included in the accounts as being in direct communi- cation and account with the Commissioners for the reduction of the National Debt. These were,— Tn the year ending societies, having deposits 20th November .. 184.0, 882 { amounting to £1,217,765 3 1841, 354 2s 1,306,949 33 1842, 371 Ps 1,449,244. 2 1843, 395 et 1,609,288 : 1844, 428 f 1,770,775 H ON SAVINGS’ BANKS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 133 oved »ivooMaking the total deposits a 1840 «| feooo) > those years amount in .. to £24,688,815 jf 8 1841 to 25,781,638 O a 1842 to 26,768,580 i st 1843 to 28,786,603 ie i 1844 to 31,275,636 It will be seen, that with the exception of only one year in the entire series, there has been’a constantly increasing sum thus deposited. In 1832, _ doubtless owing to the political ferment in which the nation was then in- volved, there was a positive decrease in England and Wales, both in the number of depositors and the amount of their balances, viz.— England.... 6,426 fewer depositors £398,328 less deposits. Wales .... 360 ditto 21,037 ditto. The preceding vear, also a time of political excitement, was marked by a - much smaller addition than usual to the numbers and amounts of 1830, the » Increase having been, in England.... 12,318 depositors £67,011 deposits. ecole Wales .... 170 ditto 7,643 ditto. . The inerease in 1833, when the public mind had become more tranquillised, ' -was,in ' England.... 28,903 depositors £724,223 deposits. Wales .... 1,001 ditto 28,378 ditto. It is worthy of remark, that although the same cause agitated the public in Ireland to which we have attributed this effect in England, it was not accompanied by the same result, possibly because the condition of agitation is one to which the people of Ireland are more accustomed than their fellow- subjects in England. The accounts for those years do not include Scotland. The increase, embracing England, Wales and Ireland, up to 1835, and there- after including Scotland also, has been 1831 as compared with 1830 £211,930 ' 1833 a 1832 901,522 i 1834 us 1833 1,032,323 x 1835 Pn 1834 1,086,260 : 1836 é 1835 2,265,694 including £74,086 Scotland. : 1837 os 1836 —- 818,131 9 1838 2 1837 1,769,297 i 1839 * 1838 1,032,500 ._ 1840 ee 1839 1,045,238 - 1841 - 1840 1,003,639° | 1842 a 1841 844,647 1843 a 1842 1,857,979 1844: ¥. 1843 2,327,546 Including the sums already mentioned as deposited by certain friendly so-- cieties, the increase, year by year, since 1840, has been— : 1841 as compared with 1840 £1,092,823 ve 1842 a 1841 986,942 oan 1843 hs 1842 2,018,023 he: 1844 i 1843 2,489,033 It is impossible not to remark the superiority over the other years of the _ seriés of 1836, 1838, 1843 and 1844, all of which were years of great com- . 7 cial activity, and all, with the exception of 1838, years of cheapness. 7 “eel have added unreasonably to the number of figures with which ys tatement of this kind must be more or less accompanied, if the depo- sors had in each year been classified according to the amount of their de- - posits . This classification for the year 1844 was as follows :-— 134 REPORT—1845. England. Wales. Ireland. Scotland: | Total. Not exceeding £20..461,195 9,459 41,546 592,442 564,642 a 50 ..207,129 5,584 $33,298 192,259 258,270 AS 100.. 91,729 1,998 10,601 3,249 107,577 cS 150.. 32,083 634 3,024 640 36,381 4 900.. 18,551 294 1,583 201 20,629 Exceeding ....200.. 2,914 38 92 ou 3,044: 813,601 18,007 90,144 68,791 990,543 Charitable institutions. 9,789 205 677 630 11,301 Friendly societies .... 8,900 478 422 403 10,203 832,290 18,690 91,243 69,8294 1,012,047 Friendly Societies in direct account with Commissioners............ 428 SOtall Hess! ave bob ane emake 1,012,475 The centesimal proportions in which the different classes stand to the whole number of individual depositors are as follows :— United England. Wales. Treland. Scotland. Kingdom. Not exceeding £20.. 56°68 52°53 46°09 76°24 57-00 ”» 50.. 25°46 31°01 36°94 17°82 26°08 ’» 100.. 11°28 11710 11°76 4°72 10°86 » 150.. 3°94 3°52 3°35 0°93 3°67 9 200.. 2°28 1:63 1°75 0°29 2:08 Exceeding...... 200.. 0°36 0°21 0-11 — 0°31 —_——_ —_—— ——— — _ 100° 100° 100° 100° 100° It thus appears that the largest proportion of small deposits is made in Scot- land, more than three-fourths of the whole being in sums under 20/., a cir- cumstance which may be ascribable to the facility afforded by bankers, as already noticed. The smallest proportion of deposits of lowest amount is found in Ireland, a fact which probably results from the extreme poverty of the peasantry, and which deprives them of the power of making any savings, causing the savings’ banks to be the resort of classes in more easy circum~ stances than the generality of those who make deposits in England. The average balances to the credit of each depositor in the different divi- sions of the kingdom have been (discarding all fractional parts of a pound )— England. Wales. Treland. Scotland. Total. £ £ £ £ £ 20th Noy. 1830 33 31 26 ead 33 5 et AEE ee 31 26 3) 31 3 1832 31 30 26 “ES 31 ‘ 1833 31 29 27 a 31 ie » LGR peel 30 27 it 30 3 1835 31 29 27 tis 30 ¥, 1836 31 29 28 9 30 5s 1837 30 30 28 11 30 » 1838} 30 30 29 11 30 = 1839 30 30 29 11 29 ‘ 1840 29 29 29 11 28 pS 1841 29 29 29 11 28 » 1842]. 29 29 29 11 28 " 1843 30 33 30 13 29 - 1844 30 32 30 14 29 ’ ON SAVINGS’ BANKS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. With the exception of the last two years of the series, in which there has been a general increase observable in the average deposits, the above figures exhibit a marked difference between England and Ireland, the average sum having regularly diminished in the former division, while it has as regularly increased in the latter division. During the fifteen years for which the accounts have been regularly made up, the per-centage increase in the number of depositors and amount of their balances has been— Depositors. Amount. England .. . . 126 percent.. . 104 per cent. Wales.) 6-3/8 wanes 83e;., 55 Mate 15) A Ireland). 2s. ..at%15 167i 3, os « 203 33 Scotland (from 1836) 934 5 - «1308 ,, ENGLAND. +, | Sum deposit- é Average Expormon | a4 per indi- County. Population [Number of] Amount of | sm depo- | Of tePosi- | vidual of the ty in 1841. |depositors.| deposits. ceed as les ig hol € P 0p tat £é £ & ad Bedfordshire ......... 107,937 | 3,584} 111,526 31 |1lin30| 20 8 BRODER | .o.c0kedaestseo -.| 160,226 12,020 | 359,676 29 lin 13 44 10 BUGS edi si gscncase e+e 155,989 4,657 | 128,025 27 1in33| 16 5 Cambridge .. «| 164,509 3,831 | 121,777 31 lin43} 14 9 Chester ...csssccteases 395,300 15,802 | 554,400 36 1 in 26 28 0 Cornwall ............... 341,269 12,915 | 492,013 38 1 in 26 28 10 Cumberland............ 177,912 7,538 | 211,741 28 lin23 | 23 9 Derby ......04 ica) 272'202 | 10,099 | 321,897 31 |1in27| 23 4 MYGTON essed sates coer 533,731 | 49,866 |1,492,072 29 1 in 11 55 11 DORCtH ..cccccteexesayas 11,470 | 412,628 35 lin 15 47 2 ‘Durham 7,823 | 201,354 27 lin4d4| 12 5 HIQGEX Avilccdi dsawcisces , 14,413 | 428,202 29 lin24| 24° 9 Gloucester ............ 25,526 | 818,157 32 linl7| 37 11 Hereford ...........00 8,350 | 211,251 25 linl3 | 36 10 Hertford ............00. 3,785 | 113,425 29 lin 41 14 5 Huntingdon............ 58,699 1,765 | 52,001 29 lin33| 17 8 LG) ee eee eee 548,161 | 33,392 | 945,273 28 Llinl6| 34 5 |Lancaster......ses...00s 1,667,064 | 65,402 |1,980,143 30 lin25 | 23 9 Leicester ......sesses00 215,855 6,803 | 173,581 25 lin32} 16 1 Lincoln ..... er --| 362,717 18,451 | 497,509 26 lin 19 27 «+5 Middlesex ............ 1,576,616 | 176,049 |4,521,589 25 lin 9| 57 2 Monmouth .....s.0.06. 134,849 3,099 76,651 24 1 in 43 ll 5 Norfolk .....ss..000 ..| 412,621 18,3836 | 527,300 28 lin22| 25 6 Northampton ......... 199,061 8,410 | 243,600 28 lin 23 24 5 Northumberland ...... 250,268 | 12,862 | 459,390 35 linl9| 36 8 Nottingham............| 249,773 15,763 | 420,345 26 lin 16 33 «6 Oxford .......sec0000e.s., 161,573 | 10,246 | 285,713 27 linl5 | 35 4 Rutland ....esceeeee. 21,340 | Not any savings’ bank in this county. 16,452 f 33 lin 47 0 22,019 | 679,072 30 linl9} 31 1 23,942 | 687,493 28 linl4]° 38 8 15,868 | 452,306 29 lin33 | 17 8 11,972 | 348,176 | 29 |1in26| 22 1 31,250 | 749,199 23 linl9') 25 8 15,709 | 420,570 26 linl9| 28 0 21,221 | 468,270 22 lin 19 23 3 942 24,719 26 lin 59 8 9 11,706 | 413,941 35 lin22| 8110 Worcester ...........+ 233,484 12,218 | 401,330 32 Tin 19 34 4 York, East Riding » North Riding $|1,591,584 | 69,545 |2,105,866 30 lin23-| 26 5 » West Riding WALES. Proportion | S¥™ deposit- aunty Population |Number of} Amount of Rail of deposi- Laptirmyicanp y in 1841, |depositors.| deposits. fated a - Be, whole pop fa £. £ sed. AVIgTESEa ...,.08c¢de sia 50,890 1,990 58,115 29 lin 26} 22 10 IBTECOM 8s on cphs hides cage 53,295 1,073 25,045 23 lin 49 9.5 Carmarthen............ 106,482 527 14,177 26 1 in 202 2 8 Cardigan .......0....60 68,380 816 20,637 25 lin 83 6 0 Carnarvon .......00... 81,068 408 11,612 28 1 in 198 210 Denbigh .....evcsessns 89,291 1,903 46,003 24 lin 46]; 10 3 MEINE. cde spas 372,773 24,178 683,487 28 lin 15/] 86 4 Fermanagh ...... 156,481 1,535 54,303 35 4in 102 6 ll Galway .........06- 440,198 396 10,063 25 lin 1111 0 5 Beery. Wonlhs Sacce. 293,880 1,510 37,969 25 lin 194 i i Kildare! .:...0ccess.: 114,488 1,018 29,070 28 lin 112 5 1 Kilkenny ......... 202,420 1,398 48,021 34 lin 144 4 9 King’s County ...| 146,857 1,365 42,937 31 lin 108 5 10 Limerick ......... 330,029 4,318 146,731 33 lin 76 8 10 Londonderry ...... 222,174 1,961 49,686 25 lin 113 4°5 Louth .........00000 128,240 3,126 92,413 29 lin 41} 14 4 MayOy. csussahteqcees 388,887 1,406 43,904 31 lin 276 2 3 Meath §.cwa-deeness 183,828 1,486 47,324 3l lin 122 lee! Monaghan ......... 200,442 926 25,473 27 lin 216 2 6 Queen’s County ...| 153,930 1,128 35,437 31 lin 1386 4 7 Roscommon ...... 253,589 921 32,256 35 lin 275 2° 5 SHON. decsiesscaann 181,002 865 27,493 31 lin 209 3.0 Tipperary. .......0. 435,552 3,512 111,431 31 lin 124 anak TDYTORE sain asanee »| 312,956 1,846 54,0384 29 lin 169 3. 65 Waterford ......... 196,187 3,782 110,183 29 lin 51] 11 2 Westmeath ...... 141,300 733 33,243 45 lin 192 4° 8 Wexford ......+00« -.| 202,083 1,457 47,907 32 lin 1388 4 8 Wicklow. ......... 126,143 1,214 31,111 25 lin 103 4 il Not any savings’ bank in Carlow, Donegal, Drogheda, Leitrim, or Longford. a. Ky 4 : ON SAVINGS’ BANKS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 137 ScoTLAND. Average | Proportion of Sum depo- ~~ County, Population | Number of | Amount of eure depositors |Sited per indi- y in 1841, depositors. deposits. deposited. |to bapilation ie Ws fe L £ £ fete Aberdeen. ......... 192,283 1,710 22,750 13 lin 112 2 4 Argyle ......008... 97,140 240 3,353 13 1 in 404 0 8 Banff .......eceeeeee 50,076 462 6,733 14 1 in 108 2 8 Berwick .... «| 84,427 189 3,177 16 1 in 182 1 10 ‘Bute’ ...1..... «| 15,695 561 8,155 14 lin 28 1 4 Caithness -| 86,197 218 3,225 14 1 in 166 1 9 Clackmannan ...|. 19,116 140 1,627 11 1 in 186 1 8 Dumfries. ........ 72,825 344 4,061 11 1 in 211 1 1 Edinburgh ......... 225,623 23,859 322,346 13 lin 9 28. «6 Lisi 9 Rep 3c 140,310 2,972 48,125 16 lin 47 6 10 Forfar......ses.cve0s 170,400 4,616 48,006 10 lin 387 5.7 Inverness. ......... 97,615 856 9,341 10 lin 114 1 Jl Kincardine ...... 33,052 1,149 22,549 19 lin 28 13 7 Kircudbright....... 41,099 265 2,591 9 lin 155 1 38 Lanark ............ 427,113 19,774 294,726 14 lin 21 13 9 IMOTAY! cescc..:20s- 34,994 1,838 27,472 14 lin 19 15 8 ONAN) . ccdeaseis vanes 9,218 198 2,212 ll lin 46 4 9 2 eee een 138,151 4,735 60,721 12 lin 29 8 9 Renfrew............. 154,755 2,361 36,107 15 lin 65 4 8 Rossand Cromarty, 78,980 415 4,126 10 1 in 190 1 0 Roxburgh ......... 46,003 804 20,188 25 lin 57 8 9 Selkirk ........0... 7,989 315 4,812 15 lin 25 12 0 Stirling ........00 82,179 770 9,746 12 1 in 106 2 4 Not any savings’ bank in Ayr, Dumbarton, Haddington, Kinross, Linlithgow, Orkney and Shetland, Peebles, Sutherland, or Wigton. “In the preceding Tables the present condition is shown of each county of England, Wales, Ireland and Scotland, respectively, as regards the savings _ deposited in these banks by the people. Assuming, as the basis for the cal- culation, the population of 1841, it will there be seen what proportion among them has deposits in a savings’ bank, and the sum per head to which those deposits would amount if equally divided among the whole number of inha- bitants. _ It may appear strange, that with the exception of Middlesex, the metro- politan county, and the great centre of wealth and of the employments which wealth creates, the largest amount of deposits, in proportion to the population, should be found in Devonshire, an agricultural county, in which there were, in a population of 533,460 persons in 1841, fewer than 7000 employed in all kinds of manufactures. This fact is, however, capable of easy and satisfac- _ tory explanation. The Devon and Exeter Savings’ Bank has been for many _ years placed under very zealous and able management, and in addition to the , constant services of Mr. Lee, its actuary, has received the support of con- siderably more than a hundred clergymen and gentlemen residing at differ- _ ent places within the county, who have taken pains to make known among _ the labouring poor in their respective neighbourhoods the benefits to be de- _ rived from even the smallest savings, and who have, at the cost of some per- sonal trouble, received such savings and transmitted them to Exeter for in- _ vestment, an operation which, unaided, the depositors could hardly have _ accomplished. This fact should serve as a stimulus to others who have the like opportunity of benefiting their poor neighbours, showing as it does that even in the least promising soil they may reap a large harvest of success if 138 REPORT—1845. the needful labour be not withheld. On the other hand, it may create sur- prise that Lancashire, at the head of our manufacturing population, should stand so low in the scale with regard to the savings of the working classes, that there should be twenty-five counties of England, the average deposits in which are greater. This too is capable of explanation that must be satisfac- tory. In towns, and especially in places that are rapidly increasing, as the manufacturing towns and villages of Lancashire and the neighbouring counties have long been, more profitable opportunities present themselves for the in- vestment of small sums than are offered by savings’ banks. Among these opportunities building-clubs are common in those localities, and absorb the working man’s savings to an extent which few persons who have not inquired into the subject would conceive probable. The advantage held forth by the government to the working man as an in- ducement for him to save a portion of his earnings, was greater under the acts of 1817 than it is at present. The rate of interest then fixed was, as already stated, 3d. per centum per diem, or 4/. 11s. 3d. per cent. per annum, out of which the allowance made to depositors was usually 4 per cent., the remaining 11s. 3d. being retained to defray expenses. There was no restric- tion then placed upon depositors as to the amount of their savings ; they might deposit 100/. the first year and 50/. every year after, so long as they might be inclined or able to do so, and they might make investments in as many different savings’ banks as they judged proper and could effect. In time, however, parties not contemplated by the legislature in framing the law, find- ing that they could thus secure a higher rate of interest than was yielded by the public funds, and at the same time save all risk of fluctuation in the value of their deposits, used the savings’ banks to an inconvenient extent, and in 1824 an act was passed limiting the amount that might be deposited the first year to 50/., and all future yearly deposits to 30/., with the further restrictions that no person should receive interest upon any amount beyond 200/., nor should be allowed to leave deposits in more than one savings’ bank. In 1828 the rate of interest was reduced to 21d. per centum per diem, or 32, 8s. 51d. per cent. per annum; the largest sum to be received in any one year was fixed at 30/., and 150/. was adopted as the largest sum upon which inter- est would be paid to any one depositor. In 1833 the laws relating to savings’ banks were extended to the Channel Islands, and in 1835, as already stated, they were made to embrace Scotland. ‘The latest act for the regulation of these institutions was passed in 1844; it further lowered the rate of interest paid by the public to 31 per cent. per annum, reducing to 2d. per centum per diem, or 3/. Os. 10d. per cent. per annum the allowance to depositors. This change took effect from and after the 20th of November 1844, the day to which the statements now brought forward are made up. Whether or not the allow- ing of a liberal rate of interest has much influence on the minds of the work- ing classes, leading them to spare a portion of their earnings, is a question which the result of this change may enable us to answer. If that answer should be in the affirmative—if the now diminished allowance for interest should in any degree check the disposition to saving on the part of the classes for whom savings’ banks are opened, the economy of parliament in thus re- stricting that allowance will prove a measure of very doubtful wisdom, and one as to which the legislature cannot too soon retrace its steps. It is to be regretted that the managers of savings’ banks have not generally availed themselves of the opportunities which they possess for throwing light upon the condition and habits of the various classes making deposits, by re- cording and publishing their occupations. Many years ago the Statistical Society of London addressed circular letters to each savings’ bank then exist- | < ON SAVINGS’ BANKS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. ing, accompanied by forms to be filled up, ‘of possessing correct knowledge upon the subject. This well-meant effort proved however wholly abortive. Some few of these establishments are ac- customed to publish such information; among these are the “ Devon and Exeter Savings’ Bank,” already mentioned, and the ‘« Manchester and Salford Bank for Savings.” As it may be useful to know the result exhibited by the accounts of two establishments, similar in their object but differing so mate- rially in their circumstances, I shall close this sketch by calling attention to their several statements. : Analysis of Depositors in the Devon and Exeter Savings’ Bank from 1827 and pointing out the advantage to 1833. Malle servants «...sccsesesccscoevscetecctocecees Female servantS ssccssecssececceesncseeecees Children of servants ......sssscscsesseecseesees Total servants ..sccccescsscceveessceeress Small shopkeepers .....ssereesseceanereeseees Artificers and mechanics ..........+0.4 Pees LabOUrerS ..c.cs.cccececceesacceesccsnseceecncens Females in trade ...... AE Goer ss eee Apprentices ..e.sscssseesceveeeceweee ay were Carriers, drivers, porters, &:C. sseissceseerees Teachers, clerks, and shopmen .......-.+0+ Children of the above .....ss...+0 Ehiwatns aes Total traders and manufacturers ... Small farmers ...ccccessssceasccceccecsenceeees Labourers ....seeess Me sckcwldwacaeacbneeuahtntes Children of the above ........-.ssseesereseees Total agriculturists © ....0++ wawehad de Soldiers, sailors, revenue-officers, &c. Miscellaneous .......sessseeveeeveccercceseeees Amount of deposits. £ 43,612 106,022 3,284 152,918 26,900 90,839 40,190 65,757 53,933 159,880 32,654 Average deposit. E-4 50 29 31 19 or i) oo bossy | bo | w Lin} J oc] | Home 37 2 11 140 kO - REPORT—1845. Z0VITAR “uO Classification of Depositors, with the Balance due to each Class at 20th of November 1843, in the Manchester and Salford Bank for Savings. on. Total number of 3 3g |! pegornis onened under of each Total amount be- BES + as ators . class re-| longing toeach | 973 7. Description of Depositors maining| class, doth Nov. Fg | open at 1843, we : ) Vcaiieaueitin and cabinet-makers, 2,208} 215] 2,423| 683| 19,474 9 5] 28 Cabandomnibus drivers, mail-guards, &c.,anddo.) 156 42) 198 76| 2,164 14 7] 28 Policemen, soldiers, and pensioners, and do. .. 361 4] 402 135 3,999 1 2) 29 Professional teachers and artists, and do.......... 709} 409] 1,118] 398] 13,982 18 7) 30 | [Tradesmen and small shopkeepers.........+++.++++- 1,639] 1,040} 2,679} 919) 28,970 15 8 31 ecm gardeners, and their labourers, and 1,171) 172] 1,343] 538] 19,854 19 1) 35 { Other descriptions not particularly specified...... 2,225) 5,248) 7,473] 2,474] $83,719 110) 33 ; | ZP 33,009] 24,886) 57,895] 20,266) 541,379 1 9| 26 ; jendly societies ....s.ssssessesserserseseeseess A BC aay 655| 287) 19,702 5 11} 68 ‘| “tag institutions, including clothing ia . | cece! 2291 «+197/ 7,231 12-7]. 56 | ed SES ee Pau nee ee 33,009] 24,886) 58,779] 20,680} 568,313 0 3 * The greatest proportion of this class are no longer minors, the designation as originally entered being retained. + This class contains a great number of depositors of different trades belonging to the other classes whose callings were not noted in the Register in the early years of the bank. 142 REPORT—1845. Report on the Gases evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the Theory of the Smelting of Tron. By Prof. Bunsen, of Marburg, Hesse Cassel, and Dr. Lyon Puayratr, of the Museum of Giconomic Geology, department of Her Majesty’s Woods and Forests. In laying before the Association the report which we have now the honour to present, we are desirous, at the commencement of our subject, to examine closely the methods employed in the analyses of gases, not only as an argu- ment in favour of the processes used by ourselves, but also with the hope of improving the present state of eudiometry. Two distinct methods are employed in the analysis of combustible gases ; one of which consists in an exact determination of the voLumeEs of the gas about to be examined, and of those resulting from the combustion of its con- stituents with oxygen. By the other method, the products of combustion are collected in the liquid and solid form, and estimated directly according to WEIGHT. The last method would doubtless deserve the preference if we had to ope- rate upon a mixture of gases capable of being determined by the products of combustion without reference to the quantity of oxygen necessary to effect it ; in other words, when we have to examine a mixture containing only two combustible gases. In such a case, the combustion by means of oxide of copper affords products well-adapted for exact determination by weight. But, on the contrary, when the quantity of oxygen necessary for the com- bustion must be introduced as an element into the calculation, as is the case with the gases examined by us in the present paper, the method of analysis by weight is not only inexpedient, but also inexact. If that method were to be adopted, it is necessary to determine the loss (often not amounting to above a few centigrammes) sustained by a heavy combustion-tube, by weigh- ing it before and after the experiment, and thus subjecting it to all the sources of error due to a varying hygroscopic condition, and to the loss in weight oc- casioned by the long exposure of a considerable body of glass to a red heat. Another source of error equally great consists in the necessity for filling the whole apparatus for combustion and condensation with nitrogen gas previous to the commencement of the experiment. The smallest quantity of oxygen which may remain in the gas, or in the porous oxide of copper, or which may be introduced by diffusion, must derange the results, and cause great uncertainty in the determinations. Any error arising from this source is so much the more to be feared, because it does not affect one constituent merely, but extends its influence equally to the ascertained value of all the other in- gredients. We cannot afford better arguments for the reception of our methods of investigation than by briefly reviewing the results obtained by different in- quirers in the examination of the gases evolved from furnaces worked by charcoal. It is obvious that the composition of these gases cannot be the same under all circumstances, for the nature of the fuel, the pressure of the blast, and even the shape of the furnace itself, must exert a varying influence in modifying the processes which affect the composition of the gases. But when we consider, at the same time, that these modifying influences have their maximum and minimum in corresponding parts of furnaces treated in a similar manner, we still have a right to expect an elucidation of the law regu- lating the formation of the gases by a careful comparison of their compo- sition. One of us first endeavoured to solve this problem by an examination of the gases issuing from the furnace of Vickerhagen, although he did not then consider the results obtained in the inquiry as expressive of a general a ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 143 theory of the nature of the processes in the furnace. This research was afterwards pursued in a similar manner, and with confirmatory results, by Scheerer and Langberg in the iron-works of Baerum. Both these chemists have conferred a lasting benefit on this new field of metallurgical inquiry by their elaborate investigations ; and as their experiments agree with those performed in Germany, the generality of the law regulating the production and action of the solid and gaseous products of charcoal-furnaces is esta- blished. This is shown by a comparison of the results obtained at Vicker- hagen and Baerum :— \Composition* according to volume of the gases at Vickerhagen. Height above the tuyére ...|172feet.] 162. 143, | 133. | 113. | Saf. | 53, MVATEOPENM' Te. tacedsscinccaercsee 62:34 | 62:25 | 66:29 | 62:47 | 63:89 | 61-45 | 64-58 Carbonic acid ............... 877 | 11:14 3°32 3°44 3°60 7:57 5:97 Carbonic oxide .............+ 24:20 | 22:24 | 25:77 | 30°08 |} 29:27 | 26:99 | 26-51 Light carburetted hydrogen| 3°36 310 | 4:04 2:24 107 | 3°84 1:88 SESVUTOPOM 00 0000dn-scnseneech- 133] 127] 058 |. 177) 217] O15} 1-06 Composition according to volume of the gases at Baerum. Height above the tuyére ...| 23 feet. | 203. 18. 153. 13. 10. Nitrogen ..... | TO PREGA 64-43 | 62°65 | 63:20] 64:28] 66:12] 64:97 Carbonic acid ............... 22:20 | 18:21 12-45 4:27 8:50 5:69 Carbonic oxide .....,......... 8:04 | 15:33] 18:57 | 29:17 | 20:28] 26-38 Light carburetted hydrogen 3°87 1:28 1:27 1:23 118 0:00 FAV ALOEN | oe neceeseg2sc-eneeevs 1-46 2-53 4°51 1:05 3°92 2-96 100-00 | 100:00 |} 100:00 | 100-00 | 100:00 | 100-00 A simple inspection of the comparison now instituted is sufficient to show that the law, regulating the changes suffered by the ascending column of gas in furnaces supplied with charcoal as fuel, is the same in those of Vick- erhagen and Baerum. In both cases the carbonic acid diminishes as we de- scend from the upper part of the furnace towards the hearth, until it attains a minimum, when it again begins to increase, without however reaching the proportion which it at first possessed. In both cases the carbonic oxide at- tains its maximum about the middle of the furnace, and diminishes in a greater ratio upwards than downwards. In both furnaces the quantity of carburetted hydrogen remains constant in the upper part, and diminishes, although still relatively constant, in the lower region; and finally, in both cases, an irregularity in the quantity of hydrogen, probably caused by local influences, is observed at all depths. . It could scarcely be expected that these phenomena should proceed at proportional heights of furnaces of dif- ferent sizes; but it would not be difficult to explain the influence exerted upon the maximum and minimum composition of the gases at different positions by the dimensions of the furnace, the nature of the materials, and * We have found it necessary to correct the calculations given in the original memoir in Poggendorff’s ‘ Annalen,’ as they are, almost without exception, erroneously calculated. tp The gas taken from a depth of 83 feet is anomalous in composition, but as this is ob- viously due to one of those disturbances which frequently take place in furnaces of small dimensions, we neglect the consideration of this analysis. i . 144 REPORT—1845. the pressure of the blast, as soon as proper data are furnished bg continued inquiries in this field of research. The great accordance between the results of the two series of experiments now detailed, executed as they were quite independently of each other, the one series in Germany, the other in Norway, renders it surprising that a similar inquiry instituted by Ebelmen on the furnaces of Clerval and Audincourt should have led to results differing so essentially from those now described. This chemist gives the following composition, according to volume, for the gases of the furnace at Clerval :— Height above the tuyére ...|253 feet.) 223. 173. 133. 93. 8. DRTOGEN cee. ches cds Ssiocesee 63-07 Carbonic acid 0-00 Carbonic oxide 35°01 Light carburetted hydrogen 0-00 0-00 0-00 0-00 0-00 0:00 FLYdrogen. ..5....0cccccsscennse 5°82 6-00 5°44 3°82 3°59 1:92 100-00 | 100-00 | 100°00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 The difference of these results from those detailed above is very striking, especially when we consider that carburetted hydrogen is entirely absent from Ebelmen’s analyses, and that the hydrogen is as great as 6 per cent. The close relation between the nitrogen and oxygen of these gases, and especially the great regularity in the increase and diminution of their respec- tive constituents, would certainly appear to be a guarantee for the accuracy of the analyses. Indeed Ebelmen himself seems so deeply impressed with their value and with their exclusive accuracy, that he has considered it quite unnecessary even to refer to the previous elaborate investigations on this subject in Germany. As he has not honoured one of us, the author of these investigations, with a reference, of course the difference between his results and those of that paper still remain unexplained, and we shall therefore en- deavour to fill up this gap in our knowledge. The analyses of Ebelmen differ from our own in being quite destitute of earburetted hydrogen. It would be a great error to suppose that the absence of this ingredient is not essential. The gas escaping from the furnace at Baerum contains, according to weight,— Nitrogen . . 2» + » « 5895 Carbonicacid . . . . + 31°68 Carbonic oxide . . . - « 728 Carburetted hydrogen. . . 2°00 Hydrogen. . . ». - - - O09 — —__—___. 100:00 The two parts of carburetted hydrogen contained in this mixture give, on combustion, 26938 units * of heat; and no less than 10°76 parts of car- bonic oxide would be necessary to generate the same amount. An error of 2 in the quantity of carburetted hydrogen, with respect to the combustible value of the gas, is equivalent to a loss of 10°76 parts of carbonic oxide gas. But surely a theoretical conclusion must be of small value when based upon an analysis in which there are errors of more than 10 per cent. of the car- bonic oxide. It therefore becomes a most important question tc determine * Unit of heat is a convenient term to employ in the present report, because it expresses a standard amount. The amount of heat necessary to elevate 2°204 Ibs. of water (1 kilo- gramme) from 0° Cent. to 1° C., we assume as unity. ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 145 whether’ carburetted hydrogen ought to be considered as an essential con- stituent of the gases, and whether its absence in the cases cited is due to an error in Ebelmen’s analyses. It is well known that ordinary charcoal is very far from being pure carbon, and that it in fact contains about 20 per cent. of foreign matters, which escape as gaseous and liquid products when it is heated to redness. If car- buretted hydrogen form, as is generally supposed, an essential constituent of the gases resulting from the distillation of wood-charcoal, it is quite clear that it cannot be absent from the gases of furnaces supplied with that fuel. Al- though the presence of carburetted hydrogen in the gases obtained by the distillation of charcoal is generally acknowledged, we have thought it not superfluous to put this fact beyond all doubt by a renewed examination. The charcoal subjected to experiment was heated in a narrow glass tube, con- nected with a long dry tube to retain the liquid products of distillation, and the gases, after passing through this, were collected over mercury. In order to remove any elayl or hydrated oxide of methyl, which might possibly have accompanied the gases, they were conducted through a long tube filled with fuming sulphuric acid, attached to which was another tube moistened with water. The analysis of the gases was then effected in an exact eudiometer, and according to the methods which we describe in an after part of this report. I. A specimen of very well-burnt charcoal, from beech-wood, yielded a gas of the following composition, according to volume :— Carbonic acid » « 23°65 Carburetted hydrogen. . - 11°00 Carbonic oxide . . .. - 15°96 Hydrogen. . . - - - - 49°39 100°00 II. A good specimen of charcoal from fir-wood, also well-burnt, gave a gas constituted as under. III. 0:6500 gramme of oak-charcoal, of a similar nature to the last, left behind 0:47 carbon, and yielded 70 cubic centimetres of gas at 0° C. and 0°76 bar., consisting as under. IV. 0°733 imperfectly burnt beech-wood charcoal, pulverulent, and of a blackish-brown colour, left 0°443 carbon and 250 cubic centimetres of gas at 0° C. and 0°76 bar., which gas was composed as under. II. Ill. IV. Gas of Gas of Gas of Fir-charcoal. Oak-charcoal. Beech-charcoal. Carbonic acid. ......- 15°96 19°58 35°36 Carburetted hydrogen .. 20°32 20°75 20°78 Carbonic oxide ...... 13°62 90°57 14°41 . Hydrogen... .... +. 50°10 39°10 29°45 ; 100:00 100:00 100-00 If we assume the most unfavourable condition to the calculation, that the charcoal used in the furnace of Clerval was of the most select quality, which could not have been the case, it follows from the analysis and consumption of charcoal at that place, that no less than 479 cubic feet of light carburetted hydrogen must have escaped from the top of the furnace every hour, and yet not.a trace of this large quantity is to be found in Ebelmen’s analyses. The above experiments prove beyond contradiction that the carburetted hydrogen found by Scheerer and by us in the gases from charcoal, is actually an essen- " 1845. L q \ . . } 146 - REPORT—1845. tial constituent of furnace-gases. The absence of this important ingre- dient from Ebelmen’s analyses might be explained on the supposition that the gases upon which he operated were collected from a part without the column of charcoal, and between it and the lining of the furnace. However, we cannot reproach Ebelmen with drawing a theory of the mutual action of the gaseous and solid products of the furnace from a mixture of gas which had only partially been subjected to this action, because the presence of 7 per cent. of hydrogen indicated by his analyses would be still more inexplicable on this supposition. Hence we must look to another source for the errors in his analyses, and it will be found to lie in the incompleteness of the methods used by him. His method of determining the nature and composition of the combustible gases, was to pass them over red-hot oxide of copper, collecting the products of combustion in the usual way, and forming an opinion of the presence or absence of carburetted hydrogen by the loss in weight of the combustion-tube. In order to show the degree of inaccuracy of this method, it will be best to choose a special case as an example, and as such we select the first analysis of the gases of Clerval. The volume of gas used in his ex- periments, 1500 cubie centimetres*, contained 87:3 cubic centimetres of hydrogen and 352°65 cubic centimetres of carbonic oxide gas. In order to burn this quantity, the combustion-tube suffered a loss in weight of 0°3160 gramme. If we supposed the whole of the hydrogen to be present as car- buretted hydrogen, taking its carbon from a corresponding quantity of car- bonic oxide, the 1500 cubic centimetres of gas must have contained 43°65 carburetted hydrogen and 309-0 carbonic oxide ; and, on this supposition, the combustion-tube must have diminished in weight 0°3473 gramme, instead of 0°3150 gramme. It will be seen from this calculation, that the question as to whether the mixture of gases contains 5°82 per cent. hydrogen, or instead of that quantity, 3°09 light carburetted hydrogen, is entirely dependent upon a difference in weight of not more than 0°0323 gramme. Let us assume that the weight of the combustion-tube and its contents was 80 grammes, then an error of ,,4,, in the weighing would cause a change in the results from the composition, as found by Ebelmen, to that placed beside it calculated on this supposition :— On the supposition that he According to was liable to an error of only Ebelmen. zoGos in weighing. Nitrogen «see eae S779 61°36 Carbonic acid ....... 12:88 13°68 Carbonic oxide ...... 23°55 21°87 Carburetted hydrogen .. 0:00 3°09 Hydrogen sss esses . BZ 0°00 100°00 100°00 Such uncertainties as these are never to be feared in a eudiometric ana- lysis conducted with proper precautions; for they would imply errors in measurement which could not take place without the most gross negligence. Now when we consider the circumstances which would tend to diminish the loss in weight of the combustion-tube in Ebelmen’s experiments, and con- * Tn the details of our analyses we always employ the French weights and measures, now universally used on the continent, and by most of our eminent chemists in this country. Their convenience is very great, and as science is universal and not local, English memoirs are more readily adopted on the continent when the translators have not the trouble of re- ducing our weights and measures. Where the numbers are absolute and not relative, we employ English measures. ene ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 147 sequently diminish the quantity of carburetted hydrogen, while it increased that of hydrogen, we shall be the more inclined to attribute the erroneous results of his experiments to the uncertain methods employed by him in ana- lysis. The smallest quantity of oxygen remaining in the nitrogen with which the apparatus was filled previous to the experiment, the gases retained by the porous copper formed during the reduction, the carbon also retained by this copper, the smallest quantity of foreign substances which may attach them- selves to the combustion-tube, softened as it is by heat during the experi- ment,—all these must tend to increase the chances of an error of ~>4>5 in weighing ; a difference so small as even without the operation of these causes almost to be within the errors of observation, and sufficient to account for the erroneous results obtained by Ebelmen. But whatever may have been the grounds which induced Ebelmen to avoid referring to the original inves- tigations in Germany, when we consider the great labour which he bestowed on the inquiry; it will ever remain to be regretted that he did not introduce into his memoir an explanation of the grounds upon which he accorded the preference to his method of analysis, which differs from that of his prede- cessors in the inquiry more by its tediousness than its accuracy, and which we consider it necessary altogether to avoid in the following research. At the same time it cannot be denied, that eudiometric analysis, as usually performed, is little deserving of high commendation, or of universal adoption, although this is less owing to its incompleteness than to the neglect of the many precautions which should be adopted to procure accuracy. Before proceeding to our investigation, we thought it necessary to examine with great care all the conditions essential to obtain a proper degree of ac- curacy. It cannot, therefore, be thought superfluous to describe in detail the methods employed in the inquiry, especially as these must form the foun- dation for the reception of the conclusions which we draw from the experi- ments. The combustion and measurement of the gases is most conveniently and accurately performed in uniform glass tubes of 18-19 inches in length and about 0°6 inch internal and 0°8 inch external diameter ; in the closed end of the tube there is inserted by fusion two platina wires of the thickness of horse hair, for the purpose of passing the electric spark. The tube is divided into millimetres, and with this view, is covered with common etching paste, or still better, with a thin layer of wax containing a little turpentine, which may be laid very uniformly on the warmed surface of the glass by means of a hair pencil. The glass is then minutely graduated by a peculiar instru- ment, and subjected to the action of gaseous hydrofluoric acid, which, when evolved from a paste of fluoride of calcium and concentrated sulphuric acid placed in a vessel of lead slightly warmed, effects the etching in ten to fifteen minutes, and much more legibly than the liquid hydrofluoric acid usually employed in the graduation of thermometers. The capacity of the tube, which has thus been divided into millimetres, is easily determined by measurement. For this purpose, the tube is placed vertically with the table, its hermetically sealed end being downwards, and is then filled with successive portions of mercury carefully measured. The different lengths occupied by these equal volumes correspond to equal capa- cities of the tube. If the mercury in the successive parts of the tube ad, be, ed, de, &c. take up the lengths measured on the graduation L L! L'' L’", and _ the short parts of the tube ad, bc, ed, &c. be considered uniform in calibre, _ We obtain respective values of the divisional marks between ab, be, &c. with respect to the volumes corresponding to them expressed by the unity cor- responding to the length L, when L! L" L!", &c. are divided by L. On add- L2 le oe ee 148 “REPORT—1845. ing together these quantities, a graduation originally arbitrary becomes a comparable measure corresponding to the capacity of the tube. We obtain by this means a table of correction which gives the true volume of the tube corresponding to each mark. It is necessary, in order to obviate the parallax on reading from the surface of the mercury, to use a small moveable mirror (Plate IV. fig. 1), which is placed on the opposite side of the tube. If the pupil of the eye seen through the tube in the mirror appears halved by the mark corresponding to the con- vexity of the mercury, the reading may be considered as exact. If the volume of the measured gas be read, as must always be the case, from the highest point of the convexity of the mercury, we must add to the correc- tions a small constant quantity deduced from the value found in the plate, and which may be named the fault of the convexity, the necessity for which will be rendered obvious by the following consideration :—If the reading of the volume of the mercury during the measurement of the instrument be at the mark a, the capacity a ab is not measured, but only the volume eged (fig. 2). Now on using the instrument, if we read a volume of gas at the same mark a, while the convexity takes the place dg 6, this volume as read does not correspond toe ge 6, but tothe real capacity egeb + deged. Hence the quantity deg ec is not measured by the reading, and must there- fore be added to the volumes observed, which otherwise would be too small. This quantity may be ascertained by an experiment, and serves for all fu- ture corrections. Ifa dilute solution of bichloride of mercury be placed in contact with the convexity, it disappears immediately, on account of the for- mation of a thin layer of protochloride of mercury which adheres to the glass. The mercury now shows the horizontal surface f6. The quantity caae is obviously equal to fe aa f, which may be measured directly by the divi- sions on the tube. Hence the quantity cd ée must be equal to2 x aaPf, which is the quantity that must be added to the observed volume on every reading. Another source of error may arise from air bubbles, which are apt to at- tach themselves to the glass during the filling of the tube, and being loosened when gas is admitted, render the latter impure. If these bubbles of air be visible to the naked eye, it is easy enough to separate them by means of a wire ; but the walls still remain covered with microscopic bubbles which cannot be removed in this way. In order, therefore, to prevent altogether this danger to the experiment, it is necessary to clean very carefully with unsized paper the walls of the tube after every experiment, and to introduce the mercury by means of a funnel with a long neck ending in a narrow opening at the lower end, and placed at the bottom of the tube. The mer- cury flowing from this funnel adheres to the walls of the tube, with a perfectly clear mirror-like surface. Especial care must be taken that air neither enters nor escapes during the combustion of the gas in the eudiometer. This evil is perfectly avoided by pressing the open end of the instrument, during the explosion, upon a per- fectly smooth sheet of caoutchouc placed under the mercury in the pneumatic trough. However, it is quite necessary to take care that the caoutchouc has not carried down with it any air, which might easily find its way into the eudiometer by the diminished tension of the gas. The caoutchouc is there- fore moistened with a solution of corrosive sublimate, and very slowly sunk into the mercury ; the protochloride of mercury formed between the mercury and the caoutchouc causes such complete adhesion as to exclude all air. Finally, the reading can only be made exact by using the mirror formerly described, and estimating the position of the level of the column of mercury ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 149 in the eudiometer above that in the trough, so that the difference may be brought into the calculation. By reading in this manner the error is avoided; which otherwise would result from heating the gases by the hand in adjust- ing the outer and inner levels, and it also enables us to record the results without touching the apparatus, which thus preserves a constant temperature. It is quite necessary, in estimating the volumes of the gases, to use the sub- stances for absorption in a bulk as small as possible, and in a form which may easily and completely be removed from the tubes, so that the gases may neither be rendered impure by air introduced, nor their reading rendered erroneous by some of the absorbing substance adhering to the sides of the tube. This is best effected by casting the materials into the form of bullets, by means of a common bullet-mould, into which a thin piano wire hasbeen previously introduced. If there are to be two determinations of carbonic acid, the one before the combustion of the gas, the other after, it is neces- sary to transfer the gas from one eudiometer to another, after the first deter- mination, in order to avoid the chance of error which might result from potash adhering to the side of the tube during the first absorption ; and for this purpose it is obviously of little consequence whether the whole or only a part of the volume of the gas be transferred. The adhesion of air to the piano wire is so insignificant, that it might be completely neglected ; but to avoid error, it is better to amalgamate the outer surface of the iron wire; this may be done by rubbing it with an amalgam of potassium and mercury, without destroying its tenacity. Rusty iron wire must not on any account be em- ployed, and equal care must be taken to keep its inferior end under the mer- cury during the absorption; for if it be exposed to the air, an endosmose and exosmose is effected to such an extent, as in certain cases to endanger the value of the analysis. In order to estimate olefiant gas and the hydrocarbons accompanying it, we have invented a very simple and efficacious method, which may be use- fully employed in the analysis of coal-gas. A little bullet is prepared out of the same materials as those used for making the negative element of the coal battery. For this purpose a bullet-mould, supplied with a platinum-wire having a bent end, is filled with a pounded mixture of two parts of coke and one part of coal, and is then heated before the blowpipe flame. The ball made in this way is afterwards dipped into a concentrated solution of sugar, and heated very strongly in the open reducing flame of the blowpipe ; it is now ready, and must be preserved for use carefully protected from moisture. This lump of charcoal, about the size of a small pistol-bullet, is capable of absorbing into its pores 0°5 gramme of sulphuric acid without appearing wet on the surface, and it can be introduced into and withdrawn from the eudio- meter without moistening it to any appreciable extent. For the purpose of experiment, it is made to absorb a mixture consisting of one part of anhy- drous and two parts of concentrated hydrated sulphuric acid. The proof that the acid contained in the bullet has been sufficient for the absorption of the olefiant gas, is the emission of white fumes in the air after its withdrawal from the mixture of gases, which of course must be quite dry. As the an- hydrous sulphuric acid emits vapour possessing considerable tension, and is never obtained free from sulphurous acid, and as the latter gas is also formed by the action of sulphuric acid on the hydrocarbons, an augmentation of the volume of the mixture is thus produced. ‘To remove both these sources of error, after the conclusion of the above experiment, a little dry ball made of gypsum and peroxide of lead is introduced into the eudiometer. This has the double effect of removing both, for while the peroxide of lead absorbs 150 REPORT—1845. the sulphurous acid, the anhydrous sulphuric acid robs the gypsum of part of its water, thus becoming hydrated sulphuric acid and losing its tension. When the oxygen is estimated, not by combustion with hydrogen, but by absorption with phosphorus, the precaution must always be taken to sepa- rate the vapours of phosphorous acid by a bullet of caustic potash, before effecting the measurement. As the tension of the aqueous vapour, and in fact every known precau- tionary means were adopted in our experiments, we believe it to be unne- cessary to enter into further detail. But, at the same time, as it is necessary that we should submit to the Association some proofs of the degree of accu- racy which we profess to have attained in this mode of analysis, we do not consider it superfluous to lay before it a series of analyses of common air, made with eudiometers such as have been described, but of various sizes, and with air collected at different times, the analyses being made with the precautions recommended by us. And we are less afraid of being accused of unnecessary detail, because these analyses show most decidedly that the presence of nitrogen during the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen does not cause the formation of ammonia, or of any degree of oxidation of ni- trogen. We thought this question, involving as it does the whole value of our labours, so important as to be submitted to rigorous experimental research. The air employed in these experiments was collected in the neighbour- hood of Marburg in the open air, and carefully freed from carbonic acid : the measurement of the respective volumes of gases was effected at the maxi- mum of moisture. I. Experiments with a eudiometer of small dimensions. Ist Experiment, June 14, 1844. Volume. i nee , aan of Barometer. iS m m Volume of air used creccsscccessesseeseese| 200°L 18:0 0:2075 0:7480 Volume after admission of hydrogen ,..| 307-1 17:8 0°1343 0-7480 Volume after the combustion .......++«. 2118 18-0 0°2250 0:7480 Qnd Experiment, June 15. Volume of air used ..ccccccsseeeseeees aacael. 1 9S'2 18 02420 0-7476 Volume after admission of hydrogen ...| 346-4 18 0:0962 07476 Volume after combustion ..........+- sooeee| 280°2 18 0-1600 0°7476 3rd Experiment, June 18, with the same air as the last. Volume Of air used .....c.ee.e-cevceseerece 231°4 16°4 0°1963 07451 Volume after admission of hydrogen ...| 822+9 16:2 0°1092 0:7433 Volume after combustion ........seeesereee 230'8 164 0-1969 0:7410 4th Experiment. Volume of air used ....c.ssccccsccsencevees 214-4 173 0-2305 0°7467 Volume after admission of hydrogen ...| 313°5 17:3 0-1367 0°7478 Volume after combustion ........+«.. eeeee| 2343 17-1 0:2224 0:7474 a ’ ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 151 II. Experiments with a eudiometer of larger dimensions, such as that used . in our experiments. 5th Experiment, June 30. Temp. | Difference of Volume. Cent. level. Barometer. ° m m Volume of hydrogen used........es++000++ 1461 71 0-2149 0:7460 Volume after admission of air ...........- 313°0 17-1 0:0593 0°7460 Volume after combustion ..........scc00ee- 2169 17-1 0°1506 0:7449 6th Experiment, July 1. Volume of hydrogen used........... aE ES 1556 | 16:8 02069 |. 0-7447 Volume after admission of air ............ 297-1 16:9 0:0750 0:7442 Volume after combustion ........-..s..000« 2143 17-0 0:1528 0:7444 III. Experiments with a large, long and wide eudiometer. 7th Experiment, July }. Temp. | Difference of Volume. Gone tere: Barometer. ° m ae m Volume of air used ........sscecescereceees 663°2 16:0 0-2301 0°7453 Volume after admission of hydrogen ...| 881-3 16-2 0:0237 0°7453 Volume after combustion ........s+s+..s00 7350 16°5 0-1658 0-7448 8th Experiment, July 10. Volume of air used ...se.seseeessseeessenes 676'8 16:4 0:2160 0°7444 Volume after admission of hydrogen ...|) 8787 | 16-5 0:0225 0-7444 Volume after combustion ......+0...sseeees 716-6 16:2 0:1667 0:7444 9th Experiment, July 12. Volume of air used ......secsesecseeeeese --| 657-2 16°8 0-2408 0-7457 Volume after admission of hydrogen ...| 890-9 16:8 0-0099 0°7457 Volume after combustion ..,.... asad aaa 752°8 16:8 0:1460 0°7449 From the preceding experiments, the composition of air is as follows:— Nitrogen. Oxygen. 78°92 21-08 78:93 21:07 78°98 21:02 78:99 21-01 7910 20 ame by a larger eudiometer, such as that Determined by the smallest eudiometer. 79:09 20°91 : : 7914 20°86 used in our experiments, ¥ 7910 20:90 7919 20°81 >Determined by the largest eudiometer. 79°05 20°95 The great agreement of these experiments with one another, and with the results obtained by the extremely careful experimental determination of the composition of air by Dumas, proves that the eudiometric analyses of gases admit of a degree of exactness which certainly is not surpassed by the most minute analytical methods; and they further show, that the presence of ni- 152 REPORT—1845. trogen does not exercise any disturbing influence on the estimation of explo- sive mixtures of gases. The nature of the gases ascending through the various parts of an iron furnace is obviously dependent upon the nature of the fuel used in it. Coke, brown coal and wood yield a gas containing as combustible consti- tuents only carburetted hydrogen, carbonic oxide and hydrogen. The ana- lysis of such a mixture offers no difficulties, and the proportion of the gases may be easily calculated if we are acquainted with the volume occupied by the oxygen which disappears, and that of the carbonic acid produced, re- ferring them to the volume of gas employed. A mixture of gas consisting of 1 vol. H+1 vol. H,C+1 vol. CO =3 vol. requires for combustion ......... 3 vol.O+2 vol.O+2 vol. O =3 vol. and yields \....5).0,) Sacs02c-.0e002 | VOL'CO,+1 vol CO, =2 vol. If we call any given mixture of gas A, consisting of x hydrogen, y light carburetted hydrogen, and p carbonic oxide; and further call the oxygen necessary for the combustion B, and the carbonic acid produced C, we ob- tain the following equations :— e+y+p=A, 4u+2y+ip=B, yt+tp=C; and out of these follow 1. #wz=A—C. I2B—A g, = , y 3 3. pes But the gas generated, when coal is used as fuel, may contain, in addition to the above gases, olefiant gas, gaseous hydrocarbons of various compositions, and sulphuretted hydrogen. The examination of such a complex mixture of gases offers rare difficulties, which may be overcome by estimating directly the sulphuretted hydrogen and the hydrocarbons differing in composition from light carburetted hydrogen. Sulphuretted hydrogen is easily enough determined, but for the estimation of hydrocarbons, not even an approximative method is known. It is quite true that they may be condensed by free chlorine in the dark ; but the necessity of making such experiments over water render the results wholly inexact. This method also gives a source of error, which becomes materially increased by the circumstance that the tension of the sub- stance containing chlorine formed by the condensation cannot be brought into the calculation. We have therefore tried to condense the gases in a proper apparatus by means of perchloride of antimony. In order to be sure of the applicability of this substance, it was necessary to be certain that this com- pound of chlorine kept back the desired hydrocarbon without acting upon the remaining constituents of the mixture. It may easily be proved that carbonic oxide, light carburetted hydrogen and hydrogen are left quite un- changed by it, for after streaming through the liquid contained in a Liebig’s potash apparatus, they are again obtained unaltered in quantity or in proper- ties. But it was not so simple to decide whether olefiant gas and the other hydrocarbons of unknown composition were separated in this way pure and capable of quantitative determination. We have endeavoured to decide this ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 153 _ question in a way certainly somewhat tedious, but not the less positive. In the first place, it was necessary to be satisfied of the correctness of the opinion generally received, but, as far as we are aware, unproved, that the gaseous products of distillation of coal, in addition to carbonic oxide, hydrogen, ole- fiant gas and carburetted hydrogen, still contained other hydrocarbons. If the latter be absent, we are able by a eudiometric analysis to determine the constituents of a mixture of gases containing four ingredients, if we estimate for a given volume of the mixture A, the quantity of oxygen necessary for its combustion B, and the carbonic acid thus formed C, and also the proportion of the latter to the amount of aqueous vapour produced. Thus it requires A mixture consisting of 1 vol. H+1 vol. H.C +1 vol. HC +1 vol.CO =4 vol. for combustion ......... 1vol.0+2 vol. O+3 vol.O +4 vol. O =6 vol. from which is produced 1 vol. CO,+2 vol. CO.+1 vol. CO, =4 vol. and also ......seeee+-ee-e- 1 Vol. HO+2 vol. HO+2 vol. HO =5 vol. If we denote these quantities by the same letters as above, the olefiant gas by z, and the proportion of the aqueous vapour produced by the com- bustion to the carbonic acid as Ee the following four equations result : a+y+z+p =A, ut 2y+3z2+ap=B, yt+t22+p =v, x+2y+ 22 ma 8 y+22+p E The value of the four unknown quantities x, y, 2 and p, are thus deter- mined :— - Sy Rae RY e=2A+4B 30 (p+5); on y=—2A—6B+5C(2 +1). 2 s=A4+4B—8C(- +1). Ws p=-2B+C(7+2). If the mixture of gases contain actually only the four assumed consti- tuents, we obtain positive values for x, y, 2 and p. If one of these quan- tities be negative, this is a proof that the mixture must contain other com- pounds than those assumed. In order to obtain something conclusive as to the nature of coal-gas, a quantity of coal was heated to redness in a combustion-tube, in such a man- ner that the gaseous products of distillation were not obliged to traverse the red-hot layers of coal. The gas was first conducted into a cool receiver, where it deposited the liquid products of distillation, after which it was freed from carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen by means of a solution of oxide of lead in potash, and also from water by being made to pass through a tube filled with chloride of calcium, leading into a.eudiometer standing over mercury. An indefinite quantity of the gas was also led over red-hot oxide of copper, and yielded 0°23749 grm. carbonic acid and 0°2239 grm. water, which correspond with 120°55 cubic centimetres of carbonic acid, and , 154 REPORT—1845. _ with 277-27 cubic centimetres of aqueous vapour. The eudiometric analysis gave the following result :— Volume. vaup i Pressure. 0° C.1m. ° m Volume of gas used. .,.sep:sereeseeseereeees te : 2:3 0:4127 54:06 Volume after admission of Oxygen ...+.....+6 03 0°6289 219°10 Volume after COMbUStION.......c+eeeseeeeeneeees ‘ 0-2 05277 127:25 Volume after absorption of carbonic acid ...| 182°8 | —3 0°4794 88°61 Volume after admission of hydrogen ,,....... 3003 | —25 0:5952 180:39 Volume after COmbuStION ......+eeeesseeseeeeeeee 10671 | —1:7 0:3987 42°57 Volume after another admission of hydrogen| 295°0 | —1-7 0°5863 174-04 Volume after combustion .........:..csseeeereeeee 106-2 | —1°5 0-4194 44:79 In these data, and also in all those which follow, the tension caused by the aqueous vapour formed during the combustion is never neglected, and the correction necessary for it at the given pressure is already brought into the calculation. A simple consideration of these experiments gives us the fol- lowing values for the elements necessary to the calculation :— D ae 2°2993, A = 5406, B= 76:02, C = 38°64. These quantities lead us to the following composition : Light carburetted hydrogen... +-73°18 Carbonic oxide ..........s.0.000. -- 14°08 Hydrogen y..sesseccesccocsssseeee — 8°89 OIPHBIG GAO wxccccdvenaccenxpscess | — eee In this case, therefore, the formula leads to an impossible result, which proves that other constituents must be in the mixture of gases. From these facts we may also derive another conclusion. If we deduct in the last four experiments the excess of oxygen left after the combustion from the volume of gas measured after the absorption of carbonic acid, the remainder will give the nitrogen originally contained in the mixture, or that liberated by the combustion. This calculation shows that the nitrogen = 0°01, from which we conclude that the gas from coal, distilled and collected as we have described, does not contain in appreciable quantity nitrogen, cyanogen, or any other nitrogenous substance. Hence it follows that the gaseous mix- ture must contain, in addition to the hydrocarbons already mentioned, others of unknown composition. It was now quite necessary to ascertain positively whether perchloride of antimony completely effected the separation of the latter as well as of olefiant gas. This question is easily decided by conduct- ing coal-gas freed from carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen through a Liebig’s potash tube containing perchloride of antimony, behind which is placed another containing potash for the purpose of arresting the volatile perchloride, and a tube filled with chloride of calcium to prevent the escape of aqueous vapour. The gas treated in this way is collected over mercury, and exploded with the necessary quantity of oxygen, which is determined as well as that of the carbonic acid generated; and the proportion of the latter to the amount of aqueous vapour produced is obtained by leading an- other portion of the gas over red-hot oxide of copper. With this knowledge a s ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 155 we possess all the data for estimating the amount of light carburetted hy- drogen, carbonic oxide and hydrogen, not only by the formule 1, 2, 3, but also by those afterwards described (4, 5, 6, 7) for calculating the quantities of light carburetted hydrogen, carbonic oxide, olefiant gas and hydrogen contained in a mixture. When both these calculations agree, and when we obtain by the last of them e as the value of the olefiant gas, this result may be viewed as a certain proof of the complete retention of the olefiant gas and other hydrocarbons of unknown composition by the perchloride of antimony without any change in the other gases. An experiment instituted for this purpose gave the following result :— Volume. Sealy i Pressure. 1m. at 0° BRMIRCUE LG aca yf uo ods achacgh se asia tions cAsanesess 1554 | —4:3 0:4497 71:00 After admission Of O.....cccccccscessesescecserecs 343°4 —4:3 0°6351 221-57 IFLEN COMBUSTION .ccsascerccessacevccccssscucseuss 197°6 —43 0:4872 97°81 After absorption Of CO. ....scecsecseseeeeceees 122°8 | —3:7 0-4109 51:15 After admission Of H ....,cccesecesesceceececees 330°3 | —3'7 06171 206-62 FA SHED COMPUSHLON -ccccescanasehencvssspaypacceuyens 130-7 | —37 0-4041 53°53 The relation of aqueous vapour to carbonic acid 02035 grm. : 02113 grm. The values deduced for calculation are— = 2:3488, A = 70°88, B= 99°54, C = 46°66. The formule 1, 2, 3 give us the composition,— HA ydrogem. 4. -iissscs sos0dsovsisesee 24022 Light carburetted hydrogen... 42°73 Carbonic oxide .....,........00. 3°93 NiFOMED ssissbieecease ds dacdees ONE The formule 4, 5, 6, ‘7 give, on the other hand,— FLVQROEON, ..-esnpitan sen eps /savas | 24°H0 Light carburetted hydrogen... 42:27 Carbonic oxide,......0..s+se0ee 3°83 FUMIO tas tc nasned na atnpon- thle Olefiant gas ........ s..sseceeeee + 0°28 The agreement of these results may be considered as a proof of the appli- eability of perchloride of antimony for our purposes, as the differences are quite within the errors of observation, and as similar differences might arise by a variation from unity in the third decimal of the expression Ee But to remove every possible doubt as to the accuracy of our results, we have taken the specific gravity of the mixture of gases treated with perchloride of anti- mony, and compared this result with the theoretical density as calculated from the known composition. In estimating the specific gravity, it was of importance to operate upon a smaller volume of gas than usual, because it was necessary to have the same gas collected over mercury, not only in the combustion with oxide of cop- per, and in the eudiometric analysis, but also in taking the density of the 4 156 REPORT—1845. gas. We have therefore used in our experiments a plan somewhat deviating from that usually adopted, and which for simplicity and accuracy merits to be followed in other cases. The vessel used for weighing the gas consisted of a flask such as that used for digestion, and of a capacity of 200 cubic cen- timetres; the neck of this flask was drawn out before the blowpipe until the opening was narrowed to the thickness of a straw, and was then supplied with a well-fitted ground glass stopper. This flask, the capacity of which had been previously accurately determined, was filled with mercury, with the precautions already described (page 148), and the gas to be weighed was then introduced, leaving however the mercury still in the vessel, to the height of one- or two-tenths of an inch. The apparatus, with its mouth placed under mercury, is placed as vertically as possible, and allowed to acquire a uniform temperature. When this has taken place the stopper is introduced, and by means of an etched graduation on the neck, the height of the mercury over the level of that in the trough is accurately noted, in order to deduct this from the column of mercury in the barometer observed at the same time. The flask, removed from the trough, and carefully cleaned on the outside, is then weighed, with all the necessary data for corrections employed in such cases, after which it is filled with dry air, care being taken that none of its liquid contents are lost in doing so; and then it is again weighed. An ex- periment made in this way with gas purified by perchloride of antimony, gave the following result :— Volume of the gas weighed at 9° C. and 0°7337 pressure, 211°05 cubic centimetres. Weight of the flask filled with gas at 9°-9 C. and 0°7557 pressure, 49°0262 grms. Weight of the flask filled with air at — 3°5 C.and 0°7557 pressure, 49°1920 grms. The specific gravity, 0°4073, which results from this experiment, does not differ from 0°41, the density calculated from the above analysis, more than we might expect, from the possibility of error of observation in such experiments. The experiments now detailed prove that other hydrocarbons must be present, besides olefiant gas and light carburetted hydrogen, but they do not show whether olefiant gas itself is contained in the mixture. Its presence is however easily shown, by the circumstance that the perchloride of antimony used in the absorption yields by distillation with water chloride of elayle with all its characteristic properties. When a stream of gas, obtained by the distillation of coal, is conducted through a Liebig’s tube filled with a solution of oxide of lead in potash, a pre- cipitate falls, consisting of sulphuret and carbonate of lead: sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid gases are therefore constituents of the mixture. But there is not a trace of the vapours of sulphuret of carbon in the gas, for the gas thus purified does not in the least degree smell of sulphuret of carbon, being in fact quite destitute of smell. The gases evolved from iron furnaces must contain nitrogen, in addition to those described, for this gas enters with the air supplied by the blast. The preceding investigations show us that the gases from furnaces contain the following constituents :— 1. Nitrogen. . Ammonia. . Carbonic acid. . Carbonic oxide. . Light carburetted hydrogen. OS oo own ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 157 6. Olefiant gas. 7. Carburetted hydrogen, of unknown composition. 8. Hydrogen. 9. Sulphuretted hydrogen. 10. Aqueous vapour. An iron furnace must be viewed as an apparatus destined to carry on chemical processes of the most various kind. These operations begin at the top of the furnace, and stretch downwards to its hearth in well-defined suc- cession. The final products of all these operations appear partly at the hearth and partly at the mouth; in the latter in the form of a column of combustible gas, in the former in the liquid form of slag and cast iron. The nature of the combustible gas stands in a relation so intimate to the changes suffered by the materials put into the furnace, that its different composition in the various regions of the furnace indicates the changes suffered by the materials introduced as they descend in their way to the entrance of the blast. Now as the examination of this column of air in its various heights in the furnace must be the key to the questions upon which the theory and practice of the manufacture of iron depend, it is of the first importance to subject it to a rigid examination. The successive changes suffered by the column of gas in its passage can only be elucidated by a direct examination of its com- position in the various regions of the furnace. We can however employ a method to ascertain the average composition of the gas escaping from the mouth of the furnace ; for although the method does not give the compo- sition itself, it enables us to fix the narrow limits between which it varies. In order, however, to understand the part played by the coal itself in the formation of gas from the furnace, it is necessary to examine closely the phenomena which would ensue were the furnace filled with nothing else ex- cept the fuel. On this account we must recapitulate the results obtained in an inquiry formerly instituted in Germany by one of us, as this may be considered established by the repetition of the experiments by others, and by the numerous appliances to practice which have already resulted from them. It was shown by these experiments, which receive renewed confir- mation and extension from our present inquiry,— 1st. That the oxygen introduced by the blast is burned in the immediate vicinity of the tuyére; 2nd. That the oxygen is converted into carbonic oxide also in the imme- diate vicinity of the tuyére; and finally, 8rd. That the coal loses all its gaseous products of distillation much above the point at which its combustion commences. It is therefore clear that the gasification of the coal, if such a term be ad- missible, must take place in the regular course of the furnace, at two points quite separated from each other. At a certain depth from the mouth of the furnace the gases due to the distillation or coaking of the coal must escape. Further down in the furnace the gasification will be completed, be- cause the coal freed from its volatile products must here enter into combus- tion. These products of distillation and combustion, mixed with the nitrogen of the atmospheric air, forms the column of gas which appears as a combus- tible gas at the mouth of the furnace. Now when we consider that the quantity of coal which loses its gases in traversing the distillatory part of the furnace must correspond to that burnt before the tuyére by the air intro- duced in the blast, it follows that the composition of the gases evolved from the furnace will be given if we add the products of distillation of any given 158 REPORT—1845. quantity of coal to the products of combustion of the coke formed from that coal. As no further experiments are required to determine the products of com- bustion, the question as to the constitution of gases evolved from coal fur- naces is reduced to the examination of the liquid and gaseous products re- sulting from the distillation of any given kind of coal. These products will be very different, according as they come in contact with the red-hot coal, or escape without passing over it. In the last case we obtain the immediate products resulting from the decomposition of coal, while in the first we have the products arising from their action upon it. The conditions essential to the production of the first case are more or less combined in furnaces in which the materials are put in in a finely-divided state, and go slowly down from the top to the bottom of the furnace. Under these circumstanees the coal be- comes heated pretty equably throughout its entire mass by the larger heating surface which it offers to the ascending column of gas; and the tar conden- sing in the upper parts of the furnace is carried away by this stream of air, before the coals saturated with it reach that point in the furnace where the temperature is sufficient for the further decomposition of the products, of di- stillation. The gases generated from the furnace, under such conditions, must contain a smaller quantity of combustible matter. It is therefore of import- ance to determine the average composition of the gases formed from the products of distillation unmixed with the substances-arising from their ac- tion upon the red-hot coal. The composition of a gaseous mixture of this kind is also interesting, because it points out the limits to which the quan- tity of combustible constituents in furnace gases may be reduced. In order to obtain gases of this kind, the most convenient way is to fill a combustion- tube with the coal to be examingd, which is placed in a horizontal layer and heated from the closed end of the tube to the open end, so that the gases are not obliged to traverse over red-hot coal in their escape from the tube. The apparatus used by us in the determination of the liquid and gaseous products of distillation is drawn in fig. 4. @a@ is a common combustion fur- nace, in which is placed the tube coating the coal. The tube is made of difficultly fusible green glass, about 3 inch wide, and surrounded by a thin sheet of copper containing between it and the glass a layer of powdered charcoal, so that the weight may not alter during the heating. The end of the tube is drawn out before the flame of the blowpipe, and connected by means of a weighed strong caoutchouc tube with the receiver 6, which is destined to receive the tar and ammoniacal water : ¢ is a bent tube filled with chloride of calcium for the double purpose of retaining the water and am- monia which passes over with the gases: d is a Liebig’s tube filled with a solution of oxide of lead in caustic potash, behind which is placed another tube filled with chloride of calcium for the reception of the aqueous vapour carried off from the potash. This arrangement enables us to determine the amount of sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid, each of which is de- termined by boiling the black precipitate in a platinum vessel with caustic potash, and then weighing the precipitate thus freed from carbonate of lead. The receiver filled with perchloride of antimony (f) serves for the deter- mination of olefiant gas and the volatile hydrocarbons accompanying it. On -aecount of the great volatility of this compound of chlorine, it is necessary to connect it with a potash apparatus (g), which itself is connected with an absorbing tube containing sulphuric acid. As the chloride of antimony is apt to become hot during the condensation, and thus cause an escape of a volatile chlorinated hydrocarbon, we prefer to use an alcholic instead of an aqueous solution of potash. If this be neglected, subchloride of mercury is ge ia i a ail at ; ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 159 sometimes observed in the succeeding eudiometric analyses. The gases pro- cured after this treatment, consisting of hydrogen, light carburetted hydro- gen and carbonic oxide, are entirely destitute of smell, and without action upon mercury. As soon as all the atmospheric air is expelled from the ap- paratus, which we find by analysis to be effected by the distillation of about 300 grains of coal, the conducting tube () is dipped under mercury and the gas collected. In order to have it of average composition, the gas is col- lected over mercury in a glass vessel, of a capacity of 800 to 1000 cubic cen- timetres. The glass tubes conveying the gas into the vessel is connected with the rest of the apparatus by means of a caoutchouc joint, and a tube, rather narrowed in the middle. This contracted tube is fused when the receiver is filled, but immediately opened again with a pair of tongs in that part which still remains in contact with the system of absorption, so that the experiment may be continued until the coal ceases to yield gas. As soon as this point is at- tained, the fire is removed from the combustion furnace, and the distillatory tube opened by cutting away with a diamond its drawn-out neck, so far as it is filled with coal-tar. The part of the absorptive system formerly in con- nection with the mercurial apparatus is now attached to a hand air-pump, and the apparatus filled with atmospheric air by a few gentle strokes of the pump. The loss in weight of the distillatory tube, after being filled with air, adding the weight of the part cut off, gives the amount of coal left behind by the distillation, and also the total weight of the liquids and gases which have escaped from the coal. The quantity of fluid matter is determined by the weight of the receivers 6, c, and by the loss in weight of the fragment of glass tube when freed from tar. The receivers d, e give the quantity of car- bonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen, the receiver f,g, 4 the weight of the olefiant gases and condensable hydrocarbons. By subtracting the weight of these collected products of distillation from the loss sustained by the distil- latory tube, the remainder indicates the weight of the non-condensable gases, the composition of which in hydrogen, carburetted hydrogen and carbonic oxide, is easily determined by a eudiometric analysis. The amount of tar produced by the distillation may be determined by throwing the contents of the first receiver on a weighed filter moistened with water, washing it, and, after drying both it and the moist receiver, the weight of these, added to that of the tar in the cut fragment of tube, gives a very exact result as to its amount. The ammonia contained in the water is best obtained by distilling it with a large excess of potash into a receiver containing muriatic acid, until at least two-thirds of the liquid have passed over, and it is then collected in the usual way by evaporation and precipi- tation with chloride of platinum, the washing of the double salt being best effected by a mixture of alcohol and ether, according to Varrentrapp and Wills’ recommendation. The amount of water is of course known by de- ducting the weight of the tar and ammonia from the total weight. In order to draw conclusions as to the composition of the gases of the fur- nace, it is of importance to ascertain the composition of those absorbed by the perchloride of antimony. To determine this point, a quantity of coal was heated to redness with the precautions already described, and collected in a gasometer filled with milk of lime. This gas, carefully dried by passing over chloride of calcium, was led into perchloride of antimony until the latter was saturated. An indefinite quantity of the black liquid thus ob- tained was put into a combustion-tube with oxide of copper, the front part of the tube being supplied with copper shavings, and on combustion, 0°1226 _ water and 0°3626 carbonic acid were obtained, which correspond to 160 REPORT—1845. Found. Olefiant gas. Carbon. |i eet s is 8790 85°71 Hydrogen . «~~. « 12:10 | 14°29 100°00 100°00 This result agrees so closely with the composition of olefiant gas, that we may calculate the hydrocarbon as that gas, especially as any fault, arising from so doing in the case of gases from furnaces, would be appreciable only in the fourth decimal place. Gasforth coal, analysed in the manner now described, gave the following results :— 1. Weight of the coalused. . . » » - ee ww 16°7457 2 9 coke remaining . . ee pte 8s aie Lancs Glad peat 3 a distilled gases and liquids . gk am er ae cee 4. a liquid products themselves . . . . «© - 3°3506 5. a the water contained inthem. . . . . . 1°3027 6. $ platinum salt obtained fromit . . . . . 04592 7 s. quantity oftar .. . - 2:0479 8 ss sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic aout o. Os Tl, 9. s sulphuret of lead formed . . « - « - + 0°6423 10. 9 condensed hydrocarbons . . . . + + + 01262 11. + the uncondensed gases. . . « « - ~ 14554 The results of the analysis of the uncondensed gases ae already been used in a former calculation, and gave— Composition according to volume. Hydrogen .. . Se heer ar 77 Carburetted hydrogen ea hike fe) Carbonic oxide. . . . . «© - 393 Ngtrogeh 21) she eres IS 71:00 The 1°4554 grm. obtained by the distillation consist of-— grm. Hydrogen. . » « + + « « 00836 Carburetted hydrogen. . . . 1°1758 Carbonic oxide . . . . - ~- 071901 Nitrogen . . « s+ + » «+ » 00059 14.554 Hence the coal examined is converted by dry distillation into the following products :— Carbon “sy se oe te eo LE5420". 68925 I See a eek Aas Sa - 2:0479 . . 12:230 Water. . . dl oa ~ 12674 . . 7569 Light carburetted hydrogen Crees o MV758) 00 eed Carbonic oxide. . Cahprmn, S70 SS OT0OL Se a aes Carbonic acid . . : POTTS © S\. s Condensed hydrocarbons and olefiant gas - 01262 . . 0°753 Sulphuretted hydrogen . . . - ~- - « 00918 . . 0°549 EiyGrogen erin eS MOOSIG a) see Ammonia* . ... . : . 20853" ‘(Ore Mitrogen’ |) Meth ie Te Me if e 00059 . - 0°035 “Te 7457 00" 100:000 * The ammonia which may have passed over without condensing in the water is neglected in this calculation. ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 161 These results enable us to determine the composition of the furnace-gases. It is clear that the 68°92 per cent. of carbon found in the analysis will be converted by the blast into carbonic oxide above the tuyére. -As we have already seen that the coal loses its gases by distillation near the top of the furnace, a corresponding weight of coke must burn before the tuyére, and hence we require only to add to the composition of the furnace-gases the carbonic oxide produced by the combustion of 68-92 per cent. of carbon and the nitrogen of the air expended in the combustion. This calculation gives— Nitrogen - 2 2 2 6 6 ee wo 64135 Carbonie oxide::2. 0 5. Sef 8 0s BETES Light carburetted hydrogen. . . . 17464 Carbonic acid.) Sis! e ear een OE Condensed hydrocarbons. . . . . O154 Sulphuretted hydrogen . . . «. - O14 EL OACOR LT se a tha a ae! hole sa OF Ammonia® 2) 0-6 eke elo ee OO 100:000. If we calculate, with reference to these circumstances, and according to volume, the composition of the gases escaping from a furnace filled with Gas- forth coal, we obtain— INiGRO EA”) 025 ei oy a ME) 6 net) 02 ey ye EDABS Carbonic oxide... sy «i els 4 +0» 832168 Light carburetted hydrogen . . . 2°527 Carhonic acid) ij c65 5 ws oe ein BD Condensed hydrocarbons. ... . - O15] Sulphuretted hydrogen . . . . - 0°091 EARAROB CR os 0), op dre signe oe eh wal AIBMABEE GE) Vel ah sj yas es ef ears OOTO 100:000 vols. The result thus obtained affords a very simple means of determining the influence exerted upon the composition of furnace-gases by the gaseous pro- ducts of distillation of the coal. If we suppose the coal to be freed from its volatile products, and exposed to the action of a stream of air in a furnace, a volume of air containing 62°423 nitrogen will be converted by the influence of the red-hot coal into a gaseous mixture of the following composition :— Nitrogen. . . 2. - « 62423 Carbonic oxide . . . . 32°788 Accordingly, we obtain a gaseous mixture— Of gases generated by combustion . ee Bet - a NCE SR ia i Sear Carbonic oxide . . . . . 0-380 Light carburetted hydrogen . 2°527 Carbonicacid . . ... . 0139 Of gases generated by distillation .< Olefiantgas . . . . . . O51 Sulphuretted hydrogen . . 0091 Hydrogen=":. 2. - 1431 (Ammonia. -asesayyssisc-angananias Xiv. p- 18. pl. 390. A specimen, seven inches long, exists in Sir Edward Belcher’s collection. Hab. Sea of China? the Sandwich Isles, Carolines, and Otaheiti. NovacuLaA PENTADACTYLA, “ Ankarkrona Mem. de Stockh. An. 1740 (Blennius), i. p. 451. pl. 3. f.2;” C. et V. xiv. p. 67. Coryphena pen- tadactyla, Bl. 173. Hab. China seas. Celebes. XyricutTuys punicevus, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 184; Hardw. i. 306. This drawing represents a fish having a profile more vertical than that of the European cultratus and much like that of Rippell’s bimaculata, but with a proportionally higher body, a taller first dorsal ray, larger filiform tip to the ventrals, apparently no scales on the cheek, a much less rounded caudal, larger front teeth, and a lateral spot placed nearly, like that of avo, on the seventh or eighth scale of the lateral line and rising above it. As near as one can judge from description alone, its form seems to be like that of X. cyanifrons of the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ but its colours do not correspond and its black lateral mark distinguishes it. The colours of the upper and lower part of the sides and the disc of the caudal fin are bright carmine, the middle of the flanks from the pectoral to the hinder part of the anal being pale buff orange, as are also the membranes of the dorsal andanal. The top of the head and back above the lateral line which terminates at the base of the last dorsal ray are lavender- purple; the trunk of the tail, which is bisected by the short second portion of the lateral line, being wholly carmine. Each scale throughout the body has a deeper coloured meniscoid segment on its edge, but of the same tint with its much paler disc. The cheeks are carmine with red-lilac-purple gill-pieces, throat and breast. The profile of the head, from the nape to the dorsal, is edged with a blue and green stripe, and there are six or seven wavy crimson streaks on the temples, and a few faint longitudinal ones on the operculum. Two rows of blue dots run along the summit of the back, and three rows along the belly, beginning at the ventrals and thinning off at the end of the anal. An oval black mark without a pale border is placed on the lateral line at the seventh scale, most of the spots being above the line. The anterior dorsal ray, which is nearly equal in height to the nape and twice as tall as the other rays, is blue, and three blue lines, more or less interrupted, run along the fin, which is shaded on the edge with lake-red. The anal has a blue line along its base, and its rays are blue with red tips. The upper and under edges of the caudal are buff orange, and its pos- terior rounded edge pale or whitish. Ventrals lemon-yellow with purple rays, and the pec- torals purple at the base, shaded at the top into blackish-gray. Length of drawing 7 inches. Hab. China seas. Canton. In the Chinese collection at Hyde Park there are drawings of another species or variety of Xyrichthys. XYRICHTHYS DEA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. pl. 87. Hab. Sea of Japan. CHEILINUS NEBULOSUS, Richardson. Rad. D. 9/10; A. 3|8; C. 162; P. #2. 3..Vo1|5. This species seems to be nearly allied in form and in being banded vertically to the Ch. quinquecinctus of Riippell, but the caudal is much less notched between the points of the rays, the anal is rounded at the top and not so long, the profile of the forehead more even and sloping, the snout more slender, and the pale and vertical bands differently placed. It agrees with guinquecinctus in having two rows of scales on the cheek, and in the bases of the vertical fins being sheathed by large scales like a Cossyphus. It differs from Ch. fasciatus, Bl. 257, in having a truncated and slightly rounded caudal, as well as in the profile and dis- position of the dark bands. The muzzle is slender, the profile of the face straight and sloping, nearly touching the eye, and the nape very slightly arched. The height of the body is contained three times anda half in the total length, caudal included. Of this length the head forms rather less than one-third. The dorsal is rather less rounded at the tip than the anal, and they are nearly of equal length, neither of them passing the base of the caudal. The rays of the caudal are forked at the tips, and scarcely project beyond the membrane. The ventrals are attached under the axilla of the pectorals, being somewhat further back than in Ch. quinquecinctus, as represented by Riippell. The two anterior teeth of each jaw are so much larger than the others as to appear like canines, and behind the upper ones are three or four bluntish teeth. On the limbs of both jaws the teeth are ina single series, diminishing slightly as they approach SBR: was -REPORT—1845. “i ah We the angle of the mouth, The jaw is not swelled as in Cossyphus, but except in that respect and the interrupted lateral line, this fish agrees closely with that genus. The scales are large, there being only about twenty in a longitudinal row behind the gill-opening. The upper part of the lateral line is traced on thirteen scales and the lower one on eight, the parts over- lapping each other a little. The tubes of the scales are sparingly furnished with lateral branches which are mostly short and basal, On some scales near the tail they are quite simple. The prevailing tint of the specimens, which have been for two years in spirits, is a rich pur- plish brown, with lighter parts forming indistinctly about six bars, the first of which descends from the suboperculum over the breast, the second is behind the pectoral, and the last on the base of the caudal. The dark parts are clouded and spotted, and run over the dorsal and anal. They anastomose irregularly with one another, and are also varied by a narrow pale vertical streak on each scale, the tip of the scale being dark. Similar streaks, inclined various ways, exist on the scales of the operculum and temples, and on the cheek and interoperculum they are contracted into a roundish spot in the centre of each scale. Three pale lines cross each preorbitar, and one follows the curve of the orbit on the suborbitar, having underneath it a row of pale pores with open mouths. The caudal is pale towards the base, dark and mottled on the posterior, with the extreme tip paler again, The pectoral is pale without markings, and there are dark blotches on the ventrals. Two specimens, about five inches long, exist in Sir Edward Belcher’s collection, in which they were associated with some Chinese fish, but the place of their capture was not noted. Hab. Sea of China. EPIBULUS INSIDIATOR, Pallas (Sparus), Spicil. p. 41. t. 5. fig. 1; C. et V. xiv. p. 110. pl. 398. Sparus insidiator, Bl. Schn. 278. A specimen exists in Sir Edward Belcher’s collection, most probably but not certainly obtained on the coast of China. : Hab. Sea of China? Moluccas, Java, Sumatra and the Mauritius. Scarus LimBatTus, C, et V. xiv. p.271. Icon. Reeves, a.13; Hardw. 312. ~ Chinese name, Ching e, “Blue clothes” (Reeves); sing 7 (Bridgem. Chrest. 123). Scarus ovifrons, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. pl. 88? Rad. D. 9]10; A. 3|9; C. 114; P.14; V.1|5. (Spec. Brit. Mus.) John Reeves, Esq. presented an example of this specimen from Canton to the British Mu- seum. It differs slightly, in the numbers of its rays, from the specimen of limbatus described in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ also from Canton, yet the distribution of the colours is so similar, that I have little hesitation in considering it to be of the same species. I am also of opinion that it is identical with Sc. ovifrons of the ‘ Fauna Japonica.’ It has agibbous snout, though not to the same degree as is exhibited in the figure of the species just named, but such gibbosities vary in many fish with age, and not unfrequently with the degree of fatness of the individual. There is some discrepancy as to colour, and on that account I have quoted the synonym with doubt, which may perhaps be cleared away when the letter-press of this portion of the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ appears, and we learn whether the figure was illuminated from the recent fish or from one whose colours had partially changed. The Chinese name of the fish is the same as that of the Cossyphus cyanostolus. The jaws are greenish with a smooth sur- face, in which the form of the teeth is obscurely seen. The edges of the jaws are crenated, particularly posteriorly, where the edges are also undulated, but there is no canine tooth there. The scales have finely granulated discs, and the lateral line is formed of a series of tubes, each with a bushy tip. which is so obscure as scarcely to be distinguished from the granu- lations. Twenty-five scales compose the line, the last three lying on the caudal fin. Length of specimen 16} inches, of drawing 14 inches. In the drawing the general colour is blackish- green, slightly glossed with brown on the belly, the edges of the scales being dark chocolate, The dark green surrounds the eye, and glosses the lower part of the cheek and the inter- operculum ; the rest of the sides of the head, the breast and dises of all the fins are dark hyacinth-red, which in the anal is glossed with auricula-purple. The outer edges of all the fins, the corner of the mouth and the lower lipare indigo-blue, The edges of the lips are carmine. Hab. Seas of China, Japan, Java, and the Mauritius. ScARUS PYRROSTETHUS, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 76; Hardw. 309. Chi- nese name, Suy nga, “ Grinding teeth” (Reeves); Tsui nga (Bridgem. 125). Rad. D.9|10; A.3|9; C.113; P.14; V.1]5. (Spec. Brit. Mus.) A specimen in the British Museum is identified by Mr. Reeves as belonging to the species which his drawing represents. The specimen measures 13% inches, the drawing an inch a m ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 263 more. In form and distribution of colours the species closely resembles Scarus frenatus, Lacép., Sc. psittacus and Sc. harid, Riipp., Sc. harid, C. et V. (which is different from that of Riippell), and Se. dusswmieri, and several others described in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons.’ It cannot however be perfectly reconciled with the descriptions of any of them; and unless several characters, which have been relied upon by ichthyologists for distinguishing species, should proye to be mere individual variations, it is a proper species; but I expect when further comparisons have been instituted, that a number of nominal species, and this probably among the number, will be absorbed in the more ancient designations. In the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ the name of Riippell’s Scarus is changed from harid to ruppelii, another species or variety being described as the harid of Forskal ; but the dentition, as described by the latter author, agrees much better with Riippell’s fish than with the harid of M. Valenciennes, which wants the canines at the angle of the mouth. Se, pyrrostethus is much like Sc. pepo (Benn. Ceyl. 28. Maj. Neild’s drawing in Hardw. Coll. Br. Mus, No. 313) in distribution of colours, but that fish has an uniformly arched profile. Scarus pyrrostethus has the profile of the face moderately concave before the eye, and the acute points of the caudal projecting very little beyond the even or slightly rounded end of the intermediate membrane. The white jaws are moderately convex and bulge less than those of Jimbatus. About ten teeth may be counted on each side of the symphysis of each jaw, and there is no canine at the angle of the mouth. The scales of the cheek approach close to the orbit and permit less of the veined suborbitars to be seen than in /imbatus, The lateral line is traced on twenty-five scales by a tube on each, which emits a few simple branches upwards and downwards, and has no bushy end. [The harid of the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ is described as having a lateral line formed of a series of unbranched tubes.] The discs of the scales are more finely granulated than in limbatus. The first anal spine is very short, and the last soft ray is divided only at the tip, while the last ray of the dorsal is divided to the base. Each scale on the body and tail, down to the level of the lower edge of the pectoral fin, has an indigo-blue disc with a broad golden-coloured border edged with chestnut-brown. The borders are wider on the back and the blue discs smaller, and the scaly sheath of the base of the dorsal presents alternate, short, golden and blue vertical bars, the blue running into a stripe of the same colour that runs along the bottom of the membrane. The rays of the fin and its outer border are also blue, the membrane being reddish-orange. The anal has a yeddish-orange disc without the blue rays, but its outer edge and a line skirting its base are blue. The same blue colour exists on the upper and under edge of the caudal and the first rays of the pectoral and ventrals, but not on any other part of these fins. A part of the pectoral next the blue ray, three soft rays of the ventrals, and the under part of the fish below the level of the pectorals, are reddish-orange. The disc of the caudal and upper parts of the head are ellowish-brown. The eye and lips are orpiment orange, and there is a blue bar behind each ip; another curves up from the angle of the mouth to the orbit to terminate there, and a blue streak passes from the temples over the eye and across the forehead, to meet its fellow on the other side. Hab. Chinese sea. Canton. ScaRUS CHRULEO-PUNCTATUS, Riippell, Neue Wirlb, p. 24. pl, 7. f. 3. (Calliodon) ; C. et V. xiv. p. 262. Icon. Reeves, 248; Hardw. i. 311. Chinese name, Ma e, “ Flax clothes” (Birch); “ Ma clothed ;” Ma is a Canton word (Reeves), Mr, Reeves’s drawing shows numerous blue dots on the head, and also four rows of them on the rays of the ventrals and anal, which are not mentioned in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ but which are indicated in Riippell’s figure. Hab. Sea of China and the Red sea. CALLIODON cHLOROLEPIS, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 137. pl. 64. f. 4-7 ; Icon. Reeves, 77; Hardw. i. 310. Chinese name, T’suy leen chuy, “ Green-scaled tsuy-fish” (Birch); Tsuy lin chuey, “ Sealy king- fisher ;” Tsuy is the name of the king-fisher (Reeves) ; Tsui lun chut (Bridgem, Chrest. 122). Surgeon R. A. Bankier, of the Royal Navy, presented a specimen of this fish, which he obtained at Hong Kong, to Haslar Museum, ‘Hab. China seas. Canton (J. Reeves, Esq.). Hong Kong (Surgeon R. A. Bankier, R.N.). CaLiiopon JAPONICUS, Temm. et Schl. F, J. Sieb. pl, 89. (Letter-press not _ published.) ' Hab. Sea of Japan. 264 9° REPORT—1845, SAT MD Fam. SCOMBERESOCIDA. BELONE CAUDIMACULA, Cuv. Régn. An. ii. p. 285. Kuddera A., Russell, 176. Icon. Reeves, 3.33; Hardw. Malac. 135. Chinese name, Ho ¢sin, “ Stork’s bill” (Reeves, Birch) ; Hok tsam (Bridgem. Chrest. 57). Hab. China, Canton (Reeves). Penang, and a salt-water lake near Calcutta (Hardwicke). River Brunai in Borneo. Port Essington, North Australia, BELonE ciconitA, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 186; Hardw. Malae. 134. This drawing does not correspond with Russell’s figure of the Wohkla kuddera 175, nor with the two Belones described by Riippell in the ‘Neue Wirlbethiere,’ nor with figures of any other species that we have met with. The two jaws are equal, or very nearly so, and when mea- sured to the front of the orbit, their length is contained four times and three-quarters in the whole length of the fish. The anal is long, the dorsal moderately so, and commencing over the second quarter of the anal, it seems to approach a little nearer to the caudal than that fin. The caudal is slightly lunate at the end with the lower lobe rather the most prominent. The back is green, the sides silvery with a purplish tint. Scales are distinctly represented in the green upper part of the body, which is separated from the nacry sides by a lateral line, but no inferior lateral line or keel is shown in the figure. Hab. Chinese seas. Canton. HeEMIRAMPHUS INTERMEDIUS, Cantor, Ann. Nat. Hist. ix. p. 30. Icon. Reeves, 167; Hardw. Malac. 129, 133. Chinese name, Cheung tin tsam (Bridgem. Chrest. 80); “ Long-headed borer” (Reeves). Had. B. 9; D. 114; A. 1]17; C. 153; P.11; V. 1|5. (Chin. Spec.) This species differs at first sight from H. longirostris (Cuv. et Russell, 178), and from H. brevirostris (Idem et Russ. 177), in the relative size of the lower jaw, being less than that of the one and longer than that of the other. From H. gamberur (Riipp. Neue Wirlb. 74; La- cép. v. pl. 7. f. 2), it is distinguished by some differences in the numbers of the rays as well as by the comparative length of the lower jaw. We have received specimens of infermedius both from Chusan and Canton, but all of them have lost many of their scales, and also in some degree their proper shape, by maceration in spirits. A section of the body has the form of a thin wedge, broadest near the back, which is rounded by the swelling muscles of the sides, and attenuated towards the acute belly. There is no appearance of there ever having been much projection at the inferior lateral line, so as to render the section quadran- gular. This line runs near the edge of the belly from the lower part of the operculum nearly to the caudal fin. It is formed by a simple or in some places a forked tube on each scale. The preorbitar is sub-elliptical, with an undulated disc and a minute central umbo. Its anterior edge describes the quadrant of a circle ; its posterior one is much less curved. The dorsal and anal are opposite to each other at their commencement, and the former reaches a little nearer to the caudal, though it has fewer rays than the anal. The lower lobe of the caudal is the longest, as usual. The back is greenish, the sides silvery, and there is a broad lateral stripe more brilliantly silvery than the rest, which dilates between the dorsal and anal, The following measurements furnish the comparative lengths of the several parts. Length from the point of the upper jaw to end of caudal, 5-25 inches. From ditto to gill-opening, 0°91 inch. From ditto to anus, 3°38 inches. Length of upper jaw, 0:2 inch. Length from point of lower jaw to end of caudal, 6°35 inches. From ditto to angle of mouth, 1°38 inch. From ditto to fore-edge of orbit, 16 inch. From ditto to gill-opening, 2°18 inches. Hab. Chinese seas. Canton. Chusan. Exoc&Tus voLANs, Solander, MSS. Bib. Banks. Jcon. Parkinson, 110. Bib. Banks. Rad. D.12; A.13; C.152; P.15; V.6. All jointed. Length of specimen 53 inches. A specimen of this fish was brought from China by Sir Edward Belcher. It is probably the same species with the evolans of Bloch (398) ; but in his figure the ventrals are as near to the end of the snout as to the beginning of the anal, while in the Chinese specimen the distance from the snout to the ventrals, when carried backwards, reaches past the middle of the anal; in other respects there appears to be little difference. The same officer brought several specimens of young flying fish from the Chinese seas, evidently of the same species, but none of them exceeding 24 inches in length. All these have the profile of the face more curved, with a variable degree of gibbosity of the nape. They have also two brown spots on the top of the occiput, formed by a congeries of small specks, All the specimens are so much > ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 265 injured that I think it better to avoid attempting a minute description, especially as I have not an Atlantic example of evolans at hand for comparison. ~ Hab. Seas of China and Polynesia. Exocztus FAsciatus, Lesueur, Jour. Ac. Nat. Se. Philad. ii. pl. 4. f. 2. Length of specimen 23 inch. Sir Edward Belcher brought an Exocetus from the sea of China which seems to belong to this species, but the specimen having been preserved in salt, the colours have perished and the fins are mutilaced in their length. It agrees however with fasciatus in the approximation of the large eye to the end of the snout, in which it differs from Ex. exiliens of Bloch (397). It has also a similar degree of concavity between the eyes with that exhibited in M. Lesueur’s figure (fig. 2. 6); and there is a correspondence also in other parts. The fins look dark. Hab. Sea of China. Exocztus monocirruus, Richardson. Rad. D. 13; A. 13; C. 152; P.15; V.6. Length of spec. 2} inches. Several Exoceti having barbels have been figured, viz. Ex. nuthulit (Lesueur), furcatus of Mitchell, and. appendiculatus of Wood, which have a plurality of these appendages, and comatus of Mitchell, which is described as having only a single one, but which agrees with the others that have been named in the backward position of the ventrals resembling eviliens. _A species with two very short barbels, inhabiting the seas of Polynesia, has the ventrals placed as in Ex.-mesogaster of Bloch (399), but in it the pectoral reaches only to the fore part of the anal, and it is distinguished from all other Eoceti by the size and height of its dorsal, which is black on the upper half. This fish was taken by Banks and Solander at Otaheite, and is named in the manuscripts of the latter Ex. brachypterus. Parkinson’s figure of it is numbered 108. In a small Exocetus, which was obtained by Sir Edward Belcher on the coast of China and which we have named monocirrhus, the distance from the end of the snout to the ventrals, when carried backwards, does not reach to the middle of the anal ; and the pectoral extends a little beyond the base of the caudal. The eye is rather larger than that of volans, and is situated at a similar distance from the end of the snout. The barbel, which is black and wrinkled, springs from the end of the chin, and is flat or furrowed on the surface that applies to the mem- brane between the jaws. It does not equal the head in length, but it may perhaps have lost a small part of its tip. There is no trace of a minute lateral barbel such as is shown in Mr, Wood's figure of appendiculatus (Journ. Ac. Sc. Phil. iv. p. 283. pl. 17. f. 2). Hab. Sea of China. Fam. BLENNIIDA. BLENNIUS ? AURO-SPLENDIDUS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 0 (non Hardw.). It is possible that this species may be a Pholis, Petroscirtes or Salarias, but in the absence of information respecting its dentition and gill-openings, we cannot say to which of the genera established in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ it properly belongs. It has much of the aspect of a Blenny, and has a vertical face and crested head like the males of Blennius pavo, and of some other species. The body is longer than of the fish just named, and the first seven dorsal rays are elongated, the remainder of the fin being even. The body is wax-yellow, with a brownish bar faintly indicated on the posterior part of the lateral line, and five rows of bright golden specks intermingled with much smaller and more numerous black dots in seven or eight rows. The head and all the fins, except the anal, are bright king’s yellow. The crest is dotted with black, and a bar of that hue descends from it through the eye to the corner of the mouth. There is also a round black mark on the middle of the fore-part of the dorsal, comprising the first four rays. The anal is reddish-orange or buff, passing into yellow at its base. Length of the figure nearly 4 inches. Hab, Macao. BLENNIUS? FASCIOLATOCEPS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves (nullo numero nec Hardw.). * This figure represents a fish having more nearly the proportions of Blennius pavo than the preceding. Its head is also crested, and the dorsal perfectly even without elongated rays. General colour wax-yellow, obscurely mottled, the head marked by five vertical black bands ona brighter yellow ground, The second band passes through the eye, and the fifth descends 266 REPORT—1845, ‘Ol SHIT nO from the shoulder over the gill-opening. The fins are dull honey-yellow, Neither this figure nor that of the preceding species show any barbels or cirrhi, Length of figure 22 inches, Hab. Macao. SALARIAS FAscIATUS, BI, pl. 162, f. 1 (Blennius). C. et V. xi. p. 324. The native place of this fish is unknown, there being some uncertainty as to whether it came from India or Japan, Few particulars respecting its structure are recorded, PETROSCIRTES BANKIERI, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 136. pl, 64. f, 8-10. Genus, Petroscirtes, Riippell; Blennechis, C. et V. Surgeon R. A. Bankier presented a specimen which he obtained at Hong Kong to Haslar Hospital. Hab. Hong Kong. STICHHUS HEXAGRAMMUS, Temm. et Schl. F, J. Sieb. p. 136. pl. 73, f, 1. “ Rad. B.6; D.40|; A. 29 simplices; C.12; P.14; V.3.” (Fauna Jap.) Genus Sticheus, Remhardt, Oversigt over det Kongelige, &c. 1835-6. p- 9. Hab. Japan, Bay of Simabara. GUNNELLUS NEBULOSUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. pl. 73. f. 2. (Letter- press not yet published.) Rad. D. 80|; A. 39; C,21; P.15; V.1|1. (Spec. 9 inch. long in Br. Mus.) Hab. Japan. Bay of Mogi. GUNNELLUS CRASSISPINA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 139. “ Rad. D. 78; A. 2|10; V. 1[1.” (Faun. Jap. /. ¢.) Hab. Japan. Dicrysoma, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 139. pl. 73. f. 3. Spec. 43 inch. long in Br. Mus. “ Rad. B.6; D.58|9; A. 2/43; C.10; P.10.” (Fauna Jap.) Hab. Japan. Bay of Simabara. Tribus ScoMBRISINA. . Fam. ZEIDz. ZEUS JAPONICUS, Tilesius, Voy. Krusenst. pl.61 (Dorée ou Poisson a miroir du Japon). C,et V, x. p. 24; Temm, et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 123, Icon. piscium a Pictore Sinense pict. Bib. Banks. Japan Fishes, Bib. Banks. Zeus australis, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Erebus and Terror, p. 36. pl. 25, f. 1. In the work last quoted I gave a figure of a Dory obtained by Sir James C, Ross at Port Jackson, drawn from a specimen that was in very bad condition, The account of the Japanese Dory, contained in the ‘Fauna Japonica,’ mentions no character that I do not find in the Australian one. Hab. Seas of Japan, China, and Australia. Zeus neBuLosus, Temm. et Schl, F, J. Sieb. p. 11. pl. 66. Hab. Sea of Japan. SPHYRENIDE. SpHyrR#NA oBTUSATA, C. et V. ii. p. 350; Temm. et Schl. F, J. p, 83. pl. 13. f. 2. Hab. Southern coasts of Australia, Javan sea, sea of Japan, Indian ocean, and the Mauritius. SpHyRENA CHINENSIS, Lacépéde, v. p. 334. pl. 10. f. 2; Icon. Reeves, 62; Hardw. 86. Chinese name, Chuh tséen, “Bamboo stick”; Choh tsin (Bridgem. Chrest. 224). Rad. B.7; D. 5|-1|8; A. 2|8; P. 20; V. 15. A specimen in the museum of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, brought from China by a “a rel fee ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 267 the Rev: George Vachell, enables us to give a short account of this species. It differs from obtusata in having two points to the gill-cover, and from all the species that have been hitherto figured, in its higher shoulder and more concave profile. The specimen does not exhibit this peculiarity of form so strongly as the figure, but it is flaccid and may have lost its exact shape. Canine teeth acute, subulate and slightly flexuose, like the italic s. Two on each side, widely set on the upper jaw, with small lateral teeth pointing backwards, not arranged by threes but with intervals, as if one had fallen out here and there. A few tall, compressed, lancet-shaped teeth arm the palate-bones, and smaller teeth of the same form stand in a single row on the limbs of the lower jaw, their size augmenting gradually as they near the corner of the mouth; two canines standing contiguously on the tip of the jaw. No teeth on the small chevron ‘of the vomer. The gill-cover shows two small, slender, flat points, the upper one being rather the longest. Lateral line almost straight; torulose, Hab. Canton. SPHYRENA NIGRIPINNIS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 34. pl. 13. f. 1. Hab. Japanese sea. SpHyvr=Zna (VULGARIS) Japonica, C. et V. ii. p. 354; Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 33. This fish was merely indicated in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ from a Japanese drawing, but the authors of the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ possess a single dried specimen, which they state to be in no respect different from the European one. It is distinguished from the Indian Sphy- rene by the ventrals being further back than the tips of the pectorals. Hab, Japanese sea. (Mediterranean ?) Fam. ScoMBRISIDZ. ScoMBER ScomBRUS, Lin. Bl. Auct. C. et V. viii. p.6; Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 92 ; Icon. Reeves, 163. Chinese name, Ta che, “ Variegated che” (Reeves); Fa chi (Bridgem. Chrest. 105). Hab. Chinese and Japanese seas. Cape of Good Hope. Atlantic. Mediterranean. Black sea (not in the sea of Azof). English channel. North sea and Baltic, ScomMBER PNEUMATOPHORUS, “ Laroche,” C, et V. viii. p. 36; Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 93. pl. 47. f. 1 et 2. Hab. Chinese, Japanese, and Australian seas. Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts of North Africa. ScOMBER DELPHINALIS, “ Commerson,” C. et V. viii. p. 53. Icon. Reeves, 6. 23; Hardw.i.183. Chinese name, Hwa tsze (Birch); Ta éze, “ Flowered tze” (Reeves) ; Fa chi (Bridgem. Chrest. 106). Hab. China seas and coasts of Madagascar. THYNNUS ORIENTALIS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p, 94. Hab. Sea of Japan. THYNNUS THUNNINA, C. et V. viii. p. 104. t. 202; Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 95. pl. 48. Maguereau a quatre points, Geoftr, Egypt. pl. 24. f.3. Japan Fishes, Bib. Banks, fig. 35. Hab, Japanese sea. Mediterranean, THYNNUS PELAMYS, Lin. (Scomber). C. et V. viii. p. 113. Japan Fishes, Bib. Banks, fig. 49. Jcon. G. Forsteri, 230. in Bib. Banks (Atlantic) ; _Temm, et Schl. F. J, Sieb. p. 96. pl. 49. - Hab, Seaof Japan. Malay Archipelago, Straits of Sunda. Polynesia. South American eoasts. Canaries. African coasts, Tuynnus sisi, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 97. pl. 50 (sibu). _\ Hab. Sea of Japan. 268 _ REPORT—1845. WIND THT ZO THYNNUS MACROPTERUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 98. pl. 51... Hab. Sea of Japan. PELAMIS ORIENTALIS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 39. pl. 52. Hab. Sea of Japan. Cysium comMERsont, Lacép. ii. p. 600. pl. 20. f. 1? (Scomber). C. et V. viii. p. 165?; Riippell, Atl. p. 94. taf. 25. Icon. Reeves, 228; Hardw. i. 184. Chinese name, Zan teen heaou, “ Green-spotted keaou” (Birch) ; Lam teem how, “ Blue-spotted kow” (Reeves). The spinous dorsal is higher than in Lacépéde and Russell’s figure, and more resembles Riippell’s, supposing that the membrane connecting the filamentous tips were more fully de- veloped than it is shown to be in his figure. The central half of the fin is pure white. Hab. Chinaseas. Indian ocean. Red sea and the Mauritius. ? Cysrum MERTENSII, C. et V. viii. p. 179? con. Régn. An. ed. nova. Icon. Reeves, 216; Hardw. 182. Chinese name, Shen keaou, “‘ Fleshy heaou.” (Reeves); “ Edible keaow” (Birch). (Figure 15 inches long.) Hab. China seas. CyBIUM CHINENSE, Lacépéde iii. p. 23 (Scomber). C. et V. viii. p. 180; Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 100. pl. 53. f.. 1. Icon. Reeves, a. 52; Hardw. i. 186? Chinese name, Vew pe keaou, “Cow-skin keaow” (Birch) ; Mew pe kaou (Reeves). eS eapa closely to the preceding, but it has more dorsal spines, and wants the spots on e tail. Hab. Seas of China and Japan. Cygr1um nrpHonium, C. et V. viii. p. 180 ; Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 101. pl. 53. f. 2. Hab. Sea of Japan. Cypium GutTatoum, Bl. Schn. (Scomber), p.23. t.5; C. et V. viii. p. 173 ; Wingeram, Russell, 134; Icon. Reeves, 3. 46; Hardw.i. 181. Chinese name, Keaou yu (Birch); Kaou yu (Reeves); Kau u (Bridgem. Chrest. 243). Hab. China seas. Malaccas and the Indian ocean. TricHtunus ARMATUS, Gray, Zool. Mise. p.9. 7. savala, C. et V. viii. p- 251; Icon. Reeves, 6. 56; Hardw. 189. Chinese name, Pik tae, “White girdle” (Birch); “White tape” (Reeves); Pak tat (Bridgem. Chrest. 241). A Chinese specimen of this fish exists in the British Museum. Hab. China sea. Indian ocean. TRICHIURUS LEPTURUS, JAPONICUS, Temm. et Schl. F.J. Sieb. p. 102, pl. 54. Tr. muticus, Gray, Zool. Misc. p. 10? Hab. Sea of Japan. (Atlantic?) TRICHIURUS INTERMEDIUS, Gray, Zool. Mise. p. 10. Fad. D. 128 vel 130; P.12. (Spec. Haslar Mus.) I have had an opportunity of examining several specimens of this fish, viz. two brought from the neighbourhood of Canton by Captain Dawkins and Sir Edward Belcher, and one from the mouth of the Yan tze kiang by Sir Everard Home, besides some injured ones, all of this species. They agree in the height of the body, which is greatest some way behind the anus or nearly in the middle, being equal to one-fourteenth of the whole length ; the head* PR ETT NS A) SEA a SE ES ee Ee ee * Measured between the tip of the snout and end of gill-flap. As the lower jaw projects the relative height of the head would be greater if the measurement were made from thence. ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 269 being equal to one-ninth, and the finless tip of the tail toa tenth. The lateral line runs about two-fifths of the height from the edge of the belly, and three from the summit of the back. The distance between the tip of the snout and fore-edge of the orbit is one-third of the length of the head. There are upwards of fifteen very faint streaks on the preorbitar. The margin of the upper jaw is curved at the junction of the intermaxillary and maxillary, and the former bone carries ten small teeth, exclusive of the canine one, while the latter is armed by only seven, which are somewhat larger. The maxillary can retire wholly under the preorbitar, and scarcely reaches the orbit. The canine teeth have a thin posterior edge at the tip, which ends abruptly, producing a barb which is too minute to be seen ,by the naked eye, and not to be compared with the acute arrow-headed tooth of 7’r. lepturus, as represented in Bl. Schn. t. 100. The small teeth are enlarged by similar edges at the base, the tips being narrower and roundish. Top of the head flattish without an acute ridge. The spines on the under edge of the tail are so minute that they cannot be reckoned even by aid of a lens in a plump per- fect specimen. In one alittle decayed, they are seen to be the clear pungent tips of the inter- spinous bones, with which they agree in number, amounting to about 110 or more. There are two spinous points on the hinder edge of the very small anus. Length, 14°15 inches. From snout to anus, 4:09. Length of head 1°55, of point of tail beyond the dorsal fin 1°40. Height of body 1 inch. Hab. Sea of China, NaucrRaATEs inpicus, C. et V. viii. p. 326. Specimens of this fish were brought from the China seas by Captain Dawkins, and presented ‘by him to the Haslar Museum. Hab, China seas. Amboyna. Indian ocean. ELECATE BIVITTATA, C. et V. viii. p. 338; Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 104. pl. 56; Icon. Reeves, 172; Hardw. 192. Mr. Reeves’s figure shows the bands as described in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ but not the white corners of the caudal. Neither the one nor the other are expressed in the plate of the ‘ Fauna Japonica.’ Hab. Seas of China and Japan, and the Moluccas, CHORINEMUS ORIENTALIS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 106. pl. 57. f. 1. Hab. Sea of Japan. -CHORINEMUS LEUCOPHTHALMUS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 219; Hardw. 195. Chinese name, Yin pib heaou, “ Silver-white keaouw” (Birch) ; Yen pak keaou, “ White-eyed mackerel” (Reeves). Ihave been unable to refer this figure to any described species. It has nearly the proportions and general form of Ch. commersonianus, but it wants the spots, and has a more obtuse snout and larger ventrals. The profile is incurved over the eye which renders the snout gibbous. The eye is large. The lateral line makes a small arch at its commencement and is then waved twice slightly up and down under the spinous dorsal, the remainder being quite straight from the third or fourth soft ray to the caudal. The scales appear to be very minute, deeply im- bedded in the satiny skin and not close to each other. Most of the fish is brightly silvery, but the back is deep lavender-purple, which fades away before it reaches the lateral line. The snout and temples are shaded with the same, and there is a large blackish-purple patch on the upper and posterior parts of the operculum. The supra-scapular region is brightly sil- very, as is also the iris, which has a yellow ring round it. The pectorals are cream-yellow, Shaded at the base with brown. The teeth are shown small, setaceous, and thickly set on both jaws. Length of figure 16 inches. Hab. Sea of China. Canton. (CHORINEMUS DELICATULUs, Richardson. con. Reeves, i. 92; Hardw. 220. Chinese name, Wang seang, “ Royal omen” (Birch). __ This figure has much the general form of Bloch’s aculeatus, but differs in the mouth being cleft beyond the middle of the head, and consequently passing the eye considerably. Its »snout is also more gibbous. at the nostrils. It may possibly be the young of some of the ‘Spotted species. In the size of its mouth it appears to coincide with exoletus, but the lateral mpeirants the undulations which are noticed in the description which is given of that fish in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons.’ The cleft of its mouth is larger than that of leucophthalmus. The Jateral line makes an angle over the pectoral and afterwards continues straight without any ‘undulation whatever. In the figure the back is illuminated by a clouded mixture of delicate ‘sienna-yellow, having metallic lustre and pale siskin-green, the parts below the lateral line 270 ‘ REPORT—1845. Owe PU OY SRP RO being brightly silvery. A stripe of umber-brown runs along the side of the head over the eye, the temporal groove is shaded by the same, and there are a few diverging brown streaks on the upper edge of the operculum and humeral bones. The pectoral and caudal are ochra- ceous, the dorsal and anal faint mountain-green, and the ventrals pink. Length of the figure 6 inches. Hab. Chinese sea. TRACHINOTUS AURATUS, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 104; Hardw. 196. Chinese name, Hwang lii tsang, “Yellow wax tsang” (Birch); Wong la tsong, “ Yellow wax” (Reeves); Wong lap tsong (Bridgem. Chrest. 150). Rad. D. 6|-1|20; A.2|-1|17; C.178. (Spec. Br. Mus.) This species makes the nearest approach to 7'r. mokalee, but its snout is not so high, and its colour differs. The British Museum possesses a specimen from Macao which measures 9 inches in length; but it attains a greater size, as Mr. Reeves’s figure measures 14 inches, The height is equal to twice the length, including the central caudal rays. The snout is not vertical as in mokalee, but is very convex, the profile running nearly straight, or scarcely arched, from the nostrils to the dorsal with a slope of about forty degrees. The points of the dorsal and anal are a little less acute and falcate than in mokalee. The caudal is deeply forked, the length of its lobes being equal to half the height of the body. First jointed rays of dorsal and ana! compressed but strong, lateral line undulated. The colour is a bright saffron- yellow, with much lustre, which gives place on the breast and along the belly and base of the anal to a pure silvery colour. The head is also yellow, with silvery lower jaw and edges of the gill-pieces: a blue tint spreads round the nostrils. The dorsal and pectorals are dark hair-brown, the former with a pale edge. The ventrals are bluish white, and are smaller than the pectorals; the anal is tinged with orange, and the caudal, mostly coloured like the dorsal, is edged in the depth of the fork with yellow. ¢ Hab. China seas. Canton. In the Chinese collection at Hyde Park, there are two specimens of a Trachinotus of an- other species, but having the same number of dorsal spines with the preceding. J examined them only in a very cursory manner. TRACHINOTUS ANOMALUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 107. pl. 57. f. 2. “ Rad. D. 4|-9)30; A. 2|-1|29; C.20; P.20; V.1|5.” (F. Jap. from figure.) Hab. Sea of Japan. TRACHINOTUS MELO, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 97; Hardw. 218. Chi- nese name, Kwa tsze tsang, “ Melon tsang” (Birch) ; “Melon seed ¢song” (Reeves); Kwa tsz tsong (Bridgem. Chrest.152). Rad. D.7|19; A. 3|17; C. 1622; P.18; V.1|5. (Spec. Camb. Ph. Inst.) Yhe 7. anomalus of the ‘Fauna Japonica’ is described solely from the figure which was executed in Japan. It may therefore prove, when better known, to be the same species with the Chinese one represented in Mr. Reeves’s drawing. Of this an example exists in the Museum of the Cambridge Philosophical Institution, which was brought from Canton by the Rev. George Vachell. It has the same elliptical profile with anomalus, but its snout is more obtuse and sufficiently gibbous at the nostrils to project a little beyond the mouth. Mouth small. Nostrils two round contiguous openings before the eye. Eye large. Anus between the tips of the ventrals immediately before the anal fin, no free spines intervening. Head nacry, with- out scales. Scales of the body very minute and tender, but not deciduous. Lateral line nearly straight, without any semblance of a keel or armature posteriorly. There are no scales on the vertical fins. The spines of the dorsal have been omitted by the artist, and they may be very readily overlooked when recumbent: they are seven in number, exclusive of the recumbent ones. The first is very short, and the sixth is shorter than the fifth, so that the spinous part has a very slightly arched shape, and is almost as distinct from the soft part as in some Scie@nid@, which are described as having two dorsals. The sixth spine equals the fifth one in length, and belongs more properly to the soft fin, which is notin any way pointed or faleate. The second anal spine is as long as the third one, and is stronger and somewhat curved. Pectorals moderate size. Ventral spines short: these ventrals, from the thinness of the belly, are contiguous. The fish generally is brilliantly nacry or silvery, with a bluish-gray tint along the back and at the bases of the opercular pieces. There is a wood-brown tint on the nape, and a gloss of the same on the sides. The fins are transparent, and the dorsal is traversed by a faint stripe below its middle; and another faint brownish stripe a little arched runs from the temples to the trunk of the tail. The muscles shine through the integuments of the sides, producing stripes bent en chevron, first at the brown stripe and then in the oppo- ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SHAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 271 site direction at the lateral line. Length of the specimen, 2°15 inches. Height of its body, 085 inch. Length of figure, 6 inches. Hab. China seas. Macao. Another Trachinotus, resembling the preceding, but apparently not the same, exists in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park. Its numbers are—Rays, D. 8|16; A. 3|16; V. 15, &c. The first dorsal spine is very small, the second one is the highest, and is large and greatly compressed. The first anal spine also is very short, the second one strong, and the third one as tall as the second, but slender, delicate, and looking like a soft ray. The examination of this specimen was too hurried to enable me to record other particulars. Hab. China seas. Macao. BLEPHARIS FASCIATUS, Riippell, Atl. p. 129. pl. 32. f.2; Icon. Reeves, 2693 Hardw. 214. Chinese name, Pih sew kung “ White-haired sir” (Birch) ; Pak seu kung (Reeves); Pak su kung (Bridgem. Chrest. 36). Same name as the Scyris indica. Rad. D.8|23; A. -1|193 C.1622 5) Pillt6; V.1|5. (Spec. Camb. Ph. Inst.) A specimen brought from Canton by the Rev. George Vachell exists in the Museum of the Cambridge Philosophical Institution. Its rays differ a little from the numbers given by Rtip- pell, but the profile so closely corresponds that I have little hesitation in considering it to be his species. The dorsal spines are arched, the third one being tallest, and the first; seventh and eighth very short. Scales small and deeply imbedded. Lateral line completing its curve under the fourteenth or fifteenth soft dorsal rays, keeled in the tail and armed with minute closely-incumbent shields, which gradually pass into a torulose line as they approach the curve. Hab. China and Red seas. Bieruaris rnpicus, C. et V. ix.p.154; Temm. et Schl. p. 113. pl. 60. f. 2. This is a shorter and higher fish than the preceding, and has not so convex a cranium, » In the text uf the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ six dorsal spines are mentioned, but the figure shows eight, and one at the base of the soft ray. Hab. Sea of Japan. The Moluccas. . Gauicutuys MAgor, C. et V. ix. p. 168. pl. 254; Russell, 57; Icon. Reeves, 189; Hardw. 211. Chinese name, Chang e mong, “ Long-finned mong” (Reeves); Cheung yik mong (Bridgem. Chrest. 35). Rad. D. 6-119; A.1|16; P.18; V.1|5. (Spec. Camb. Ph. Inst.) A specimen obtained by the Rev. George Vachell at Macao was presented by him to the Cambridge Philosophical Institution. It agrees with the plate in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ except in the profile, from the nostrils to the mouth being rather more oblique, as represented in Bloch’s plate, 192. f.1. The teeth are minute in several rows below, in.one or two above. The scales of the body are invisible tothe naked eye, but may be detected by a common eye~ glass. The lateral line is composed of tubes, giving it a torulose appearance; and on the slender part of the tail the little eminences become wider, making approach to obtuse shields. The usual recumbent spine exists before the dorsal, and it is preceded by three interspinous bones whose thin nail-like heads show through the integument. There are also two inter- spinous bones protruding before the anal. The anterior filamentous branches of the first four { dorsal and anal rays are black, and the anal also is black. Mr. Reeves’s drawing is very sil- very, with a faint diffused blush of red-lilae-purple, and four vertical bands of that colour a little darker, but still very pale. There are crimson blotches on the base of the pectorals, Sl edge of the ventrals, and under part of the anal and dorsal. Length of fizure 1 es. Hab. China seas. Moluccas and Indian ocean. SERIOLA PuRPURASCENS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p.113. pl.61. “ Rad. D. 7|-1|30; A. 2|-1|20; C. 25; P. 20; V. 1|5.” (F. J.) - Hab. Sea of Japan. SeRioLa Avro-virtAra, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 115 (pl. 62. f. 1. » not yet published); Jeon. Reeves, 230; Hardw.210. Chinese name, Kin : The che, “Gold-edged pool” (Birch) ; Kum peen che, “Golden-bordered ” _ (Reeves). Rad. D.7|-1|32; A. 2|-1|20; C178; P.18; V.1|5. (Chinese _ Spec. Br. Mus.) Besides the principal yellow band, Mn Reeves’s figure shows another, which runs from the ee (+ ee - REPORT—1845.. eye over the suprasscapulars. The ventrals are blotched with purple and green, and there are - differences in the tints of less moment. It is a shorter fish than purpurascens. Hab. Seas of China and Japan. Canton. SERIOLA QUINQUERADIATA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 115. pl. 62. f. 2. “ Rad. D. 5|-1|382; A. 2|-1]19; C. 22; P. 22; V. 1|5.”. (Fs J.) 6|-1|31; — 2|-1/20; P.20, &e. (Spec. Br. Mus.) It is probable that this is a mere variety of auro-vittata. In a specimen in the British Museum which was brought from China by Mr. Reeves, we found six spines in the first dorsal. This individual presented no other difference in form from auro-vittata, except that the teeth were a little shorter and more closely villiform. It measured ten inches, and the specimen of auro-vittata, with which it was carefully compared, exceeded it by only one inch. Hab. Seas of China and Japan. SeRIoLA INTERMEDIA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 116. ‘Rad. D. 7|-1|82; A.1|-1[15; C. 164; P.21; V.1|5.” (F. J.) Hab. Sea of Japan. Lactarius DELICATULUS, Bl. Schn. p. 31 (Scomber lactarius). C. et V. ix. p- 238 ; Chundawah, Russell, 108; Icon. Reeves, 170; Hardw. Acanth. 38 ; (Scales very deciduous) Reeves. Hab. China sea and Indian ocean. Nomeus mauritu, Cuv. Régn. An. 1" ed.ii. p. 315; C. et V. ix. p. 243. pl. 262 ( Seriola argyromelas). In Sir Edward Belcher’s collection several specimens of this fish were marked as having been taken in the China seas. They have not the marks of N. peronii, but correspond well with the figure of mauritii in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons.’ Hab. Brazils. Coast of Guinea and sea of China. EMMELICHTHYS SCHLEGELI, Richardson. Erythrichthys, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 117. “pl. 63. f. 1.” r Hab. Sea ofJapan. The ninth decade of the Ichthyological part of the ‘Fauna Japonica’ has just reached me as this sheet is passing through the press, and I perceive by the figure of Erythrichthys in the 63rd plate, that the genus is identical with the Australian one which I published in the ‘ Ich- thyology of the Voyage of the Erebus and Terror,’ on the Ist of March 1845. I do not know the date of the letter-press of the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ describing Erythrichthys. The Australian species differs in the form of its preorbitar and in the dorsal spines. The genus seems to me to be more allied to the Sparoid or Meznoid families than to the Scomberoid, from which it differs in its ptenoid scales, Scomsroprs, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 118. “pl. 63. f. 2.” Hab, Sea of Japan. CorypHaNA Japonica, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 120. pl, 64. Hab. Sea of Japan. STROMATEUS ARGENTEUS, Bloch, 421; C. et V. ix. p- 393; Icon. Reeves, B.32; Hardw.227. Chinese name, Tsang yu (Reeves, Birch); Tsong u (Bridgem. Chrest. 148). This is one of the most common fish brought to table during its season in China (Reeves). Rad. D.?|44; A.46; C.15; P. 24. (Dried spec. Br. Mus.) Mr. Reeves presented a specimen to the British Museum. No spines protrude through the skin in front of the dorsal, but six or seven interspinous bones show through the thick integu- ment. Two or three rays of the anal also are deeply concealed in the front of the fin. This specimen, compared with Russell’s figure of caxdidus (pl. 42), was found to differ in the po- sition of the anus relative to the anal fin, and to want the streaks in the supra-scapular region, there being only a few on thenape. The operculum itself is marked by strie diverging from its upper anterior corner. The profile is a little gibbous behind the eye, and as evenly curved asin candidus. The specimen measured 11} inches in length, and the figure 143; the body being 73 high in the latter. : Hab. China seas. Canton. Indian ocean. ) STROMATEUS NIGER, Bloch, 160 (Str. paru). C, et V.ix. p. 385. Nalla sanda- pe ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 273 wah, Russell, 43; Icon. Reeves, 194; Hardw. 225. Chinese name, Mth tsang (Birch); Hak tsong, “ Black tsang” (Reeves, Bridgem., Chrest.149). Read. D.4|42; A. 1|86; P. 21. &c. (Spec. Br. Mus.) The British Museum possesses a Chinese specimen. One spine can be observed incumbent on the front of the dorsal, but the other three are concealed. The specimen measures 144 inches, the figure nearly 11. There is a greater’ distance between the anus and anal fin in this species than in the preceding one. The lateral line is decidedly keeled, and the fins are less pointed than they are represented to be in Bloch’s fig. 160, and much less than in his plate 422. The colour is yellowish-gray with lilac and purple tints by no means dark, so that the name of niger is not appropriate. Hab. China sea and Indian ocean. STROMATEUS SECURIFER, C. et V. ix. p. 344. pl. 373; Cantor, Ann. Nat. Hist. ix. p. 45. Hab. China sea and Indian ocean. Chusan (Cantor). SrROMATEUS PUNCTATISSIMUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 121. pl. 65. More pointed and longer anal than argenteus has. Hab. Sea of Japan. Srromartevs atous, Russell, 42, (Atoo hoia). C. et V. ix. p. 389. “ Stroma- teus sinensis, Euphrasen in N. Schwed. Abh. ix. p.49.t.9;” Bl. Schn. 492. Hab. Sea of China, SrROoMATEUS ACULEATUS, Bl. Schn. p. 492; C. et V.ix. p. 394. “iS. argen- teus, Euphrasen N. Schwed. Abh. ix. p. 49. t. 9.” (Mem. de Stockh.) Hab. China seas. SESERINUS VACHELLII, Richardson. Rad. D. 5/42; A. 3/37; C. 1712; P. 21; V.1|5. (Spec. Camb. Ph. Inst.) This fish has the same close resemblance to Stromateus niger that Seserinus microchirus has to Stromateus fiatola. The Prince of Canino has replaced the Mediterranean Seserinus in the genus Stromateus, but the discovery of the Chinese species with larger ventrals and a keeled lateral line justifies Cuvier’s separation of the two forms. The Rev. George Vachell brought two specimens from Canton of the Seserinus which we have named in honour of him. It isa greatly compressed fish, which is thickest at the orbits, the height of its body being only a quarter less than the length, caudalexcluded. The acute nuchal ridge vanishes in the inter- orbital space, which is however not flat. A recumbent spine is placed in front of the dorsal, and five erect ones are so buried in front of the fin that they can be detected only by dissection. The fifth spine has a long, flexible, but not jointed tip, which is also concealed; the others are pungent. The first anal spine is short, the third one a quarter of the length of the soft rays, and the second one of intermediate length. Both the dorsal and anal are falcate. The pec- torals are long and falcate, their tips reaching over two-thirds of the anal. Ventrals small, falcate or pointed, attached beneath the corner of the preoperculum, and having the anus be- tween their tips. Tail slender, caudal deeply forked. Scales small, the lateral line torulose or keeled on the tail by soft triangular plates, which have an acute point that catches the fin- ger when drawn back. These plates are small, and when examined with a lens appear to be formed of two divergent tubes, with the acute point rising from the disc they enclose. Eye distant from the profile. Preoperculum and operculum striated. Lower jaw when depressed longer than the upper one. Teeth as fine as hairs, slightly curved in one close row on both jaws. Colour gone. Length 3:75 inches. Height of body between dorsal and anal, 2 inches. Length of head, 1 inch. Hab. China seas. Canton. Caranx rracuurvs, Lin. Bl. (Scomber). C. et V. ix. p. 11; Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 109. pl. 59. f. 1. With 70 to 75 shields on lateral line. __ Hab, Chinese and Japanese seas. Amboyna. New Zealand. Australian seas. Cape of Good Hope. English Channel. CaRAnx ROTLERI, Bloch, t. 346 (Scomber). C. et V.ix. p.29 ; Icon. Reeves, ah 1845. T yee ) MREPORTEHESSS. (ocu0r NTH! GEE KO 206; Hardw. 203. Chinese name, Peen hea (Birch); Peen hap che, “ Flat-scaled mackerel” (Reeves); Pin hap chi (Bridgem. Chrest. 109). Hab. China sea. Malaccas and Red sea, Obs. Only one species of Caranx, with several separate finlets succeeding to the dorsal and anal, is distinguished in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons.’ The woragoo of Russell (143), which is therein referred to that species, has a more “flatly curved lateral line; and there is a second figure 75 in Mr. Reeves’s portfolio with another Chinese name which presents some differences, though slight, from rot/eri. There are fewer detached finlets, the pectoral fin is shorter, does not quite reach to the anal, and is contained above four times in the total length of the fish ; and the black spot on the gill-plate, instead of being high up on the operculum, is on the middle of its edge, as in the woragoo. The numbers of shields on the lateral line and of the rays of the fins are nearly the same as in ro¢t/eri, but the curved commencement of the line has been omitted by the artist. Teeth close shorn, villiform, with a taller outer row. Lad. D. 7|-1]12 et vii.; A. 2|-1[10 et vi.; P. 25; &c. Sguame carinate, 53, This is not so strongly marked a variety as some that we observe among the Zrachuri, Its Chinese name is Chih kea txe, Red-mailed tender fish” (Birch). Hab. Sea of China and the Indian ocean. CaRANx MuROADSI, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 108. pl. 58. f. 1; Zeon. Reeves, (5 36. Chinese name, Jsze yu, “ Affectionate fish” (Reeves, Birch); Chi u (Bridgem. Chrest. 111). The first dorsal and the anal spines are omitted in Mr. Reeves’s figure, probably because they were depressed in the specimen placed before the artist. The bronze stripe, which is represented narrow and defined in the ‘ Fauna Japonica,’ is diffused over much of the side in the Chinese figure. Hab. Coasts of China and Japan. CARANX MARUADSI, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 109. pl. 58. £2. Hab. Sea of Japan. CARANX CANCROIDES, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 3. 30. Chinese name, Hwa tsze, “The crab mackerel” (Reeves); Hea che (Birch); Ha chi (Bridgem. Chrest. 108). Rad. D. 7|-1|22; A. 1|19, &e. Squame cari- nate, 40. (Spec. C. Ph. Inst.) A specimen of this Caranx was brought from Canton by the Rev. George Vachell, and pre- sented by him to the Cambridge Philosophical Institution, It belongs to the group of luna (Histoire des Poissons, ix. p. 80), which have the teeth in a single row. They are scarcely perceptible, except through the aid ofa lens. The species differs from C. platessa and geor- gianus and others of the group in the numbers of its rays and extent of armature of the late- ral line. The form is elliptical, the height of body being to the length, caudal included, as one to three, The profile from the mouth to the dorsal is sloping with a moderate convexity, and corresponds in its obliquity and curvature with the under profile from ventrals to tip of lower jaw. Pectorals as long as the head, and equal to one-fourth of the length of the fish, Lateral line straight and cuirassed forward to the beginning of the anal, the shields embracing nearly the whole height of the tail behind that fin, No spots are shown on the operculum or elsewhere. The back is coloured olive-green, and the sides and belly brightly silvery, with a tinge of lake on the breast. ‘The fins are transparent, without any darkening on the:r edges, and have an uniform pale greenish hue. Length of the drawing 4% inches, Hab. China seas, Canton. CARANxX CEsTUS, Richardson. Jcon, Reeves, a. 39; Hardw. 206. Chinese name, Tae yu, “ Girdle-fish” (Birch); Te yu (Reeves). This drawing is remarkable among the other representations of the Chinese Scomberoids in Mr. Reeves’s portfolio for the size and definite form of the scales. The shields on the keel are strong and pointed, and run forward to beneath the beginning of the second dorsal, The lateral line appears to be but slightly arched over the pectoral. In form the fish is regularly elliptical, the ventral and dorsal curves equal, and not more convex in the anterior than in the posterior half of the ellipse. Height one-third of the length, including the central caudal rays. Head forming a fourth of the same length. Snout rather acute. Eye somewhat large. Teeth apparently in a single row, small and slender. Pectorals falcate, reaching over the an- terior quarter of the anal. This fin and the dorsal are acute and higher anteriorly, but not so much so as to be falcate. The spinous dorsal one quarter lower than the fore-part of the second fin. Three anal spines are shown as incumbent on the first soft ray of the anal, but ne free ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 275 spines, though from the large space which intervenes between the anus and anal it is pro- bable that such exist. Colour of the back olive-green, with a diffused yellow tinge over the lateral line and temples. There is a very slight tint of lake along the under side of the la- teral line, and the under parts are pearly and silvery. Pectorals and ventrals pure sulphur- * yellow, the former having a carmine streak across the base, edged with bluish-gray. There is also a reddish stripe along the bases of the dorsal and anal, and the tips are red. A small black spot exists on the edge of the gill-cover, and the membrane connecting the last ten dorsal rays is tipped with black. Hab. China sea. Canton. Carangi. CaRAnx ForsTeERr!, C. et V. ix. p. 107. Yarradanree para, Russell, 14'7 ? Scomber hippos, Forster, Hist. Anim. p. 199; Icon. G. Forster in Bib. Banks, No. 221; Reeves, 214; Hardw. 207; Chinese name, Fang che, « Square mackerel” (Reeves); Fong chi (Bridgem. Chrest, 107). Hab. Mauritius, Indian ocean, China seas, Malay archipelago, New Zealand and Austra- lian seas. Caranx MALABARICUS, Bl. Schn. p. 31 (Scomber). C. et V. ix. p. 121. Tallam parah, Russell, 150; Icon. Reeves, 8, 21; Hardw. 208. Hwa tsang (Birch); Fa tsong, “ Flowered or variegated mackerel” (Reeves) ; Fa tsong (Bridgem, Chrest. 151). Rad. D, 8|-1|22; A, 118 vel 19, &e. (2 Spec. C. Ph. Inst. from China.) Hab. China seas, Indian ocean and Red sea. Canton (Vachell). CarRANx EQUULA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 111. pl. 60. f.1. “ Rad. D. 8|-1|24; A. 2|-1|23,” &c. (F. Jap.) The figure in the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ has a near resemblance to Mr. Reeves’s drawing £. 21, which is quoted above as representing C. malabaricus, but its profile is more sloping. Hab. Sea of Japan. Caranx nicripzs, C. et V. ix. p.122 et p. 141 (Olistes atropus). Mais pa- rah, Russell, 152; Icon. Reeves, 181 ; Hardw, 224. The Brama atropus, Bl. Sch.'p. 98. t. 28, seems to be also this fish, and Schneider indeed mentions the first dorsal and the spines before the anal, as he observed them in the dried spe- cimen recumbent in their respective grooves. He also points out its Scomberoid charaeters. Atropus is therefore the prior specific name, but being compounded of Greek and Latin it is objectionable, and may be allowed to give place to the appellation of the same import proposed in the ‘Histoire des Poissons.’ M. Valenciennes states that a specimen preserved in Bloch’s museum is labelled Brama melampus and Scomber ciliaris, Examples of the species from China exist in the British Museum and the Chinese collection at Hyde Park. Hab. China sea and Indian ocean. « CARANX FLAVO-CH#RULEUS, Temm. et Schl. F, J. Sieb. p. 110. pl. 59. f. 2; Icon, Reeves, 213; Hardw. 204, Chinese name, Hwang joo, “ Yellow milk” (Birch) ; Wang joo, “ Yellow breast” (Reeves) ; Wong u (Bridgem. Chrest. 112). A specimen of this fish exists in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park. Hab. Seas of China and Japan. CARANX CHRYSOPHRYS, var. hyemalis, C. et V ix. p. 77? Icon. Reeves, 239; Hardw. 209. Chinese name, Tung kwa tsang (Birch); Tong hwa tsong, “ Winter gourd” (Reeves). Rad. 8|-1|21 ; A. 2|-1|19, &c. (Reeves’s drawing.) This figure closely resembles that of chrysophrys in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ except that the snout is rather blunter ; there is a small incurvature of the profile at the nostrils, the points of the dorsal and anal are scarcely so long, and the cheek, as well as the belly nearly to the anal spines, are represented scaleless. The golden tint of the eyebrow is very obscure. Length of figure 14 inches. Hab. China sea. Seychelles ? T 2 276 RKREPORT—1845. 1 Sar “oO CARANX MARGARITA, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, r, nullo numero; Hardw Acanth. 205. Chinese name, Hwang chang, “ Yellow bowels” (Birch). This Caranx much resembles C. flavo-ceruleus or cancroides in its profile, its height being one-third of the total length, and the space between the snout and first dorsal flatly arched, — not steep, as in the Carangi. The breast is scaly, but no scales are shown on the cheek, nor any teeth in the jaws. ‘The arch of the lateral line terminates over the beginning of the anal and under the ninth ray of the second dorsal, the straight part being pretty strongly armed by about eighteen or twenty bucklers. The spines of the first dorsal are rather tall and stout, and the fin ends at the foot of the second. The fish has a pearly hue throughout, with some faint yellow tints on the upper half of the body and forehead. The caudal and anal are saffron- yellow, the first dorsal and ventrals French-gray, and the second dorsal greenish-gray with yellowish front rays. Length of figure 4°32 inches, height of body 1°50 inch. Hab. Sea of China. Canton. Citule. CaRANX CILIARIS, C, et V. ix. p. 129; Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 112. Tchawil parah, Russell, 151. Rad. D. 8|-1|21; A. 2|-1|18; P. 15. (Spec. C. Ph. Inst.) Hab. Seas of China and Japan, Malay archipelago and Indian ocean. Scyris 1nvica, C. et V. ix. p. 145. pl. 252 ; Riipp. Atl. taf. 33. f. 1; con. Reeves, a. 17; Hardw. 213. Chinese name, Pih seu kung, “ White-bearded gentleman”; Pih seu kung, “ White-bearded king” (Reeves); Pak su kung (Bridgem. Chrest. 36). Fad. D. 7|19; A. 1|16; C. 174; P.17; V. 1\5. (Spec. Br. Mus.) A dried specimen of this fish brought from Canton by Mr. Reeves was presented by him to the British Museum. It measures 12°25 inches in length; the height of the body is 5°65 inches, and the length of the head 3 inches. Three interspinous bones present their blunt edges before the recumbent spine, which precedes the seven dorsal spines. Hab. China seas. Malay archipelago and Indian ocean. EQuuLaA NUCHALIS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 126. “ pl. 67. f. 1” (not yet publ.) ; con. Reeves, g. 90. et b. 85 set of small figures; Hardw. 221 et 223. Chinese name, Kow yaou, “ Dog’s waist” (Birch). Two specimens were brought from Canton by the Rey. George Vachell. Hab. China and Japan. EquuLa RIVULATA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 126. “ pl. 67. f. 2” (not yet published); Icon. Reeves, c. 86; Hardw. 219. Chinese.name, Hwa shin lth or hin tsze, “ Flowery bodied ” (Birch). The authors of the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ mention that the specimens they examined were in bad condition, otherwise I should have hesitated in referring Mr. Reeves’s most beautiful and elaborately finished drawing to the species established by them, on account of a difference in their relative heights. Mr. Reeves’s figure shows the height of the body to be half the length to the base of the caudal; but the description in the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ gives to it a more elongated form, and we have not seen the plate. The fish, as represented in Mr. Reeves’s drawing, is brightly silvery, with pale, wood-brown, short undulating bars pretty closely ranged in two or three rows above the lateral line. They are continued down the sides by silvery streaks. The fins are pale, slightly ochraceous, with a brighter yellow tint at the be- ginning of the dorsal and anal. Hab. Seas of China and Japan. Mene MACULATA, BI. Schn. p. 95. pl. 22 (Zeus). C. et V. x. p. 104. pl. 285; Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 127. “pl. 67. f. 3” (not published). Mené Anne-Caroline, Lacép. v. pl. 14. f. 2. Hab. Seas of China and Japan and Indian ocean. XyYPHIIDE, Agassiz. HisTIOPHORUS ORIENTALIS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 103. pl. 35. Hab. Sea of Japan. Malay archipelago. ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 277 WPARTT CEPOLIDA. Ceroza timpata, C. et V. x. p. 402; Voy. de Krusenst. pl. 60. f. 1. Hab. Sea of Japan. CEPOLA MARGINATA, C. et V. x. p. 402; Krusenst. pl. 60. f. 1. Hab. Sea of Japan. CEPOLA KRUSENSTERNI, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. pl. 71. f. 1. The authors of the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ are inclined to include the two preceding species in this one. The British Museum possesses one of Biirger’s specimens. Hab. Sea of Japan. CrproLa HuNGTA, Icon. Reeves, 3.2; Hardw. 228. Chinese name, Hung tae, “ Red girdle” (Birch); “ Red tape” (Reeves); Hung tai (Bridgem. Chrest. 5). We cannot refer this figure to any of the foregoing Cepole, nor, on account of the numbers of the rays, to abbreviatus, of which we have seen neither figure nor detailed description. Height at the pectorals equal to the length of the head, or to one-tenth of the whole length of the fish. The upper and under profiles incline evenly and gradually to each other, and meet in an acute point at the tail. The fins are highest anteriorly and diminish in height like the body, also meeting in an acute point, the caudal not being distinguished by longer rays from the adjoining parts of the other two vertical fins. The anal is higher than the dorsal. Ventrals exactly under the pectorals. The whole surface of the body is divided into almost square rhombs by yellow lines, and there isa nacry spot in the centre of each. There are only ninety-four of these rhombs in a line between the gill-opening and point of the tail, so that they are greatly larger than the scales of the other Cepole. The general tint is pale ochre- yellow passing into reddish-orange on the back, and there are eighteen equidistant gamboge- yellow spots on the middle of the sides, the yellow tint confined to the lines dividing the scales from one another. These spots are much larger than those of krusensternii and not in pairs, The orbits and top of the head are shaded with carmine, and there is a carmine stripe along the middle of the dorsal, the edge of the fin being saffron-yellow and the base pearl-gray. The anal is lake at the base, white along the middle, and saffron-yellow edged interiorly with lake on the border. Pectorals yellow. Ventrals lake. Length of the drawing 12 inches. Height of body at ventrals 1:15 inch. Height of dorsal anteriorly 0°48; of anal anteriorly 0°70 inch. Hab. China seas. Canton. LorHorEs CAPELLEI, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 132. pl. 71 et 72. . Hab. Sea of Japan. Tribus HETEROSOMATA. Fam. PLATESSOIDES. PLATESSA CHINENSIS, Lacépéde, iv. p.595 et 638. pl.14. f. 1?.( Pleuronectes), Gray, Ind. Zool. pl. 94. f. 1; Icon. Reeves, 107, a et 6; Hardw. Malac. 261, 262. Chinese name, Hwa tsdng pe, “ Variegated boiler nose” (Birch) ; Hwa tsang pe (Reeves). Icon. piscium 24 a pictore Sinensi, &c. Mr. Reeves figures two examples of this species, one with the eyes on the right side, the other on the left; and the figure given by Mr. Gray in Hardwicke’s ‘ Illustrations of Indian Zoology,’ was drawn from one of Mr.-Reeves’s Canton specimens deposited in the British Museum. The general colour of the upper side is dull umber, clouded faintly with liver- brown, with scattered small black spots, each surrounded by a pale ring. The fins are also brown, and the vertical ones are marked by rather large, well-defined, roundish, dark liver- brown spots, most crowded on the caudal, which is rhomboidal. Length 6 and 10 inches. Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. PLATESSA CHINENSIS, var.? c@ruleo-oculea. Icon. Reeves, 204; Hardw. Malac. 263. This seems to be from the drawing, for we have seen no specimen, to be a pale variety of chinensis. The ground colour is bluish-gray, clouded with blackish-gray, and the spots are dark blue with sky-blue borders; the vertical fins are tile-red on their basal halves, and 278 REPORT—1845. MP, us bluish- or blackish-gray towards their borders, The spots as in chinensis, with the addition of a few on the ventrals. Hab. Chinese coasts: Canton. PLATESSA VELAFRACTA, Icon. Reeves, 105; Hardw. Malac. 264. Chinese name, Hwa po pung, “ Variegated sail-fish” (Birch); Fa po pang, “ Va- riegated broken mat” (Reeves); Fa po pung (Bridgem. Chrest. 145). This drawing differs little in appearance from 107, Platessa chinensis. The ground tint and shadings are nearly the same, the black spots want the pale borders, and the blotches on the fins run into each other and form a border of grayish-black. The caudal is less rhom- boidal and more rounded at the end. Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. PLATESssA BALTEATA; Icon. Reeves, 205; Hardw. Malac. 259. Chinese name, Po piing, “ Broken sail” (Birch); Po pung, “ Broken mat flounder” (Reeves, Bridgem. Chrest. 54). This has the same Chinese appellation with chrysoptera which follows, the same regularly oval form and the brownish-red ground tint, interspersed with a few small darker points and crossed by several dark brown bands, one on the nape, another broad one behind the pec- torals, a forked one further back, and a narrow one on the tail. The vertical fins are speckled with dark brown, Caudal rhomboidal. Length of drawing 74 inches, Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. Piatessa curysopterA, Bloch, Schn. (Pleuronectes), p. 151? Icon. Reeves, 104; Hardw. Malac. 260. Chinese name, Po pung, “ Broken sail” (Birch); Po pang, “ Broken mat” (Reeves); Po pung (Bridgem. Chrest. 54). Mr. Reeves’s drawing 104 answers better than any other one in his portfolio to the short characters of chrysoptera contained in Schneider's edition of Bloch, and this is our only rea- son for considering it to be the same species. The ground tint of the drawing is brownish-red or orange-coloured brown, with iumerous minute specks of umber and irregular rings of the same equally dispersed over the body with paler dull areas. The fins are wax-yellow, with reddish rays spotted with brown. Caudal fin subrhomboidal. Length of specimen 10 inches. A specimen in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park has conical teeth on the lower jaw and near the symphysis of the upper one, with smaller ones laterally, and a prominent smooth acute iriterorbital ridge. Hab. Chinese coasts. Canton. PLATESSA ASPERRIMA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. pl. 91. (Letter-press not yet published.) Hab. Sea of Japan. -HippoGiossus pENTEX, Richardson, Ichth. of Sulph. p. 102. pl. 47. eon. Reeves, 195; Hardw. Malac. 267. Chinese name, 7so how, “ Mouth on the left” (Birch); Tso hau, “ Left mouth” (Reeves); Tso hau (Bridgem. Chrest. 147). Rad. B.7; D.47; A. 33; C.18; P.17; V. a Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. HiprocLossus ORTHORHYNCHUS, Icon. Reeves, 106; Hardw. Malac. 266. Chinese name, Ching pe, “ Straight nosed” (Birch); “ True nose” (Reeves); Ching pi (Bridgem. Chrest. 146). We have seen no specimen of this. The figure represents the dorsal as commencing much further back than in the preceding; the ground colour as broccoli-brown, with a darker clove-brown bar running between the middles of the dorsal and anal, 4nd blénding with bars or shadings of the same tint which cover shoulder and arch over the pectoral. The vertical fins are also broccoli-brown, with a few obscure darker blotches. Pectorals yellowish-brown with fine dark speckling. Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 279 Hirrociossus GonioGRraApuicus, Icon. Reeves, 254; Hardw. Malac. 265. The ground colour of this drawing is yellowish-brown, marked like a map with large an- gular blotches of dark umber- or liver-brown, which extend to the caudal, and one or two of them also rtin out on the dorsal and anal. The membranes of the fin are between yellowish- brown and rust-coloured, and their rays are obscurely speckled. Five or six umber-brown bars cross the pectoral. Length of drawing 8% itiches. Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. ; Ruombus cinnamomeus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. pl. xciii. (Letter-press not yet published.) Hab. Sea of Japan. Samaris cristatus, Gray, Zool. Mise. p. 8; Zcon. Reeves, 171; Hardw. Malac. 268. “Rad. D.61; A. 51; C.16; P.4; V.5.” (Gray, lc.) Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. ‘ Sonea OmMATURA, Richardson. Jeon. Reeves, 8.13 ; Hardw. Malac. 273, 275. Chinese name, Hwa tat sha, “ Flowered or variegated sole” (Reeves); Hwa ta sha*, “Striped or flowery sole,” also Woo teén ye, “ Black guava leaf” (Birch); /a tat sha (Bridgem. Chrest. 204).. Rad. D. 70; A.60; P. 11-11; V.3 vel 4. (Specs Camb. Phil. Inst.) Two of the Rev. George Vachell’s specimens of this fish exist in the Cambridge Philoso- phical Institution, and small ones are very common in the China insect-boxes. It belongs to the subdivision of the genus which is characterized by the blending together of the three vers tical fins, and is very much like the Indian Solea xebra, but it is not so much elongated, and has a peculiar eye-like mark on the caudal fin, formed by several yellow spots, inclosed by a bright yellow parallelogram, of which one side is deficient. The body is crossed by about twenty-three vertical whitish bars, alternately broader and narrower, and bent backwards, where they run out on the fins. The intermediate spaces ate wood-brown on the body and blackish on the fins; short bars radiate forward from the eyes on the snout. A The eyes are on the tight side, and are small and nearly contiguous. The teeth, if any €xiSst, ate itivisible to the naked eye. ‘The left lips and gill-membranes are fringed, and the latter are united to the pectorals, the union of the left gill-membtane being more conspicuous. The scales on both sides of the fish are strongly ciliated and run up on the fin-rays. The lateral line is straight. Length of the figure 8¢ inches. The specimens are smaller. Th form this species is intermediate between the Jerree potoo, B, Russell, 81, and Jerree potoo, C, 825 and in the germinate distribution of its vertical stripes it agrees with neither. Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. Sea of Borneo. © , SoLEA ovatis, Richardson. Zeon. Reeves; 179 ; Hardw. Malac. 1779. Chinese name, Teaow pan yu (Birch). This greatly resembles Pleuronectes pan, Buch. Hamilton, pl. 24. f.42; but the hinder end is less acute, the form being a perfect oval, equally blunt both ways. The mouth also is cleft beyond the eyes, which appear to be more approximated, and the dark liver-brown spots are more numerous. The ground colour is reddish-brown. Hab. Coasts of China. SonEzA FOLIACEA; Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, G. 5; Hardw. Malac. 271. Chinese name, Ween ye ize, “Guava-leafed sole” (Birch) ; Neem yeep tze ok Nim ip tsai (Bridgem. Chrest. 203; Icon. Reeves, h. 91; ardw. Malac. 269). This differs little from the preceding, but the mouth is not so much cleft, the eyes smaller and further apart, like those of Pleuronectes pan; and the spots are composed of a congeries of smaller ones, The ground colour of drawing #: 5 is pale reddish-brown, but in the smaller one, ft. 91, it is olive-greens Hab. Coasts of Chinas Canton. Sorra ovata, Richardson. Rad. D. 65; A. 47; Ci 21; P.9, &e. (Spee. Camb. Phil. Inst.) In this species the rounded caudal is well distinguished from the other two vertical fins, * The term ¢a shi, applied to the sole; means “to beat the sand,” 280. as REPORT—1845, ; fry wire vO though they are united to its base by membranes. The dorsal commences over the anterior edge, and there is no membranous edge from thence to the mouth, which is a little way be- hind the very obtuse snout. Form ovate and very regular. Teeth nearly imperceptible and existing on the reverse side of mouth only. A band of cuticular filaments commences on the under lip and extends backwards to the lower edge of the gill-cover, fringing the gill-opening on the pale side only. The lower eye touches the upper lip, and the eyelids of both eyes are minutely scaly. Scales on both sides very strongly ciliated, but rather more rough on the coloured or right side ; equally large on the head as elsewhere, and covering the fins in broad belts above and below. Lateral line straight. Upper side of the four specimens, which are preserved in spirits, grayish-brown, with a minute mottling a little deeper than the general tint, and some scattered black specks, which are not round. Under side of fish lead-gray, unspotted. Pectorals blackish behind, and on the outer half on the anterior surface. Caudal spotted. Length 34 inches. Height 13. Hab. China seas. Canton (Rev. George Vachell). PLAGIUSA AURO-LIMBATA, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 151; Hardw. Malac. 983. Chinese name, Kin peen tae shae, “Golden-winged sole” (Reeves); Kin peen ta sha (Birch); Hak tim tar sha (Bridgem. Chrest. 210). This fish, judging solely from the drawing, is elliptic anteriorly and tapers gradually to the end of the moderately acute tail, the height of the body, excluding the fins, being contained three times and a quarter in the length. The snout appears to be edged with membrane, and the dorsal commences above the level of the eye and rather before the mouth. Eyes less than a diameter of the orbit apart and placed over the middle of the mouth. Head one-fifth of the total length. Scales of moderate size. Lateral line quite straight. No ventrals shown in the figure. Colour uniform chestnut-brown, without spots, the fins being merely a little lighter and the fore part of the anal alone varying, being bluish-gray. Length of figure 103 inches. Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. PLAGIUSA PUNCTICEPS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, m. 95; Hardw. Malac. 982. Chinese name, Nae pih (Birch). This figure corresponds with the preceding in outline, but the dorsal does not appear to reach before the eyes. Lateral line straight. Scales moderate. Colour yellowish-brown, with irregular blotches of a much deeper tint of the same scattered over the body, and many dark specks on the head. Length of figure 43 inches. PLAGIUSA NIGRO-LABECULATA, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 152; non Hardw. Chinese name, Hih teen ta sha, “ Black-spotted sole” (Birch, Reeves); Hak tim tar sha (Bridgem. Chrest. 210). This fish has not the symmetry of auro-limbata, but its height has the same relative pro- portion to its length, and its colour is the same with the addition of about a dozen roundish black marks on the fore-part of the body and humeral region. Dorsal fin commencing pos- terior to the eyes. If the artist has been inaccurate in indicating the origin of the dorsal in this and the two preceding figures, they may be all varieties of one species. Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. PLAGIUSA GRAMMICA, Richardson. Two specimens of a Plagiusa, closely resembling the preceding two in form, exist in the museum of the Cambridge Philosophical Institution, to which they were presented by the Rev. George Vachell. The height of the body is contained three times and three-quarters in the total length, and the length of the head five times and two-thirds. Snout edged by a skinny membrane without rays, the dorsal commencing above the eyes and before the tip of the lower jaw. Eyes small and almost contiguous. Scales smaller than those shown in the figure of auro-limbata, strongly serrated on both sides of the fish. Lateral line straight. Ventrals situated in the same plane with the anal, one composed of four rays being distinct, and the other joined to the anal, and as it were forming its first four rays. Both are pointed. The anus is on one side of the second ventral and opposite to its last ray. Fins not scaly. Colour dark chestnut-brown, slightly streaked or shaded with umber, and marked by three irregular rows of dark vertical lines like Chinese characters. Length of specimen 33 inches. Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. PLAGIUSA ABBRBVIATA, Gray, Hardw. Ill. ii. pl. 94, f. 3. drawn from Mr. Reeves’s China specimen; Jcon. Reeves, 6.17; Hardw. Malac. 284. ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 281 ‘Chinese name, Tze leen ta sha, “ Minute-scaled sole” (Reeves); Sai lin tat sha (Bridgem. Chrest. 205). . Besides the straight central) lateral line, another runs along the back at a little distance fromthe fin, and is continued round the snout to the mouth; and a third runs in like man- ner, near the edge of the belly forward to the gill-opening. A transverse line crosses the nape, connecting the upper and middle lines, and another cross line, originating from the true lateral line a little further forwards, descends on the temples, and there divides; one branch encircling the gill-cover; and another, descending the preoperculum and running forwards to the point of the lower lip. Eyes over the posterior corner of the mouth. Colour pmber- brown, the fins yellowish-brown without spots, but the gill-cover and middle of the body are darker and shading off. The defined black patch which includes the-gill-cover in Mr. Gray’s figure is merely a darker brown shading off in Mr. Reeves’s drawing. Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. PLAGIUSA MELAMPETALA, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 150; Hardw. Malac. 985. Chinese name, Hih leén ta sha, “ Black-scaled sole” (Birch); Hih lin tat sha (Reeves); Hak lun tar sha (Bridgem. Chrest. 207). This is a large scaled species with two lines, as in bilineata (Bloch, 188, the Jerree potoo, E, Russell, 74, and Pl. potous, Cuv., Jerree potoo, D, Russell, 73), but with the dorsal not shown further forwards than the gill-opening. The general colour is dark chestnut-brown, with an obscure clouding of umber-brown, a large grayish blotch behind the gill-openings, and an- other near the hinder part of the anal. The fins are bluish- or blackish-gray. Eyes over the mouth. Height of body equal to the length of the head, or to one-fourth of the length of the body, excluding the fins. Length of figure 134 inches. Hah. Coasts of China. Canton. PLAGIUSA FAVosQuAMIs, Icon. Reeves, 3. 50; Hardw. Malac. 281. Chinese name, Meih leén ta, “Small-scaled sole” (Birch); Meth lin tat sha, “Close-sealed sole” (Reeves) ; Mat lin tat sha (Bridgem. Chrest. 206). This species has proportionally larger scales than the preceding one. The dorsal com- mences over the middle of the mouth and before the eyes. The mouth has a smooth flesh- coloured edge, and the form of the body is elongated, its height equalling the length of the head, and being contained four times in the total length. Colour chestnut-brown, darker along the middle of the back, and each scale marked near the margin by a streak of umber- brown. Length about 93 inches. Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. Tribus ? Fam. SILURIDZ. SILURUS xANTHOSTEUS, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 133. pl. 56. f.12-14. Icon. Reeves, 102; Hardw. Malac. 142, 143 (duplicates). Chi- nese name, Hwang hih, “ Yellow bone” (Birch); Hwang hwi (Reeves) ; Wong kwat u (Bridgem. Chrest. 190). The British Museum possesses Chinese examples of this fish presented by Mr. Reeves, and two specimens from Chusan, which were collected there by Dr. Cantor, and came from him through the India House, labelled S. punctatus and nanus. The labels have evidently been accidentally transposed, and could not have been attached by Dr. Cantor to these specimens, as they want the black lateral spots and black edges to the pectorals, which he mentions in his description of punctatus, and no account of a species named zanus is contained in his paper on the Fauna of Chusan. Hab. Canton (Reeves). Chusan (Cantor). Siturus sinensis, Lacép. v. pp. 58 et 82. pl. 2. f. 1 (Le silure chinois). M‘Clelland, Calc. Journ. iv. p.402. Icon. Reeves, 131; Hardw. Malac. 141. Chinese name, Léen yu, “ Sickle fish” (Birch); Lin yu (Reeves) ; Lim u (Bridgem. Chrest. 191). This and the preceding species belong to the group of Siluri, which have short faces and Projecting lower jaws, embracing the upper lip when the mouth is shut, and giving them, together with an accompanying elevation of the shoulder, more or less the aspect of a Schilbe. 8. zanthosteus is distinguished at once from the present species by the union of the anal and 282 REPORT—1845, caudal, as in S. glanis or asotus. Lacépéde’s figure of S. sinensis is too rude to be of much use, and we are quite of M. Valenciennes’ opinion when he says that it is by no means pre- cise enough to serve for the establishment of a species. Mr. M‘Clelland has however had an opportunity of examining a Silurus from Chusan, which he has referred to Lacépéde’s species ; and Mr. Reeves’s drawing above-quoted answers better to the description of the colours and markings of sinensis than to any species introduced into the ‘ Histoire des Poissons.’ His drawing represents a fish with the nape but sparingly elevated, and having a caudal slightly notched in the middle with rounded equal lobes, the lower one distinct from the anal. The maxillary barbel reaches nearly to the end of the pectoral; the barbels of the lower jaw are not qitite half as long. The lateral line runs straight, a little above the mid-height, and is marked by a series of yellowish white points, which are met at right angles by about fourteen short rows of the same kind of dots descending at regular intervals from the back. The ground colour of the body is oil-green passing into yellowish-gray, and is reticulated by irregular meshes of neutral tint of a deeper colour. The meshes disappear in the darker hue of the summit of the back which approaches to blackish-green, and do not spread over the belly, which is white; but they descend lower at the anus, and include the posterior two-thirds of the anal. The ground colour is mostly silvery below the lateral line, but a buff-coloured band runs along the base of the anal, reticulated like the rest of the body. The dorsal, caudal and border of'the anal are oil-green ; the basal part of the anal being lilac-purple, with the darker reticulations posteriorly. The pectorals are lilac at the base, dull green on the disc, and have a yellow border. The ventrals are pale greenish-yellow with a lilac tint. The upper parts of the head are yellowish-brown with a purplish blush and without spots. Length of the figure 144 inches. Hab. Canton. Chusan. «“Sizrurus mysoricus, C. et V. xiv. p. 364. Silurus duda, Buch. Hamilt. p- 152; M‘Clelland, Calcutta Journ. iv. p. 402.” These references are given entirely on the authority of Mr. M‘Clelland. Having the In- dian fish under his eye, his opportunity for comparing it with his Chusan specimen is good; and it is important that a scrupulous comparison should be made, as this is one of the very few instances in which the same species of freshwater fish has been detected in India and China. The pointed caudal lobes distinguish this species from the foregoing ones. Hab. Chusan (M‘Clelland). «“ SILURUS BIMACULATUS, Bl. 364; C. et V. xiv. p. 360; M‘Clelland, Cale. Journ. iv. p.401.” Hab. Chusan (M‘Clelland). “ SrruRUS PUNCTATUS, Cantor, Ann. Nat. Hist. ix. p. 30.” “S. superné nitidé olivaceo-viridescens sive brunnescens, seriebus duabus punetorum nigrorum infra lineam lateralem ; abdomine albo-flavescenti ; alis dorsalibus, caudalibus analibusque nigris ; ventralibus albo-flavescen- tibus ; pectoralibus laté nigro marginatis. Cirrhi 3; Radii: D.5; A.80; C.15; P.1|5; V.14; Br. 5.” “Hab. Fresh and brackish water in the island of Chusan.” (Cantor; Zc.) No specimen. Sinurus JAPONICUS, Temm. et Schl. Faun. Jap. Sieb. Aad. D.5 5 A.72; C.17; P.1|l1; V.12. (Spec. Br. Mus., 11 inches long.) The part of the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ relating to this species is not yet published, but we have compared the specimen with S. aanthosteus. The ventrals are farther behind the dorsal than in that species, and the maxillary barbel not longer than the head. Short branchlets descend at intervals from the lateral line. Hab. Sea of Japan. ? Backus crinavis, Richardsot. Jcon. Reeves, 217 ; Hardw. Malac. 179 (et 180 dupl.). Chinese name, Sang maow (Birch); “ Growing hair” (Reeves). Length of fig. 10 inches. This drawing closely resembles Bagrus sagor, Buch. (Icons Hatdw. Malac. 169 et 176; C. et V. xiv. p: 446), and also B. bilineatus, C. et V.454; Russ. 169 ; but we are prevented from referring it to either of these species by its rather smaller anal and considerably larger ven- trals, Its profile is sufficiently like that of bilineatus or deddiyellah (Russ.) to need no fur- ther description, except that the ascent from the snout to the dorsal is a continuous straight a : ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 283 line without any rounding before the dorsal, The maxillary barbels réach to the gill-opening, the exterior submandibular pair are half as long, and the interior pair a quarter as long, The operculum is finely veined, and the roughness of the nuchal plate is shown in the drawing by fine gold points. The lateral line is flatly arched over the pectoral, and takes a straight course from the tip of that fin to the caudal rather above mid-height. The points of the ribs form an oblique line from the shoulder to the anal. The dorsal and pectoral spines are slender and serrated in front: their posterior teeth, if they possess any, are not shown in the drawing. The top of the head, nape and back is sap-green, with fine parallel streaks of a deeper tint, bent en chevron near the dorsal line, and disappearing at the lateral line; the sides and belly are silvery with a purplish reflexion. There are some crimson tints round the mouth, and purplish ones at the union of the gill-pieces and on the breast; also a greenish-yellow border round the end of the tail embraced by the caudal. The dorsal is celandine-green, with darker rays tinged with crimson at the base. The adipose fin is yellow, with a black spot on the edge. The pectorals and ventrals have crimson-coloured rays and buff membranes. The anal is sulphur-yellow and the caudal a dingy wax-yellow. This drawing agrees in several par- ticulats with the description of Arius ocellatus noticed below. Hab. Canton. BAcrus timBatus, Richardson. Note of Mr. Réeves’s drawings represent this fish; which was brought from Canton by the Rev. G. Vachell ; the only one that it resembles in having eight barbels being the Pimelodus ? fulviedraco noticed below. From this it is distinguished by all the fins being edged with black, and the specimen shows no traces of the peculiar markings of fulvi«draco. I examined it cursorily, and noted down only a few of its characters. There is a short viliform dental plate on the vomer, set more densely and with shorter teeth than the jaws, and continued without a break over the mesial line. The casque terminates over the base of the péectorals, but sends out a natrow styloid process which touches the small chevron of the second interspinous bone. The adipose fin rises imperceptibly from the dorsal line, and the ventrals are smaller than those of B.? crinalis, and do not reach to the anus. The ventrals have six rays, the last of which is divided to the base. A supra-axillary plate is half the length of the pectorals, and tbe nasal cirrhus is short. Hab. Canton. Specimen in the Cambridge Philosophical Institution. ? Bacrus (an Pimetopus ?) BouDERIUS, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 203 ; Hardw. 183. Chinese name, ew yu, “ Buffalo fish” (Birch) ; Nou yu, * Cow fish” (Reeves); Ngaw u (Bridgem. Chrest. 194). A spécimen of this fish éxists in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park, but we liave -not ex- amined the palate so as to ascertain from its dentition whether it is properly placed in this genus or not. Ifit be a Bagrus it belongs to the group which have eight barbels, a long anal and a comparatively short adipose fin, It comes nearest to B. vdcha (Buch. Ham.) of any member of the group described in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ but may be at once distinguished by its much smaller mouth and fleshy lips. The liad, viewed in profile, is depressed, taper- ing and rather pointed, with the eye rather nearer to the gill-opening than to the énd of the snout. The lower jaw is shorter than the snout, and the mouth is not cleft so far back as the posterior nostrils, which aré about midway betwéen the eye and end of the snout. ‘The nape rises suddenly in an arch from the hind hedd, and then runs backwards with little ascent to the first dorsal. The height of the body there is equal to the length of the head, or to one- fifth of the total length of the fish. The maxillary barbels are rather longer than the head: the exterior submatidibular ones are a thitd shorter, while the nasal barbels and the interior submandibular ones are a little longer than the quarter of the length of the head. The lateral line is arched at the commencement, and then runs nearly straight from before the first dor- sal to the caudal, a little above the middle height of the body. [In B. buchanani, Val., the latéral line is straight from end to end.] The pectoral spine is strong, and is strongly serfated towards its tip interiotly. A tfiangular plate proceeding from the humeral chain is shown very boldly in the figure above the fin. The dorsal spine is draWn without serratures, taller than the soft rays, pretty stout and rather spindle-shaped, with a tapering acute point. Six soft rays are shown. ‘The ventrals are pretty large, but smaller than the pectorals; the anal long, containing above thirty rays; the adipose fin of a moderate size; and the caudal deeply forked, but with the lobes rather obtuse and equal. The colour on the dorsal aspect is dark mountain-green or greenish-gray, passing high on the sides into sienna-yellow, which continues down to the pale lilac edge of the belly. There are no spots; The fins have all more or less of lake or crimson-red with greenish rays. The two colours are most distinctly separated on the anal, the base being rose-red or carmine, and the outer half gtass-green. 284 vav! tA AMI REPORT—1845. (0. (07 TH 9l AMT “O The base of the caudal is oil-green, the middle parts crimson, and the hinder edge: blackish- green. The lips are orpiment-orange. Length of the figure 164 inches. iA Hab. Canton (Reeves). No specimen. Inthe ‘Description of Animals,’ &c., which we have repeatedly quoted, there is a sketch (fig. 162) of a Siluroid with a short adipose fin and long anal, which I should have referred to B. bouderius, but for the shortness and number of the barbels, which are stated in the text to be only four; and only two are shown in the drawing, the maxillary one, which is the longest, being shorter than the head, and the submandibular one still smaller. _ The nostrils are shown without cirrhi, and the belly is more prominent than that of Reeves’s bouderius. In the text (p. 191) the head is said to be “naked and somewhat depressed, the body compressed, smooth and gray. Breast prominent. Ventral in middle of the abdomen. The rays B. 14; D. 8; A.30; C.28; P.13; V.6. Length 20 inches.” Hab. Canton river. ? BAGRUS VACHELLI, Richardson. Rad. D. 1|7; A. 23; C.17%; P.1/8; V.6; Cirrhi 8. A specimen of this fish exists in the collection of the Cambridge Philosophical Institution, to which it was presented by the Rev. G. Vachell. In the form of the adipose fin and general outline it resembles Mr. Reeves’s drawing 203, which is described above under the appellation of Bagrus? bouderius, but the anal fin is not so extensive. In the hasty record I made of its characters, I unfortunately omitted to note the exact nature of the dental plates on the roof of the mouth, having merely written that the teeth are disposed in broad, close shorn villiform plates ; so there remains an uncertainty as to the genus which cannot be cleared up without a re-examination of the spedimen. The mouth is small, and the under jaw is shorter than the snout, which is round. The maxillary barbels are as long as the head and larger than the others; the interior submandibular pair equal the nasal ones, and are shorter than the exte- rior submandibular ones. They are all slender. The dorsal spine is smooth in front, but is armed with recurved teeth behind. The pectoral spine is also smooth in front, but it is strongly toothed behind. Many short rays are incumbent on the base of the caudal, above and below. Three front rays of the anal are short and graduated, and the last dorsal ray is divided to the base. The specimen is five inches long. In the number of the anal rays this specimen nearly agrees with Arius ocellatus introduced below. Hab. Canton. Arius FALCARIUS, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 134. pl. 62. f. '7-9. Icon. Reeves, 101 ; Hardw. Malac.184. Chinese name, Léen yu, “ Sickle fish” (Reeves, Birch); Zim wu (Bridgem. Chrest. 193). Length of draw- ing 103 inches. Hab. Canton. Spec. Brit. Mus. ARIUS SINENSIS, C. et V. xv. p. 72. Hab. “ Touraine” (Hist. des Poiss.). Arius ocEvLATus, BI. Schn. (Silurus), 378; C. et V. xv. p. 104. Stlurus maculatus, Thunb. Act. Stockh. 1792. pl. 1. f. 1 et 2. The only one of Mr. Reeves’s drawings which has anything like an eyed spot on the adi- pose fin is the one described above as the Bagrus? crinalis ; but this is scarcely a distinguish- ing mark, as many of the Siluride have the adipose more or less broadly edged with black. Hab. Japan. ? GALEICHTHYs STANNEUS, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 238 ; Hardw. Malac. 177. Chinese name, Seth yu, “Tin fish” (Birch); Seth yu, “ Tin fish” (Reeves). Seih means also the gingling ornaments of a horse. I have referred this fignre to Galeichthys on account of its resemblance to G. feliceps, C. et V. pl. 424, but it may nevertheless be a Pimelodus. The head seems to be quite smooth above, with less appearance of a casque than in the figure of feliceps above-quoted. The gra- nulations of a narrow interparietal process and a small crutch at the base of the dorsal spine are however shown. The head is wide and depressed, with a rounded snout, and forms about one-fourth of the total length of the fish. The height of the body is equal to rather more than a fifth of the length. The nasal orifices are round without either valves or barbels. The maxillary barbels are shorter than the head, but are longer than the exterior subman- ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 285 4@ibular pair, and more than twice as long as the interior pair. There is a large triangular plate of the humeral chain above the pectoral which is covered with smooth skin. The dorsal and pectoral spines are long and rather slender, the former being equal to two-thirds of the height of the fish.and serrated both before and behind. The latter is also serrated on both sides, but only at the tip. The adipose fin rises abruptly from the back, and is small; the anal is of moderate size; behind these fins the tail becomes narrower than usual in a siluroid, but again expands where it is embraced by the base of the caudal. The caudal is deeply forked with acute lobes. The lateral line is arched at the shoulder, and descends to the middle height of the body over the ventrals, its course to the caudal fin being straight from thence. The general colour is violet-purple passing into Scotch-blue, and gradually changing ‘to a bright silvery tint on the lower part of the sides and under surface of the head. A series of chevrons are shown between the ventrals and pectorals evidently corresponding to the ribs. The under fins are bluish, the dorsal and caudal purplish brown. Length of the drawing, 153 inches. The Chinese name probably refers to the colour of the body. Hab. Canton. PIMELoDus GuTTaTus, Lacépéde, v. pp. 96 et 113. pl. 5. f. 1; C. et V. xv. p- 143. Icon. Reeves, 129 et 130; Hardw. Malac. 161. Chinese name, Hwa han, “Flowery or spotted chiton” (Birch); Za kan, “ Variegated kan” (Reeves); Fa kom (Bridgem. Chrest. 196). ad. D.1|6; A. 1|8; C. 15; P. 1|8; V. 8. (Fig. Reev.) Length of fig. 129, 133 inches; of 130, 164 inches. This species was known to Lacépéde only by a Chinese drawing; and though Mr. Reeves’s drawings present both a top and side view whereby we can perceive that the fish has no casque, yet from our ignorance of the dentition we cannot, say positively that it belongs to the genus Pimelodus as constituted in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons.’ It has considerable resemblance to Bagrus cavasius, possessing the eight barbels, long adipose and short anal which characterise the group to which that species belongs, and which is equivalent to the genus Porcus of M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire. On the other hand} it has also.the external characters of the Pimelodes, with a round head destitute of a casque and with eight barbels. In profile the head appears conical and rather slender, with an acute snout which projects beyond the lower jaw, the face and nape rising in a straight gentle acclivity to the dorsal. Viewed from above, the snout is broadly rounded; there is no appearance of a casque, and the distance between the eyes is equal to a third of the length of the head. The head forms one-fourth of the length of the fish, caudal excluded ; and the height of the body at the commencement of the dorsal is nearly equal to a sixth of the length, caudal included. The maxillary barbels reach to the tip of the pectoral. The outer pair of submandibular barbels are less than half that length, and the other two and the nasal pair are still shorter. The pectoral spine is stout and very strongly toothed behind, but no teeth are shown on the dorsal one in either figure. The dorsal termi- nates over the first ventral ray, and the adipose fin commencing over the axilla of the ventrals extends far past the anal and almost to the caudal, being nearly equal in length to a third of the fish. The caudal is deeply notched with thick, rounded equal lobes. The lateral line has a very slight decurvature as far as the ventrals, but is otherwise nearly straight and rather nearer to the belly than to the back. The supra-axillary plate of the humeral chain is drawn narrow and rather long. The colour of the back, top of the head and breast is brownish purple- ted; the sides and belly white, with a faint wax-yellow or siskin-green reflexion. Many transverse bars are shown, that meet en chevron near the back, and again less sharply at the lateral line, which is green. The body, adipose fin, and caudal and the rays of the dorsal and ventrals are marked with many scattered black spots of irregular shapes and sizes. The dor- sal, adipose and caudal are yellowish-brown at the base, the rays of the pectoral are greenish, and those of the ventrals and anal carmine. The membranes of most of the fins appear to be thin and transparent. Icon. Reeves, 132; Hardw. Malac. 162. Chinese name, Han yu, “Chiton fish” (Birch); Kan yu, “ Han tiled-fish” (Reeves); Kom u (Bridgem. Chrest. 192). Figure 13 inches long. This is seemingly another representation of the same species, with the outline a little dis- ‘torted from the example placed before the artist having been in a more limber state. Hence the profile, instead of rising from the snout in a straight acclivity, is undulated by the compa- ‘rative depression of the head and swelling out of the nape. Some serratures are shown at ‘the tip of the dorsal spine, and the silvery supra-axillary plate of the humeral chain is notched, sas in the figure of B. cavasius (Jacquemont, Voy. de l’Inde, pl. 16. f. 2): there are no other perceptible differences of structure. The spots on the base of the caudal are more numerous, _ but» they are fewer and more scattered on the body than in the other figures, and’ there are 4 f 286 — REPORT—1845. yee) Saree es none on the lower fins. The purplish-brown tints are confined to the shoulder, the general colour posteriorly being shining yellowish-brown, with oil-green transverse bars. Hab. Canton. PIMELODUS CANTONENSIS, C. et V. xv. p. 142 (8 barbels). Hab. Fresh waters at Canton; Pimetopus Asper, M‘Clelland, Calc. Journ. iv. p. 404, pl. 24. f. 2. Hab. Chusan, PimeLopus TACH:sURUS, Lacépéde ( Tachisurus chinensis), v, p. 151. pl. 5. fig. 2; C. et V. xv. p. 163, Lacépéde describes this fish from a Chinese drawing. His figure is not without consider- able resemblance in general form to the drawing which we have named Galeichthys stanneus, but Mr, Reeves’s figure is entirely without blotches such as are represented by Lacépéde. Hab. China. PimeLopus mone, Richardson. Icon, Reeves, 8,20; Hardw. Malac. 173. Chinese name, Ming ize, “ Grain or barley-awn fish” (Reeves, Birch) ; Mong tsai (Bridgem. Chrest. 195). In outline and the relative size and shape of the fins, this drawing has some resemblance tothe Arius pumilus of Jacquemont (Voy. dans l’Inde, pl, 18. f. 1), but it wants the casque and the crutch-like interspinous process of that fish, there being merely a few black dots on the nape, probably intended to represent some roughness of that part. There are no nasal barbels, The maxillary ones reach beyond the head, and the submandibular ones are shorter, The upper half of the dorsal spine is serrated in front and behind; and the pectoral one only behind. Theanal is smalland rectangular. The adipose fin also rectangular, and of medium size. The caudal acutely forked. The fish is drawn curved, and the lateral line, which is marked by a silvery stripe, has a corresponding curvature, but is evidently quite straight when the fish is in a true position. The back of the fish is bluish or greenish-gray, the other parts being more or less brightly silvery. The fins have a similar tint to the back, and there is a small black mark on the edge of the adipose fin, Length of the drawing 53 inches, Hab. Canton. PimMELoDUS? FULVI-DRACO, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 155; Hardw. Malac. 174 (et 175 dupl.). Chinese name, Hwang lung, “ Yellow-dragon” (Birch, Reeves); Wong lung (Bridgem. Chrest. 199). Length of the figure 51 inches. The profile of this fish, the form of the head and operculum, and the unusual distribution of the dark patches of colour, remind one of the Pimelodus bagarius of Buchanan Hamilton, but it wants the prolongations of the dorsal, pectorals and caudal, which characterise that species, and also the enlargement of the maxillary barbels. It has likewise much resemblance to the P. viridescens of the same author, of which fig. 157, Hardw. Malac, is a coloured representa- tion. In pl. 11. f. 56 (Fishes of the Ganges), the engraving has been less accurately executed than in the rest of Buchanan Hamilton’s plates, and the three green bars which cross the back are not distinctly shown. In fulvi-draco the maxillary barbels are a little longer than the head, while the nasal one is only half that length, being about equal to the four submandi- bular ones, ‘The dorsal and pectoral spines are both stout, the latter being serrated on both sides, the former only behind. The caudal is forked with thickish lobes. There are two colours in the body, viz. olive-green and sienna-yellow, each forming three vertical bands with a connecting longitudinal stripe low on the sides. Of these the olive-green occupies the greatest space, A dark dingy green stripe runs through each caudal lobe, the rest of the fin being yellowish-brown. The dorsal is also yellowish-brown and the anal a rather lighter yellow, but with a broad green bar in its middle, descending from the horizontal ventral stripe of that colour. The pectorals and ventrals are dark with pale rays. The prevailing tints on the head are yellowish-brown and sienna-yellow, passing into a darker brown above. Hab. Canton, Piorosus LineAtus, C. et V. xv. p. 412. Plotose Anguille, Lacépéde, v. p- 129, 130. pl. 3. f.2. Ingelee, Russell, 166. Plotose ikapor, Lesson, Voy. des Duperrey, pl. 31. f. 3; Krusenstern, pl. 60. f. 12 et 13. Plotosus an- guillaris, Rupp, Neue Wirlb. p.76. Icon. Reeves, 2. 11; Hardw. Malae. ‘ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 287 199. Chinese name, Yen ting (Birch) ; Gan ting, “ Cottage nail” (Reeves) ; Om ting (Bridgem. Chrest. 197). Icon. piscium 24 a pict. Sin. &c. Hab, Seas of Japan and China, Macao. Philippines. Amboyna. Celebes,. Western Australia. Friendly Isles, Indian Ocean, Mauritius. Seychelles and Red sea, Chinese specimens exist in the museum of the Cambridge Philosophical Institution, the British Museum, the Chinese collection at Hyde Park, Haslar Museum, and very commonly in the Chinese insect-boxes. CLARIAS PULICARIS, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 135. pl. 62. f. 5. 6. Icon. Reeves, 3-16; Hardw. Malac. 198. Chinese name, Z’th sa, “Pond louse” Seah Tang sih, “ Bird-flea” (Reeves); Zong sat (Bridgem. Chrest. 198). Hab. Canton. Spec. Br. Mus. (Reeves). The Macropterote brun of Lacép. v. pl. 2. f. 2. is probably the above species, and not the Clarias fuscus of Sumatra (C. et V. xv. p. 383). CLaRIAS HExACIcINNUS, Lacé€p. (Macropteronotus), v. pp. 84, 88. pl. 2. f. 3. Established on a Chinese painting. Hab. China. CLARIAS ABBREVIATUS, C. et V. xv. p. 386. This species resembles Lacépéde’s C. hewacicinnus in the shortness of its body. Hab. Canton. The Cossyphus ater of M‘Clelland, Calcutta Journ. (iv. p. 405. pl. 24. f. 3), is apparently an injured example of a fish of this genus. The specimen came from China. Tribus ? Fam. CypRINID&. As we know the bulk of the Chinese species of this difficult family chiefly from Mr, Reeves’s drawings, the Cuvierian generic groups seem to be better adapted for their description than the minuter subdivisions of more recent ichthyologists, depending as many of them do on anatomical characters. I have compared these drawings carefully with General Hardwicke’s numerous figures of Indian Cyprinide*, and also with the plates of M‘Clelland’s paper in the 19th volume of the Asiatic Researches for 1839, and am satisfied that the Chinese species are almost wholly different from those of the pe- ninsula of India. Mrs. Bowdich (now Lee) copied for Baron Cuvier many drawings of Chinese fish, some of which are referred to by M. Valenciennes in the sixteenth and seventeenth volumes of the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ which treat of the Cyprinide. Mr, Brown kindly pointed out to me the drawings she traced from in the Banksian Library. They are kept loose in a port- folio, and are entitled in the Catalogue ‘Icones piscium 24 a pictore Sinensi Cantoni eleganter pictz, fol.’ Aided by the dimensions of the tracings noted by M. Valenciennes, and his descriptions of the colours, I have been able to identify most of these drawings with the species named by him; but as he quotes more of Mrs. Bowdich’s tracings of Cyprinide than there are origi- nals in this small collection, it is evident that she made copies also of the figures in some other Chinese book or collection of drawings; and M. Va- lenciennes also mentions several figures of Cyprinide which he saw in the Banksian Library, but which I have not been able to find. (Cyprini veri vel cirrhati.) CypPRINUS ATRO-VIRENS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 116; Hardw. Malac. 7. Chinese name, Hih le, “ Black carp” (Reeves, Birch); Hak li (Bridgem. Chrest. 15), Length of drawing 114 inches. The height of the body isa little more than a third of the length, and the back is elevated in * There are in all 128 drawings of Cyprinide in the Hardwickian volumes, of which 65 appear from the references on many of them, and the sameness of the style of others, to haye _been executed by the artists that were employed by Buchanan Hamilton. 288 : REPORT—1845.. THTHOt TT form of a long flat ellipsoidal arch, rounding off and descending considerably, at the shoulder, to meet the depressed and scarcely convex profile of the face. The chief spine of the dorsal and also of the anal is strongly serrated posteriorly almost to the base. The barbels at the angle of the mouth are about equal to the rictus in length, and those which spring from the middle of the maxillary are not much shorter, in which respect the drawing differs from that of nigro-auratus of Lacépéde. Seventeen soft rays are shown in the dorsal and six in the anal, the last one in both being divided to the base*. The discs of the scales have a shining bronze colour, their bases a deep blackish-green. The head is mostly dark blackish-green with some golden reflexions, and the operculum is marked with curved streaks descending from its upper anterior corner. The pectoral and caudal are blackish-green, the dorsal dark hair-brown, and the three unde;x fins have ochraceous rays. The lateral line is slightly deflexed, equidistant from back and belly, and is composed of about twenty-eight scales. Hab. Canton. CypRINUS RUBRO-Fuscus, Lacépéde, v. p. 331. pl. 16. f. 1; C.et V. xvi.p. 74. Icon. Reeves, 117; Hardw. Malac. 4. Chinese name, Tang le, “ Pond carp” (Reeves, Birch) ; Tong li (Bridgem. Chrest. 14). Length of figure 11+] inch. It is with the doubt which pervades all such approximations that we refer Mr. Reeves’s drawing, above-quoted, to the species noticed by Lacépéde. In general form it approaches that of Reeves, 116 (aéro-virens), but the outline of the back is rather less flat, and slopes mo- derately each way to an apex at the beginning of the dorsal, The height is contained. thrice and one-sixth in the total length, of which the head makes a fourth. The rays shown by the artist are D. 2/20; A. 2[5 ; the strong spines being deeply serrated, and the last soft rays di- vided to the base. The dorsal commences over the tip of the pectorals and front of the ven- trals, and terminates a little farther from the caudal than the anal does. The lateral line is straight, and is composed of twenty-eight or thirty scales. The scales generally are brightly silvery with olive-green bases, which deepen on the back to blackish-green, and fade lower on the sides to apple-green and oil-green. There is a slight reddish blush on the shoulder, and an ochraceous tint on the breast and lower parts of the head. The operculumis streaked on its upper anterior half. The dorsal is pale ash-gray, with a row in the middle of darker pearl-gray blotches between the rays. The ventrals and anal are also pale with bright red tips, and the caudal is bordered at the end with red, the body of the fin being dark yellowish- gray. The pectoral is blackish-gray. Hab. Canton. CyPRINUS FLAMMANS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 118; Hardw. Malae. 6. Chinese name, Ho ke, “ Fire carp” (Reeves, Birch); Fo k (Bridgem. Chrest.18). Length of drawing 101 inches. This drawing represents a fish with the same profile as the preceding one (Reeves, 117), the only differences being a trifling increase in the length of the head, and the dorsal com- mencing a very little farther back. The barbels are the same, and both this and the two preceding species have a conspicuous, elevated, scoop-shaped border to the posterior nasal orifice. The rays shown in the figure are D. 2|18 cr. 19; A.2|5. It is possible that this may be merely the rubro-fuscus in its spawning dress. The lateral line is very slightly decurved, and is traced on thirty-one scales. The operculum is striated almost to the edge. The bases of the scales down to a row or two. below the lateral line are duck-green, so defined as to pro- duce rows of rectangular spots. The discs of the upper scales and the upper parts of the head have bronze reflexions; the lateral ones are silvery with a reddish blush, and the whole under parts of the head and body are bright orpiment-orange, the colours being most intense onthe | circumference of the scales. The ventrals and anal are also orange; the pectorals and caudal lake-red, and the dorsal pale chestnut-brown. Hab. Canton. CyYPRINUS VIRIDI-VIOLACEUS, Lacépéde, v. p. 548. pl. 16. f. 3. Icon. Reeves, | 157; Hardw. Malac. 5. Chinese name, Lith le, “ Green carp” (Reeves, | Birch); Luk li (Bridgem. Chrest. 13). Rad. B.3; D. 2|19; A.2|5; C.18§; | P.14; V.9. (Reev. Spec.) Mr. Reeves has deposited two specimens in the British Museum, which we refer to his figure, || and also, though with less confidence, to Lacépéde’s viridi-violaceus. In profile it differs a | little from the preceding species, in the curve of the back passing insensibly into the tail, and * In most of the drawings the very short anterior spines of the dorsal and anal are omitted. We enumerate only those which are shown by the artist. 3 ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 289: ‘in the facial line not being so suddenly depressed at its union with the nape, which is never- theless gibbous. The height of the body is equal to a third of the total length, of which the head forms one-fourth ; excluding the caudal, the head is equal to a third of the length; the ‘thickness amounts to nearly half the height. The barbel which issues from near the middle of the maxillary is very small; that which springs from near its tip is moderately large. The ‘straight or very slightly decurved lateral line is traced on thirty-three scales, and there are ten rows of scales in the height of the body. Their discs are obscurely radiated and roughish. No streaks appear on the gill-cover. The dorsal commences some way before the ventrals and over the posterior third of the pectorals; its third soft ray stands above the front of the ventrals. Its large spine and that of the anal are strongly serrated, and the last soft ray of the two fins is divided to the base. The general hue of this fish is fully darker than any other one of Mr. Reeves’s drawings of the genus, the bases and edges of the scales being blackish-green passing into greenish-black, | with bronze discs above the lateral line, the light and dark parts being arranged so as to produce lines corresponding in number with the rows of the scales. The dark bases are con- tinued over the belly, but restricted in size; and the discs of the scales below the lateral line are pale olive-green with very slightly deeper coloured edges. Some crimson and lake tints exist on the belly and under surface of the tail. The top of the head is blackish-green, the cheeks and opercula are rich, dark auricula-purple, bordered by brilliant bronze. Under parts of the head and throat buff-orange. Dorsal ash-gray with a yellowish-gray base. The ventrals and anal are pale with rosaceous tips; the pectorals show faint yellow, purple and red tints, and the dark clove-brown caudal has the ends of the lobes hyacinth-red. Lengths of the specimens 6 and 8% inches: of the figure 103 inches. Hab. Canton. Cyprinus HysiscorpEs, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 156; Hardw. Malac. 3. Chinese name, Foo yung le (Birch) ; Foo yang le, “ Hibiscus-flower carp ” (Reeves); Fu yung h (Bridgem. Chrest. 12). Length of figure 12-2 inches, This has much the form of viridi-violaceus, but is more elegantly shaped at the nape, which is not so gibbous. The barbels are longer and the fins are all very tall, seemingly the effect of monstrous growth. A small specimen apparently of this species, but with a triple caudal, was brought from China by Captain Dawkins. Only one spine, the tall serrated one, is re- presented by the artist in the dorsal and anal, whose rays are D1[19; A. 1|6 or 7. The colour ' of the back down to the straight lateral line is the same as in viridi-violaceus, but the purple tints are replaced on the side of the head by a shining bronze colour. The sides and belly are silvery, with a greenish-gray shade at the bases of the scales. Dorsal and caudal brownish- red, fading to purplish-red towards the edges; anal and pectorals blood-red, the spine of the former and rays of the latter being light purplish-gray. Anterior half of the ventrals blackish- purple, the posterior half peach-blossom red. Hat. Canton. Cyprinus acuminaTus, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 125; Hardw. Malac. 2. Chinese name, Shang hae li, “‘ Shang hae 1a fish,” or the “‘ Shang hati wax- fish” (Birch) ; “ Superior sea-carp” (Reeves); Sheung hoi lap (Bridgem. Chrest.17). Length of drawing 93 inches. This species has an elevated back, shaped in profile like the roof of a house, with the sum- mit at the commencement of the dorsal, which is over the posterior third of the small pectoral ‘and some way before the ventrals. The posterior slope of the back is the more gradual one, and is entirely occupied by the dorsal. The belly is horizontal, with a short upward slope to ‘the tail which is occupied by the anal. Head small, forming one-fifth of the length of the fish, while the height of the body equals a third of the same length. The nostrils want the valve or erect lip shown in the drawings of the preceding species, and there is a deep groove across the snout a short way before them, and on a line with the front of the preorbitar. The tip of the snout is tumid, though not large. The barbels are small, particularly the upper pair. The rays shown in the drawing are D. 2|19; A. 2|5. The spines are strong and coarsely serrated, _ particularly the anal one. Top of the head and bases of the scales of the back oil-green. More and more of the discs _ of the scales become silvery as they approach the lateral line; and they are wholly so lower ‘down, except that a very pale wax-yellow colour marks their bases on the belly. The cheek _ is bluish-gray ; the fins are all more or less tinged with aurora-red, with pale borders. The Ted is deepest on the caudal, but that fin also has a broad colourless border at the end. The lips are reddish, and the eye, which is large, has a red iris. ~~ Hab. Canton. —-: 1845. U 290 ' REPORT—1845, az or VK CyPRINUS NIGRO-AURATUS, Lacépéde, v. p. 547. pl. 16. f.2; C. et V. xvi. p- 73. Icon. Reeves, 119; Hardw. Malac. 1. -Chinese name, Hae de, “ Sea-carp”” (Reeves, Birch); Hoi li (Bridgem, Chrest.16). Length of the drawing 15} inches. If one may judge from the size of the figure, this is the largest true carp that came under Mr. Reeves’s observation. Its profile rises very considerably in a bold arch to the dorsal, with a shallow transverse groove before the nostrils and a slight undulation at the nape. The belly is flattish, The height of the body is contained thrice in the total length, and the length of the head four times and a half. The mouth is rather oblique, and the upper jaw goes beyond and somewhat overhangs the lower one. The upper barbels are short*. The lateral line, which is traced on thirty-one scales, is slightly decurved, and descends a little below the middle height, taking a straight course through thg middle of the tail after passing (the ven- trals. No streaks are shown on the gill-covers. The long, low dorsal commences behind the tip of the pectorals and before the ventrals, and reaches past the middle of the anal. The pectorals and ventrals are small and rounded. The rays shown in the figure are D, 1|21; A. 2|5. The dorsal spine is serrated; but the anal one, which is longer and stronger, is re- presented as smooth. The colours are not dark, the scales having much silvery lustre: they are shaded at the base with olive-green on the back, and with pale honey-yellow on the lower parts. M. Valenciennes mentions that he saw two paintings of this species in the library of Sir Joseph Banks, but I have been able to discover only one of these, and it is the only true Cy- prinus with barbels contained in the collection named *Icones Piscium 24, &c.’ The figure is 10 inches long and 383 inches high, and its pectoral fin has been omitted. The name of nigro- auratus is not characteristic either of this drawing or of Mr. Reeves’s, which show much more lively colours than M. Lacépéde describes, as M. Valenciennes has remarked. But for the observation of the latter naturalist, who has examined the Chinese drawings on which M. La- cépéde’s species are founded, I should have been inclined to quote Mr. Reeves’s darkest draw- ing, our atro-virens, as corresponding best with the epithet nigro-auratus. Hab. Canton. CyPRINUS SCULPONEATUS, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 120; Hardw. Malac. 8. Chinese name, Keth le (Birch); “Clog or Wooden-shoe carp ” (Reeves); Kik li (Bridgem. Chrest.21). Length of figure 83 inches, This species differs from the preceding ones in form, the dorsal being more flatly arched and the belly more prominent, with a considerable upward slope behind to join the trunk of the tail. The height of the body is contained thrice and one-half, and the length of the head four times and a quarter in the whole length. The lateral line, which is considerably de- curved, but does not descend beyond the middle height, is traced on twenty-nine scales. The barbels are rather short. The dorsal commences over the first ventral ray, and the greater part of the anal is posterior to its termination. The rays shown in the figure are D. 2|17 or 18; A. 2|5. The spines are serrated and shorter than the soft rays. A valve is shown be- tween the nostrils. The scales have much silvery Instre, and are almost wholly nacry below the lateral line ; but the back is tinted with leek-green, which deepens into blackish-green at the base of the scales and forms spots. The edges of the upper scales are also darker leek-green, and the top of the head is of the same colour, There are carmine tints on the lips and tips of the anal and caudal. The pectoral, dorsal and caudal, are leek-green, the ventrals and anal very pale ochre, , Hab. Canton, Obs. The seven species noticed above seem all to be true Cyprini, allied to the common carp of Europe; and their existence in the Chinese waters shows a marked difference between the ichthyology of that country and of India, which does not appear to possess any member of this group. The Cyprinus semiplotus of M‘Clelland is indeed introduced among the true carps with barbels in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ ; but this would appear to be from inadvertence, as the figure in the ‘ Asiatic Researches’ (19. pl. 37. f. 2), and * On first looking at the figure only the barbels which hang from the corners of the mouth are seen; but on examining more narrowly, we may perceive that the painter has drawn the upper barbels lying close to the maxillary. ira ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 291 ‘Mr. M‘Clelland’s character of his genus Cyprinus both indicate that it does not possess these appendages ; and no serratures are shown on the dorsal cr anal spines. Cyprinus? rossicoLa, Gray (Mursa), Cat. Br. Mus. Icon. Reeves, a. 40; _Hardw. Malac. 11. Chinese name, Hang le, “Ditch carp” (Birch) ; Kang he, “ Ditch carp” (Reeves). Length of figure 8 inches. This fish has two moderate-sized barbels issuing from behind the middle of the lip and none from the corner of the mouth, and on that account I should have placed it in the genus Ro- hita of M. Valenciennes, which had previously received the appellation of Nandina from Mr. Gray, both authors deriving their generic name from one of Buchanan Hamilton’s species. Mr. Reeves’s drawing, however, does not indicate that development of the upper lip, nor the fringes that characterise Rohita; and it is probably on this account that Mr. Gray, in the analysis that he had commenced of these drawings, bestowed on this one another generic epithet as above quoted. In the uncertainty which exists respecting the true characters of this species, I have preferred noticing it under the general appellation of Cyprinus. In the extent of the dorsal it resembles the Cyprinus nandina of Buchanan Hamilton, or the Cirrhinus macronotus of M‘Clelland, but it differs much from that fish in its profile. The back forms a very flat elliptical curve, and there is a considerable gibbous descent at the shoulder to meet the facial line, which would be a straight slope, were it not that a slight rising of the thin snout gives it a small degree of concavity. The mouth is terminal, and the lower jaw is very little shorter than the upper one. The head is exactly a fourth of the length of the fish, and the height of the body somewhat exceeds a third of the length. The eye is rather small, and is equidistant from the mouth and gill-opening. The nostrils are not drawn with an elevated border. The lateral line is considerably decurved, descending over the ven- trals below the middle height, but running through the middle of the tail. It is traced on only twenty-five scales. A few short streaks radiate from the anterior superior corner of the operculum. The dorsal, which is highest anteriorly and has a straight edge, begins before the ventrals, over the last fifth of the pectorals, and approaches almost as near to the cau- dal as the anal does. Its first two rays are drawn as stout and spinous, standing up stiffly, from the others: they are not denticulated. The anterior anal rays are nearly similar, The numbers shown by the artist are D. 2|20; A. 2|5, &c. The scales are mostly silvery, with a pale mountain-green tint towards the base ofeach. This tint covers more of the disc towards the back, and most of the upper scales are also edged with the same. There is a crimson tint on the top of the head, and a faint blush of the same runs along the side above the lateral line. The lips are carmine, and the pectorals, anal and caudal, are carmine at the base, mixed with buff towards their borders, the extreme edge of the caudal being mountain-greén. The dorsal is celandine-green with carmine rays, and the ventrals bluish-gray, also with car- mine rays. Hab, Canton. (Cyprini non cirrhati :—Cyprinopsis, Fitzinger ; Carassius, Nilsson.) CypRINUS LINEATUS, C. et V. xvi. p. 96. Hab. Macao. Cyprinus CARAssSIOIDES, Gray, Cat. Br. Mus. Icon. Reeves, 126; Hardw. Malac. 12. Chinese name, Keith yu, “ Shoe fish” (Reeves, Birch); Aik u (Bridgem. Chrest.21). Length of figure 9 inches. This drawing represents a fish having nearly the same profile with C. acuminatus, being merely a little higher and wanting the transverse furrow on the snout as well as the barbels. The dorsal, which is high in front with an even edge, begins over the middle of the ventrals and terminates opposite to the middle of the anal. The anal spine is thick and as long as the soft rays; the dorsal one is shorter ; both are serrated: The numbers shown are D. 2]185 A. 2|5, &c. Lateral line straight and traced on twenty-eight scales. No streaks on the oper- culum. The scules are brightly silvery, shaded gradually from their bases with greenish-gray above the lateral line, and with faint sulphur-yellow lower on the sides and belly. The edges of the opercular pieces and of the humeral chain are also sulphur-yellow. The fins have ash- gray edges, and are tinged with aurora-red towards their bases. The dorsal has a soiled hya-. ' cinth-red bar along its base, and another more distinct along its middle. The eye-brow. is | flax-flower blue. Hab. Canton. u2 1s 292 REPORT—1845.. — WT “O° Cyprinus (CARASSIUS) BURGERI, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. Rad. D.3{15 ; A. 3|5; C.19%; P.17; V.9. (Spec. Br. Mus.) The specimen in the British Museum is four inches long, and is named by the authors of the ‘ Fauna Japonica.’ It may possibly be the same with the preceding, which it resembles in outline, but it has fewer dorsal rays. There are thirty-one scales bearing tubes on the lateral line, and twelve rows in the height of the fish. It seems to have been a paler fish than the following species. Hab. Japan. CypRINUS GIBELIOIDES, Cantor, Ann. Nat. Hist. ix. p. 29. Icon. Reeves, 123 ; Hardw. Malac.10. Chinese name, 7’sih* yu (Birch); Tsth u, “ Pattern carp” (Reeves). Rad. B.3; D.4|17; A. 3|6; C.182; P.18; V.9. As M. Valenciennes compares C. langsdorfii to gibelio, it is possible that Dr. Cantor’s fish may be the same. Several of Dr. Cantor’s specimens have reached the British Museum through the India House, one of them labelled C. nigrescens, which was probably merely a provisional name, and changed when Dr. Cantor drew up his paper. In form the fish is re- gular and ratherelegant. Its face is convex, and the shoulder ascends in a gentle arch to the dorsal. The head makes rather less than a fourth part of the length of the whole fish; the height of the body is contained three times and a quarter in the length, and the thickness rather more than seven times, or twice and one-third in the height. The mouth is small, not being cleft as far as the nostrils. The symphysis of the lower jaw rises in the form of a minute obtuse point. The lateral line is straight or very slightly decurved, and is traced on twenty-seven scales. There are thirteen rows of scales in the height : each scale is marked on the disc by streaks radiating from the centre. The dorsal commences over the ventrals and extends back to the middle of the short anal. It has four spines, of which the two anterior ones are very minute: the fourth one is strongly toothed behind, and its flexible tip is also toothed. The same is the case with the third anal spine. The posterior pair of soft rays in both fins are approximated at the base. The colour on the back is greenish-gray, deepening at the base of the scales to blackish-gray, becoming lighter inferiorly and changing to an ochraceous tint on the breast. The fins are greenish or blackish-gray, of different degrees of intensity, and their edges when folded are blackish. The pectoral and anal fins are red on their fore-edges. The figure is 74 inches long; the smallest specimen only 23 inches. Hab. Canton. Chusan. Cyprinus (cARASSIUS) CUVIERI, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. ad. D. 3|18 ; A. 3|5; C. 198; P.17; A.9. (Jap. Spec. Br. Mus. length 4 inches.) This is much like gibelioides, and may prove to be the same, in which case Dr. Cantor’s name has the priority. It seems rather more slender, and has a shorter and more delicate pectoral. Hab. Japan. Cyprinus LANGsDoRFII, C. et V. xvi. p. 99. The ‘Icones Piscium 24 a pictore Sinensi,’ &c., include three figures which may belong to this species, if they are not referable to the gébelioides of Cantor. They have the lobes of the caudal and the sinus between them much more obtuse than those of gibelioides, or of Reeves’s figure 123, and apparently the large suborbitar of langsdorfii. Their lengths are 6 inches, 54 and 3 inches respectively. Hab. Japan. CyPRINUS THORACATUs, C. et V. xvi. p. 97. M. Valenciennes refers to this species a Japanese painting of a fish whose Chinese name is tsi, but this is a generic appellation apparently equivalent to Carassius. Hab. Mauritius (and Japan ?). CypRINUS ABBREVIATUS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 124; Hardw. Malac. 13. Chinese name, Sih hith tséih { (Birch) ; Suh kwut sih, “ Contracted bone carp” (Reeves) ; Shuk kwat tsik (Bridgem. Chrest. 20). Length of drawing 7% inches. * Tsth is one of the names of the cuttle fish. + The teeth of the spines are omitted in the figure, t “The fish which has the power of raising and depressing, or rather puckering its bone.” ae ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS.OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 293 _ © This’ species has a short, high body, with a peculiarly short trunk of the tail.. The length of the head is contained four times and a sixth in the total length, and the height of the body twice anda half. The profile of the back is very slightly arched, so that it is almost parallel ‘to the straight belly, and the descent to the mouth is mostly from the nape and is pretty steep. There is also a considerable ascent from the breast to the mouth, which is terminal, but with ‘the lower jaw a little longer than the upperone. A small conical eminence is represented on the snout immediately before the nostrils. The eye is rather small and is about twice as far from the gill-opening as from the tip of the snout. The cheek appears from the drawing to be covered by the preorbitar, like that of ¢horacatus, and the whole surface of the operculum is streaked. The lateral line is perfectly straight and is traced on twenty-three scales only. The dorsal commences over the front of the ventrals and approaches as near to the caudal as the anal does. The latter fin has the same direction with the caudal, being attached to a ver- tical inflection of the under profile. The spines of the dorsal and anal are shorter than the soft rays. The figure shows. D. 2|18; A. 2|5, &c. The scales are silvery with bluish- or blackish-gray bases, deeper towards the back, but very pale towards the belly. The top of the head is dark greenish-gray, and the shoulders brownish. The edges of the gill-pieces and the throat are straw-yellow. The fins are green- ish-gray with a slightly brownish tinge on the lower part of the dorsal. Hab. Canton. CypRINUS AURATUS, Lin. BI. 93 et 410; C. et V. xvi. Jcon. Reeves, 121 and a sheet representing 7 varieties; Hardw. Malac. 9; Descript. of Ani- mals, p. 203. f.213. Chinese name, Kin tsih (Birch) ; Kan tseth, “Golden carp” (Reeves); Kam tsik (Bridgem. Chrest. 22). Figure 121 Reeves appears to be the fish in its natural or uncultivated state. Its colours are pure hyacinth-red, with silvery borders to the scales and saffron-yellow edges to the gill- pieces. The pectoral, dorsal and caudal are hyacinth-red with a pale bluish-gray border to the latter. The scaly base of the pectoral is purple and lilac, the rays of the anal are yellow and those of the ventral red. The most brilliant of the cultivated varieties represented in Mr. Reeves’s drawings are vermilion and arterial blood-red, picked off with bright gold-yel- low. Others have the scales shaded with Berlin- and flax-flower-blue, and are marked with large vermilion patches. One is wholly bronze-coloured, the colour being deepest along the back. All the cultivated varieties have an elevated edge or valve between the nostrils, which is not shown in figure 121, and also the triple caudal: one of them has a double anal; three of them have dorsals but of different sizes, and four of them want the dorsals entirely. One of them has very large eyes, and two or three of them eyes sustained on a telescopic pedestal. Hab. “The Province of Tche kiang from latitude 27° 12’ N. to 31° 10’ N.” (Hist. des Poiss. p. 105.) Among the ‘ Icones Piscium 24 a pictore Sinensi,’ &c., one figure measuring 8} inches in length and nearly 2 inches in height, and belonging to the group of Carassius, has no repre- sentative in Mr. Reeves’s portfolio. The dorsal and anal are acute, and the caudal very much so; the lateral line straight and a little below the mid-height, and traced on thirty-four scales. Colour mountain-green, with metallic lustre on the back, replaced below the middle of the sides by a silvery tint. Upper fins coloured like the back, lower ones pale. M. Valenciennes, at p. 101 of the 16th volume of the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ mentions two drawings in the Banksian library, one of which may be the figure here noticed, and the other perhaps one of the three paintings which we have alluded to above under the head of Cyprinus langsdorfii. Capro#TA RHOMBEA, Temm. et Schl. F.J. Sieb. Rad. D. 14; A.12; C. 193; P.17; V. 8. (Spec. Brit. Mus. 37 inches long.) Lateral line straight a little below the middle, traced on thirty-nine scales: ten rows of scales on the height of the body. First two rays of dorsal and anal jointed, but incumbent on the base of the third one. Hab. Japan. CApoETA LimBaTaA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. Rad. D.10; A. 12; C. 192; P.13; V. 8. (Spec. Brit. Mus.) _ Lateral line decurved:in the middle to the lower third of the height and traced on thirty- three or thirty-four scales. The part of the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ relating to this fish and the preceding one is not yet published. at Hab. Japan, 294 REPORT—1845. -ETRMO BARBUS DEAURATUS, C. et V. xvi. p. 188; Icon. Reeves, 154; Hardw. Malac. 96. Chinese name, Kea yu (Birch); “ Excellent yu” (Reeves) ; Ka u (Bridgem. Chrest. 6). Length of the drawing 10} inches. Colour of the body a rich golden-yellow, faintly reticulated and changing to silver on the belly. Back marked by six or seven large blotches of umber-brown, which are partly con- fluent behind the dorsal. Head purplish-red and crimson on the upper half, rest whitish. Tip of the gill-flap sap-green. The basal half of the caudal is pale gall-stone yellow: the other fins have yellowish rays, and their membranes more or less deeply shaded by blackish- gray. Front rays of the anal and pectoral and also the axilla of the latter crimson. Hab. Canton. Cochin China. ABRAMIS BRAMULA, C. et V. xvi. p. 357, fide figure inter Icon. Piscium 94 a pictore Sinensi Cantoni pictas, Bib. Banks; Icon. Reeves, 108; Hardw. Malac. 16. Chinese name, Peen yu, “ Side fish” (Birch); Peen yu, “Flat fish” (Reeves); Pin u (Bridgem. Chrest.9). Length of draw- ing 19 inches. Height 6 inches. Length of head 35 inches. Genus Rhodeus? Agassiz. This species is partly rhomboidal in form, the very strong, round and slightly curved dor- sal spine crowning the superior angle. The slope is straight from thence to near the base of the caudal, but anteriorly it is moderately convex to the nape, where the depression or hori- zontality of the facial line gives a considerable concavity to the profile. The posterior under- side of the rhomb is shorter than the upper one and is wholly occupied by the anal. The under angle of the rhomb is wanting, the belly being straight from the’anus to the pectoral, where the outline again ascends. The height to the apex of the rhomb is equal to nearly a third of the whole length of the fish. The very obtuse lower jaw is a little shorter than the thickish upper one, yet the mouth is terminal. Eye large, a little above mid-height and much nearer to the end of the snout than to the gill-opening. The triangular dorsal commences behind the ventrals and ends opposite to the anus. Its height is equal to half that of the body and much exceeds that of its base. The rays shown in the drawing are D. 2/6, the strong second spine being a little shorter than the adjoining branched ray, and the last ray divided to the base. A. 1|29: the spine strong. Caudal deeply forked. Lateral line traced on forty- one scales, decidedly below the middle height and very slightly decurved. Scales large, very silvery, and on the back faintly oil-green with a well-defined rectangular or crescentic olive or blackish-green spot on the base of each. From the lateral line downwards these spots are replaced by light pearl-gray shadings. The temples and edges of the gill-plates are buff and saffron-yellow ; the top of the head hair-brown ; and the end of the nose and centre of the operculum bluish- or greenish-gray. Upper half of the operculum reddish-brown ; lower half pale yellow. Dorsal clove-brown with a broad bluish-gray border. Anal greenish-gray at the base and bluish-gray on the border. Caudal blackish-gray with a crimson base. Ventrals pale with bluish-gray rays. Hab. Canton. ABRAMIS TERMINALIS, Richardson; Zcon. Reeves, 80; Hardw. Malae. 15. Chinese name, Peen yu, “ Border fish” (Reeves); Pinu (Bridgem. Chrest. 10). Length of drawing 9 inches. Height of body 3. Length of head 1°63 inch. Genus Rhodeus?, Agass. This fish has the rhomboidal form of the preceding species; but the profile of the very small head, instead of being almost horizontal, forms part of the anterior face of the rhomb. The dorsal spine is strong and tall, being equal to two-thirds of the height; but the anal spine is represented as slender. D. 2|7; A. 1|20. Dorsal placed as in the preceding species, its base little exceeding half its height. Caudal deeply forked with very acute lobes. Eye large ; snout acute; mouth small. Lips thin, but drawn as if both upper and under one were double. Thescales appear to be very delicate andnacry ; about fifty-eight are represented as forming the lateral line, which is conspicuously decurved from the middle of the pectoral to the middle of the anal. The scales are shaded with greenish-gray on the back and are pearly on the sides without spots, the resulting general tint being pale. Opercular pieces and eye bordered with oil-green, and there are some reddish tints on the snout and round the gill-opening, The fins yellowish-gray and greenish-gray. Hab. Canton. ABRAMIS RHOMBOIDALIS, C. et V. xvii. p. '78 (Leuciscus). M. Valenciennes describes this species from a Chinese painting, and it appears from his as ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 295 account of it to have much resemblance to one of the preceding two, but it differs from them both in having a gibbous forehead, in the lateral line traversing the body at mid-height and in the greater number of its anal rays, Hab. China. Leuciscus CHEVANELLA, C. et V. xvii. p. 358. Hab. China. Levciscus moxirrix, C. et V. xvii. p. 360; LZ. hypophthalmus, Gray, Cat. Br. Mus.; Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 139. pl. 63. f. 1; Zeon. Reeves, a.54; Hardw. Malac. 34. Chinese name, Peen yu, “ Broad fish” (Reeves, Birch). Genus Aspius?, Agassiz. A specimen was presented by Mr. Reeves to the British Museum. Having omitted to de- scribe the colouring in the ‘ Ichthyology of the Sulphur,’ I may here state that in Mr. Reeves’s drawing the top of the head is represented of a deep olive-green colour, and that a fainter tint of the same extends along the back, but is glossed with much brassy lustre. Immediately above the lateral line there is a dilute tinge of crimson, and all the under parts are pearl-gray and brightly silvery. The cheeks are silvery. The under lip deep rose-red, and the gill- cover and membrane are washed with the same. The rays of all the fins are more or less brightly crimson, and the membranes, which vary from dark greenish-gray to blackish-gray, are glossed with crimson on the under fins. This tint is richest on the pectorals, and there are also orange colours between the rays of these fins. Since this fish was figured and described in the ‘ Ichthyology of the Voyage of the Sulphur’ under the specific name given to it by Mr. Gray, I have ascertained by consulting the ‘ Icones Piscium 24 a pictore Sinensi Cantoni eleganter pictz,’ that it is the LZ. molitria of M. Valen- ciennes. The drawing in the work just quoted measures 11 inches, Hab, Canton. : Leuciscus nositis, Gray, Cat. Br. Mus.; Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p. 140. pl. 63. f. 3; Icon. Reeves, 134; Hardw. Malac.33. Chi- nese name, Tsing yu, “ Eminent fish” (Reeves). Genus Aspius, Agassiz. Mr. Reeves has deposited a specimen of this fish also in the British Museum. The brassy hue of the scales of this and the preceding species draws attention to the names cupreus and @neus given by M. Valenciennes to two Chinese Leucisc?, but the few particulars of form ‘which he has recorded do not correspond, and had the drawings he comments upon repre- sented either hypophthalmus or nobilis, he could not have failed to remark the unusual de- pression of the eyes into the curve of the preoperculum. In fact both extremities of the sub- orbitar chain rise above the level of the eye, as they do also, though in a less degree, in L. jeselia and some other species. Hab. Canton. Leuciscus rosetta, C. et V. xvi. p. 356. Length of figure 103 inches, the head one-third of the length. L. nobilis is the only Leuciscus represented by Mr. Reeves’s drawings which has so large a head as rosetia; and in nobilis the head equals the third of the length only when the caudal is excluded. There is no drawing of this species among the ‘Icones Piscium 24 a pictore Sinensi,’ &c. Hab. China. Levuctscus rEcuRVICcEPS, Richardson. Jeon. Reeves, 149; Hardw. Malac. 14. Chinese name, Yaou hing, “ Stiff necked” (Birch) ; Kew too, “ Hooked head” (Reeves). Length of figure from mouth 15 inches. Height of body $3. Length of head 3. Genus Aspius, Agassiz. This fish is remarkable for the face being inclined upwards by a sudden curvature over the temples like the profile of a pug-dog. The nape rises in a short arc, but the dorsal line is only slightly convex, while the belly is considerably more curved, and the tail behind the anal isslender. The head, excluding the lower jaw, is one-fifth of the length of the fish; and the height of the body is a little more. The drawing represents a convex keel between the ven- trals and anus. The cleft of the mouth is vertical, with a curve towards its angle; and the lower jaw, which forms the anterior end of the head, is dilated and apparently naked, like that of Aspius mento and mazillaris. The large eye is equal in diameter to a fourth part of the length of the head, and is situated one diameter behind the mouth, The lateral line is decurved at its commencement, and makes a sudden Short bend downwards under the dorsal, after which it ascends very gently in a straight line till it has passed some way beyond the 296 UY WEPORTAH1845, yoo rovierio! are anal, and then runs straight for the short remaining space to the caudal. Scales small, there being about sixty-eight rows represented between the gill-opening and caudal. Dorsal having a height in front of twice the length of its base, acute and placed over the middle space be- tween the ventrals and anal. Its second ray is represented as strong, round and curved like that of a Rhodius, and the first one as slender, but only a third part shorter. Anus behind the middle, ventrals well forward, and the pectorals triangular and acute. D. 2|6; last di- vided to base; A. 31. Caudal forked. The scales have silvery discs, and are shaded at the base with greenish-gray on the back; on the upper part of the sides with very pale buff or ochre-yellow ; and below the lateral line with pearl-gray, the whole being very bright, except on the summit of the back, where the gray spreads over the entire discs of the scales. Dorsal the colour of the back, with a brownish tint on the rays. Pectoral, ventrals and anal colour- less on the outer halves, and yellowish-brown at the base. In the anal the brown is confined to the fore part of the fin. The caudal is tinged with darker yellowish-brown at the base, and is bluish-gray on the posterior half. Hab. Canton. LevuciIscus MOLITORELLA, C. et V. xvii. p. 359; Jeon. Reeves, 110; Hardw. Malaec. 22. Chinese name, Joo ling*, “ Land carp” (Birch); “Ground carp” (Reeves); Zo ling (Bridgem. Chrest.33). Length of drawing 134 inches. Height of body 3°1 inches. Length of head 2:15. Genus Aspius?, Agassiz. This drawing has all the characters recorded by M. Valenciennes of molitorella, except that the caudal has longer and more pointed lobes than other Leucisci represented in Mr. Reeves’s drawings, while this fin is said in the molitorella to have the lobes rounded and little length- ened. I have not however thought it advisable to keep it distinct merely because of this dis- crepancy. In the drawing the snout projects beyond the mouth, which is small, with the lower jaw shutting close up. Its dorsal is large, triangular, and as high in front as the body, with a base nearly as long as its height. The ventrals are attached beneath its middle. The anal is nearer to the caudal than to the ventrals. The rays are D. 12 or 13; A. 7. The summit of the back is olive-green, with a quadrangular spot at the base of each scale of dark duck-green approaching to blackish-green. These spots disappear above the lateral line, which is nearly straight, and give place to a pale shading of bluish-green, which is re- placed on the belly by cream-yellow, the discs of the scales being mostly silvery. About twelve of the scales immediately above the pectoral fin are bordered with china-blue, their discs remaining silvery, and thus producing a reticulated rhomboidal spot. The dorsal, ventrals: and anal are very pale mountain-green and transparent ; the first being oil-green at the base, and the two latter tipped with peach-blossom red. The caudal has greenish rays and roseate tints with a bluish-gray edge; and the rays of the pectoral are also greenish with a faintly roseate membrane. The sides of the head are silvery, shaded with green and glossed by some rose-coloured and lilac tints. Hab. Canton. LEvuciIscus FINTELLA, C. et V. xvii. p. 356. Hab. China. ‘Leuciscus nemistietus, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 133; Hardw. Malac. 26. Chinese name, Zsing yu (Reeves, Birch). Length of figure 144 inches. L. fintella is represented as being thrice as long as it is high; but in the figure of hemi- stictus the height is contained four times and a half in the length, and the head five times. It has a general resemblance to the Barilius goha of Buchanan Hamilton, p. 385 (Hardw. Malac. 36 and 53; Opsarius gracilis, M‘Clelland, 47. f. 1), but it wants the spots on the head, and the dots on the body are blacker and more regular. The profile of hemistictus is symmetrically fusiform. The head is a slender cone with a bluntish apex; and the lower jaw, which is shorter than the upper one, is represented as shutting as it were partly within it. The dorsal commences a little before the ventrals, which are attached in the middle of the length, caudal excluded, and the vent terminates the third quarter of the same distance. No streaks on the gill-cover. Scales large, smooth and nacry, thirty-eight in a longitudinal row and eight or nine in height. The lateral line is evenly decurved and runs beneath mid-height till it passes the anal, after which it runs straight in the middle of the tail. Back olive-green with a nar- row border of paler oil-green to the posterior edge of each scale, and a well-defined round spot of blackish-green or greenish-black on the base, making six rows in the middle of the * Ling is ‘a kind of carp,” “a fish resembling a carp.” ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 297 body, all of them above the lateral line, but only four on the trunk of the tail; one of them below the lateral line. The, discs of the scales are more silvery on the sides, and beneath the lateral line they are faintly shaded at the base with pearl-gray, and have neither spots nor coloured borders. Head greenish above, glossed with crimson on the snout, temples and oper- culum, and silvery with yellow shadings beneath. Dorsal yellowish-gray. Pectorals greenish at the base and cream-yellow elsewhere. Anal and ventrals pale cream-yellow with ochraceous rays. Caudal dark blackish-gray. Iris silvery with a patch of orpiment-orange. Hab. Canton. Lervciscus MAcHmRIoIwES, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 111. Hardw. Ma- lac. Chinese name, Lan taou, “ Rope-knife” (Birch) ; Lan tow (Reeves). Length of figure 7i inches. Height14inch. Genus Chela?, Buch. Ham. Pelecus?, Agassiz. The shading of the drawing seems to indicate that the belly of this fish is acute from the middle of the pectorals to the anus. Its back is very flatly arched, the nearly horizontal face forming part of the curve, which is much inferior in convexity to the belly. The height of the body is about equal to the seventh of the length, of which the head forms less than an eighth part. The scales seem to be small and delicate, and the lateral line descends at its commencement in a short arc to the lower quarter of the height, and then runs horizontally from the last quarter of the anus, where it rises parallel to the curve of the attachment of the anal fin, and again resumes its horizontal direction when it has reached the middle of the tail. The dorsal commences a little behind the front of the ventrals or in the middle of the length, caudal excluded. It is taller than the anal, and equals it in the length of its base. The ~ caudal is forked. The very silvery scales are shaded at the bases with leek-green on the back and light pearl- gray on the belly. The fins are pale mountain-green, transparent and without spots, except the pectoral, which is asparagus-green with a blackish spot on its inferior angle, near the base. There are some greenish-yellow shadings on the head. Hab. Canton. Levciscus acutus, Broussonnet MSS. in Descript. of Anim. p. 205. fig. 194 (Cyprinus). Leuc. acutirostris, Gray, Cat. Br. Mus. Icon. Reeves, a. 42; Hardw. Malac. 29. Chinese name, Leen taou (Birch) ; Leen tou, « Sickle or reaping-knife” (Reeves). Length of figure 7°35 inches. Height _ of body 1°85 inch. Length of head 1:35 inch. This figure has considerable resemblance to L. macherioides, and the curvature of the lateral line is the same, but it has a straighter back, a more convex belly, higher body, and a longer and lower anal. The head is equally slender, the snout and lower jaw more acute, and the eye larger. The triangular and acute dorsal commences opposite to the axilla of the ven- trals. The pectorals are very acute and the anal reaches near to the caudal. The rays shown in Mr. Reeves’s figure are D. 8; A. 15. In the ‘ Descr. of Animals’ they are noted as D. 8; A. 14; C.18; P. 15; V.8. About thirty-four scales exist in a longitudinal row, and there are ten or eleven rows in the height. Colour of the back pale and pure wood-brown with seven pale crimson, longitudinal streaks in the whole height, corresponding with the rows of scales. Below the middle height the scales are shaded with pearl-gray. ‘The caudal is pistachio-green, the dorsal, anal and pec- torals ash-gray, with a blotch of rich carmine on the base and first ray of the dorsal, and a slight blush of the same on the base of the ventrals, the first anal ray, and all the pectoral rays. _ Hab. Canton, Leuciscus IDELLA, C. et V. xvii. p. 362. Icon. Reeves, 122; Hardw. Malac. 23. Chinese name, Hwan yu, “Hwan fish” (Birch); Hwan u, “Strong carp” (Reeves). Length of figure 171 inches. Jcon. Piscium a pictore Sinensi 24, &c., drawing 144 inches long. Rad. D.9; A.9; C.198; P.19; V.8, omnes articulati. (Spec. Br. Mus.) Genus Aspius?, Agassiz. _An Idus?, Heckel. »A-specimen deposited in the British Museum by John Reeves, Esq. measures fourteen inches in length. . Itis fusiform, with a thickish tail and rather acute snout, perfectly well represented by Mr. Reeves’s drawing. The stoutish upper jaw projects beyond the lower one; and cuives slightly over it, but'the rictus of the mouth is not large and does not reach _ backwards to the nostrils. Operculum finely streaked. The eye is rather above the middle height of the head, and the furrowed preorbitar and temporal extremity of the suborbitar tubes rise above its level, The maxillary touches the corner of the mouth, but scarcely forms * ' . a n, 298 — REPORT—1845. toy Fier ve part of the upper lip. It is semi-lanceolate with a straight fore-edge. The lateral line de+ scends a little at its commencement, and when opposite to the acute tip of the pectoral, takes a straight course along the middle of the height to the tail. It is traced on thirty-six scales, and there are nine rows of scales in the height of the body, of which five are above the lateral line. The dorsal commences a little before the middle of the length, caudal excluded, and its height, which is equal to two-thirds of the height of the body, measures almost twice the length of its base. The last ray being comparatively longer and the corners of the fin rounded, it has not the triangular form of the dorsal of many of the other Leucisci. The front of the ventrals is under the middle of the dorsal, and the anal is midway between them and the caudal. The large discs of the scales, down to a row beneath the lateral line, have an uniform oil- green tint with much lustre, and are surrounded by a defined border of deep duck-green, pro- ducing hexagonal reticulations. Lower down, the discs of the scales are silvery, and the meshes that enclose them pass into ochre- and cream-yellows. The base of the pectoral and scales before that fin have a red-lilac tint, and the head corresponds in colour with the body, being green above and ochraceous or cream-coloured below. There is a little blue around the eye and on the upper corner of the operculum. The pectorals are green, with a brownish gloss; the ventrals buff-coloured, and the other fins dark greenish-gray, the rays of the caudal being dark green. In the figure belonging to the collection in the Banksian library quoted by M. Valenciennes, the bases of the scales are darker than the borders, but the drawings are otherwise so much alike as to occasion little doubt of their being representatives of the same species. Hab. Canton. Leuciscus piceus, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 153; Hardw. Malac. 24. Chinese name, Hih hwan, “ Black hwan fish” (Birch); Hih wan, “ Black —” (Reeves); Hak wan (Bridgem. Chrest. 233). Length of the figure 153 inches. Height of body 3 inches. Length of head 33 inches. This fish is elongated like idelia, but is rather less symmetrical, has even a thicker tail, more obtusely-forked caudal, and more unevenness in the profile of the head and shoulders. The mouth is similarly formed, the eye in the same position, and the fins similar in place and form. Thescales are smaller but appear to be equally strong, and the lateral line as distinctly marked by an elevated straight tube on each scale. It runs very nearly straight, or with a slight general decurvature along the middle of the fish. The fins are taller than those of jesella, the dorsal being equal in height to the body, and the anal not very much lower. All the fins are obtuse. The operculum and supra-scapulars are furrowed. General colour pitchy or blackish-brown, deepest on the back, and gradually changing on the belly to bluish-gray. The scales are not enclosed in a dark mesh-work like those of jesella, but are darkest on the fore-edge, and grow gradually paler towards their bases. Head blackish-gray above, beneath white. There is a greenish tint on the breast and a tinge of crimson along the edge of the belly. All the fins are blackish-gray, deepening to black to- wards the edges, and their rays are whitish at the base. There are forty-three scales on the lateral line, and ten or eleven rows in height. The rays shown are D. 9; A. 10, &c. Hab. Canton. LEuciscus coREENSIS, C. et V. xvii. p. 355. Hab. Japan. Corea. Leuciscus JESELLA, C. et V. xvii. p. 360. Hab. Canton. Levuciscus xANTHURUS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 112; Hardw. Malac. 25. Chinese name, Hwang we ling, “ Yellow-tailed carp” (Birch); Hwang ne ling (Reeves); Wong mi ling (Bridgem. Chrest. 30). Length of figure 11 inches. Height of body nearly 3 inches. Length of head 1:8 inch. Genus Aspius ?, Agassiz. This figure represents a fish with an elevated back rising to a point at the beginning of the dorsal. The anterior slope is varied by a moderate gibbosity of the nape, but the posterior one runs in a perfectly straight, obliquely-descending line to the caudal fin. Belly most pro- minent under the middle of the pectorals, sloping suddenly up to the throat and very gradually to the caudal. Head small. Eye large and low in the cheek. Snout full and apparently fleshy, projecting beyond the lower jaw, which shuts up beneath it. Pectorals small, acute. The dorsal commences in the middle of the distance between the top of the snout and base of the caudal, and its second ray is represented as stout, round, and acute, like that of a Rhodeus, * the third one being also simple, but more slender and shorter. D. 3|6, last divided to base ; ] ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 299 A. 11, &c. The front of the ventrals is rather before the dorsal: the anal is small, the caudal deeply forked with thickish lobes. The lateral line is a little decurved over the pectoral, and then takes a straight course below the middle of the height to the caudal. It is traced on about forty-eight scales, which are consequently rather small, fourteen or fifteen rows are re- presented in the height. The colour of the back is pure oil-green, the silvery borders of the scales increasing in breadth on the flanks, the green is confined to a slight tinge on the base of each, and on the belly it is replaced by pearl-gray. Caudal saffron-yellow with a bluish-gray border. The top of the head is coloured like the back, the snout and under jaw are crimson, the temples mountain-green, and the operculum purple, The dorsal is pale buff with the third ray crimson, and there are crimson tints on the bases of the inferior fins; the front of the anal being yel- lowish-green, All the inferior fins appear to be transparent. Hab. Canton. Levciscus samsusA, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p. 141. pl. 63. f.2. Icon. Reeves, 286 ; Hardw. Malac. 32. Chinese name, Chih nuy yu, “Bamboo spoilt fish” (Birch). (An Chela, Ham. Buch.? Pelecus, Agassiz ?) A specimen was presented to the British Museum by John Reeves, Esq. which measures seventeen inches in length. Not having seen Mr. Reeves’s drawing of this species until after the publication of the ‘ Ichthyology of the Voyage of the Sulphur,’ the colours of the recent fish were not therein described. They are pale chestnut-brown on the back with silvery discs to the scales, and a gradual passage into greenish-gray on the belly. The jaws, pectorals, lower fins, and under lobe of the caudal are ochre-yellow; the upper lobe of the caudal the same, with a greenish tinge, and the dorsal greenish-blue. There are also some blushes of carmine at the bases of the ventrals and caudal. This Zeuciscus is remarkable for the size and soli- dity of the intermaxillaries, and for the conical process which rises from the symphysis of the lower jaw, as well as for its slender form. Hab. Canton. LeEuciscus curRIcULUS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 141; Hardw. Malac. 28. Chinese name, H7h shih wan, “ Stone-black barrow (Birch) ; “ Black-stone carriage” (Reeves); Hak shik wan (Bridgem. Chrest. 236). Rad. omnes articulati; D.8; A. 9; C.193; P.19; V.9. (Spec. Br. Mus. J. R. Reeves, Esq.) Length 83 inches. Height of body 1 inch. Thickness 0°95. Length of head 1:48 inch. Shape fusiform, with a conical head and narrow snout slightly longer than the lower jaw. The lateral line runs in the middle of the height, and has a gentle decurvature from end to end. It is traced on forty scales, and there are ten or eleven rows in the height. The height slightly surpasses the length of the head, and is contained five times and a half in the total length of the fish. The dorsal, narrow and less in height than the body, commences oppo- site to the front of the ventrals, which are in the middle of the length, caudal excluded. The pectorals are obtuse and do not reach the ventrals. The anal is short and similar to the dorsal. Caudal forked. Operculum striated. Colour of the back liver-brown, with greenish glosses and longitudinal streaks of darker brown. Beneath the lateral line the scales have much nacry lustre and a very pale roseate tint. There are some grass-green tints round the eye and on the operculum. The fins are dark olive or blackish-green, with crimson tints on the bases of all except the dorsal. | Hab, Canton. Leuciscus vANDELLA, C. et V. xvii. p.363. Icones Piscium 24 a pictore Sinensi, &c. (two figures on separate sheets). Judging from the drawings, this approaches closely to curriculus, but its caudal is more forked and the lateral line more bent down and in a different curve. Hab. Canton. Leuciscus PLENvS, Broussonnet MSS. in Descript. of Anim. p. 204. fig. 197 (Cyprinus). ‘This sketch most resembles L. curriculus (141 Reeves), but does not quite agree with it. “The head is oblong, somewhat depressed. Body oblong and roundish. Dorsal nearly in the middle. Tail bifid. Ventrals opposite to the posterior ray of the dorsal. Pectorals pointed. Lateral line convex downwards.” “D.8; A.11; C. 20; P.14; V.10.” A, foot long. | Hab. “ Canton river.” 300 REPORT—1845. OTFTOTHTHM HT UO Leuctscus curreus, C. et V. xvii. p. 361. Hab. China. Leruciscus Homospitotus, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, a. 20; Hardw. Ma- lac. 27. Chinese name, Hung yen seun, “ Red-eyed sprout” (Birch) ; Hung lang seun, “ Red-eyed? seun” (Reeves); Hung ngen sun (Bridgem. Chrest. 236). Length of figure 10 inches. Height of body 2-2 inches. Length of head 1-9 inch. Genus Aspius?, Agassiz. Alburnus?, Heckel. This fish has an elegant, symmetrical fusiform shape, the back rather less arched than the belly, the face nearly straight, and a very slight gibbosity at thenape. The head is slenderly conical with an obtuse snout, projecting a little beyond the lower jaw. The eye is nearly in the centre, between the tip of the snout and the gill-opening, and the nostrils are considerably before it. Dorsal rounded, commencing opposite the front of the ventrals. Anal short, mo- derately high. Caudal forked. Lateral line equally decurved to near the caudal, descending a little below the middle opposite to the ventrals, and traced on about thirty-five scales. There are nine rows in the height. D.9; A. 9 or 10, &c. Colour of the back pure wood-brown, with four or five streaks of the same through the rows of scales. The scales are shaded with pearl or ash-gray below the lateral line. Caudal leek- green. Dorsal, anal and ventrals mountain-green, with crimson tints on the rays. Pectorals crimson and asparagus-green. Upper quarter of the itis orpiment-orange, the rest silvery. There are a few black specks on the commencement of the lateral line, and three short rows of similar ones above it; the middle row being under the dorsal and the two others on the shoulder. Hab. Canton. Leuciscus £NEUS, C. et V. xvii. p. 361. Hab. China. Leuciscus TEMMINCKII, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. (unpubl.) Rad. D.9; A. 13; C.19%; P.13; V.9. (Spec. Brit. Mus. 2:4 inches long.) Lateral line decurved, principally in the pectoral region, to the lower quarter of the height. Forty-two scales ina row. A dark longitudinal stripe on the middle of the side. Lateral line lower than that of Z. homospilotus, which this fish resembles in profile. Hab. Japan. Leuciscus pLaAtypus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. (unpubl.) Rad. D. 9; A.12; C. 192; P.17; V.9. (Spec. Brit. Mus. 5 inches long.) Lateral line decurved to lower third of height. Forty-three scales ina row. Rays of the anal curiously compressed. Hab. Japan. Lruciscus Minor, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. (unpubl.) Rad. D. 9; A.11; C.198; P.15; V.9. (Spec. Brit. Mus. 32 inches long.) Lateral line decurved to the lower quarter of the height. ‘Thirty-nine scales in a row. Hab. Japan. CoBITIS ANGUILLICAUDATUS, Cantor, Ann. Nat. Hist. ix. p. 30. An. 1842; Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of the Sulph. p. 143. pl. 55. f.9, 10. C. pee- toralis, M‘Clelland, Cale. Journ. Nat. Hist. iv. p. 400. pl. 23. f. 3. An. 1844. C. erythropterus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. Icon. Reeves, 278 ; Hardw. Malac. 118 et 1]9. dupl. The British Museum and the India House are in possession of several of Dr, Cantor’s spe- cimens, and of a Japanese one named by the authors of the ‘ Fauna Japonica; five or six were presented by Sir Everard Home, Bart. to the College of Surgeons. _ Hab. Canton, Chusan. Yang tze kiang kew. CosiTis PSAMMISMUS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 145; Hardw. Malac. 120. Chinese name, Sha chuy, “Sand club” (Birch); Sha Chiuy, “Sand- needle” (Reeves) ; Sha chui (Bridgem. Chrest. 104). Length of drawing. we % inches. ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 301 In this drawing only four barbels are shown, and the ventrals are a little farther forward than in anguillicaudatus. The general colour of the body is umber-brown, pretty dark on the back, but paler and with silvery lustre on the sides. The fins arealso brown. A considerable number of oblong or roundish black spots are pretty equally scattered over the whole body, and there are more crowded round ones on all the fins except the ventrals. ‘Hab. Canton. CoBITIS HEMATOPTERUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. Rad. D.7; A. 5; C.1612; P.11; V.7. (Spec. Br. Mus. 52 inches long.) Hab. Japan. ‘ Fam. ScopeLintp#& (Miiller). SAuRUS NEHEREvS, Buchanan Hamilton ( Osmerus), Fish of Ganges, p. 209 ; Wana motta, Russell, 171. Salmo microps et Harpodon, Lesueur, Journ. Ac. Se. of Phil. v. pl. 3. f.1, 1a. Saurus ophiodon, Cuv. Régn. Anim. ii. p- 314; Descript. of Anim. p. 192. fig. 160 ; Icon. Reeves, a. 18 ; Hardw. Malac. 207 (et 208, 209, dr. of Osmerus nehereus of India). Chinese name, Kow too, “A dog vomiting” (Birch); Kou tza, “ Dogs’ guts” (Reeves) ; Kau to. u_(Bridgem. Chrest. 164). Rad. D.12; A. 15 (vel 13-14); C.172; P.9; V.9. (Spec. Coll. Surg.) The British Museum possesses a Canton specimen of this fish, presented by Mr. Reeves, and there are many in the museum of the College of Surgeons, which were sent from Woosung by Capt. Sir Everard Home, Bart., R.N. Mr. Reeves mentions that this is the species which is exported from Bombay in a dried state, and sold in London under the name of “ Bombay ducks.” In Mr. Reeves’s drawing, a long spinous-looking prolongation of the suboperculum is shown, which seems to have originated in some mistake of the artist, as there is no trace of it in the specimen. The skin is naked, except the lateral line, which is protected by mo- derately-sized tiled scales, which are more crowded posteriorly and run out on the caudal, forming a middle point or lobe which is shorter than the side. The largest specimen we have examined is eleven inches long. Hab. Sea of China. Indian ocean. Chusan. Woosung. Canton. SAuRus LEMNiscatus, Lacépéde (L’ Osmere galonné), v. p. 230. 238. pl. 6. f.1. Saurus elegans, Gray, Cat. Brit. Mus. Icon. Reeves, 188 ; Hardw. -Malac. 206. Length of drawing 9 inches. This drawing resembles Salmo fotens, Bl. 384. f. 2, more than any other Saurus of which we have seen afigure. It has the same very short obtuse snout, short pectorals, forward ven- trals and long anal, but S. feetens has an unspotted body and is an inhabitant of the Atlantic. Lacépéde’s figure of Jemniscatus is rude, but his description of the patterns of the markings answers exactly to Mr. Reeves’s drawing, though the cglours are not the same. His plate and his description are both founded upon a drawing on vellum by Plumier, and it is very pro- bable that in the lapse of time the colours may have undergone considerable change, assu- ming that they were perfectly correct in the first instance. In Mr. Reeves’s drawing, the ground-colour on the top of the back is lemon-yellow, which is thickly speckled with irregular spots of brownish-red and umber-brown; on the sides the yellow forms about four longitudinal stripes, alternating with purplish-red ones, the latter becoming broader and changing to crimson on the belly. The head is mostly of the purplish- red tint, and there is a black spot on the supra-scapular. The dorsal, ventrals and anal are transparent and faintly crimson, with one yellow bar on the ventrals and two or three on the dorsal. The dorsal is yellowish at the base and blackish-gray on its posterior border. The cheeks and body are scaly, but no scales are shown on the gill-cover. Hab. Sea of China. Saurus vartecatus, Commerson in Lacépéde (Salmone varié), v. p. 157- +224. pl. 3. f. 1. Icon. Reeves, 187 ; Hardw. Malac. 205. Chinese name, Hwa how kwiin, “ Flowery dog stick” (Birch); Fa kow kwan, “ Painted dog stick” (Reeves). ad. B.12; D.13; A.7, last one divided to the base; P.15; V.8. (Spec. Brit. Mus.) _A Chinese specimen was presented to the British Museum by Mr. Reeves. The teeth of the upper jaw are small, unequal in height, and disposed in two rows; the lower jaw ones are longer, hastate, and in three or four rows. The teeth which arm the palatine bones are 302 REPORT—1845. TTUOT GY wo cardiform ; those on the tongue are very strong. The ground colour of the back is a mottled mixture of greenish-gray and yellow, varied by fifteen or sixteen transverse bars composed of small spots of umber-brown. These bars are irregular on the top of the back, but they descend below the lateral line, and are there more distinct, from the intervening spaces being gam- boge-yellow. The belly is brightly silvery. The head is varied by many spots of umber-brown, the jaws being also much spotted. The caudal is pale orange-brown, with about nine trans- verse bars thickly spotted with umber. The other fins are more or less deeply yellowish-brown with five or six rows of darker spots on the rays, except the pectorals, which do not appear to be spotted. The Dentex nebulosus (Banks and Solander, Parkinson, Icon. 113. Bib. Banks), which frequents the seas of Otaheite, has considerable resemblance to this species. Hab. Seas of China and the Mauritius. SAURUS ARGYROPHANES, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 6.15; Hardw. Malac. Chinese name, Kin lin chuy, “ Silk-scaled chuy” (Birch) ; Kin lin cheuy, “ Silver-scaled cheuy” (Reeves) ; Kam lun chui (Bridgem. Chrest. 165). Rad. 1D. 9* 3A. 'T1* ;'Vi9 (ex figura). Length of figure 10 inches. This, judging from the drawing, is a more elongated species than the preceding ones, the height of the body scarcely exceeding a seventh of the total length. The eye is moderately large, and is situated over the middle of the cleft of the mouth. The pectorals, which are not large, reach just to the front of the ventrals, and the dorsal commences over the axilla of the latter fins. The caudal is forked as in the preceding two species, without any middle lobe. The lateral line is strongly marked, and one of the most distinctive characters of the fish ap- pears to be the strong contrast between the colours above and below the line, the upper parts being a decided yellowish-brown, darker on the edges of the scales, producing reticulations, and the lower parts bright silvery, the two tints being exactly defined by the lateral line, which is darker than the other parts. The head is mostly coloured like the back, There are no spots either on the body or fins, but the ends of the pectorals and the posterior edge of the caudal are blackish. Sir Edward Belcher’s collection contains a Saurus which I should be inclined to refer to the species represented by Mr. Reeves’s drawing, but for the greater acuteness of the snout of the specimen. They correspond i in colours and position of the fins. In this specimen the height of the body is inferior to its width, and is contained about eight times in the total length. The back is rounded and depressed, and the thickness diminishes gradually from the dorsal fin to the tip of the acute snout, and also in the other direction to the slender tail, which is rouhd near the base of the caudal fin. The jaws are equal. The cleft of the mouth exceeds half the di- stance from the tip of the snout to the edge of the gill-cover. The centre of the eye is rather behind the middle of the cleft, and the length of the head exceeds a fifth part of the whole length, or more exactly forms a fourth part of the length, caudal excluded. The eyes encroach on the profile and are about a diameter apart, the edges of the orbits being deficient or notched above. The interorbital space is concave. The occiput ends in a serrated edge, which is slightly concave posteriorly, and the, supra-scapulars also show a projecting rough edge. The fronts of the yentrals are attached exactly midway between the tip of the snout and the vent. The tips of the pectoral reach just to their first ray, and the commencement of the dorsal is a little behind the axilla of the ventrals. The rays are B. 12-13; D.10; A. 12; C. 178; P. 13; V.8. The lateral line is straight and is formed by a series of pores; there are also a number of lines parallel to it, produced by the transparency of the scales, permitting the meeting of the edges of two rows to shine through the discs of the intervening incumbent row. The teeth are slender with lanceolate tips, but none of them appear to be distinctly barbed. In the upper jaw, the tall ones are inclined forwards and are ranged in a widely-set series, with some shorter ones at the base. In the lower jaw there are several graduated rows inclined inwards, the interior row being the tallest. The palatine teeth form card-like plates which approach each other anteriorly in an acute angle, leaving a narrow smooth space on the mesial line. The surface of the tongue is also armed by rows of teeth, but smaller than any of the others we have mentioned. The edges of the branchial arches are rough, with much ‘more minute teeth, very dissimilar to the slender, curved and barbed teeth of the gills of Harpodon. Hab. Most probably the China seas. Mycroruum Boors, Richardson, Ichth, of Voy. of Erebus and Terror, p. 39. pl. 27. f. 6-12. * The incumbent front ray of these fins is omitted in the figure, and the formula ought to be D. 10; A, 12, &c. ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 303 ‘Sir Edward Belcher and Sir James Ross brought home examples of this species, which ‘have been deposited in the British Museum. - Hab. Seas of China (Belcher), New Zealand and Australia (Ross). ASTRONESTHES NIGRA, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p, 97. pl. 50. f. 1-3. Sir Edward Belcher obtained two specimens. Hab. China seas. ? Levucosoma cutnensis, Osbeck (Albula), Voy. i, p. 385. Leucosoma reevesii, Gray, Zool, Mise. p. 4; Lcon. Reeves, 144; Hardw. Malac. 212. Chinese name, Pih fan yu, “White rice fish” (Birch); Pih fan yu, “ White fan yu” (Reeves); Pak fan u (Bridgem. Chrest, 244); Pack fanny (Osbeck). Rad. “B.3;’ D.11; A.25; C.1944; P.10; V.6 vel 7. (Spec, Reev.) Examples of this fish exist in the British Museum, where they were deposited by Mr. Reeves and General Hardwicke, in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park, and in the Cam- bridge Philosophical Institution, to which they were presented by the Rev. George Vachell. As Osbeck’s generic appellation was in his day generally applied to the Coregoni, it is pro-= bable that he did not consider this fish as presenting peculiar generic characters, and had no intention of restricting the name of Albula to this species; Mr. Gray’s expressive one of Leu-~ cosoma is therefore the proper generic appellation for this very peculiar form: besides, Bloch after Osbeck gave the name of A4lbula to the genus Butirinus, and its re-introduction would lead to confusion. It is the ‘ white bait” of the foreign residents at Macao. Body elongated, roundish anteriorly ; compressed and higher at the dorsal, which is far back, the compression increasing in the tail, which is again more slender. A furrow runs along the top of the back to the front of the dorsal and reappears behind that fin. There is likewise a furrow from the ventrals to the anus, and the very low posterior part of the anal stands also inafurrow. The body is scaleless and transparent, so that the muscles, intestines and spinal column can be seen without dissection. Head and jaws very much depressed, presenting a mere edge in profile, but when viewed from ubove, showing a lanceolate outline much like the bill of a Tyrannula. The head appears to be composed chiefly of thin, flexible and diaphanous bone, A fine short mesial ridge exists at the end of the snout, and farther back there is a rhomboidal membranous space, which is perforated by three holes, through each of which a tooth of the lower jaw protrudes when the mouth is closed. The velum of the upper jaw is posterior to this membranous space. The eyes are lateral and encroach both on the upper and under profiles of the head. Two minute nasal orifices are situated a short way before each eye, The jaws are equal and the short cleft of the mouth is nearly horizontal, but with a slight arching in the middle. The maxillary curves over the angle of the mouth, and send- ing a fine slip in front of the end of the intermaxillary, forms a considerable part of the mar- gin of the upper jaw. About four widely separated, subulate, recurved teeth arm the limb of each intermaxillary; and between the foremost of these canines and the tip of the jaw there are several much smaller ones in a single series. A close pectinated row of short teeth edges the maxillary ; and the lateral teeth of the lower jaw are also smaller and more numerous than the upper ones; but in front, a little within the narrow, unarmed tip of the jaw, three strong teeth stand in a triangle and pass through the holes above mentioned. The palatine bones are finely toothed on the edge, but there are no teeth on the vomer, which is not at all pro- minent. A row of strong recurved teeth runs along the middle of the pointed tongue. The -gill-cover is convex and curves in so as to touch its fellow on the under surface of the head ; the opening is large and is partly seen on the upper surface of the head. The gill-membrane unites with the isthmus about one-third nearer to the eye than to the tip of the gill-cover. The ventrals are attached rather before the middle of the fish, the first dorsal considerably farther back, and the adipose fin over the hinder part of the anal, which is wholly behind the dorsal. The first stout ventral ray is jointed, but 1 can perceive no joints in the short anterior ray of the dorsal and anal. The first two rays of the dorsal are graduated and incumbent on the base of the third one, which is the tallest; the three anterior rays of the anal are also im- bedded in the base of the fin*. The pectoral is obliquely truncated, and the caudal is acutely notched at the end. On the base of the fin above and below there is a seam-like edge which is supported by fourteen short rays, The gut appears to be a straight tube without convolu- ‘tions, but I did not ascertain the absence of pyloric ceca. Length 73 inches. Hab. Canton. _.. * There is probably some variety in the numbers of the rays as in notes of the specimen belonging to the Cambridge Philosophical Society I find them recorded as D. 14; A, 30, The numbers given above correspond better with the enumeration of Osbeck and Gray, 304 REPORT—1845. Tk ae Stage Fam. SALMONIDE. PTEROGLOSSUS ALTIVELIS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. Two specimens exist in the British Museum labelled as above. They measure 7 inches and 42 inches respectively. Hab. Japan. Fam. CLuPEIDEX. CLUPEA ISINGLEENA, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 60; Hardw. Malae. 219. Chinese name, Tsing lin, “Blue scale” (Birch); Tsing lein, “ Blue scale” (Reeves); Tsing lun (Bridgem. Chrest. 82). Rad. B. 5, upper ones broad; D.15; A. 2], slender; P. ; V.8 (Spec. Br. Mus.) Length 53 inches. John Russell Reeves, Esq. presented a specimen of this fish to the British Museum. It is a short high fish with a rounded back and a very acute belly, which is serrated by sixteen teeth before the ventrals and ten behind them. The height is contained thrice in the length to the base of the caudal, or thrice and three-quarters when that fin is included. The curve of the back is slight, that of the belly very considerable, and attaining its apex under the be= ginning of the dorsal. The length of the head is one-fifth less than the height of the body. The mouth is small and terminal, and the maxillary, which is oval and obtuse at the lower end, reaches to beneath the middle of the eye; near its articulating head, a portion of the oval is deficient on the upper side only. There are no teeth on the jaws, but the lining of the mouth and the oval disc of the tongue are studded with minute papillz. There are ten rows of scales in the height of the body and forty inarow. The ventrals are under the fore- third of the rather large dorsal, and all the fins are scaly. The scales of the back are bright grass-green with silvery edges; lower down they are more silvery with pale ultramarine blue shadings. The fins are pale asparagus-green, with a yellow tint on the pectorals, and the head is mostly silvery with green shadings, orange iris and gamboge edges to the gill-pieces. There is a dark honey-yellow spot on the humeral bone. This fish has more resemblance to the Kowal or Kowarloo of Russell (186) than to any other figure in his book, but he enumerates the dorsal rays as 18. They may however, on a comparison of specimens, prove to be the same. It is not unlike Bloch’s figure (pl. 405) of Clupea sinensis, hut there are no indications of the black bars on the dorsal and caudal in Mr. Reeves’s figure. Hab. Chinese seas, CLUPEA NYMPH#A, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, (3.25; Hardw. Malac. 222. Chinese name, Chang yaou lin, “ Long-waisted scale” (Birch); Chang yaou lin, “ Long fine waist” (Reeves) ; Cheung iu lun (Bridgem. Chrest. 83). Rad. B.6 (vel'7?); D. 17; A.15 (vel 16); C.158; P.18; V.9. (Specimen in the Br. Mus. brought from Canton by Mr. Reeves.) The head forms a fourth of the length of the fish, caudal excluded, or rather more than a fifth part including that fin. Both back and belly are acute, and the thickness of the body equals half its height. The back rises in a very gentle curve from the snout to the dorsal, and descends still more gently to the caudal. The curve of the belly is more convex from the tip of the lower jaw to the front of the pectorals, but posteriorly it corresponds with that of the back. The end of the under jaw forms the extremity of the head. Eye near the pro- file. The disc of the maxillary is an oval approaching nearly to a circle, with a short, slender articulating process: its lower end comes under the middle of the eye. The intermaxillary forms the border of the upper jaw, the maxillary merely touching the corner of the small orifice with its rounded shoulder. The centre of the dorsal is a little anterior to the middle of the length, caudal excluded, and the ventrals are attached under the middle of the dorsal. There are forty or forty-one scales in a longitudinal row. The belly is strongly serrated be- hind the ventrals, but before these fins the points of the keeled scales are more depressed. The pointed scaly process over the pectoral equals the fin in length. Colour of the back light duck-green with silvery borders to the scales. The sides silvery shaded by faint bluish-green. Head silvery with green shadings and some rich umber tints on the hind-head and humeral bones. Fins asparagus-green with darkish edges to the caudal. The pectorals are wood-brown. This fish agrees generally with the figure of Clupanodon sinensis of Lacépéde (v. pl. 11. f, 2. pp. 468, 471), but does not correspond in the numbers of the fin-rays. It may neverthe- . less be the same; but as the names of chinensis and sinensis have been too liberally applied ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 305 to Chinese fish, and to more than one species in this genus, confusion will be avoided by dropping it in this instance, even were the identity of Mr. Reeves’s specimen and Lacépéde’s more clearly made out than we have been able to do. It is very unlike the Clupea sinensis of Bloch, 405. Hab. Chinese seas. CLUPEA CHRULEO-VITTATA, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 59; Hardw. Mal. 223. Chinese name, Hwang tsih, “ Yellow glossy” (Birch); Hwang tseth, “ Yellow ” (Reeves); Wong chak (Bridgem. Chrest. 84). Length of figure 83 inches. This drawing greatly resembles the preceding species in form, and it has even a better title to the epithet of long-waisted. The dorsal curve is similar to that of nymphea, but the ven- tral one is more gradual anteriorly, its summit being thrown back to the middle of the dorsal. The anal is longer and lower, and the pectoral reaches only one-third of the distance to the ventrals. The rays shown by the artist are D. 17; A. 18 or 19. The scales are as large as those of nymphaa, about forty-two being represented in a longitudinal row. No serratures are shown on the belly. The upper parts are grass-green with a brownish gloss along the top of the back. The sides are more completely silvery, but a little above the middle the scales are bordered by China-blue producing a stripe, and the silvery parts lower down have a purplish reflexion and some pale blue shadings on the bases of the scales. Some crimson tints occur on the sides of the head. Caudal and ventrals asparagus-green. The other fins yellowish- or greenish-gray. Hab. Chinese seas. Canton. CLUPEA FLOSMARIs, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 64; Hardw. Malac. f Chinese name, Hae ho, “Sea lily” (Birch); Hae ho, “ Sea river” (Reeves); Hoi ho (Bridgem. Chrest. 85). Length of figure 6 inches. This drawing represents a rather slender fish with the dorsal curve exceeding that of the belly, and having a culminating point at the commencement of the dorsal. Ventrals far back under the posterior part of the dorsal. Anal short, more than the length of its base distant from the caudal, which is much forked with acute lobes. The skin is represented as nacry without distinct scales, but with the fasciculi of the muscles, which meet in chevrons in the middle height shining through. The rays shown by the artist are D. 11; A. 9. The back is shaded with leek-green; the sides pearly with blue and crimson reflexions. Head silvery with pale green shadings. Pectorals faintly crimsoned: other fins asparagus- green and transparent. An umber-brown streak runs from the upper angle of the gill-open- ing over the shoulder and disappears gradually under the commencement of the dorsal. Hab. Chinese seas. Canton. _ In the ‘ Description of Animals,’ p. 201, fig. 149, we have a sketch and short notice of a slender Clupeoid fish having a resemblance to C. flosmaris in general form. Its length is stated to be four inches, and the numbers of the rays to be as follows: D. 138; A. 19; C.14; P.10; V.9. “The body long, narrow and somewhat compressed. Dorsal fin in the middle of the back. Tail with two acute lobes. Mouth small, curving upwards. Maxillary flat, narrow, pointed and entire.” The belly is represented as serrated, and the pointed maxillary as reaching a little past the eye. Hab. Canton river. CrupeEa GrAcizis, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. A specimen so labelled exists in the British Museum, but it is in bad condition, and I have not been able to identify it with any of the preceding species. Hab. Japan. _ AwosA REEVEsII, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, a. 8; Hardw. Malac. 220. Chinese name, San le (Reeves, Birch); Sam lai (Bridgem. Chrest. 92). Rad. D.17; A.17; C.17%; P.15; V.8. (Spec. Br. Mus.) Length of fig. 17 inches. Length of spec. 15 inches. Mr. Reeves deposited a specimen in the British Museum which still retains the original label numbered in reference to his drawing. It has considerable resemblance to the palasah of Russell (198), or Icon. Hardw. Malac. 214, fig. indica, but the pectoral fin is shorter, the coarseness of the scales on the caudal and the numbers of the fin-rays differ, and we therefore keep them distinct. Russell states the rays of 4losa palasah to be D. 18; A. 20; V. 9, &e. “In A, reevesii the eye is placed considerably below the temporal groove, and the maxillary, which is slender at its head, swells out in the middle into a regular obtuse oval, and reaches . x 306 | REPORT—]845, Ko back to the hinder edge of the orbit. Some branching veins exist on the shoulder, but none are visible on the gill-cover. No teeth on the jaws or maxillary. The lateral line cannot be made out. The scales are faintly streaked. Thirty of them compose a longitudinal row, and there are thirteen rows over the ventrals. Thirteen depressed teeth exist on the rim of the belly before the ventrals, and there are fourteen more prominent ones behind these fins, The front of the dorsal is midway between the end of the nose and the base of the caudal. The colour of the back is dark greenish- and blackish-gray, forming lines corresponding in number with the rows of scales, Sides and belly very silvery with pearl-gray lines. Snout and top of the head gray and dull crimson, with a greenish shade over the eye; rest of the head silvery with lilac reflexions. Pectorals cream-yellow, glossed in the upper border with purplish-gray. The other fins clove-brown. Hab. Chinese seas. ALOSA PALASAH, Russell, 198.? Jeon. Reeves, 3.51; Hardw. Malac. 221. Chinese name, Sam le (Reeves, Birch); Sam lai (Bridgem. Chrest. 183). Rad. B.6; D.16; A.18; P.15; V.9. (Spec. Br. Mus.) Length of spec. 7 inches. The figure measures 12 inches. This species has, like 4. reevesii, much resemblance to Russell's figure 198, and as the fin- rays approach pretty nearly to those of the Indian fish in numbers, we have considered them to be the same, but not without doubt, because there is a difference in the size and form of the pectoral, besides other discrepancies. Mr, Reeves’s Chinese specimen differs from 4. reevesii in having a larger head with its profile running more evenly into that of the back, which is moreover acuminated at the beginning of the dorsal. The head forms a fourth part of the whole length of the fish; the height of the body is contained thrice and two-thirds in that length, and the thickness is equal to a third of the height. The back is acute, and the belly much more so, and strongly serrated between the ventrals and anus, The mesial ridge of the cranium commences between the nostrils, and after dilating a little, tapers off again and disappears without reaching the nape. The sides of the cranium slope a little downwards from the mesial ridge. The shoulder is feebly veined, but the gill-covers are smooth. The maxillary having an oblong-oval form reaches back to the hinder edge of the orbit. The tongue is widely oval with a small keel on its tip, and the symphysis of the lower jaw also rises in a small point. No teeth on the jaws. Forty scales form a longitudinal row, and there are fifteen rows in height. The pectorals are rather larger than those of 4. reevesii, and reach nearly to the ventrals, which are attached before the middle of the dorsal. The caudal is much forked. The scales are shaded by pale leek-green on the back, and by pearl-gray on the sides and belly. The snout and shoulder-plates are glossed with red. The pectorals, ventrals and upper half of the dorsal are cream-yellow, the rays of the pectorals being buff-coloured. The lower parts of the dorsal, anal and caudal are ash-gray, the latter fin being tinted with car- mine at its base. Mr, Reeves mentions that this fish is very plentiful in its season, but is very bony; and Russell makes a similar remark respecting the Indian fish, which is known at the tables of the English residents by the name of “ sable-fish.” Hab, Seas of China and India. ILIsHA ABNoRMIS, Gray, Cat. Br. Mus. con. Reeves, 81 ; Hardw. Malac. 240. Chinese name, Tsaou pih, “ Dead white” (Birch) ; Tso pth, “ White tso” (Reeves); Tso pak (Bridgem. Chrest. 81). Rad. D.19; A. 48; C. 192; P,16. (Spec. Br. Mus.) Length of spec. 144 inches. Length of fig. 152 inches. In the ‘Régne Animal’ (ii. p. 319) Cuvier mentions that the yangarloo of Russell, 191, . and his ditchoee, 192*, may be separated from the herrings on account of the position of the dorsal behind the ventrals and the length of the anal. Mr. Gray has given this group a name evidently taken from the specific appellation of one of Buchanan-Hamilton’s Clupee. Mr. Reeves deposited a dried and varnished specimen of Jlisha abnormis, numbered in reference to his drawing, in the British Museum. It is a more elongated fish than the jan- garloo, and consequently much more so than the ditchoee. Its profile slopes gently from the nostrils to the shoulder, which is a little gibbous, and then runs horizontally to the dorsal, whence it declines slightly to the caudal. The face has however a marked degree of conca- vity caused by the intermaxillaries being inclined upwards, which is common to all the known members of the gronp. The under profile is a long uniform curve, extending from the under * The Clupea affinis (Gray, Hard. Ill, Ind. Zool.) is also a member of this group. ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 807 jaw to the end of the anal. The short trunk of the tail behind this fin is slender, and the ‘caudal is forked like the tail of a swallow with long tapering lobes, the lower one being con- siderably the longest. ‘The dorsal terminates just over the anus, and the belly is most pro- Minent opposite toit. The intermaxillaries aregshort, lie transversely at the end of the snout, and are armed-with a single row of very short subulate teeth. The maxillary has a broad disc, whose width exceeds half its length, and whose end reaches to the articulation of the lower jaw. It is shaped like the valve of a wide Pinna, and its fore shoulder only enters into the composition of the orifice of the mouth. Its under edge, which lies on the limb of the lower jaw, is toothed. The point of the lower jaw projects beyond the intermaxillaries. Eye large, near the profile. About fifty scales enter into a row extending from the gill-opening to the caudal, and there are fourteen rows in the height. The belly is strongly serrated by fourteen teeth before the ventrals and thirteen behind them. The anal is long and low. The scales are very silvery and are tinged on the back by brownish purple-red, and lower down by a very pale cream colour. The jaws are siskin-green; there is a purple blotch on ' the under part of the preorbitar and a greenish-gray one over the eye. Fins cream-yellow, the vertical ones having also blackish-gray borders. Seven branchial rays are shown in the figure. Their number cannot be made out in the specimen*. Hab. Chinese sea. Icon. Reeves, 67; Hardw. Malac. 240, is a smaller drawing than the figure of abnormis, but exhibits no other difference in form than a slightly shorter and less pointed pectoral. The back is shaded with pale leek-green instead of brown, and the purplish tints of the head are more extended, but the prevalence of the silvery lustre is so great that there is no striking difference in the colours of the drawings. Length of the figure 14 inches. Number 241 in Hardwicke’s ‘Malacopterygii’ is a drawing of a species captured at Penang, which has a higher shoulder and smaller ventrals than abnormis, but otherwise much resembles it. CuHAToessus AQquosus, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 63; Hardw. Malac. 230. Chinese name, Shwuy hwa, “Slipping in the water” (Birch); Shwuy hwii, “ Watery bone” (Reeves); Shui wat (Bridgem. Chrest. 89). Fad. D.18; A.23; C.195; P.15; V.8. (Spec. Br. Mus.) Length 7 inches. Mr. Reeves has deposited in the British Museum a dried specimen of this fish numbered in accordance with his figure. Its form is symmetrical, the curve of the back corresponding with that of the belly. The height of the body is greatest in front of the dorsal and ven- trals, which are opposite to each other, and is contained thrice and three-quarters in the total length. The upper jaw projects beyond the lower one, and the intermaxillaries form two- thirds of the upper lip. The maxillaries are oblong, but taper towards their articulating ends. They reach backwards as far as the anterior third of the eye: the articulation of the lower jaw is under the posterior third. The eye has an elliptical iris, placed vertically like that of a feline animal. There are forty-six scales in a longitudinal row, exclusive of three or four smaller ones on the base of the caudal, and thirteen or fourteen rows in the height of the body. The keeled belly is armed by thirteen spinous teeth behind the ventrals, and by about fifteen before them; but the latter are nearly obsolete. The ventrals are rather before the middle of the length, caudal excluded. The upper parts are leek-green with silvery edges to the scales, and the lower parts silvery and pearl-gray, with a crimson blush. Caudal and anal oil-green. Dorsal and ventrals pale oil-green, the former tipped with carmine. Pectorals yellow. There are some blue and carmine tints on the head. This fish approaches the Cl. nasus, Bl. 429, f. 1, in form, but does not agree exactly either _ with that figure or the Kome of Russell, 196, and there is a difference in the numbers of the fin-rays. Hab, Chinese sea. ‘Cuartorssus TR1zA, Linn. Amen. Acad. Chinens. Lagerstr. No. 30, An.1754 (Clupea). Icon. Reeves, 224; Hardw. Malac. 232. Chinese name, Yen yaou lin, “ Silver-waisted scale” (Birch); Yen yaou lin, “ Silver- scaled waist” (Reeves). Length of the figure 9} inches. Mr. Reeves observes that the nose of this fish, when recent, was as transparent as glass, and that he suspects some mistake in the characters of the Chinese name. It is not easy to ‘identify one among several species closely resembling each other with the short account given ‘of triza in the ‘Ameen. Acad.,’ but this figure corresponds most nearly with the characters ‘enumerated by Linneus. The C. thrissa of Osbeck has more rays in the dorsal. In form ‘triza approaches the Cl. thrissa of Bloch, 404, but the back is more arched and the anal LA} * Russell enumerates six in his species, ; x2 308 . REPORT-—1845. nC raok 24 VG fin lower and considerably longer. The snout is obtuse and shorter than the lower jaw, the profile of the head arched. ‘he ventrals, which are under the middle of the dorsal, are equidistant from the end of the snout and base of the caudal. The point of the acute pecto- rals passes beyond them and falls but a little,short of the anus. None of the other Chatoessi represented in Mr. Reeves’s portfolio have pectorals of equal length. The truncated end of the maxillary reaches as far as the anterior third of the orbit. The eye is rather large and is some distance from the profile. The scales are silvery and show towards their bases a mixture of blackish-green, oil-green and honey-yellow, the dark green predominating on the ridge of the back. Below the late- ral line blue tints are intermixed with the general silvery lustre, and the honey-yellow forms faint longitudinal streaks corresponding with the rows of scales. There are some bluish and purple tints round the eye, and a rich orange-coloured brown on the occiput and supra-sca~ pular region, which gradually disappears on the shoulder. The caudal is lemon-yellow, with a flesh-coloured tint at the base and blackish-gray posterior edges. The other fins are pale bluish-lilac. Hab. China sea. CHATOESSUS CHRYSOPTERUS, Richardson. Descript. of Animals, p. 200. fig. 148. Icon. Reeves,61; Hardw. Malac.231. Chinese name, Hwang yu, “ Yellow fish” (Reeves, Birch); Wong u hoi (Bridgem. Chrest. 91). Length of figure 94 inches. This drawing represents a fish with a higher body than C. triza, a more arched back and a shorter anal. The height is equal to exactly a third of the length, including the extreme tips of the acutely-forked caudal. The back is regularly and considerably arched ; the belly is still more convex. The ventrals are a little before the middle, caudal excluded, and are attached beneath the fore part of the dorsal. The top of the triangular pectoral falls con- siderably short of the ventrals. The jaws are equal, the mouth small, and the maxillary reaches only to the front of the eye, which is smaller and higher in the head than that of Ch. triza. The scales are brightly silvery, and are shaded towards the base on the back with dark leek-green. Below the middle they are sparingly shaded with pale bluish-lilac. The top of the head and edges of the gill-pieces are green; there is a prussian blue patch at the tem~- poral groove and some carmine tints on the snout and suboperculum. The fins are gamboge- and lemon-yellow, this colour being most faint on the dorsal and ventrals. The front of the dorsal and bases of the pectorals and ventrals are tinged with carmine. Hab. Chinese sea. CHATOESSUS MACULATUS, Gray, Cat. Br. Mus. Icon. Reeves, 109; Hardw. Malac. 233. Chinese name, Hwang yu, “ Yellow fish” (Birch, Reeves) ; Wong u (Bridgem. Chrest. 87). ad. D.16; A.28. (Spec. Camb. Ph. Inst.) Length of figure 84 inches. The Rev. George Vachell obtained a specimen of this fish at Canton and presented it to the Cambridge Philosophical Institution. It is symmetrical in its form, the ventral and dor- sal curves being nearly alike, and the height at the front of the dorsal very nearly equal to one-third of the length, caudal included. The ventrals are attached before the middle, caudal excluded, and under the fore-third of the dorsal. The posterior dorsal ray reaches, as in the other species, to the base of the caudal. The belly is strongly serrated by seven teeth before the ventrals and nineteen behind them. A notch in the upper jaw receives the pointed ex- tremity of the lower one, which is scarcely shorter than the snout. The maxillary is rounded at the end and reaches the middle of the eye. The colour of the back is pale leek-green, which soon passes into pale honey-yellow. Be- low the middle the yellow gives place to pale lilac. These colours are confined to the base of the scales, which are very silvery, occupying however more and more of the disc as they approach the top of the back. A round black spot exists on the shoulder and is followed on the flanks by five others, which diminish successively in size. The head is varied by yellow- ish, brownish and crimson tints on a silvery ground. ‘The rays of the pectoral are buff or orpiment-orange, the caudal dull yellow with blackish-gray posterior edges, and the other fins show a very pale bluish-gray tint. The Chinese name is the same as that of Ch, chry- sopterus, which this species certainly closely resembles in form. The black spots may perhaps disappear in some seasons. Hab. Chinese seas. ENGRAULIS COMMERSONIANUS, Lacépéde (Stolephore commersonien), v. i a ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 309 - op» 382. pl. 12. f. 1. Cuv. Régn. An. ii. p. 323. Clupea vittargentea, ~ Lacép. v. p. 424, 458, 461, exclus. syn. Clupea nattoo vel nettooli, Russ. “187. Atherina australis, White, Voy. New S. Wales, 196. f.1. Rad. B.10; D.16; A. 23; C.192; P.13; V.7. Length of spec. 33 inches. John Russell Reeves, Esq. presented several examples of this fish to the British Museum. The species is ranged by Cuvier among the Anchovies, whose bellies are not toothed; but the specimens show six teeth before the ventrals as fine as hairs. None exist behind these fins. An adipose substance fills an angle before and behind the eye as in the Mackerels. Hab. Seas of China, Australia and India. The Stolephore japonois of Lacépéde, or the Atherina japonica of Houttuyn, Act. Haarl. xx. p. 340, is probably the above species, with the rays of the dorsal imperfectly counted; and it is possible that the fish of which a notice from the ‘ Description of Animals’ follows after Cl. flosmaris, p. 803, may also be an Anchovy, though it is not represented as having a projecting nose. NoToPTeRuS KAPIRAT, Lacép. ii. p.189,190. Gymmnotus notopterus, Pall. Spic. vi. pl. 6. f.2. Clupea synura, Bl. Schn. p. 426. Mystus karipat, Gray, Hardw. Ill. Ind. Zool. pl. 91. f. 2. con. Hard. Malac. Ined. 246. Schneider states that he examined two dried examples of this fish, one from India, the other from China. He particularly notices the smallness of the ventrals, so that it could not be the pengay of Renard, f. 90, which he saw, as that has long ventrals, nor, as he is silent about spots on the tail, is it so likely to have been the Mystus chitot of Pennant, ‘ View of Hindostan,’ t. xi. (Mystus chitala, Ham. Buch. p. 236, 882; Gray, Hardw. Ill. Ind. Zool. pl. 9). f. 1). Hab. Seas of China and India. Cori1a GRAvu, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p. 99. pl. 54. f. 1 & 2. Clupea mystus, Osbeck, Voy. ii. p. 25. Engl. tr.; Linn. Ameen. Ae. iv. t. 3. f.12. Mystus clupeoides, Lacép. v. p. 466, 467. Icon. Reeves, a. 14; Hardw. Malac. 252. Chinese name, Fung we, “ Pheenix tail” (Birch) ; Fung ne (Reeves); Fung mi (Bridgem. Chrest.3). Rad. B.10; D.12; A. 86; C. 20; P. vii. et 10; V.'7. (Spec. Hasl. Mus.) Genus, Adara, Temm. et Schl. A specimen was brought from the Chinese seas by Captain Dawkins, R.N., and presented to the museum at Haslar. . Hab. Chinese seas. Canton. Comia PLAyFAIRiI, M‘Clelland (Chetomus), Cale. Journ. iv. plate . Polynemus, Descript. of Anim. p. 198. fig. 150; Adara, Temm. et Schl. Icon. Reeves, (3.26; Hardw. Malac. Chinese name, Matse (Birch) ; Ma- chai (Reeves). Rad. B.9; D.12; A. 70 ad 80; C. 20; P. vi. et 14; V. 7. (Spec. Br. Mus.) Specimens exist in all the collections of Chinese fishes that we have seen. The scales are used in the manufacture of artificial pearls, and the fish is eaten, when pickled, by the Chinese. A Japanese specimen exists in the British Museum and is labelled “‘Adara” by the authors of the ‘ Fauna Japonica.’ It agrees with Coilia grayii in the number of its anal rays, but has the form of C. playfairii and the same number of free pectoral rays. Its num- bers are D, 12; A. 86; C. 21; P. vi. et 14; V. 7. Hab, Chinese seas. Chusan. Yangtze kiang. Canton river. Hong Kong. Japan. Turyssa mystTax, Bl. Schn. p. 426. t. Ixxxiii. (Clupea). Cuv. Régn. An. p- 323. Clupea malabaricus, Bl. 432; Bl. Schn. p. 425. Poorawah, Russell, 189; Icon. Reeves, 138; Hardw. Malac. 236. Chinese name, Tsing kwa (Reeves). Rad. B. 12; D.13; A.39; C. 198; P.133°V.'7. (Spec. Br. Mus.) Length of specimens 74 and 9 inches. Length of figure 93. Mr. Reeves has deposited a specimen in spirits and also a varnished one in the British Museum. We have not had an opportunity of comparing them with Indian examples, but ae 310 REPORT—1845. thew Yo we have little doubt but the synonyms we have cited above are correct, as the figures show the characteristic black mark with white veins on the shoulder, and the indistinct stripe along the middle of the anal. Mr. Reeves’s drawing however, which agrees with his specimens, shows a slight gibbosity on the hind head, which is not represented in the figures of Bloch and Russell. The head is acutely ridged from the nape to the end of the snout, the sides sloping down to the lateral ridges. The intermaxillaries are small and lie in the same line with the long, slender acute maxillaries, which are composed of three pieces. These and the lower jaw are set with fine teeth. There is no tongue, and the gills coming forward to the tip of the lower jaw are connected by a narrow ridge-like isthmus, which is rough with minutely villiform teeth. The head is contained nearly six times in the total length; the height of the body somewhat exceeds a fifth of the length, and the thickness is contained twice and a half times in the height. The belly is serrated by thirteen teeth before the ventrals and nine behind them. ‘There are eleven rows of scales in the height of the body, and thirty-eight in a row between the gill-opening and base of the caudal. The dorsal surface is coloured by dark grass-green, which is mixed with brown on the top of the head; the lower parts are brightly silvery. ‘The black humeral patch is finely veined with white. The dorsal and ventrals are pistachio-green, the former being blackish on the edges and tinged with yellow in front. The anal is yellow in front, the rest of the fin being green, darkening along the middle so as to form a stripe. The caudal is greenish at the base ; bright saffron-yellow on the disc, and blackish-green on the edges. The pectoral is also saf- fron-yellow, and is sparingly mottled with blackish-green. Hab. Seas of China and India. Mercators sETIPINNis, J. R. Forster, in jiguré Georgio Forster pict. 242. Bib. Banks; Richardson, Ann. Nat. Hist. x. p. 493. Clupea thrissoides, Schn. 424. cum Cl. cyprinoide, Bl. 403. confusé; Clupea eyprinoides, Broussonnet, Ichth. (non Blochii); Kundinga, Russell, 203? Icon. Reeves, 96; Hardw. Malac. 234. Chinese name, Hang tsaou pih, “ Ditch dead white” (Birch); Hang tso pak (Reeves, Bridgem. Chrest. 88). Rad. Br. 21-22; D. 18 vel 19; A. 25; C. 204; P.15; V.10. (Spec. Br. Mus.) We have not seen an Indian or Chinese example of this. species, but specimens exist in the British Museum from Port Essington, and have been described at length in the ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History’ as above quoted. One anomaly occurs in Mr. Reeves’s draw- ing, the existence of a pointed canine tooth in the upper jaw, whereas in the specimens the edges of the jaws are rough with very narrow bands of minute teeth. The colours in the Chinese painting are also different from those described by Forster, but Broussonnet’s figure, as well as George Forster’s, correspond exactly in profile and size of fins, shape of head, &c., with Mr. Reeves’s drawing. Russell’s seems distorted, probably from the flaccidity of the specimen. P The discs of the scales are like frosted silver, and they have a well-defined border of a polished silvery appearance. The scales of the lateral line are forty in number, and they are marked by six or seven radiating, forked furrows. In Mr. Reeves’s drawing the bases of the scales on the baek are shaded with bluish-lilac, which gradually changes on the sides and belly to celandine-green. ‘The sides of the head are oil- and siskin-green, the occiput being tinged with hyacinth-red. The pectorals are yellow, which is mixed with brown on the upper border ; the last ray of the dorsal is sulphur-yellow; the rest of the fins are hair-brown, the fronts of the dorsal and anal being wood-brown. Iris grass-green. ; Hab. Seas of China, India, Australia and Polynesia. Brackish lagoons, Port Essington. MecGALors curTIFILIS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 136; Hardw. Malac. Chinese name, Ke yu (Birch); Ko yu (Reeves); Ki u (Bridgem. Chrest. 86). Length of figure 8 inches. This drawing represents a rather more slender fish than M. setipinnis, with a smaller eye, narrower maxillary, fewer scales both longitudinally and vertically, the dorsal commencing farther back over the axilla of the ventrals, and having with the anal fewer rays. The last ray of the dorsal is shorter, and the last anal one more decidedly lengthened than the corre- sponding rays of C. setipinnis. The bright silvery edges of the scales are not so sharply defined and distinguished from the discs, which in this fish are leek-green above the lateral line, and gradually change to pearl-gray towards the belly. The upper parts of the head are dark olive- green. The dorsal and caudal approach to blackish-green, the latter being very dark ; the ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 311 ventrals and anal are pale and transparent, and the pectoral lemon-yellow. The scales of the lateral line are marked by the same kind of silvery furrows as M. setipinnis, Hab. Chinese seas. ELops MAcHNATA, Forskal, No. 100 (Argentina). Synode chinois, Lacép. Vv. p. 319.322. pl. 10. f.1. male. Jinagow, Russell, 179. Elops machnata, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Ereb, and Terror, p. 59. pl. 36. fig. 3-5. Icon. Reeves, 137; Hardw. Malac. . Chinese name, Chuh kheaou, “‘ Bamboo ” (Reeves). Mr. Reeves has deposited a specimen from Canton in the British Museum. This fish is totally distinct from the Mugil salmoneus of Forster, a figure of which is given in the ‘ Ich- thyology of the Voyage of the Erebus and Terror,’ pl. 36. fig. 1, 2. Hab. Seas of China and India. Red sea. Etors purrurAscens, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, a. 53; Hardw. Malac. - Chinese name, Chuh kin, “ Variegated bamboo” (Reeves). Length of figure 103 inches. This drawing does not differ very greatly from the preceding one in form, but it represents a fish having a more irregular dorsal outline and Jess arched, a more convex belly, and the lateral line slightly decurved throughout its whole length. The face is gibbous just before the eye, and there is a less marked convexity at the nape. The summit of the back is grass- green, beneath which a blackish-purple band extends from the nape to the upper lobe of the caudal, terminating rather abruptly about half-way to the lateral line. The rest of the side is brightly silvery with a slight gloss of pearl-gray. The top of the head is grass-green. The edges of the maxillaries and gill-pieces are green and crimson. The dorsal and caudal are leek-green, passing into blackish-green on the rays and edges; the ventrals and anal are pale mountain-green with some yellow; and the pectorals are bright sulphur-yellow sprinkled with a few dark green specks. The cluster of black dots on the cheeks and preopertulum of EZ. machnata are not shown in this figure. Hab. Chinese seas. Currocenrrus porap, Forskal, No. 108 (Clupea). Clupea dentex, Bl. Schn. 428. L’Esoce chirocentre, Lacép. Wahlah, Russell, 199 ; Descript. of Anim. p. 194. fig. 161, taken at Madras and named by Broussonnet Eisox clupeoides. Icon. Reeves, B. 47; Hardw. Malac. 237, Chinese ; Hardw. Malac. 239, Indian. Chinese name, Poo édou, “Cloth knife” (Birch); Poo tou, “ Knife cloth” (Reeves); Po to (Bridgem. Chrest. 90). Rad. D.16; A. 34, first two minute; C. 1912; P.16; V.7. Length of spec. 10} inches. Genus, Chirocentrus, Cuv. Régn. An. The British Museum possesses a specimen in spirits from Canton presented by Mr. Reeves, which we have not had an opportunity of comparing with the Indian fish. The drawings of the latter differ a little in the position of the ventrals, but as this may have been owing to inattention, we have not kept the Chinese fish distinct. _ The Chinese specimen has a long canine on each small transverse intermaxillary. The Strap-shaped maxillary reaches to the middle of the orbit and the articulation of the lower jaw; its edge is armed with small subulate teeth, which become very minute towards its tip. Hach limb of the lower jaw is furnished with five or six tall slender teeth inclining backwards, and having.a short tooth between each pair. The ventrals are as near as possible in the mid- dle of the length, excluding the whole caudal fin from the bases of its lobes. A long nacry appendage exists in front of the pectoral, and there is another in its axilla; but the rest of the skin is wrinkled and smooth, withont scales, and resembling fine tinfoil in its lustre. The teeth on the edge of the belly, shown in Mr. Reeves’s figure, are not formed by pungent scales, but by the points of the ribs. The belly is acute, like a knife, from the gills to the anal. The cheek is soft and nacry, and the skin of the temples is striated. The head has a scomberoid aspect above and its lateral ridges are smooth. _ The colour of the back is pistachio-green, the rest of the fish brightly silvery with purplish teflexions, and the courses of the muscles are shown by oblique lines meeting in the middle height. Fins yellowish-gray, the edgés of the caudal shaded with blackish-gray. Hab. Seas of India ard China. Sa2 ; . 312... REPORT—1845. Tribus APoDEs. Sie Fam. ANGUILLIDA. ANGUILLA AvisoTIs, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p. 104. pl. 51. f.1. Icon. Reeves, 222; Hardw. Malac. 288. Chinese name, Woo urh shen, “Crow-ear eel” (Birch); Woo urh shen, “ Black-eared eel” (Reeves). Hab. Canton. ANGUILLA CLATHRATA, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p. 104, A specimen from Canton exists in the Cambridge Philosophical Institution, to which it was presented by the Rey. George Vachell. Hab. Canton, ANGUILLA sINENSIS, M‘Clelland, Calcutta Journ. Nat. Hist. iv. p. 406. pl. 25. f. 2. and No. 18. p. 208. July 1844. A ' Hab. Chusan. The British Museum possesses a specimen of Dr. Cantor’s. ANGUILLA MACROPTERA, M‘Clelland, l.c. p. 407. pl. 25. f. 1. et No. 18. p- 208. Hab. Chusan. Conerus TRIcusPIDATUS, M‘Clelland (Murenesox), Cale. Jour. N. Hist. iv. p. 408. t. 24. f. 1. and No. 18. p.210. Richardson, Ichth. of Sulph. p- 105. pl. 51. f.2. Jeon. Reeves, a. 41; Hardw. Malac. 295. Chinese name, Ho shen, “ Stork eel” (Birch); “ Hook-billed eek” (Reeves). Specimens collected by the Rev. George Vachell and Sir Everard Home exist in the mu- seums of the Cambridge Philosophical Society and College of Surgeons. Hab. Chusan. Ningpo. Canton. Conerus LEPTURUS, Richardson, Ichth. of Sulph. Voy. p. 106. pl. 56. f. 1-6. Hab. Canton. Concrus FAsciATus, Gray, Cat. Br. Mus. Jcon. Reeves, 284; Hardw. Malac. 291 et 293. dupl. In this Conger the vent is a little before the middle of the fish, and the dorsal fin com- mences over the centre of the ventrals. There is a pair of tubular nostrils or cirrhi on each side of the snout, and a pair of smail holes or pores on each side of the mesial line in the in- terorbital space. The ground colour is ochre-yellow with irregular purplish-black blotches on the dorsal and back, and descending to the middle of the sides. Several of these blotches or bars enclose spots of the ground colour. The top of the head is purplish-black, and three dark spots are placed in a triangular position on the hind head. The cheeks, under part of the head and the anal have the bright ochraceous ground tint, the edge of the latter being dark. The dorsal and ventrals are mountain-green, the blotches on the former forming part of the bars which cross the back. The breadth of the head is equal to half its length, which is an eighth part of the whole length of the fish. Snout rather obtuse, gill-openings lateral. The rays of the caudal fin are shown at the tip of the tail, otherwise this might have been taken for an Ophisurus, which it resembles in its banded markings. Hab. Chinese sea. OPHISURUS DICELLURUS, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 106. pl. 48. f. 2-4. Sir Everard Home presented a specimen to the College of Surgeons. Hab. Mouth of the river Yang tze keang. OpuisurUS coLuBRINuS, Linn. Gmel. (Murena), Boddaert apud Pall. Beytr. ii. p. 56. t. 2. f. 3; Cuv. Régn. An. ii. p. 351. La murenophis colubrine, Lacép. v. p. 641. pl. 19. f.1. Murena annulata, Thunberg, ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 313 Spec. Ichth. viii. pl. 1. f. 1. Gymnothorax annulatus, Bl. Schn. p. 527. Ophithorax colubrinus, M‘Clelland, Cale. Journ. Nat. Hist. No. 18. p. 212. July 1844. Hab. Sea of Japan. -Opuisurus spapiceus, Richardson. A specimen of this fish was presented to the British Museum by John Reeves, Esq. The snout, though not wide, has a truncated tip, and the distance between its extremity and the anus is to the length of the fish, as 0°43 to 1:0. Three teeth stand in a triangle at the extremity of the upper jaw, and behind them, the jaw teeth, consisting of a single row on each side, meet in an angle on the symphysis, within which there are five or six small teeth on the mesial line. The lower jaw is armed like the upper one with a single series on each limb, but there are none anterior to the point at which these side lines meet. The tip of the jaw is rounded and considerably shorter than the upper one. Nostrils very mi- nute, with an orifice over the eye near its middle, having slightly raised edges, and another terminating a short thickish tube on each side of the snout, and there are two minute lobu- lets on the edge of the upper lip, the posterior one situated beneath the eye, and the other half-way between it and the end of the snout. The throat forms a slightly plaited bag, and the gill-openings are before the lanceolate acute pectorals and a little lower. The pectorals contain eleven rays ; the dorsal commences immediately behind them, and like the anal, which is highest anteriorly, terminates suddenly so as to leave a very short naked tip of the tail. The rays of the fins are pretty conspieuous. The colour of the specimen, after maceration in spirits, is darkish wood-brown above the lateral line, and whitish beneath, without any defined spotting. Length 13 inches. Distance between tip of snout and anus, 58 inches: length of the pectoral, 0°55 inch; and height of the body, 0°4 inch. This species possesses some of the characters ascribed to Oph. rostratus of M‘Clelland, but as he knows it merely from a drawing of Buchanan-Hamilton’s, and conse- quently has not said anything of the dentition, we cannot compare them. It is different from those which he has figured in the Calcutta Journal, and also from Oph. boro (Ham. Buch.), which has two rows of blunt teeth on the jaws and mesial line of palate, with three in a tri- angle at the tip of the upper jaw. Hab. Canton. OPHIsURUS HARANCHA, Buchanan-Hamilton, Ganges, p. 20? M’Clelland, Calc. Journ. v. p. 211. pl. 12. f.4.? con. Hardw. Malac. 302.? Gray, Hardw. Ill. Ind. Zool. 95. f. 2. The British Museum possesses a specimen of the harancha, which was presented to General Hardwicke by Buchanan-Hamilton, and also a Chinese Ophisurus procured at Canton by Mr. Reeves, which differ from each other so slightly that I hesitate to name them as distinct until more recent specimens have been compared. We have had no assistance in the discrimina- tion of these two specimens either from colour or anatomical structure. ' The body of the Chinese fish is nearly cylindrical, and the fish tapers only in the com- pressed end of the tail. It seems to have rather a smaller head than the Indian specimen and a shorter cleft of the mouth, and exhibits a row of prominent pores on the lateral line, which are not evident in the latter. Both have pores along the upper lip, round the eye and onthe snout. The fins in both are pale, and their origins and terminations easily made out. The dorsal commences farther back than the tip of the pectorals, and almost meets the anal at the end of the tail, but the extreme tip of the tail is naked. Teeth stoutly subulate and short in two rows on the fore part of both jaws, but wider apart in the lower jaw: in one row on the limbs of the jaws. Three or four near the symphysis of the upper jaw are a little taller than the rest. They stand in two rows on the fore part of the mesial line of the palate, and in only one row posteriorly. The Chinese specimen, after a long continuance in spirits, has a dilute wood-brown colour, and when examined through a lens, appears to be mottled with whitish specks mixed with a smaller number of black ones. The whitish specks exist on the belly, but the black ones are wanting there, hence the resulting tint is lighter. The Chinese specimen in the Br. Mus. is nearly 12 inches long; one in the Cambridge Philosophical Institution measures 142 inches, and the Indian one is 17% inches. ‘Hab. Canton. India. | Oxs, Ophisurus boro (Ham. Buch.; Gray, Hardw. Ill. pl. 95. f. 1. Icon. Hardw. Malac. a) of which there is an authenticated Indian specimen in the British Museum, bequeathed ‘toi by General Hardwicke, has two or three rows of fiat round teeth on the jaws and mid- ‘le line of the palate, with three teeth of the same form placed in a triangle at the tip of the upper jaw. The dorsal commences farther forward than that of harancha. The same museum 814. - REPORT—1845. ge HWP uo possesses also a specimen of Ophisurus hijala, Buch. Ham. Icon. Hardw. Mal. 300, noted as having been taken in a salt-water lake. Opuisurus? vimineEus, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 107. pl. 52. f. 16-20. This Ophiswrus differs much from the blunt-toothed species and resembles the Sphagebran- ché in its acute, elongated snout. Another species of an orange colour and slightly speckled on the back inhabits the Sooloo archipelago on the north side of Borneo. A drawing of it, made by Assistant-Surgeon Arthur Adams of the Samarang, exists in the British Museum. Hab. China. Specimen in Sir Edward Belcher’s collection. Fam. Murznipa, M‘Clelland. Mur2na IsincLeENnA, Richardson, Ichth. Voy. of Sulphur, p. 108. pl. 48. f.1. Icon. Reeves, 237; Hardw. Mal. 305. Chinese name, Tsing teen chuy, “Blue spotted club” (Birch); Ching teem chuy, ‘ Blue spotted mu- rena” (Reeves). Genus, Murena, Thunberg; Gymnothorax, Bloch. Cuv. Rég. An. ii. p.351. Div. 1. dentibus uno ordine. Hab. Canton. Mr. Reeves has deposited two specimens in the British Museum. Mur2NA ? Temm. et Schl. (Murenophis). A specimen labelled thus exists in the British Museum. It is 22 inches long, is finely mottled and clouded, and has a single row of sharp subulate teeth on the jaws. Hab. Japan. Mur2@NA VARIEGATA, Temm. et Schl. (Murenophis). A Murena, so named by the authors of the ‘ Fauna Japonica,’ exists in the British Museum. It much resembles M. thyrsoidea, but differs in its dentition, viz. in having a single row of conical, compressed and very acute teeth on each jaw, and two rows of minute ones on the roof of the mouth. The specimen is 18 inches long. Hab. Japan. Mur#na REEVESII, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 109. pl. 48. f. 2. Icon. Reeves, 68; Hardw. 304. Chinese name, Lda chuy, “ Wax club” (Birch) ; La chuey, “ Waxen eel” (Reeves). (Div. incerta.) Hab. Canton. No specimen. Murena tTHuyrsoipEA, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 111. pl. 49. f.1. Icon. Reeves, 220; Hardw. 304. Lower figure. Chinese name, Hwa chuy, “Flowery club” (Birch); Ta chuy, “ Flowered chuy” (Reeves). Genus, Strophidon, M‘Clelland. The British Museum possesses two of Mr. Reeves’s specimens. Hab. Canton. Ozs. Murena tessellata, Ichth. of Sulph. p. 109. pl. 55. f. 5-8, being part of Sir Edward Belcher’s collection, and M. pavonina, ibid. p. 110. pl. 53. f. 1-6, may be inhabitants of the Chinese seas, but the place of their capture was not recorded. Mur2na cErRtNo-NiGRA, Icon. Reeves, nullo numero, non Hardw. Length of drawing 73 inches. Div. incerta. This drawing apparently represents a Murena with very low fins. The general colour is a light wax-yellow with greenish tints and many blackish spots. A row of larger, round and nearly equidistant spots runs along the middle of the body, and on the top of the back and margins of the tail the spots assume the form of very short oblique bars. The throat and belly are tinged with carmine. Upper jaw obtuse and projecting slightly beyond the lower one. Nostrils not represented as tubular. Hab. Canton. Fam. SPHAGEBRANCHIDA, Miiller. MorinGua LuMBRICOIDEA, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 113. pl. 56. f. 7-11. Genus, Moringua, Gray, Zool. Mise. p. 9. Hab. China. Specimen in Sir Edward Belcher’s collection 10 inches long. ae ’ ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 315 Morinct'Aa ——? Temm. et Schl. The British Museum possesses a Japanese Moringua of which we do not know the specific name, as the lable originally attached to it had been transposed before it was purchased by the museum. It differs from M. lumbricoidea in its more slender, elongated body, narrower fins and longer under-jaw. The rays are perceptible round the end of the tail only, the rest being concealed by the thickness of the membrane. The teeth are similar to those of lum- bricoidea. Though the specimen is 264 inches long, it is no thicker than a lumbricoidea only ten inches in length. The genus seems to be the same with Ptyobranchus of J. M‘Clelland, but his Indian species all differ in the shape of the fins. Hab. Japan. IcuTHYOPHIS viTTATUS, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p. 114. pl. 53. f.’7,9. Genus, Ichthyophis, Lesson. We are ignorant of the internal structure of this fish, but from the posterior position of the anus it is probably to be referred to the Sphagebranchide of Miiller (Ophicardides, M’Clelland). A stuffed skin exists in the Haslar Museum, which was brought from China by Commissioner Elliot. Hab. China. ApreRICHTHYS QUADRATUS, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p. 115. pl. 52. f.8-15 (Sphagebranchus). Genus, Apterichthys, Dumeril; Cecilia, Lacép. Cuv. Régn. An. ii. p. 353. Hab. China. Specimen in Sir Edward Belcher’s collection. Ampuipnous cINEREUS, M‘Clelland (Pneumabranchus), Calc. Journ. Nat. Hist. iv. p. 411. pl. 25. f. 3. Genus, Amphipnous, Muller, Archiv. p. 15, 1840. Hab. China. Chusan. Ning poo. MonorrTervs Lzvis, Lacépéde ( Unibranchapertura), v. p.658. Richard- son, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p.116. Monoptere javanais, Lacép. p. ? A specimen obtained at Hong Kong by R. A. Bankier, Esq. was presented by him to the museum at Haslar Hospital. Hab. China. Hong Kong. Malay archipelago? MonopTervus cinereus, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p. 117. pl. 52. f. 1-6. synon. exclus. On consulting Mr. M‘Clelland’s paper in the 18th number of the Calcutta Journal, I find that,"misled by the close similarity of the outline of Pneumabranchus cinereus in the fourth volume of the above-mentioned journal to that of this Chinese fish, I erred in considering them to be the same species. This fish has a naked skin, while the bodies of his Pneuma- branchi (Amphipnous, Miller, 1840) are covered with imbricated scales. Hab. China. Chusan. Woosung. Monorrervus MARMoRATUS, Temm. et Schl. ( Unibranchapertura). The British Museum possesses an example of this species which was procured by Dr. Cantor at Chusan. It is 17} inches long, the part behind the anus measuring 3°45, and being con- sequently proportionally a little shorter than the tail of either levis or cinereus, The head is decidedly larger than in either of these species, and when measured to the posterior corner of the gill-opening, rather exceeds a tenth of the whole fish. A deep furrow runs along the middle of the back, which is narrower than the belly from the head to opposite the anus, and the action of the muscles produces a furrow coincident with the lateral line, which disappears when the parts are stretched. The belly is rounded. The lateral line in the middle of the height is composed of a series of very fine grooves, and is darker than the neighbouring parts. The tail is edged above and below by a very narrow translucent seam of pale skin entirely destitute of rays. The ground colour, after maceration in spirits, is wood-brown, thickly speckled on the head, back and sides with dark umber-brown. On the top of the back the umber-brown specks aré atranged so as to produce three lines, one occupying the mesial groove, and the other two the ridges on each side. On the sides the specks produce two series of short curves which meet at the lateral line in an angle and seem to correspond with the fasciculi of muscular = 316 ede -REPORT—1845. Thatial ae iia Ges, fibres, The specks however are not confined to these lines. The belly is without specks, put is marked by fine oblique brown lines which meet on the mesial line beneath, in an acute angle, and thus produce a series of chevrons reaching from the gill-opening to the anus. I had given a specific name to Dr. Cantor’s specimen, which was altered to marmoratus, on a Monopterus so named by the authors of the ‘ Fauna Japonica,’ having reached the British Museum. This fish is 23 inches in length, and the vent is rather farther back than in the Chinese example, being only 3-2 inches distant from the point of the tail. Three rays ap- peared very obscurely in the extreme tip of the tail. Hab. Chusan. Monorrerus? HELVoLUs. Icon. Reeves, t. nullo numero; Hardw. 312. The figure represents a fish with a depressed head, a blunt snout, no nasal tubes, and the general form of the preceding Monopteri. The position of the anal aperture is not indicated. The colour is rich reddish-orange, like that of the Cyprinus auratus, varied only by a series of black dots along the lateral line. Eye small, silvery, and placed rather high. Hab. Canton. OpHICARDIA XANTHOGNATHA, Richardson (Monopterus), Ichth. Voy. Sulph. p. 118. pl. 52. f.'7. Icon. Reeves, 221; Hardw. Malac. 311. Chinese name, Hwang sae shen (Birch); Wang sae shen, “ Yellow-jawed eel” (Reeves). Genus, Ophicardia, M Clelland. We have seen no specimen of this fish, and we were unable at the time of the publication of the ‘ Ichthyology of the Voyage of the Sulphur,’ to place in it its proper genus; but having since received Mr. M‘Clelland’s important paper on the Apodal fishes of Bengal, and com- pared his outline figure and account of Ophicardia phayriana with Mr. Reeves’s drawing, we have no doubt of both being members of one genus. In the Chinese fish the mouth is cleft rather farther past the eye, and this is the chief external difference between it and phayriana. Hab. Canton. ADDENDA. The preceding report was drawn up before any portion of the Ichthyology of the ‘Fauna Japonica’ had reached this country, but as the successive decades of that important work came out, the new scientific names therein published have been substituted for those which I had previously imposed, the descriptions of such species have been struck out, and the Japanese fish which had not been detected on the coasts of China were added. I have also availed myself of the specimens of Japanese fish which the British Mu- seum has from time to time received from Germany, and have adopted the names on their several labels. But notwithstanding every exertion to avoid the introduction of synonymous appellations, this evil cannot be entirely averted, in cases like the present, when several works on the same subjects are coming out simultaneously. In some instances the names proposed by English ichthyologists have the priority over those used in the ‘ Fauna Ja- ponica,’ the authors of this work having probably had no opportunity of consulting the papers of Dr. Cantor and of John M‘Clelland, Esq., of the Bengal Medical Service, published in India. There is also some interference of names between the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ and the ‘ Ichthyology of the Voyage of the Sulphur,’ composed of three fasciculi, of which the first one was pub- lished in April 1844, and the third in October 1845. I may add also that the genus Hoplegnathus proposed by me in March 1841, and published in the Transactions of the Zoological Society of London in 1842, is identical with the Scarodon of the ‘Fauna Japonica.’ The tenth decade of this latter work was brought to this country in March 1846, by its publisher, when the’ seventh sheet of the Report was in the press, and it is therefore necessary to make such corrections and additions to the previous sheets as are requisite j ‘from the decades of the ‘ Fauna’ which reached us after the previous sheets were printed off. nt Page 194. CARCHARIAS MELANOPTERUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. . A Japanese specimen in the British Museum. Hab. Sea of Japan, in addition to habitats previously given. Page 195. PRIsTIOPHORUS CIRRHATUS, Lath. Linn. Trans. ii. pl. 26 et 27. (Pristis), Mill. et Henlé, seite 98. Squalus tentaculatus, Shaw, Nat. Misc. 630. Sq. anisodon, Lacép. iv. p. 679. The British Museum possesses various specimens from Australia, which may be divided into two groups; one having a more slender beak and the barbels placed midway between the base and tip, and the other having a wider beak, with the barbels nearer the base. There is a Japanese specimen also in the museum. Hab. Seas of Japan and Australia, Page 198. PTEROPLATEA JAPONICA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. _ The British Museum possesses two foetal specimens from Japan which measure 53 inches across the disc, 3 along it, and 4% including the tail. They seem to differ very little from Pteroplatea micrura: _ Hab. Sea of Japan. TETRODON PaciLinotus, Temm. et Schl. F.J. Sieb. Rad. D.13; A. 11; C. 81; P. 15. (Spec. Brit. Mus. 8 inches long.) This Tetrodon is marked much like T. albo-plumbeus, but the spines extend further along _ the back to the tail, and there are some slight differences in the courses of the porous lines. It is probable nevertheless that it is the same species with albo-plumbeus, since there are two other _ Japanese specimens in the British Museum, which are intermediate between the two in the _ extent of the spiny surface and in other minute characters. This being the case renders it _ probable that the small specimen which we have reckoned to be a variety of ocellatus, under the name of var. guttulata, ought also to be referred to allo-plumbeus. _ Hab. Sea of Japan. ‘Terropon RUBRIPES, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. Rad. D.16; A. 13; OC, 91; P. 17. (Spec. Brit. Mus. from Japan, 19 inches long.) ab. Sea of Japan. (Temnonox LATERNA), Zetrodon pardalis, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. (Spec. Brit. Mus. 13 inches long. Rad. D.11; A. 11; C.9; P.17. __ The specimen shows more spots than are exhibited in Mr. Reeves’s drawing, and the nasal _cirrhus is scarcely so much developed, but there is no reason to doubt the identity of laterna and pardalis. The skin is smooth throughout, but pits slightly on the belly in drying. D4 Hab. Japan and China. Pulo Condore. % SeTRODON XANTHOPTERUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. Rad. D.16; A. - ‘14; C. 91; P. 18. (Spee. Brit. Mus. 144 inches long.) 4 ‘Hab. Sea of Japan. ‘Terrovon stictinotus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. Rad. D. 16; A.14; a 92; P. 15. (Spec. Brit. Mus. 15 inches long.) “Hab. Sea of Japan. FRODON STRIATUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. Rad. D. 11; A. 10; 1s 94; P. 11. (Spec. Br. Mus. 53 inches long, 33 in diameter.) ‘has the characters ascribed by Linnzus to hispidus; and it has much resem- 318 REPORT—1845. 000 | blance to 7. dineatus of Bl. t. 141, in the lines on the belly, but the dorsal stripes are replaced. | by spots. It is entirely and coarsely hispid, except the lips and trunk of the tail. Hab. Sea of Japan. Page 200. OsTRACION BREVICORNIS, Temm. et Schl. F.J.Sieb. Rad. D.10; A.11; C. 91; P. 11. (Spec. Brit. Mus. 32 inches long.) Of the division of auritus. Does it differ from aculeatus of Houttuyn ? Hab. Sea of Japan. BAutsres LiveaTus, Bl Schn. p. 466.t. 87; Temm. et Schl. FiJi Sieh The British Museum possesses one of Biirger’s Japanese specimens, and there is an indi- vidual in excellent condition in Sir Edward Belcher’s collection, This was not introduced into our list, from the place of its capture not having been noted, but the existence of the species in the Japanese seas leaves little doubt of Belcher’s specimen having been obtained on the coast of China, where the bulk of his collection was made. Hab. Seas of Japan and China, and the Indian ocean. Page 202. MonACANTHUS CIRRHIFER, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. Rad. D. 1|-33 ad 35; A. 33; C.12; P. 14. (Three Spec. Brit. Mus. from Japan.) Hab. Sea of Japan. Monacantuus ostoncus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. Rad. D. 1|-33; A. 32; C.12; P. 13. (Spec. Brit. Mus. from Japan, 7 inches long.) Hab. Sea of Japan. ALEUTERIUS CINEREUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. is Al. berardi of the pre- ceding list. (Spec. Brit. Mus. from Japan.) Hab. Seas of Japan, China, and New Guinea. Page 205. Goszrus FLAVIMANUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 141. pl.'74. f.1. “Rad. D. 8-15; A.12; C.18; P.16; V.5.” (l.c.) Length from 8 to 12 inches. Hab. Mouths of rivers in the bay of Nagasaki, Japan. Gozius BRUNNEUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 142. pl. 74.1.2. “ Rad. D. 6|-10; A. 8; C.18; P. 20; V.1]5.” (2. ¢.) Length 4 or 5 inches. This is perhaps identical with our G. platycephalus. Hab. Mouths of rivers in the bay of Nagasaki, Japan, Gosius oLivacgeus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 143. pl. 74. f. 3. “ Rad. D. 6|-10; A.8; C. 14; P. 18; V. 5.” (1. ¢.) Length 5 inches. Hab. Japan. Gozius virco, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 143. pl. 74. £4. “ Rad. B.4; D. 8|-26 ad 28; A. 1126; C. 20; P. 22; V.5.” (e.) Hab. Mouth of the bay of Nagasaki, Japan. Gosius uasTa, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 144. pl. 76. f. 1. Rad. D. Q|-1|19; A. 17; C. 172%; P.19; V. 1|5. (Spec. in Brit. Mus. from Japan, © measuring 93 inches.) This fish is more elongated and has a lower dorsal and longer caudal than our G. omma- iurus, but in other respects approaches very near to it. There are more scales scattered on the cheek, and the jointless rays at the base of the caudal are more numerous and more con-~ spicuous, ‘hese are the principal differences elicited by a comparison of specimens, The ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 319 ‘porous lines on the cheek and jaws and the clusters of scales on the gill-cover and temples are the same in both, The caudal fin of the specimen is an inch and a half long. Hab. Japan. Page 207. Sicyp1um opscuruM, Temm. et Schl. F, J. Sieb. p. 144. pl. 76. f.1. “ Rad. D. 6|-11; A. 10 vel 11; C.16; P.16; V. 10.” (Z.¢.) Length 4 inches. Hab. Rivers in the bay of Nagasaki, Japan. AmBLyopus LAcEPEDII, Temm, et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p, 145. pl. 75, f. 2. “ Rad. B.5; D. 6/42; A. 1/41; C.15; P. 32; V.12.” (l.c.) Length 15 inches. This species differs in the length of the caudal, the height of the other fins, and in- colour from Amblyopus rugosus and anguillaris, described in p. 207 of the Report. In the numbers __ of the rays it approaches the species noticed in the foot note to that page. Hab. In the mud of bays on the coast of Japan. _ PERIOPHTHALMUS MODESTUS, Temm. et Schl. F, J. Sieb. p, 147. pl. 76. f. 2. Length 3 inches. This fish has fewer rays in the first dorsal than the one similarly named by Cantor in his Report on the Fauna of Chusan, p. 29 (vide ante, p. 208), but his brief description offers no other discrepancy. The authors of the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ do not appear to have been aware of the previous employment of the specific name modestus. | t Hab. Salt ponds and shallow water on the coast of Japan. . Boleophthalmus boddaertii, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 148. pl. 76. f.3. The information given in the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ enables us to increase our list of the places of capture of this fish, by the addition of the seas of Japan, Java and Borneo (vide Report, p. 208). Page 209. ELzorris opscurA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 149. pl. 77. f. 1, 2, 3. “ Rad. D.7|-9 vel 10; A. 8 vel 9; C.15; P.15; V.5.” (Z¢.) Length one foot. The British Museum possesses two small specimens from Japan, measuring respectively 43 and 73 inches. Hab. Rivers which fall into the bay of Nagasaki, Japan. ELEOTRIS OXYCEPHALA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 150. pl. 77. fig. 4, 5. “ Rad. D. 6|-9; A.9; C.16; P.17; V. 5.” (.¢.) Length 72 inches. The description of this species corresponds in many particulars with the characters of El. cantherius, but as the head only is represented in the plate, we cannot determine whether the general resemblance is sufficiently close to justify the suppression of one of the specific names. _ Mr. Reeves’s drawing does not exhibit the gibbosity of the snout, occasioned by the inter- _ maxillary pedicles which is shown in the figure in the ‘ Fauna Japonica,’ and the colours noticed in the description in the latter work being those of the specimen after long maceration _ in spirits do not agree very closely with the Chinese drawing. _ Hab. Japan. Page 210. ~ Caxrionymus Loncicaupatus (Temm. et Schl. F.J. Sieb. p-151. pl.78. f.1) Is evidently the fish that we have described and figured as the female of C. reevesii in the Ichthyology of the Sulphur’s Voyage, published in April 1844. M elias _ CALLionymus Artivetis, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. pl. 79. f. 1. _ This is a different species from any that is noticed in the body of the Report. The letter- press relating to it has not reached us, Hab. Sea of Japan. 320 : REPORT—1845. Raat s LS Page 215. SEBASTES VENTRICOSUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 48. pl. 20. f. 1, 2. (Spec. Brit. Mus. 9 inches long). This species was accidentally omitted in the body of the list. Hab. Sea of Japan. Page 258. CRENILABRUS FLAGELLIFER, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. pl. 86. f. 2. Notwithstanding some differences in profile and in the illumination of the figures, is very pro- bably the same with the Ctenolabrus rubellio of the Report, the blues and reds of the La- bride being, as we have already mentioned, interchangeable after the death of the fish. CrrruiLaprus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. pl. 86. f. 3. (Letter-press not yet published). Hab. Japan. Page 311. Fam. GApDIDz. BROTULA IMBERBIS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. The British Museum possesses a specimen which is 5} inches long. LEPIDOLEPRUS JAPONICUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. Snout apiculated and acute; scales less strongly armed than those of the other species. The British Museum possesses two heads. Hab. Japan. Haslar Hospital, April 1846. ERRATA. P. 187, near the bottom, for Scomberida, read Scombriside. 197, for TRYGoNIDz, read TRYGONISIDZ. 199, for OstINOPTERYGII, M‘Leay, read OssEt. 235, line 9, for a South Australian Serranus, read the Plectropoma dentex of South Australia. 277, add to the references following PLATESSA CHINENSIS, Icon. Descriptions of Animals, fig. 104 & 105, pages 133 & 134. 286, second line from the bottom, for des, read de. 287, line 13, for Macropterote, read Macropteronote. x rd 7 PERIODICAL PHA NOMENA OF ANIMALS AND VEGETABLES. 321. Report of the Committee, consisting of Prof. OwEn, Prof. E. Fores, Dr. Lanxestser, Mr. R. Tayztor, Mr. Tuompson, Mr. Bau, Prof. Autpman, Mr. H. E. Srricxianp, and Mr. Basineton, appointed for the purpose of Reporting on the Registration of Pe- riodical Phenomena of Animals and Vegetables. Tue duty assigned to your Committee being to consider and report on the best means of concurring in the system of simultaneous observation of the Periodical Pheenomena of Organized Beings adopted by the Belgian and other continental naturalists, as proposed on their behalf at the Meeting of the Association at Plymouth, by M. Quetelet of Brussels, the Committee have judged it best, as a preparatory measure, to recommend to the Section D. (Zoology and Botany) to cause to be translated, and circulated among such naturalists as might be willing to give their assistance, the Instructions pub- lished and acted upon for a few years past by the continental naturalists above mentioned. The translation having been revised and enlarged with the aid of the Rev. L. Jenyns and M. de Selys-Longchamps, it is proposed by the Committee, ' that copies should be circulated where they may be useful, in order to invite and facilitate the co-operation of observers in various departments of natural history. } INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE OBSERVATION OF PERIODICAL PHENOMENA. Royal Academy, Brussels. _ Wuitsrt the earth performs its annual orbit, a series of phenomena is un- _ folded upon its surface which the periodical return of the seasons regularly brings back in the same order. These phenomena, taken individually, have engaged the attention of observers in all times; but to study them as a whole, and to aim at ascertaining the laws of dependence and relation that exist be- _ tween them, have been generally neglected*. The phases of the existence : of the minutest plant-louse, of the paltriest insect, are bound up with the phases of the existence of the plant that nourishes it; this plant itself, in its _ gradual development, is in some sort the product of all the anterior modifica- j tions of the soil and atmosphere. That would be a most interesting study which should embrace at once all periodical phenomena, both diwrnal and annual ; it would form of itself alone a science as extended as instructive. ~~ * There are doubtless few naturalists who have not collected some observations upon _ periodical phenomena; but the greater part of their labours, from their being isolated, would he nearly useless for the object which-we propose to accomplish. The various calendars and dials of Flora have been framed upon local observations, or such as, being made at different epochs and under circumstances entirely dissimilar, could not be compared with one another ‘Ror present that degree of exactness which science demands at the present day. The great _Linnzus was fully aware of the utility to be derived from simultaneous researches on the calendar of Flora, and considered that, if made in different countries, a comparison of them ; would be followed by advantages as novel as unexpected. It is, then, this idea of the cele- _ brated Swedish naturalist that we would wish to see realized, The United States of America _ seem to be the country which has most fixed its attention upon such a system of simulta- 4 heous observations: the annual reports of the governors of the University of New York, _ printed at Albany, regularly contain observations from thirty places on the flowering and _ fructification of certain plants, on the arrival and departure of birds of passage, and on other “natural epochs. _ It would not be possible to specify here all the observations of this kind which have hereto- _ fore been undertaken ; even those made in Belgium by M. Kickx, sen. for 1811 (Flora Brux.) and by Messrs. Pollaert and Dekin (Alman. du départem. de la Dyle, an. xii.), or those of our _ habitual correspondents, Baron d’ Hombres Firmas (Rec. de Mém. et d’ Obs,, &c., Nismes,1838), Dr. Th. Forster (The Perenn. Calend., Lond, 1824), &c. mm 1845. x 322 REPORT—1845. It is principally by the stmultaneity of observations made on a great number of points, that these researches are capable of attaining a high degree of im- portance. A single plant observed with care, would itself yield us information of the greatest interest. Synchronic lines might be traced on the face of the globe for its leafing, flowering, fructification, &c. The lilac, for example, Syringa vulgaris, flowers in the neighbourhood of Brussels on the Ist of May ; a line may be conceived on the surface of the earth upon which the flowering of this shrub takes place at the same date, as also lines on which its flowering is earlier or later by ten, twenty, or thirty days. Will those lines then be equidistant? will they have analogies with the isothermal lines? what will be the dependencies that will exist between them ?* so also as to the isanthesic lines or lines of simultaneous flowering, will these have a parallelism with the lines relative to the leafing, or to other clearly-marked phases in the development of the individual? We may conceive, for example, that whilst the lilac is beginning to bloom at Brussels on the 1st of May, there also exists a series of places northwards where this shrub is then only putting forth its leaves; has the line, then, which passes through these places any relations with the tsanthesic line which answers to the same date? It may also be asked whether the places that have the leafing on the same day, will likewise have the same day of flowering and fructification: it will thus be seen, keeping to even the simplest data, how many curious approxi- mations may be deduced from a system of simultaneous observations esta- blished on a large scale. The phenomena relating to the animal kingdom, those especially connected with the migrations of birds of passage, will afford results not less remarkable. \ Periodical phenomena may be divided into two great classes: the one be- long to the science of physics and natural history ; the others belong rather to the domain of statistics, and concern man living in the social state; for society itself, with all its tendencies to withdraw itself as much as possible from natural laws, has not been able to escape from this periodicity of which we are treating. The natural periodical pheenomena are in general independent of the social periodical phenomena ; but this does not hold good of these latter with regard to the former. It would therefore be a first step taken upon this ground so little explored, and which seems to promise so much to the labours of those who know how to cultivate it, to have commenced the simultaneous observa- tion of all the periodical phenomena connected with physics and natural history. These last phenomena are themselves divisible into several classes, and the study of them presupposes a considerable acquaintance with the meteoro- logical phenomena on which they principally depend. It is moreover not without reason that meteorology should take the lead, and commence this series of continued researches to which those observers who aspire truly to follow nature in all her laws of organization and development will have now to devote themselves. But meteorology, in spite of its persevering labours, has not hitherto been able to ascertain more than the mean state of the different scientific elements relating to the atmosphere, and the limits within which these elements can vary according to climate and season. It is requisite that it should continue its progress at the same time with the investigation now proposed; and in order to guide our judgement as to the observed results, it should show us, * Examples of similar researches have been given by Messrs. von Humboldt, Schouw, &e. — as to the boundary lines for the culture of the vine, olive, &c, in their relations with isother- mal lines, : r > i TAX “ ele PERIODICAL PHENOMENA OF ANIMALS AND VEGETABLES. 323 ‘at each step, whether the atmospheric influences are in a normal state, or whether they manifest any anomalies. The desire of devoting myself to the study of periodic phenomena upon a rather extensive scale, led me to request several men of science both at home and abroad to aid me with their views and observations*. The favourable reception given to my requests has allowed me to believe that I was not de- ceived as to the importance of the proposed researches; I likewise saw that it would be possible to compare our climate with those of the neighbouring countries, by direct and simultaneous observations, and to obtain, for Belgium in particular, valuable data which at present we do not possess. However, to proceed in a useful manner, it is necessary above all things that the observations should be made on the same plan, and it was not with- out reason that the men of science to whom I applied, requested instructions as to the objects to be observed, and the course to be taken in the observa- tions so as to render them comparable, an essential condition for the attain- ment of the proposed object. The following instructions have been drawn up to meet this demand, from suggestions furnished by MM. Cantraine, De Selys- Longchamps, Dumortier, Kickx, Martens, Mowen, Spring, Wesmael, &c, » There is one important remark to make, that should not be lost sight of, viz. that we should agree upon certain observations which should be made in preference, and essentially bear on the same scientific points in the several countries in which the observations are made, The field to be explored is so immense, that unless some rallying-points are adopted, the different ob- servers will run a great risk of not concurring, and thus almost losing their labour. For instance, when we point out some. plants or animals which it will be more especially desirable to observe, we do not wish to underrate the _ utility of observations made on other species; but this will be in order to obtain points of comparison, or standards around which other observations will _ easily arrange themselves. Our appeal may probably receive attention only from isolated observers, and it is impossible for them to comply with all the _ demands which we make respecting periodical phenomena; but if they are ' desirous of undertaking those labours of detail to which we shall confine our _ instructions, they will at least learn what should be their starting-points so as _ to keep within the limits of the system generally adopted. f if * The observations on flowering were commenced in 1839, in the garden of the Royal Ob- ' Servatory at Brussels. The results obtained in 1839 and 1840 were printed at the end of the " observations on the meteorology, magnetism, and temperatures of the earth in 1840, in vol. iy. and xv. of the ‘ Mémoires de l’Académie Royale.’ In 1841, the simultaneous observa- tions of MM. Kickx, Cantraine, Fr. Donkelaer, Martens, Morren, V. Deville, De Selys-Long- ‘champs, Robyns, Dr. Gastone, Van Beneden, Galeotti, Spring, Schwann, &c. commenced, ‘This system of observation was further extended in 1842 and 1843, and has been carried pend the frontiers of Belgium. The new observers are MM. de Spoelberg and Debroe at Louvain, Fredericq and Spae at Ghent, M*Leod at Ostend, Vincent at Brussels, De “Martius at Munich, De Caisne at Paris, the Baron d’Hombres Firmas, jun. at Alais, B. Vala at Marseilles, Brayais at Lyons, Couch in Cornwall, Blackwall in Wales, De Pierre and Wart- " mann at Lausanne, M. Achille Costa at Naples, Scherer, Camille Rondani and Colla at Parma, _ Van Hall at Groningen and the Horticultural Society of Utrecht, who desired to form the central point for the collection of observations made in the kingdom of the Netherlands, which the learned Counsellor von Martius has been so obliging as to do for Bavaria and Ger- “many in general. The new assistance which has been promised in different parts of the globe, _ give reason to hope that we shall soon be able to deduce the most valuable results from so ex- _ tensive an association. Among the learned bodies which have promised us their support, we _ May mention especially the Association of Natural History of Switzerland, the Royal Botanical ~ Society of Ratisbon, the National Institute of Washington, the Philosophical Society of Phila- delphia ; but we ought especially to congratulate ourselves that one of the most illustrious coun- _trymen of Linnzus, M. Berzelius, has spoken favourably of our scientific crusade in the Aca- demy of Stockholm, where its formation was originally proposed, about a century ago. - ie 324 ' REPORT—1845. Mererorotocy AND Paysics or THE GLoBE.—Those who are desirous of studying thoroughly the meteorology and physics of the globe, and carefully appreciating all the periodical changes which these two branches of our knowledge present, should have recourse to the special report which has been published on this subject by a committee of the Royal Society of London*. But the observations specified are so numerous and fatiguing, they require the operation of so many persons, that it has been hardly possible to find more than four or five observatories in Europe in which they are carried out to their full extent. In fact it has been undertaken to make observations every two hours, night and day; and even, at a certain period in each month, to observe the magnetic instruments continuously for twenty-four hours}. For- tunately for our plan, such laborious observations are not necessary as far as natural history is concerned; our object is to direct attention much more to the annual than the diurnal variations, which may in their turn become the object of special and simultaneous study. The appeal which we now make being addressed especially to naturalists, we would restrict our demands to researches which are directly and essen- tially connected with the modifications presented by the three kingdoms under the influence of the seasons, and avoid fatiguing observers by requiring too much from them. The thermometer should occupy the first place among instruments to be consulted ; and the temperature of the air and earth should be simultaneously determined. The thermometer, exposed to the air, at the distance of some feet above the soil, should face the north in the shade, so that it may not be influenced by reflexion from the adjacent walls. It would be sufficient to note its indication each day at a certain hour; 9 o’clock a.m. would be the best. It would be necessary, moreover, to ascertain daily its minimum and maxi- mum, by means of a thermometer fitted for the purpose. The temperature of the earth, especially of those layers in which the roots of trees are imbed- ded, deserves special attention. It would be very interesting daily to trace the progress of three or four thermometers, the bulbs of which were equi- distant in a vertical line: the bulb of the first should be just beneath the surface of the soil, and that of the last at a depth of 23 to 30 inches. Pecu- liar thermometers, the stems of which project above the surface of the earth, and whose bulbs are rather large compared with the size of the tube, are constructed for these observations. These instruments should be placed in a soil similar to that in which the plants under observation grow, and which presents an unbroken surface, sheltered from the direct action of the sun. It would, moreover, be interesting to observe, as is done in the garden of the Observatory at Brussels, two series of thermometers, one exposed to and the other sheltered from the direct heat of the sun. The time for observation, as in the thermometer exposed to the air, should be 9 o’clock in the morning. The barometer should also be observed at least once a day, and at a fixed hour. Care should be taken to note its maxima and minima; and each ba- rometric observation should be accompanied by the indication of the thermo- meter attached to the instrument. The hygrometer also yields valuable indications; but its place may ke ad- * Report of the Committee of Physics, including Meteorology, &c., 8vo. London, R. and J. E. Taylor, 1840. The instructions for different voyages, published by the Royal Academy — of Sciences at Paris, particularly those which M. Arago has inserted in the Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes’ for 1836, may also be consulted with advantage; we can also recommend the new meteorological work published by M. Lamont at Munich, and entitled ‘Annalen fiir Me- teorologie und Erdmagnetismus.’ + These observations have been continued at the Royal Observatory at Brussels since 1841, _ i PERIODICAL PHH NOMENA OF ANIMALS AND VEGETABLES. 325 -vantageously supplied by the psychrometer, which is less liable to get out of order, and the indications of which are much more correct. We do not detail the precautions requisite for these observations, for which we merely refer to the ordinary treatises on physics. The force and direction of the winds should be carefully registered; as also the state of the sky. To indicate the degree of serenity, a decimal frac- tion may be employed; a perfectly serene sky being represented by unity, and one completely overcast by zero. By this mode of notation the inter- mediate states can be expressed in 10ths. The quantities of water falling, either as rain, hail or snow, should be col- lected by the aid of udometers, either immediately after their fall or at fixed times every 24 hours. The stormy, misty, &c. days should be noted. As to the state of the clouds, Howard’s system of notation may be advantageously employed. For those who are enabled to devote greater attention to the physical phenomena, we would recommend the observation of the electrical states of the air, of terrestrial magnetism, falling stars, aurore boreales, and earth- quakes; as also the temperature of springs, of plants and animals, as well as the analysis of waters and the air. But the latter is now in progress under the direction of M. Dumas, and we may expect the best results from labours directed by so practised-.a chemist. ‘The appreciation of the quantity of light and heat emanating from the sun, at different periods of the year and at various times of the day, has but little engaged the attention of philoso- phers, and deserves more notice. Lastly, to these living at the sea-side, the times and heights of the tides would be interesting subjects of observation. VEGETABLE Kincpom.—Observations relative to the vegetable kingdom may be regarded in two points of view, according as they bear upon the annual period or the diurnal period of plants. The annual period is that space of time comprised between two successive returns of the leaves, the flowers and the fruit; the diurnal period is the return of that hour of the day at which certain species of flowers open; for as all plants have fixed periods for their leafing and flowering, so in like manner certain species of plants open __ and close at certain hours of the day, and always at the same hours in the same _ place. The results presented by these phenomena are then of the greatest interest, not only to meteorology, but also to botanical geography. ; In the study of them the principal object which ought to be aimed at is to _ vender the observations comparable, so that the results obtained on any given __ point may be compared with those of other countries. The essential point _. therefore does not consist in the large number of plants submitted to exami- nation, but in the choice of the species and the identity of the comparable conditions. \ It is with a view to the attainment of this object, that the following instruc- __ tions have been drawn up :— 1. Observation for the annual period.—The first point in these observa~ _ tions is to discard annuals: in fact, these plants come up frequently at very various periods, according to the time at which they were sown, so that the indications furnished by them would not be comparable*. This consideration should also lead us to discard the use of biennials, be- ~ Cause those which come up but slowly and towards autumn are necessarily __\' * M. Bergsma, president of the Horticultural Society of Utrecht, has however truly re- marked, that annuals might be usefully employed, provided precaution be taken to use in _ every case the same seeds and to sow them on the same days. \ 326 REPORT-——1845. Uf behind those which come up in the spring. We admit of no exceptions except as to the autumnal cerealia, such as rye, wheat, or winter barley, which are always sown about the same time, and the phenomena of the ve- getation and flowering of which form the most important point in annual observations, from their relating to plants so extensively cultivated. The period of their being sown and that of the appearance of the ear should be noted. From what we have said it is evident that the plants to be examined should be perennials or woody. The latter are especially important, because they are more subjected to the double combination of atmospheric and terrestrial modifications ; and again, because they are better adapted than perennials for observations on the foliation. It is of importance that the plants destined for daily observation should have been planted at least a year; for it is well known that vegetables trans- planted in the spring present too much uncertainty in the periods of their foliation and flowering, these periods being then subordinate to the formation of the roots. In the choice of plants for observation we must avoid those which, flow- ering through all the year, have formed their buds before winter, such as the dandelion, chickweed and common groundsel, because these plants have no determinate period, and the time of their flowering in early spring is irregular. All those cultivated plants which yield varieties by culture must be equally avoided, as Tulipa Gesneriana, the rose-tree, the pear-tree, the cherry-tree, the large-leaved lime-tree; experience shows, that amongst varieties produced in this manner from seed-beds, some flower frequently fifteen days before the others. To be satisfied of the comparative value of the flowering of these plants, it would be’ necessary to observe everywhere the same variety, which is often impossible. Such plants as are too nearly allied in respect of species, and difficult clearly to distinguish, should also. be avoided : without attention to this, ob- servers might be employing different species, which would prevent the ge- neral operation from being comparative. ; Finally, all those flowers must be discarded, the zstivation of which does not admit of our accurately noting the exact moment of expansion: such as Calycanthus, Illecebrum, Aquilegia, &c. The table of species marked out for the daily observations has been formed from these considerations. In the construction of it our object has been to obtain results which might be useful at the same time to meteorology, to botany and to agriculture. With this view, we have aimed at representing all the families of the European plants, excepting those which do not contain plants fit for cultivation; this consideration is of great interest with regard to botanical geography. We have also introduced into it some North American genera cultivated in Europe, as the Catalpa, Tradescantia, Menispermum, &c., in order that this list may be rendered comparable with that of observations made in the United States of America. In each family we have selected in preference the most common and diffused species, and amongst them such species as have the flowers largest and best-developed. Finally, we have selected flowers so as to present some species which blossom in each month of the year. Amongst these plants are some which we especially recommend to the attention of observers, such as rye, wheat, the lilac, the box, &c.: these are distinguished by italics. The period at which rye, barley and winter wheat come into ear should be carefully. examined, this point being of great importance in agriculture. In the district of Tournay it is a farmer’s axiom that April is never seen to PERIODICAL PHZANOMENA OF ANIMALS AND VEGETABLES. 327 go out without corn in the ear ; it is curious to determine at what period these cerealia put forth the ear in the various parts of Belgium and Europe. According to the request of a large number of observers, we have classed the plants recommended to their attention in alphabetical order. The list has been increased by the addition of some new plants; but on the other hand, the Academy has resolved not to include in its publication any plants but those selected for the observers. To admit all observations indiscrimi- nately would be to encumber the Memoirs of the Academy, and to render comparisons almost impossible; whilst, by the arrangement we have adopted, an analysis of the lists may readily be made, and we shall be able to publish with each plant the dates relating to it in each locality. Having detailed the views by which we have been guided in drawing up the table for annual observations, it remains for us to speak of the dyties of the observer. Linnzus, who first understood all that was to be deduced from the appli- eation of meteorology to the vegetable kingdom, pointed out four periods for observation, viz. the foliation, the flowering, the fructification, and the fall of the leaf. Other authors have gone further; they have multiplied the details. In experiments intended to assume a general character, this ap- pears to us neither necessary nor useful; for by heaping up detail upon de- tail, these observations cease to be comparable, and thus lose their principal utility. Even in the data of Linnzus, there are some which are only applicable to a few vegetables. For instance, the foliation and defoliation can hardly be determined except on woody plants. It thus appears to us that we must confine ourselves to the four data we have pointed out, paying special atten- tion to the most important of all, that which alone would in case of necessity suffice, viz. the flowering. We leave to each observer the care of noting _any peculiarities which may appear to him worthy of notice. In the order of observations, two methods may be employed; we may either note the plants in their wild state or in their cultivated state. We think that the former does not present sufficient facilities, and is subject to too much uncertainty, for the observer would be compelled to traverse daily very different regions, at great distances apart, and would never be sure of making a second observation on the same plant that he had first examined. Where in Europe can we find two localities in which the same species of perennial plants are to be met with upon a space sufficiently limited for making the daily observations? It is impossible for the naturalist to observe daily the fields, the woods and the meadows of his country; he must then confine himself to approximations. Now that which is essential is, that the daily observation of the plants fixed on for comparison should be made in similar positions. From this consideration, we are of opinion that these observa- tions should be made on individuals planted in an airy garden. The plants should neither be sheltered nor exposed to a south wall. As regards trees, they should be selected in open fields, but not in woods, which always afford very unequal shelter. As to the indication of the periods, they should be made, for the foliation, when the first leaves burst the buds and become visible; and for the flowering, when the anthers are visible; the same will hold good for the flowers of the Composite. The period for noting the foliation may offer difficulties, from its presenting different phases, which, especially in spring, may cause considerable differences. It is requisite, therefore, to have a fixed period easily ascertained by every one. We propose to select the moment when, from the advance of the vernation, the upper face of the outer leaves becomes exposed to the action of the atmosphere and commences its vital functions. The fructification should be noted at the time of the dehiscence 328 : _ REPORT—1845. of the pericarp in dehiscent fruits, and these form the largest number ; the in- dehiscent fruits should be noted when they have evidently arrived at ma- | turity. Lastly, the defoliation should be noted when the greater part of the leaves of the year have fallen off, it being fully understood that what relates to leaves can only apply to the woody plants, excluding moreover the ever- greens, the defoliation of which is successive. To the preceding indications, the observers would do well to append those of all such phenomena as they might consider of interest; such are the mo- difications which occur in the odours and colours of flowers or leaves, &c.*; it would be especially desirable that they should annex the daily indications of the mean temperatures, or what is still better, the maximum and mini- mum temperature of each day. 2. Observations for the diurnal period —Independently of the annotations of each day, which form the calendar of Flora, it is of much interest to re- gister in each locality the hour at which certain plants expand and shut up which are endowed with the faculty of performing these functions at a de- terminate hour. But with regard to this, it may be thought too tedious to require the results for every day ; it is proposed therefore to limit them to the equinoxes and the summer solstice. In the formation of the table which relates to these plants, we need take no notice of the views that have guided us in constructing the table for the observation of the annual phenomena. It will be conceived, that it is in- different whether the plant submitted to horary observation be annual or not, whether in the open earth or the orangery, &c.; all that is requisite is that the plant be healthy and exposed to the open air. We recommend especially the dandelion, Leontodon taraxacum, which, flowering throughout the year, will furnish a subject for curious observations. (See below the tables of plants to be observed.) From the commencement of 1840, observations on the flowering of plants have been combined with the meteorological observations at the observatory of Prague+; these observations, made by M. Fritsch, relate to the flowering, considered under five phases: the commencement of the flowering, the semi- flowering, full flowering, the semi-defloration, and the defloration, We have not thought it necessary to enter into these details in what concerns the ge- neral system of observations. To keep account of the exposure of the plants as far as possible, it is indi- cated at Prague by the letters N, E, S, O, whether this exposure is more particularly to the north, east, south or west. The signs — and + indicate, moreover, whether the plants grow in the shade, or in the full sun. We might adopt a similar notation; the absence of any sign would express an in- termediate state. Anima Kincpom.—The department of science to which our attention is directed, rests upon the physiological principle that every organic being, whether an animal or plant, is essentially dependent on atmospheric air, as well for its development as for the preservation of its existence; and that both its development and the exercise of its functions and habits are checked or modified by the modifications of this same atmospheric air. Thus we observe that epidemic and endemic maladies predominate in certain sea- * For the detail of the observations, see the instructions given by M. Spring in the ninth yol. of the ‘ Bulletins de Académie,’ p. 124, &c + The magnetic and meteorological observations of Prague are made upon a very large scale, under the direction of M. Kreil, and deserve, in several respects, to serve as a model for in- vestigations of this kind —Magnetische und Meteorologische Beobachtungen zu Prag. Three quarto volumes have at present appeared. PERIODICAL PHANOMENA OF ANIMALS AND VEGETABLES. 329 _ sons and certain years; that the offspring of the common hare is not always equally well developed ; that several Rodentia increase in one year in a certain locality, whilst the following year barely the normal number isto be found there; the stag and the roebuck shed their antlers at a period which is not invaria- bly the same each year: to cite a few more examples only, readily compre- hended, do we not see the common partridge bring up its numerous family with various success; the swallow, the martin, and the nightingale arrive in our countries, and leave them, at an earlier or later period of the year? the caterpillar and the common cockchafer alarm us sometimes by their num- bers in our plantations? Our object should be, to observe the degree of con- nexion subsisting between the animal, the plant, and the atmospheric air,— to show, by continued and accurate observations, the influence to which these beings are subjected from the medium in which they live, and to attempt, by this method, to explain in a positive manner such phenomena as those we have mentioned above. In animals (in the wild state), the period of coupling, or the season of love, that of birth, that of moulting, whether double or single, that of migration, that of becoming torpid and of awaking, that of the first appearance, the rarity or the remarkable abundance of any species, are the points which should be observed and indicated with exactness, conjointly with meteorological observations. Unity of time and place, two _ indispensable conditions, should exist between these two kinds of observa- tions, because it is from the data afforded by these observations that general consequences are to be deduced. Each observer should form a table of his observations, and enter in it in technical terms, as far as possible, the animals which he has observed. It is the result drawn from these partial tables that will form the starting- point of the inductions or corollaries serving to establish some of nature’s laws. It will be seen therefore that these tables should be made up with the greatest exactness. It cannot be denied that many difficulties attend such researches, but it must not be lost sight of that the first attempts in every science are always difficult, especially when they require the co-opera- tion of a Jarge number of persons. In order to render the mode of the semultaneous observations uniform, we shall now enumerate some of the principal points to which we consider we ought to call the especial attention of observers, reminding them that the most common species, and such as exist in the greatest number of coun- tries, must for several reasons inspire the greatest interest, and that the most important observations will be such as are made in the country. Mammalia.—-1. Appearance and retreat of the bats. 2. Frequency or rarity of some Insectivora ( Talpa europea, mole ; Sorex, { shrew mouse; of some Rodentia of the genera Mus and Arvicola). f 3. Commencement and termination of the lethargic sleep of the dormouse ° (Myoxus). 4. Moulting of the genus Mustela of the Carnivora. Appearance and re- tirement of the badger (Meles taxus, after its hybernation). Reptiles.—Retirement, reappearance and pairing of the Batrachia (frogs, tree-frogs, toads, salamanders and efts). Mollusea.—The period at which the land and fresh-water gasteropods quit their retreat, the former to creep on the soil, the latter to swim on the surface of the water. That at which cases of poisoning by muscles occur*. _Insects.— Appearance of the following species. For thése see the amended List at the end of this Report, as recommended by the Committee. q _ * In the preceding remarks we have followed the indications of Professor Cantraine. » —— eee ee ee |e 330 REPORT—1845. Fishes.—1. To point out, at stations situated on rivers— _ The period of spring at which the species of the genus Clupea, denominated allis, Clupea alosa, L., the sardine, and shad, C. finta (in Flemish meyvisch) ascend. The same with salmon and salmon-trout, Salmo salar, and S. trutia, L. The same for the sturgeon, Acipenser, L. 2. As regards the fish which never leave the sea, to observe in the sea-ports or on the coasts, the periods at which the following arrive :— The earliest herrings, Clupea harengus, L. The earliest mackerel, Scomber scombrus, L., and some other quite common migrating fish. Birds.—As regards birds, we think we cannot do better than republish an extract of the notice of M. de Selys-Longchamps, presented to the Zoological Section of the British Association at its last meeting in Plymouth :— “ Zoology and botany should be first interrogated, to enable us to ascertain each year to what degree the variations in the meteorological constitution is capable of advancing or retarding the appearance of certain animals or the foliation and flowering of plants. “The Belgian naturalists have seen in how great.a degree these observa- tions, with the precise dates, and repeated during several years, will render more exact the means sought to be established in local faunas and floras, nay, even in the general fauna of Europe..... aye “It is with the view of insuring the possibility of these comparisons which I consider useful for ornithology, that I would earnestly invite naturalists to concentrate their observations upon a certain number of species which are diffused throughout Europe, or nearly so. I have thought it best, for this purpose, to select terrestrial in preference to aquatic species, because their migrations are extended more regularly over all regions, and the determina- tion of them is easier, insomuch that whilst living in a town we can make ob- servations by means of common sportsmen, all these birds having a vernacular name in the different European dialects. I am far from denying the utility of similar observations made upon the migrations of aquatic birds ; but, I repeat, that I believe, during the first years, for want of a sufficient number of stations, we should have difficulty in collecting data for the deduction of general results upon these species, which are only found ordinarily in large marshes or on the sea-coast. “T propose then, setting out from 1842, to study the precise date of the migrations of about forty species, which may be divided into four sections :— 1. Those birds (as the swallow and nightingale) which come and-pass the summer and breed with us; 2. Such (like the crane) as are regular in their passage, but which merely pass, without remaining ; 3. Those birds (as the gray crow and the siskin) which sojourn in our country throughout the winter and disappear in the fine season ; 4. Such birds (as the waxwing and the stormy petrel) the passage of which is accidental at indeterminate periods. I have departed from the principles mentioned in selecting this latter class, but I thought it would be important to direct attention to two or three species the causes of whose appearance are unknown, as the waxwing, or are closely connected with the occurrence of sea tempests, as the Procellaria pelagica. “The first division will, I believe, consist of the same species for all Europe ; but it will be different with the other three: in one country, for instance Hol- land, the stork will be in the first division, whilst elsewhere it will belong to the second, as in Belgium. The same will hold good with the third and fourth, according to the more or less northern latitude at which the observa- ) | PERIODICAL PHZ NOMENA OF ANIMALS AND VEGETABLES. 331 P tions are made; and it is just these corrections which will, I hope, serve to ' show the utility of the work which we are desirous of seeing undertaken in the greatest possible number of localities.” Birds selected for the observations. (See this List at the end, as amended by the Committee for the use of English Observers.) M. de Selys thinks the determination of the period of departure needs less to be insisted upon, being aware of the great difficulty attending it; how- - ever, exceptions should be made, especially'in the case of swallows, quails, wagtails (Mot. alba), and the crow. To the observations on the arrival and departure of birds, we may advan- tageously append those which M. Cantraine proposes :— Of the period at which ‘crows, starlings ( Sturnus vulgaris, L.) form into flocks, or pair off; Of the period at which the magpie (Corvus pica, L.) commences its nest ; Of the period of moulting ; Of the period at which the sparrow (Fringilla domestica, L.) selects a companion, a time remarkable for scenes of quarreling, which are often more readily distinguished by the ear than the eye. The period at which it begins to build should also be noticed. The thrush Whe: musicus), the field-fare (Turdus pilaris) and the missel thrush ( Twrdus viscivorus) deserve particular attention, inasmuch as they are regular birds of passage throughout the greater part of Europe. _ These birds are also the more readily observed, as, being in request for the table, they are found in all the markets. As M. Cantraine has observed, “ we should point out, as far as possible, the local circumstances which may cause any species to prolong its stay in any particular place. Thus, on the 9th of October 1841, swallows were still in immense numbers in the vicinity of the north and south stations on the Brussels railroad, whereas they had quitted Ghent about the 17th of Septem- ber, and but few individuals were to be seen at Ath on the 25th of that month. Should not this long stay be attributed to a more elevated temperature, caused by the locomotive engines stationed there, as well as to a greater abundance of food, the consequence of this?” The naturalists of the south of Europe will not allow the arrival and de- parture of the flamingo (Phenicopterus antiquorum), nor of some species of sea-gulls (Larus melanocephalus, &c.), nor of the tunny (Scomber thynnus), _ to escape their attention. A. QuETELET. Brussels, December 1, 1843. _ N.B. Such persons as are desirous of taking a part in these researches, are _ requested to address their results to Mr. noe the Assistant Secretary of _ the British Association, to the care of Messrs. R. & J. E. Taylor, Red Lion - Court, Fleet Street. List of Plants to be observed for the periods of Foliation and Defoliation. _ Acer campestre, L. Amygdalus persica, Z.(@,Ma- Carpinus betulus, Z, _ +— pseudo-platanus, Z. deleine). —— orientalis, Z. _ ——saccharinum, L. Aristolochia sipho, Z. Celtis cordata, Desf. _ — tataricum, L. Betula alba, L. orientalis, Z. _ Aisculus hippocastanum, L. alnus, J. Cercis siliquastrum, Z, — lutea, Pers. Berberis vulgaris, Z. Chionanthus virginica, Z. _ — pavia, L. Bignonia catalpa, L, Corchorus japonicus, Z. _ —— macrostachys, Mich. radicans, Z. » Corylus ayellana, Z. "i Amygdalus communis, Z. Carpinus americana, Mich, | —— colurna, ZL. q wes 332 Corylus tubulosa, Willd. Cratzgus coccinea, L. — monogyna, Jacq. — oxyacantha, L. Cytisus laburnum, ZL. — sessilifolius, Z. Euonymus europzus, LZ.’ — latifolius, Mill. — verrucosus, Scop. Fagus castanea, L. sylvatica, L. Fraxinus excelsior, Z. — juglandifolia, Lam. ornus, Z, Ginkgo biloba. Gleditschia inermis, L. —— horrida, Willd. triacanthos, L. Gymnocladus canadensis, Lam. Halesia tetraptera, L. Hippophaé rhamnoides, L. Hydrangea arborescens, L. Juglans regia, L. —— nigra, L. Lonicera periclymenum, L. — symphoricarpos, L. — tatarica, L — xylosteum, ZL. Lyriodendron tulipifera, Z. Magnolia tripetala, L. — yulan, Desf. REPORT—1845, Mespilus germanica, Z. Morus nigra, L. Philadelphus coronarius, L. — latifolius, Schrad. Platanus acerifolia, Willd. occidentalis, Z. Populus alba, L. —— balsamifera, Z. tremula, Z. Prunus armeniaca, L. (6. abri- cotier), — cerasus, L.(6. bigar.noir). —— domest. (6.gr.dam. viol.) padus, L. Ptelia trifoliata, Z. Pyrus communis (6. dergamot). japonica, LZ. — malus (6. calvill. d’été). spectabilis, dit. Quercus pedunculata, Willd. sessiliflora, Smith. Rhamuus catharticus, L. —— frangula, LZ Rhus coriaria, Z. — cotinus, LZ. —— typhina, Z. Ribes alpinum, L. — grossularia, L. nigrum, LZ rubrum, LZ. Robinia pseudo-acacia, L. Robinia viscosa, Vent. Rosa centifolia, D. gallica, L. Rubus idzus. odoratus, L. Salix alba, Z. Sambucus ebulus, LZ. —— nigra, L. —— racemosa. Sorbus aucuparia, L. — domestica, LZ. Spirza bella, Sims. — hypericifolia, L. — levigata, L Staphylea pennata, L. — trifolia, L. Syringa persica, L. — rothomagensis, Hort. vulgaris, D. Tilia americana, LZ. —— parvifolia, Hoffin. —— platyphylla, Vent. Ulmus campestris, Z. Vaccinium myrtillus, Z. Viburnum lantana, Z. —— opulus, L. ji. simpl. — _, L. fi. plen. Vitex agnus-castus, L. incisa, Lam. Vitis vinifera (6. chass. dore). List of Plants to be observed for the periods of Flowering and Ripening of Acanthis mollis, Z Acer campestre, L. pseudo-platanus, L. —— saccharinum, L. — tataricum, Z. Achillea biserrata, Borst. — millefolium, Z. Aconitum napellus, L. Esculus hippocastanum, L. — Lutea, Pers. — macrostachys, Mich. —_ payia, L. Ajuga reptans, L. Alcea rosea, L. Allium ursinum, Z. Alisma plantago, L. Althea officinalis, Z. Amygdalus communis, L. — persica, L. (6. Madeleine). Anchusa sempervirens, L. Andromeda polifolia, Z —— acuminata, Ait. racemosa, L. Anemone nemorosa, L. —— hepatica, L. ranunculoides, Z. Angelica archangelica, L. Antirrhinum majus, Z. the Fruit. Arbutus uva-ursi, L. Aristolochia clematites, Z. sipho, L. Arum maculatum, Z. Asarum europeum, L. Asclepias tuberosa, LZ. incarnata, L. — syriaca, L. —— vincetoxicum, ZL. Asperula odorata, Z. —— taurina, LZ. Aster dumosus, Z. —— nove anglie, L. paniculatus, Willd. Astragalus onobrychis, L. Astrantia major, Z. Atropa belladonna, LZ. Avena sativa, L. Bellis perennis, L. Berberis vulgaris, L. Betula alba, Z alnus, Z. Bignonia Catalpa, L. radicans, L. Bryonia alba, L. dioica, Jacq. Buphthalmum cordifolium, WV. Buxus sempervirens, L. Apocynum androsemifolium,Z. Campanula persicifolia, L. Arabis caucasica, Willd. Carduus marianus, LZ. Cathe americana, Mich. — betulus, Z. —— orientalis, Z. Cassia marylandica, L. Ceanothus americanus, L. Celtis cordata, Desf. orientalis, Z Cercis siliquastrum, LZ. Chrysanthemum _ leucanthe- mun, LZ. Chelidonium majus, Z. Chenopodium bonus Henri- cus, L. Chionanthus virginica, L. Chrysocoma linosyris, L. Clethra alnifolia, Z Colchicum autumnale, Z. Colutea arborescens, L. Convallaria bifolia, Z. majalis, L. Convolvulus arvensis, L. sepium, L. Corchorus japonicus, Z. Coreopsis tinctoria, Nutt. tripteris, Z. Cornus mascula, Z. sanguinea, L. Coronilla emerus, L. Corydalis digitata, Pers. Corylus avellana, LZ. Bec iooncas PHENOMENA OF ANIMALS AND VEGETABLES. 333 Corylus colurna, L. _ ——tubulosa, Willd. Cratzgus coccinea, L. —— oxyacantha, L. —— monogyna, Jacq. Crocus mesiacus, Curt. — sativus, Sm. — vernus, Sw. Cyclamen europxum, L. — hederefolium, Jit. Cynara scolymus, ZL. Cytisus laburnum, L. — sessilifolius, L. Daphne laureola, L. —— mezereun, L. Iberis sempervirens, Z. Tris florentina, LZ. germanica, L. Juglans nigra, L. regia, L. Kalmia latifolia, Z. Koelreuteria paniculata, Z. Lamium album, Z. Leucojum estivum, L. vernun, Z. Ligustrum vulgare, L. Lilium candidum, ZL. — flavum, L. Linum perenne, L. Liriodendron tulipifera, Z. Dianthus caryop. L.(v.grenad.) Lonicera periclymenum, L. Dictamnus albus, Z. c , jl. purpureo. Digitalis purpurea, L, Echinops spherocephalus, L. Epilobium spicatum, Lam. Erica tetralix, Z. — vulgaris, L. Erythrina crista-galli, L. Escholtzia californica, Chmss. Euonymus europzus, L, — latifolius, Mzil. —— verrucosus, Scop. Fagus castanea, L. —— sylvatica, L. Fragaria vesca, L.(6.hortensis). Fraxinus excelsior, Z. —— juglandifolia, Lam. ornus, LZ. Fritillaria imperialis, L. Galanthus nivalis, Z. Gentiana asclepiadea, L. — cruciata, L. Geranium pratense, L. Gladiolus communis, L. Glechoma hederaceum, LZ. Gleditschia horrida, Willd. — inermis, LZ. — triacanthos, L. Gymnocladus canadensis, Lam. Hallesia tetraptera, L. Hedera helix, Z. Hedysarum onobrychis, L. Helenium autumnale, LZ. Helleborus feetidus, L. — hiemalis, L. —— niger, L. — viridis, Z. Helianthus tuberosus, L. Hemerocallis cerulea, dndrs. — flava, L. — fulva, L. Hieracium aurantiacum, L. Hippophaé rhamnoides, L. Hordeum hexastichum, L. — vulgare, L. Hibiscus syriacus, L. Hydrangea arborescens, L. —— hortensis, Sm. Hydrocharis morsus-ranz, L, Hypericum perforatum, Z. — symphoricarpos, L. — tatarica, L. —— xylosteum, ZL. Lupinus polyphyllus, Dougl. Lychnis chalcedonica, L. Lysimachia nemorum, L. Lythrum salicaria, L. Magnolia tripetala, L. yulan, L. Malope trifida, Z. Malva sylvestris, Z. Melissa officinalis, Z. Mellitis melissophyllum, L. Menispermum canadense, L. Mentha piperita, Z. Mespilus germanica, L. Mitella grandiflora, Pursch. Morus nigra, L. Narcissus pseudo-narcissus, L. Nepeta cataria, L. Nympheea alba, L. — lutea, L. Orchis latifolia, L. Orobus vernus, L. Oxalis acetosella, Z. —— stricta, L. Papaver bracteatum, L. —— orientale, L. Paris quadrifolia, L. Philadelphus coronarius, LZ. — latifolius, Schrad. Phlox divaricata, Z. —— setacea, L. Physalis alkekengi, Z. Plantago major, L. Platanus acerifolia, Willd. — occidentalis, Z. Polemonium czruleum, Z. Polygonum bistorta, Z. Populus alba, L. —— balsamifera, L. — tremula, Z. Primula elatior, Z. Prunus armeniaca, L. (6. abri- cotin). cerasus (6. digarr. noir). — domest. (£.gr.dam.viol.). — padus, L. Ptelia trifoliata, Z. Pulmonaria officinalis, Z. Pulmonaria virginica, L. Pyrus communis (Jergamotte). — cydonia, L. japonica, L. —— malus (calville d’hiver). spectabilis, Ait. Quercus pedunculata, Willd. sessiliflora, Smith. Ranunculus acris, L. (7. plen.). —- ficaria, Z. lingua, Z. Rhamunus catharticus, L. — frangula, L. Rheum undulatum, Z. Rhododendron ferrugineum, L. — ponticum, Z. Rhus coriaria, LZ. — cotinus, Z. —- typhina, L. Ribes alpinum, Z. grossularia, L. (fr.virid.). (f. rubent.). —— nigrum, Z. —— rubrum, LZ. — — fruct. alb. Robinia pseudo-acacia, L. — viscosa, Vent. Rosa centifolia, Z. —— gallica, L. Rosmarinus officinalis, Z. Rubia tinctorum, Z. Rubus ideus, Z. — odoratus, L. Ruta graveolens, L. Salix alba, Z. Sagittaria sagittifolia, L. Salvia officinalis, Z. Sambucus ebulus, Z. — nigra, L. —— racemosa. Sanguinaria canadensis, L. Satureja montana, L. Saxifraga crassifolia, Z. Scabiosa arvensis, L. —— succisa, LZ. Scrophularia nodosa, L. Secale cereale, LZ. Sedum acre, L. — album, Z. telephium, Z. Solanum dulcamara, Z. Sorbus aucuparia, ZL, domestica, Z. — ‘ —— hybrida, Z. Spartium scoparium, LZ. Spirea bella, Sims. —— filipendula, Z. — hypericifolia, L. — levigata, L. Staphylea pinnata, ZL. trifolia, LZ. Statice armeria, Z. limonium, Z. Symphytum officinale, Z. Syringa persica, L. —— rothomagensis, Hort. 334 REPORT—1845. aoimes Syringa vulgaris, Z, Triticum sativum, L.«. estivum. Viburnum lantana, L. Taxus baccata, L. —— —, B. hybern, —— opulus, ji. simpli, Tiarella cordifolia, Z. Tussilago fragrans, L. —,, fl. plen. Thymus serpyllum, L. —— petasites, L. Vinca minor, L, —— vulgaris, L, Ulmus campestris, L, Viola odorata, L, Tilia americana, Z. Vaccinium myrtillus, Z. Vitex agnus-castus, L. —— microphylla, Vent. Veratrum album, L, — incisa, Lam, platyphylla, Vent. Verbena officinalis, Z. Vitis vinifera, Z, (8. ehasselas Tradescantia virginica, L, Veronica gentianoides, L. doré). Trifolium pratense, L, spicata, Z. Waldsteinia geoides, Kit. — sativum, L, List of Plants to be observed at the Vernal and Autumnal Equinoxes and Summer Solstice, for the hours of opening and closing their Flowers. Anagallis arvensis, L. Hemerocallis fulva, Z. (nothera biennis, Z. Arenaria purpurea, Pers. Lactuca sativa, L. Ornithogalum umbellatum, LZ. Calendula officinalis, Leontodon taraxacum, L. Picridium tingitanum, Desf. arvensis, L. Malva sylvestris, L. Portulaca oleracea sativa, LZ. Campanula speculum, L. Mesembryanthemum crystal- Sonchus oleraceus, Z. Cichorium endivia, L. linum, ZL. Trapa natans, LZ. Convolvulus tricolor, Z, coccineum, Haw. Tigridia pavonia, L. Crepis rubra, Z. —— pomeridianum, ZL. Tradescantia virginica, Z. Datura stramonium, L. Mirabilis longiflora, Z. Tragopogon pratensis, Z. — ceratocaula, Jacq. —— jalapa, L. —— porrifolius, Z. Dianthus prolifer, Z. Nymphea alba, Z. ; LISTS FOR THE ANIMAL KINGDOM *. MAMMALS. Meles taxus (Badger), appearance and retreat, Mustela erminea (Stoat), periods of moult. Myoxus avellanarius (Dormouse), commencement and termination of winter sleep, Vespertilio pipistrellus (Batt), first appearance and disappearance. BIRDS. Regular Summer migrants, of which the first appearance is to be observed. Caprimulgus europzeus (Goat-sucker). Saxicola cenanthe (Ji’heatear). Columba turtur (Turtle-dove), — rubetra (Whinchat). Crex pratensis (Land-rail), Sylvia atricapilia (Blackeap Warbler), Cuculus canorus (Cuckoo). —— cinerea (Whitethroat). Cypselus apus (Swift). —— curruca (Lesser Whitethroat), Hirundo riparia (Bank Martin). hortensis (Garden Warbler), — rustica (Swallow). — luscinia (Nightingale). — urbica (House Martin). arundinacea (Reed Warbler). Motacilla yarrellii (Pied Wagtatl{). —— pheenicurus (Redstart), Muscicapa grisola (Spotted Flycatcher). trochilus (Willow Warbler). Perdix coturnix (Quail). Yunx torquilla (Wryneck). * These lists contain some species not in those originally proposed in M. Quetelet’s memoir. This is at the suggestion of M. Edm. De Selys-Longchamps and the Rey. L. Jenyns, the former of whom assisted M. Quetelet in the first instance in drawing the lists up, especially that of birds. These gentlemen met and reconsidered the subject at the period of the Meeting of the British Association at Cambridge in June 1845, and the fol- lowing are the revised lists which they propose to be adopted. In this instance they are particularly arranged with a view to English observers ; some of the species of birds origi- nally named being extremely rare or accidental in this country, if they occur at all; and others, which are regular migrants on many parts of the continent, being stationary in Britain throughout the year. N.B. All the lists are arranged in alphabetical order. + Care must be taken precisely to determine the species of Bat observed. + This species is stationary in the south of England, but in some of the northern coun- ties as well as in Scotland is migratory. 4 : i : . _ PERIODICAL PHZNOMENA OF ANIMALS AND VEGETABLES. 335 Rare, or only occasional, Summer migrants *. Emberiza hortulana (Ortolan Bunting). Oriolus galbula (Golden Oriole), Lanius rufus (Woodchat Shrike). Sylvia tithys (Black Redstart). Motacilla flava, Temm. (Gray-headed Wagtail). Upupa epops (Hoopoet). Muscicapa luctuosa, Temm. (Pied Flycatcher). Regular Winter migrants. Anser segetum (Bean Goose). Fringilla spinus (Siskin). Corvus cornix (Hooded Crow). Scolopax rusticola (Woodcock), Cygnus ferus (Hooper or Wild Swan). Turdus pilaris (Meldfare). Fringilla montifringilla (Mountain Finch), ' Occasional Winter migrant. Bombycilla garrula (Bohemian Waxwing). Of accidental occurrence. Procellaria leachii (Fork-tailed Petrelt). Procellaria pelagica (Stormy Petrelt). Species to be observed for the periods of departure §. Cypselus apus (Swift). Hirundo rustica (Swallow ||). Hirundo riparia (Bank Martin). —— urbica (House Martin ||). Species to. be observed for the periods of collecting into flocks and pairing off in the Spring. Fringilla cannabina (Common Linnet). Sturnus vulgaris (Starling), Species to be observed for the periods of commencing song or note, Columba palumbus (Ring-dove). Parus major (Great Titmouse), Emberiza citrinella ( Yellow-hammer). Turdus merula (Blackbird). Fringilla cannabina (Linnet). —— musicus (Thrush). — chloris (Greenjinch). — visciyorus (Missel-thrush). — celebs (Chafiinch). Species to be observed for the periods of building. Corvus frugilegus (Rook). Fringilla domestica (House Sparrow), — pica (Magpie). * It was thought desirable to make a separate list of these species, all of which are in- cluded amongst the regular migrating birds selected for observation in M. Quetelet’s ori- ginal list, but which in this country are either very local, or of only accidental occurrence. halle, or whenever observers haye an opportunity of noticing them, the dates should be preserved. + This species generally occurs in this country in the autumn, or at least not till after the breeding-season. + Both these species are particularly inserted in M. Quetelet’s list, it being thought that their occasional appearance inland is generally more or less connected with tempestuous weather. Their occurrence, however, would not seem to be confined to any particular season. __§ It would be desirable to note, wherever it can be done, the exact period of departure of any of the species in the foregoing lists of summer and winter migrants; but as it is in ‘general difficult to determine this, it is only especially recommended in the case of the Swallow tribe. t || In the case of these species it will be well to notice the period at which the great bulk take their departure, as well as the date of the last individual’s being seen. It will also be proper to notice the exact time of swallows and martins congregating, which takes place for a longer or shorter period before they depart. 336 REPORT—1845. REPTILES. Natrix torquata (Common Snake). Zootoca vivipara (Common Lizard Bufo vulgaris (Common Toad). Rana temporaria (Common Frog). Ditto ; also period of spawning. Triton palustris (Warty Eft). ) } rirst appearance. FISH *. Acipenser sturio (Sturgeon). 7 Clupea alosa (Allis). finta (Shad). Period of ascending rivers. Salmo salar (Common Salmon). trutta (Salmon Trout). Clupea harengus (Common Herring). Scomber vulgaris (Common Mackerel). } vist arrival on the coast. 4 MOLLUSKS. Helix aspersa. nemoralis. } First appearance. INSECTS. First appearance of the following species. ( Coleoptera.) (Hymenoptera.) (Diptera.) Geotrupes stercorarius. Anthophora retusa. Bibio hortulanus. Lytta vesicatoria tT. Apis mellifica. — marci. Meloé proscarabeeus. Bombus||. Bombylius medius. Melolontha vulgaris. Formicall. Culex pipiens. — solstitialis. Vespa vulgaris. Eristalis tenax. Peecilus cupreus. ; Hematopota pluvialis. Telephorus rusticus. (Lepidoptera.) Mesembrina meridiana. Timarcha tenebricosa. Catocala nupta. Rhyphus fenestralis. Gonepteryx rhamni. Stomoxys calcitrans. (Orthoptera.) Hegharshea janira. Tipula oleracea. Acrida viridissimat. Plusia gamma. Trichocera hiemalis. Locusta§. Polyommatus alexis. Xylota pipiens. Pontia brassicz. (Neuropters.) cardamines. ZEschna maculatissima. —— napi. Calepteryx virgo. rape. Ephemera vulgata. Vanessa io. Libellula depressa. polychloros. Panorpa communis. — urtice. Sialis lutarius. * The observations on this class of animals are especially recommended to such natural- ists as are situated in the neighbourhood of large rivers, or on the sea-coast. + This species is inserted as being in M. Quetelet’s original list: in England it is rare, and not often met with. + In this species the commencement of the stridulous cry of the male should be especially noted. § As the species of this genus strongly resemble one another, and appear much about the same period of the summer, it will be sufficient to notice the first appearance of the genus only. Note.—It should be borne in mind that the names dcrida and Locusta are differently applied by the continental entomologists; the genus here termed dcrida being with them Locusta, and Locusta their Acridium. \| Note here, as in the case of Locusta, the first appearance of the genus only. Under Formica, mark, besides the first coming abroad in the early part of the year, the period of the summer or autumn when the winged ants migrate. ;: 4 y ON THE VITALITY OF SEEDS. 337 Fifth Report of a Committee, consisting of H. BE. Srrickuanp, Esq., Prof. Dauseny, Prof. Henstow, and Prof. LinpuEy, appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds. THESE experiments have been commenced as in previous years, in accord- ance with the specified instructions. The Committee have this year expended 9/. 15s. 10d. in the purchase of seeds and incidental expenses (including Curator’s salary). Seeds of 23 genera have been added to the Seminarium at Oxford, of which 1 was contributed by H. E. Strickland, Esq., 4 were gathered in the Oxford Botanic Garden, and 18 were purchased of Mr. Charlwood. . The increasing difficulty of procuring a sufficient quantity of seeds of ge- nera not previously subjected to experiment, induces the Committee again earnestly to solicit contributions of seeds, either of a recent or of any known date, from all persons interested in the inquiry who may have such at their disposal. To be addressed to the Curator, W. H. Baxter, Botanic Garden, Oxford. The following is a list of the seeds distributed this season :— No. of Seeds of each d Species which vege- | Time of vegetating in days at No. tated at y' adwhtl Remarks, Name and Date when gathered, Ox- |p; Chis-| Ox- | 1; \Chis- i haa oc EN SP ag iwick. — ee ee ee 1837. 1. Daucus Carota ............ 1842. 2. Aconitum Napellus ...... 8. Adonis autumnalis......... 4, Amaranthus caudatus .. 5. Anagallis arvensis ......... 6. Buffonia annua .........000) LOO |....00] seceervee | 16 foeecea] coseesaes 1 7. Buphthalmum cordifolium] 100 | 11 |......... Sete 8. Bupleurum rotundifolium 9. Conium maculatum ...... 10. Cytisus Laburnum......... 11. Dipsacus laciniatus ...... 12. Elsholtzia cristata ......... 1 . 13. Erysimum Peroffskianum. 1° Oxford variegated. 14. Helianthus indicus on slight 15. Heracleum elegans heat. 16. Hyoscyamus niger 17. Iberis umbellata............ E |} 18. Iris sibirica................6. " - PPS 8 aE | 19. Lathyrus heterophyllus... | 20. Leonurus Cardiaca......... 21. Malcomia maritima ...... | 22. Malope grandiflora......... 23. Momordica Elaterium ....) 25 |....06] ...sseeee | LB |o..sce] concer 24. Nepeta Cataria ............ 25. Nicandra physaloides...... 26. Nigella nana 27. Orobus niger ores : 28, Stenactis speciosa .........) 100 | 3 )......... | 29. Tetragonolobus purpureus| 25 | 30. Trigonellafenum-grecum| 50 | 31. Tropzolum majus ......... 5 : § At Oxford 32. Cucurbita .......cccccsceees 15 : 5 ais leak AL. aeeeeel weeeeneee | Af jeeeses| sovestaes se esee!] coeseseee seevereee | SY | SL | covevccee seneeecee erewesces| LU Jeacees| coeeeeses | Ut [sonees| neteccses Pesce rene te eeeenes «1845. Z FN 338 REPORT—1845. No. of Seeds of each Species which vege- | Time of vegetating 3 tated at in days at Name and Date when gathered. | sown, | —>=———____|__, Remarks. ford | ERC | for [HME wk crenata a A | | ats | SASS} viajar £51 10 6 5. That the entire cost of the Catalogue has been— Pre ormaGhae es Hes esc s yb in oS erctate se ncemiepaes £4 0 0 Pre PGIOEOE PONIES, ic os wup.0, 0:0 'ma ies ve + Spt poeat unate Se 64 0 O De RL CTNATIOBS re ole uss. cdn jo. hats a Sat as che fee ane ai 537 16 6 4, Printing and paper ..........--sceesseeeeee 51115 O Fe (REREWORK ic oe oa hw hones of hire } Ses ei Ti . 2 Ge PEM OU a ino halos 0 2/3. 9 ns aie 448 <4 places cos, | (ee ce etal ope (asqld okt ok Seas eel se ea iv. cele 6". O Which is equivalent to nearly 2/. 8s. for each copy. Nautical Almanac Office, W. S. STRATFORD. June 16th, 1845. ON THE KEW OBSERVATIONS. 341 On the Kew Observations. By FRancis RONALDS, Esq. Mr. Francis Rona.ps, on presenting the Annual Journal of Electro-meteo- rological Observations made at the Kew Observatory, confined himself al- most exclusively to an enumeration of its different heads. The introductory portion begins with the description of a little variation in the cap of the principal conductor, which variation might possibly (he said) affect slightly its electrical indications. He secondly described (for the possible safety and convenience of future observers) a method of raising and lowering the principal conductor. Thirdly, the result of his experience as to the best method of maintaining the little collecting flame (of Volta) in a fit condition, &c., in strong gales, &c. Fourthly. Three registering electrometers, the principle of which consists in causing the hand or arm of a clock connected with the principal conductor to charge electrometers contained in air-tight vessels, together with chloride of calcium, and to leave the electrometers thus charged entirely separated from any other body than their supports. Fifthly. A pluvio-electrometer, which is a large copper dish properly in- sulated on a warmed glass column (as usual) upon the roof, and connected with electrometers in the interior of the Observatory. This apparatus has exhibited strong signs of positive electrization at moments when the principal conductor was charged negatively (the latter much more highly, of course). The phenomenon occurred when a storm was imminent, but before any rain had fallen, and the result had been expected. Sixthly. A simple modification of the Coulomb electrometer, which renders this excellent instrument capable of employment in all states of the air (as to humidity): in using it, the usual kind of tedious manipulation is in a very great degree diminished. The principal alteration consists in placing the vi- brating (or moveable) needle in perfect metallic contact with the fixed needle. [ There are other improvements. ] Seventhly. A few details concerning improvements of his Balance Anemo- meter. The Journal itself is preceded by some necessary explanations, &c., which show that the regular number of observations of many instruments per diem has been greatly enlarged since the Ist of January (1845). The registering electrometers enable the observer to add the hours of 12, 2 and 4 to the other hours of observation, and thus to complete two-hourly observations of atmo- spheric electricity for the whole day. Under the head of experiments, &c., are detailed a few on the electrical insulation, at two different heights, of two conductors, whose upper extre- _ mities had the same height above the earth. The object was to obtain a few useful data for other ubservers of atmospheric electricity. And another on a rather extraordinary case of electrization without insu- lation (in the usual sense of the word): it was a case of the St. Elmo fire _ probably. Provisional Reports and Notices of Progress were read on the following Subjects :-— Investigation of the Marine Zoology of Britain by means of the Dredge. By Prof. E. Forbes. On Marine Animals of Cornwall. By C. W. Peach. 342 REPORT—1845. On the undescribed Species of Anoplura. By H. Denny. On the Varieties of the Human Race. By Dr. Hodgkin. On Subterranean Temperature in Ireland. By Prof. Oldham. On the Statistics of Sickness and Mortality at York. By T. Laycock, M.D. On the Microscopic Structure of Shells. By W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S. NOTICES AND : ABSTRACTS OF COMMUNICATIONS TO THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, AT THE CAMBRIDGE MEETING, JUNE 1845. ADVERTISEMENT. Tue Eprrors of the following Notices consider themselves responsible only for the fidelity with which the views of the Authors are abstracted. CONTENTS. ——— NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. ~ Page Rey. T. Jarrett on Algebraic Equivalence....... seeeseoes itseaavacddcossecsarnese ae ee Professor Youne on Imaginary Zeros, &c...... snccuasauanseascee cree didacecaseaee Rasa Rey. C. Graves on Triplets......... Reseacdenacecere ratisese eos taceass ncaa vaeeretes ageeer es Mr. Grorce Boots on the Equation of Laplace’s Functions ........0...essceeee- 2 Mr. H. Wepewoop on the Premises of Geometry...... Sam eecle seen Sear tend 2 Sir Writram R. Hamitron’s Exposition of a System of Quaternions ......... 3 Mr. F. Basurortu’s Description of a Machine for finding the Numerical Roots of Equations, and tracing a variety of useful Curves ......scc.scesccecesssecencees 3 Mr. Toomas Wrieur Hitt on a System of Numerical Notation ......... see i! Ear of Rosss on the Nebula 25 Herschel, or 61 of Messier’s Catalogue......... 4 Professor SrevELty on the Projection of a Star on the Dark Limb of the Moon just before its Occultation ............ deaneasan spacex(gtentacivacseancnenssuscee Deaeanand 5 Professor Henry on the Heat of the Solar Spots .........s..ssceseeessceccuscees Saat Shel M. Boceustawsx1’s Description of a Universal Stand applicable to the Use of Astronomical Telescopes ...... papsccenenaseas Boknesemtsdauvaveteewaceuscnuscndaensa des 6 Professor Powe. on certain Points in the Elliptic Polarization of Light by Metallic Reflexion ...........ssseeesseees Bcnnoceusees octdcesencans «daa -2ceosSbes eccnecne 6 Sir Davip Brewster on a New Polarity of Light, with an Examination of Mr. Airy’s Explanation of it on the Undulatory Theory...... tecadat stants ese amcantiey nt ”s Notice of Two New Properties of the Retina ........... 28 Professor CuHatuts on the Aberration of Light ............ nnatanyscenaed baie sbideh’eaer: el Mr. G. G. Sroxes on the Aberration of Light .............cceceeceeee a are p aon ee Professor ANDERSON on the Caustics produced by two Mirrors in Rotation... 9 Sir Davip Brewster on the Rotation of Minute Crystals in the Cavities of BUGLE) .5.c0cc+050000 peeceeas eae veer nee Saba deer AAS AS SEE Ee 9 on the Condition of Topaz subsequent to the formation of certain Classes of Cavities Within it .........cccsscseccsenseeeeeseetes agence abe seasee 9 Rey. S. EarnsHaw on the Rings which surround the Image of a Star formed by the Object-glass of a Telescope .....0...+++e+- wceccapovascccccsonsncesens acchoctrc 10 Sir Davip Brewsrer’s Improvement in the Method of taking Positive Talbo- _ types (Calotypes) .........00 Peicnctte Races seeaee sported aha th netoneee sdarassee 10 _ Mr. Wit1am Tuomson on the Elementary Laws of Statical Electricity ..... . il _ Rev. H. Luoyp’s Remarks on the Periodicity of Magnetic Disturbances......... 12 _ Mr. J. A. Broun on the Results of the Magnetic and Meteorological Observa- tions at General Sir Thomas M. Brisbane’s Observatory, at Makerstoun, in the 15 ‘year LSAQ revvrervccrececcececvecececscseveceereeseesvereveesececcrcesccereeetensasesseesece iv CONTENTS. Rev. WrixiaMm Scoressy on a large Magnetic Machine .........sssssssseeeseeeees Mr. JosepH York Otrver on the Baron de Bode’s Insulated Compass......... Mr. E. J. Dent on a Method of suspending a Ship’s Compass......... sadbssdodeas Mr. S. M. Saxsy on the Connection between Magnetic Variation with certain peculiarities of the Earth’s Structure ........sessesressesseeseeeeenees senda Peet hes ; Rey. Taomas Knox on the amount of Rain which had fallen, with the different winds, at Toomavara, in the County of Limerick, during five consecutive years Mr. Henry Lawson on a Thermometer Stand......cscsscesesscsevececssceccecceccs Mr. James Tuomas Gopparp on a neW Anemometer.......+.. cAincenapumcepeese Rev. T. Ranxin’s Meteorological Observations made in 1844 at Huggate, Wold, Yorkshire, . cccdecdcdsssedsecscee sane ae saated aehas wide thovenaire Ri acivedtetneescocteetesteeas was Viil CONTENTS. Page Dr. Tomas Laycock on the Communicating Fibres of the Brain in reference to! Thought and) Aotion «sis ciscsivisecsvancecicnccdswesccseevsbasocseocts ? ced 200 feet deep... 300 feet deep... 50 » 47 ” 3 WALCT. «cgccavisese 45 re June 3rd, 1845 top of well...... 70 degrees, at 1 P.M. oe 100 feet down... 65 ve o 150 feet down... 60 = YP 200 feet down... 55 a3 Pe 300 feet down... 52 ve Hy WEED, 0¢edcsueeses 46 Fy The average of these five was—of the shaft ......+.:+reesee 47°08 bed : TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 19 On Fog-rings observed in America. By Sir Daviv Brewster, F.R.S.L. §& £., Hon. M.RI.A. This notice was communicated to Sir D. Brewster by Sir John P. Boileau. It relates to a fog-bow which had been seen in January 1808, by Sir George Rose, when off the Montgomery Reach, in the Potomac, in Virginia. Larly in the morn- ing a milk-white fog came on, so thick that the captain of the packet found it neces- sary to anchor, not knowing where he was. About half-past eleven he came up to Sir George, and remarked that they should have all clear soon, ‘‘ for the fog-eater was come.” The captain explained himself by pointing to the head of the vessel, where there was visible a ring of thicker white fog than that in which they were en- veloped, apparently about sixty feet in diameter, the belt of the ring appearing about two feet broad. Within this ring was another, two feet in diameter, suspended in its centre, and with prismatic colours. It lasted about 20! or 30’, after which the fog cleared away. There was a severe frost on the following day. Tables of Meteorological Observations for the Year 1844, made by J. R. Crowe, Esq., the British Consul-Generab of Norway at Christiana. Latitude 59° 54! 1" North, Longitude 10° 45' 0" East. (Communicated by Dr. Lee.) [These Tables are a continuation of others made in the year 1843, and presented to the British Association at York, and noticed in the volume of the Proceedings of the Association for 1844, at p. 27 of the abstracts of communications to the Section of Mathematics and Physics. ] They consist of observations of the thermometer and barometer made on every day in the year, at 7a.M., 9 a.m., 2P.M., 4 P.M. and 10 P.m., with the means of each column for each month, and the mean temperature calculated for each month, and the quantity of rain in cubic inches. Also tables of the prevailing winds for each month, the sixteen directions of the winds being noted for 9 a.m., 2 p.m. and 4 p.m. on each day, and the totals for each month. In February, the state of the wind is also given at 4 p.m. in addition. The daily calculations for December are not complete; those for the 11th to the 20th inclusive are wanting. But the barometrical and thermometrical means for _ the whole month at the five above-mentioned hours are given, and the tables of the _ prevailing winds are calculated for 7 a.m., 9 a.M., 2P.M. and 4 P.M. The following notice was also communicated by Dr. Lee :— _ A Description of the Lightning and Thunder of the 16th of August 1844, _ whieh took place at Alten, im Norwegian Lapland, by J. F. Coin, Esq. N. Latitude 69° 59' + and Longitude 23° + East. _ Mr. Cole is the gentleman who, in 1844, presented a paper on the Aurora Borealis, as seen frequently at Alten; also a paper on a sudden fall of rain, with a clear sky, _ at Alten; also a paper, or table, on the Forces and Directions of the Winds, the , Barometer and Thermometer, &c. &c. 4 Dr. Lee remarked, on presenting these two papers, that although of inferior value ‘ compared to many which have been presented to the Section, still that they were ' Hot without some interest, as being a continuation of the series of papers which had arrived from Norway and Lapland in 1844, and which are likely to be continued in _ future years. _ Any observations from Alten are interesting, on account of its high northern _ latitude, and being the most northern town in the world, and where it might be highly _ advantageous for science that a magnetic observatory should be established, and _ which might be done at present with facility, as there is a British mining company _ established at Alten, and several of the young men in the employ of the company, both English and Norwegians, already have a public library and an astronomical and meteorological observatory, and devote their leisure time to these studies, and with _ due encouragement and assistance, the work of a magnetic observatory would be materially assisted by them. _ Either Alten or Hammarfest (which is near it) would be a desirable spot. for a os cg 20 REPORT—1845. magnetic observatory, and as our distinguished secretary Colonel Sabine has swung the pendulum during his important voyage in the northern seas at Hammarfest, Dr. Lee states that his superior opinion on this subject could be consulted with advantage. Also, on account of the northern position of Alten or Hammarfest, observations on refraction might be made with great advantage, and some results obtained from them which would be highly beneficial to astronomy. Alten is also the region of auroras; they abound in that latitude, and their con- nexion with magnetism might be traced with more advantage at Alten than at any other place. During the visit of the King of Sweden and Norway to Christiana in the winter of 1844, his Majesty is said to have expressed his readiness to give every patronage in his power to the arts and sciences in Scandinavia, and he has already authorised Baron Wrede and Professor Selander, the Astronomer Royal of Stockholm, to make arrangements during the summer of 1845, for the measuring of an arc of latitude from Tornea in the gulf of Bothnia to the North Cape during the summer of 1846, and Baron Wrede is now engaged on that grand work. This is an additional reason for the establishment of a magnetic observatory at Alten, under the patronage of the British Association, in the spring of the year 1846. Dr. Lee expressed his wish, that the friends of the Association would authorize the committee to establish a series of magnetic observatories at Edinburgh, Inverness, Thurso, the Shetland Isles, Drontheim in Norway, and Alten in Lapland, in order that regular tables of observations might be produced from them for the benefit of the Association. Researches on Shooting Stars. By M. Coutvier Gravirr. The observations were made at Rheims and at Paris, and were continued without intermission from July 1841 to February 1845 inclusive. The mean number seen in an hour followed a remarkable law of progression throughout the year. The hourly mean number for January was 3°6, for February 3°6, for March 3°7, for April 3°7, for May 3°8, for June 3°2, for July 7°0, for August 8°5, for September 6°8, for October 9, for November 9°5, for December 7°9; thus during the first six months the hourly number is nearly the same each month, while in the next six months there is a progressive increase, first until August, and then until October or Novem- ber, periods at which the hourly number is more than double those of the other six months, which well agrees with the facts proved in those countries as to August and November. The second part of the memoir contains tabulated results of the hourly variations of the shooting stars observed from six in the evening to six in the morn- ing, which also observed a remarkable progression from 3°3, the hourly mean number observed between 6 and 7 P.m., to 8°2, the hourly mean of those seen between 5 and 6 a.m. This result was illustrated by curves, in which a very obvious law of hourly progression was to be observed. On Remarkable Lunar Periodicities in Earthquakes, extraordinary Oscillations of the Sea, and great Atmospherical Changes. By Ricuarp Epmonps, jun. The following nine days remarkable for earthquakes, extraordinary oscillations of the sea, or very unusual states of the atmosphere, occurred near the moon’s first quarters, at successive intervals of about four lunations each. 1842, November 9.—Earthquake at Montreal and other parts of Canada*, when “the waters of the St. Lawrence were violently agitated.”’ This was the day before the moon’s first quarter. On the 11th, the day after it, the barometer at Penzance was 29°00, lower than for 247 days before and 13 days afterwards. 1843, March 10.—Earthquake at Manchester{; barometer at Chiswick§ on the preceding days 30°380, higher|| than for 49 days before and 179 days after. * The newspapers are the authorities unless others are mentioned. + Kept at the Penzance Public Library. + British Association Report, 1843, p. 121. § At the Gardens of the Horticultural Society. || On the day of the great earthquake of Lisbon, the barometer at Penzance was higher than it had been for ¢iree years before.—Borlase’s Natural Listory of Cornwall, p. 53. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21 ~ July 5.—Extraordinary oscillation of the sea in Penzance*, Plymouth, Scotland, &c., and a great thunderstorm+ throughout the island. Barometer at Penzance at the time of the oscillation there 29°50, lower than for twenty-five days before and forty-seven days after. Thermometer at Chiswick.88°, at Brighton 78°, the maxima for the year at those places. October 30.—Similar oscillations of the sea at Penzance and Plymouth}. Ba- rometer at Penzance at the time of the oscillation 29°00, which, except the minimum of the 27th, was lower than for 223 days before and 115 days after. 1844, February 26.—Barometer at Chiswick 28624, lower than for 409 days be- fore and ever since. At Penzance it was 28°50, having fallen nearly two inches in thirty-six hours. June 23.—An unusually severe and protracted thunderstorm this evening through- out Cornwall and in Dumfries-shire, and on the following morning at Boston and Liverpool, at which latter place ‘‘ pebbles and small eels descended in the streets §.”” Thermometer at Chiswick on the 23rd, 91°; highest for the year except one day in July. In the weekly meteorological report from the Greenwich Observatory, it is stated as an extraordinary fact, that “at 1 o’clock p.m. (of the 23rd) a thermometer placed on a small piece of raw wool in the sun’s rays, rose in seven minutes to 155°, and was still rising when the thermometer was taken away.” October 18.—The town of Buffalo on Lake Erie almost destroyed by a hurricane. This was the day of the moon’s first quarter, and almost exactly twenty-four luna- tions after the earthquake in that neighbourhood already mentioned. At Chiswick this day the maximum of the thermometer was less by 3° than for several months before, and the barometer on the 16th was at a minimum of 28°940, lower than since the 26th of February. 1845, February 12.—The greatest cold experienced in England probably during the present century. Thermometer at Blackheath, at half past 7 a.m., 334° below the freezing-point ; at Chiswick 35° below that point. Barometer at the latter place 30°409, higher than for nine months before, except on the 21st of December. June 13.—Extraordinary oscillation of the sea in Kent||, and a “terrific” thun- derstorm at Chatham. The temperature very high in all parts of England; ther- mometer at Penzance being 77°, higher than on any other day of the year hitherto]. Not one of the phenomena for which the above nine days are remarkable, was forty-eight hours from the moon’s first change or quarter. Three of the days were each at the moon’s first quarter nearest the solstice ; of these the first and last were distinguished for extraordinary oscillations of the sea, while all were remark- able for great thunderstorms and unusually warm weather**. The author’s attention was drawn to the interval of four lunations by having re- marked++ that interval, or 118 days, between the two oscillations of the sea, at and * The author, who witnessed this oscillation in Mounts-bay, has given a minute desctiption of it in the Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, 1843, p. 114, and con- siders that such phenomena result from submarine shocks or vibrations of the earth, which, after being transmitted through the sea, more rapidly than sound through air, exhaust them- selves on reaching the shore, in a succession of long waves or tide-like oscillations. See also Jameson's Edinburgh Philosophical Journal for April 1845, pp. 271-279. + Mr. Milne has described this storm and the oscillations of the sea observed in different parts of Great Britain, in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xv. pp. 609-638. + Transactions of the Geological Society of Cornwall, 1843, p. 120. § Literary Gazette, p. 420. || This was observed at Folkstone at 4 P.m., and is thus described in the newspapers :— “The tide then flowing changed to ebbing three different and continuous times, causing much agitation of the sea at the harbour’s mouth. This had been preceded by a heavy and brief whirlwind from the S.E. The rise of the water appeared to be about three feet, and its sudden receding produced the agitation.” 4 Higher than on any other day of the year except the 9th and 10th of September, exactly three lunations afterwards, when it was 77° and 78°. ** So also in 1842, the hottest day of the hottest June in Boston in Lincolnshire since 1826, was the 14th, the day before the moon’s first quarter, the thermometer at Chiswick _ being then 88°, the same as on the 5th July 1843. +f Transactions of Geological Society of Cornwall, 1843, p. 120. 22 REPORT—1845. after the great earthquake of 1755, and 119 days* between those at and after the great earthquake of 1761. But while such remarkable days have occurred at intervals of four lunations, others were mentioned as having taken place at intervals of either single lunations or some multiple of a lunation+; and the great earthquakes throughout Mexico on the 9th of March and the 7th of April last, are almost exactly one lunation from each other. So also, in reference to the six known} shocks of the earth and extraordinary oscilla- tions of the sea in Cornwall during the last century, the interval between any two of them is almost exactly some multiple of a lunation, The same observation applies to the six which have occurred in the present century, except that of the 20th of October 1837. With this single exception they have all happened at or near the moon’s first quarters. From the facts above noticed, it would appear that an earthquake or any very disturbed or extraordinary state of the atmosphere, is generally preceded or followed either by other earthquakes or by unusual states of the atmosphere occurring at intervals of single lunations, or of some multiple of a lunation ; and that the phe- nomena which happen at intervals of four lunations, are more striking than those at the shorter periods. There seems reason therefore for supposing that earthquakes and great atmospherical changes are in many, if not most instances, occasioned princi- pally by the action of the moon. On the Nature and Origin of the Aurora Borealis, By the Rev. Gzorce Fisuer, M.A., F.R.S. The following is an abstract of this paper, and the results which the author has endeavoured to establish :— That the principal displays of the aurora occur in the vicinity of the edge or mar- gin of the frozen sea, and occasionally at those places in more temperate climates, where humid vapours are accumulated, and by the operation of certain causes, such as tides, winds, &c., are brought suddenly within the influence of a cold and dry atmosphere, and thereby subject to congelation. That the aurora is an electrical phenomenon, and arises from the positive electricity developed by the congelation of these vapours, and the consequent induced negative electricity of the upper and surrounding portions of dry atmosphere. It is the accompanying indication of the restoration of the electrical equilibrium, which equilibrium is restored by the inter- vention and conducting power of minute frozen particles, which particles are rendered luminous by the transmission of the electricity, and thereby give rise to the various appearances of the phenomena. From the author’s observations at Winter island and at the island of Igloolik (the two winter stations of Capt. Parry’s second expedition to the polar regions, which expedition he accompanied as astronomer), he was led to the conclusion that those places at which the aurora took its rise, were chiefly confined to the edge or margin of the frozen sea. He observed at each of these places, that in the early part of the winter, before the sea around was frozen over, the aurora was of a ge- neral and diffused character, and extended through the zenith in every direction. As the winter advanced and the edge of the ice in consequence became more remote, so the aurora diminished in splendour, assumed a low-arch appearance, and was seen only in the direction of the open-water, fringing the upper surfaces of dark- masses of vapours, known by the name of ‘ Sea-blink,” which hung over and were apparently in contact with the exposed surface of the sea, He gives additional evi- dence as to this particular locality of the phenomenon from the observations of Captains Sir John Franklin, Beechey, Biscoe, and others; and he observes, that its 7 * On the last of these 119 days, when the second oscillation occurred in Mounts-bay in 1761, a very violent thunderstorm happened there in the evening, distant thunder having been heard occasionally all the day, and the weather very sultry and calm.—PAil, Trans., vol. lii. p. 507. + These haye since been inserted in Jameson’s Edinburgh Philosophical Journal for October 1845, pp. 386-389. + The dates are given in the Transactions of the Geological Society of Cornwall, 1843, p- 111, and 1844, p. 209. Sse ¥ : TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 23 usual height above the surface of the earth is very inconsiderable in high latitudes, since it has been observed at one place in the zenith, forming a confused mass of flashes and beams; and at another, not many miles distant, having the appearance of a low illumined ‘arch i in the direction of the former place. The sudden deposition of extremely minute frozen particles, when auroral displays took place near to the zenith, was several times observed by the author; and it ap- pears that the same singular fact has been alluded to by Lieut. Hood and also by Dr. Richardson, but more especially by Professor Joslyn of New York, in Silliman’s Journal, Oct. 1838, who concludes, from numerous observations made in North Ame- rica, that ‘‘ the aurora is an electrical phenomenon,—that it is intimately connected with the elements of the clouds, and with these elements only, when they are gene- rated in air intensely cold, as well as nearly saturated with humidity,—that it requires for its development a cold adequate to the crystallization of aqueous vapours,—that crystals of snow, more minute and simple than those which produce halos, are always present in the atmosphere above the region of ordinary clouds during the appearance of this metedr,—that those seasons of the year, and those hours of the night when the aurora most frequently occurs, are favourable both to the presence and congelation of aqueous vapours in the atmosphere.”’ The author remarks upon the singular agreement between these results of Professor Joslyn and those commu- nicated by himself four years before, in an unpublished paper to the Royal Society. He considers, however, that perhaps the strongest proof of the important agency of these particles in an auroral display, is to be derived from the fact, that the auroral light can be distinctly traced to those localities where humid vapours are known to be undergoing rapid congelation, and where such particles must in consequence abound; and that in the usual arch- formation, whatever may be the nature of the light, yet the auroral fringe clearly arises from the illumination of the frozen parti- cles which are formed from the exterior portion of the vapours, being under the in- fluence of the cold atmosphere immediately above them. From the circumstance that congelation is a known source of electrical development, he infers that strong evidence is thereby afforded of the nature as well as the locality of the aurora. Although he considers sufficient evidence was obtained as to the direction and situation of the open-water during the winter season, from the usual indications of the sea-blink, and also from the information obtained from the Esquimaux, yet a singular confirmation in this respect was afforded by the circumstance, that the re- fraction due to the star Sirius, which was usually observed through a low aurora in the south-east direction at the island of Igloolik during the second winter, was ge- nerally about 1' less than the corresponding refraction of the same star when ob- served at equal altitudes and temperature towards the south-west ; in which latter direction the visual ray passed over land covered with ice and snow, thereby indi- cating a diminished density of the lower stratum of atmosphere in the former direc- tion, in which the aurora was seen, from its being under the influence of the compa- ratively higher temperature of an exposed surface of the sea. The author remarks, that when a display of aurora commenced with the arch- formation, the upper stratum of vapour, which formed the exterior limit or upper edge of the arch, was usually of a very dense and dark appearance, apparently highly charged with humidity, and exhibited by the contrast the auroral fringe immediately above it with splendid effect ; but that the lower portion, being of a higher temperature, from being nearer to the exposed surface of the water, became frequently so dilated and transparent as to render stars visible within the arch. To form an estimate of the prodigious extent to which congelation goes on during the winter season near the margin of the frozen sea, and at those places within it, where, by reason of the spring tides, the ice is continually broken and separated from the land, and the water in consequence suddenly exposed to the action of the low temperatures which then prevail, he observes, that a difference of more than 70° Fahr. continually occurs between the temperature of the exposed surface-water and that of the atmosphere above it, and that the latter in consequence becomes im- mediately impregnated with extremely minute frozen particles, known by the name of “ Frost-smoke,” which, when seen at a distance, has a white silvery appear- ance. _ The immense mass of vapours which are known to accumulate near the edge of ~ 24 REPORT—1845. - the ice are invariably confined at this period of the year to very low altitudes above the surface of the earth, so as never to form clouds in the usual acceptation of the term; but as the season advances and the temperature increases, the aurora occurs less frequently; the vapours become entirely detached from the sea, rise to a greater height in the atmosphere, and begin to acquire the ordinary appearance of clouds. The aurora is no longer confined to their upper surfaces, but a faint auroral light is usually seen to fringe the whole of their circumferences, until the vapours are dissi- pated by congelation. The author conceives the alternate opening and closing of the ice, by which means different portions of vapours are detached from the surface of the sea consecutively, give rise to the appearance of different concentric arches of aurora, which are occasionally seen. As extreme dryness is the peculiar character of the higher atmosphere consequent upon low temperatures (which is a state most favourable for electrical induction), he concludes that this portion of the atmosphere acquires an opposite state of elec- tricity to that below; and since there are no means, such as exist in more temperate latitudes, of effecting the restoration of the electrical equilibrium thus disturbed by congelation ; and moreover, since within the tropics the aurora is never seen, and thunder and lightning are of almost daily occurrence, the latter phenomenon indicates the means which nature employs for the maintenance of the equilibrium nearer the equator ; and on the other hand, the aurora points out the mode by which the same end is silently effected in the cloudless atmosphere of a polar winter, and other places where it occasionally occurs, by the interposition and conducting power of the frozen particles that are then and there formed; that as these particles are generated in the same -proportion as the electricity is developed, so the means of restoring the equilibrium are at all times adequate for the purpose. He considers the formation of vertical streamers to arise from the illumination of columns of these particles in performing the office of restoring the electrical equili- brium between the upper and lower strata of atmosphere ; that their vertical ascen~ sion is due to the electrical attraction caused by the strata being in opposite states of electricity by induction, and in accordance with this he observed that when the streamers were projected from an auroral arch, the fringe of light upon the latter usually became extinct, or very much diminished in intensity. That the particles are subsequently distributed by the winds in various directions, and give rise by their illumination to the different places and appearances which constitute a diffused aurora, which is usually terminated by a deposition of the particles when they have performed their office. He found by repeated trials, which were suggested to him by the late Sir Humphry Davy at a committee of the Royal Society held previous to the sailing of the expe- dition, that ice is an electrical conductor at very low, as well as at mean tempera~ tures. The experiments were made with various electrometers, and the friction made with silk, woollen cloth, &c., but without producing the least electrical indi- cation, although, from the perfect dryness of the atmosphere at low temperatures, the electrometers were extremely sensible of the slightest approach of an excited electric. A similar conclusion was obtained by completing, by means of ice, the connexion in M. Orsteds galvanic apparatus. Mr. Fisher also observes, that the conducting power of the frozen particles floating in the atmosphere defeated every attempt to determine the state of the atmospherical electricity, by means of the ap- paratus suspended from the royal mast-head of the ship, during the time they were frozen up each winter, by reason of their deposition upon the insulating glass rods of the copper chain used for the purpose; and he has reason to think, had the in- sulation been perfect, some very interesting results would have been obtained. Taking this view of the subject, the author considers that there exists an irregular belt or zone of congelation, circumscribing the pole of each hemisphere, in different parts of which displays of aurora more or less occur, according to the amount of the re- quired conditions of low temperatures and humidity; and that those parts of the zones which cross the northern Atlantic, or in other words, the winter limits of the frozen sea which extend from the American to the northern coast of Europe, will be most favourable to the production of the aurora, from the circumstance of there being there the greatest supply of humidity. This, he observes, is confirmed by observa- tion, and is further corroborated by the fact, that gales of wind from the south, which TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 25 ere _ bring to the ice portions of atmosphere saturated with moisture from sea-weed, most frequently accompany these auroral displays. Having endeavoured to trace the aurora to these localities, he concludes his paper by identifying these auroral zones with the existence of electrical currents and their application to the theory of terrestrial magnetism. He considers that these zones will not approach nearer to either pole of the earth than the margin of the fixed ice, from the absence of humidity in the atmosphere over the fixed ice; but that they will extend themselves indefinitely towards the equator, and also in height above the surface of the earth. And since the general configuration or curvature of the zones must obviously approximate to that of the isothermal lines, which latter are known to accord in a very remarkable way with the magnetic curves, he thinks there are good grounds for concluding that Ampére’s theory is founded in truth, and that these currents circulate within the zones from east to west; the exciting cause of the cir- culation of the currents in this direction being probably the action of the sun, as each portion of the zones is brought consecutively by the diurnal rotation of the earth within the solar influence ; the magnetic needle being thereby induced to place itself at right angles to the direction of the currents. It will follow also, that the electrical development in each zone will be greater in winter than in the summer of the corresponding hemisphere ; and that the magnetic force will also be a maximum in the winter time, which is found to be the case. He suggests, that upon the same principle the force,soliciting the horizontal mag- netic needle will be a minimum during that period of the day when the solar influ- ence is most effective in diminishing the electrical development in that part of the zone which is situated in the direction of the magnetic meridian ; that the diurnal deflection of the north end of the needle (as observed in Europe) towards the west in the morning, and the contrary motion in the afternoon, may be also thus recon- ciled; and, finally, that the aurora will produce a similar effect by restoring the electrical equilibrium, and cause a diminution of the magnetic intensity of the hori- zontal needle when a display happens in or near the direction of the magnetic meri- dian, and also a corresponding deflection in declination from that part of the zone where the phenomenon occurs. These conclusions the author has reason to believe are confirmed by observations. On the Measurement of T'wo Arcs of the Meridian in India, the middle point being in latitude 24° 7' 11", the southern extremity in latitude 18° 3' 15", and the northern in latitude 29° 30' 49". By Lieut.-Colonel Everegsr, F.R.S., §c., late Surveyor-General of India. | Colonel Everest described the apparatus employed in the measurement of three , . bases connected with this work, as also the instruments used in determining the celestial arcs of amplitude and in the terrestrial operations, and exhibited engravings illustrative thereof. i On a Lunar Meteorological Cycle. By Luxe Howarp, F.R.S. Mr. Howard reports that the facts of the last two years compel him to modify 3 his anticipations as to the extent to which the lunar cycle will enable him or others _ to become “ weather prophets.”” But he says the deferred heat (to be expected from _ the corresponding period of the cycle in 1825 to 1828) may prove to be only de- _ feated cold; and the absence of so great an elevation of the mean temperature now, _ may spare us a repetition for many seasons to come of the cold which occurred be- _ tween the years 1835 and 1840. To show, however, that causes exist for these _ periodical alternations of warmth and cold, much more extended in their effects than _ any which are peculiar to our own climate, he proceeds in detail to place in review _ together the annual mean temperature for eighteen years (ending with 1823) at Geneva and London. It will be seen that the two cities differ little in their climatic or annual mean; the more southern latitude of the former being counteracted by its greater elevation above the sea. See Plate IV. 4 : iz, & 26 REPORT—1845. Years, ro) ° ° 1806 Geneva. Reaum. +8°73 Fahr. 51°645 London 50°734 1807 eA rr 7°78 » 49°505 x 48°367 1808 ae ee 6°68 » 47°030 ae 48°633 1809 > $5 7°54 » 48°965 ie 49°546 1810 i es 8°57 ay DLEZB25 ee 49°507 1811 af a 8°89 on 922 0025 33 51°190 1812 ” ” 7°10 ” 47°975 2» 47°743 1813 os ve 7°48 » 48°830 ys 49°762 1814 Ja oa 7°34 » 48°515 ss 46°967 1815 ‘s9 a 8°03 » §0°0675 a 49°630 ' 1816 ae ii 7°09 » 47°9525 eA 46°572 1817 » 3 8°11 SAPP es 47°834 1818 ae or 7°96 >», 49°910 ai 50°028 1819 a ss 8°21 » 80°4725 oo 50°030 1820 xs iy 7°63 » 49°1675 3 47°950 1821 a a 8°28 2» §0°630 ee 49°810 1822 ao aa 8°28 >», 50°630 ae 51°405 1823 ” ” 6°50 rT} 46°625 ” 48°331 +7:789 49°525 49°113 Mean of first nine years,..... 7°790 49°161 Mean of second nine years... 7°777 49°065 On the Strength of Stone Columns. By Eaton Hovexinsoy, F.R.S. This paper contained the results of some experiments to determine the force ne- cessary to crush small columns of stone. The columns were of different heights, varying from 1 inch to 40 inches; they were square uniform prisms, the sides of the bases of which were 1 inch and 14 inch, and the crushing weight was applied in the direction of the strata. All the columns were cut out of the same block of stone, which was very uniform, and is of the strongest kind used for architectural purposes in the neighbourhood of Manchester. It is from the Peel Delph, Little- borough, Lancashire, on the confines of Yorkshire, The columns were cut, as near to the prescribed size as was practicable, by the mason, and were afterwards squared up with great care. They were crushed, by means of a powerful lever, between two flat surfaces of hardened steel, which from the nature of the apparatus were necessarily parallel. The apparatus was similar to that used in the author’s pre- vious experiments on the strength of pillars, and the only difference in these expe- riments from the preceding ones was, that a thin sheet of lead was placed over and under the specimen to equalize the pressure. From the experiments on the two series of pillars, it appears that there is a falling off in strength in all columns from the shortest to the longest; but that the dimi- nution is so small, when the height of the column is not greater than about 12 times the side of its square, that the strength may be considered as uniform; the mean being 10,000 lbs. per square inch or upwards. From the experiments on the columns 1 inch square, it appears that when the height is 15 times the side of the square, the aeronutle is slightly reduced; when the height is 24 tinies the base, the falling off is from 138 to 96 nearly; when it is 30 times the base, the strength is reduced from 138 to 75; and when it is 40 times the base, the strength is reduced to 52, or to little more than one-third. These num- bers will be modified to some extent by the experiments in progress. In all columns shorter than 30 times the side of the square, fracture took place by one of the ends failing, showing the ends to be the weakest part; and the increased weakness of the longer columns over that of the shorter ones seemed to arise from the former being deflected more than the latter, and therefore exposing a smaller part of the ends to the crushing force. The cause of failure is the tendency of rigid materials to form wedges with sharp ends, these wedges splitting the body up in a manner which is always pretty nearly the same, Some attempts to explain this matter theoretically were made by Coulomb. As long columns always give way ] TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 27 ‘first at the ends, showing that part to be the weakest, we might economize the ma- _ terial by making the areas of the ends larger than that of the middle, increasing the strength from the middle both ways towards the ends. If the areas of the ends be to the area in the middle as the strength of a short column is to that of a long one, we should haye for a column, whose height was 24 times the breadth, the area of the ends and middle as 13,766 to 9595 nearly. This however would make the ends somewhat too strong, since the weakness of long columns arises from their flexure, and increasing the ends would diminish that flexure. Another mode of increasing the strength of the ends would be that of preventing flexure by increasing the dimensions of the middle. From the experiments, it would appear that the Grecian columns, which seldom had their length more than about 10 times the diameter, were nearly of the form capable of bearing the greatest weight when their shafts were uniform; and that columns, tapering from the bottom to the top, were only capable of bearing weights due to the smallest part of their section, though the larger end might serve to prevent la- teral thrusts. This last remark applies too to the Egyptian columns, the strength of the column being only that of the smallest part of the section. From the two series of experiments, it appeared that the strength of a short column is nearly in proportion to the area of the section, though the strength of the larger one is somewhat less than in that proportion. CHEMISTRY. Experiments on the Spheroidal State of Bodies, and its Application to Steam- Boilers, and on the Freezing of Water in red-hot Vessels, By M. Bourieny. (d’ Evreux.) _ M. Boutigny, who made his communication in the French language, first pro- _ eeeded to show that a drop of water projected upon a red-hot plate does not touch it; _ but that a repulsive action is exerted between the plate and the fluid, which keeps the _ latter in a state of rapid vibration. At a white heat, this repulsion acts with the _ greatest energy, whilst at a brown-red heat it ceases and the ordinary process of eva- _ poration takes place. The temperature of the water whilst in the spheroidal state is found to be only 96°, and this temperature is maiatained so long as the heat of the _ plate is kept up. To bring the water to the boiling-point (212°), it is therefore ne- } cessary to cool the plate. These phenomena are explained by M. Boutigny on the _ supposition that the sphere of water has a perfect reflecting surface, and consequently _ that the heat of the incandescent plate is reflected back upon it; and some experi- _ ments have been made, which show that this is the case, the plate becoming visibly _ redder over those parts on which the vibrating globule played. Several experiments were made in proof of this necessary cooling to produce ebullition. The red-hot plate, with its spheroidal drop, was removed from the spirit-lamp, and after a minute _ or two the water began to boil, and was rapidly dissipated in steam. Ammonia and _ wether were shown, although so exceedingly volatile, to act in the same manner; the _ ether, however, being decomposed whilst in the vibratory condition, in the same man- _ neras it is by the action of platina wire, forming a peculiar acid. Iodine put upon the heated plate became fluid, and revolved in the same manner as other fluids, no vapours _ escaping whilst the high temperature of the metal was maintained; but when allowed to cool to the point of dull redness, it was immediately dissipated in violet vapours. _ The nitrate of ammonia, when fused on the glowing hot plate, vibrated with great energy; _ but on cooling the capsule, the salt entered into vivid combustion. The repulsive _ action was shown by plunging a lump of silver at a glowing red heat into a glass of _ water. As long as its bright redness was maintained, there was no ebullition; but as. ; ‘it slowly cooled, boiling tock place. In this experiment, it appeared as if the glow- ing metal formed around itself an atmosphere; and the contiguous surfaces of the 28 REPORT—1845. water appeared like a silver plate. The application of the principles involved in these phenomena to the tempering of metals was then explained. If a metal to be tem- pered is in a highly incandescent state, the necessary hardening will not take place on plunging it into water. It is therefore necessary that a certain temperature should be observed. Experiments were made to show that the repulsive power of the sphe- roidal fluid existed, not merely between it and the hot plate, but between it and other fluids. ther and water thus repelled each other, and water rested on and rolled over turpentine. The bursting of steam-boilers came next under consideration; and it was shown that many serious explosions may be referred to the phenomena under consideration. In a great many cases, the explosions have occurred during the cool- ing of the boilers after the withdrawal of the fire. An experiment was shown in proof of the view entertained by M. Boutigny. A sphere of copper, fitted with a safety- valve, was heated, and a little water being put into it, it was securely corked up, and withdrawn from the lamp. As long as the metal remained red, everything was quiet; but upon cooling, the cork was blown out with explosive violence. The concluding experiment excited great interest—the production of ice in a vessel at a glowing red heat. It was successfully performed by M. Boutigny, in the following manner :— A deep platina capsule was brought to a glowing red heat, and at the same moment water and liquid sulphureous acid, which had been preserved in the liquid state by a freezing mixture, were poured into the vessel. ‘he rapid evaporation of the vola- tile sulphureous acid, which enters into ebullition at the freezing-point, produced such an intense degree of cold, that a large lump of ice was immediately formed, and being thrown out of the red-hot vessel, handed round for examination. On a New Property of Gases. By Professor Grauam, M.4A., F.R.S. L. § E. After explaining the law which regulated the diffusion of gases, and stating the fact, that the lighter gases diffused themselves much more speedily than the more dense ones,—the velocity of their diffusion being equal to the square root of their densities,—he proceeded to relate his experiments on the passage of gases into a vacuuin. To this passage the term Effusion has been applied. The velocity of air being 1-, the velocity of oxygen was found to be 0-9500 by experiment, and by caleu- lation 0°9487. Carbonic acid being much heavier than air, gave the number 0°821, the theoretical number being 0°812. Carburetted hydrogen gave 0°1322 as the velo- city of its effusion, the theoretical number being 1°341. Hydrogen gave as the velo- city of effusion 3°613 by experiment, which was nearly the amount given by theory (0°379). ‘The interference of friction, even of minute orifices, was then described, and shown to admit of easy correction. Some useful applications were mentioned ; asin the manufacture of coal-gas, where it is desirable to ascertain the quality, as well as the quantity of gas manufactured. As the gas will pass the orifice on its way to a vacuum the quicker the lighter it is, and the more slowly as it increases in density, andas the superior carburetted hydrogen is heaviest, it would be easy to construct an instrument to register this velocity, and thus mark at once the required quality and quantity of gas. It was also proposed that an instrument might be used in mines to detect the presence of light carburetted hydrogen (fire-damp). The passage of gases under pressure through porous bodies was termed by Prof. Graham, Transpiration. The mode adopted in experiment was, to take a glass receiver, open at the top, which was closed with a plate of stucco. This was placed on an air-pump, and the air ex- hausted by the pump, the velocity with which the air passed through the stucco being marked by the mercurial gauge of the pump. The transpiration of atmospheric air was found to be more rapid than that of oxygen. Carbonic acid is found to be more transpirable than oxygen, or even, under low pressure, than atmospheric air. The transpiration of hydrogen is one-third more rapid than that of oxygen. The appli- cability of this process of experimenting to the explanation of exosmose and endosmose action in the passage of fluids through porous bodies was pointed out. On the Action of Gases on the Prismatic Spectrum. By Dr. Mitizr. Referring, in the first instance, to the experiments of Sir D. Brewster on the changes produced en the fixed lines of the prismatic spectrum by varieus absorptive . TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 29 : media, Dr. Miller proceeded to explain his method of examining the subject. The light, being admitted by a longitudinal slit in a plate of metal, one half of this slit _ was covered with a vessel containing the gaseous medium, the other half transmitted ordinary light ; the image of the slit, after falling on a prism of Munich glass, was observed by a telescope. It was found that the dark lines of the spectrum materially changed their positions as different coloured gases were used ; and that, by subjecting the spectrum to the absorptive influences of chlorine, nitrous acid vapour, the vapours of iodine, bromine, perchloride, manganese, &c., numerous dark bands, not previously observed, were brought into view. Several of the oxides of chlorine were examined, and it was found that the chlorous acid, peroxide of oxide of chlorine and euchlorine all gave the same series of lines. The spectra produced by coloured flames were also examined, and many curious conditions observed. Dr. Miller had sought to ascertain if any relation could be found between the chemical characters of the bodies under examination and their properties of exhibiting Fraunhofer’s lines; but as yet no such relation could be detected. Contributions to Actino-Chemistry.—On the Chemical Changes produced by the Solar Rays, and the Influence of Actinism in disturbing Electrical Forces. By Roserr Hunt. He detailed a great number of experiments which supported his views, that a cer- tain class of chemical compounds possessed the property of fixing the chemical prin- ciple of light. The result of the researches of the author, since the York meeting, was that in all cases chemical action was either accelerated or retarded by the influ- ence of the actinic force, whatever it may be. It was evident that the peculiar elec- trical condition of the compound regulated the disposing power of the actinic rays ; but it was not yet determined if any constant relation was maintained between the electrical state and the action of this chemical power. The author found in all cases, that weak electrical currents which were sufficient to precipitate the metals from so- lutions in the dark, were not capable of doing so when they were exposed to sunshine, or even diffused daylight. The power of this principle in producing molecular dis- turbance was also mentioned, and many additional experiments were described, On the Manufacture of a Coloured Glass. By M. SpuirreEerser. I have the honour to present herewith small pieces of white glass, which are quite _ transparent, but contain however a portion of gold, which was added to the grit as chlorate of gold *, and which gives to this glass the curious quality to become red by slightly re-heating it over the alcohol lamp; a greater heat changes the colour, _ and the gold is restored to its characteristic tint, which quality has been long known, and employed by the crystal glass manufacturer. It is now the question, ix what state the gold is contained in the glass, when not at all coloured, and when coloured. In my opinion, the gold is in the white glass in the most oxidated state, analogous _ to the state of the lead in the white crystal glass, but, by re-heating, it loses a part ’ : of the oxygen, and becomes more and more reduced. According to the opinion of other German philosophers, the gold is contained even in the white glass in the metallic state, but in a state of the greatest diffusion; and in _ the coloured condition in a state of less and less diffusion. 1 am not of this opinion, [ . . . 1 . _ because I have, by melting the red glass with a blowpipe supplied with oxygen gas, "made it again colourless, but only to a very small extent; and it is not very clear, I think, that the change of colour of this glass is the result of different states of deoxida- tion of the gold in it. But it is very curious that the glass does not become red by its first melting, and I can give no reasov for this phenomenon. In the Annals of M. Poggendorff I have noticed it last year; but I think that this phenomenon would be also interesting for a further optical investigation. * The composition of this glass is,— 40 grains of .., sand. 2D) aadaseesecasese SUDA. Dieacwasteecwatcet CUALK= ANA 0°52 ceccecsesseesee Gold, 30 REPORT—1845. | On Recent Experiments on the Gas Voltaic Battery. By Professor Grove. No previous description of the gas battery having been communicated to the Asso- ciation, Prof. Grove entered into an explanation of the action of hydrogen gas upon spongy platina, and gave a description of the first gas battery constructed with pla- tina wire sealed into glass tubes in pairs,—hydrogen being’ put into one tube, and oxygen into the other. An arrangement of this kind being connected with a volta- meter, it was found that exactly the same quantity of gases was eliminated in the tubes of that instrument as combined in the tubes of the battery. Experiments have been made by Prof. Grove with a view of ascertaining if other gases might be used in the battery, and it was discovered that a great variety of gases might be so used ; and he then pointed out how perfectly any eudiometric analyses might be carried on with the gas battery, provided some attention was paid to a few sources of error. A form of the instrument as hitherto constructed by Prof. Grove was described, for the purpose of avoiding the absorption of atmospheric air by the fluid in the cells of the battery. A more recent construction of the battery was next described, in which many other applications of the voltaic battery are attained, being a combination in which several pairs of gas tubes are connected in one compact body. A main ad- vantage arising from this battery is the really constant condition of it; once charged, it appears that the action will go on for years, requiring nothing more than occasion- ally, at long intervals, adding a little zinc to the acidulated solution in one cell, for the purpose of supplying the loss of hydrogen in the tubes. The results of experi- ment have shown, that the most invariable action may be calculated on for years; and that, by this instrument, researches requiring for a long period the constant flow of a galvanic current may be most effectually carried out. Some experiments on the combination of phosphorus and sulphur with oxygen in the battery were then de- tailed; by which it was found that any inflammable body capable of volatilization gave a galvanic action with oxygen in the other tube. Camphor, alcohol, zther, and other bodies proved the generality of this effect. It was then stated, that throughout these researches it had been found that chemical action and voltaic action were convertible into each other. On the Voltaic Reduction of Alloys. By C. V. Watxer. This communication was intended to explain the methods by which the author has succeeded in throwing down metallic alloys from compound solutions by the action of galvanic electricity. The process adopted is to prepare a strong solution of cyanide of potassium, and commence electrolyzing it by means of a copper anode ; as soon as copper begins to be dissolved, the copper anode is removed, and its place supplied with one of zinc; after the action has continued for some little time, brass will be liberated on the cathode. The solution is now ready for use, and is operated upon by two or three Daniell’s cells, and with a brass anode. By similar means alloys of gold and copper, or gold and silver, may be deposited. The author reasons, that true brass is a definite chemical compound; and states, it appears possible that the anode, which is a brass of commerce, is a true alloy, plus an excess of zinc; that the solution it pro- duces is a mixed solution, which consists of the potassio-cyanide of brass and the po- tassio-cyanide of zinc. ‘This solution is very readily decomposable; it is therefore necessary to prepare it a short time previously to its use. Many specimens were exhi- bited of copper and other metals coated with brass. The author makes some remarks on the theory of the action; and concludes by stating that it will be quite possible to determine, within certain limits, the character of the alloy that shall present itself, and that we may be enabled to throw down gold and silver according to standard. Description of a Colossal Hydro-Electric Machine, mith a Notice of some Phenomena attending the production of Electricity by Steam. By W. G. ARMSTRONG. The machine described by the author, and which has recently been sent out to the United States of America, resembles the machine at the Polytechnic Institution in external dimensions, but is more powerful. ; As an illustration of the power of this machine, Mr, Armstrong stated that it had TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 31 fully charged a battery containing thirty-three square feet of coated surface upwards of sixty times in a minute. He also mentioned that by interrupting the electric cur- rent and causing it to pass through the thin wire coil of Colladon’s apparatus for induc- tive effects, he had obtained a secondary current in the thick wire coil, answering in all re$pects to an alternating voltaic current, and sufficient to occasion a permanent though slight scintillation of two pieces of steel attached to opposite ends of the wire, and rubbed against each other. Mr. Armstrong reiterated his conviction that the excitation of electricity in the hydro-electric machine was due to the friction sustained by particles of water in pass- ing through the escape aperture, for by no other explanation was it possible to account for the prodigious influence which is exercised by the form of the escape orifice,—by the material against which the current is rubbed,—by the presence of water in the issuing steam,—and by the condition of such water with respect to extraneous sub- stances contained in it. He adverted tu Professor Faraday’s experiment of reversing the electricity of the boiler and steam-cloud by introducing oil of turpentine into the steam passages, which effect had been attributed by Faraday to the particles of water becoming invested with a film of turpentine; but Mr. Armstrong stated that there were many soluble sub- stances which were equally effective in reversing the electricity, and so sensitive were the electric properties of the water to the influence of foreign substances, that even the inappreciable quantity of extraneous matter which the water appeared to acquire by contact with condensing pipes of different materials was sufficient to affect the excitation of the electricity. On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. By James P. Joutz. The author gave the results of some new experiments, in order to confirm the views he had already derived from experiments on the heat evolved by magneto- electricity, and from experiments on the changes of temperature produced by the condensation and rarefaction of elastic fluids. He exhibited to the Section an ap- paratus consisting of a can of peculiar construction filled with water. A sort of paddle- wheel was placed in the can, to which motion could be communicated by means of weights thrown over two pulleys working in contrary directions. He stated, that the force spent in revolving the paddle-wheel produced a certain increment in the tem- perature of the water, and hence he drew the conclusion, that when the temperature of a lb. of water is increased by one degree of Fahrenheit’s scale, an amount of vis viva is communicated to it equal to that acquired by a weight of 890 lbs. after falling from an altitude of one foot. On Atomic Volumes. By Dr. Lyon Prayrarr. Outlines of a Natural System of Organic Chemistry. By Grorce Kemp, M.D., F.C.P.S. The object of the following paper is to furnish what has hitherto been a desidera- tum,—an arrangement of organic bodies with reference to their natural affinities, and which, being based on the operations which are observable in living organized bodies, will, it is hoped, furnish the student with a means of grouping the results of his la- bours, and the philosopher with safe materials for developing those general laws, to which every organized being owes its capability of replacing its own ever-wasting structure, and reproducing a form analogous to itself. Assuming, then, that all organic bodies of which nitrogen forms no part have been originally derived from starch, and that those, on the other hand, in which nitrogen is an essential element proceed from proteine, we have at once two general classes, which we may denominate amylogenic and proteunogenic. Class I. Amytocenre Boptes. Order 1. Products which result from the direct operation of natural causes. Order 2. Bodies produced by the application of artificial agents. Order 1. Genus 1, Formula for amylon merely modified by the addition or subtrac- ae REPORT—1845, tion of the elements of water, included between the limits C,, Hs Og and C,, Hy, 0,4, as lignine, inuline, &c. &c. Order 1. Genus 2. Formula being that for amylon, minus a certain number of equi- valents of oxygen, and all being allied to fatty matters. Order 2. Genus 1. Products effected by contact with bodies in which the ultimate elements are in the act of assuming new arrangements. Order 2. Genus 2. Products effected by heat. (Pyrogenic bodies.) Order 2. Genus 3, Products effected by oxidizing agents, : Class II. Proreunocenic Bopits. Order 1. Results of organization. Order 2, Artificial products. Order 1. Genus 1. Variable in the quantity of inorganic matter they contain; as al- bumen and fibrine. Order 1. Genus 2. Variable in the quantity of oxygen which they contain, the carbon and nitrogen remaining constant; as the middle coat of arteries and mucus. Order 1. Genus 8. Bodies in which all the organic elements assume a new proportion to each other, but which may be considered as compounds of proteine and a non- nitrogenized body included in Class 1. Order 1. Order 2. Genus 1. Products resulting from the disturbance of the molecular equili- brium of proteine compounds when deprived of vitality, the action being much promoted by moderate increase of temperature and moisture. (Eremacasis of Liebig.) Order a Genus 2. Products effected by a high temperature. (Pyrogenic bodies.) Order 2. Genus 3. Results of the action of oxidizing agents; these are very nume- rous. The author believes that no difficulty will occur in referring any organic body to one or other of the above divisions, and proceeds to give, as an instance of the appli- cation of the system, the interpretation of the analysis of the food of the milch cow, On Gutta Percha, a nem variety of Caoutchouc. By Epwarp Sotty, F.R.S. Within the last two or three years, a very remarkable substance has been trans- mitted to this country from Sincapore under the name of Gutta Percha; it was first sent over by Dr. Montgomerie, who received the gold medal of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c., for its introduction into this country as a new and hitherto unknown substance likely to be useful for several purposes in the arts. He was how- ever unable to ascertain the tree from which it is procured, or indeed any more of its history than that it is obtained in large quantities by cutting down the trees which yield it, and that it is employed by the natives to make the handles of knives and other tools, being preferred by them for this purpose even to buffalo’s horn. Mr. Solly described Gutta Percha as being a white or dirty pinkish-coloured solid, having little or no smell, insoluble in water and consequently tasteless, having a silky fibrous texture, and feeling smooth and almost greasy to the fingers; at the same time that it presents considerable resistance to any substance which is rubbed or drawn across it, thus enabling it to be grasped or held with great firmness in the hand. At temperatures below 50° it is hard, tough, and in thin pieces flexible, a good deal resembling horn in its physical characters. From 50° to 70° it becomes more flexible and slightly elastic, still however retaining its remarkable stiffness and toughness. When forcibly extended it shows very little power of contraction, requiring consider- able force to extend it, and retaining the form which has been given to it after the force which was applied is discontinued. At a temperature between 140° and 160° it becomes soft and remarkably plastic, its tenacity being at the same time greatly diminished. In this state two or more pieces may be joined together with the greatest facility (far greater than is the case with caoutchouc), and in a manner which may almost be compared to bees’-wax, inasmuch as whether the pieces are clean or dirty they unite on the slightest pressure and form a perfect joint. When in the soft and plastic state, Gutta Percha may be pressed or moulded into any required shape; as it cools it gradually re-acquires its former tough and rigid nature. The casts which are obtained in this manner from coins, medals, &c., are remarkably sharp and perfect. Gutta Percha at ordinary temperature is divided by TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 33 a knife with great difficulty, behaving like cold hard caoutchouc; its division is much fa- cilitated by the use of a wet knife, Its specific gravity is greater than that of caoutchouc, being 0°9791, whilst the latter is about 0:9355. Kept for some time at a temperature of near 200° it gradually parts with a small quantity of moisture, and becomes dark- coloured and translucent: it however assumes its original appearance again if steeped for some time in water. Exposed to a higher temperature, it melts, is decomposed, and finally burns with a very smoky flame like caoutchouc. Analysis shows it to be a hydrocarbon, identical in composition with ordinary caoutchouc. Ordinary solvents exert little or no action on Gutta Percha; water, alcohol, oils, alkaline solutions, mu- riatic and acetic acids produce né effect whatever. Strong sulphuric acid slowly chars it, concentrated nitric acid gradually oxidizes it, and ther, essential oils and coal-tar naphtha in time soften and partially dissolve it. The most perfect solvent appeared to be oil of turpentine, which formed a clear transparent solution, from which the pure Gutta Percha was readily obtained on evaporating the oil of turpentine. The physical properties of this substance are such as to place it amongst the sub- stitutes for leather, and will probably render it a valuable article of import. Its chemical properties show it to be a variety of caoutchoue. Notice of the Oil of Assafcetida. By Tuomas Tittzy, Professor of Chemistry in the Queen’s College, Birmingham, and Doveras Mactaean, M.D., FERS EE. The authors describe the analytical processes which they followed, and state the numerical results. They prove that the oil of assafcetida contains, and is chiefly com- - posed of, the sulphuret of aliyl and an oil heavier than water, also containing sul- phur. They conclude by the following summary :— It has been shown by the investigations of other chemists and ourselves, that the class of ‘substances used as condiments of the onion order of flavour, though produced in different zones and by different natural orders, contains the same organic radical united to sulphur of plants or sulpho-cyanogen. The oil of garlic, from a liliaceous plant; the oil of mustard, a compound of allyl with sulpho-cyanogen from the Cruciferze; the oil of assafcetida, so much used in India for a condiment, from the Umbelliferze, all contain the same organic radical, and form a parallel case to the tea, the coffee, and the Paraguay tea-plants, which also contain the same substance, theine, and which are used for similar purposes. The authors are still continuing this investigation. On the Chemical Principles involved in the Rotation of Crops. By Professor Dauseny, F.R.S. _ Professor Daubeny made some remarks on the chemical principles involved in the f¥otation of crops, stating the conclusions which he had deduced from a series of ex- periments carried on within the Botanic Garden at Oxford, and intended to ascertain the rate of diminution in the produce of several plots of ground that had been sown for ten years, either continuously with the same, or successively with different crops, in either case without the addition of manure throughout the course of the trials. He stated, that although, as might have been anticipated, a diminution in the latter years’ “produce took place both in the permanent and in the shifting crops, and although a smaller average amount was obtained in the former than in the latter, yet that after the expiration of the whole period the ground still continued unexhausted; and that an “analysis of it showed it still to contain sufficient of the phosphates to supply materials for nineteen crops of barley, suificient of potass for fifteen, and sufficient of soda for forty-five. The actual diminution of produce during the latter years he therefore attri- buted to the circumstance of these ingredients not being in a soluble condition, it being found, that from the soil so long drawn upon, water impregnated with carbonic “acid took up much less of the above ingredients than it did from the same that haa Rot been so cropped and but recently manured. The greater diminution in the per- manent than in the shifting crop he attributed to the circumstance of the latter being supplied with a larger amount of organic matter, derived from the fallow crop inter- ealated, owing to which the plants would be more fully developed, through the influ- ‘ence of the carbonic acid and ammonia, which would be imparted to them during the 1845. D 34 REPORT—1845. decomposition of the humus. He pointed out, how the mere introduction of healthy plants into a soil might aid in rendering the phosphates and alkaline salts, locked up within the latter, more speedily soluble, and hence inferred that a larger amount of these substances might be extracted where the plants were stimulated into activity by the presence of decomposing organic matter. He also was led to inquire whether, in the event of a scantier supply of one of the alkalies or of the earths than was common, a plant would substitute ad libitum another which might be presented to it in greater abundance. To determine this, he obtained from Mr. Way, late assistant to Professor Graham, an analysis of three samples of six different kinds of crop, viz. potatoes, barley, turnips, hemp, flax, and beans; one sample being that cultivated for ten suc- cessive years in the same ground without manure; the second from a similar plot which had grown different crops for the same period without manure; the third from a plot in a contiguous part of the garden which had been recently manured. From the results obtained, it would appear that the aggregate amount of bases, in the three samples, was about the same; but the proportion of these bases one to the other varied considerably, a circumstance at first sight appearing to confirm the theory of substi- tution. ‘The author, however, conceives, that this may be explained by supposing a different degree of developmentof the several parts or proximate principles in the respec- tive samples, as he finds a great discrepancy in the amount of phosphoric acid present in gluten and in starch, and thinks it probable that the same diversity may extend to other of the principles contained in each plant. ‘That potass is better adapted for the organization of a plant than soda, seems to follow from the circumstance, that whilst the soil usually contained an excess of soda, the plant always was most rich in potass, The author, therefore, in accordance with the views of Liebig, throws out as a con- jecture, that the soda found in the ash may be that circulating through the vegetable tissue, and contained in the sap, whilst the potass is actually assimilated, and consti- tutes a part of the vegetable tissue. ‘Ihe former, as Liebig supposes, may be useful in conveying carbonic acid to the plant, but cannot be substituted for potass, at least without injury to its healthy condition. It appears also, from the analyses referred to, that land-plants have not the power of decomposing common salt; so that this substance cannot, as has been supposed, be serviceable to vegetation by affording a supply of alkali. We may also infer, that it does not follow, because a soil is benefited by manuring, that it is destitute of the ingredients which the manure supplies, since it may happen that these ingredients are present in the soil in an insoluble, and there- fore not in an available condition. Chemical and mechanical means may no doubt be effectual in bringing into a soluble condition the phosphates and alkaline salts thus locked up within the soil, but as this is brought about by Nature herself, we might often spare ourselves the necessity of resorting to such means, if we would only re- solve not to counteract her beneficial agency, by suffering to run to waste the various excrementitious matters which she has placed at our disposal. The analyses given, from their great discrepancy with those of Sprengel, may also show the importance of that investigation of the constituents of the ashes of plants, which is now about to be undertaken under the auspices of the Royal Agricultural Society. ‘The author also conceived that the line of research which he had pursued might be useful, in illus- trating that system of scientific book-keeping which he had proposed at a former meeting of the Association, at once as an useful exercise to the agricultural student, and as a means of introducing greater precision into the conduct of our experiments on such subjects. ' On the Chemical Principles of Rotation of Crops. By Professor Jounston. On the Analysis of the Ashes of Plants. By J. Tuomas Way, Professor of Chemistry, Royal Agricultural College. The method here described was that pursued by the author in the analyses which are detailed in Dr. Daubeny’s paper “On the Rotation of Crops,” (see p.33). It is founded on that of Will and Fresenius (Chemical Memoirs, part ix.), but differs in several essential particulars, more especially in the estimation of the phosphoric acid. Two hundred grs. of the prepared ash are dissolved in hydrochloric acid. The so- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 35 lution is evaporated to dryness to separate sand and charcoal and the silica of the ash. The silica is dissolved out from the former impurities by dilute solution of caustic alkali, _ and estimated in the usual manner. The sand and charcoal are also weighed. The solution of the ash is now divided by measure into four equal portions. From one portion peroxide of iron, lime and magnesia are obtained. In a second quantity the phosphoric acidis estimated. In athird the alkalies, potash and soda are found, and the fourth is reserved. Estimation of Peroxide of Iron, Lime and Magnesia.—The determination of the oxide of iron is indirect; it is obtained by throwing it down in combination with the phosphoric acid of the ash. To the acid solution (partly neutralized by ammonia) acetate of ammonia is added in the cold, phosphate of iron precipitates, is collected and weighed; 100 parts contain 56-08 parts of peroxide of iron. The filtered liquid affords lime by treatment with oxalate of ammonia (the acetic acid reraaining in ex- cess), and magnesia by the subsequent addition of phosphate of soda and ammonia. Second portion. Estimation of Phosphoric Acid.—The estimation of the phosphoric acid is also indirect. A portion of clean iron wire is weighed out and dissolved in nitric acid. The solution is added to that of the ash, and the whole is partially neu- tralized by ammonia. Acetate of ammonia is added, and the liquid is brought to the boiling-point. A precipitate of phosphate and peroxide of iron (which is of a buff- brown colour, provided the iron is in proper excess) is obtained. ‘his is collected, burnt and weighed; the phosphoric acid is calculated by subtracting the weight of _ peroxide of iron originally present in the ash, and that to which the metallic iron added is equivalent ; it sometimes happens that a little iron remains in the liquid; this must be thrown down by ammonia, collected separately on a small filter, and its weight added to that of the former precipitate previous to the calculation. The alkalies are obtained (from the third portion of liquid) precisely as recom- mended by Will and Fresenius. For the estimation of the chlorine and sulphuric _ acid, a separate portion of ash is dissolved in nitric acid, and precipitated successively by nitrate of barytes and nitrate of silver. In the statement of the analyses, the chlorine is always apportioned to the sodium of the soda found, or in default of this to its equivalent quantity of potassium. (See _ Dr. Daubeny’s paper.) From the constant use of this process during a period of six _ months spent in the analysis of the ashes of plants, the author recommends it as by _ far the most easy of execution and satisfactory in its results of any at present em- _ ployed. 4 OS en a i ee Observations on the Ashes of Plants. By Professor Jounston. On the Ashes of Oats. By J. P. Norton (Connecticut, United States). _ _ The following are the results of numerous analyses made during the past year by the author :— _ 1. The quantity of ash varies in different parts of the same plant. I have divided _ the plant into seven portions,—the grain, the husk, the straw at three different heights, _ the leaf, and the chaff. I give the extremes of my trials with numerous samples. In _ the grain the per-centage ranges from 1°81 to 2°32; in the husk from 5:27 to 7-11; in the top straw from 4:95 to 9°22; in the middle straw from 4-23 to 7-89; in the bottom straw from 5:18 to 9:76; in the leaf from 7:19 to 14°59; in the chaff from 6°71 to 18:59. I do not give these as the true extremes, but merely as the extremes _ of my trials. I have not found that regular gradation from top to bottom which has __ been observed in wheat and rye; there seems to be no general rule. These ashes are of course all calculated dry, and no per-centage ever considered to be ascertained ~ until three or four trials agreed. _ _ 2. The quality of the ash varies in the several parts of the same plant. This is _ shown by instances from a table of the composition of one of the samples which I have _ analysed. ‘The ash from the grain contains 49°24 per cent. of phosphoric acid, 31°15 of potash and soda, 13-93 salts of lime and magnesia, 0°80 of soluble silica, 0°93 of ‘insoluble silica, &c. The ash from the husk has very little phosphoric acid, but 11:61 _ of sulphuric acid; potash and soda 7:41; lime and magnesia 2°33; while the soluble _ Silica is 5°46, and the insoluble 68°39. ey D2 36 ' REPORT—1845. Equally striking differences are observed in the other parts. In the top straw were 38°56 per cent. of salts soluble in water; in the middle straw 53°56; in the bottom straw 77°46. As the soluble salts increase from the top downwards, so the silica in- creases from the bottom upwards. The per-centage of soluble and insoluble silica in the bottom straw is 17-28 ; in the middle 40°48; in the top 48°44. The leaf is in its composition not very unlike the top straw. In the chaff, phosphoric acid again ap- pears in the watery solution, seldom present in that solution from the ash of the straw or leaf, and the per-centage of soluble silica is very great. 3. The quality of ash varies in the same parts in different samples. This even- extends to the same variety of oats. I compare two samples of Hopeton oats, one grown in Northumberland and the other in Fife. There are differences in every part, but I will illustrate my point by the straw. In the top, middle and bottom straw, respectively, of the Northumberland sample, the proportions of salts soluble in water are 41:96, 53°22, 77°46; while in the same divisions of that from Fife they are 71-70, 84:03, 90:26. There is a corresponding difference in the silica, increasing upwards as before. The same excess of soluble salts prevails through the whole of this sample. These examples illustrate the proposed points, and show the necessity of further investigation. This is all that I proposed to do in the present incomplete state of my researches. On the Ashes of Narcotic Plants. By F. C. Wricutson. The great problem of chemistry of the present day in its application to agriculture is, to determine the conditions necessary for a soil to produce the largest amount of any given crop of animal food—of food for man or beast. The solution to this ques- tion will in some measure be found when we have ascertained the proportions of mineral constituents required by plants of culture for attaining full perfection. The analysis of these plants alone, however, is not sufficient; we must have analyses of the weeds growing upon soils, of plants unfit for the sustenance of animals; for it is shown that they rob the farmer, not only of a large amount of mineral manure, but also of considerable quantities of that valuable ingredient, ammonia; and we shall not have obtained the data necessary for an improved and rational system of culture until we include in our ash-analyses a considerable number of weeds and useless plants, especially those of the most destructive kind. Some of them are well known to the farmer to be of serious injury to his erops mechanically ; with respect to their abstracting important constituents of the soil, their injurious effects cannot be ques- tioned. ‘These plants contain more than 8 per cent. chlorine, and from 30 to 50 per cent. alkalies in their ashes. The dried leaves contained between 6 and 8 per cent. of nitrogen. On the Ashes of Wheat. By Wit1am Suarp, F.R.S. Mr. Sharp noticed that the amount of the ashes of wheat was given by Professor Johnston from Sprengel as 1-177 per cent., whereas Sprengel himself (p. 446. vol. ii. of his ‘ Chemie ftir Landwirthe ’) states it to be 1:777; Dr. Daubeny, on the other hand, gives Sprengel’s analysis as 2137, both of which alterations are made on the supposition of a misprint in Sprengel’s book. This led Mr. Sharp to undertake some experiments in order to ascertain the truth; and about a hundred experiments were performed, with great care, on varieties of red and white wheat, grown on different soils and climates in England, Germany, Sweden, Poland, Holland and Saxony. The results gave answers to the following questions :—I1st. What is the average amount of inorganic matter in the grain of wheat? This varies within the limits of 1°5 and 1:75 per cent. 2nd. Does the quantity of inorganic matter bear any relative propor- tion to the specific gravity of the grain, that is, to its weight per bushel? ‘The ex- periments show that a steady inverse ratio is maintained between the proportionate weight per bushel and the amount of ashes. Wheat weighing 64 lbs. per bushel yields 1*5 per cent. ; aud this amount gradually increases till wheat weighing 58 lbs. per bushel gives 1°75 per cent. of incombustible matter. 3rd. How much inorganic matter is removed from the soil of an acre of land by the grain of a crop of wheat? The answer to this practical question is one pound per bushel, From these experiments the ht Ag ¥ ——- i iT a a ae TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 37 farmer may learn with certainty, that if his fields produce five quarters of wheat per acre, that grain carries along with it to the market forty pounds weight of the earthy material of each acre of ground. It must be obvious that if this be not restored in “quantity and quality, in the shape of manure, his fields must be correspondingly impoverished. Several substances, particularly nitric acid, were tried in order to ascertain if any chemical preparation could be added to the specimens experimented upon, before or during the combustion, which would facilitate the otherwise tedious process ; but they all failed to give satisfactory results. The per-centage left by nitric acid was always less, but not uniformly less than it ought to have been. - Analysis of three species of Fucus. By E. G, Scuwe1rzer. The author described his method of analysis, and remarks, if we refer to the table of analyses there will be perceived a marked difference in the proportions of the va- rious ingredients, particularly between those of the Laminaria and those of the two other Fuci, which difference may offer no small advantage to agriculture. We have in the Laminaria saccharina the alkaline carbonates predominating, whereas in the two other Fuci, the sulphates. The preponderating quantity of potassa over that of soda in the Laminaria is remarkable ; it contains 22-4 per cent. of potassa to 18°8 per cent. of soda, whilst Fucus vesiculosus has 17:4 per cent. of potassa to 27-4 per cent. of soda, and Fucus serratus 15 per cent. of potassa to 25 per cent. of soda. But sea-water contains only in 1000 parts 0°76 chloride of potassium to 27:05 of chloride of sodium ; it is there- fore obvious that by the influence of vitality the potassa must have been powerfully attracted and assimilated ; asimilar fact is more particularly evinced in the quantity of iodine, of which the Laminaria contains 3:6 per cent., and the sea-water scarcely one- millionth part of its own weight. However, all the ingredients contained in sea-plants must have been derived from the sea-water, and though phosphoric acid is not dis- cernible in the residue from the evaporation of the quantity of water usually employed in quantitative analysis, nevertheless there can be no donbt that it exists in it, and “would be found if larger quantities of water were subjected to analysis. An experiment was performed to ascertain if iodine is exhaled from the Laminaria saccharina when exposed to the rays of the sun. Several pounds of this sea-weed were introduced into a large glass vessel, closed by a cork, from which was suspended a small vessel containing a weak solution of nitrate of silver and a slip of paper with amylum paste. This apparatus was for six weeks subjected to the direct influence of a summer’s sun (but so that the rays did not fall upon the tests), yet no turbidity in the silver solution, nor any reaction upon the amylum paste was visible. But I have to notice the fact that the plant began slightly to ferment, and that the glass vessel was filled with alcoholic vapours. - It has been asserted that the saccharine matter in this Fucus is only mannite, but we know that mannite does not undergo fermentation, it must therefore contain another substance, from which the vinous fermentation pro- ceeds. This will form a subject for future inquiry. The slimy fluid of the Laminaria in its fresh state is perfectly neutral, but when exposed to the air it soon indicates an acid reaction. Eight ounces of this Fucus were mixed with pure water and distilled, but neither in the distilled fluid was iodine indicated, nor was a slip of paper with amylum paste, kept during distillation before the tube that conducted the vapours, ' acted upon. The distilled fluid contained no essential oil, but was strongly impreg- : nated with the peculiar odour belonging to sea-plauts, which odour seems therefore not to be derived from the presence of iodine, or if so, the olfactory nerves must be a superior test to those employed. I have omitted to state that the above Fuci indi- cated but faint traces of bromine in 50 grs. of ashes, 38 REPORT—1845. Table of Analyses of three of the most common Fuci. I. Results as obtained from 100 parts of Ash. Ingredients. Laminaria Fucus Fucus saccharina. | vesiculosus. | serratus. Potassatctivorcctes ves cststavestersevesbes sa 22°456 17-409 14°925 HOdawcrtscccccecoereaks sess a¥eunhes aeeiedaes 1:667 5688 5:597 Lime ...... consults «ie Me castes weeeeice 10:042 7°368 9-076 Magnesia ...csscecsscsseae: seeseeseesanees 7374 6°786 7-076 Chloride of sodium ...... Generettesscaes 30°579 34°839 36:083 Todide of sodium .....,..seeneesesseseees 4:257 0-129 0-249 Phosphate of peroxide of iron ......... 0-683 0°350 0°599 Phosphoric acid......ssssesecsecseeseeeres 3-474 2:273 2-100 Sulphuric acid ........seceeeeee BI oe: 9-611 23°353 17°101 Carbonic achdvecsancreercerececnes cee scene 9-737 1-220 6:°375 SICA yee taste vocctnr rate S oseckagaasans6or 0°526 0-278 0°374 Charcoal and sand ........ Fe RO. 0°341 0-111 0:225 "ROGAN eee tes ces cccnes 100°747 99-804 99:780 II. The above results in 100 parts of Ash, deducting Carbonic Acid, Charcoal and Sand. POtASED oh adeden eacestiossetncs cece seme ton 24-768 17:679 16:017 WIGU A wages donee vaneaneatsecwengat=cnschee 1:839 5°776 6:006 Lime ...... eeshEn ame Nast seine snaeampieassis cr 11-076 7482 9°744 . Magnesia ..+..++++. eanaaents war uct cnmeSeay 8-133 6892 7:594 Chloride of SodiUM wecosscssecesesececes 33°722 35°380 38°724 Iodide of sodium ..... ipadbehss FP neni tee 4:695 0°130 0-267 Phosphate of peroxide of iron ,........ 0:753 0°356 0°642 Phosphoric acid.......+-...+++ LAS 3°832 2°308 2°253 Sulphurie Achy vacsevecstsadensesessany se 10°601 23°715 18°352 DINICH, Sea saseaesndetas srmcniees tustaneue stents 0:581 0-282 0°401 Total ...... ae Susaslen 100°000 100:000 100°000 9°785 20°560 25'830 Per-centage of ashes derived from Fuens dried at 212° F............. On the Composition of Slate Rocks, and the Soils formed from them. By J. P. Norton (Connecticut). The analyses were undertaken at the suggestion of Prof. Johnston, with a view of determining how far rocks of the same formation varied in different strata as to their chemical composition. ‘The specimens were seven in number, collected in Wigton- shire, In slate No. 1, the quantity of carbonate of lime was very great, 12°50 per cent., it being intersected with small veins of it; in No. 2, it was 0-40; in No. 3, 8°75; in No. 4, 0°45; in No. 5, 0°39; in No. 6, 0°30; in No.7, 0°34. The magnesia is more uniformly in considerable quantity :—No. 1, 3°80; No.4, 2:15; No.5, 1°66; No.7, 3:09. ‘he proportion of soluble iron and alumina is generally large :—No. 2, 19°5; No. 3, 18°75; No.6, 12°13.; the others are smaller, Thus much for the portion so- luble in acid. In the insoluble portion, the same substances were always present, but the lime generally in sma!l quantity; in No. 1 alone was it more than 1 per cent. The magnesia, on the other hand, frequently increased, being in No. 1, 2°30; No.5, 2°90; No. 6, 3°04; gNo. 7, ‘279. ‘This was also the case with the iron and alu- mina. In No. 2 it was 15:3; in No. 4, 9:45; in No. 5, 21°49; in No. 6, 39°41; in © No. 7, 13°61. With these great variations, from 9 to nearly 40, the silica of course a f i H j TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39 also varies: in No. 1, about 60; in No.3, 45°6; No.4, 75°79; No. 5, 67°59; No. 6, 37°82; No. 7, 72:05. T would now direct attention to some characteristics of the soils derived from the decomposition of these slates. Directing our attention to carbonate of lime, that which is immediately available, we see a range from 12°50 to 0:83 per cent: then to car- bonate of magnesia, there is in one 3:06, and another 0°35. So as to iron and alu- mina; in one there is 19°5, in another 4:82. These, with from 1 to 8 per cent. of alkaline matter, constitute the soluble portion from which the plant is directly to de- rive its support. Tn No, 1, then, we have a soil rich in carbonate of lime, with a proper portion of mag- nesia and alkalies, its only defect being the large quantity of iron, No.3 has nearly the same characteristics, though the lime is much smaller in quantity. In No. 7 there is but 0°34 of carbonate of lime, 0:35 of carbonate of magnesia; while in No. 6 there is 3°33 carbonate of lime, 3:09 carbonate of magnesia, and 12°13 of iron and alumina. This soil would obviously in its natural state be very unproductive.. That quantity of magnesia might be injurious without lime, and much of the iron was protoxide. There is little to hope from the decomposition of the insoluble portion either, for it has only 0:17 of carbonate of lime; while there is 3-06 carbonate of magnesia, and 39°40 of iron and alumina. This is the worst example, though Nos. 5 and 2 are not many degrees better. These seven slates, then, all picked up within a small extent of country, afford seven different soils, varying from very good to very bad. The physical state of this section of Wigtonshire is to a great extent unimproved, the land being excessively cold and wet; leaving this out of view, however, or rather supposing drainage complete the excess of iron, we may see in the variation of the per-centage of lime an explanation of many conflicting opinions that prevail respect- ing its use as a manure. On Mineral Manure. By Professor Lizzic. 4 verbal communication by Ernest Dierrensacu, M.D. (of Berlin.) After alluding to the varying conditions of soils under the circumstances of geolo- gical and geographical position, Dr. Dieffenbach proceeded to point out the advantages of using such a compound that it should meet these circumstances ; for instance, that for a moist climate it would be necessary so to prepare the saline manure that, al- though slowly decomposing to meet the requirements of vegetation, it should not be so soluble as to be washed out of the soil by the rains. This is proposed to be effected by Prof. Liebig; and having ascertained the mineral constituents removed from the soil, it will be the object of the manufacturer to supply their place in the mineral manure. It was then pointed out that the manures required for wheat, oats, legumi- nous plants and the potatoe must necessarily be different; and the object in view in the manufacture of this saline manure is to prepare it with the essential constituents for particular crops. On Malacca Guano. By Dr. Canter. This communication described a peculiar substance, of which recently samples have been sent to England. It was stated to be inferior to both the African and the Peru- vian, and curiously enough to consist almost entirely of the legs and other indigestible parts of beetles. On Masses of Salt discovered in the lowest portions of Guano on the Island of Ichaboe. By Tuomas J. PEARSALL. The salt was transparent and colourless, very soluble in water, and contained phos- phoric acid, soda and ammonia, and a trace of some organic matter, which became carbonaceous at a high temperature. The salt therefore appears to be a microcosmic salt, phosphate of soda, ammonia, and water of crystallization. Contributions to the Chemistry of Diabetes. By Joun Percy, M.D. In this paper the author communicates the results of nine ultimate analyses of human feces, viz. two of the feces in health, six in diabetes, and one in jaundice. 40 REPORT—1845. Proximate analyses of the feeces of the following cases are also given. In 100 parts of the dried residue of the feces of a man in perfect health and living on an ordinary mixed diet, there were— Substances soluble in zether (brownish yellow fat)... 11°95 hy alcohol of *830 ...... Pato: 10°74 i water (brown resinous matter) 11°61 Organic matter insoluble in the above menstrua...,.. 49°33 Salts soluble in water..........ceeeeee- Sitesserccecnstettece 4-76 Salts insoluble in water......... epi sceed ee aeoeraee ~) AGE In 100 parts of the dried faeces of a man (Flint) labouring under confirmed diabetes and living almost entirely on animal food, there were found— Substances soluble in cether ...sceccscsccessecceeeeeeecens 22:00 ns alcohbl!* 223,235; Sreevcceseavee 11-13 a WALOD Neuere ccoustteescsecoeseskeeene 12:02 Organic matter insoluble in the above menstrua...... 45°49 IARI Soha es eetetbeca rene cae cdot weit ETOAC ees 9°36 On a subsequent examination, the dried feces of this individual yielded 51-55 per cent. of fat. ‘The results of his ultimate analyses are given in the following table :— Man in health. | Manin | Child. Man. Man. Man. Man. Man, | Girl with Ordinary | training. | Diabetes.| Diabetes.) Diabetes.| Diabetes.) Diabetes.| Diabetes.| Jaundice, diet. ms 2. CON as Sar ia a =p a Soe ders 6 vali ae Gale. 46:20 | 49-79 | 43:86 | 54-35 | 60-34} 53-09 | 45°81 | 45-97 | 51-51 ge 672| 7-06| 696| 7:57| 925| 7:97] 7:59| 7271] 7-29 N&O...} 30-71 | 28-64 | 29-09 | 28-72 | 17-18 | 21:34 | 25-42 | 24-66 | 29-10 Ash..ie. 16-37 | 14:51 | 2009 | 9:36 | 13:23} 17-60} 2118 | 22-10] 12-10 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 Table of Composition, exclusive of Ash. Boil pied Bae coh 4, iid i a AE AMG em ae 55-24 | 58-24 | 54-88 | 59-96| 6953 | 6443 | 5811 | 59-01 | 58-60 qe: 303 | $25|/ 870| $35} 1066| 967] 962! 933| $39 N&o..| 3673 | 3351 | 36-42] 31-69 | 19-81 | 25:90! 3227| 31-66] 3341 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. On the Geology of the Neighbourhood of Cambridge, including the Formations between the Chalk Escarpment and the Great Bedford Level. By the Rev. Professor Sepewick, fc. Tue author first called attention to the map of the immediate neighbourhood, and pointed out the great irregularity of the chalk escarpment. There is indeed a pretty well-defined terrace, composed of chalk with flint, running eight or ten miles to the east of Cambridge, and seen in the hills near Royston and Newmarket; but several miles in advance of this terrace are great spurs of the lower chalk, one of which forms the well-known ridge of the Gogmagog hills. Some of these formations or ple a Ne ina. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 41 spurs of lower chalk have, by faults and denudations, been cut off from the general mass and thus form a series of obscure outliers, the exact limits of which it is ex- tremely difficult to define, in consequence of the featureless nature of the country and the great beds of drifted clay and gravel which cover many parts of the more regular formations. A small patch of chalk near Castle hill, and the chalk quarries near Madingley, worked under a thick covering of drifted brown clay, are given as examples. To the west of this irregular escarpment or boundary of the chalk, the following formations break out in a regular descending order:—1. Upper green- sand; 2. Galt; 3. Lower greensand; 4. Kimmeridge clay; 5. Coral rag; 6. Ox- ford clay, which forms the subsoil of the great Bedford Level. 1. Upper Greensand.—This appears, as far as regards its thickness, in a very de- generate form. The portion to which the term greensand is strictly applicable is only a few inches thick, and above it there is sometimes an ambiguous deposit of a few feet which forms a passage into the lower chalk. It is not true, as has formerly been stated, that the chalk marl forms a passage into the galt; for the upper green- sand, without a single exception, makes a natural break between them. As the elialk formation is generally pervious to water and the galt always impervious, it necessarily follows that copious springs are thrown out by the greensand bed. The springs at Cherry Hinton, the Nine-springs at the foot of the Gogmagog hills, and those of Coton and Madingley, are given as examples; and if a curved line be drawn through the principal springs of the neighbourhood, it will give a good approxima- tion to the true line of outcrop of the lower greensand. Thus it appears, by reference to the map, that Cambridge is situate on the galt in a bay formed by two irregular spurs of the lower chalk. Though the greensand is thus degenerate, its fossils are numerous and extremely characteristic. Well known species of Hxogyra and Tere- bratula are in great abundance; characteristic greensand Ammonites are not rare ; Hippurites occur occasionally ; sharks’ teeth and fish palates of several families are abundant. Many fragments of the head-bones of several species of Chimera occur here and there, and paddle-bones and teeth of a Plesiosaurus have been found abun- dantly near Barnwell, though mutilated and ill-preserved. But the most abundant fossils are the well-known black nodules which resemble coprolites, but have none of the structure of those bodies, being generally almost amorphous. They contain however a large per-centage of phosphate of lime. The author does not consider that their origin is yet well made out. The greensand, though partly incoherent and of such inconsiderable thickness, yet appears to have protected the upper surface of the galt from denudation ; for it spreads out over a considerable area to the west of the chalk, forming the upper surface of the galt where that formation rises into the dry _ lands that skirt the neighbouring marshes, 2. Galt.—This formation, as has been proved by repeated borings for Artesian wells, is more than 150 feet thick. None of the borings, though apparently com- mencing at the top of the formation, reach 200 feet. As this formation occupies a country almost at a dead level, and partially covered by marsh lands and gravel, its superficial extent cannot be accurately represented. Its western limits are how- ever, here and there, well-defined by the outcrop of the lower greensand. The fos- ' sils from this formation are derived from the upper part of it, as seen in the brick- pits near Cambridge, and they agree very closely, so far as they go, with the fossils of the Folkstone clay. Hamites, Crioceratites, and shells of the genus Inoceramus, &c. abound. A few shells of the genus Plicatula appear to be of the same species with those found in the lower beds of the neighbouring chalk marl. 3. Lower Greensand and Sandstone.—This formation is well seen at Denny Abbey, on the road to Ely. To the east of that place it is, for many miles, concealed under the marshes and makes no escarpment; but it is probably continuous, as it breaks out in greater force, forming an under terrace to the chalk escarpment of Norfolk, and, as is well known, may be traced to the sea at Hunstanton Cliff. It is seen near Cottenham, Rampton and Willingham (as represented on a map). It then crosses the Huntingdon road about the seventh milestone, buried however under a great thickness of the brown clay (Till). Again, it breaks out at Elsworth, and ina denudation between Caxton and Bourne, and at Great Gransden. Beyond the last- named place it increases in thickness and blends itself with the sand-hills of Bed- fordshire. In the range above given it is perhaps, on the average, not more than 42 REPORT—1845. twenty feet thick. It is composed of beds of sand and hard sandstone, sometimes slightly calcareous, and is generally of a yellowish or rusty-brown colour, resembling the upper beds of the formation seen on the south coast of England. Its fossils are few in number and obscure, being composed of ferruginous mineralized fragments _ of dicotyledonous wood, of fragments of shells, and bones of fishes. Good charac- teristic fossil fishes have however been found in the formation near Lynn. As it is pervious to water, is imbedded between two impervious strata of clay, and crops out (on the confines of Huntingdonshire and Bedfordshire) at a higher level than the surface of the galt at Cambridge, it readily affords a supply of water to the Artesian wells, as appears by the accompanying section*. The most remarkable exhibition of the lower greensand is seen in an outlying ridge (surrounded by low fen-lands and forming the true Isle of Ely) extending from Ely to Kilrow, west of Haddenham. The ridge cannot be accounted for by the re- gular rise of the strata towards the west, combined with a subsequent denudation ; but has been produced by a fault elevating the ridge above the mean level of the surrounding fens. This has been satisfactorily proved by the recent cuttings for the railroad, which expose the chalk mar] in situ at the base of the hill composed of Kim- meridge clay and lower greensand. This chalk, to be on its true geological level, ought to be about 150 feet above the top of the ridge. It is presumed, therefore, that there is on the south-east side of the ridge a fault or upcast of about 150 feet, as appears by the accompanying sections. 1st section exhibited at the brown-clay pits at Ross Hill on the N.E. side of Ely. S.E. N.W. a. Brown-clay with large boulders. 4. Lower chalk, shaken and slightly contorted. c. Lower greensand. d, Kimmeridge clay. 2nd section, below the preceding, laid bare by the cuttings of the new railroad. S.W. N.E. a. Brown-clay. 6. Chalk marl or lower chalk. d. Kimmeridge clay. In this section, which is at a lower level, the lower greensand does not appear. The author thinks from the appearance of the sections that the fault took place immediately before the deposit of the brown clay. 4. Kimmeridge clay.—This deposit is best seen in the great clay-pits near Ely. It * West byS. Sand-pits near Gamlingay. Cambridge. a, Overlying brown clay (Till). 6, Chalk marl, ce. Upper greensand. d. Galt. e. Lower greensand. jf. Kimmeridge and Oxford clay. Thickness unknown. The bore-holes at Cambridge through d. of the section admit the ascent of the water which enters, at a higher level, by the outcrop of the sand e. a TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43 is full of characteristic fossils, such as Ostrea deltoidea, Gryphea virgula, Ichthyodo- rulites, reptiles’ bones, &c. In other places, however (e. g. at Great Gransden and Elsworth), the lower greensand appears to overlap the Kimmeridge clay and rests immediately on a clay full of Oxford clay fossils, such as Gryphea dilatata, &c. In this respect the relations of the lower greensand to the inferior formations is only analogous to what is so often seen on the south coast of England. 5. Coral Rag or Middle Oolite.—It is well known that this formation, of a great thickness on the south coast of England, gradually thins off in its range towards the north, and comes to an edge in Buckinghamshire. In its further range towards the north-east, for more than 100 miles, it almost entirely disappears, and» the Oxford clay and Kimmeridge clay are brought together without the intervention of any stone bands to break the uniformity of the surface. The consequence is, that they form a great plain occupying a part of Cambridgeshire, Norfolk, and Lincolnshire. To this remark there is one striking exception ; for at Upware, about eight miles be- low Cambridge, a low ridge, extending about a mile in length and a few hundred yards in breadth, rises out of the fen-lands. It is formed by a saddle of most cha- racteristic coral rag, with many characteristic fossils. The author conjectures that this elevation was effected by the same disturbing forces which produced the great fault, above noticed, at Ely. This deposit is not exposed to its base, but cannot, it is thought, be more than fifteen or twenty feet thick, and it is certain that it does not form a continuous band concealed under the fens, as several wells have been sunk (between Cambridge and Lynn) through the Kimmeridge clay into the Oxford clay without passing through any beds which bore a resemblance to the coral rag. The accompanying section will explain the above short description. Section from the chalk hills, near Burwell to the great outlying ridge of lower greensand near Haddenham. Hills E. of River Chalk Hills N.W. Haddenham. Cam. Upware. near Burwell. S.E. 1 6. Lower chalk. ec. Upper greensand. . Galt. Jf. Kimmeridge clay. g. Coral rag. h. Oxford clay. e. Lower greensand, On the right-hand side of the section, c d ef are buried under the marsh land. But to the west of the Cam f (Kimmeridge clay) is worked in several pits; and 4 (Oxford clay) breaks out on the north-west side of Haddenham ridge; but on that side no trace of the coral rag has been discovered. 6. Oxford Clay.—This formation occupies by far the largest portion of the great Bedford Level, and is of very great but unknown thickness. Its western boundary is defined by the outcrop of the great oolite, and does not belong to the geology of the neighbourhood of Cambridge. Its eastern boundary is very ill defined, often passing under marsh lands where the subsoil is concealed from the view. At Great Gransden and Elsworth, as stated above, it breaks out from beneath the lower green- sand. All the low lands between Coningtor and St. Ives are composed of it. The fen lands extending from Cottenham to Ely are on the Kimmeridge clay; and in consequence of the wpcast fault, which has produced the great outlier of Ely and Haddenham, the Oxford clay is thrown more towards the north-west, so that its upper beds crop out on the north-west side of the ridge, as appears in the preceding section. Such are the principal facts connected with the stratification of the country near Cambridge, and the localities where they are best exhibited may be examined a day’s excursion from Cambridge. Irregular overlying Deposits, not now in progress of formation and unconnected with the present action of the Surface Waters. 1. Great Brown Clay.—This seems very closely to resemble the ¢ill of Scotland, 44. REPORT—1845. but no proof has yet been given that it is of the same date or exactly of the same origin, and therefore the author gives it its local and provincial name. It is of con- siderable but very irregular thickness, of which 200 feet may be stated as about the maximum for the country near Cambridge. In general its thickness is much less, The higher table-lands on the confines of Cambridgeshire, Bedfordshire and Hunt- ingdonshire, are almost entirely composed of it; but it is found also at lower levels, and sometimes immediately under the marsh lands. It contains innumerable peb- bles and fragments of chalk, and multitudes of septaria and other stony concretions drifted out of the great fen-clay. Entangled in its mass are occasionally found blocks of greensand, several tons in weight, and driven several miles from the parent rock, The author affirms his conviction that ninety-nine parts out of a hundred of the whole mass are derived from the country of the great fen-clay. Icebergs may, during the period, have transported boulders from a great distance, and dropped them among the superficial deposits of the country. But no conceivable action of icebergs could have scooped out the great hollow of the fens and spread the materials, far and wide, over all the higher lands on the south-east side of the great level. ‘The brown clay has been pushed bodily onward by the propelling force of water, the propelling force having been probably brought into action by some sudden elevation and change of level between land and water, of which the faults above noticed may give a partial evidence. In this neighbourhood there are no old local freshwater deposits above the brown clay like those which have been noticed on the coast of Norfolk, 2. Flint Gravel.—This generally occupies the low country, and is too well-known to need description in this sketch. Its level is however by no means constant, and as it sometimes contains blocks of stone brought from a great distance, the author refers it to the ill-defined period when the great erratic blocks were transported over so many parts of England. That it was mainly produced by the action of the sea during changes of level, cannot admit of doubt; but in a few places (e.g. near Barn- well) its finer sandy beds contain many well-preserved specimens both of land and freshwater shells, most of which are of existing species. It is conjectured that these shells may have been chiefly derived from old freshwater deposits (like those of Nor- folk) which existed, here and there, on the surface of the brown clay, at the time the flint gravel was in progress of formation. The facts at any rate are interesting ; and in the finer beds of gravel near Barnwell, these shells are found associated with drifted mammals’ bones of many species, most of which are extinct, e. g. Mammoth, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, gigantic Bos, Equus, &c. This association of fossils is described in a paper by the Rev. T. B. Brodie, in the ‘Cambridge Transactions,’ and the same fact was noticed twenty-five years since in a communication by J. Okes, Esq. Modern Deposits connected with the present Drainage of the Country. The towns and villages upon the great level are generally built on hummocks of the brown clay, or on patches of the flint gravel, which raise them out of the reach of the floods by which the lower fen-lands are occasionally submerged. ‘The out- crop of the lower greensand gives a swelling surface of dry land, so that its range through the marshes may sometimes be traced by a line of villages and steeples, In like manner the great outlier of lower greensand (the true Isle of Ely, which Wil- liam the Conqueror could only reach by an artificial causeway across the marsh of the Kimmeridge clay) is marked by the towers of Ely Cathedral and the steeples of Wilburton and Haddenham. With the exception of these elevations, all the country above described to the west of the chalk, is at a nearly dead level. Immediately under the vegetable soil are found silt of various kinds, remains of ancient forests, and bog-earth occasionally of considerable thickness. In some places the deposit is simple, in others complex, indicating many successive changes in the condition of drainage. Among these marsh lands are many traces of works by the hands of man. But the most interesting remains are those which occur at the base of the series, on the immediate surface of the older deposits, and they give an indication of the condition of the country before the turf-bogs dammed up the old water-courses, or the labours of man interfered with their distribution. Among these remains the author only notices such as are found in the Cambridge collection, and to the in- spection of which the Association was invited. Among these are the following :— TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45 Bear, Wolf, Wild Boar, Beaver, Roe-buck, Red-deer, and the long-faced and straight- horned gigantic Bos. The first two species are rare; the last five are found in con- siderable abundance. To this list might be added the bones of many species still flourishing in the immediate neighbourhood. In the overlying marshes are occa- sionally found many organic remains of living species and many curious remains of ancient workmanship; but their description came not within the objects of the communication. The author exbibited a map of the Bedford Level for the purpose of explaining some of the remarkable changes in the drainage of country during the last seven hun- dred years. The older historical facts were chiefly derived from the descriptions and charts of Dugdale and Badeslade, and they are briefly enumerated in the following appendix to the paper. APPENDIX. Changes in the River Drainage of the Bedford Level, produced by the silting up of the old water-courses, and the consequent accumulation of Turf-bog and Marsh Lands, &c. The parts of the great level immediately bordering on the sea, from the mouth of the Lynn river to the northern extremity of the Wash of Lincolnshire, chiefly consist of marsh lands gained from the sea, partly by artificial embankments (some of very ancient date), and partly by the natural encroachments of the increasing delta. But as under such conditions the outfall of the several rivers was liable to silt up, and the rivers themselves to shift their channels, it followed that many of the lower districts in the interior of the great level must have been liable to continued inundations from back-water. The consequence was, the formation of extensive tracts of fen-land and turf-bog through all the lower levels in the interior of the country. The following facts are chiefly derived from Dugdale, ‘On the History of Imbanking and Drayninge,’ and from Badeslade, ‘On the Navigation of King’s- Lynn and of Cambridge,’ and are given in this place for the purpose of showing how much the whole surface of a delta may be changed, by alluvial accumulations, in course of a few hundred years. In the early periods within the reach of authentic records (which go back more than 600 years, no notice being here taken of the old embankments made by the Romans), the drainage of the great level was effected in the following manner :— 1. By the channel of the Witham, which had then nearly the same course which it has at the present time. 2. By the Welland river, which, after descending by Stamford, Crowland and Spalding, united with the waters of the Glen in the estuary north of Holland fen. 3. By the Nene, which after passing Wansford and Peterborough, descended by Whittlesea-meer, Ugg-meer and Ramsey-meer to Benwick, at which place it was joined by the Old West-water, one of the branches of the Great Ouse*. From Ben- wick it flowed on the north side of March and Doddington to Upwell, where it was joined by the Welney river, then the principal channel of the Great Ouse; and from Upwell the united waters proceeded directly to Wisbeach, anciently called Ousebeach, and fell into the estuary. 4. By the Great Ouse, which, after passing Huntingdon and St. Ives, descended to Erith (a village at the south-west end of the old and new Bedford rivers), where it divided into two channels. One of them, called the Old West-water, ran to Ben- wick, as before stated, and there united with the waters of the Nene. The other channel, now called the Old Ouse (sometimes erroneously marked as the Old West- water), descended by Cottenham fen, and was joined by the Cam a few miles above Ely. The Old Ouse, after passing Ely, was joined by the Mildenhall river, and it then passed, by the way of Littleport and Welney, to Upwell, where, as before stated, it joined the waters of the Nene, and so descended to the sea at Wisbeach. 5. By the Little Ouse (once a very inconsiderable river), which (after passing Brandon and being joined by some small tributary streams from the chalk hills of * The Old West-water was given off by the Ouse at Erith (near the south-west end of the old and new Bedford rivers), and ran to Benwick, not far from Ramsey-meer. It was filled up and had almost entirely disappeared so early as 1618, as is stated in the old sutveys, and it is never traced on any modern maps. The term Old West-water cannot therefore be cor« rectly applied to the old course of the Ouse from Erith down Cottenham fen to Ely. 46 ° : REPORT—1845. Norfolk) fell into the sea at Lynn.—In the preceding account all the old artificial drains, and several minute bifurcations of the rivers, after they reached the great alluvial delta, are intentionally omitted. As early as the 12th century the accumulations of alluvial silt near the mouths of the Welland and Nene, caused a great back-water which overspread some of the lower portions of the Bedford Level. The formation of great tracts of peat-bog was the necessary consequence, by which the levels of the fen-lands were changed, and the river courses still further interrupted; and as early as the 13th century the out- fall of the waters through some of the old channels had almost entirely failed. Mean- time the bed of the Little Ouse, not having been exposed to the same accidents, was much below the level of the great alluvial delta that extended to the mouths of the other rivers above mentioned. A great drain was therefore cut from Littleport Chair to Rebeck, making the first direct communication between the Great and Little Ouse. The effect was just what might have been anticipated. Not only the waters of the Great Ouse, but the back-waters which had been pent up at a higher level in the interior of the delta, descended with irresistible force through this new drain into the channel of the Little Ouse, and so escaped into the sea at Lynn. About this time the outfall below Spalding had so completely failed, that the waters of the Welland found their way through the Catswater into the Nene; and a reverse direc- tion having been given to all the main currents, in consequence of a channel being thus opened below the level of the ancient outfall at Wisbeach, all the back-waters of the Welland, and all the united waters of the Nene, now flowed into the Great Ouse through the Old West-water, through the Welney branch, and through all the great cross-drains of the neighbouring country, and were then conveyed by the new cut into the Little Ouse and so entered the sea at Lynn. In this way, for many years after- wards, nearly all the waters of the great level, to the south of the Witham, had their outlet at Lynn; and the Little Ouse (now confounded with the Great Ouse), which had formerly run between banks not more than twelve perches asunder, became, in consequence of the changes above mentioned, more than a mile wide. Many attempts were made to prevent this unnatural discharge of nearly all the waters of the Bed- ford Level by one channel at Lynn (formerly called, as before stated, the Little Ouse). Thus, in 1292 several dams were constructed across the Upwell channel to prevent the back-waters of the Nene from joining the Ouse. But they produced such ruin- ous effects on many tracts of fen-lands, some of them bordering on the upper parts of the Ouse itself, that in 1332 they were destroyed under the direction of a parlia- mentary commission ; and for many years afterwards the great drainage of the delta was effected in the manner above described. Notwithstanding the very indirect na- ture of this drainage, which conveyed the greater part of the waters of the Welland, the Nene and the Ouse into the sea by the Lynn channel, the fens appear, during many subsequent years, to have been in a good condition, a fact which can only be explained by the low level of the new outfall. In course of time however the new channels began to silt up, and new works became necessary to prevent the ruinous effects of the consequent back-water. In 1490 the discharge of the Ouse was par- tially relieved by a cut (called Morton’s Leam) from Peterborough to Guyhirn and Wisbeach. It was intended to convey the waters of the Nene to their ancient out- fall at Wisbeach ; but it was never entirely effective till the year 1638, when Ver- muyden (under the direction of King Charles I.) erected high banks on each side of the Leam, and opened out a better channel to the sea. Since then the Nene has continued to flow, by its ancient out-fall, into the sea below Wisbeach. About the same time other great works were undertaken and were continued in succession by two Earls of Bedford. Two great cuts were made from Erith to Salter’s Lode, a distance of about twenty miles, and were completed in 1648. By these channels (now called the old and new Bedford rivers) the waters of the Ouse, instead of their former devious course by Cottenham and Ely, were conveyed, by two unbending lines, down the great fen on the north-west side of the Ely and Haddenham outlier before mentioned ; and from Ely to Salter’s Lode (near Denver) the old channel of the Ouse now carried only the waters of the Cam and its tributaries. These new works, how- ever beneficial in other respects, appear from the first to have injured the low lands bordering on the Cam, and the old channel of the Ouse between Ely and Salter’s Lode; for the new straight channels of the Ouse were not cut down to the level TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 47 of the old channel at Salter’s Lode; and the floods from the upper parts of the Ouse commonly reached this spot, through the straight artificial channels, much sooner than the floods of the Cam. A new and unlooked-for evil was the consequence; the banks of the Cam were continually liable to floods from the back-waters of the Ouse. One great flood of the Ouse, in 1720, is said to have backed up the Cam from Sal- ter’s Lode, for twenty days, and to have silted up one part of the old channel below Ely to the thickness of three or four feet. Ruinous effects of this kind were pre- vented by the erection of various sluices, of which Denver sluice was most effective. But although affording a cure for an immediate evil, and necessary to the internal navigation of the Great Level, they have ultimately contributed to the very evil they were intended to remedy ; for partly by their agency the whole bed of the Cam (as well as of the old Ouse below Ely) was gradually silted up to a much higher level, injurious to all the neighbouring fen-lands. The causes which produced these re- markable changes continued to operate, and from time to time compelled the execu- tion of new works. By way of conclusion, those works which have been effected within the last thirty or forty years may be briefly noticed :-— 1. All the fen-lands, in the interior of every part of the great Bedford Level, are so far above the mean level of the sea, that they might be effectually drained by artificial cuts to low-water mark ; and the drainage might then be maintained per- manently and effectually without the enormous expense of water-mills and other artificial means. This has been partially effected by great works near the mouth of the Witham, and by other similar works to the north of Morton’s Leam, which give a natural and uniform descent to the waters of Thorney fen and a part of South- Holland fen. 2. Within the same period a new channel has been cut for the Nene below Wis- beach, and by an artificial embankment the upper part of the estuary has been gained from the sea. Since then the lower part of the estuary has continued to warp up to a higher level, and other artificial encroachments upon the sea are now in progress. Had the bed of the Nene been lowered as far as Guyhirn, many thousand acres of unreclaimed fen (including Whittlesea-meer) might have been drained by a direct cut to that place. At present there is a violent rapid which conveys the waters of the upper level to the level of the new river course below Wisbeach. In consequence of this most injurious condition of the Nene, works are now in progress for the drainage of Whittlesea-meer and the neighbouring fens by a longer and more indi- rect cut to the lower part of the Ouse near Lynn. 3. A great delta had been formed above Lynn during the time that the waters of the Bedford Level were discharged (as above described) by the mouth of what was once called the Little Ouse. This delta gave a slow discharge to the great land- floods and caused much back-water. The artificial cut, called the Eau Brink, has ina great measure abated this evil. Many large tracts of fen-lands (on the Cam and the Ouse), which were once poisoned by stagnant water, are now well-drained and made productive by a top-dressing of clay; and floods, which formerly hung on these lands for many weeks, now disappear in a few days. Local improvements, from the lowering of the river courses and the introduction of steam-power, are not here noticed. Many of them are but local expedients to meet an existing evil, which could not recur were a more uniform and systematic drainage of the Great Level ever carried into effect. Enough has been stated in this Appendix to explain the appearance of forest-trees and other indications of dry land in many places of the Great Level, now sunk under many feet of bog-earth and allu- vial silt: aud if such remarkable effects have been thus produced by the accumula- tions of alluvial matter and the growth of fen-land in the course of six or seven hun- dred years, we may be well assured that the whole form of the neighbouring coast must have been greatly changed in more ancient times by the same causes acting without interruption and with less modification from the works of man. On the occurrence of Silurian rocks at the villages of Ober and Neu Schmollen, near Breslau, in Silesia, and covering an area of about eight square English miles. By M.Ferpinanp Oswatp of Oels, in a letter to Mr. Murcuison, Mr. Murchisun considered this an interesting discovery, as throughout Germany 48 REPORT—1845. the older palwozoic rocks belonged almost exclusively to the carboniferous or Devo- nian systems, and the country around Prague was the only one from which Silurian fossils had been derived. It was a question whether this was really a little island of Silurian rocks in situ, or whether it was only a part of the drift of that region, which often contained Silurian rocks derived from Scandinavia and Russia. In Mr. Oswald’s copious list of fossils were mentioued Jd/enus crassicauda, Spheronites, and other chas racteristic lower Silurian fossils, together with almost all the best-marked corals of Wenlock and Dudley, a remarkable and unexpected mixture of the fossils of two different members of the same series. ’ Tabular view of Fossil Plants. By Professor Goreurt of Breslau. Communicated by Mr. Murcuison. Mr. Murchison announced the general results obtained by M. Gdppert from the formation of a tabular view of the fossil plants which had been discovered up to the present time all over the globe. Mr. Murchison stated, that Professor Goppert’s general résumé of the fossil flora of the globe would be borne out by detailed proofs about to be given in a general synopsis of well-known fossil species, animal and ve- getable, now preparing by Bronn, Géppert and Herman von Meyer, and in which these distinguished naturalists follow toa great extent the same plan as that published by Mr. Morris in his ‘Catalogue of British Fossils.’ The number of fossil plants known to M. Adolphe Brongniart in 1836, was 527. In the new list they amounted to 1792; and as in the $0,000 plants now known to exist in different parts of the globe, a large proportion consists of fucoids and fungi and other tribes, which would disappear in the process of fossilization, it would be seen that the total number of known fossil species bore a more considerable proportion to those now existing than was com- monly admitted. Their numerical distribution in the different rocks is stated by M. Géppert to be as follows :— Palzozcic*...... SL ecseivee aa ieee ae Carboniferous ....... Pe cane tte eaten Perea ORG Permiani ......seceees Swacdven vid sanceaeel Hepes (OG MPPIAUSIGro tacit venerencere teens esctes ARB A PE Ns 67 Oolitic....... sete deans Pr fal a Oy wae Hey BR 731 WeedldGH?: .cccocatcccurecatedees Le cetera LO GREUAGEOUS® 2 /Reccsccvesdiocsasscctivestetevnce ODE Tertiary ccvsctheccctscpicccsdctctosecvcsswneses WOE WITIRMOWINS veccccceccduasevsscccaserceccucdecwna'y LE a Total vrccveees Taste LFIZ From this table it appeared, that the carboniferous group contained more than half the known species of fossil plants, a remarkable circumstance when it was con- sidered that the great herbivorous land quadrupeds had no ascertained existence bes fore the tertiary period. On the Agency of Land Snails in forming holes and trackways in Compact Limestone. By Dr. Bucktann. This notice was a continuation of one made at the Plymouth meeting, in which the author ascribed certain perforations discovered by him on the under side of ledges of limestone rock at Tenby, Boulogne and Plymouth, to the agency of pro- jecting the acid secretions of land snails, which resorted to these rocks daily for ‘shelter. The additional instances now described were discovered by Dr. Buckland * I beg to observe, that the plants here alluded to under the term paleozoic, are all (with the exception of a few fucoids) found in the rocks called Devonian, which lie immediately at the base of the carboniferous system; no well-characterized land plants having yet been observed in the Silurian or oldest palzeozoic rocks. Some, indeed, of the so-called palezozoic plants of M. Géppert may, I suspect, belong to what English geologists term the “ lower limestone (carboniferous) shale,’’ which has very generally been merged with the grauwacke of German geologists. I need scarcely remark, that the word “ palzozoic”’ is not here used according to the sense in which most modern geologists would employ it, viz. as embracing — the Silurian, Devonian, carboniferous and Permian deposits.—A. I. Murchison. =, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 49 in Cumberland during a visit made in 1842, with Mr. Hopkins; at Cannington Park in Somersetshire, by Mr. W. Baker of Bridgewater ; in the stringcourses of the Ro- man castle at Richborough, made of Kentish rag; _in the roof of a cromlech of dolo- mite at St. Nicholas, near Cardiff, and in the rock work in Mr. Dillwyn’s garden of mountain limestone brought from Gower. Dr. Buckland exhibited specimens of limestone reck from several localities, showing perforations occupied by snails, and grooves or furrows leading to the perforations, and he insisted that these were unlike those produced by any marine animal, or by atmospheric causes. The perforated rocks were stated to be only found in districts affording a rich vegetation, and were always met with at the junction of a slate region, with one entirely composed of lime- stone, and near luxuriant herbage. Dr. Buckland attached great importance to the perforations at Richborough Castle, which, he said, afforded a measure of the time necessary for such opergtions; the deepest holes he had seen in limestone rocks rarely exceeded three sabes, and he considered it probable that these had occupied as many thousand years in their formation; the holes were only found in the hardest limestone rocks, because in softer limestones they would be obliterated by atmo- spheric action. On the Coal Deposits of the Asturias. By 8. P. Pratt, FE.R.S. Mr. Pratt gave a general account of a section taken from the neighbourhood of Leon in a north-west direction to the coast passing through Oviedo. The strata rise from beneath tertiary deposits which cover the plains of Leon and Castile, at an angle of 30°, which soon becomes nearly vertical, dipping north by west. They con- sist of numerous alternations of grit and shale with thin beds of Jimestone, and con- tain within about three miles of their rise a bed of good coal, nearly nine feet thick. Between this point and the summit of the Pass, a distance of five leagues, several extensive faults occur, by which the dip is more than once reversed, and several large mountain masses of limestone appear, underlying the grits, &c.; this limestone con- tains numerous fossils which indicate a period older than the mountain limestone, although several species are found intermixed, which can scarcely be separated from it. Hard grits and shales, highly inclined, succeed, and form the higher parts of the Pass, extending about a league beyond it to the north, after which coal plants are found abundantly in the grits and shales; no coal however is seen until near Pola de Lena situate about four leagues from the top of the Pass; from hence following the road to Oviedo, in a distance of ten miles, more than seventy seams of good workable coal are crossed ; near the upper part of the series a bed of conglomerate occurs, formed of rolled masses of grit, limestone, and coal; another such deposit, probably ex- ceeding 1500 feet in thickness, appears near the lowest part of the series, in which the coal boulders are more abundant, varying from the size of an egg to a foot in dia- meter, and possess the same character with the coal of the associated beds; one good coal-seam uccurs in the conglomerate, and two or three below it. The coal deposits are terminated by a narrow valley, beyond which the limestone rises from beneath them toa considerable elevation; a depression of the surface soon after occurs, form- ing a plain of cretaceous deposits of the Hippurite period, upon which the city of Oviedo stands, and which extends for twenty or thirty miles east and west. Beyond Oviedo to the north, the limestone again rises, and coal deposits appear between this oint and the coast ; in one of these the coal forms beds of from three to seven feet, interstratified with the limestone, which, with the shales that occur in it, contains an abundance of fossils, chiefly shells and corals, with but few traces of plants, whilst those before mentioned in the series south of Oviedo, were chiefly Calamites, Sigillarie, and Lepidodendra. Another of these deposits, containing the same fossils, crops out on the sea-shore near the.port of Aviles, which is to form the termination of the _ North of Spain Railroad to Madrid. It appears therefore that, besides extensive coal- beds corresponding with those of England and other countries, this province pos- Sesses a considerable deposit belonging to an earlier period, which was probably the _ source of the boulders occurring in the conglomerate of the upper series. Connected _ with the coal, and always below it, are several beds of hematite, one of which is ex- traordinary, the pure unmixed ore being fifty feet thick, and extending for a consider- able distance; it appears from its mineralogical character to have been a mechanical or aqueous deposit. 1845. E 50 REPORT—1845. On the Denudation of South Wales and the adjacent Counties. By A. C. Ramsay, F.G.S. * On the Geology of New Zealand. By Dr. Dizrrensacn. New Zealand forms a group of mountainous islands nearly as large as England and Wales, and its geological structure is rendered difficult of discovery by the primitive forests that fringe the coast, or, where these have been destroyed, by impenetrable thickets of the esculent fern. The fundamental rock is everywhere clay-slate, fre- quently containing greenstone dykes, as at Port Nicholson, Queen Charlotte’s Sound and Cloudy Bay; in the neighbourhood of the dykes the clay-slate sometimes assumes the character of a roofing-slate. On the banks of the rivers Eritonga and Waibo are terraces, or horizontal plateaux, fifty feet high, formed of boulders of the oldest trap- rocks, and similar terraces are seen on the sea coast round Cape Palliser, fifty or sixty feet above the sea. Anthracite cdal crops out in the small harbour of Wangarrie on the west coast of Middle Island, and there is a thin seam of anthracite in the hard gray sandstone on the east coast of the Northern Island. Limestone is described as oc- curring in the harbours of Kauria and Waingaroa on the west coast of the Northern Island ; it is crystalline, and contains fossils of the genera Pecten, Ostrea, Terebratula and Spatangus. Limestone is also found on the river Kaipara in the Bay of Islands, and copper pyrites has been obtained from the great Barrier Island, where it forms veins in the clay-slate. The coasts are in many places fringed with recent horizontal sedi- mentary deposits, consisting of loam, with fragments of wood and tree-ferns, blades of the Typha, &c.; and on the Northern Island the coast is often formed of volcanic conglomerate, containing magnetic iron sand near Cape Egmont, and Turritelle and oyster shells at the harbour of Parenga; near Tauranga, it is composed of decom- posing tufa, containing lignite and shells of Pectunculus, Natica, Pyrula and Ancil- laria. The small rocky islands of trachyte, lying off the coast of Northern Island, also bear marks of wave-action to the height of 100 feet above the present sea level. On the western coast of this island formations of sand are now accumulating, driven over the forests by the prevalent westerly gales. The interior of the Northern Island affords but a scanty vegetation, and the surface is everywhere covered with ordinary volcanic productions, derived from the lofty central group of mountains, some of which are extinct, others still active voleanoes; the lava appears to have been prin- cipally erupted from the base of the craters. The highest of these craters are Ton- gariro, 6000 feet in elevation, according to Mr. Bidwell, and Mount Egmont about 9000 feet, by Dr. Dieffenbach’s thermometrical observations. There are also many lakes which appear to occupy ancient craters. The mountain chains of the Middle island are supposed to consist of primary rocks; quartzose sandstone and gray- wacke are met with at the height of 3000 feet; the lofty pyramidal summits are co- vered with snow, and deep narrow valleys separate the various ridges, and radiate from the central cones. Dr. Dieffenbach enumerates many localities at which he observed mineral springs, particularly between the Bay of Islands and Hokianga, where their temperature varied from 124° to 154°, and having an alkaline taste ; the surface was covered with sublimations of sulphur. Along the delta of the Waikato, hot springs rise from the escarpments of the hills, forming deposits like those of Iceland and St. Michael, Azores, containing 75 per cent. of silica. There is also a cold silicifying spring near Cape Maria. Dr. Dieffenbach has examined into all the traditions respecting the existence of the Moa, or great bird of New Zealand, and concludes that it has never been seen alive by any natives of New Zealand ; the rivers in which its bones have been found flow between banks from thirty to sixty feet high, and-as they are continually chan- ging their course the remains of the Moa may have been derived from tertiary fluvia- tile strata. On the Lake Parima, the El Dorado of Sir Walter Raleigh, and the M4 Geography of Guiana, By Sir R. Scuompurex. : The author commenced by alluding to the ill-fated expeditions at the close of the — 16th and commencement of the 17th centuries, in search of the El Dorade and its — —— TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51 reputed riches... Manoa, the capital of El Dorado, was said to be built on a large lake, which Hondius first represented in his map of Guiana as 200 leagues long and forty broad, assigning as its locality the isthmus between the Rupununi and Rio Branco ; subsequent geographers retained the Laguna Parima, or Mar Blanco, but varied its locality; and although Humboldt, by reasoning founded upon personal experience and the inspection of every document relating to the country, asserted that such a lake could have no real existence, yet within the last few years maps have been published upon which the lake still figures. At the time Humboldt pub- lished his Atlas, the regions north of the Amazon, three times as large as Spain, were unknown. I[t was this country which the author had been engaged in exploring since 1835, and the large maps which illustrated his paper proved the correctness of Hum- boldt’s judgement. The fable of the “ Mar Blanco” had doubtless arisen from the an- nual inundations of the vast savannahs between the Rupununi and Rio Branco and the Pacaraima Mountains and the thick forests of Essequibo, covering an extent of 14,000 square miles. These might once have formed an inland lake, but not within the histo- ric period. The author then gave a sketch of the geography of Guiana, which, although the largest British colony in South America, was so little known as to be sometimes spoken of as an island. The province is bounded in its widest extent by the rivers Amazon and Orinoco, and comprises an area of 690,000 square miles ; the Casiquiare canal connects the Orinoco with the Rio Negro and the Amazon; so that, in this way, the province may be circumnavigated. The fertility of the country is surprising to those accustomed only to the vegetation of the temperate zone; but the author gives it as his opinion, that no natives of the north of Europe could endure the climate as labourers in the open air. The rivers of Guiana, aided by short over- land portages, aftord inland communication with Monte Video at the mouth of the La Plata, with Cuzio, Lima, and Santa Fé de Bogota. The Parime and Pacaraima Mountains separate the fertile plains of the Lower Orinoco from those of the Rio Negro and the Amazon; the loftiest summits are in the most southern ranges, and in those most northerly. Maravacca, near the Orinoco, rises to 11,000 feet, and Roraima, the culminating point of the Pacaraima Mountains, is 8000 feet above the sea; they are composed of the older red sandstone, and exhibit mural cliffs 1000 and 1600 feet high. From the walls of the latter mountains the river Kamaiba precipi- tates itself, in a cascade of nearly 1500 feet, surpassing the Cascade de Gavarnie in the Pyrenees, which is 1266 feet. In the neighbourhood of these mural mountains, porphyry, jasper and rock crystals are found. Notice and Drawings of the Footprints of various Animals on the New Red Sandstone of Corncockle Muir. By H. E. Srrickxuanp, F.G.S. On Nodules, apparently Coprolitic, from the Red Crag, London Clay, and Greensand. By Professor Henstow. The supply of phosphate of lime used in agriculture, and hitherto obtained from bones, having of late years become insufficient, Dr. Daubeny had been induced to visit Spain, in order to learn whether this deficiency could be supplied from the de- posit of phosphorite in Estremadura. From his report, there appeared to be diffi- culty attending the project ; but so important was it deemed, that a second expedi- tion had been made for the sake of further investigation. In October 1843, Prof. Henslow had called attention to the occurrence of phosphate of lime in pebbly beds ‘of the red crag at Felixstow, in Suffolk; these nodules, though extremely hard, pre~ sented external indications of an animal origin, and yielded, upon analysis, 56 per cent. of phosphate of lime. Mr, Brown of Stanway, had subsequently obtained several analyses of these pebbles, and also of similar nodules obtained from the London clay in the vicinity of Euston-square, and found the same amount of phosphate of lime, viz. 50 or 60 per cent. in each. The crag pebbles occasionally contain re- mains of small crabs and fish like those in the London clay, leading Mr. Brown to the conclusion that they were derived from the destruction of certain beds of that _ ‘series. The crag nodules were so abundant, that a gentleman had obtained two tons _ “of them—which, after being prepared, were found upon analysis to contain 53 per 52 REPORT—1845. cent. phosphate of lime; 13 phosphate of iron, and the remainder carbonate of lime and volatile matter. The stratum of greensand, with similar nodules, had been de- scribed by Mr. Sedgwick ; although never more than a foot thick, it occurred near the surface over many square miles in the vicinity of Cambridge; and the pebbles it contained yielded 61 per cent. of earthy phosphates and 24 of carbonate of lime, the rest being insoluble. These were also considered to be possibly coprolitie by Mr. Henslow; they frequently contained vertebrxe and teeth of fishes, crab-sheils, and other substances, apparently half-digested. In illustration of the origin of such ex- tensive layers of coprolitic matter in the marine formations, Mr. Henslow read a notice respecting the Appearance of Sharks on the Coast of Norway. On the Mechanical Action of Animals on Hard and Soft Substances during the Progress of Stratification. By the Rev. Dr. Bucktanp. Dr. Buckland remarked, that remains of animals which perforate rocks and or- ganized substances for their shelter and abode were almost unknown in the older strata, but that many instances occurred in the secondary period of extensive rock surfaces covered with the holes of boring shells and worms. A familiar example oc- curred at Vallis near Frome, where the mountain limestone, covered by the inferior oolite, was penetrated by the bivalve mollusks and annelids. A similar instance oc- curs at Marquise near Boulogne ; and it is not uncommon to find thick shells and fragments of saurian bone perforated or incrusted by parasitic animals. Similar ope- rations might be observed on our own coasts at the present time, some of the animals apparently making holes cnly by the accidental circumstance of living on one spot for a long time, as in the case of the limpet and Echinus savatilis; others, like the Pholas and Lithodomus, requiring it as a necessary condition of their existence. Extract of a Letter from Mr. Hopkins respecting Traces resembling Ornithichnites. This letter, dated “ Bogota, November 15, 1844,” contained a drawing and de- scription of certain tridactylous footprints observed by the writer on the soft sandy banks of the river Magdalena in Mexico. On some New Additions among the Mammalia to the Fossil Fauna of India, from Perim Island, in the Gulf of Cambay. By Dr. Fatconer. Remarks on Fossil T'rees at St. Helen’s, Lancashire, which exhibit Stigmarie as their Roots. By E. W. Bryyey, F.G.S. The fossil trees described in this memoir were discovered two years ago, standing upright in a bed of indurated clay, called the “ Warren,” and a notice of them was given, by Mr. Binney, at the meeting at Cork. Subsequently, Mr. Binney had ob- tained a more complete examination of the first and largest of the trees, anda fourth had also been discovered. On the Subsidence of the Land at Puzzuoli. By Jamus Suiru, F.G.S. When the writer visited the temple of Jupiter Serapis at Puzzuoli, in March 1819, its floor was elevated about six inches above the level of the sea; but on the 11th of May in the present year, it was covered to the depth of eighteen inches at low water, and twenty-eight and a half at high tide; the sea being calm at the time. The custode of the building told Mr. Smith that this change was progressive, amount- ing to one English inch and a quarter per annum. The cicerone, too, who had ex- ercised his profession for thirty years, said he knew a difference of at least three feet six inches in the height of the sea upon the piers of the bridge of Caligula, giving the same amount of subsidence yearly. There were, besides, many similar proofs in the partly submerged houses and causeways of Puzzuoli. The author adds some notices of the evidence of both gradual and sudden elevations having at different times affected Puzzuoli. eh Saar TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 53 On the Methods of Working and Ventilating the Coal-mines of the North of “England, with reference to the Accidents that occur in such Mines from the “Explosion of Firedamp. By Professor Anstrep, M.A., F.R.S., Vice- tel Gray OCs \The object of this communication was partly to explain the methods of working ‘coal adopted in the Newcastle coal-field, and partly to suggest certain methods which, in the author’s opinion, were calculated to diminish the risk of accidents arising from the explosion of firedamp, without interfering with the ceconomical working of the mines. In the district in question, the extent of coal worked by one company and from a single pair of shafts is very considerable, amounting, in fact, in some cases, to as much as 1000 acres. The depth of the sinkings is enormous, being rarely less than 150 fathoms, and sometimes upwards of 300. The competition amongst the various proprietors is very great, and the expense of sinking such deep shafts, often through untried ground and with a vast body of water pouring in from quicksands, is so enormous, that there seems no hope of adding very considerably to the number of the shafts in each mine; ner does the author consider that to increase this number beyond certain limits would diminish to any extent the danger of explosion. The coal in the north of England and elsewhere is well known to give off during working a considerable quantity of light carburetted hydrogen, and occasionally, it is supposed, a smal] quantity of olefiant and sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and when the gases thus given off are mixed with a certain quantity of ordinary atmospheric air, they become highly explosive. The ordinary processes of ventilation, effected by placing a furnace at the bottom of one shaft, or one compartment of a shaft, and thus causing a current of air to descend another shaft, and move with a regulated rapidity through all the work- ings, were described by the author as sufficient for the carrying off the gases thus liberated under ordinary circumstances; but besides these there are occasionally met with sudden and violent puffs of gas, called blowers, proceeding either from faults or from cavities in the coal, and against them no process of ventilation is a sufficient safeguard. Owing also to the nature of the associated strata, and the great depth of the workings, it happens that when workings have been carried on to any extent under ground, a considerable portion of the district left empty by the extraction of the coal is partially filled by the broken roof, which, however, not occupying the space entirely, affords cavities, sometimes of great size, into which the lighter inflammable gases naturally collect, and there become slowly mixed with at- mospheric air. Such cavities therefore are often full of explosive mixture, ready to take fire at any instant, and occasionally, owing to a change in the pressure of the air, or from other causes, the explosive mixture actually emerges into those pas- sages in which open lights are used and causes accidents. Each of these spaces, filled with rubbish, and thus forming a magazine of foul air, is called, technically, a oaf. f Referring to the explanation of the nature and action of the goaf, as given in the “Report on the Haswell Explosion’ by Messrs. Lyell and Faraday, the author ex- pressed his opinion that in the north of England there is not such a degree of regularity in the mechanical limits and condition of this goaf as would admit of any separate system of ventilation or gas-draining for such parts of a mine, and he also urged that the rise side of the goaf was by no means always the place of danger, or the origin of accidents in the greater number of instances, __ The author then suggested the following methods to be generally introduced in working coal mines :— . 1. Lhe having at least two shafts in each colliery.—This is absolutely essential, and, though generally acted on, requires to be enforced in every instance, since in case of an accident in a mine with only a single shaft, it is extremely probable that the par- _titions at the bottom will be blown away, and thus all those persons employed in _ parts which the explosion has not reached will almost necessarily perish, since the _ventilation is instantly stopped by the accident, or only the poisonous air called _ ofter-damp circulates through the workings. Besides this there are many accidents to which a pit is liable, such as the falling in of brick-work, &c., which, by pre» 54 REPORT—1845. venting the necessary communication, may cause the death of the men under ground if there is no way of escape. 2. The working panels of moderate and regulated dimensions, so that no air-course shall be of greater length than a given distance.—It is well known that in the method formerly in use of coursing the air through all the main passages of a mine, there were often instances in which the air had to pass through from fifty to seventy miles, or even more, between the downcast and upcast shafts. Since it has been found that the quantity of air introduced by a shaft of given magnitude can be very much increased by dividing the underground current into several currents, each taking a different direction, the length of the air-courses in well-managed mines has been greatly reduced, and is now rarely more than three or four miles. The advantage of this is manifest; but although the principle is generally acknowledged, there is good reason to believe that many collieries are worked without regard to such im- proved methods. Besides the greater quantity of air actually introduced by thus splitting the current, the destruction of life consequent upon an explosion may be also much diminished thereby, provided the detached portions of work called panels are of moderate size, and do not so communicate with one another as to render it impossible to escape from any one to the pit bottom without passing through air affected by the condition of the rest. The author added, with reference to these two methods, that they were already adopted to a very great extent in the well-regulated collieries of the Newcastle coal- field, and rather needed to be enforced in some cases of exception than be looked upon as expressing any new views. Passing on then to the case of the great explosion in the Haswell colliery on the 28th September 1844, the author pointed out that of the whole number of sufferers on that occasion, not less than thirty might have been saved had there been a free separate communication to the bottom of the downcast shaft from a panel adjoining that in which it is presumed the accident happened. Since accidents must happen occasionally, it is manifestly extremely important that their fatal results should be as far as possible limited to the actual spot in which they occur, and not involve, as they have frequently done, the lives of those at work in distant parts of the pit. It is therefore proposed that 3. An air-drift should be cut from each separate panel communicating with the bottom of the downeast shaft. ‘The driving a gallery through coal is not looked on as any expense in working, since the coal extracted pays for the work done, and this method is therefore suggested as a practical, inexpensive, and efficient method of avoiding at least some of the fatal results when an explosion does take place. But the author does not consider that the working of the pillars and the vicinity of the goaf is by any means the most usual cause of such emissions of gas as lead to explo- sions, and he quoted the example of a recent explosion in the Killingworth colliery, which took place on the 16th of April, as an instance in point. Then, and in many other explosions on record, the immediate cause of danger arose from a sudden outburst of gas in workings where the coal had only been recently laid bare, and where a small fault was met with. These outbursts of gas, called, locally, blowers, are sudden, and often instantaneous, giving no warning whatever of their approach, and therefore not to be guarded against. The ventilation, as now effected, being generally suf- ficient for all purposes, it could not, the author believes, be so far increased as to prevent accidents from these eruptions of gas, while, on the contrary, it might happen that by a more rapid admixture with pure air and quicker transmission of the explo- sive current through a great part of the air-course, greater damage might arise than even now, when flame was reached and the gas became fired, In such cases, and in all mines where any quantity of gas is expelled by blowers, the author considers that there is-only one means of safety to be adopted, namely, A. The exclusive use of the Davy lamp in all underground workings in fiery mines. “ This is a measure which at present has scarcely been adopted in full in any mine, but which is certainly well worthy of consideration. There may be mentioned, I am aware, two very different objections to its use, but I have good reason to believe that neither of them is very valid, and I am therefore anxious to press most earnestly on the consideration of all those engaged in coal-mining operations the importance of this plan. It will be said, on one hand, that the expense is too great, and that the men TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 55 object; and, on the other hand, that the Davy is by no means a perfect instrument. To the first objection I can refer in reply to the experience of more than one of the best-regulated collieries of the north of England, where a vast number of Davys are in daily use: about 130 of these instruments being employed in the Wallsend pit, and in others a still larger number. The workmen also on the whole prefer to work at the same wages with the rest with the comparatively obscure light and the greater danger, because the coal is somewhat more tender. To the other objection, that the Davy is useless, I can only say, that with regard to all cases of explosive mixture that have been fairly met with underground, and all rates of motion hitherto attempted, the united experience of wastemen and viewers for the last thirty years cannot but be considered of some value, and is unanimously, as far as I can learn, on the side of its great practical value. I have trusted my own life to these instruments, and would do so again without the slightest hesitation, provided of course that proper care is employed. The instrument is simple, easily kept in order, and what is per- haps of yet more importance, easily and quickly examined ; and if, as is done in well- regulated pits, the gauze of every lamp was examined and locked before being de- livered to the men, I cannot believe that an accident could happen except by such a falling of the roof as would injure the gauze, and this would also destroy every other contrivance hitherto imagined for giving safe light. “Tn conclusion, I am anxious to express my own firm conviction that no great im- provement can take place in coal-working generally without some external interfe- rence. The coal trade is now hardly remunerative; it is a struggle in which every one endeavours to bring into the market saleable coal at a low price, and a struggle obliging those concerned to compete with the utmost energy. Such a state of things is not likely to admit of any great improvement of the kind here advocated, since the supply of labour is greater than the demand, and few proprietors will be found to risk money where the return is so doubtful. But the interests at stake are not only those of monied men ; the lives of thousands and the well-being of the popula- tion of large districts are also involved, and it is the duty of government to watch over and protect these. This can be done properly only by a most careful super- intendence over all those engaged in the employment. It ought to be considered absolutely necessary that ventilaticn should be conducted in every individual mine on the best principles, and that in each the safety of the pitman should be secured by insisting on every reasonable means of preventing accidents being equally adopted by all. But this can only be done by the interference of government, and even the full necessity of it can only be learnt by a strict and careful investigation, since it would be impossible to ascertain otherwise how far the greater number of the col- lieries (amounting in the Newcastle district to nearly 200) are properly conducted or not. * My object has been to show that much may be done by simple, practical and in- expensive methods to diminish the loss of life in collieries arising from noxious es, Experiments however are still greatly needed, not only in picked mines, where the ventilation is as good as under the circumstances it can be, but also in the nu- merous other pits little heard of, but still employing an important proportion of the whole colliery population. These experiments should be made with a view to the solution of various questions not at present fully determined, among which I would instance—(1) the actual nature of the gas given off by the ceal where the singing noise is chiefly heard ; (2) the real extent to which splitting the air may be carried with a view to shortening the air-courses ; (3) the extent of the ventilation at the floor, the walls and the roof of a mine when an ordinary current is passing along the middle, I mention these, but they are only a few among many points hitherto undecided in coal-working, and yet bearing most importantly on the subject of ventilation ; but I might greatly extend the list, and I feel quite certain that when the attention of com- tent chemists and practical geologists is directed not only to the goaf, which I must consider, from documentary evidence, as among the least important subjects of inves- tigation, but also to the whole coal when first worked, and the small hitches and faults so abundant in every coal-field, there will be accumulated a heap of evidence bearing on these points and leading ultimately to some important practical result. At present I can only suggest the methods which have struck me as at once reasonable and use- ful,—I mean the not working too large an area of coal from one pair of shafts; never 56 REPORT—1845.. working at all with less than a pair; working the panels or districts of coal perfectly distinct from one another, and each communicating by its own drift with the upcast ; and the working in fiery mines only with the safety-lamp and with no open lights whatever. These are all points which are in the strictest sense of the words, practi- cal and ceconomical. They would not entirely prevent the occurrence of accidents; nor do I believe that any human means can ever do so, for so long-as men ate care- less and ignorant, so long will this carelessness and ignorance produce its usual effects ; but they would, 1 am convinced, diminish greatly the frequency of accidents, while they would diminish also, in some measure, their extent ; and these are certainly objects, the attainment of which would be in the highest degree important and advantageous.” Notice of the Toadstones of Derbyshire. By E. Hatt. On the Fossil Bodies regarded by M. Agassiz as the Teeth of a Fish, and upon which he has founded his supposed genus Sphenonchus. By Epwarp Cuartesworth, £.G.8. The object of this communication was to call attention to the history of the fossil bodies from the lias and newer secondary rocks, upon the character of which M. Agassiz proposes to establish a new genus, under the supposition that they are teeth ; but he adduces no facts in support of this view, nor does he attempt to invalidate the previously published evidence in favour of their being dermal spines, Mr, Charlesworth considers that an Ichthyolite in the possession of Mr. K. T. Higgins of Clifton, in addition to other evidence which he has collected upcn the subject, is ‘conclusive as to the fact of these fossil bodies being spines, and not teeth. Mr. Charlesworth then made some observations on the occurrence of otolites in the London clay and coralline crag. Notice of Fossil Fish from Antigua. By Mr. Turner. A method of exhibiting, at one vien, the results of a given Geological Survey. By Francis Wuisuaw, Civil Engineer, Secretary of the Society of Arts. The author, after noticing Mr. Sopwith’s system of modelling, thus describes his own process. The modeller, having before him a plan of the district of country to be represented, with all the necessary sections and levels (the plan and sections being drawn to suitable scales), provides a base or foundation of wood about three quarters of an inch larger all round than the plan of the district to be modelled: this foundation must be well-clamped to prevent it from warping. It must then be prepared to receive a coating of papier maché, or other suitable material, to be moulded into the proper shape, corresponding with the lower stratum or strata to be represented in the model. Longitudinal and cross sections, showing accurately the strata, having been already prepared, slips of glass are to be provided correspond- ing in shape with the various sections, which are to be traced on the glass, painted, and burnt in in the usual manner, The various sections of glass are to be let into grooves cut in the foundation, and cemented thereto, and the vertical edges of the several pieces of glass, when meeting together, are to be cemented by means of marine glue. When the vertical glass sections are all fixed in their relative posi- tions, it is necessary to provide a lid or cover for the whole, which I have thought may also be made of glass, but at any rate wood will answer; if of glass, the surface of the country will be made of the same material, the rivers, buildings, &c. being coloured and burnt in according to the taste of the modeller ; but if woud is used, it must be superposed by papier maché or other suitable material, already used by modellers, and the mountainous parts, rivers, churches and other buildings, repre- sented in the usual manner. In the lower part of the cover grooves must be formed, answering to the different glass sections, so as to cover in the whole in a compact form ; ivory or metal scales, to measure distances and depths, will complete the con- trivance. i — 2 ae TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 57 Sorte Remarks on the Structure and Relations of Cornulites, and other allied eat ~ Silurian Fossils. By J. W. Sater, A.L.S. The anomalous nature of the fossils in question having ‘ed to great diversity of opinion with regard to their place in the system, the author endeavours to trace out their affinity from the internal structure. The Cornulites serpularius, Schl., ranges through the Silurian rocks of Gothland, Britain and North America, and is most abundant in the Wenlock limestone. Its general form is that of an elongate, knotted, thick tube, four or five inches long, appearing like a pile of conical cups, placed one in the other, the highest at the small end of the shell. The interior cast has a similar appearance. The shells, in the young state, grow in pairs attached to corals and other bodies: they are covered with a thin coat, finely striated lengthwise; beneath this the edges of the cups or nodes appear covered with concave pits; two or three raised lines run along various portions of the inner surface. The step-like form of the nodes or varices gives it some resemblance to the stems of Crinoidea, to which family Kichwald and Hisinger have referred it; and Dr. Vol- borth of Berlin has published a memoir identifying our fossil with the tapering, jointed stems of Echinocrinus, which it imitates in form and in the ornamented surface. In ordinary testaceous mollusks, the laminz of growth, and consequently the varices, are conical, with their bases towards the aperture of the shell, and it is the apparently reversed position in this case which appears to have misled naturalists, But in truth the growth is not reversed; a longitudinal section shows that at each varix the laminz are more distant than on the sides of the cups, and also bullated or puckered up, leaving cells in the interstices ; it is just such a form as would result from the periodical advances of an animal with a large inversely conical head in its shell. The mantle would corrugate in the space left behind it, and the shelly matter grow on this as a mould. Instances of this occur in the septa of Cirrus, Serpula? polythalamia, and the large interlaminar spaces in the shells of Ostrea, Spondylus, &c. Its analogy with corals, to which a most excellent naturalist, J. D.C. Sowerby, has referred it with doubt, seems incomplete: if it be regarded as a single polype, there are no internal plates or rays, or if the separate cells be those of polypes, they are without ostiolz, or if they had them, they must have opened exteriorly, where they are covered by a striated film. On the whole, it bears much more analogy to the Serpuline, in the attachment of the young shell and its gregarious habits. The other group noticed is that of the Tentaculites of Schlotheim, of equal or greater range in the Silurian system, and consisting of several species. They have many points in common with Cornulites, but their exterior is more symmetrical; a section longitudinally will show the thickened and inverted cup-shaped nodes on the cast; but the laminz are not undulated at these parts, and the greater thickness there is all that indicates a looser texture ; observations with the microscope will determine this point. The unjointed tube sufficiently separates them from the Crinoidea, as does also their conical terete form. Schlotheim, who first described both them and the Cornulites, refers them to that family, supposing they formed a coronet of brachia. Goldfuss has also assigned them to Cyathocrinites pinnatus as auxiliary side-arms, It is possible they might be straight mollusca like Dentalium, but neither in their ex- terior or internal characters do they resemble that genus; and they have so many points in‘common with Cornulites, that, if this be accepted as belonging to the Ser- pulina, they must be admitted also as free members of the same family. They are certainly never attached; and it would be a curious, though not a solitary fact in palzontology, that the earliest forms of a genus should exhibit a complex structure, and. a variation from the general type of their successors. Systematic zoologists will determine whether the structures indicated claim distinction for the Cornulitide as a separate family, a subsection of the Serpuling, and whether they should be divided into the free and attached groups. Notice of some important additions to the Fossils of the Silurian Rocks. be By J. W.Satrer, 4.L.8. 68 REPORT—1845,. On the results of recent Researches into the Fossil Insects of the Secondary Formations of Britain. By H. E, Srricxtanp, M.d., F.G.S. Fossil insects were, till recently, very little known in the secondary rocks of Britain, and the only examples were those from the Stonesfield slate, one from the lias, and a few from the coal measures. The very large additions to our knowledge of fossil entomology, made by the Rev. P. B. Brodie, have been derived from two principal grant, the Wealden and the lias. In the Wealden no less than seventy-four insect orms have been described and figured by Mr. Westwood from Mr. Brodie’s speci- mens. These are generally remarkable for their small size, from which, and frum their zoological characters, Mr. Westwcod infers that they belong to a temperate climate. The gigantic beetles, locusts and Cicade of our modern tropics are here wanting, and the specimens consist, with very few exceptions, of small Curculionidae, Tipule, Libellule and Aphides, such as swarm at this moment in European climates. This then is a very remarkable fact, when taken in connection with the gigantic reptiles and remarkable forms of vegetable life which occur in the Wealden forma- tion, and which by analogy we must refer to a tropical climate. We must either suppose, what is scarcely conceivable, that insects of European forms could co-exist with tree-ferns and other tropical productions, or what is perhaps more probable, that the insects ofa cooler climate floated down some vast river into the great Wealden zestuary, just as the insects of Upper Canada or the Rocky Mountains might be car- ried by the Mississippi, in the present day, into juxtaposition with the alligators and palm-trees of the Gulf of Mexico. A similar anomaly is presented by the insects, first discovered by Mr. Brodie, and afterwards collected by Mr. Hope, the author, and others, in the lower lias of Gloucestershire and the adjacent counties, Of many hundred specimens examined by Mr. Westwood, the whole present indications of a temperate climate, a conclusion wholly opposed to that which we are accustomed to draw from the vertebrate and molluscous fauna of the same epoch. We must here, as in the case of the Wealden insects, reconcile this apparent discrepancy by supposing that the insects were drifted from cooler climates to the spots where we now find them. There are probably no organic bodies of such delicate structures which are capable of floating to so great distances as insects ; their extreme lightness, and the strong materials of which their corneous parts consist, would enable them to float down rivers and to be diffused far and wide over the sea, there to be imbedded with truly marine products. In conformity with this view, we find that the insects of the Wealden, and still more co of the lias, consist chiefly of Coleoptera and other strongly compacted forms, that they most commonly present only detached portions of the entire insect, and such portions (chiefly wings and wing-cases) as are the most compact and durable. There is therefore no doubt that these insect remains have been drifted from the land into the sea, in other words, from higher ground to lower; and we have only to suppose that the original habitat of these insects was sufficiently elevated to supply them with a cool or temperate climate, and the whole difficulty is removed. Another very unexpected result of the examination, by a skilful entomolcgist, of these fossil insects, is the remarkable affinity which they present to existing forms ; even in so ancient a deposit as the lias, we find no insects of decidedly new types of organization ; they are in almost every instance referrible to families, and frequently to geneta, which belong to the existing fauna. In one instance only has Mr. West- wood vetitured to propose a new generic name, and it is remarkable that the pecu- liar form so indicated is common both to the Wealden and the lias. It would aps peat, therefore, that from the time of the lias to the present day, the class Insecta has undergone a far less amount of alteration, either by the extinction of old forms or the introduction of new, than any other large group of the animal or vegetable kingdom with which we are acquainted. It was indeed well known that the different classes of the animal kingdom vary greatly in what we may call their amount of durability ; that the higher groups of vertebrata, for instance, present a rapid suc- cession of forms as we descend the chronological scale, while certain mollusccus and infusorial structures are continued with little or no change during vast geological periods; but perhaps there is no other instance of so remarkable a persistency of character in a whole class of animals, as that which is presented to us in comparing the insects of the lias and Wealden with those of the existing fauna, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 59 On aremarkable Phenomenon presented by the Fossils in the Freshwater Ter- tiary of the Island of Cos. By Professor E. Forsss and Lieut. Spratt, R.N. In the island of Cos there is an extensive deposit of freshwater tertiary strata, ap- parently agreeing in age with the freshwater tertiaries of Lycia, which the authors had shown to be of an age subsequent to the miocene, and certainly of older date than the newer pliocene period, as these freshwater beds are anterior to and form the uncon- formable walls of a well-defined marine formation, containing numerous newer plio- cene fossils, In the freshwater strata are found abundant and well-preserved shells of the genera Paludina, Neritina, Melanopsis, Melania, Valvataand Unio. Examples of the first three of these genera are most numerous, and are found throughout the "vertical extent of the formation, distributed in three successive series of horizons, a pal In each of these horizons is a species of Paludina and of Neritina, and in each of the two lower ones are two species of Melanopsis. The lowermost species of each genus are smooth, those of the centre partially plicated, and those of the upper part strongly and regularly ribbed. The forms of the examples of these several genera in the several zones are so very distinct and well-marked, that at first examination it would appear that each series of horizons was characterized by a Paludina, Neritina and Melanopsis of its own and representative of each other. If the species are re- garded as distinct, either such conclusion must be come to, involving the supposition of a succession of creations and extinctions during the (geologically) short period in which the lake existed, or a transmutation of species must be maintained. The authors propose the following solution of this geological problem without having recourse to such extreme suppositions. In the uppermost part of these beds there is evidence of the influx of the sea converting the fresh into brackish water. The Cardium edule occurs there. Finding that the smooth shells of several existing mollusca under such conditions become distorted and plicated, they are inclined to refer the appearances described to such a cause, and to regard these three Paluding as one species: so also with the other genera. Referring to the facts made known by Mr. Forbes, that races of mollusca cannot remain for more than a limited time on the same horizontal area, though they may reappear when the ground is suffi- ciently changed, (their embryos, which have been swimming free under a rudimentary and pterupodous state, in the meantime developing themselves on the new ground,) the authors hold that, by the time the ground was renewed for the development of the progeny, of the lowermost of the Paludine for instance, the composition of the water had changed so far as to affect, though not destroy, their form during their development; and that this was again and still more the case when the germs of _ the middle Paludine, &c. assumed the last form under which the several species appeared, Abstract of a Paper on the Physico-Geographical Description of Mount Etna. By Baron von WALTERSHAUSEN. Baron von Waltershausen began his researches in the year 1835, accompanied by _ Professor Listing of Gottingen, and continued them on his second journey during the years 1838 to 1843 with M. Peters of Flensburg and M. Cavallari of Palermo. _ The fruits of his labours are in the course of being published under the title, ‘ The _ Etna and its Revolutions.’ A large atlas will accompany this work, with an intro-~ duction written both in German and French. The principal object will be to give an exact representation of the mathematical, physical and geographical relations of Mount Etna, including an accurate historical survey of all the different eruptions, beginning from the earliest times up to the year 1843, The atlas, engraved by M, Cavallari, of which the first section has just been published, will contain a topogra- phical and geological map of this volcano on the scale of 1 in 50,000, besides a large number of views, sections and other interesting details: The author hopes to be able to give a complete theory of the formation of the mountain and the revolutions it has undergone in the course of time, and to have arrived, by comparison with other voleanoes of Southern Europe (Vesuvius, the Liparian Islands), to results applicable to voleanoes in general. It may, perhaps, be stated that in this work, which the author considers as the principal labour of his life, the first attempt will be made to put the observation of geological phanomena on a mathematical foundation, 60 REPORT—1845. > On the Occurrence of the Mosasaurus in the Essex Chalk, and on the Discovery of Flint within the Pulp-cavities of its Teeth. By Epwarp Cuarteswortu, F.G.S. ; This communication relates to the Saurian teeth figured in the ‘ Odontography’ of Professor Owen under the generic name Leiodon, and to a fragment of a jaw of this reptile in Mr. Charlesworth’s possession from one of the chalk quarries on the banks of the Thames. Mr. Charlesworth contends that there are no grounds to warrant the establishment of the genus Leiodon. He refers the teeth described under that name to the genus Mosasaurus, and proposes the specific name stenodon (narrow- toothed) to distinguish the English fossil from its congener, the Mosasaurus Hoffmanni. A section of the jaw made at right angles to its long axis, and through one of the conical bases upon which the teeth are implanted, exposed a piece of black flint, filling the extension of the pulp-cavity into the substance of the jaw. Two more of the pulp-cavities, upon being laid open, exhibited the same phenomenon; in one case the flint filling the entire cavity, so as to occupy the hollow of the tooth itself; but no deposit of flinty matter had taken place in the bony material of the jaw. Mr. Charlesworth considers that the discovery of flint under these remarkable cir- cumstances is strong presumptive evidence in favour of its having been deposited from an aqueous solution, and is opposed to the respective theories adyanced by M. Ehrenberg and Mr. Bowerbank to explain the formation of flints in chalk. Notice of the Jaws of an Ichthyosaurus from the Chalk in the neighbourhood ris / 4 of Cambridge. By Mr./Carrer. The author supposed these remains would constitute a new species, the teeth differing in a very remarkable manner from those of any [chthyosaurus which he had been able to examine, or of which he could find published descriptions. ‘The dental groove of the lower jaw is placed in a different plane from that of the upper, and the apposition of the upper and lower ranges of teeth is effected by the roots of the lower teeth developing themselves in a curved direction. Considering it probable that this peculiarity is characteristic of the species, he proposes to give it the name campylodon, from the Greek word kampulos, ‘ bowed or bent.’ Mr. Carter has also discovered teeth and vertebrae of the same species in the upper greensand near Cambridge. On Posidonian Schist amidst Trappean Beds, and on Traces of Drift-ice in the South of the Isle of Man. By the Rev. J. G. Cummine, M.A., of © Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and Vice-Principal of King William's Col- lege, Isle of Man. The steps of St. Paul’s cathedral, presented by the venerable Bishop Thomas Wilson, are the produce of certain quarries at Poolvash in the Isle of Man. The bed from which they were taken is an impure schistose black limestcne, cha- racterized by very fine and perfect Posidonie. 1t is remarkably interposed between beds of regularly stratified trap-tuff, and though the order of superposition shows it to be of later date than the light-coloured limestone of Poolvash; in mineralogical and paleontological character it presents a return to the lowest limestone of this basin. The first object of this paper is to trace out the condition of this area at the period of this deposit ; and the second, to notice some of the more remarkable changes which have since passed over it. : The elevation at different periods of the schists and other older rocks which con- stitute the mountain-chain of the island, running irregularly nearly north-north-east and south-south-west from the Calf of Man to Maughold Head, has formed on the south-western side around Castletown a semi-elliptical basin, the extremity of the major axis being Coshnahawin in the north-east, and Perwick Bay near Port le Murray in the south-west. These schists seem to be lower Silurian, but, containing — only a few fucoids (as far as seen hitherto), their exact age is uncertain. q Resting unconformably upon them, we have the old red conglomerate, which is — Pe ee ee ee ee - TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 61 never developed to'a thickness greater than fifty feet in the south of theisland. This conglomerate ‘seems to pass regularly into the superior dark limestone by a gradual abstraction of the larger quartz pebbles and the substitution of a brownish carbona- ceous paste in place of the previous ochreous and gritty matrix. The characteristic fossils of these lower dark limestones are Orthis Sharpei, Leptena papilionacea, Phillip- sia Kellii, a Creseis and Posidonia, with abundance of the larger corals and Producte. Some sudden change, however, appears after a time to have taken place in the physical condition of the basin, probably by an elevation of the sea-bottom, for the dark limestones are at once replaced by a series of light-coloured beds without shale, and abundantly charged with fossils which coincide with those of the lower scar limestone of Yorkshire, the dark limestone fossils resembling those of the lowest Northumbrian shales and of Hook Point in the south of Ireland. These light- coloured limestones attain a thickness of rather more than fifty feet. There is evi- dence again of another very sudden change having taken place in this area owing to a disturbance, accompanied with an outpouring of trap, along a line from the Stack of Scarlet to the hill above Balladoole ; and subsequently, for some time, deposits of volcanic ash were constantly being accumulated in this area, and along with them the regular carboniferous deposits of this period were developed. This formed a trappzan limestone; and when at one particular period a quiescence of the volcanic eruptions took place, the bed of Posidonia schist which forms the marble quarry at Poolvash was deposited. Another eruption broke up this bed, carrying along with it fragments which are mingled with the trap, so as to form a breccia; and subsequently the whole mass appears to have been subjected to considerable heat, and has suffered disturbance, being traversed by trap-dykes which intersect the area in directions generally north- west and south-east. The author then noticed some remarkable bosses on the surface of this area, both in Poolvash Bay and elsewhere. The origin of them he attributed to the intrusion of trap amidst the old red conglomerate betwixt the schists and the tough lime- stones, _ He then observed that the greater part of this southern basin of the Isle of Man was covered up by masses of boulder-clay and by an accumulation of diluvium ; and he proceeded to some notice of the direction in which the materials appear to have . been moved into the locality where they now are. He directed attention to two slabs obtained from Poolvash Bay and Scarlet strongly marked with parallel groovings and scratches, in directions east-north-east and west-south-west, and he accounted for them by observing that at the period of this formation the present Isle of Man “was divided into three islands, and that most probably, through the channels between them, currents would run, as at the present time, between the Calf of Man and the main island. Icebergs drifting along through the southern channel, and carrying with them hard pebbles and blocks of the harder limestones, in passing over their basset edge, which lies to the north-east of Castletown Bay, would score and polish every more eminent flat surface exposed in the channel as those at Poolvash and Scarlet. The shales would form abundantly the clay of the period. By a compari- son of the contained rocks, he showed that the drift-current came from the east- north-east ‘and not from the west-south-west. ‘The overspreading diluvium appears _ to have come in quite a different direction, viz. from the north-west, bringing down _ rolled blocks of granite of South Barrule. It contains also, amongst other travelled _ rocks, chalk-flints, which must be referred for their origin to the north of Ireland. 62 REPORT—1845. — ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. On the Scientific Principles on which Classification in the higher Departments of Zoology should be based. By Wiu11am Ocitsy, F.L.S. Tue dental system was no doubt a valuable means of diagnosis, and this depended upon the fact that it had a relation to the stomach, and other viscera intended for the digestion of food. Just in the same way, the extremities of the mammalia, more par- ticularly the fore-arm, are the exponents of the habits, mental power, and ceconomy of animals. The fore-arm is the seat of the function of locomotion, of manipulation and touch. According to the real position of an animal in the scale of organization will be the character of its fore-arm. This position was illustrated by examples from the various families of mammalia. He thought that in our usual systems of zoology a too exclusive regard had been given to the structure and form of the teeth, On the Fossil Elephantine Animals of India. By Dr. Fatconer. In this communication, which was illustrated by diagrams of the crania, the author gave the results of the investigations by Captain Cautley and himself regarding the fossil Mastodons and Elephants of India, and endeavoured, by a series of teeth sec- tions, to show that there was a gradual and continuous passage in the structure of the teeth between the Mastodon and the Elephant, the forms which have been included under the name of Mastodon Elephantoides by Clift, and an undescribed Indian spe- cies, constituting the intermediate links. On the Genus Arvicola; on the Libellulidee of Europe ; on Hybrids of the Genus Anser. By M. Setys pe Lonecuamps, On the Unity of Organization as exhibited in the Skeleton of Animals, By Dr, Macponatp. All animals, even the simplest, are possessed of a central as well as peripheral or- ganism, varying in density as we ascend the scale, and are capable of increase by a repetition of segments having the primary elementary characters, As the form be- comes lengthened, the central portion also elongates till we have a long axis or central stem. This Caulis centralis in the vertebralia is the axis formed by the bodies of the vertebrae, which is too often improperly called the backbone. In the vertebralia the Caulis centralis has developed on its posterior or neural aspect a lamina on each side of the mesian lines, and those in the adult forms of the higher mammals are com- pletely ossified together in the spinous process, and also to the bodies of the vertebra. The author proposes to distinguish three parts or divisions in each lamina, most easily traced in the membranal lamine. I. Protomeral.—Single (simplex), orbicular, or when elongated, the shaft having convex or round extremities, Brachium, Femur, II. Deutomeral_—Generally double (duplex) ; the shaft having concave extremities, and its proximal extremity more or less elongated into an olecranon. Ill. Zritomeral.—Manifold (multiplex), terminal, orbicular ; as in the carpus and tarsus and digital termination. Mons. Selys de Longchamps explained in French, at some length, the object which the Academy of Brussels had had in view in obtaining accurate dates for the appear- ance, pairing, building, &c. of birds, the migration of fishes, the budding, flowering, &c, of plants. By connecting these with meteorological phenomena, we might arrive at an expression of the cause of the phenomena observed. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63 | Periodical Birds observed in the Years 1844 and 1845 near Llanrwst, Den- bighshire, North Wales. By Joun Buacxwatt, F.L.S. Birds. Appeared. Disappeared. House Martin, Hirundo urbica ..cccccccececeenees ‘ Swallow, Hirundo rustica .......0.s.c00. Rents Tana T EIS y Redwing, Turdus iliacus Woodcock, Scolopax rusticola Mountain Finch, Fringilla montifringilla Fieldfare, Turdus pilaris Siskin, Fringilla spinus ... Pied Wagtail, Motacilla alba......c.cccscsseeeeesees Sand Martin, Hirundo riparia Wheat-ear, Sawicola wnanthe......ccccccccceceves gacues Yellow Wren, Sylvia trochilus ......c.ccceeeescsees ves Tree Pipit, Anthus arboreus ... .csccsecseseeneeee sacar Common Sandpiper, Zofanus hypoleucos Swallow, Hirundo rustica .i.cccccccceccccecesecnce acre Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus Black-cap, Sylvia atricapilla....... by sadseue opeke sata, Wood Wren, Sylvia sibilatrix .......- SLigastmlbeeisewa ds White-throat, Sylvia cinerea Redstart, Sylvia phoenicurus ...c00....s000 Pied Flycatcher, Muscicapa luctuosa House Martin, Airundo urbica ......eeceee Whinchat, Savicola rubetra .......5 «+. sassnenag ne Bhar _ | Pettychaps, Sylvia hortensis ........+ serdsaaiteasatnras Land Rail, Gallinula crex Swift, Cypselus murarius Red-backed Shrike, Lanius collurio Sedge Warbler, Sylvia phragmitis Spotted Flycatcher, Muscicapa grisola Goatsucker, Caprimulgus europaeus ...s.r.s.eeseeeeee Ona Gigantic Bird sculptured on the Tomb of an Officer of the Household of Bil Pharaoh. By Josrru Bonomi. : The author having referred to the large nests discovered by Cook and Flinders on the coast of New Holland, and to those discovered by Mr. James Burton on the west coast of the Red Sea, at Gebel Ezzeit, adds the following remarks :—Among the most ancient records of the primeval civilization of the human race that have come down to us, there is described, in tHe language the most universally intelligible, a gigantic stork bearing, with respect to a man of ordinary dimensions, the proportions exhibited in the drawing before you, which is faithfully copied from the criginal document. It _ is a bird of white plumage, straight and large beak, long feathers in the tail; the male bird has a tuft at the back of the head, and another at the breast: its habits appa- _ rently gregarious. ‘This very remarkable painted basso-relievo is seulptured on the _ wall, in the tomb of an officer of the household of Pharaoh Shufu (the Suphis of the Greeks), a monarch of the fourth dynasty, who reigned over Egypt, while yet a great part of the Delta was intersected by lakes overgrown with the papyrus,—while yet _ the smaller ramifications of the parent stream were inhabited by the crocodile and _ hippopotamus,—while yet, as it would seem, that favoured land had not been visited by calamity, nor the arts of peace disturbed by war; so the sculpture in these tombs intimate, for there is neither horse nor instrument of war in any one of these tombs. _ At that period, the period of the building of the Great Pyramid, which, according to cs oss 64 REPORT—1845.. 05 8" some writers on Egyptian matters, was in the year 2100 2.c., which omgood authority is the 240th year of the Deluge, this gigantic stork was an inhabitant of the delta or its immediate vicinity; for, as these very interesting documents relate, it was occa- sionally entrapped by the peasantry of the delta, and brought with other wild animals as matters of curiosity to the great landholders or farmers of the products of the Nile, —of which circumstance this painted sculpture is a representation, the catching of fish and birds, which in these days occupied a large portion of the inhabitants. The birds and fish were salted. That this document gives no exaggerated account of the bird may be presumed from the just proportion that the quadrupeds, in the same picture, bear to the men who are leading them; and, from the absence of any representation of these birds in the less ancient monuments of Egypt, it may also be reasonably con- jectured they disappeared soon after the period of the erection of these tombs. With respect to the relation these facts bear to each other, I beg to remark that the colossal nests of Captains Cook and Flinders, and also those of Mr. James Burton, were all on the sea-shore, and all of those about an equal distance from the equator. But whe- ther the Egyptian birds, as described in those very ancient sculptures, bear any analogy to those recorded in the last pages of the great stone-book of nature (the new red sandstone formation), or whether they bear analogy to any of the species determined by Professor Owen from the New Zealand fossils, [ am not qualified to say, nor is it indeed the object of this paper to discuss, the intention of which is rather to bring together these facts, and to associate them with that recorded at Gezah, in order to call the attention of those who have opportunity of making further research into this interesting matter. On the Discovery of Guano in the Faroe Islands. By W. C. Trevetyan, M.A., F.G.S. This guano occurs principally on the shelves, commonly from eight to twenty feet wide, which are formed by the disintegration of the softer beds in the lofty precipices, often rising to the height of more than 1000, and in one instance above 2000 feet. Of such places, sheltered by the projecting rocks above, the sea-fowl take advantage, and considerable deposits of guano are found there, often the collection of many years. In some instances, when it accumulated so much as, from its slope towards the sea, to make an insecure resting-place for the eggs, the Faroese, who did not know its value, but to whom the birds, both on account of their feathers and for food, were of great importance, shovelled it off into the sea. Now, however, they have learnt at least its commercial worth, and collect it carefully,—in many places at considerable risk, the collectors being let down by ropes to the ledges, whence they lower the guano into boats below. A few tons of it have been exported to Lynn, Norfolk. — Remarks on Entomology. By J. O. Wxstwoop, F.L.S. After shortly noticing the general ceconomy of the hive-bee as to the production of queens and the swarming of casts, he contended, from the analogy between the cir- cumstances connected with the latter event and those which accompany the swarming of ants, gnats, white ants, may-flies, &c.,—1st, that the swarming of insects has for its principal object the union of the sexes; 2nd, that, from analogy with other insects subject to swarming, it might be inferred that the hive bee does not differ in this re- spect from other swarming species; and hence 8rdly, that it is the newly-hatched, and not the old queen, which leads off the swarm. On Noises produced by one of the Notonectide. By Roserr Batt, M.R.1.A. Mr. Ball noticed the fact of one of the Notonectide, ( Corixa striata, Curtis,) emitting loud and powerful sounds somewhat like those of a cricket. These sounds were given out while the animal was about two inches and a half under water, and so loud as to be distinctly audible in an adjoining room through the closed door. The first observation of this fact was made about two years since by Miss M. Ball, who has since frequently. verified the original observation. ' Mr. Ball stated that he had himself heard on the = . TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ‘65 15th of June instant this remarkable sound. It is probable the sound is only emitted by*the male: it‘has as yet only been heard in the months of May and June. On a New Genus of Mollusca Nudibranchiata. By Messrs. AupER and Hancock. This new genus is founded on the Tritonia arborescens of authors and its allies, which are, distinguished from the true Tritoniz (Z. Hombergii, &c.) by the form of their tentacula, and the free, arborescent nature of their branchiz. ‘Uhese characters alone induced the authors to consider them generically distinct, before they had an opportunity of examining their internal structure, in which such important differences in the digestive organs were exhibited as to show that this‘new genus, for which the name of Dendronotus is proposed, should be removed from the family Tritoniade to that of Eolidide, to be placed first in order, as the connecting link between these two families. The paper was illustrated by drawings from the work by Messrs. Alder and Han- — - cock on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca, just published by the Ray Society, Mr. W. Thompson read a letter from Mr. Alder, dated Salcombe, June 17, 1845, in which the writer stated that he had lately obtained in Torbay at least ten, and perhaps twelve new species of Mollusca nudibranchiata, to add to the British Fauna, They consist of four species of Doris, five or six of Zolis, and an animal of an entirely new genus, approaching nearest to 7ritonia. A singular species of mollusk obtained at the same time, resembling in general appearance the genus Pelta of Quatrefages, was noticed in detail. A letter was read by the Secretary from Captain Portlock, replying to the remarks made at York by Professor E. Forbes on the results of his dredging at Corfu. The account then read he had not wished to be considered a complete report, but as an indication of progress. In conclusion, Captain Portlock stated, that ‘in dredging, a conclusion from a very limited range of research is as dangerous as similar conclusions have been in geological inquiries. For example, a hasty deduction from the appear- ance of an animal at a particular depth of water is evidently imperfect, as the nature of the bottom and the description of the marine vegetation are more likely to modify such appearances, I see, for example, that Professor Bell quotes the discovery of Eurynome aspera by Professor Forbes in the deep water of the Egean as a proof that the species is essentially a deep-water one, both in the Mediterranean and the Northern Seas. Here, however, I have found it just at the verge of the rocks where sea-weeds prevail, and therefore in comparatively shallow waters, i. e. from ten to sixteen fathoms. Other northern species, such as Ebalia Pennantii, Acheus Crouchii (if I am right in my identification of them), I have found under similar circumstances; and I am, therefore, the more inclined to ascribe their existence to the local peculiarities of vege- _ tation than to the depth.” _ Professor Forbes exhibited a specimen of a Medusa, caught by Mr. M‘Andrew, and preserved in Goadby’s solution, and pointed out the importance of this means of pre- serving those soft animals. We know less of the Medusz than of any other family of animals, from the difficulty of preserving them, — —— On the Marine Fauna of Cornwall. By Cuartzes Wittiam Pracu. He introduced Natica intricata of Couch, Anatifa levis, A, suleata, A. fascicularis, and Pollicipes scalpellum, observing upon their habits, particularly the latter, showing that, notwithstanding it had been considered as solitary, he had found it in bunches of twelve or more in all stages of growth, and attached to the stems of the older ones, He then presented specimens of the Cineras vittata of Leach, which he took from the bottom of a vessel, timber laden, discharging at Plymouth from Africa, and then com- mented on the fact, that though this shell was a native of a warm climate, and was introduced into this country in the midst of the most severe winter experienced for 1845. F a 66 REPORT—1845, years, it lived and throve well; and he was desirous of recording the fact of the time of its introduction, if at any time it should become general on our shores... He ex- hibited also what he considered a new dlcyonium, and proceeded to notice the immense myriads of Acalephida and purse-like forms which had been so abundant on the coast of Cornwall as to discolour the sea for miles. He spoke of the extreme sensibility of these animals, their luminosity and habits. There was also a notice of a new sponge from Cornwall. The paper was illustrated by specimens and drawings. — Notice of Additions to the Marine Fauna of Britain, discovered by Robert M‘Andrew, Esq. since the last Meeting of the Association. By Prof. E. Forsss. The animals described in this communication are,—Ist, a new species of Chemnitzia, C. rufescens, taken off Arran in from thirty to forty fathoms, and at Oban on sand in fifteen fathoms water. It has nine convex whorls, ribbed longitudinally and striated spirally ; brown, with darker bands, and white at the base. It measures ths of an inch in length. 2nd. The beautiful and curious Pecten pes-felis, hitherto known as an inhabitant of the Mediterranean and Red Sea. Mr. M‘Andrew took a small but well-marked living specimen in thirty fathoms in Loch Fine. 3rd. The beautiful coral named Turbinolia milletiana, hitherto known only as a fossil of the English and French miocene tertiaries. A living specimen was taken on sand in thirty fathoms on the coast of the Scilly Isles, and a dead one in forty-five fathoms off the Land’s End. The beautiful zoophyte Funicularia quadrangularis, first announced as British at York last year, has been again taken in the Hebrides, and well-preserved specimens above three feet in length were exhibited at the Section. A small Rissoa, apparently new, was also laid before the meeting, and is remark- able for having been taken in water as deep as 100 fathoms on the west coast of Scotland. On the Cilia and Ciliary Currents of the Oyster. By the Rev. J. B. Reavez, M.A., F.R.S. The author stated, that in a microscopic investigation of Infusoria, which had for some years occupied his attention, he had been led particularly to notice the beautiful contrivance by which many species, when not exerting their powers of locomotion, are supplied with food. When they are examined under the microscope by such an arrangement of transmitted light as makes the Infusoria luminous points on a per~ fectly dark field, it is immediately seen that the action of the cilia attached to their © J tentacula produces a strong current in the water, and hereby a countless number of J minute living organisms is brought within the influence of the cilia, and a sufficient supply is selected for food. Thus, with respect to Infusoria, it is a known fact, that the absence of the prehensile organs possessed by larger creatures is compensated by this delicate but efficient ciliary apparatus. It is also a fact equally well known, that the lips of the oyster, which surround the orifice of the alimentary canal, are, in the same manner, fringed with cilia; and that these cilia of the oyster, as of Infusoria, equally cause currents in the water. But it has never been suggested and proved by any naturalist that the proper office of the cilia of oysters is to bring to these acepha- lous mollusks that food which they have no power to follow or to seize. Such, how- ever, without doubt, is the case; and, accordingly, an examination of the contents of © the stomachs of oysters discovers to us'their infusorial food; and, after undergoing the process of digestion in the stomach, the siliceous shields of these Infusoria, deprived of their organic and carbonaceous integuments, are ejected as effete matter. Ina aper communicated last year to the Microscopical Society of London, on animals of the chalk still found in a living state in the stomachs of oysters, these Infusovia were described and enumerated. ‘The apparent identity existing between these recent living Infusoria and the fossil, makes the inquiry of considerable interest to the geolo- gist; for the addition of this connecting link to the chain of organized beings extends — a continuous line of the same organic structure from the secondary formation to the tertiary, and seems to preclude the supposition, that below the tertiary formation are | no recent species. Whether or not this conclusion be admitted, it is a fact, ascers — tained by pursuing this inquiry, that the oysters and other bivalves, which are innu-— a een Cress. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 67 merable in the Kimmeridge clay, lived, like recent oysters, upon Infusoria; and consequently the conclusion is unavoidable, that the Kimmeridge clay, like the chalk, contains a considerable per-centage of these minute and indestructible bodies which the microscope discovers in it, and is not the mere comminuted detritus of more ancient and unorganized materials. With these facts established, we may still further conclude, from analogy, that a similar ciliary apparatus, and similar infusorial food were common to the still earlier bivalves in the seas of the transition formation; and we may then ask, What right have we, in the absence of a careful microscopic exami- nation of still earlier rocks, to deny the possibility of any portion of their mass being due to the agency of siliceous Infusoria? On the Distribution of Endemic Plants, more especially those of the British Islands, considered with regard to Geological Changes. By Professor E. Forses. The hypothesis of the descent of all the individuals of a species either from a first pair or from a first individual, and the consequent theory of specific centres being assumed, the isolation of assemblages of individuals from those centres, and the ex- istence of endemic or very local plants, remain to be accounted for. Natural trans- port, the agency of the sea, rivers and winds, and carriage by animals, or through the agency of man, are means, in the majority of cases, insufficient. It is usual to say, that the. presence of many plants is determined by soil or climate, as the case may be; but if such plants be found in areas disconnected from their centres by con- siderable intervals, some other cause than the mere influence of soil or climate must be sought to account for their presence. This cause the author proposes to seek in an ancient connexion of the outposts or isolated areas with the original centres, and the subsequent isolation of the former through geological changes and events, espe- cially those dependent on the elevation and depression of land. Selecting the flora of the British Isles for a first illustration of this view, Professor Forbes calls atten- tion to the fact, well-known to botanists, of certain species of flowering plants being found indigenous in portions of that area at a great distance from the nearest assem- ‘blage of individuals of the same species in countries beyond it. Thus many plants peculiar in the British flora to the west of Ireland have the nearest portion of their specific centres in the north-west of Spain; others, confined with us to the south-west promontory of England, are, beyond our shores, found in the Channel Isles and the opposite coast of France; the vegetation of the south-east of England is that of the opposite part of the continent; and the alpine vegetation of Wales and the Scottish ‘highlands is intimately related to that of the Norwegian Alps. The great mass of the British flora has its most intimate relations with that of western Germany. The vege- tation of the British Islands may be said to be composed of five floras :—Ist, a west Pyrenean, confined to the west of Ireland, and mostly to the mountains of that district; 2nd, a flora related to that of the south-west of France, extending from the Channel, Isles, across Devon and Cornwall, to the south-east and part of the south-west of Ireland; 3rd, a flora ‘common to the north of France and south-east of England, and especially developed in the chalk districts; 4th, an Alpine flora, developed in the mountains of Wales, north of England and Scotland; and 5th, a Germanic flora, extending over. the greater part of Great Britain and Ireland, mingling with the other floras, and ‘diminishing, though slightly, as we proceed westwards, indicating its easterly origin and ‘relation to the characteristic flora of northern and western Germany. Interspersed ‘among the members of the last-named flora, are a very few specific centres peculiar to the British Isles. The author numbers these floras according to magnitude as to _ species, and also, in his opinion, according to their relative age and periods of intro- duction into the area of the British Islands. His conclusions on this point are the following :-— //1. The oldest of the floras now composing the vegetation of the British Isles is that _ of the mountains of the west of Ireland. ‘Though an alpine flora, it is southernmost ‘in character, and quite distinct as a system from the floras of the Scottish and Welsl _ alps. Its very southern character, its limitation, and its extreme isolation are evi= -dences of its antiquity, pointing to a period when a great mountain barrier extended across the mouth ofthe Bay of Biscay from Spain to Ireland. ‘ EQ 68 - - REPORT—1845. 2. The distribution of the second flora, next in point of probable date, depended on the extension of a barrier, the traces of which still remain, from the west of France to the south-west of Britain, and thence to Ireland. 3. The distribution of the third flora depended on the connexion of the coasts of France and England towards the eastern part of the Channel. Of the former exist- ence of this union no geologist doubts. 4, The distribution of the fourth, or alpine flora of Scotland and Wales, was ef- fected during the glacial period, when the mountain summits of Britain were low islands, or members of chains of islands, extending to the area of Norway through a glacial sea, and clothed with an arctic vegetation, which, in the gradual upheaval of the land and consequent change of climate, became limited to the summits of the new-formed and still existing mountains. 5, The distribution of the fifth, or Germanic flora, depended on the upheaval of the bed of the glacial sea, and the consequent connexion of Ireland with England, and of England with Germany, by great plains, the fragments of which still exist, and upon which lived the great elk and other quadrupeds now extinct. The breaking up or submergence of the first barrier led to the destruction of the second; that of the second to that of the third; but the well-marked epoch of the Germanic flora indicates the subsequent formation of the Straits of Dover and of the Trish Sea, as now existing. To determine the probable geological epoch of the first or west-Irish flora,—a frag- ment perhaps with that of north-western Spain, of the vegetation of the true Atlantic, —we must seek among fossil plants for a starting-point in time. This we get in the flora of the London clay or eocene, which is tropical in character, and far anterior to the oldest of the existing floras. The geographical relations of the miocene sea, indi- cated by the fossils of the coralline crag, give an afterdate certainly to the second and third of the above floras, if not to the first. The epoch of the red or middle crag was probably coeval with the incoming of the second flora; that of the mammaliferous crag with the third. The date of the fourth is too evident to be questioned ; and the author regards the glacial region in which it flourished as a local climate, of which no true traces, so far as animal life is concerned, exist southwards of the second and third barriers. This was the newer pliocene epoch. The period of the fifth flora was that of the post-tertiary, when the present aspect of things was organized. Adopting such a view of the relations of these floras in time, the greatest difficul- ties in the way of changes of the earth’s surface and destruction of barriers—deep sea being now found where land (probably high land) was—are removed when we find that those greater changes must have happened during the epoch immediately subsequent to the miocene period; for we have undoubted evidence that elsewhere, during that epoch, the miocene sea-bed was raised 6000 feet in the chain of the Taurus, and the barriers forming the westward boundary of the Asiatic eocene lakes so completely annihilated, that a sea several hundred fathoms deep now replaces them. The changes required for the events which the author would connect with the peculiar distribution of the British flora need not have been greater than these. Prof. Forbes maintains that the peculiar distribution of endemic animals, especially of the terrestrial mollusca, bears him out in these views. He proposes to pursue the subject in detail, with reference both to animal and vegetable life, in connexion with the researches of the geological survey. On the Development of Vegetable Cells. By A. Henrrey, F.L.S. After noticing the opinions of MM. Mirbel, Schleiden, Mohl and Nageli, he stated the conclusions to which he had been conducted by observations, viz.—1. That there is no such thing as the interruption of continuity between the liber and alburnum, called the cambium layer. 2. That the potentiality of the black granules described by Schleiden is not proved, and that the utricle first developed from the so-called cytoblast is not the permanent cell, but the primordial utricle of Mohl, the existence of which in growing tissues seems to be universal. 3. That this primordial utricle is not a layer of mucilage, as stated by Nageli, but a true membrane. The author re- gards the nucleolus, or central spot of Schleiden’s cytoblast, as the germinal point, and as situated on the wall of the primordial utricle. When a new cell is to be formed ' » E>. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69 the, nucleolus, divides into two, and a corresponding construction of the primordial utvicle'takes place until:it separates into two, a layer of permanent cell-wall substance being, meanwhile, secreted in this fold from the circumference to the centre, till a complete septum is formed. | The lateral walls grow by extension, being moulded on the growing primordial utricle within them. In the nascent cell, the primordial utricle is filled with granular matter, which, during the subsequent growth of the cell, re- Mains aggregated round the nucleolus, and thus gives rise to the appearances whence Schleiden derived his theory of development from a cytoblast. On the Influence of Galvanic Electricity on the Germination of Seeds. By Professor E. Soury, F.R.S. He commenced by describing the old experiments of Sir H. Davy, in which seeds placed in the vicinity of the positive pole of a voltaic pile, germinated sooner than those near the negative pole, an effect which might be attributed to the oxygen evolved at the positive pole, which of course would accelerate germination, whilst the hydrogen set free at the negative extremity would retard it.» These experiments did not in any way prove that germination was stimulated by electricity; but judging from the known powers of electricity, it would be reasonable to expect that like light and heat, it would exert marked influence on the growth of vegetables, in fact, act as a stimulus. In a series of experiments, in which the seeds of barley, wheat, rye, turnips and radish were exposed to the influence of a feeble current of electricity, the plants came up sooner and were healthier than others that had not been electrified. On the other hand, a number of experiments on other seeds had given opposite results, proving either that the germination of some seeds was retarded whilst that of others was facilitated by electricity, or that the effects observed in both cases were accidental. Out of a series of fifty-five experiments on different seeds, twenty appeared in favour of electricity, ten against it, and twenty-five showed no effect whatever; and in carefully counting the whole number of seeds up in the entire series, there were found-1250 of the electrified, and 1253 of the non-electrified. In conclusion, Prof. Solly stated that he felt doubtful whether the effects observed were really due to the influence of electricity. On the Germination of Plants. By Evwiy Lanxester, M.D., F.R.S. The phenomena that take place during what is called germination, are,—1, ab- sorption of oxygen from the atmosphere; 2, a disengagement of carbonic acid; 3, a disengagement of ammonia; 4, conversion of starch into dextrine, gum, sugar, &c.; 5, increase in bulk—growth of the embryo. The most commonly adopted theory of germination explained the above phenomena, as being necessarily connected with the last fact mentioned in the above series, the growth of the embryo. It was in fact sup- osed that the absorption of oxygen and the disengagement of carbonic acid gas was an act of life, a necessary process of the act of germination, and germination and vegetation were regarded as antagonising processes, the one being an oxidating, the other a deoxidating process, whilst the albumen was regarded as a sole source of nourishment; the author proposed to regard the phenomena of germination differ- ently. It is obvious that the only essential process of germination is the growth of the young plant or embryo. The process of development of the embryo from primi- tive cytoblasts developing its tissues, is precisely the same as that of every other part of the plant, and from an identity of structure, an identity of function might be in- ferred. But the ordinary theory of germination gave a different function to the tissues'of the embryo. The author considered this unnecessary. He believed that Q __ the absorption of oxygen, the disengagement of carbonic acid gas and ammonia arose entirely from the decomposition of the starch and protein contained in the albumen or ‘perisperm of the seed, and that the growing cells of the embryo appropriated the ‘carbonic acid and ammonia with water, just in the same way as all other cells in the vegetable kingdom, This theory he conceived was not only more consistent with the phenomena of germination observed in plants containing large quantities of starch in their perisperm, but also consistent with a large class of facts which were opposed ‘to the ordinary view, of which the following were brought forward :—1l, In many ‘plants no perisperm was developed, and the conditions required for germination were 70 REPORT—1845. precisely those for vegetation, 2. Many plants with hard perisperms, as the Phyte- lephas macrocarpa, the Phoenix dactylifera, and species of Bactris, Cocos and Astro- caryum, germinate without consuming any appreciable quantity of tbe perisperm. 3. The quantity of carbonic acid obtained by Saussure varied not according to the number, but according to the mass of the seeds, proving that it arose from the decom- position of the starch as a chemical process, and not from the growth of the embryo as a process of life, 4. De Saussure found that the relation between the oxygen con- sumed and the carbonic acid gas given out, was different in different plants for the same quantity of the latter, which ought to be constant if the theory of oxidation or combustion during germination be true. 5, Boussingault found that the changes supposed to be peculiar to germination went on in the perisperm after the young plant had developed its radicle and plumule, and was capable of an independent exist- ence. 6. The changes which take place in the chemical composition of the perisperm of the seed during germination can be artificially produced by mixing starch, diastase, &c. together and exposing them to the action of the atmosphere. This theory modi- fies the view of the use of the albumen or perisperm. It is not deposited essentially for the nourishment of the young plant. In some cases it is an organ of support, and bears the same relation to the embryo as the wood of a branch to the buds upon it. Viewing it morphologically, it might be considered the analogue of the tegmenta of the buds; as they consisted of aborted leaves, so the albumen or perisperm consisted of embryos aborted in their earliest stages of development. On the Phytelephas Macrocarpa (Vegetable Ivory or Tagua Plant). By E. Lanxester, M.D., F.R.S, The author brought this plant under the notice of the Section, as he was enabled to present a drawing of a young plant, which was now growing in the garden of Messrs. Loddiges of Hackney. A fruit also of this plant existed in the British Mu- seum, of which a drawing was exhibited. This plant had been placed in the natural order Typhine by Bonpland and Humboldt; with Pandanee by Brown; with Cy- clanthacee by Lindley. The fruit is of the size of a man’s head, and the tree is called by the Spaniards Negro-head. A remarkable point in the ceconomy of this plant was, that the horny albumen of the seed appeared to undergo no change during the process of germination. In the plant at Loddiges’, which was now five years old, the seed still remained on the surface of the soil, apparently as hard as ever, In germination, the young embryo was carried down by a rhizoma an inch or more Jong into the earth, and commenced growing at that point. The perisperms of other palms, as the species of Bactris, of Cocos, and of the Phenix dactylifera, also undergo but little change during germination. The peri- sperm of a species of Astrocaryum in British Guiana is stated by Sir Robert Schom- burgk to be as hard as that of Phytelephas. The structure of the tissue of the seed is remarkable. The walls of the cells are very thick, and in their early stages porous ; the pores between the cells are at last closed, and the pores form club-shaped cavities leading out of the cells. Cooper, in his illustration of the microscopic structure of these cells, has drawn a line running between these club-shaped cayities, but this arises from a tube lying underneath, and has no connection with the termination of the pores, The cells by the resorption of their walls become converted into tubes, , The tubes under the microscope appear to contain globules of oil, Chemical analyses of the seeds had been made by Payen, Connell and Baumhauer. A more accurate ana- lysis was made, at the author’s request, by Dr. Percy of Birmingham. The result of this analysis was as follows :— Carbon, ressecrrerevevcensceseenss 4439 Hydrogen ..jesesserererereeees 6°63 Oxygen srerercenssntepercsreeee FCO NIGVOGON sali rvasdechsosarannes cits cle 100-00 In drying 12-64 per cent. of water was dissipated. The ash contained sulphuric, hydrochloric, phosphoric and carbonic acids in combination with potassa, lime and oxide of iron. The phosphoric acid was partly combined with the potassa. The iron was probably introduced in filing the perisperm for chemical examination. _ ee ee TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 71 yo 6) Deseription of the Murichi, or Ita Palm, of Guiana. vate! By Sir R. ScuomsBurex. _The author referred to the early accounts which naturalists in Europe received of this beautiful palm, of which Sir Walter Raleigh appears to have brought the first fruits to Europe. Clusius, in his ‘ Exotic Flora,’ describes it as “ fructus elegantissi- mus squamosus. similis palme-pini,” and Father Gumilla, Gili, and the older au- thors on Guiana extol it in consequence of the various uses the aborigines of Guiana make of it. It serves at different stages of its growth as a vegetable and furnishes a cabbage equal to the Palmetto; at the maturity of its fruits, they are eaten as well in their natural state as prepared into a drink, which, when drunk copiously, proves ine- briating. It is remarkable, that when much use is made of the fruit it communicates to the linen a yellow colour after perspiration. The trunk is tapped and a fluid flows from it which possesses much saccharine matter. Of the greatest delicacy however is the saccharine liquor extracted from the unexpanded flower, which affords a liquor resembling champagne in its briskness. The Indians prepare from the pith of its trunk a flour resembling that of the Sagas farinifera, which the Warrau Indians call Ari*. Mixed as a pap, it is considered to be an excellent remedy for dysentery. The fan-shaped leaves are used as a thatch for covering houses, and the stump of one of those leaves serves as a broom to sweep them with. The Indians of the Savan- nalis and mountainous tracts use the base of the half-sheathing leaves for the pre- pavation of sandals. The midribs of the young branches are cut in thin slices, and after having been dried they are connected together with withes, and serve as a sail for the Indian's canoe or as a mat to sleep upon. They are used by the travelling entomologist as a substitute for cork to fix insects upon, or to those who are provided. with strong beards as razor-strops. Of the greatest use are however the fibres of the young leaves, which are manufactured into thread and ropes, and they are of such a tenacity that the greater number of Indian tribes fabricate their beds and hammocks ofthem. The inhabitants of the Rio Negro make a trade of it, and a fine hammock is sold trom ten to twelve milreis. Even in its decay the mauritia is of use, and affords a delicacy to the Indians, which likewise many colonists do not refuse, namely, the Jarvee of a large beetle; the Curculio palmarum is found in large numbers in the pith when the trunk is near its decay, and, when boiled or roasted, resembles in taste beef-marrow. ’ This useful tree, which extends from the Llanos of Cumana to the western tributa- ries of the Rio Negro and the mouth of the Amazon, or over an area of 550,000 square miles, was appropriately called by Father Gumilla arbol de la vida, the tree of life; and it is related at the Orinoco, that oneof the kings of Spain hearing of this won- drous tree, which at once furnished bed, bread and wine, attempted its introduction into the mother country. The author wished to correct finally those who have writ- ten on this tree in two points. It is, first, described as a tree scarcely thirty feet high, while it reaches sometimes a height of’ 120 feet, and its average size in Guiana is not less than fifty feet; and next to this it is asserted, that they are not to be found at a greater height than 800 feet, while the author has met them in numerous groups and of a luxuriant growth at a height of from 3000 to 4000 feet above the sea, growing as usual in groups and in swampy soil. Deseription of the Fruit of some of the Hepatice. By Professor Atrman. In this communication the author demonstrated the existence in the sporangia of Marchantia and Jungermannia of precisely the same form of fibro-cellular tissue which is found ‘in the lining membrane of the anthers of flowering plants. This structure he believed to constitute a beautiful hygroscopic apparatus, through whose agency the dehiscence of the fruit is effected. ' Prof, Allman observed, that in Warchantia conica, at the period of maturation, the pedicel of the sporangium becomes suddenly increased in size, being all at once gorged with juices, and by acting against the top of the receptacle, forces the sporan- ium through the margin of this latter structure, and thus brings the peculiar tissue of which it is composed into a condition which enables it to be acted on by the hy- * The flour which they procure from the arrow-root is called Ari-ard, and our denomi- nation arrow-root is most likely derived from the Indian word. 72 a REPORT-—1845. groscopic powers of the atmosphere, when dehiscence immediately takes:placevand allows of the escape of the spores and elaters. The origin of the elaters Dr. Allman was inclined to refer to a metamorphosis of certain cells of the same nature as those which constituted the walls of the sporangium. On a Monstrosity occurring in Saxifraga Geum. By Professor Atuman, M.R.L.A. This monstrosity was discovered by William Andrews, Esq., on the mountains of Kerry, about three years ago. Mr. Andrews has cultivated it in his garden, and finds its characters remarkably persistent, remaining from year to year in the same plant, and being even capable of perpetuation by seed. The three external verticels are normal, but between the stamens and pistil there is developed a series of adventitious carpels crowded upon the margin of a cup-like production which surrounds the lower half of the pistil. These adventitious carpels are characterized by the anomalous fact of having their backs turned towards the axis of the flower. They bear numerous ovules, which, as the margins of the carpels never unite, are always exposed, and present the appear- ance of a gland-like ring surrounding the pistil. The ovules belonging to the adven~ titious carpels acquire a very considerable degree of development, becoming com- pletely anatropous like those contained within the normal ovary, and a distinct primine, secundine and nucleus, with a well-marked vascular raphe, can plainly be seen. Dr. Allman explained the singular character of this monstrosity by supposing the existence of a series of secondary axes which are given off in a whorl between the stamens and the primary axis of the flower. These secondary axes terminate each in its flower, which however is reduced nearly to the lowest possible condition of deve- lopment, the three outer whorls being absent, and all those pistillary carpels which would, if present, have their faces turned to the primary axis, being also in a state of complete abortion. The secondary axes then adhere with each other and with the normal pistil, so as to form the cup just described, and the existing carpels of the secondary axes necessary have their backs turned to the normal pistil, being refer- able to these axes and not to the primary axis of the flower. Professor Henslow exhibited a specimen of Papaver orientale, in which the fila- ments of the stamens were converted into bodies bearing ovules. On Practical Means for the Advancement of Systematic Botany. By J. Bart, M.R.LA. In the present state of systematic botany we require more accurate and extensive observations and experiments with respect to the variations of the forms of plants than have yet been made, and that the forms of descriptive botany should be modified so as to exhibit the whole of the forms contained in the larger groups and their mutual relations in a more philosophical manner. The great impediment to the progress of natural history has been the want of union between observers and thinkers, those who study the details of the science and those who speculate on its general aspects and theory; in order to facilitate and forward their union, it seems desirable that botanists of both classes should agree upon a well- considered series of observations and experiments which should be conducted in a public botanic garden, where the requisite precautions as to securing the accurate ob- servance of the conditions agreed upon, the preservation of specimens, and the keep- ing a proper register, might be adopted and enforced; and, finally, where the expe- riments would not be exposed to the interruptions and other accidents which threaten individual observers. If, for instance, two groups of plants were selected, in one of which the individual forms approximate very nearly to each other, and in the other the species appear well- characterised by constant characters, and a number of individuals of each of a series of forms were exposed to the action of all the causes which we know to be capable of modifying the development of vegetable form, the best means being taken for isolating a A a gr ee ) i 4 TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 73 the action of each of these causes, so that it may be compared with that of the ordi- nary: action of the causes influencing the plant in its natural condition, if this process were repeated: upon the progeny of the original plants, and upon their offspring in continued succession, so as to imitate as far as we can the actual influences which take effect in nature, and the whole series of experiments were continued for a long period ; twenty, thirty, perhaps fifty years would scarce be sufficient; then, I think, those who shall succeed us, to whom we bequeathe the results, will be enabled far more safely than we can to establish a theory as to the nature of the relations of individual forms amongst plants. Even those who conceive the hypothesis of the descent of all the individuals of a species from a common original to be an essential point in natural history, cannot afford to dispense with such a course of inquiry ; for admitting the hypothesis, there is yet no practical test afforded by which to recognise the members of the species in groups where these are subject to great variation, nor can such a test be supplied in any other manner. Still more, those who believe it to be unphilosophical and in no way necessary to assume the truth of an hypothesis supported merely as the one in question is by @ priori considerations, whatever probability we may choose to assign to it, will desire that a body of facts bearing so directly on the question should here- after be forthcoming. It might also be desirable that a few members of the Section should associate for the purpose of collecting and arranging such well-established facts respecting the va- Fiations of plants as observed either in the natural state or in cultivation, as now lie scattered through botanical works, or may hereafter be supplied by observers, with a view to illustrating the value of specific characters in various groups. As to the modifications proposed in the forms of descriptive botany, it appears to ine that it should be an essential point in the character of a genus to assign, not merely the points of structure in which all the species of the genus agree, but also those which, varying from one species to another within the genus, yet remain constant throughout the subordinate varieties of these species, thus supplying what we call the specific characters within the group. An attempt of this kind, however imperfect, would at once ensure an accumulation of important facts, and by embodying these into our systematic arrangement, would prepare the way for important generalisations. An immediate result would be, that we should hereafter less frequently find one supposed species of a genus rejected because its characters had been proved to be variable, while another species of the same genus is admitted, though possessing exactly the same and no better distinctive characters. The other modification which I propose has a similar tendency with the last. It will not be considered improbable to assert as I do, from the study of several com- plicated groups, that in species of the same genus, the varieties of any single species, considered as diverging from a common typical form, recur in a similar cycle through- out all the species of that genus; and if, as is usual, we indicate varieties by letters of the alphabet, it seems natural to ask, that in describing a given group, the same letter should always indicate the same corresponding variety, each letter receiving from the first a fixed signification. I am inclined to go one step further than this. It is now admitted that there are two very distinct classes of varieties; the first, properly so called, represent the initial variations produced by modifying causes; they appear amongst the offspring of one parent plant, and usually return to the primary form as soon as the modifying action ceases, either in their own persons or in those of their descendants; the second, conveniently named sub-species, are permanent, and only after several successive generations do they return to the typical form, if indeed they _ be capable of so returning, which is scarcely yet established. Now, I assert, there is evidence to show that if we take the cycle of varieties displayed amongst the offspring of the original or typical plant, we shall find a cycle of sub-species, sometimes of course incomplete, exhibiting the same tendencies to variation of form in a more marked ‘manner, while in each sub-species the same cycle of varieties is again repeated. Now if it be admitted that this law may hold good throughout, there will be no objection to designating the varieties each successively by a small letter, and each correspond- ing sub-species by a large letter of the same kind. It is needless to point out how a range of facts would thus be admitted into our systematic arrangements. errs Gassis ~ 44 siti REPORT—1845. Onthe Specifie Characters of Plants, considered in Morphological Connewion. By J. Bart, M.RIA. Bearing in mind the two fundamental principles of the unity of primitive structure throughout all the organs of vegetation, and on the other hand, the connexion be- tween function and structure, as the latter is actually modified in nature, it has ever appeared to me a highly probable if not necessary conclusion, that where, in exami- ning a group of vegetable forms, we find in proceeding from one individual to another differences of structure in various organs, these varieties are mutually connected to- gether by fixed laws, so that a variation in one organ shall invariably accompany the variation of another, not by a mere accidental relation, but one which we may hope to trace and to establish. The main difficulty of introducing into botany this method, which has been so successfully employed in comparative anatomy by paleontologists, is, that the latter have been guided and directed by a knowledge of the functions of the seyeral organs whose’ structural relations they would discover, while in botany, where we have so slight a knowledge of the special functions of the various appendages, we must, if we would at all ascertain their structural relations, seek them in a careful induc- tion from an extensive series of observations ; thus only may we hope to reconstruct a - lost plant from some single leaf or portion of its inflorescence. The first step will na- turally be made in finding the relations between those organs in which the primary function has been the least altered, as between the leaf, the bracts, sepals or corolla, rather than with those of the stamens or pericarp, where the primitive organ has been altogether metamorphosed for the purpose of fulfilling a completely different purpose in the vegetable economy. Accordingly we do in fact find in many natural orders examples of this law. I might derive some illustrations from the Composite, but for the present shall only refer to a small group of Graminez, the whole of which order is well-adapted for this purpose. The group in question contains three European species of Polypogon, namely, P, monspeliensis, Dsf,, P, maritimus, R. & S,, and P. subspathaceus, Lois., in which the accordance between the variations of the leaf with unrolled sheath and those of the exterior glume is very remarkable. On the Geographical Distribution of Plants in British India By Dr, Royuz. : This paper contained an outline of the varied vegetation of India, occupying, as it does, almost the extremes of heat and cold, as well as those of dryness and moisture, The materials of this paper were chiefly supplied from the author's own observations. The number of species in India he estimated at 10,000, belonging to 200 families. The latter part of the paper was occupied with a description of the vegetation of the lakes. Plants are in them excessively abundant, and eventually fill them up with their debris. The author thought that the deposits of vegetable matter in these lakes threw much light on the formation of coal. Notes on the Irish Species of Robertsonian Sazifrages. By Professor ANDREWS. _ The author having studied the Irish Saxifrages, and compared them with those of the Pyrenees, had come to a different conclusion from Mr, Babington, and believed that there were only two true species in Jreland, the Saxifraga umbrosa and the S. Geum, ‘The other species described by Mr, Babington in his ‘ Manual,’ he regarded as varieties of one or other of these forms, ’ Capt, L. L, Y. S. Ibbetson exhibited a collection of electrotyped plants. Most of the specimens belonged to the family Orchidaceae, but there were many specimens of other plants, and some fungi, with their forms beautifully preserved. The process by which they were prepared was the ordinary electrotyping process ; but various expedients were had recourse to, according to the nature of the plant. Some difficulty was experienced in sinking the plant in the solution of copper. This was always least in plants which were brought from hot-houses. The parts of the plants on the surface were perfectly preserved, and many of them retained their specific characters, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 75 © On the Increase of the Ergot upon Grasses. By R.G. Larnam, M.D. The increase of the Ergot upon grasses is real; not merely apparent, and referable fo a greater amount of observations. Eight years ago, having found a single specimen upon the Alopecurus pratensis, the author sought for it carefully, autumn after autumn, but in vain, until 1842, Since then it has been abundant; being found on a variety of species, and over large areas. Of the eighteen species on which he has found it, it is commonest on the Lolium perenne, rarest on the Hordeum murinum, It was found last year for the first time on a water-grass, viz. the Glycerium fluitans, The Phieums and Fescues are very subject to it; so is the Dactylis glomerata; in other words, some’ of the best pasture grasses. The Cynosurus cristatus is remarkably free from it. aS BERGA On the Turf of the Cambridgeshire Fens. By the Rev. L. Jenyns, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. The remarks made by the author in this communication related principally to the fens in the neighbourhood of Swaffham Bulbeck, and to Iselham fen. It was stated that the Cambridgeshire turf was not formed of Sphagnum, like the peat found in many of the mosses in England and Scotland, but owed its origin to decomposed aquatic plants of yarious species associated with the remains of trees. This circum- stance appears to have given rise to two kinds of turf, which are distinguished by the Ba geers in the above districts by the names of ypper and lower, ‘The upper turf is much more compact and heavy than the lower, and generally of a darker colour, though sometimes with a peculiar reddish tinge: this is the best turf for common fires, and burns to a white ash, The lower turf is lighter and lighter-coloured, and its texture becomes more loose and spongy the lower it is dug: this is the best for ovens (though now the only turf used in some places from the scarcity of the other kind), and burns toa red ash, These two kinds of turf appear to pass gradually one into the other, the lower consisting almost entirely of the bark, wood, roots, and branches of former forests, above which the upper has been formed afterwards, and deposited in successive layers. The thickness of the whole bed is very variable. In Swaffham Bulbeck fen it runs, perhaps, in general from two to five feet. In Iselham fen the deposit of upper turf (which is also much more heavy and compact in that locality) is considerably thicker: the men there sometimes dig eight turf deep, each being fifteen inches in length; this however is an exception to the rule, and seldom met with. The trees which are met with at the bottom of the moor, and which rest imme- diately on the clay, consist chiefly of oak, yew, hazel and willow, It is said that in Iselham fen they occasionally find the fir and the vine also. The stems of the larger oaks are sound at heart and black throughout, though with the surface somewhat decayed, and presenting an appearance as if charred, But many of the smaller trees, or portions of them, are quite spongy, and may be cut as readily with the knife as soft cheese: these are not unfrequently found penetrated through and through by the rhi- zoma of the common reed (Arundo phragmites) now growing in the fen. The two sorts of turf aboye distinguished are not always found together, The upper exists without the lower in localities in which there are no buried trees to have given rise to the latter; but wherever the lower is found, the upper has always existed aboye it formerly, though now the upper has been so much removed in some districts by digging that the lower alone remains, As the upper turf is due to the decay of aquatic plants in a soil saturated with water, there would be nothing to prevent its growth at the present day if the condition of the fen remained unchanged; but in fact, from repeated drainage, the fen is now much too dry in most places to allow of the turf growing to a sufficient extent to compensate for the large quantity dug for fuel. It is the opinion of the turf-diggers at Iselham that formerly the turf grew - about twenty inches in sixteen years (twenty inches being the length of a full-sized turf when first cut). ‘lhe lower turf, consisting entirely of the remains of trees which grew in the spots in which they are now found before the fen was formed, it is evident, can never be renewed when removed. Hence the time is not far distant when, in some localities, the supply of turf for fuel must fail altogether, The principal plants observed first to show themselves in pits from which turf has been dug, and which appear to assist greatly in its formation, are the Chara hispida 76 REPORT—1845. 55 : and C. gracilis, Utricularia vulgaris, Nymphea alba, Potamogeton: (various) species); Sagittaria sagittifolia, and Alisma ranunculoides. The Chara and. Utricularia espe- cially seem well-adapted for causing a rapid accumulation of vegetable remains by the constant decaying of their stems at bottom, while their upper extremities continue to make fresh shoots. After, however, the accumulation has proceeded to a certain ex- tent, the pits are so far lessened in depth that at the present day the water no longer stagnates there in summer. A different kind of vegetation in consequence then takes place. The above plants make way for various species of Junci, Carices, and other grasses, which tend rapidly to fill the pits up, but which, growing above the level to which the fen is now saturated with water, are not subjected to the conditions under which alone the formation of turf is possible. On Fizeau’s Process of Etching Daguerréotype Plates, and its Application to Objects of Natural History, By A. Goapsy. In a Daguerréotype portrait, the black parts of the plate consist of silver, the white of mercury, and the intermediate tint of a mixture of the two, the degree of darkness or light depending upon the excess either of the silver or of the mercury. In con- verting a Daguerréotype into an engraved plate, it is necessary to etch away the dark parts and to leave the white untouched. This is done by immersing the plate in.a fluid, consisting of dilute nitric acid, nitrous acid, chloride of sodium, and nitrate of potash. The nitric acid is so far diluted, that no decomposition can take place until the mixture is heated, when the chloride of sodium and nitrate of potash are decom- posed, and chlorine and nitrous acid are evolved. These attack and remove the silver of the dark portions of the plate, but have no effect on the mercury, so that the lights or the picture, being the mercurialized portions of the plate, constitute the etching ground, and effectually defend such portions. of the Daguerréotype from the influence of the corroding fluid. After a time, those portions of the plate that have been acted upon by the chlorine, &c. become covered with a protecting coat of the chloride of silver: this must be removed by dilute liquid ammonia, when the biting may be con- tinued by a fresh supply of the mixed acid. Grease and foreign matter must be removed by repeated washings in dilute acid and alkali, and by boiling in caustic potash. These cleansing operations must be repeated after every biting, after washing out the chloride of silver by the ammonia. The plate being thus bitten, but in a slight degree, is to be inked after the ordinary manner of engravers, and allowed to dry ; the surface of the plate is then to be thoroughly polished, the ink still remaining in the corroded portions of the plate. It is now to be gilded by the electrotype, those parts alone receiving the gold that have been previously polished. The ink is then to be dissolved out of the hollows by potash: the parts that are gilded now constitute the etching-ground, instead of the mercury, and the biting may be henceforth con- tinued by nitric acid, in the customary usage of engravers. The plate thus etched generally requires to be finished by the hand of the engraver, who has the advantage of a perfect, although faint picture to work upon. The amount of labour which he must bestow will depend upon the goodness of the Daguerréotype and the success of the etching. M. Claudet has fully established the successful application of this pro- cess to the purposes of illustrating natural history, by copying from nature and en- graving several delicate and difficult dissections of the lower animals, particularly the nervous system of Aplysia and Tritonia (the latter much magnified), and the nutri- mental organs in situ of a caterpillar. [These preparations, together with the en- gravings of them, were submitted to the examination of the members. ] On an Apparatus for Measuring and Registering two dimensions of the Human Frame, the Height of the Body and the Space from the extremity of the Fingers of one Hand, to the extremity of the Fingers of the other, the arms being extended horizontally. By JoszruH Bonomi. The adoption of the measurements proposed, the author contends, will furnish a more accurate means of identification than the method now in use, and at the same time give important data for ethnological inquiry. The apparatus consists of two Fe ee eee — _ 1 sa Gi: a TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 07 graduated scales, each fitted with a sliding gnomon. Taking the corner of the room as‘a convenient perpendicular, the scales are fixed against the wall at a certain di- stance from the floor and corner of the room and at certain angles. On the Ethnography of America. By R. G. Latuam, M.D. _ It is considered that the line of demarcation drawn between the Esquimaux lan- guages and those of the rest of America is too broad and definite. The same remark applies to the Esquimaux tongues and those of Asia. By exaggerating these distinc- tions the primé facie view of the Indian population of America has been disturbed. Further complications have also been introduced, by insisting upen the general gram- matical analogy between the American languages as a point of contrast to the dif- ference in their glossarial details. There is however for the whole of America, North and South, a glossarial as well as a grammatical affinity. The Esquimaux, Athabascan, Colooch, Oregon, Californian and Mexican groups run so much into each other that no definite line of separation can be drawn. These, dealt with en masse, have general affinities with the Algonkin and Iroquois groups. Isolated tongues, like the Blackfoot, Riccaree, Uchee, &c., have miscella- neous affinities with the American tongues in general, and contain Esquimaux words proportionate to the extent of their vocabularies. The North and South American tongues pass into each other. No Scuth American tongue is isolated in the way that the Basque is isolated in Europe. Even the Warow and Fuegian have words common to the other groups, and to the Esquimaux. On the side of Asia the languages most akin to the Esquimaux are the Curule, Corean and Japanese ; after these the Kamskadale, Koriack and Jukageer. Still, the affinity (although undoubted) is less close on the Asiatic than the American side. The difference between the American numerals is explicable on the following hypothesis. Where we count by pure abstract terms like one, two, three, &c., there is a greater uniformity fer the numerals than for other words; whilst in those ruder languages, where we count by common names, as pair, couple, leash, the numerals differ where the rest of the language coincides. On the Ethnography of the Chinese and Indo-Chinese Nations. By R. G. Laruam, M.D. The distinction between the languages of Thibet and China, as exhibited by Klap- roth, must be only provisional. Over and above the grammatical analogy there is an absolute glossarial affinity. Of the languages of the transgangetic peninsula the same may be asserted. Where languages are monosyllabic slight changes make palpable differences. The vocabularies of Brown, for more than a score of the Bur- mese and Siamese tongues, have provided us with data for ethnographical compari- sons. © By dealing with these collectively, we find in one dialect words which had beem lost in others. The Chinese, Thibet, Bhootan, Burmese, Siamese, and all the so-called monosyllabic languages hitherto known, are allied to each other. The'ge- neral affinities of the Indo-Chinese tongues are remarkable. With Marsden’s and Sir Stamford Raffles’s tables on the one side, and those of Brown and Klaproth on the other, it can be shown that a vast number of Malay roots are monosyllabic. The Malay languages are monosyllabic ones, with the superaddition of inflections evolved out of composition, and euphonic processes highly developed. The next class of tongues akin to the monosyllabic is that of Caucasus. The numerous languages of this class have long been reduced to four groups; the Geor- gian, the Lesgian, the Circassian, the Mizdzhegi. That these four are fundamentally One, may be seen from Klaproth’s tables, whose classification seems only provisional, These tongues, dealt with en masse, have their affinities with the monosyllabic tengues. As with the Malay language, the monosyllabic character is modified by the evolution of agglutinational and inflectional processes, but not much by euphonic processes. An original continuity of language, displaced at present by the Turkish and Mongol, is thus assumed for parts between Caucasus and Thibet. ows ve 78 REPORT—1845. On the present state of Philological Evidence as to the Unity of the Human Race. By R. G. Laruam, M.D. , The languages of America are radically one, compared both with one another, and with those of the north-east of Asia, viz. the Kamskadale, Koriack, Curile, Corean, Japanese. The particular language of the Othomi inhabitants of Mexico, which ‘has been considered as monosyllabic and isolated in character, forms no exception to the previous statement. A monosyllabic basis of separate words is provisionally assumed as the fundamental element out of which inflections are evolved by agglutination and amalgamation. This makes it possible that poly-synthetic tongues, like the American, may be repre- sented in their earlier stage by monosyllabic tongues like the Chinese. Glossarial investigations confirm both these views. There is a radical unity for the different Siberian groups of the Asia Polyglotta, e.g. Yukageer, Yenesean, Samoeide, &c., and a fortiori, for the Turk, Mongol, and Manchoo groups. Each and all of these have affinities with the monosyllabic tongues, and through these with the Malay and Caucasian, Polynesia presents the first appearance of isolation, in the languages of New Guinea, Australia, &c., i. e. the Negrito tongues. The philological evidence of their being akin, either to the Malay or Tamul languages, is at present indefinite and in- conclusive. Southern India, and the Indian hill-ranges, present the first appearance of isola- tion in the languages of Continental Asia. Although unplaced they can scarcely be called isolate. The African languages have a fundamental unity; philological processes and ex- tended comparisons being sufficient to account for the apparent peculiarities of the Caffrarian tongues. Europe presents unplaced languages in the Basque and Albanian—unplaced, but not therefore isolate. The higher groups that should contain divisions like the Se- mitic and Indo-European, &c., have yet to be evolved. These, along with positions for the Basque, Albanian, and Tamul languages, and affinities for the Negrito and African languages in general, are the present desiderata. The philological unity of those portions of the human race of which the languages are known, although highly probable, has yet to be exhibited in a definite and conclusive form. On the Migratory Tribes of Central India. By E. Batrour. It has not been ascertained how many wandering tribes there are: the author confined himself to the description of the manners and habits of seven. Although in many respects they are similar to each other, still there are differences which have interest in an ethnological point of view. Dr. King exhibited, on the part of Mr. John Brown, a drawing of a specimen of gold casting as illustrative of the state of art of the inhabitants of New Grenada prior to the conquest. It represented the human figure sitting. The original was of fine gold, and weighed 1 oz. 18 dwt. 18 grs. a On the Moral and Intellectual Character of the New Zealanders. By Dr. Martin. _ The New Zealander may be classed in that stage of man’s progression when the indications of sense are not altogether corrected by reflection and intellect; when passion is somewhat tempered, but nct controlled by moral and religious feeling ; when hatred is stronger than benevolence, and self-love is unrestrained by consci- entiousness ; when, in fact, the mere intellectual perception of self-interest is the chief regulator of the conduct. As far as mere perceptive faculties are concerned, the New Zealander may be said to be inferior to Europeans, but superior to many other uncivilized people. The New Zealander is a paradox in every light in which we regard his moral character. Religion, veneration, or superstition, are the strongest feelings, and yet they are, in most cases, unaccompanied by conscientiousness, which TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79 is'so essential to the formation of a moral and religious character. He has laws which define conduct, but they are founded on self-interest, superstition or vanity. Truth and moral feeling cannot be traced as elements in any part of his conduct or customs, His excessive vanity and want of truthfulness make him boastful, and tend to give an exaggerated character to all his statements. Individual quarrels or combats are of rare occurrence; while the most extraordinary disregard for life will be found to exist without courage. Notwithstanding the general character of the New Zealander for benevolence, he is destitute of natural affection as a feeling: neither the parent nor the child cherish towards each cther any of that strong regard which is natural to, and frequent among Europeans. His social morality is low, the absence of virtue not being considered even a disgrace, much less a crime. — On Cretinism. By Dr. Twintne. Dr. Twining first described its forms and degrees. Marsden saw goitre in the valleys of the Ural, Baikal and Caucasian mountains; Forbes in the Himalaya, and M‘Clelland in the Shore Valley. Sir G. Staunton saw cretins in the narrow valleys of Tartary, and that they lead a mere animal life, acting alcne from the impulse of their senses. In Africa there are only two parts known where goitre occurs. Leo Africanus saw goitre in the high mountains of Atlas in Morocco, and Mungo ‘Park among the Kong mountains in Bambara. Of cretinism in America we have fuller accounts. Richardson saw goitre and cretins on the banks of the Saskatchewan, and near the sources of the Elann and Friedeu rivers. Prof. Bartun states goitre to be prevalent at Oneida among the Americans and the Dutch settlers, and in all the State of New York, near the Mohawk river. It occurs also in Lower Canada, in marshy districts. In South America goitre occurs independently of cretinism iit Nicaragua and Sante Fé. Humboldt saw the most frightful cases of goitre on the Magdalena river, and chiefly higher, to the elevation of 6000 feet above the sea, on the high plain of Bogota, and states that the copper-coloured natives were generally free from goitre. It occurs also in Quito and the Onachiffa Valley near Lima, under various atmospheric influences, and on the Corderillas. In the Villarica Valley, in Brazil, 4000 feet above the sea, goitre is frequent, not only in man but animals, as the goat; and many villages are filled with cretins. Prof. Poffig states that in the Andes in Chili, on the east side, in some races he did not see a case of goitre; and yet in the white inhabitants, who live exactly as the natives, it prevails in a great degree. On the Andes, between Santa Rosa and Mendoza, the peasants dwell on the west side as high as 7000 feet above the sea, and on the east to 6000 feet, and are free from gcitre, but lower, at 3500 feet, goitre is endemic. The nature of the formation seems to have no direct influence as a cause of cretinism, as cretins are found on all. It would seem that where the springs come from the limestone, goitre is most frequently endemic; but as in many villages where goitre and cretinism pre« vail there is no lime, it cannot be the sole cause. Dr. Twining concluded by ex« pressing a hope that the many travellers there assembled would, when investigating the geology or the races of the high mountain chains, not forget the state of the in- habitants of the valleys with regard to cretinism. That cretins can become healthy and intelligent has been proved by Dr. Guggenbiihl, in the success that his benevo- lent exertions at the Hospital for cretin children, on the Abenberg, near Inter- lachen, have met with; but it can only be by the united efforts of many that.a scien- tific account of cretinism can be attained. In order to facilitate such inquiries, Dr. Twining suggested the following method: first, to. state the name of the place, its situation and elevation:above the sea, and the race} secondly, the geological forma- tion, springs and climate; thirdly, the state of the houses and the habits—whether goitre only prevails, or is accompanied by cretinism. On the Natives of Old Calebar, Africa. By Professor Dantett. _ The natives, although of Eboe extraction, present some physical deviations that serve to distinguish them from other tribes of a similar derivation. The natives of the Bonny Mun,.who are purely of Eboe descent, and therefore less mixed with the people of other nations, may be taken as the typical illustration to institute compa- . 80 REPORT—1845. risons. They are generally of a short stature, slight form, and light yellow skin. The trunk and other portions of the body are in conformity with this physical configuration, being somewhat robust and symmetrical in mould, with a tendency to great muscular development. The hair of the head of girls is invariably shaved off, with the excep- tion of a small tuft, and is not suffered to grow until they are married; it is then twisted into a number of plaits decorated with beads. Portions of their frame, and particularly the face, are tattooed in circular figures, and the anterior surface of the arm, in men as well as women, is ornamented with round smooth cicatrices of the size of a shilling. The government of this people is a monarchical despotism, rather mild in its general character. They destroy their criminals by poisoning, drowning and decapitation. A simple contract between the parties constitutes the law of marriage; and prior to their residing finally together, they sit in state for several days, well-attended and in gaudy attire. Polygamy exists amongst them in full force. Adultery is atoned for by a dreadful death. Among their funeral rites is that of im- molation, on an enormous scale, of men, women and children; and so fearful in former times was the observance of this custom, that many towns narrowly escaped depopulation. Dr. King reported that in the Journal of General Miller, Consul-General for the Pacific, which had been forwarded to him, light was thrown upon the manners and habits of the South Sea Islanders, and upon many of the complicated or debated problems connected with the population and its intermixture with the Red man of America; upon human sacrifice, cannibalism and infanticide ; and upon the effect of isolation and savage solitude upon runaways from ships and from convict labour. Lengthened extracts from General Miller’s Journal, upon these several points, were read, On the Egyptians and Americans. By the Marquis di Spinzto. On certain Traces of Roman Colonization in Lancashire. By Dr. Buack. From historical notices and inferences, conjoined with the affinities mentioned to have existed between the social institutions and languages of the Saxon conquerors and other contemporary emigrants and those of our Briton-Frisians, Dr. Black con- cludes that the latter would mostly remain in the country, become amalgamated in spirit, action and habits with the newly imported tribes from Germany, rather than seek to keep up a forced conventional polity with their old neighbours, the Britons. They would indeed soon become incorporated with the Saxons; take with them their fate as a nation; and from their numbers in the south of Lancashire, would probably constitute the greatest portion of the population. That many of the inha- bitants of this district, especially in the inland and rural parts, have long, and to this day, shown a distinctive variety of form, feature and vernacular dialect from those in the other parts of England, has been remarked by not a few observers. And the man of Heaton and the dark-eyed Lancashire witch still maintain—the one for the picturesque in manners and speech, and the other for her characteristic beauty— their wide-spread distinction among the hardy sons and fair daughters of England. Tables illustrative of the Height, Weight and Strength of Man, By Mr. Brent, It appears that there are in 100 Englishmen of all classes:— 5 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft. 9 in. (middle height) ...... 40 5 ft. 3 in. to 5 ft. 6 in, (short) ...........ceceeee 26 5 ft. Oin. to 5 ft. 3 in. (very short).........00. 4 — 30 short. 100 ‘TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ‘81 oat Mine w ns ati ah won ae vie Lappers In 100 persons In 100 Amateur In 100 Cornish puree ; Workhouse. deceased. Rowers Wrestlers. “atta f || Wee ce i 4:1 emerge Pra eh oaralt te te oc 63 ~. |Middling ...... 26|Middling ,,.... 37|Middling ..,... 6 Middling pra 30 Short............ 67|\Short.........ec. A4/Short .......ceeee DiShort ........0008 100| | 100 100 100 -From a calculation of the weight of the Venus di Medicis at different heights, from 4 ft.6 in. to 6 ft. 9 in., her weight, supposing her height to have been 5 ft., and her dress of the ordinary kind, would be 8 stone 9 lb.—being in the same class with the Discoboli. From a calculation of strength in different classes from slender to ex- aggerated, the Hercules Farnese being in the exaggerated, the Gladiator being in the middle class, taking the strength of a slender man at 100, that of the Gladiator would equal 173; the Hercules Farnese 362 at the same height. On Dr. Kombst’s Ethnographic Map of Great Britain and Ireland. By J. M. Kempxe, M.A. On Local and Hereditary Difference of Complexion in Great Britain, with some Incidental Notice of the Cimbri. By the Rev. R. Witutams. Mr. Williams commented on the fact, that in two districts of our island, the same strongly-marked variety of complexion exists which was observed by Tacitus seven- teen centuries ago. The primary agent of change was climate; which influenced first the skin, next the hair and eyes, and lastly, with the co-operation, perhaps, of other agents, changed the configuration of the skull. Next to our own climate, that of our ancestors, or the effect of race, was to be considered. It had been attempted to explain the xanthous complexion of the Scotch Lowlanders by supposing them originally Gothic, and the darker hues of the S.W. Silurians by calling in the aid of Iberian intermixture. The last was wrong; for as the language of the Welsh con- tained no Basque element, their physiology could not have been influenced by Biscayans, The former idea had been partially refuted by Chalmers ; and looking to the names of the Pictish kings, of places in the Lowlands, comparing the Welsh Aber with the Gaelic Suver, observing the intelligibility of Aneirin’s poems among the Britons of the Clyde and those of South Wales, we must conclude that the whole western side of the island, from Glasgow to Cornwall, was inhabited by a people throughout akin, if nut absolutely identical. Neither wasit true that the Celts could be classed as dark, and the Teutons as xanthous. All ancient authors, and especially Strabo, made the Celts also xanthous. Strabo even thought their usages alike, and their blood akin to the Germans. [le called the Britons of greater stature and less yellow-haired than the Gauls. On the whole, this singular phenomenon of a people homoio, if not homo-glottous, yet differing physiologically so much as the Caledonians and Silurians, and their respective successors at this day, might be referred to the® _ well-ascertained custom of the Celts of migrating in two large divisions, as in the case of Brennus, &c. One division, leaving the Caspian, entered Europe by the Euxine, and the other by the Mediterranean ; one acquired the characteristics of a _ Northern, the others retained those of an Oriental people. Mr. Williams proceeded _ to show, by tracing various names, that the whole people from Glasgow to Cornwall called themselves Cimbri, or Cymry. This people comprehended the Belgz, and (excepting only a Teuton inlet from the succeeding tide of population which forced itself along the Rhine) they must have extended from Denmark and the mouth of the Elbe across Belgic Gaul and England to Wales. It was very important to observe that they were not hybrid, but yet formed, in blood and in language, as in geographi- cal position, the connecting link between the Irish Celts who preceded, and the _ Goths who came after them. Adelung’s idea of the Cumraic containing a Gothic 1845. G 82 REPORT—1845. infusion arose from the old fallacy of the Celts and Goths being radically alien; whereas one family of languages extended from the Caspian Sea to Ireland and Por- tugal on the west, and to the extreme of India on the east. Certain peculiarities in the Celtic and Cumraic arose from the very early date at which they successively broke off from the pre-Sanscrit stock. Sir R. Schomburgk gave a verbal account of the superstitious and astronomical knowledge of the Indians of Guiana, which agreed with the same kind of knowledge current amongst the rest of the uncivilized portion of the globe. On the Ancient T'umuli in the Yorkshire Wolds. By the Rev. T. Ranxin. MEDICAL SCIENCE. Results of Researches on the Scrofulous Tubercle* which had reference to its . Vascularity. By Dr. Fisuer. Att the cases which the author brought forward were illustrated by coloured drawings. He treated of two kinds of tubercle: the one developed in the subserous cellular tissue, as for instance between the lamine of the mesentery, or between the peritoneum and the muscular coat of the intestine ; the other formed at the expense of the parenchyma of an organ, as for instance the lung, a lymphatic gland, &c. In the first case, ac- cording to Dr. Fisher’s observations, the morbid product would seem, at a certain period of its development, to become surrounded by blood-vessels comparatively large in calibre, and apparently of a new order, which converge towards the tubercle, some- what after the fashion in which the spokes of a wheel are directed towards its nave. In the second case, where, for instance, the tubercle is seated in the lung, the nutri- tive vessels of that organ, i. e, the bronchial arteries, would appear to assume around the morbid product an increase not only in size, but also in number. The semi- transparent form of tubercle, especially as it is found in lymphatic glands, would ap- pear to be the one most richly endowed with vessels: the latter are much less fre- quently met with in the opake caseous form; still, in several instances, vessels arti- ficially injected were shown to enter the caseous tubercle, towards the centre of which they appeared to tend. On a peculiar form of Epidemic affecting the Teeth and Gums of young: Children, observed in Dublin in the Winter of 1844-45. By James F, Duncan, A.M, MB, FCP. in Ireland, §e. This peculiar disease was observed among the children of the North Dublin Union Workhouse, an institution containing nearly 2000 inmates of all classes, and averaging usually from sixty to eighty infants under two years of age, to which the author has been physician since its opening, five years ago. Until last winter he had never ob- served anything approaching in character to the present affection, of which he met with eight or nine cases. The attack was ushered in by considerable fever, and after an interval of some days the gums were found to be partially ulcerated at the inser- tion of the teeth, the fangs being exposed; they became also swollen, red and spongy, and exhibited a considerable tendency to bleed, insomuch that heemoptoe occasionally resulted from this cause. The disease was very severe, and in most cases, either dis rectly or in consequence of a relapse, terminated fatally. It seemed to be essentially only a part of a deeper-seated affection, namely, an enteritis of'a most extensive and severe kind. Its importance however, in a pathological point of view, arose from the liability to confound it with that ulceration of the gums which is the consequence of the administration of mercury. In some of these cases no mercury whatever had * The presence of this tubercle in the lungs is the chief cause of the pulmonary symptoms in consumption. Dr. Fisher read a paper before the Cambridge Philosophical Society on this subject in 1835. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83 been used, and in none was the quantity sufficient to account for its occurrence. The importance of distinguishing the two affections must be obvious to every one. The _ diagnosis rests principally on the ulceration being partial and not general over the _ action of a condensing and exhausting syringe, and proba whole gums, as is the case in mercurial action, in the accompanying ptyalism being moderate in quantity, in the foetor of the breath being destitute of the peculiar odour of the mineral impregnation, and in the tendency to hemorrhage. This last seems to connect it rather with Purpura hemorrhagica than with the former affection. The sanguineous discharges were not confined to the gums, but extended also to the rectum and intestines; and the author related a remarkable case of two children, one of whom had the affection of the mouth and the other Purpura hemorrhagica. But the im~ portance of the diagnosis is still further shown from the circumstance that in this disease mercurial remedies can be administered, not only without risk, but even with advantage. The treatment found of greatest benefit was not local but constitutional. The former seemed to exercise very little impression even upon the parts to which it was applied; the latter alone was productive of relief. Acidulated infusions of bark and calumba were particularly serviceable, but the application of a tolerably large blister over the abdomen after it had been stimulated by the mustard poultice, and left on for about an hour, was more effectual in checking the accompanying diarrhcea, lowering the fever and improving the general condition of the patient than anything else. On the Influence of Galvanism on Endosmose and Exosmose. By H. B. Lerson, M.A., M.D. “Whether endosmose and exosmose are dependent on electricity, capillary attraction or chemical affinity, or on some mechanical condition having relation to the magnitude of the particles of the fluids, subjected to its influence and to the pores of the membrane through which they pass, has not at present been satisfactorily determined. The first idea of Dutrochet, that electricity was the more immediate cause*, is now generally abandoned; nor can we be surprised that Dutrochet himself should have felt some misgivings on the subject, if we refer to the experiments of Porrett and him- self, on which that opinion was founded. The author entered into an examination of these experiments, and then proceeded to explain those in which he is at present engaged. After adverting to the fact now familiar to most persons accustomed to the use of the sustaining galvanic battery, viz. that the liquid on the one side of the porous diaphragm was considerably increased or elevated by the action of the battery, the author explained that such increase could not depend, as had been supposed, upon any mere variation of the specific gravity of the fluids, inasmuch as that the height attained by the liquid, as exhibited in the arrangement of an experiment then exhibited, was much greater than could be due to any alteration of specific gravity, and amounted in some of the author’s experi- ments to several feet. ‘The author then alluded to his experiments, as proving that endosmose and exosmose were greatly promoted by electricity, more especially ob- serving that sulphuric acid, a substance mentioned by Dutrochet as inimical to the influence of endosmose, was in the experiment before them rendered amenable thereto, The author also observed, that although endosmose and exosmose may be induced without any galvanic influence, and are not therefore absolutely dependent upon it, still, inasmuch as the action took place more readily under the influence of the cur- rent, and almost ceased when the current was) interrupted, we must conclude that endosmose and exosmose are powerfully promoted by it. . The great amount of force or motion generated by the action of endosmose and exosmose was then observed. Endosmose and exosmose continually going on in so many parts of the animal ceconomy may be regarded as ee nye to the continued ly contribute to promote the action of the heart, as stated by the author some years ago in a thesis upon the blood, read by him at Oxford. _ The author then adverted to the relative alkaline and acid state of the fluids secreted from the surfaces of different membranes, as presenting conditions favourable to the production of galvanic currents, The author also adverted to the experiments of »* Ainsi ’endosmose et l’exosmose dépendent enti@rement de |’électrité.”—L’ Agent im- _ médiat du Mouvement Vital, 1826. G2 84 REPORT—1845 Matteucci, Galvani and others, as showing that the elements necessary, for the pro- duction of electric currents exist in animals even where there is no special organiza~ tion, as in the torpedo, &e. The author concluded by adverting to the importance of further investigation in relation to this subject, since the healthy performance of all the important functions of the anima! ceconomy are dependent upon it. On a new mode of Suture, applicable to Plastie Operations. By Cuarces Brooks, M.B., F.R.C.S.E. The inconvenience frequently experienced by surgeons in the application of the ordinary modes of suture is that of the stitches cutting through, and therefore failing to keep in contact the parts to be united. In this, the improvement consists in placing two smooth, flat glass beads on the ends of the ligature and securing them by knots, by which the parts may be held together as long as may be required without any tendency to produce irritation or ulceration. The mode of application may be thus explained :—A piece of ligature silk with a knot on one end is doubled, and the loop passed through a bead. A needle of suitable form, having a notch near the point, is then passed through the sides of the fissure to be united; the loop of the ligature is then placed in the notch and the needle retracted, bringing the loop with it. A second bead is then placed on the loop, which is afterwards divided; the two threads being now separate, a knot is tied on the end of that one which has no knot at the other end, and by drawing the two free ends of the threads, the parts intervening may be brought into close contact, and may be maintained in that position by placing knots on the free ends, close to the beads, and thus preventing the latter from receding from each other; at the same time the portions of integument intervening between the beads are not subjected to any pressure whatever. : For external application of the suture, a needle slightly curved at the point is most suitable. For internal application, when the direction of the edges to be united co- incides with that of the handle of the instrument, as in a longitudinal fissure in the vagina, a spirally-curved needle is requisite: when the direction of the edges is nearly perpendicular to that of the instrument, as in the posterior part of a cleft palate, or a transverse fissure in the vagina, a moveable needle is most suitable. The principal difficulty attending the internal application of the bead suture, has been the placing the last knots close to the beads, to prevent their receding from each other : this may however be effected by a small conoidal roller at the extremity of a handle, on which the loop forming the knot is placed, and carried on to any required point ; it is then tightened by a little fork attached to this instrument, wide enough to receive the thread only.. By these means any number of knots may with facility be placed on the same thread close to each other, when entirely out of reach of the fingers. In order to render the description of the operation complete, it must be remarked, that in the application of external sutures, as in cases of hare-lip, it is generally found desirable to pare the edges with the scalpel, and union by first intention will probably be obtained: in internal sutures, the edges will be much more easily and evenly pared by lightly touching them with potassa fusa, and the needle immediately ap- plied, without waiting for the separation of the superficial slough. To the latter mode of treatment it may be objected, that union can thus be obtained by granulation only ; this is not however an objection of any validity, as it is the peculiar property of this suture to hold the parts in contact until sufficient time has elapsed to render the union by granulation complete. A detail of the cases illustrating the advantages of the bead suture will be more suitable for a purely medical publication. On the Communicating Fibres of the Brain in reference to Thought and Action. By Tuomas Laycock, M.D. Dr. Laycock stated, that he considered those views correct which looked on the brain as an extensive periphery of nervous matter, analogous to that on the surface of the body. On this periphery sensorial changes are excited, first, by incident excitor im- pressions derived from without—the external periphery; secondly, by impressions — derived from other portions of the brain—the internal periphery. There was thus a set of intercommunicating fibrils between all parts of each symmetrical half of the TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 85 ‘brain‘and spinal cord. Dr: Laycock showed that this intercommunication actually took place in the ganglia of the spinal:cord, an impression being diffused through all parts of the ganglia. _ Dr. Laycock showed that this view of the internal mechanism ‘of the brain explains those cases of paralysis in which the muscles act normally under ‘certain conditions, as, for example, when an individual cannot speak what he thinks, but is able to read aloud, or repeat what is spoken. Dr. Laycock was of opinion that in such an example there was no interruption of continuity between the auditory and optic nerves and that part of the brain which subserves to language, nor between the latter and the anterior or motor tract of the medulla oblongata; but that the cause of the vocal paralysis experienced when the individual attempted to express his thoughts, was an interruption of continuity of the fibrils communicating between the portions of the brain, or internal periphery, subservient to thought and that subservient to lan- guage. A Drawing, representing the appearance of the Surface of the Heart in a case of Purpura hemorrhagica, presented by T. S. WELLS, Assistant Surgeon, Naval Hospital, Malta. The subject of the disease was a strong, able seaman, aged twenty-seven, who died eight days after the first symptoms presented themselves. The author presented the drawing as exhibiting a morbid change extremely rare, and seldom noticed by pa- thologists, Dr. Himmelstein, a physician in the Russian naval service, being the only author known to the writer of the paper who has remarked changes at all similar. On the State of the Deaf and Dumb. By Dr. Fowurr. Dr. Fowler communicated some further particulars relative to the case of the woman who was blind, deaf and dumb, in Rotherhithe workhouse. Her faculties have much improved by education; she is now occupied by employments and surrounded by en- joyments, which a few years ago appeared to, be utterly impossible under her peculiar deprivation. Dr. F., in continuation, made a few observations on the mental faculties ‘of animals in reference to those of man; the chief inferiority he described as the _absence, in animals, of all ideas of relation and the combinations resulting from it. j Notice of an Apparatus for delineating correctly the relative position and size of the Viscera, either in the Healthy Condition or changed by Disease. By io Mr. Srgson. : This apparatus consisted of a square frame, covered by transparent lace or muslin, which will permanently bear chalk-marks. By taking the outlines of the objects to ‘be sketched (deformities, well-marked conditions of thoracic or abdominal viscera, &c.) ‘on the surface looking perpendicularly at the object, a correct outline is easily pro- duced even by those who are not artists; this sketch can be readily transferred to ‘paper by pressure, and if necessary may be reduced by the application of the penta- “graph. Mr. Sibson gave an illustration of its use by making sketches from the living body, and entered into numerous pathological details to show the importance of fre- “quent delineation to ascertain the progress of internal and external disease during _ treatment. > RQ PS BE OO Ee On Cranial Vertebre. By Dr. Macponatp. _ . The author commenced by enforcing the value and necessity of the study of what _ had been termed Transcendental Anatomy. After alluding to the labours of the foreign and British investigators of the subject, Dr. Macdonald laid down the elemen- tary parts forming a vertebra, which he stated to be, first, a body forming part of the _ ¢aulis centralis of the vertebral column ; secondly, the posterior laminz, which meeting on the mesial plane form the arch of the vertebral canal, having the spinous processes _-more or less developed : each lamina is again subdivided into three elementary divi- __»sions, which. he denominates protomeral, deutomeral, and tritomeral; besides these __ there are, thirdly, anterior lamin connected with the caulis centralis, exemplified in aa ait 86 REPORT—1845. the ribs and part of the pelvis, and also in the bones of the face. Retaining these divisions of each vertebra, the author described the cranial vertebra as three pairs arising from the spine: first, the occipital; secondly, the sphenoidal; thirdly, the in- grasioethmo-frontal; by attentively examining the component lamine of these verte- brz, he identified all the usually described portions of the cranium. The facial bones he resolved. into two pairs of vertebre: first, the superciliary ; secondly, the adnasal. By ‘a minute demonstration the author endeavoured to establish the details of his system which he contended was applicable to all the zoological classes, and as well-marked, in the insect tribe as in the mammalia. Notice of an Instrument to assist in the discovery of Foreign Bodies by Aus- cultation. By Dr. Brooke. It consisted of a catheter or sound, with a circular sounding-board, six inches in diameter, attached perpendicularly at its extremity, which increases the sensation derived from the contact of its other end against a small calculus or fragment after lithotripsy, which might otherwise escape detection, and lay the foundation of future disease. The effect of the sounding-board was demonstrated. A sound produced by the contact of a small fragment in a small bag, which could scarcely be heard by the holder of the instrument without the sounding-board, became perfectly audible on its application. Dr. Leeson presented and described an apparatus for minute injection. Dr. Thurnam gave a short notice of a case of Spina bifida, the preparation of which he exhibited to the Section; it demonstrated the exact condition of the bones and ligaments of that portion of the vertebral column where the deficiency from arrest of development occurred. STATISTICS. On the University Statistics of Germany. By J. Hexwoon, F.R.S, Tne details of these statistics were collected by Dr. Perry, who resided in the Uni- versity town of Bonn on the Rhine, and who has taken the degree of Dr. of Philo- sophy at Gottingen. He stated, that in round numbers, there are 1500 professors in the German universities, and about 15,000 students. Dr. Perry ascribes the origin of duelling among the German students to their being permitted to wear swords as a badge of gentility; but the duels are generally of a harmless nature. Large num- bers of students are attracted to particular universities in Germany by the lectures of eminent professors, and when a vacancy occurs in a chair of importance, the new teacher is often chosen on account of his reputation and success in some other uni- versity, so that he owes his fresh appointment to his own merit, independent of local influence. _—— On the Comparative Number of Degrees taken at Cambridge in the Seventeenth and Nineteenth Centuries. By J. Heyvwoop, F.R.S. The comparison showed, that notwithstanding the general increase of wealth and population in Great Britain during the last 200 years, the number of degrees taken at Cambridge had not increased in a corresponding proportion. Thus, in 1620 there were 270 B.A. degrees conferred, and in 1820 only 183; in 1630 there were 291 B.A. degrees taken, and in 1830, 324; in 1640 there were 240, and in 1840, only 339. Nearly one-third of the students leave the university without taking a degree. Conversation ensued, and it was suggested that the more mature age at which stu- dents now enter was one cause why graduations have not increased in proportion to the population. Prof, Pryme observed that this might also arise from the compa- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87. ative cheapness and style of living in ancient times. Mr. Heywood also presented a table of the comparative number of students in Trinity College, Cambridge, who go into lay pursuits and into the church, Of 1443 students admitted in ten years, from 1831 to 1840 inclusive, only 413 took out testimonials for deacons’ orders, from which it follows that about two-thirds of the students of Trinity College are intended to be laymen, f On the Trade and Navigation of Norway. By R. Vaury. [This was the abstract of a Report made to the Government by J. B. Crowe, Esq., Consul General for Norway. ] The chief exports are wood, fish, and minerals. The wood consists of deals cut in twelve-feet lengths, and balks either round or square. Proprietors of forests are under no restrictions as to felling; they generally cut down the trees in autumn or winter, and convey them to a river to be floated down thestream. The reproduction of the timber is believed to be equal to the consumption. Formerly England was the chief market for Norwegian produce, and had in return the almost exclusive trade in manufactures ; but since the establishment of discriminating duties in favour of Cana- dian timber the English trade has fallen, and the consumption of English manufac- tures greatly decreased. Hamburg and the German States have become markets for Norwegian produce, and the manufactures of Germany have superseded those of England. The annual average quantities of timber exported in the seven years from 1835 to 1841 were 618,769 loads of 50 cubic feet, which, with firewood, hoops, and other less valuable timber, may be deemed worth 435,000/. The fisheries rank next in importance to the forest, ‘and afford the chief occupation to Norwegian industry. The exports consist of stockfish, round and split, clip-fish, salted cod, and halibut, Jiver and shark oil, and live lobsters. Stockfish is chiefly exported to the Catholic countries of southern Europe. The exports fluctuate from the varying nature of the fishing trade, but in 1841 they were,—stockfish, 14,196 tons ; clip-fish, 11,285 tons ; herrings, 608,086 barrels ; cod-roes, 20,21 7 barrels; liver and shark oils,41,715 barrels ; and 552,272 lobsters. Salmon for several years has ceased to be an article of export, The disappearance of this fish is attributed to the swarms of sharks which have re- cently taken possession of the banks off the coast, These were first observed in 1841, and in 1842 eight vessels were fitted out for the new fishery, and captured no less than 20,000 sharks, without any apparent diminution of the supply. The quantity of oil obtained was about 1000 barrels. The mineral trade is not of much importance, but there is something curious in the fur trade, principally carried on with Russia. The greater part of the skins sold by the Norwegians are obtained from the Hamburg merchants, who buy them in London from the Hudson’s Bay Company; the Nor- wegians convey them to Finmark, and from thence they are taken to Moscow and sold to the caravan traders for the purpose of being bartered with the Chinese for tea at Kiachta! The Norwegian shipping is on the increase, principally owing to the laws which require masters of vessels to give proof of their knowledge and skill by. undergoing a strict examination, On the Liability to Insanity at different Ages. By Dr. Taurnam. The general conclusion was, that the liability to insanity does not, as is generally supposed, increase with years, but that it is greatest between the ages of twenty and forty, and that it subsequently gradually diminishes. The author also adduced facts which appeared to warrant the conclusion, that in some countries and communities the liability to mental disorders is greatest between the ages of twenty and thirty; whilst it is usually highest during the decennial period from thirty to forty years, Sketch of the Progress and present Extent of Savings Banks in the United bes Kingdom. By G. R. Porter, F.R.S. _ After a few preliminary remarks on their political and moral value, he stated that these institutions owed their origin to Miss Priscilla Wakefield, who in 18()4 induced six gentlemen residing at Tottenham to receive deposits from labourers and servants, paying 5 per cent, as interest. Four years later eight persons, half of whom were 88 REPORT—1845. ladies, took upon themselves the same responsibility at Bath, The first savings bank regularly organized was formed at Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire ; its success led to many imitations, so that before any legislative provision had been made for their management, there were seventy savings banks in England, four in Wales, and four in Ireland. In 1817 an act was passed to encourage banks of savings in England and Ireland, but it was not extended to Scotland until 1835. Tabular statements of the progress of these banks illustrated their great success, but we shall only take for comparison the returns of two years, 1830 and 1844 :— ENGLAND. | WALES. IRELAND, | Unitep Kincpom. Years. Depositors. Amount. / Depositors. | Amount. Depositors. | Amount. || Depositors. ] Amount. 1830 367,812 1844 832,290 412,217 113,507,565 | 12,287,606 | 10,204 314,903 34,201 905,056 | 18,690 599,796 91,243 —_|2,749,017 | 1,012,047 |29,504,861 25,112,865 The deposits are found to be greatest in the years when provisions are cheap and abundant. Instead of giving the absolute numbers we shall quote the centesimal proportions of the different classes of contributors. England. | Wales. | Ireland. | Scotland. United Kingdom. Not exceeding £20 56°68 52°53 46°09 76°24 57°00 8 50 25°46 31°01 36°94 17°82 26°08 ne 100 11°28 11:10 11°76 4:72 10°86 BS 150 3°94 “ii? 3°35 0°93 3°67 3 200 2°28 1°63 1°75 0°29 2°08 Exceeding... £200 0°36 0°21 0r11 es 0°31 The average balances to the credit of each depositer in 1844 were, in England 301., Wales 32/., Ireland 301., Scotland 147., and United Kingdom 29/7. Tables were then given of the operations of the banks in the several counties. Next to Middlesex, Devonshire exhibited the greatest amount of deposits in proportion to the population, and this satisfactory result was attributed to the admirable management of the Exeter Savings Bank. Lancashire exhibited a very low amount of deposits, but this was explained by the fact that operatives find a more profitable investment for their money. Some fears were expressed of the effect of the reduction in the rate of in- terest ; and the tables of classification of depositors formed by the Exeter and. the Manchester Savings Banks were produced and recommended for imitation. Statistical and Historical Account of the Ancient System of Public Charities in London. By J. Fretcuer, Bart., F.R.S. He stated that the necessity of systematic provision for the relief of the poor began to be felt after the suppression of the monasteries and the hospitals governed by monastic rule. In 1544 the site of St. Bartholomew was granted to the Corporation of London, but no provision was made for its endowment and government until 1548 ; and thus some provision was made for the relief of the sick and infirm. _Christ’s Hospital, for the education of destitute children, was founded in 1553, and about the same time St. Thomas’s Hospital was established for the same purpose as that of St. Bartholomew. The next measure was to provide a place for vagrants and un- employed labourers. The petition sent by the Corporation to the King’s Council stated, “it was too evident to all men that beggary and thievery did abound, and we, remembering how many statutes from time to time have been made for the redress of the same, and little amendment hath hitherto followed, thought to search the cause hereof, and after due examination had we evidently perceived that the cause of all this misery and beggary was idleness; and the means and semedy to cure the same must be its contrary, which is labour ; and it hath been a speech used of all men to say unto the idle, Work! Work! even as though they would have said, the mean to reform beggary is to fall to work.” In consequence of this petition Bridewell was established, and thus public charity was organized for three great objects—the relief of the sick, the education of the young, and the employment of the able-bodied al cl TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89 labourer,’ The hospitals were supported by assessments levied on the citizens and . the’companies. By the charter of Edward the Sixth the government of these insti- tutions was given to the Corporation of the City of London, but the chief power was seized by the Court of Aldermen. Mr. Fletcher then explained the causes that placed these institutions in the hands of self-elect governors, between whom and the corpo- tation a kind of compromise was effected by Act of Parliament in 1782. But this Act only provides for the election of forty-eight governors annually by the Common Council, twelve for each hospital, Bethlehem being reckoned with Bridewell; and as these form but a small minority among the total number of governors, the anoma- lous ‘self-elect constitution of these bodies continues to the present day. Mr. Fletcher then entered into an elaborate detail of the various efforts that have been made to Suppress mendicancy by penal enactments, some of which were so severe as to vest an arbitrary power of transportation in any two governors of Bridewell. In 1708, the London Workhouse, though of earlier origin, was first brought into full operation ; but it fell into a state of inefficiency and was abolished. Mr. Fletcher then contrasted the system of relief attempted by the Royal or Corporation Hospitals with the present pauper administration of London, and showed how widely the hospitals had deviated in practice from the principles at which their founders aimed. Result of Inquiries into the State of the Agricultural Labourers in the County of Norfolk. By Sir Joun Bortzau, Bart., F.R.S. Out of 680 parishes to which queries had been addressed, 426 sent returns. These parishes contain 664,487 acres, of which 471,399 are arable. The total number of labourers usually employed thereon is 23,058 labourers, of which 18,277 are above 20 years of age, and 4781 above 14 and under 20 years of age, Hence the average of labourers of all kinds to land of all kinds is 35 to 100 acres. The average of la- bourers of all kinds to arable land is nearly 5 to 100 acres. Labourers above 20 to 100 acres of all kinds 23 to 100 acres. Labourers above 20 years of age to arable land is 33 to 100 acres. Hence it was concluded that there was no surplus supply of labour in the country, and that the land, if judiciously cultivated, would provide ‘employment for the entire population. On the Police Statistics of Manchester. By W. Niexp. This paper comprised a series of tables, forming the Statistical Returns of the Police of Manchester in the year 1844, with the observations of Mr. Willis, Chief Constable. The total number of apprehensions from the Ist of January to the 31st of December 1844 has amounted to 10,702, being a considerable decrease in the number apprehended, as compared with previous years, and exhibiting much fewer apprehensions during the past year than during any year since the establishment of a day and night police force. The decrease may be, in some measure, attributed to the more’ prosperous state of trade, which, as compared with previous years, has ex- ‘isted during the period to which the present returns relate. At the same time, as it is a fact’ well-known to the police, that there is always a large class of persons who never work, and another class who (although employed, and in the receipt of good wages) are in the habit of committing, or attempting to commit, felonies after their hour's of labour, there can be no doubt that the decrease in the number of apprehen- ‘sions is not to be altogether attributed to the state of trade, but must be partly ‘ascribed to the increased efficiency of the police, which has tended in a great measure to prevent the commission of crime. As respects the summary convictions in the “year 1843, out of 12,147 apprehensions, there were 298] summary convictions and 758 committals for trial; whilst in 1844, out of 10,702 apprehensions, there were ‘3961 summary convictions and 691 committals for trial; or an actual increase in the past year of nearly 1000 convictions, although the number of apprehensions has been less by 1445 individuals. The increase in the number of summary convictions ‘may, in a measure, be attributed to the provisions contained in the New Police Act, which came into operation on the 4th of July 1844, which enables the Justices to ‘punish by fine or imprisonment parties found drunk in the streets, and which power ‘hasbeen frequently exercised. The number of apprehensions for drunkenness is 90 REPORT—1845. 4156 (being 42 less than in the previous year), and from the persons of this class the sum of 1392/, 10s. 10d. has been taken and restored when discharged, The return also shows, that out of a gross amount of 76587. 6s. 11d. reported to have been stolen during the year, the sum of 3040. 14s, 3d. has been recovered by the police; and that out of a sum amounting to 1801/. 8s. 1d, reported to have been accidentally lost, the police have been instrumental in recovering 1]26/. 6s. 3d. The only other table which it may be necessary to notice is that which shows that curing the past year 2798 premises have been found open and insecure by the police during the night ; of this number, 1433 consisted of warehouses and shops, containing property, in which no parties resided, or were left in charge; 649 of houses, shops, and ware- houses, containing property, and in which parties did reside; and 538 of empty houses. The same table also shows that the police have, during the past year, re- stored to their friends 2637 children found apparently lost in the streets, Plan for the Formation of a Society to collect the Statistics of all Civilized Countries, and opening a communication between all persons engaged in Statistical Inquiries. By M. Juuien. ~ On the Statistics of Small-pox. By Dr. Srarx. On the Statistics of Merthyr Tydvil, By Mr. Kenrick. The mass of the population of Merthyr has been brought into this wild district by the establishment of large ironworks belonging to Messrs, Crawshay, Guest, Hill and Thompson. The total population in 1841 was 32,968; houses, 6145—nearly 52 persons to a house, and nearly three persons toa sleeping-room, In consequence of the number of unmarried men who come from Cardiganshire, Pembrokeshire, and other adjoining counties, to take advantage of the high wages which are given at the ironworks, the males much exceed the females ; the former being in the ratio of 6 to 5 of the latter. Though so near the boundary of an English county, there are only about 4000 English out of a population of 33,000; and there are 11,000, or one-third, who cannot speak English intelligibly, and would not understand an English sermon. Only 1313 children attend the day schools, while there are 6857 children who are of a proper age to receive instruction. Perhaps the number at schools does not ex- ceed each day 1200 children. Most of the places of worship have Sunday schools belonging to them, where, te a certain extent, the deficiency of public day schools is supplied, but the teaching is confined to reading. There is a great neglect of drain- age in Merthyr: many of the streets are unpaved, and in bad weather the people have to wade through a stratum of mud from six to twelve inches deep. There are many cellars and miserable hovels that ave not fit for men to dwell in. There are many streets without the conveniences which are necessary for the health and comfort of civilized beings. There are no proper infant schools, no good juvenile schools, two only middling ; most of the teachers being illiterate, two of thenr not able to write. There is ng taste for literature among the working classes, very few of them having books on general subjects. There is a considerable proportion of the people who never attend a place of worship, and whose enjoyments are low and degrading. On the Vital Statistics of America, By Tuomas Laycocx, M.D. The duration of life is greater in England thanin America, greater in the Northern than in the Midland States, and greater in the Midland than in the Southern States. On the Choice of Sites for Colonial Towns. By the Rev. Mr. Boys. _ On the Iron Trade in Scotland. By Dr. Atexanper Warr. Dr. Watt has lately had occasion to collect full information relative to the iron TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91 trade of Scotland from the most authentic sources, and also of the quantity of coals raised in the county of Lanark, and has arranged the information received on these subjects in two separate tables. »~On looking at the table constructed by Mr. Jessop for the iron trade, or for the iron produced by the blast furnaces in Scotland for the year ending October 1840, Dr, Watt finds that the increase in the annual quantity of pig iron smelted in that country in April 1845, amounts to 374 per cent, And there is every appearance that before another year expires a proportionate increase will be made in the amount of iron produced in Scotland. There are 2,047,000 tons of coal raised annually in Lanarkshire. The following is the manner in which that quantity is distributed for consumption :— Tons. It is known that the pig and malleable iron works annually consume about 1,000,000 And that families and public works in Glasgow consume not less than ....,. 700,000 The quantity of coal shipped at the harbour for the year ending April 1844, WAS ..eceeee VavanccvacscracUnses scr The sae . —— on two new properties of the retina, 8. —~'on the rotation of minute crystals in the cavities of topaz, 9. “on the condition of topaz subsequent to - the! formation of certain classes of cavities ‘within it, 9. —— on an improved method of taking po- » sitive Talbotypes (Calotypes), 10. _ + — on fog-rings observed in America, 19. _ Brisbane (iieut.-Gen. Sir Thomas M., Bart), *yesults of the magnetic and meteorological observations at his observatory in 1842, “15. Britain, on the fossil insects of the secondary ___ formations of, 58. _ — ++) on additions to the marine fauna of, 66. f Brooke (Charles) on a new mode of suture, __ applicable to plastic operations, 84. k ‘ 4 INDEX II, 99.. - Brooke (Dr.) on an instrument to assist in the discovery of foreign bodies by aus- cultation, 56. Broun (J. A.) on the results of the magnetic and meteorological observations at Sir T. M. Brisbane’s observatory in 1842, 15. Brown (John) on a gold casting illustrating the state of art in New Granada prior to the conquest, 78. Calebar, on the natives of old, 79. Calotypes, on an improvement in the method of taking, 10. Cambridge, on the geology of the neighbour- hood of, 40. ——, modern deposits connected with the drainage of the country in the neighbour- hood of, 44. ——,, on the jaws of the ichthyosaurus from the chalk near, 60. ——,, on the comparative number of degrees in at, in the 17th and 19th centuries, Cambridgeshire fens, on the turf of the, 75. Canter (Dr.) on Malacca guano, 39. Caoutchouc, on a new variety of, 32. Carter (Mr.) on the jaws of an ichthyosau- rus from the chalk in the neighbourhood of Cambridge, 60. Chalk, on the jaws of the ichthyosaurus from the, near Cambridge, 60. ——,, on the occurrence of the mososaurus in’ the Essex, 60. Challis (Rev. Prof.) on the aberration of light, 9. Charities, statistical and historical account of the ancient system of public, in London, Charlesworth (Edward) on the fossil bodies yegarded by M. Agassiz as the teeth of a fish, and upon which he has founded his supposed genus Sphenonchus, 56. on the occurrence of the mososaurus. in the Essex chalk, and on the discovery of . flint within the pulp-cavities of its teeth,60. Chemistry, 27. -——, on a natural system of organic, 31. Chinese and Indo-Chinese nation, ethnogra-’ phy of the, 77. Christiania, meteorological observations for 1844, made at, 19. Cilia and ciliary currents of the oyster, on the, 66. sit Cimbri, on the, 81. Clay, on the great brown, of the neighhour- hood of Cambridge, 43. —, on nodules from the London, 57. Coal deposits of the Asturias, on the, 49. Coal-mines of the north of Engiand, on working and ventilating the, 53. Cole (J. F.), description of the lightning and thunder on August 16, 1844, at Alten, 19, Colonization in Lancashire, on certain traces of Roman, 80. ——,, on the system of, practised by the Irish Society, 91. HQ 100 Gam pists ona method of suspending aship’s, ——, on Baron de Bode’s insulated, 16. Complexion, on local and hereditary differ- ence of, in Great Britain, 81. Coral rag of the neighbourhood of Cambridge, on the, 43. Corfu, on dredging at, 65. Cornulites, on the structure and relations of, Cornwall, on the marine fauna of, 65. Cos, on a remarkable phenomenon presented by the fossils in the freshwater tertiary of the island of, 59. Crag, on nodules from the red, 51. Cretinism, on, 79. Crops, on the chemical principles involved in the rotation of, 33, 34. Crowe (J.R.), meteorological observations for the year 1844 at Christiania, 19. Crystals, on the rotation of minute, in the cavities of topaz, 9. Cumming (Rev. J. G.) on posidonian schist amidst trappean beds, and on traces of drift-ice in the south of the Isle of Man, 60. Cycle, on alunar meteorological, 25. Daguerréotype plates, on Fizeau’s process of etching, 76 / Daniell (Prof.) on the natives of old Calebar, Africa, 79. Daubeny (Prof.) on the chemical principles involved in the rotation of crops, 33. Deaf and dumb, on the state of the, 85. Dent (E. J.) on a method of suspending a ship’s compass, 16. Derbyshire, on the toadstones of, 56. Diabetes, on the chemistry of, 39. Dieffenbach (Dr. Ernest) on mineral manure, — on the geology of New Zealand, 50. Drift-ice in the south of the Isle of Man, 60. Duncan (James F.) on a peculiar form of epi- demic affecting the teeth and gums of young children, observed in Dublin in the winter of 1844-45, 82. Earnshaw (Rey. S.) on the rings which sur- round the image of-a star formed by the object-glass of a telescope, 10. Earth’s structure, on the connexion between magnetic variation with certain peculiari- ties of the, 16. Earthquakes, on remarkable lunar periodici- ties in, 20. Edmonds (Richard, Jun.) on remarkable lu- nar periodicities in earthquakes, extraor- dinary oscillations of the sea, and great atmospherical changes, 20. Egyptians, on the, 80. E] Dorado of Sir Walter Raleigh, on the, 50. Electrical forces, influence of actinism in dis- turbing, 29. Electricity, on the elementary laws of, 11. —, on the production of, by steam, 30. INDEX II. Electricity, om the influence of galvanic; on the germination of seeds; 69) 990°" Electrotyped plants, on, 74. 11) esdr0F Elephantine animals of India, on the fossil, 62. Endemic plants, on the distribution of, 67. Endosmose, on the influence of ‘galvanism on, 83. Entomology, remarks on, 64. Epidemic, on a peculiar form of, affecting the teeth and gums of young children, 82. Equations, on a machine for finding the nu- merical roots of, 3. ae on the increase of the, upon grasses, Etching Daguerréotype plates, on Fizeau’s process of, and its application to objects of natural history, 76. Ethnographic map of Great Britain and Ire- land, on Dr. Kombst’s, 81. Ethnography of the Chinese and Indo-Chi- nese nations, 77. of America, 77. Etna, on the physico-geographical descrip- tion of Mount, 59. Everest (Lieut.-Col.) on the measurement of two ares of the meridian in India, 25. Exosmose, on the influence of galvanism on, 83. Fairbairn (William) on railway gradients, 93. Falconer (Dr.) on some new additions among the mammailia to the fossil fauna of India, a Perim Island, in the Gulf of Cambay, on the fossil elephantine animals of India, 62. Faroe Islands, on the discovery of guano in the, 64. ‘ Fauna of India, on some new additions among the mammalia to the fossil, 52. — of Cornwall, on the marine, 65. - of Britain, on additions to the marine, 6. Fens, on the turf of the Cambridgeshire, 75. Firedamp, on accidents which occur in coal- mines from the explosion of, 53. Fish, on the fossil bodies regarded by M. Agassiz as the teeth of a, 56. ——, on fossil, from Antigua, 56, Fisher (Dr.) on the scrofulous tubercle with reference to its vascularity, 82. Fisher (Rey. Geo.) on the nature and origin of the aurora borealis, 22. Fizeau’s process of etching Daguerréotype plates, on, 76. av Fletcher (J.), statistical and’ historical ac- count of the ancient system of public cha- rities in London, 88. —— on the system of colonization practised by the Irish Society, 91. Flint-gravel of the neighbourhood of Cam- bridge, on the, 44. Flint, on the discovery of, within the pulp- cavities of the teeth of the mososaurus, 60. Fog-rings observed in’ America, 19. a ‘ INDEX II. Footprints:of various animals on the new red sandstone of Corncockle Munir, 51. Forbes (Prof.) on aremarkable phenomenon .ypréesented. by, the:fossils in the freshwater tertiary of the island of Cos, 59. — = on preserving the medusz, 65. -—— on additions to the marine fauna of Bri- tain, 66. on the distribution of endemic plants, » more especially those of the British islands, “-considered. with regard to geological «changes, 67. Fossil plants, tabular view of, 48. Fossil trees at St. Helen’s, Lancashire, on, 52. Fossils, of the Silurian rocks, on some im- aportant additions to the, 57. ——, onthe structure and relations of Silu- rian, 57. ——,on aremarkable phen$menon presented by the, in the freshwater tertiary of the island of Cos, 59. Fowler (Dr.) on the state of the deaf and dumb, 85. Freshwater tertiary of the island of Cos, on a remarkable phenomenon presented by the, 59. Fucus, on three species of, 37. Galt of the neighbourhood of Cambridge, on - the, 41. ‘Galvanic electricity, on the influence of, on -vothe germination, of seeds, 69. “Galvanism, on the infiuence of, on endosmose - and exosmose, 83. Etec, on a new property of, 28. \-——;0n,the action of, on the prismatic spec- trum, 28. »Gas, voltaic battery, on experiments on the, 30. »Geography, physical, 40. Geological suryey, on exhibiting at one view the results of a given, 36. Geology, 40. = — of New Zealand, 50. Geometry, on the premises of, 2 Glass, on the manufacture of a coloured, 29. Goadby (A.) on Fizeau’s process of etching _\/ Daguerréotype plates, and its application to objects of natural history, 76. Goddard (James. Thomas) on a new anemo- + meter, 18. eopert (Prof.), tabular view of fossil plants, gini LE Graham (Prof. ) on a hew property of gases, > aati (Rev. Prof. C.) on triplets, 2. _Gravier (M. Coulvier) on shooting stars, 20. Grasses, onthe inerease of the ergot.upon, 5 ¥ \Great Britain, on local and hereditary differ- ence of complexion in, $1. _ Greene (Dr. Richard) on. Nasmyth’s steam- hammer for pile-driving, 92. Greensand of the neighbourhood of Cam- o® bridge, on the, 41. —,, on nodules from, the, 51. 107 Grove (Prof.) on recent experiments’ on ‘the gas voltaic battery, 30. Guano, Malacca; 39. , on masses of salt discovered in the tow a portions of, in the island ‘of Ichaboe, on the discovery of, in the Faroe islands, 64, - Guiana, on the geography of, 50. ——, on the superstitious and astronomical knowledge of the Indians of Guiana; 82. Gums of young children, on a peculiar form of epidemic affecting the, 82. Gutta percha, on, 32. re Ales ) on the toadstones of Derbyshire, Pamilion (Sir W. R.), exposition of a system of quaternions, 3. Hancock (Mr.) on a new genus of Mollusca nudibranchiata, 65. Heart, on the appearance of the surface of the, i in a case of Purpura hemorrhagica, $5. er on the mechanical | equivalent’ of, Henfrey (A.) on the development ‘of vege- table cells, 68. Henry (Prof.) on the heat of the solar spots, 6. Henslow (Prof.) on nodules, apparently ‘eo- prolitic, from the red crag, London’ wl, and greensand, 51. st on Papaver orientale; 72. Herschel (Sir J.) on a model of the globe of the moon in relief, 4. Hepatice, description of the fruit of some of the, 71 Heywood (J.) on the university statistics of Germany, 86. on the comparative number of degrees taken at Cambridge in the 17th and 19th centuries, 86. Hill (T. W.) on a system of numerical nota- tion, 4 Hodgkinson (Eaton) on the strength of stone columns, 26. Hopkins (Mr.) on traces resembling orni- thichnites, 52. Howard (Luke) on a lunar meteorological cycle, 25. Huggate, meteorological observations made in 1844, at, 18. —, thermometrical observations in a deep well at, 18. Human frame, on an apparatus for measu- ring and registering two dimensions of the, Human race, on the present state of philolo- gical evidence as to the unity of the, Hunt (Robert) on actino-chemistry—on the chemical changes produced by the ‘solar rays, and the influence of actinism in dis- turbing electrical forces, 29. Hydro-electric machine, on a colossal, 30. 102 Ibbetson (Capt. L. L. V.S.) on electrotyped plants, 74. Ichaboe, on masses of salt discovered in the lowest portions of the island of, 39. Ichthyosaurus from the chalk in the neigh- hourhood of Cambridge, 60. India, on the measurement of two ares of the meridian in, 25. ——,on some new additions among the mammalia to the fossil fauna of, 52. ——,, on the fossil elephantine animals of, 62. , on the geographical distribution of plants in British, 74. , on the migratory tribes of central, 78. Injection, on an apparatus for minute, 86. Insanity, on the liability to, at different ages, 87. Insects, fossil, of the secondary formations of Britain, 58. Trish Society, on the system of colonization practised by the, 91. Tron, peroxide of, in ashes of plants, 39. , on the trade in Scotland, 90. ——, facts respecting the, 91. Isle of Man, on traces of drift-ice in the south side of the, 60. Ita palm of Guiana, description of the, 71. Ivory, on the vegetable, 70. Jarrett (Rev. Prof.) on algebraic equivalence,1. Jenyns (Rey. L.) on the turf of the Cam- bridgeshire fens, 75. Johnston (Prof.) on the chemical principles of the rotation of crops, 34. on the ashes of plants, 35. Joule (James P.) on the mechanical equiva- lent of heat, 31. Julien (M.) on the formation of a society to collect the statistics of all civilized coun- tries, 90. Kenrick (Mr.) on the statistics of Merthyr Tydvil, 90. Kemble (J. M.) on Dr. Kombst’s ethnogra- phic map of Great Britain and Ireland, 81. Kemp (Dr. George) on a natural system of organic chemistry, 31. Kimmeridge clay of the neighbourhood of Cambridge, on the, 42. King (Dr.) on the manners and habits of the South Sea Islanders, 80. Knox (Rev. Thomas) on the amount of rain which had fallen, with the different winds, at Toomavara, during five consecutive years, 17. Kombst’s (Dr.) ethnographical map of Great Britain and Ireland, 81. Laneashire, on certain traces of Roman colo- nization in, 80. Land, on the subsidence of the, at Puzzuoli, 2. Lankester (Edwin) on the germination of plants, 69. on the Phytelephas macrocarpa (vege- - table ivory, or Tagua plant), 70. INDEX Il, Laplace’s functions, on the equation| of, 2s. !/ Latham (Dr. R.. G.) on: the increase..of. the ergot upon grasses, 79. ‘ieursdiel on the ethnography of the Chinese and Indo-Chinese nations, 77. he. me on the ethnography of America, 77; on the present state of philological evi- aaa as to the unity of the human race, et (Henry) on a thermometer stand,’ Laycoek (Dr. Thomas) on the communica- ting fibres of the brain in reference to thought and action, 84. ; on the vital statistics of America, 90; Leeson (Dr. H. B.) on the influence: of ‘gal- vanism on endosmose and exosmose, 83. on an apparatus for minute injection, Libellulide of.Europe, on the, 62. Liebig (Prof.) on mineral manure, 39. Light, on the elliptic polarization of, by me- tallic reflexion, 6. , on a new polarity of, 7. —, on the aberration of, 9. Lightning, description of the, at Alten, om August 16, 1844, 19. Lime, peroxide of, in ashes of plants, 35. Limestone, on the agency of land’ snails ia nepe holes and trackways im compact, Lloyd (Rev. H.) on the periodicity of mag- netic disturbances, 12. London, statistical and historical account of the ancient system of public charities in, 88. Longchamps (M. Selys de) on the genus Ar- vicola; on the Libellulid of Europe; on hybrids of the genus Anser, 62. BY. on obtaining accurate dates for the ap-~ pearance, &c. of birds, the migration of fishes, the budding, &c. of plants, 62. Luuar periodicities in earthquakes, 20. Macdonald (Dr.) on the unity of organization: as exhibited in the skeleton of animals, 62. on cranial vertebra, 85. fi Maclagan (Dr.) on the oil of assafcetida, 33: Machine for finding the numerical roots of equations, description of a, 3. Magnesia, peroxide of, in ashes of plants, 35. Magnetical and meteorological observations, on the results of the, at Sir J. M. Brisbane’s observatory, in 1842, 15. Magnetic disturbances, on the periodicity of, 12. Magnetic machine, on a large, 15. Magnetic variation, on the connexion be- tween, with certain peculiarities of the earth’s structure, 16, Malacca guane, 29. Mammalia, on some new additions among the, to the fossil fauna of India, 52. Man, on the height, weight and strength of, 80 / Manchester, on the police statistics of, 89 | Manure, on mineral, 39. ’ Notonectide, on noises produced by INDEX TI. Martin’ (Dr.)' om the moral and’ intellectual eharacter of the New Zealanders, 78. Mathematics, 1. MAndrew (Robert) on Medusz, 65. on additions to the marine fauna of Britain, 66. Mechanical science, 92. Medical science, 82. Medusz, on preserving the, 69. Merthyr Tydvil, on the statistics of, 90. Messier’s Catalogue, on the nebula 61 of, 4, Metallic reflexion, on points in the elliptic “polarization of light by, 6. Meteorological cycle, on a lunar, 25. Meteorological observations, made in 1844 at Huggate, 18. ——, made at Christiania, in 1844, 19. Miller (Dr.) on the action of gases on the prismatic spectrum, 28. Mineral manure, on, 39. Mines, ou working and ventilating the coal, of the north of England, 53. Mirrors, on the caustics produced by two, in rotation, 9. Mollusca nudibranchiata, on a new genus of, Moon, on a model of the globe of the, in re- lief, 4. ——, on the projection of a star on the dark _limb of the, 5, Morphological connexion, on the specific cha- racters of plants, considered in, 74. Mososaurus, on the occurrence of the, in the ‘Essex chalk, and on the discovery of flint within the pulp-cavities of its teeth, 60. Murichi, description of the, 71. Narcotic plants, on the ashes of, 36. Nasmyth’s steam-hammer for pile-driving, on, 92s0: Natural history, on the application of Fizeau’s process of etching objects of, 76. Nebula 25 Herschel, on the, 4. Neu Schmollen, on the occurrence of Silurian rocks'at, 47. New Granada, ona gold casting illustrating the state of art in, prior to the conquest, 78. _ New red sandstone of Corncockle Muir, on _ the foot-prints of various animals on the, Bl zi: New Zealand, on the geology of, 50. New Zealanders, on the moral and intellec- rd tual character of the, 78. _ Nield (W.) on the’ police statistics of Man- chester, 89. _ Nodules from the red crag, London clay, __-and greensand, 51. Norfolk; on the state of the agricultural la- bourers in the county of, 89. Norton (J. P.) on the ashes of oats, 35. —— on the composition of slate rocks, and the soils formed from them, 38. _ Norway, on the trade and navigation of, $7. _ Notation, on a system of numerical, 4. one of | the, 64. | 103 Oats, on the ashes of, 35. Ober, in Silesia, on the occurrence of Silurian rocks at, 47. Ogilby (William) on the scientific principles on which classification in the higher de- partments of Zoology should be based, 62. Oil of assafcetida, 33. Oliver (Joseph York) on the Baron de Bode’s insulated compass, 16, Oolite of the neighbourhood of Cambridge, on the middle, 43. Organic chemistry, on a natural system of, 31. Ornithichnites, on traces resembling, 52. Oswald (M. Ferdinand) on the occurrence of Silurian rocks at Ober and Neu Schmollen, near Breslau, in Silesia, 47. Oyster, on the cilia and ciliary currents of the, 66 Oxford clay of the neighbourhood of Cam- e bridge, on the, 43. Papaver orientale, on, 72. Parima, on the lake, 50. Peach (C. W.) on the marine fauna of Corn- wall, 65. Pearsall (Thomas J.) on masses of salt dis- covered in the lowest portions of guano on the island of Ichaboe, 39. Percy (Dr. John) on the chemistry of dia- betes, 39. Perim Island, on some new additions among the mammalia to the fossil fauna of India, from, 52. iy Philological evidence, on the present state of, as to the unity of the human race, 78. Physics, 1. Phytelephas macrocarpa, on the, 70. Pile-driving, on Nasmyth’s steam-hammer for, 92. Plants, on the ashes of, 34, 35, 36. . , tabular view of fossil, 48. ——,, on the distribution of endemic, 67. ——,, on the germination of, 69. —-, on the specific characters of, 74. ——, on the geographical distribution of, in British India, 74. ——,, on electrotyped, 74. Plastic operations, on a new mode of suture applicable to; 84. Playfair (Dr. Lyon) on atomic volumes, 31, Polarization of light, on points in the elliptic, by metallic reflexion, 6. Police statistics of Manchester, on the, 89. Population, on the different methods em- ployed to estimate the amount of, 91. Porter (G. R.) on the progress and present state of savings’ banks in the United King. dom, 87. on the iron trade, 91. Portlock (Capt.) on dredging at Corfu, 65. Posidonian schist amidst trappean beds, on, Powell (Rev. Prof.) on points in the elliptic polarization of light by metallic reflexion, 6. Pratt (S. P.) on the coal deposits of the Asturias, 49. 104 Proteunogenic bodies, 31. Pryme (Prof.) on the different methods em- ployed to estimate the amount of popula- tion, 91. Purpura hemorrhagica, on the appearance of the surface of the heart in a case of, 85. Puzzuoli, on the subsidence of the land at, 52. Quaternions, exposition of a system of, 3. Railway gradients, on, 93. Rain, on the amount of, which had fallen at Toomavara during five consecutive years, Raleigh (Sir Walter), on the El Dorado of, 50 Ramsay (A. C.) on the denudation of South Wales and the adjacent counties, 50. Rankin (Rev. T.), meteorological observations made in 1844, at Huggate, Wold, York- shire, 18. on the ancient tumuli in the Yorkshire Wolds, 82. Reade (Rev. J.B.) on the cilia and ciliary currents of the oyster, 66. Rectilinear motion, on a method of convert- ing into rotatory, 94. Retina, on two new properties of the, 8. Robertsonian saxifrages, on the Irish species of, 74. Rocks, on the composition of slate, 38. Roman colonization, on certain traces of, in Lancashire, 80. Rosse (the Earl of) on the nebula 25 Her- schel, or 61 of Messier’s catalogue, 4. Rotatory motion, on a new method of con- verting rectilinear into, 94. Royle (Dr.) on the geographical distribution of plants in British India, 74. Salt, on masses of, discovered in the lowest portions of guano on the island of Icha- boe, 39. Salter (J. W.) on some important additions to the fossils of the Silurian rocks, 57. on the structure and relations of Cor- nulites, and other allied Silurian fossils, 57. Sandstone of the neighbourhood of Cam- bridge, on the, 41. Savings’ banks, on the progress and present state of, in the United Kingdom, 87. Saxby (S. M.) on the connexion between magnetic variation with certain peculiari- ties of the earth’s structure, 16. Saxifraga Geum, on a monstrosity occurring in, 72. Saxifrages, on the Irish species of Robertso- nian, 74. oa on posidonian, amidst trappean beds, 6 Schomburgk (Sir R.) on the lake Parima, the El Dorado of Sir Walter Raleigh, and the geography of Guiana, 50. INDEX II. Schomburgk (Sir R.) on the Murichi, or Ita Palm of Guiana, 71. —— on the superstitious and astronomical knowledge of the Indians of Guiana, 82. Schweitzer (E. G.) on three species of fucus, Scotland, on the iron trade in, 90. Scoresby (Rey. William) on a large magnetic machine, 15. Scrofulous tubercle, on the, with reference to its vascularity, 82. Sea, on extraordinary oscillations of the, 20. Sedgwick (the Rey. Prof.) on the geology of the neighbourhood of Cambridge, inclu- ding the formations between the chalk ree a and the great Bedford level, Seeds, on the influence of galvanic electricity on the germination of, 69. Sharp (William) on the ashes of wheat, 36. Sibson (Mr.) on an apparatus for delineating correctly the relative position and size of the viscera, either in the healthy condition or changed by disease, 85. Silurian rocks, on the occurrence of, at the villages of Ober and Neu Schmollen, in Silesia, 47. 7 fossils, on the structure and relations of, —— rocks, on some important additions to the fossils of the, 57. Skeleton of animals, on the unity of organi- zation as exhibited in the, 62. Slate rocks, on the composition of, 38. Small-pox, on the statistics of, 90. Smith (James) on the subsidence of the land at Puzzuoli, 52. Snails, land, on the agency of, in forming hole and trackways in compact limestone, 48. Solar spots, on the heat of the, 6. Solar rays, on the chemical changes produced by the, 29. Solly (Prof.) on Gutta Percha, a new variety of caoutchouc, 32. on the influence of galvanic electricity on the germination of seeds, 69. South Sea Islanders, on the habits and man- ners of the, 80. Spectrum, on the action of gases on the pris- matic, 28, Sphenonchus, on the supposed genus, 56. Spina bifida, on a case of, 86. Spineto (Marquis di) on the Egyptians and Americans, 80. Splittgerber (M.) on the manufacture of a coloured glass, 29. Spratt (Lieut.) on aremarkable phenomenon presented by the fossils in the freshwater tertiary of the island of Cos, 59. Star, on the projection of a, on the dark limb of the moon, 5. ——,, on shooting, 20. Stark (Dr.) on the statistics of small-pox, 90. Statistics, 86. —_— fs ee ape Tet in es a rs eo atten PY a PP ee eS INDEX II. Steam-boilers, on the spheroidal state of bodies, and its application to, 27. Steam-hammer for pile-driving, on Nas- _myth’s, 92. Steam, on the production of electricity by, 30. Stevelly (Prof.) on the projection of a star on the dark limb of the moon just before its occultation, 5. St. Helen’s, Lancashire, on fossil trees at, 52. Stigmariz, on fossil trees which exhibit, as their roots, 52. Stokes (G. G.) on the aberration of light, 9. Stone columns, on the strength of, 26. Strickland (H. E.) on the foot-prints of va- rious animals on the new red sandstone of Corncockle Muir, 51. — on the results of recent researches into the fossil insects of the secondary forma- tions of Britain, 58. Suture, on a new mode of, applicable to pla- stic operations, 84. Tagua plant, on the, 70. Talbotypes, on an improvement in the me- thod of taking, 10. Teeth of young children, on a peculiar form of epidemic affecting the, 82. Telescopes, on a stand applicable to the use of astronomical, 6. ——., on the rings which surround the image of a star formed by the object-glass of a, 10. Thermometer-stand, on a, 17. Thermometrical observations in a deep well at Huggate, 18. Thompson (W.) on new species of Mollusca nudibranchiata, 65. Thomson (William) on the elementary laws of statical electricity, 11. Thunder, description of the, at Alten, on ugust 16, 1844, 19. Thurnam (Dr.) on a case of Spina bifida, 86. a liability to insanity at different ages. Tilley (Prof,) on the oil of assafcetida, 33. Toadstones of Derbyshire, on the, 56. ‘oomavara, on the amount of rain which a sips, fallen at, during five consecutive years, Towns, on the choice of sites for colonial, 90. Topaz, on the rotation of minute erystals i in _the cayities of, 9. —— on the condition of, 9. Biren ness, on posidonian schist amidst, 60. : Trevelyan (W.C.) on the discovery of guano in the Faroe islands, 64. Tribes, on the migratory, of central India, 78. 105 Triplets, on, 2. Tumuli in the Yorkshire Wolds, on the an- cient, 82. Turf of the Cambridgeshire fens, on the, 75. Turner (Mr.) on fossil fish from Antigua, 56. Twining (Dr.) on cretinism, 79. Valpy (R.) on the trade and navigation of Norway, 87. Vegetable cells, on the development of, 68. Vertebrz, on cranial, 85. Viscera, on an apparatus for delineating cor- rectly the relative position and size of the, Vital statistics of America, 90. Voltaic battery, on experiments on the gas, 30. Volumes, on atomic, 31. Wales, South, on the denudation of, and the adjacent counties, 50. Walker (C. V.) on the voltaic reduction of alloys, 30. Waltershausen (Baron Von) on the physico- ao description of Mount Etna, Watt (Dr. Alexander) on the iron trade in Scotland, 90. Way (Prof. j on the analysis of the ashes of plants, 34. ete RPOd (H.) on the premises of geometry, Walt (T. S.) on the appearance of the sur- face of the heart in a case of Purpura he- morrhagica, 85. Westwood (J. O.) remarks on entomology, 64 Wheat, on the ashes of, 36. Whishaw (Francis) on exhibiting at one view the results of a given geological survey, 56. Williams (Rev. R.) on local and hereditary difference of complexion in Great Britain, with some incidental notice of the Cimbri, 81. Witte’s (Madame) model of the globe of the moon, 4. Wolds, on the ancient tumuli of the York- shire, 82. Wrightson (F. C.) on the ashes of narcotic plants, 36. Yorkshire Wolds, on the ancient tumuli of the, 82. Young (Prof.) on imaginary zeros, &c., 1. Zoology, 62. —_—, on the scientific principles on which classification in the higher departments of, should be based, 62. Te THE END. 1845. LONDON: PRINT: ale ati: ea iiitit S Hit ate late - egies: meyeee beet agty tee real