ates : ase te ae ia - eae ethene ee aoa CS TehateraRr * G ties “fs 3 oo iui an it yee erotagh ee es Barat teal Sh athel ry. ister stat pies seamreatst, Tae Hae Ce es Feats Eee rae OG eb o> i} ; it ; Abb site Ae: r ihr bie tb ‘ Peril l. c ; on é Stet a. Aa et He re Stay cs ttt 2 ae oer hit a8 a Rae BaSeetn Ny hr Bhgacled TLS) see pebede ake ite fs Dae pirivit siete icy eb cn Shido aicast btn Sead sit rs tafe steel bye iefasestictshite Porras sas elas o ty Baio fate Risfedet bryrhe sree wht mut a? stor wt oi : . ey 3; tis rune ace ae bieis as ee * spe rat . ae Sten t aes alas Wl plete My a ¢ land ° Theor sate Rites ss Sa Se peal a Pelee sang ; Heyy fs aise ae te > , uh eien y ao iremas Gh by ‘ beteat> bt tng Sic eth , PTET Ties is Poa ee Te et Pe eal eet bit, Dee vitae? ahs HE eet ieet at gteel beteh gear a Miatthalnteenataes Nite E EE ai a aaiter te ? ua atin Pabtett igi PLIST Hol seat airy ~ - e y dd - . 7~ TY a rent f ra RA\T 2 {SR tt REPORT OF THE NINETEENTH MEETING BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE * ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; HELD AT BIRMINGHAM IN SEPTEMBER 1849. LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1850. PRINTED BY RICHARD AND JOHN E. TAYLOR, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. CONTENTS. ” page aril Page SIGIESTS And Rules Of the ASSOCIAHON i... 5c. cesses cscccnccegec ccs vee v Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement ............s0000. Vill Table of Council from commencement ..........0+sccescsesereeesenceetes x TORE TN CCOMDE Wooo Bt kc citis pcaicanjenr we sto danene ta seubladiaensee'ers xii ee AE CO OUNEI ies Heh piicnanaeteen se AL £918 ———— 1838. Tide Discussions...... 29 British Fossil Fishes .. 100 Meteorological Observa- tions and Anemometer (construction) ...... 100 Cast Iron (strength of). 60 Animal and Vegetable Substances (preserva- SR aes Se ae 19 i _ ownowr oe og S 5 0 00 4 6 Ue 70 1656 14 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 Oe 0 ett) Carried forward £308 Re ad. Brought forward 308 1 10 Railway Constants .... 41 12 10 Bristol Tides ........ 50 0 0 Growth of Plants Tord" G Mud in Rivers ...... 8 6 6 Education Committee... 50 0 0 Heart Experiments.... 5 3 0 Land and Sea Level .. 267 8 7 Subterranean Tempera- TUTE ITS. . L sit SERB TOR °O Steam-vessels .....--. 100 0 O Meteorological Commit- tO cecececccseees OL 9S Thermometers ...... 16 4 0 £956 12 2 ee 1839. Fossil Ichthyology .... 110 0 0 Meteorological Observa- tions at Plymouth .. 63 10 0 Mechanism of Waves.. 144 2 0 Bristol Tides... . 2... 85 18 6 Meteorology and Subter- ranean Temperature. 21 11 0 VitrificationExperiments 9 4 7 Cast Iron Experiments. 100 0 0 Railway Constants.... 28 7 2 Land and Sea Level 274 1 4 Steam-Vessels’ Engines, 100 0 0 Stars in Histoire Céleste 331 18 6 Stars in Lacaille...... iL 0). 0 StarsinR.A.S.Catalogue 6 16. 6 Animal Secretions .... 1010 0 Steam-engines in Corn- wall ois devsivecs ee (G0 0000 Atmospheric Air...... 16 1 0 Cast and Wrought lron. 40 0 0 Heat on Organic Bodies 3 0 0O Gases on Solar Spec- {TUM ©... + wie 00.4 sie) 4 eee OD Hourly Meteorological Observations, Inver- ness and Kingussie.. 49 7 8 Fossil Reptiles ...... 118 2 9 Mining Statistics...... 50 0 O £1595 11°30 ———— GENERAL STATEMENT. £ 1840. Bristol Tides ........ 100 Subterranean ‘T’empera- LUTE ce eeeeeeeeeese 18 Heart Experiments.... 18 Lungs Experiments .. 8 Tide Discussions...,.. Land and Sea Level .. 6 Stars (Histoire Céleste) Stars (Lacaille) ...... 4 Stars (Catalogue) .... Atmospheric Air...... Water on Iron....... s Heat on Organic Bodies 7 MeteorologicalObserva- HORS... ° 52 Foreign- Scientific “Me- BOWS. www ie LIB Working Population .. 100 School Statistics ...... 50 Forms of Vessels .... 184 Chemical and Electrical Phzenomena........ 40 Meteorological Observa- tions at Plymouth .. 80 Magnetical Observations 185 £1546 1841. Observations on Waves. 30 Meteorologyand Subter- ranean Temperature. 8 Actinometers ........ 10 Earthquake Shocks .. 17 Acrid Poisons........ 6 Veins and Absorbents.. 3 Moudin Rivers........ 5 Marine Zoology...... 15 _ Skeleton Maps ...... 20 _ Mountain Barometers... 6 - Stars (Histoire Céleste), 185 _ Stars (Lacaille) ... 79 _ Stars (Nomenclature of) 17 _ Stars (Catalogue of) .. 40 _ Water on Iron........ 50 __ Meteorological Observa- tions at Inverness .. 20 _M eteorological Observa- tions (reduction of ).. 25 Carried forward £539 Ss. 13 16 Oo _ — _ —] Scounowowooononmw _ o;o d. coocooocorcoona So So ooooa for) k1Ooo eonoonmnonococodcoeo i) So ojo XXlii Lage a Brought forward 539 10 8 Fossil Reptiles ...... 50 0 0 Foreign Memoirs 62 0 0 Railway Sections 38 1 6 Forms of Vessels .... 193 12 0 Meteorological Observa- tions at Plymouth .. 55 0 0O MagneticalObservations 6118 8 Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone ..,..... 100 0 O Tides at Leith........ 50 0 0 Anemometer at Edin- Bea ater a cele erie 69 1 10 Tabulating Oliservations ae Races of Men........ 5 GeO Radiate Animals...... 2 0 0 £1235 10 11 1842. Dynamometric Instru- MACHES YS sat siete.» pe cup hho bey 2 Anoplura Britannie .. 5212 0 Tides at Bristol . 59 8 0 Gases on Light ...... 3014 7 Chronometers........ 2617 6 Marine Zoology ...... 1 5 0O British Fossil Mammalia 100 0 0 Statisticsof Education.. 20 0 0 Marine Steam-vessels’ Engines .....++- 28 0 0 Stars (Histoire Céleste) 59 0 0 Stars (British Associa- tion Catalogue of) .. 110 0 O Railway Sections...... 161 10 0 British Belemnites.... 50 0 0 Fossil Reptiles (publica- tion of Report).... 210 0 0 Forms of Vessels....:. 180 0 0 Galvanic Experiments on RWC eid. 56, « aferaieie 5.8 6 Meteorological Experi- ments at Plymouth... 68 0 0 Constant Indicator and Dynamometric Instru- MENtSICS 5 Ye, -spnioioreyatet 190), 7.0150 Force of Wind........ 10 0 0 LightonGrowthofSeeds 8 0 0 Vital Statistics ...... 50 0 O Vegetative Power of Seedayiisa's iss wasialaSigad 11 8 8 Carried forward £1442 XXiv REPORT—1849. * a Fae Brought forward 1442 & & Questions on Human PRET bs omvas ewe see Tin 8.18 £1449 17 8 1843. Revision of the Nomen- clature of Stars .... 2 0 0 Reduction of Stars, Bri- tish Association Cata- logue ...esccesee 25 0 0 Anomalous Tides, Frith Of, BONEN so oc cessing e0 60 10 Hourly Meteor blowieal Observations at Kin- gussie and Inverness 77 12 8 Meteorological Observa- tions at Plymouth .. 55 0 0 Whewell’s Meteorolo- gical Anemometer at Plymouth ........ 10 0 0 Meteorological Observa- tions, Osler’s Anemo- meter at Plymouth... 20 0 0 Reduction of Meteorolo- gical Observations... 30 0 0 Meteorological Instru- ments and Gratuities 89 6 0 Construction of Anemo- meter atInverness.. 5612 2 Magnetic Co-operation. 10 8 Meteorological Recorder for Kew Observatory 50 0 0 Action of Gases on Light 18 16 1 Establishment at Kew Observatory, Wages, Repairs, Furniture and Sundries. <2"... e's 2/2 1383 4 7 Experiments by Captive BAIOONS. o7%*st.'s'cla'eele Sis" 0 Oxidation of the Rails of Railways........ 207)" 0 Publication of Report on Fossil Reptiles .... 40 0 0 Coloured Drawings of Railway Sections.... 147 18 8 Registration of Earth- quake Shocks...... 30 0 0 Report on Zoological Nomenclature...... 10 0 0 Carried forward £977 6 7 ser aes Brought forward 977 6 Uncovering Lower Red Sandstone near Man- CHEStETI: 20-110 0 Radiata and Mollusca of the ASgean and Red Beasws....5...1842 100'.0. 0 Geographical distribu- tions of Marine Zo- ology ........1842 010 0 Marine Zoology of De- von and Cornwall .. 10 0 0 Marine Zoology of Corfu 10 0 0 Experiments on the Vi- tality of Seeds...... 9 O 38 Experiments on the Vi- tality of Seeds..1842 8 7 8 Researches on Exotic meplota.......5.- 15 0 0 Experiments on the Strength of Materials 100 0 0 _ Completing Experiments on the Forms of Ships 100 0 0 Inquiries into Asphyxia 10 0 0 Investigations on the in- ternal Constitution of Metals....... ove ce RO OP 0 _ Constant Indicator and Morin’s Instrument, BO ese esedecnss 10 ' OG £981 12 8 bs 1845. _ Publication of the British Association Catalogue i 351 14 6 _ Meteorological Observa~ __ tions at Inverness .. 30 18 11 Magnetic and Meteoro- logical Co-operation 16.16 8 Carried forward £399 10 1 £ Brought forward 399 Meteorological Instru- ments at Edinburgh 18 Reduction of Anemome- trical Observations at Plymouth......se.. 295 Electrical Experiments at Kew Observatory 43 Maintaining the Esta- blishment in Kew Ob- Servatory ...eeeeeee 149 For Kreil’s Barometro- graph oe dacseaes 25 Gases from Iron Fur- NACES wocasees cece 50 Experiments on the Ac- tinograph........0. 15 Microscopic Structure of Shells)? . dsgeemeuntele: 20 Exotic Anoplura..1843 10 Vitality of Seeds..1843 2 Vitality of Seeds..1844 7 Marine Zoology of Corn- WL PED any j aitpaiapsauoiee. GEG Physiological Action of Medicines. ......+6. 20 Statistics of Sickness and Mortality in York .. 20 Registration of Harth- quake Shocks ..1843 15 £831 1846. British Association Ca- talogue of Stars, 1844 211 Fossil Fishes of the Lon- don Clay .......... 100 Computation ofthe Gaus- sianConstantsfor1839 50 Maintaining the Esta- blishment at Kew Ob- servatory ........ 146 Experiments on _ the Strength of Materials 60 Researches in Asphyxia 6 Examination of Fossil Shells ...... ceestee 10 Vitality of Seeds..1844 2 Vitality of Seeds..1845 7 Marine Zoology of Corn- Walbisw. st Js wawrs,bO 14 8 XXV Sito Oe 10 1 ll 9 0 0 17 8 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 Gnid 9 9 15 0 0 0 0 0 16 7 0 0 16 2 0 0 15 10 12 3 0 0 Carried forward £605 XXVi REPORT—1849. £- 8s. d, ea Brought forward 605 15 10 1848, Marine Zoology of Bri- Maintaining the Esta- LOG est... Ges eaes 10 0 0 blishment at Kew Ob- Exotic Anoplura..1844 25 0 0 servatory essceeees 171 15 11 Expenses attending Ane- Researches on Atmo- MOMELEDS «ev eeeeee IL 7 6 spheric Waves .... 310 9 Anemometers’ Repairs. 2 3 6 Vitality of Seeds .... 915 0 Researches on Atmo- Completion of Catalogues spheric Waves .... 38 3 8 of Stars. kta: tt 70 0 0 Captive Balloons..1844 8 19 8 | On Colouring Matters. 5 O O Varieties of the Human On Growth of Plants... 15 0 0 Race .. aw s1084 8 716 29 g Statistics of Sickness and —iidimaaones Mortality at York.. 12 0 0 1849. £685 16 © | Electrical Observations cre at Kew Observatory 50 0 0 1847. Maintaining Establish- Computation oftheGaus- ment at ditto ...... 76 2 5 sian Constants forl839 50 0 0 Vitality of Seeds...... 5 8 1 | HabitsofMarineAnimals 10 0 0 | On Growth of Plants.. BS aOxt0 Physiological Action of Registration of Periodi- Medicines ee ee esos 20 0 0 cal Phzenomena eee 10 0 0 Marine Zoology of Corn- Bill on account of Ane- wallet SRystsicoitis's 10: OO mometrical Observa- Researches on Atmo- tlons*. «see fee kes STB KO spheric Waves...... 6 9 38 Vitality of Seedssissse 84°77 pe a Maintaining the Esta- blishment at Kew Ob- servatory.......... 107 8 6 £208 5 4 Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee. Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money for scientific pur- poses have been entrusted, are required to present to each following meeting of the Association a Report of the progress which has been made; with a statement of the sums which have been expended, and the balance which remains disposable on each grant. Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific purposes from the funds of the As- sociation expire at the ensuing meeting, unless it shall appear by a Report that the Recommendations have been acted on, or a continuation of them be ordered by the General Committee. ; In each Committee, the Member first named is the person entitled to call on the Treasurer, John Taylor, Esq., 6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames Street, London, for such portion of the sum granted as may from time to time be required. f In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate the payment of personal expenses to the Members. ‘ In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua- tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named shall be deemed to include, as a part of the amount, the specified balance which may remain unpaid on the former grant for the same object. e F » GENERAL STATEMENT. XXVii General Meetings (in the Town Hall). On Wednesday, September 12th, at 8 p.m., the late President, The Marquis of Northampton, V.P.R.S., resigned his Office to the Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D., M.R.I.A., who took the Chair at the General Meeting, and delivered an Address, for which see p. xxix. On Thursday, September 13th, the power of Mr. Gassiot’s Battery in ex- citing Light and Heat was exhibited, and Dr. Faraday added some explana- tion of the Phenomena. On Monday, September 17th, the Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S., gave a Discourse and exhibited Working Models, to illustrate the result of some recent Experiments on the Transit of different Weights with varying Velo- cities on Railways. On Wednesday, September 19th, the concluding General Meeting of the Association was held, when the Proceedings of the General Committee, and the grants of money for scientific_ purposes were explained to the Members. The Meeting was then adjourned to Edinburgh in August 1850*. * The Meeting is appointed to take place on Wednesday, 31st July. 4 aia ADDRESS BY Tue Rev. THOMAS ROMNEY ROBINSON, D.D., M.R.LA., F.R.A.S. GentLEMEN,—If 1 thought only of myself, the embarrassment which in taking the place to which you bave called me IJ feel, would be much increased by the way in which my predecessor has spoken of me. Hitherto it has been filled by men illustrious in the senate or the field, heads of the societies which are the centres of our scientific life, and lodestars of the great insti- tutions which have been through many ages the guides of our nation in the progress of intellectual cultivation. Against such men, if I weigh myself, I know how much I shall be found wanting. But I trust I may be permitted to regard myself as the type of a humbler but not useless class, for whom this Association was especially devised, and whom it enables to add their tribute to swell the general store. For it is not like the forbidden ground of romance, a region where heroes only can tread; it is not a mere instru- ment for collecting into a focus the light of the suns of the intellectual sky. It is rather like those machines which unite the power of many; singly weak, but achieving by the union works which would overtask the strength of the mightiest individual. In one thing only I will venture to take to myself as not unmerited, the praiseof Lord Northampton. In zeal for the welfare of . this Association, in intense interest for the accomplishment of its objects I 4 yield to none ; and if these may suffice, I hope I shall not be found unworthy _ of the trust you repose in me. Yet, it is no common responsibility with which you have charged me; for _ this Association is one of the great powers which the altering phases of the _ world have called into action. But a few years since it could not have _ existed; and even now some persons are found unable to appreciate its 59.0.4 REPORT—1849. results or understand its purpose. In fact, as the invention of a new machine or process of manufacture is evidence that the old is becoming inadequate to meet the demand which it formerly satisfied; so the feelings which have so successfully called into being our Association here, and similar institutions abroad, may be regarded as a proof that the existing agencies fo r the develop- ment of scientific knowledge were becoming unequal to their work, and that some higher power must be sought, of energy commensurate to the increasing pressure. Such a power, I think, it is now certain that we afford. It is possible that the form of this great experiment may receive sume modifica- tion; for example, that it may involve a yet wider application of the mighty principle on which it is based, and become a union not only of persons but of institutions. But we have established beyond doubt that it is a trial in the right direction,—that its principle is the true one, the principle of Asso- ciation. It may perhaps seem trivial to attach importance to such an asser- tion; in commercial enterprise, in manufactures, in politics its truth is universally confessed; what then is there new in applying it to science? Nothing, assuredly : in fact science, at least physical science, owes to it almost its very existence, and certainly its progress; and the wonder is that none seem to have fully comprehended this before the founders of the British Association. Observe, that though physical science is of recent birth, physical knowledge has been an object of desire from the very origin of our race. Some have followed it for the sake of the powers which it conferred; and some from the high instinct which reveals to a noble mind the beauty and majesty of such pursuits. In the first glimmer of history, the astronomy of the Assyrian Magi looms through the darkness; the geometry which might have been its champion and guide appears in no feeble development even in the fabulous antiquity of India. The sepulchres of Etruria and Egypt, the palaces of Nineveh, are giving up to us relics of art that imply in high perfection the existence of that practical chemistry which was transmitted to us through their Arabian successors. When we look at the marvellous archi- tecture of the middle ages, we find a mastery of the principles of equilibrium and pressure, that fills the mind capable of appreciating it with delight beyond even what its surpassing beauty inspires; and we know from the writings of Roger Bacon and Kircher that many facts of experimental physics were cur- rent in the cloister. The elements were in existence, but some power was wanting which could combine them into a body and give it life. That power was free, open, honest association. Not intellectual energy or acuteness : the Greeks possessed that to an extent never perhaps equalled by any other people; but they were made incapable of steady union for any purpose, by the strange elements of repulsion which seemed inherent in their nature and , a bal be 4 ADDRESS. XXX1 split their philosophers into sects, their nation into fragments. Elsewhere the separation was still wider; the priestly casts of old, the conventional clergy and masonic societies of more recent times, could not coalesce with the rest of the world in the union which I hold to be essential to the growth of science. Therefore, however extensive their knowledge (and they knew more than is generally supposed) it never ripened into general principles ; it even became corrupt in the dull stagnation of the mystery in which it was buried,—an instrument of superstition or imposture, a delusion to its pos- sessors themselves. Astronomy became astrology,—chemistry, alchemy— natural philosophy, magic. Brewster has shown how the concave mirror brought up an apparition when it was needed, and Boutigny has revealed how the repulsive energies of heat ministered to the iniquity of the ordeal. But this period of isolated labour, under which the intellectual domain of our race lay so long fallow, closed at last; and the principle of association re- vealed itself, at one of the epochs of that movement which from time to time stirs up the region of mind, as those of geology do the earth at the com- mencement of some great formation. To borrow from that science an illustra- tion,—the reign of reptiles and monsters gave way to higher beings that soared in the sky; the dominion of Aristotle and the schoolmen disappeared before the age of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Bacon. From the fifteenth century downwards we find the philosophers of Europe beginning to be worthy of that name, lovers of knowledge. Instead of wrapping up their discoveries in secrecy, using them as a means of influence over the ignorant, or brooding on them as food for haughty self-love; we find them forming a brotherhood of knowledge,—eager to communicate their inventions, applying to each other for instruction, and even disputing among themselves the honour of priority in successful research, If the Florentine astronomer still envelopes in cipher his observations of Venus and Saturn, it is lest a rival should anticipate what was necessary to perfect his discovery :—while the Monk of Oxford hides in a similar veil his knowledge of gunpowder to exalt himself in the opinion of the world, yet keep his secret. The step in advance was wide, and the onward progress was rapid. It is not merely that each discovery, which is thus freely communicated, becomes an imperish- able addition to the treasury of human knowledge, but it is also a source of others, more numerous as it is more widely diffused,—like a syngenesious flower, whose winged seeds would produce little if confined to the neigh- bourhood of their parent, but bear a thousand-fold when scattered over the land. He who first finds a physical fact or principle often fails to trace it to its full extent: pre-occupied by some particular object of research, led by special views, he looks at it with reference to them alone,—and were he XXXil REPORT— 1849. sole labourer in the mine, much of its wealth would be lost: it may be too vast to be explored by the power of one mind, or within the limits of one life ; or it may require aids and appliances which solitary individuals do not possess: to say nothing of what is still more important,—the increase of energy which flows from the sympathy and admiration of a multitude. It is not too much to say, that the progress of mankind in science during the two centuries to which I refer, far exceeded what had been made during the fifty-six that preceded them: yet the force which impelled it was only par- tially and imperfectly exerted, and it was soon felt to be capable of far wider application. In this stage of its action the principle of association had ope- rated on only a few mighty spirits whom the sense of kindred pursuits and powers linked together ; but from whom their very transcendence kept their humbler fellows at a reverential distance. It was necessary that these also should be included in its bond :—and the age of Societies began. By con- densing into a multitude of local centres the activity which was weakened in its diffusion, that privilege of labouring to extend the boundaries of know- ledge, which had been the glory of a chosen few, was extended to a multitude; societies devoted to this object arose in different countries, varying in con- stitution and form, but all emanating from the same necessity of bringing united exertion to bear on what every passing year showed to be among the noblest objects of human existence. And in this they were eminently successful :—strong in numbers, they were stronger in local concentration ; their definite and permanent organization was a source of life and power ; and the visible results of their activity were manifest to the world. In many in- stances they acquired a legal and corporate existence, which gave them a hold on general opinion and even on governments ; their pecuniary resources and moral weight afforded them the means of researches beyond the reach of ordinary inquirers ; and their exclusive character, whether limited by election or by appointment, by making it an object of ambition to belong to them, gained for their pursuits a popularity which their intrinsic worth might — not so soon have won. A still more—perhaps their most—important feature is the principle of systematic publication, the value of which has gone on increasing to the present hour, and cannot be overrated. Their Transactions gave to the world not merely casual observations, which might otherwise have perished, but elaborate investigations, which probably would never have found a publisher in the ordinary course of trade,—perhaps never have been undertaken had not this channel been open to their authors. It would be foreign to my purpose, even were it possible, to give you an account of the philosophical societies which have flourished, not merely in Europe, but in some of the most distant regions which her sons have reached as colonists : : sol ADDRESS, XXXII or conquerors. A description of them would fill volumes,—a record of their proceedings would be the history of scientific progress for the last two centuries :—I might say of science itself, for, in fact, they began with Newton, and he stands like the sun in Heaven; all is luminous after he has risen, all before darkness or twilight. Yet, while rendering to them the praise which their. services have so well deserved, we must not forget that as they were called into existence to meet a state of things which has passed away, so the altered condition of the human mind requires from them now a very different class of function from those which they discharged at first ; and that circumstances may occur in which they may retard instead of advancing the progress of knowledge. That which I referred to as an original element of their power is of this number,—their restricted and local character: their very nature requires that they be placed in large towns or cities, and they cannot multiply their members beyond narrow limits. This was not injurious as long as a single room in a tavern was sufficient to hold all the philosophers of the metropolis, or the means of experiment and instructicn were scarcely accessible out of its precincts. It is far otherwise now,—when we count more thousands, and those, too, of higher standard in the ranks of science, than units could be reckoned at the beginning of Jast century, and when every day adds to their number. No possible extension of the great societies can meet this, even were they disposed to make it,—which I believe they are not. On the contrary, there is among them a tendency to limit their ad- missions to men of high fame and proved attainments, and thus, in some degree, form an Aristocracy of Science. What, then, is to become of the rest ?—-are they to form provincial societies similarly organized? This, it seems to me, is but a retrograde step; a violation of the great principle to which we owe our advance,—a breaking up into fragments of the energy which it should be the aim of all our efforts to associate into one mighty unity ; and however valuable such societies are as auxiliaries, unless it be found pos- sible to link them, by some principle of federation, unto our great body, with- out interfering with their self-government and independence, I feel that much of the good which they are capable of' effecting must be lost. Secondly, the increasing vastness of the field which we have to cultivate surpasses the _ powers of any single body of labourers. Look, for instance, at the most illustrious of all, the Royal Society. At first, as we see from its Z7’ransac- _ tions, it was a mere collector of detached facts and observations, and for them took even a wider range than is attempted by all our Sections; it ‘eollected too, with but little discrimination :—in that dawning of information it was not always possible to distinguish a pebble from a pearl. It soon, how- ever, became fastidious ; for it reached the point when it became more im- 1849. d XXXIV REPORT—1849, portant to class and interpret than to collect, and the latter part of its office became subordinate to the other. By degrees, as its accumulating duties began to surpass its powers, we find dissatisfaction appearing, and complaints that particular branches of science are neglected to favour others not so im- portant. At last, the necessity of a division of work becomes apparent; a society splits off to devote itself to geology,—another to astronomy,—others to various branches of Natural History,—while the parent, like Trembley’s hydra, is more active and powerful than before this division. That this process has increased our knowledge a hundred-fold, will not be disputed by any who have watched its progress during the last thirty years; and yet it can scarcely be denied that, besides the chance of exciting hostile feelings between rival societies, it is open to another objection. The different branches of science cannot well be isolated ; each depends on many others, Geology presses into its service not merely its special subject, but also the Geometry of Hopkins, the Botany of Lindley, and the Zoography of Owen and Agassiz. Astronomy must not only track the unseen with Adams and Le Verrier, or fathom the abysses of the sky with Herschel and Rosse,—it must also visit the workshops of the machinist with Airy and Struve. And so of the rest ; they cannot be disunited : and therefore it is evident that some system must be found, which, while it leaves unfettered the whole special organization of each Society, shall yet combine their exertions, not merely with each other, but also with the great and ever-increasing multitude of fellow-labourers beyond their precincts. Therefore it was not merely a happy thought of the good and wise men who were the founders of the British Association which led to its existence ; this, or something equivalent, was a necessary result of the expansion of that principle whose course I have been tracing, and which must, ere long, have found some other development had they not turned it in this direction. It leaves untouched all that was previously available, and merely adds what experience had shown to be deficient. ‘Thus we do not interfere in any way with any Society; on the contrary, we identify ourselves with them as far as possible. We admit, as of right, the members of all chartered Societies that publish Transactions — throughout our empire ; the officers and councils of philosophical institutions, — and all their members who are recommended by those councils; and our — governing power, or General Committee, is almost entirely derived from the — same source,—it is chiefly composed of ‘‘ members who have printed papers in the Transactions of any philosophical society, or of delegates from such — societies or philosophical institutions.” We withdraw nothing from their Transactions ; our reports are of a totally different character; on the con- trary, we assist them; for many of the most valuable communications, which y ja ia ; | ADDRESS. — XXKV- those publications contain in latter years, have originated in the proceedings of our Sections. Yet, though we have so much in common with them, it would be a gross error to confound us with them, or to imagine that any inerease of their activity or any change in their management could supersede Our Office. Not the least important part of it refers to persons entirely un- cotinected with them, persons who have struggled after knowledge in dif- ficulty and obscurity, whose diffidence would shrink from the distinction belonging to such connection, or even who, without any scientific acquire- ments, have yet a reverence for them, a perception of their worth. Such we cah count by thousands; and every one of them, I am confident, has been profited by the influence which we have exerted on his mind. We have gone still further, and admitted ladies as Associates; exciting the surprise and perhaps scorn of those who think women fit only for household cares or showy accomplishments: and we have done well; for without re- ferring to Mrs. Somerville, Mrs. Marcet, ot others whom I would name were they not present, I have myself known some whose proficiency in’ several of our departments might have put many an F.R.S. to shame, who were not to be surpassed in all the graces of their sex, and were perfect in all the relations of domestic life. Man cannot ascend in the scale of intel- lectual power unless woman rises with him. Another advantage which we _ possess above stationary societies is, our mobility ; we can pursue our labours wherever much is to be learnt or many are to be taught. From the Uni- versities, the seats of abstract science, we have ranged to the mighty emporia of GreatBritain, to the treasure-houses of its mineral and metallurgic wealth, to the marvellous palaces of its industrial art; and at evety step of our progress, even the most highly gifted and richly stored among us have learned new facts, seen opening before them new lines of thought, and met new men. It is a glorious discipline, the very one which Homer attributes to the wisest _ of his heroes: to\\dy avOprwy ier dorea kai voov éyyw. And let us hope; that, in the expressive imagery of the New Atlantis, we also may be “ dowry men” and “ merchants of light ;” that they whose seats become the marts of our intellectual commerce may receive in it their share df the illumination which we seek; and that by imparting to them.new ideas, by correcting ertor, by opening to them more fully the laws which rule those elemental powers that serve them in works of microscopic beauty or giant might—we may endow them with gifts which shall both increase the reward of their own industry and enterprise, and augment the prosperity and glory of our country. » Onr Association has been tried during eighteen years, and with a success | 's which has exceeded by far what its most ardent friends had ventured to z d2 XXXVI REPORT—1849. anticipate, It would of course be unreasonable to expect that its career should be at all times equally brilliant, or that an institution, whose roots spread into every part of the realm, and every order of its people, can be free from the fluctuations by which their prosperity is ruffled. It must also be borne in mind, that if we adhere, as I trust we ever shall do, to our rule of assembling wherever we are called by the interests of science, we must oc- casionally visit remote and unattractive localities, where the difficulties of access, and the want of accommodation will discourage many from attending. But yet we can truly assert, that in each of these eighteen years—and assuredly this nineteenth will be no exception—it has added largely to our knowledge, and in no respect fallen short of the objects contemplated by its founders. These were, as stated to the original meeting at York, “ to pro- mote the intercourse of the cultivators of science with each other, and with foreign philosophers ;” ‘‘ to give a stronger impulse, and more systematic direction to scientific inquiry ;” “to obtain a greater degree of national attention to the objects of science, and a removal of the disadvantages which impede its progress.” Let me request your attention for a few moments respecting each of these, The first of them may perhaps be undervalued by some, or rated merely as an intellectual luxury. Even at that low estimate, it is above price; but it is of far higher import. If to visit the field of some high deed—to stand before the sepulchre of the illustrious dead—can fill the mind with lofty aspirations, and lift it to the noblest emprise, how much more shall it kindle in the actual presence of one of those great beings who are raised up by our Heavenly Father to be the lights of our race! Who could stand before Bessel without feeling how genius is exalted by industry! What a lesson of truth and decision was written on the brow of Dalton! But our close inter- course with each other is still more precious, from its tendency to check some evil elements of our nature. For instance, the bitter disputations and petty hostility, which have too often disgraced the records of science, and made its followers contemptible. The most irritable man must feel less disposed to apply violent language, or attribute unworthy motives to one whom he has met in kindly intercourse, and whose character he has appreciated, than when he encounters a perfect stranger in the arena of the press; or if he have offended, how many opportunities of atonement and reconciliation are offered by a reunion like this! Accordingly, this fault has nearly disap- peared ; and when traces of it occur, it is only in persons who have not fully entered into the spirit of our Association. Nor is it less powerful to avert a still greater danger—the greatest, in fact, which besets our pur- suits—that of self-esteem. The true philosopher does not incur it: he —_ ADDRESS. XXXVil knows too well the proportion between his ignorance and his knowledge ; _ but if there be any who, from being the wonder of a limited circle, or from exaggerating the difficulty of his own attainments, is disposed to exalt him- self above his peers, let him visit us, and I will answer for his cure. There is not a man on earth who could try the experiment without finding supe- riors in some of our departments, and scarcely any who would not find an equal in that of which he is vain. As to our foreign visitors, I need not take the trouble of proving what you all feel: the attracting them to our shores—the having the opportunity of knowing such men as Arago and CErsted, Ritter, Encke or Struve, Bache or Henry—of strengthening by the ties of friendship that brotherhood of science, to which I have already referred as of such importance—that alone would be worth an Association to obtain it. Even on this, the first night of our meeting, we are honoured by several distinguished guests. On another ' occasion I shall express to them our acknowledgement of the honour with which their presence graces us; but now shall refer only to one—the Che- valier Bunsen—in answer to any who may suppose that an attachment to any of the various branches of science, in which he is so highly gifted, unfits a man for the most energetic discharge of the active duties of public.life. In the second object—“ to give a stronger impulse and more systematic di- rection to scientific inquiry ’—we have.not been less successful. The very excitement connected with our meetings, is itself such an impulse, and a most _ powerful one. Those of our members who have long been known as the h chief ornaments of our great philosophical societies—devoted to science, and rich in its triumphs—feel it as fully now as when first they joined us. At each new occurrence they seem to find a renovation of enthusiasm—a flow of hope, an increase of resolution among us—which send them with fresh strength to resume their labours; and will be present to them in the hours of despondency and gloom, which at times cloud even the firmest spirits, like a beam of light. Nor is our spell less potent on those yet untried in the race, who come forward to communicate the first fruits of their research—the truth which has rewarded their solitary toil. To such, the approbation, the kind > advice, the affectionate warning of their more renowned companions, is like = a horoscope that stamps the future course of life; more powerful even than __ the applause of the multitude, who rejoice at the success of one unknown, and “are encouraged by it to similar exertion. But still more precious is the ex- ; citement of plunging into this mighty flow of intellect, to one whose lot is like mine, cast remote from the resorts of science—with few or none near him to understand or value his pursuits; nothing but his own fixity of resolve to bg disperse the listlessness which thus gathers on the mind and clogs its wing. XXXVHli REPORT—1849. To him you are as an oasis to the travellers in the Desert, whose palms and fountains make him forget the waste which he has left, and store him for another journey with the means of life. But we not only give this impulse, we also guide it; and by guiding it, sustain and increase its strength, as well as by removing the difficulties which resist it, A small part of what we have thus accomplished you find in the volumes which we have published ; the most important, as I already stated, is to be found in the Transactions of various Societies or in separate works. Let me select a few instances, for rapid notice, as time will fail for more, To begin with the science to which I myself am specially devoted—Astronomy: it has been above all others patronized by nations and individuals; in our own country a Society of high fame and influence has been established for its advancement ; and yet it has remained for us to render it services of no common order, which I may be permitted to explain in some detail. {n it, as in many other physical sciences, the observation of facts is merely the crude ore, which must be sorted, and sifted and passed through the furnace to make it yield the metal which we seek. The mere task of making the observations is generally a pleasure ; but it is far otherwise with the subsequent process. ‘The arithmetical opera- tions whjch it requires, demand much more time and involve much more labour ; that, too, rather intellectual, and involving at every step liabilities to error. Take a simple instance: you have determined with minute pre- cision the apparent place of a star in the sky—if you stop then, you have done nothing. The place you have obtained is not the true one; the atmo- sphere has bent the line of sight ; while the light travels down your telescope you and it have been moving ; and the sky-marks by which you map the star are themselves disturbed by various and complicated motions. For all these you must allow; but to do so requires, on gn average, even in the most im=- proved method of modern times, the writing of 400 figures and the perform- ance of 50 arithmetical operations. But the numbers themselves employed are the result of other complicated operations ; nearly half are constant for the same star, but an equal number have relation to the sun and moon, and therefore vary from day to day. Were these also to be calculated, it would add an equal amount of work. But even this is insufficient, for we must compare what we thus obtain with the results of former astronomers; and this also cannot be done without bringing them together by the same arith- metic talisman ; so that were the whole to be performed by the one calcu- lator, I have found that, however expert he may be, he must expend an hour at least in obtaining each result. Now, from most of this drudgery in the case of more than 8000 stars, he is relieved by the Catalogue which the Association has given to the world, It contains for each the constants already ~~ e exvarenre=> GTDUURZ) g ¥ ZI p 0 set eeeee Feeeeee uoloarIp “a's se eeeeeeneseeeere® SLUOLIQ g c IL Ol ee a ot “+ siietog JO "AAI"? “+ eradoisseg # I ce 6 *[1Bp ayTTJOMIOD| QQ freeettttereseese et eesmMOTIG, w[trettettteseeeeetees URTEGOPTY z 91 6 f 0 OOOO te eeeeerernes Licey Aa Cot | “MA'N se teeeeeeeee oSP “418 “M kq “MM N ¥ 0 6 9 0 ** uoOzOY “MN Spreaoy|"* seeeeeees YpUaZ JO “MN € cF 8 *Aqa10 L 0 eee eeeeesesanscaseee woz110y "7 waceeeeeteeesceees snpetd jo ‘Ss 01 rd 0 8 L -og yeoryd + © AOF YB] JO [tery v Buravay] E TL [eee eet SIWOLIG JO *g| stresses "ag arr lop 6 IG -viZoay Aeq oT *UOZIIOY *N SpreMoy|** srreetees TaSlad 2 ¥ c€ OL “wog Jopun 9 O [ttt WoZLZOY *A\"N Spremoy|**** (stIEJOg) AAOGE o9 INOGY T ¥Z 8 *° ‘AITBARQPUZ “uspy 0 I srreseees see OUD “TN R uy acpayeeventdasssssetesresseces qyue7 Z P L a on ‘xIp [yr ‘shey | ‘puersy E6ul: ‘mOMoaIIp “Mg B Uy" verererreoettzenby Gf} = € | BL OT -uaddy ag} *\\ yuvatiag) yes0ag “qyStaq Aroq] Zo [ecteeeeettteeetseeeees TUBAG wl rrreerese tees (aeyTy) @finby » I st 8 ‘AON uy ; wy | ‘8h8t nai "8189S 23 | ooy “ousuoy ‘oo 01 moka ed ‘goualajoy {| "IaAIasqgQ | ‘208Id oun apngiuseyy| “UPPV “nondi10s9q oye SO Ss —--_-+ ——u- ——_-- oeoOowvWVW0O0hes?=~ 0 OOOO 13, 14.../From 12 45™ to 35 15™ a.m.,|Paris ? ......... . A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 17. Place. Observer. Description. 11°50". A fine globe meteor ;|Highfield E. J. Lowe, Esq./MS. pale blue; = 5 times 2;| House, Not- from 7 Pegasito near Delphi-| tingham. nus; perpendicularly down for 30°, when it burst and disappeared. on the 14th. 10 meteors. M. Coulvier Gravier, calcu- lating on his system, finds the horary number Jelow the average. 18 15™ a.m. A small bolide ... vier. Mees ctaosawastebas M. Coulvier Gra-|Comptes Rendus, ar aero Mr. G. A.Rowell.|Verbal statement bright train, moved from about 6° or 8° N. of the Pleiades through the zenith, to about 30° or 35° above the horizon, about N.N.W., when it disappeared; in about 4 seconds a bright rose-co- loured aurora had appeared during the evening, and at this time assumed the ap- pearance of beams converging’ towards the zenith. The course of the meteor was ex- actly along one of these beams. to Prof. Powell. During an aurora. A bright|Mr. Lawson’s |E. J. Lowe, Esq./MS, rizon, leaving a “stream of stars.” 118 4™, A small falling star|[bid..........00{Id. ..e.sce0e Serene from the cupola of the aurora (then situated at 21 Persei), to near the W. horizon; seemed brighter than usual for their size, and very rapid. One from zenith through 80° in 1} second. During an aurora, four smalljRosehill, Ox- meteors fell into the aurora] ford. and disappeared. 19" 0" 50°35. Grantham mean|Grantham, time of disappearance. [The| Lincoln- time taken from transit of 8} shire. Leonis; my long. I reckon 2™ 36° W. from London; but this perhaps 4 or 6 sec. too great.] A meteor much larger and brighter than 2 moved nearly horizontally about 10° while seen; mo- derate velocity; colour pale rose. Vanished after 1 second, almost perpendicularly below 2%, and about four times as far from 21 as 2 from Re- gulus. No train; but per- haps invisible from light. Rev. J. Slatter... Letter to J. W. Jeans, Esq.|Mr. Lowe’s MS. 18 REPORT—1849, Description. Place. Observer. Reference. A fine caudate meteor|Highfield Ho.,/E. J. Lowe, Esq.|MS. through y Gemini. Nottingham. 11%, A small falling star nearIbid............./Td. seesesses es ...{[bid. Aldebaran. ; 2 X Ist mag.; orange- red, with a train of sparks and conical head; slow; horizontally; from Z Bootis, passing 1° below Arcturus ; disappeared for about 1 sec., then continued in same track for about 13°. 105 19™.=2nd mag. ; orange- red; no tail; rapid ; from 30’ above « Urs, Maj. through y Urs. Maj. 56 Cygni to 11 Vulpecule. 9h 20™ p.m. Small; no train; rather slow; from Z Lyrz to 109 Herculis. larger than @ Lyre; from near the small star » Tauri Ponictowski to 17 Lyre; train remained visible about 2% secs. 9h 25™, Small; slow; no train ; from 106 Herculis to « Lyre. 128 0™. Yellow; =2nd mag.; very rapid; no tail; from H 15 Urs. Maj. to p Urs. Maj. From 95 to 115. Six small me- teors; direction S. and S.W. Observer. Highfield Ho.,|A. S. H. Lowe, Esq. Reference. E. J. Lowe, Esq.|Ibid. 8 35™ p.m. (twilight). A bright/Rosehill, near |Rev. J. Slatter... Oxford. TDIGseses.esoes IDid....0seseeess Castle Doning- ton, Leices- tershire. Nottingham. Gosport MS. Letter. Appendix, No. 13. Communicated by Mr. Lowe. H. Burney, Esq. |Communicated by Mr. Lowe. Observer. Description, A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. Reference. Bava From 95 to 10%. Five small/Gosport ......|H. Burney, Esq.. “ehh resiagy by meteors; two with trains; _towards 8. and Ww. clear later in the night ; some meteors reported. Cloudy till 9" 40™, thence to/Highfield Ho., 94 55™; about 10 meteors. Nottingham. 9" 56™. =2nd mag.; pale-red, with stream of light ; brightest at centre, and fading away towards its two extremities ; rapid; from € Cygni to x Draconis. E.J. Lowe, Esq.,|MS. Mrs. Lowe, A. Lowe, Esq., A. S. H. Lowe, Esq., F. E. Swann, Esq., 9558™. Similar, but fainter ;|Ibid........ oes. (Id. Ibid. in same track. 9* 55™, =I1st mag.; well-de-|Ibid.,........... Ibid. fined disc; no tail; rapid; from a Andromede to « Pegasi. 10° 0™, Similar ; fainter 5 in|Ibid............. Ibid. same track. 108 2". Yellow, with tail ; very|Ibid............. SSR TES Oe Ibid. rapid; from « Cephei to a Cygni. 1053™.= 9 atbrightest ; yellow,|Ibid.... a) eaaeenecestenes DIG, with streamers ; brightest in the middle; slow; from y Antinoi through « Antinoi to about y Sagittarii. 10° 4™, Nearly similar ; in same|lbid............. apeencAt te Pec: Ibid. track. globe meteor; very rapid ; from « Aquile to A Antinoi. After disappearance a pale- red ray of light along the last 7° of the track; lasted 31 seconds. 10" 6™. Small; in same track. |[Did.............)[0. .....seceseeses Thid. : 10" 7™, Small ; yellow; rapid ;|Ibid........ Oe gence: ae Ibid. 7 from Delphinusto 69 Antinoi. 7 10 7™, Small; yellow; rapid ;|Ibid............. S see dsassseneees Ibid. from g Pegasi to a little south of « Aquarii. 108 7™ 30°. Small; in samejlbid......... swells irceteeeerecccest Tbid. track. : 108 8™,= 2 ; pale red; rapid ;|Lbid....... Saved Ibid. from y Delphini to @ Antinoi. Continued ray lasted 2 secs. after disappearance. 102 8" 30°. Small; i i eit aadesw cae deees Ibid. Ree Oe Sica TOILE EGE ig irate mnt» a - defined disc; ; rails pn between « and y Cygni to 1° 8. of s Delphini; stream o light 1° after disappearance 26 . REPORT—1849. Date. Description. 9. Aug. 10..,..: 108 11". Globe meteor= 2 at|Highfield Ho., present; deep blue; slow; from 1° below Polaris tg a Draconis; disappeared sud- denly, not breaking up into fragments; blue streak 10° in length ; lasted 4 secs. after disappearance. parallel to last; about 3° below. 105 13", =Ist mag.; yellow ;|Ibid............- rapid; from midway be- tween « Andromede and a Pevasi to y Piscis. Streak along whole path; lasted 1 sec. after disappearance. 108 14". Small; in same track.|[bid... rapid; from the } near Cygnus, 3° below Vega to x Lyre; ray visible 2 secs. after disappearance. 105 17". Small; with tail ;|ibi rapid ; from near £8 to about -€ Pegasi. track. 102372 3073, Do, Opeanses it UF eae 105 19". = 1st mag. ; red ; rapid:|ibid............. from 2° N. of - Arcturus, through 42 Coma Berenicis. 102 20". Small ; rapid ; from j[bid.......,.,..- to g Pegasi. 105 22™ 30°.=2nd mag.; yel- low ; tail; rapid ; from 0 An- tinoi downwards, inclining S. 10 23™ 30°. = 2 ; tajl ;- slow ;|[bid............. Id. from N. of Lyra to 7 Dra- conis. 105 24™, Small ; yellow; rapid ;|{bid............. Id from Polaris towards Vega. 102 24™ 30%. Small ; rapid ; from|[bid...........+. Id. Corona Borealis to y Ser- entis. 10% 25™. Small; tail; rapid ;|{bid............. Id from y through o Aquarii. 10> 25™ 30°. = 1st mag. ; yellow;|Ibid............. Id. rapid; from # Cassiopeiz to Polaris ; ray visible 1 sec. 104 26™ 30°. Small; rapid ;|Ibid ............ Id. from \ to 8 Pegasi. 104 28™. Small; rapid; from|[bid............. Id. No. 3 Aquarii through « Capricorni. 104 30". Two; very small;j[bid............. followed each other rapidly from Cygnus to Lyra. 108 31™.=1st mag.; yellow ;j[bid............- rapid, and with tail; from x Andromedz to d Pegasi. Observer. E. J. Lowe, Esq.|MS. Slee Le Reference, ts eae ‘ ‘ia A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 27 Soe Date. a Description. Place. Obseryer. Reference. 1849. y g. 10..,,,.{108 34%. =I1st mag.; rapid; Highfield Ho.,/E, J. Lowe, Esq.|MS. ‘tg from a Cygni to 6 Lyre;| Nottingham. &c. &e. | continuous white ray, 1 sec. . | after disappearance. 10 34™ 30%. Smaller, butjIbid............. [1G baa ean ee «..|Lbid, similar; from A Cygni to o Herculis. 106 35™. Small; rapid, down- wards from y Cassiopeiz. 105 35™ 30°. = 2%; blue; de- fined disc; brilliant; from 27 Urs. Maj. to 0° 34’ above a Urs. Maj.; blue continuous streak. from y Cassiopeie to 7 Persei. 10» 36" 30°. Small; rapid ; from H 32 Camelopardalis to 7 Draconis. : 81 Urs. Maj. to Bootis. ‘ 108 38™ 30°. Similar; in samejIbid ......,..... 1 Be tee marry eral yt 8 track, 105 40". Small ; rapid ; from H[Ibid............. Wd Wa seagetean tas ..{[bid. 43 Cephei to H 32 Camelo- pardalis ; ray of light. | 108 44™. Small; rapid; from x/jIbid....... aes 1 ENP rot Thid. ae. Corona Borealis to 6 Bootis. ) 105 44™ 30°.= 9 at brightest ;|Ibid...,.........[Id. ....,....++4...|[ bid. pale yellow; rapid ; from v Andromede to between 2 ig and 6 Trianguli; ray visible 1 sec. after disappearance. 108 45™, =Ist mag.; yellow;|Ibid...,.........J[d. sse.sseeeeeeeee Ibid, rapid ; from 3 Urs. Min. to C.H.122 Urs. Maj.; left train. 108 45™ 30°.= ¢ at brightest ;|Ibid............. NOS foveweehes snane Ibid, yellow ; rapid ; from @Andro- : medz through ¢ Piscis. 108 46". Small; rapid ; from|Ibid............. Tle Woae cacmarne si ce} PGs just above 7 downwards, in- clining to S. 10" 47™. Small; rapid; from/Ibid............. 5 aseannewos ae nand Ibid. q nebula in Androm., just above v to 17 Andromede. 108 49". Small; rapid ; from yj[bid......... si--[dois ennecceesns. tacit pide Urs. Min. to n Draconis. 10 50™ 30°. Small ; rapid; fromjIbid............. EY PRRE SASS Ibid, x Cassiop to / Cassiop. 10> 52™.= 9; red; defined|Ibid............. Ae Acssngagee'e +.» Lbid, disc; slow; from e Persei downwards; no train; after this cloudy. Between 9" 30™ and 9} 33™ p.m. A rather large meteor, from between Cygnus and Cassio- peia, to between Cygnus and Pegasus ; left reddish train o sparks; brightest at mid. part. —— TE ee —— = SS 28 REPORT— 1849. Date. Description. Place. Observer. Reference. 1849. Aug. 10...... Small meteor, from 1° or 2° E.|BethnalGreen,|W. R. Birt, Esq. |Appendix, No. 18. of Polaris, downwards. London. Small; rapid; very obliquely|[bid............. |S bperpodtriggrt- con Ibid. across the line joining « and B Pegasi. Small ; near head of Capricorn ;|[bid.....++...... Lilo senvessstrereas Ibid. direction S.W. 9"55™ (?) Rather large; from N.|[bid............. LGB Be paaaattepdice Ibid. of Cassiopeia to a little N. 0 Cygnus; train of reddish sparks ; brightest at mid. part. 10°5™(?) Very large and bright ;|Ibid..,...+.....- Tae seaese anereeas Ibid. from below Ursa Major to S. of Corona Borealis; reddish train. — Small, but bright ; through)Ibid.......... seelltl: cceasssusc ounces Ibid. Polaris. — Globular meteor = 2 ; red-|Ibid......0...++: fa oe ae Ibid. dish; slow; through y Pegasi; increased in brightness. Another, exactly similar,|Tbid.........++++ Was Teneercuas aise Ibid. after about one minute, in prolongation of same path. From 9" 19™ to 104 cng fifty- Castle Doning- W. H. Leeson, Communicated by five shooting stars were ob-| ton, Leices-| Esq. Mr. Lowe. served in such rapid suc-| tershire, lat. cession that it was found im-| 52° 51’ possible to note the exact) 23/75 N.; positions of the whole of| long. 1° 18’ them. Occasionally they} 42” W. much resembled a shower of rockets, shooting in all pos- sible directions. The follow- ing are the chief :— gh 55™, = Altair; very brilliant ;|[bid.....csseees-|Ld. cesseseeesneees Ibid. rather slow; from y Aquile to 2 Delphini; train visible 2 seconds. 7 108 1™. Somewhat quicker; nojIbid...... a ienea 1 Blah ess rE: Tbid. train; from o Herculis to a little above 7 Lyre. 10" 10™. Two together; onej[bid.,........... 1 i Maer REA eR much brighter than the other; moved uniformly down the Milky Way from « Cygni to a and y Sagitte; the brighter appeared to ter- minate its course in a zigzag form, leaving a small train; the other none. 10% 11™. Very brilliant ;>-Ist|IDid.....cesseeee(Td. .eeseeeeseeeeee Ibid. mag. ; from Polaris to x Ser- pentis; train visible 3 secs. ; rapid; bluish white; cast a visible shadow. 108 12™, Brighter than IstiIbid..........++ TO! 20 2e .tevscees| UDG mag.; rather slow; from Deneb to a Lyre. 10° 15™. Bright ; straw-colour ;|Ibid......,...+. Me Va Seep cect es ee? LOC rather slow; from Deneb to Z Lyre. 4 A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 29 Date. Description. Place. Observer. Reference. a < | | cs a 1849. Aug. 10....../10 21”. Brilliant ; from Deneb|CastleDoning-|W. H. Leeson, |Communicated by to Aldebaran. ton, &c. &e.| Esq. Mr. Lowe. 10 23". Two togethef; onelIbid............. ldiey saves Rah veut Ibid. F from near y Cygni to 7? Cygni, crossed the path o the other at right angles, justbelowDeneb; both= 2nd mag. ; slow. 108 24". 4 stream of meteors|Ibid........ manne Eon Coot cht acee os dat Ibid. in parallel lines; from y Cephei to 6 Cassiopeiz, about 30’ apart; slow. 10% 26%. Very light; seen/Tbid........1+0-/[d. sessseeesees .».|Ibid. through thin clouds; down the Milky Way from Deneb to midway between 6 Cygni and 6 Vulpecule; train visible 3 secs. 105 30".=3rd mag.; no train ;|Ibid...,.,. .... ten anetneeenade nas Ibid. from 6 Cassiopeiz to Schedri. 3 10" 31". Very brilliant; from|Ibid............. Wee cccacene sesame Ibid. € Cygni to @ Lyre; train visible through thin clouds. ' 105 33™. Large, but obscured|[bid....ce..s000-[Ld+ serseeerereeees[Lbid. by clouds, from 4° beyond Polaris to y Urs. Min. % After this cloudy. ‘ Bei vae|OWCHCASE cenncaposanadsedasnn mh ta TDG panae sna Td. seesssseeeneess Ibid. 1 104, =1st mag. ; yellow; rapid Highfield Ho.,|E. J. Lowe, Esq.|MS. from 7 Pegasi to about 1° Nottingham. above, and thence to£ Pegasi; left streak. 11> 1™,=2nd mag.; yellow;|[bid.........000 [Ld seseseoeeeeeeef Ibid. tail; rapid; from y Sagittz through y Aquilz to between o and pw Aquilz. Much vivid lightning in S. Cloudy ; coruscations over N.|Oxford.........,|Prof. Powell. and W. horizon. 12 ......{10" 9", Small; from Via Lactea|Highfield Ho.,|E. J. Lowe, Esq.|MS. close to Delphinus, upwards Nottingham. to « Cygni. 108 10”. a mag.; yellow ;|Ibid............. Td. ...seseeeeeeeee| Ibid. 4 rapid ; tail; from ¢ ‘Pegasi to a y Aquarii. ; 10m 13, Small; from CoronalIbid........0026.[[ds ...ssseeevee ++{[bid. Borealis to A Serpentis. 105 14°.= Ist mag.; yellow;|Ibid............. LG SRE a EC Ibid. tail; rapid; from e Dra- Kt conis to A Corona Borealis. 105 16™. Small; from g Dra-|Ibid.....ssccs00-[LGe csessrasesenees Ibid. conis to 7 Corona Borealis. 105 20™. Small ; rapid ; from 76\Ibid............- 116 (ea espe erie Ibid. Urs. Maj. through \ Bootis. r 108 21™, =Ist mag.; yellow;|Ibid............. Id. ...+0 seseeeees Did. ; no tail; rapid; from Vega j through 110 and 111 Her- 1 ¥. culis. i 104 22™. Small; rapid ; no tail ;|[bid.........000{[d. sse.seeeeeeee-{LDid. from yx Urs. Majoris to Arcturus. | | 30 Date. 1849. Aug. 12 REPORT—1849. Description. Place. Observer. — | —$————_- 105 23". = h; blue; rapid;|Ibid............. A. H. 8. Lowe, from f Cassiopeia to H 18 Esq. Camelopardalis; blue streak ; visible for 5 secs. 10" 25". =1st mag.; yellow; rapid; from ( to € Pegasi. Ibid. 28 and C.H. 153 Urs. Maj. to v Urs. Maj. 10% 38™. Small; rapid ; from Z\[bid............. 1s MP cers sitbeosa Ibid. to y Urs. Maj. 108 38™. Small; from 6 Urs.|[bid.......... SbslLUe Mecsas chesesicns Ibid. Maj. through 11 Canium Venat. other’s paths about 1° These two crossed each above No. 1 Can. Venet. 10" 42™. Small; rapid ; from/[bid............. My, cqvaceguesscebe Ibid. r Herculis to 8 Bootis. 10% 46™. Small; yellow; tail ;[bid............. 1 i (PSS A Sd Ibid. rapid; from C.H. 155 Came: lo, ardalis to Capella. 10" 46™ 30%. Small ; rapid; fromjIbid............. Mich. secant steserees Ibid. n Herculis to 6 Bootis. 10" 47™. Small; rapid; from|[bid...........+. Id. Corona Borealis to y Ser- pentis. 105 56™. = 4%; red; rapid ;|[bid..........+¢. 1 (i baer from \ to 31 Pegasi; left ray visible 3 secs. , 1151™, Smail; rapid; from y{Ibid.....0..;5001Td. ...cecsceeernes Tbid. Urs. Min. horizontally to 7 Draconis. 115 5™, Small, with streamers ;|[bid............. Tdi acrreze, cents .. Ibid. rapid; from 31 to 3° beyond 36 Pegasi. 28 meteors, of which 21/Castle Do- |W. H. Leeson, proceeded from points in) nington. Esq. or near Cygnus, and 7 from : Ursa Minor. Only 1 brilliant, from Deneb to # Lyre ; train visible 3 secs. R From 95 30™ to 10" 30™. Seven|Gosport . ...... H. Burney, Esq. |Ibid. meteors; 3 between Cygnus and Delphinus 1 large, from Corona Borealis to a Her- culis; another from Aquila ; gold colour ; direction at first S., then S.W., giving a zig- zag path. From 9" to 118. Four meteors.|[bid........++++. ET eae, nav anes ct The first passed between Polaris and the Guards of Urs. Min.; one under and one through the tail of Urs. Maj., and the other two over Lyre. Cominunicated by Mi. Lowe. 31 A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. Description. Place. Observer. Reference. ...(Brightness = , Andromede,|Grantham ...|J. W. Jeans, Esq.|Communicated by with slight train; moved Mr. Lowe. about 8° in 1 sec. ; parallel to a line joining 6 with pw Andromede ; disappeared very close to, and N. of 6 Andromeda, at 20" 17™ 8°-08 sidereal time, or 102 47™ 58° Grantham mean time, taken from culminating of a? Ca- pricorni. ‘ -/108 40", Bright, with train; Gosport passed over the square of _ Pegasus. . , Three small, between 9% & 114.!Tpid........... De rs secigee Saeteee Ibid. 10°10™.= h ; red; tail; rapid ;|Highfield Ho.,|A- S. H. Lowe, |Ibid. from y Draconis to « Urs.| Nottingham. Esq: Maj. 108 37™. = 2nd mag.; from/Oxford..,....:.|Prof. Powell. Draco to a little above Cor. Borealis. 108 37".=2X 1st mag.; red ;|Highfield Ho., E. J. Lowe, Esq./Ibid. train of sparks; slow ; from H Nottingham. 27 Ophiuchi to 52 Serpentis ; train lasted 2 secs. after dis- H. Burney, Esq..|Tbid: appearance. 10 45™. Small, with tail ; rapid ;\Ibid............. Id. si cnssers.----(Lbid. from Vega to W. Herculis. 10® 55".=2nd mag.; rapid ;|[bid............. IG Leereemeer = «.---{Lbid. from « Aquilz to y Antinoi. 108 55". About ten falling) |Ibid...... Se wiats Id. ...esseeesee08-[ bid. Stars, exceedingly dimi- nutive, but very brilliant for their size, which was scarcely =6th mag. This gave the impression of | their being fine meteors, but at a very great height. One passed near Polaris, another in the Great Pifbid......e (Td. eet cse Ibid Bear, and one in the Little Bear. All towards the W. Several in Pegasus, Serpens, Ophiuchus, and Hercu- lis ; moved towards the S. Probably they all moved S.W. if they could ive | been seen without the effect of perspective. 10 28",=2nd mag.; orange-|Ibids..s.........[[d. ss.seeeuseeeeee/MSi red, with streamers; rather rapid; from 7 to o Aquile. 10" 28™. Small; yellow, with|Ibid.............{[d. ..ssssseeeeee-{Lbid. streamers; rapid; from p Delphini to 7 Aquile. ee tS <6 pe 3. Miwe = 23 beeaee 26 ...... 32 REPORT—1849, APPENDIX. Containing details from the original Records of Observations, communicated to Professor Powell by the respective Authors, referred to in the foregoing Catalogue. No. 1.—Fall of Meteorites at Stannern, near Blansko, Moravia, Nov. 25, 1833. Note from W.W. Smytu, Esq. 1. On the evening in question, the appearance of a brilliantly luminous meteor was accompanied by a loud report like that of a cannon, followed by a sound like the fire of musketry. M. Reichenbach obtained information from various quarters as to the angle under which the meteor was seen, and then searched diligently with sixty or seventy men for what they supposed must have fallen, till on the 11th day they discovered a meteorite, and after- wards two smaller stones. Their external colour was black, the internal gray ; the structure granular and full of metallic specks: they also attracted the magnetic needle. 2. A meteorite which fell near Stannern in May 1808, was analysed by Von Holger, and was found to contain, though in very small quantity, tin and cerium, which had not before been discovered in similar bodies. The result of five analyses was as follows :— SST RS A a 0:488 Protoxide of iron ........ 0°280 PUT Vortec es «= 5 PME 0:039 WIANGANESE ous 56s s.i0"s sc se 0:085 EAMES rains os 5 = mists nsee.7 ising Ane Masnesip. i. siia1's'din'> ounce ae Cen. 0:987 The formula for the whole is 7fS?+2Al S°+2mg S?4+ MS2+2C S* for the gray constituent ...... (7£+2mg)S2 for the white..............-. (2Al+M+2C)S? Baumgartner, Zeitschrift fiir Physik, 1834, and Leonhard and Bronn, Jahrbuch, 1836, p. 497. No. 2.—Meteorite of Braunau. Note from W. W. Smytn, Esq. M. Beinert of Charlottenbrunn, read before the Breslau Society an ac- count of the fall of meteorites at Braunau in Bohemia, and exhibited plans of the locality and a portion of the iron Schles. Arbeit. 1847. On the 14th of July, at a quarter to four a.m., the inhabitants of Braunau were roused by two violent explosions like heavy artillery, and as closely consecutive as the reports of a doubled-barreled gun, after which a rushing and hissing sound was audible for some minutes. The sky was very clear; but above the village of Hauptmannsdorf there was formed a small strip of black cloud, which suddenly seemed to grow red-hot and to dart out flashes of lightning in all directions, whilst at the same moment two fiery streaks seemed to fall to the earth. The cloud now assumed an ash-gray colour and rosette form, and after some time divided towards the N.E. and S.W., forming thin streaks which gradually disappeared. It was soon found that the “lightning” had struck the ground near Haupt- mannsdorf, about 1200 paces N.E. of Braunau, and there in a hole three feet in depth was a mass of iron which at ten A.M. was too hot to be touched with impunity. One Joseph Tepper, living in the village, had seen it fall, and gave his evidence on the subject before the authorities of Braunau. This A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 33 piece of meteoric iron, weighing 42 lbs. 3 oz. Austrian, was sent to the Imperial Cabinet at Vienna. Its form is an irregular parallelopiped, and the exterior surface is covered with concavities, the deeper parts of which exhibit a smooth yellowish brown coating. It was soon afterwards found that the “lightning” had penetrated the do- minial house called the Ziegelschlag, situated at a short distance from the town. Mr. Pollack, the chief forester, describes that he found a hole as large as the head in the roof, and a mass of broken lath and plaster in the bed-room of three children, who, when terrified by the crash, were unable to escape. The piece of iron which was found here under the ruins, weighed 30 lbs. 8 oz., and differed from the other only in form, inasmuch as it has some resemblance to a colossal oyster-shell. In breaking through the plaster, the melted sur- face carried off some unconsumed straw, which gives it at a distance a gold- like appearance. The chief forester Pollack calculated the height of the cloud from which the two fragments diverged at 29,351 Vienna feet=29,562 Prussian feet* ; the distance asunder of the two places where they fell being 6507 Vienna feet. pe Analysis of the Braunau meteoric iron, by A. Duflos and N. W. Fischer. Pe). COS TI Poa Ua 91-882 Capper yee Me Pere, Manganese............ Arsenic ........ pS EG Calenimg i638 Sores Magnesium .......... 2072 Siliclum........ see . Garbo esi 208 eee Chlorine.............. wahpmare? 2 Sy BRET: 2%} 100-000 It was afterwards found that the mass was not homogeneous, but contained portions of iron pyrites, in which Fischer found also carbon, phosphorus and chromium,—Poggendorff’s Ann. lxxii. Extract from a letter from W. W. Smyth, Esq. “London, March 1, 1849.- “T have just met with a curious fact, viz. the presence of phosphorus in certain meteoric irons. “ Berzelius found in the meteoric iron of Bohumilitz certain steel-gray lami- nettes and grains, which he proved to be composed of iron, nickel and phos- phorus. Lately, my friend Patera at Vienna has analysed a similar mineral in the meteoric iron of Arva. It was observed in small leaflets, which are flexible, and have a strong effect on the needle ; the hardness=6°5, the spec. gr.=7°01 to 7-22, and the composition— Phosphorus teedin sites vtiavie ds's 7°26 Tita. Mio Bats eats Sas wos 87°20 Wighelr. tse se.<%10 Sr it, si ya: ceria 98°70 “The mean of three analyses also gave a small quantity of carbon. The _ name Schreibersite has been proposed for this new mineral. “ Yours ever, « WaRINGTON W. SmyTH.” * Above 30,000 English feet, or five miles and five furlongs. 1849, D om «i bt REPORT—1849. No. 3.—Letter from Dr. Buist to Professor Baden Powell, Oxford. — “Bombay, July 22, 1849. * Dear Sir,—I now enclose some notices of those meteors of lesser magni- tude and greater frequency noticed at Aden, by Mr. Moyes in 1843, and by my assistants while in charge of the observatory here, in 1843 and 1844. *T ain at present in communication with observers at thirty different stations scattered over India, from latitude 10° to 33°, and am making arrangements to get returns from every spot where an European is stationed in the service of government. By these means, I shall, I hope, have it in my power to furnish you with a long and minute catalogue of meteors every year. Careful simul- taneous observations along chains of stations will soon come to give us the relation of different meteors to the stars and constellations they seem to ap- proach or traverse, and furnish us with the elements of computing their size and distance. ‘The newspapers I have already sent will have given you all the information I possess in reference to the larger meteors; in the “Times” now forwarded, is a description of one seen at Kurrachee on the 25th of June (our sky at this season is covered with clouds), which, like that of the 19th of March, was heard to explode. “Tie leading characteristics which distinguish our larger and lesser aéro- lites are the following :—the larger generally appear as luminous as a star of the first, the lesser scarcely so much as a star of the third magnitude. “ The light of the larger meteors is generally orange, bluish or greenish, hardly ever white. It resembles that of a star of a Roman candle, as if given out by a considerable mass of matter; it never exhibits rays like a fixed star or the light from electricity ; it is never at all dazzling. ‘The meteor always - seems to increase in velocity and bulk as it proceeds in its path, the result probably of perspective ; and when approaching the termination of its course, it commonly flames out with unusual brilliancy ; there are about as many which disappear at once, as if extinguished, as those which burst and fall in fragments. The fragments always cease to be visible at some 5° to 15° from the ground. The only meteors that have been heard to explode this season were those of the 19th of March, heard at Aurungabad, and 25th of June, heard at Kurrachee. “From the Ist of June to the Ist of September our sky is thick and cloudy. “If meteors fall over the twenty-four hours indiscriminately, the number entering our atmosphere must be immense. They are not visible till after sunset, and by eight or nine o'clock we are all indoors, by ten we are in bed; two hours thus is all the time allowed for observation. We expect to derive the greatest advantages from the services of European sentries on duty, as we are now striving, with every hope of success, to engage the army in our service. “Our November meteors cross the sky in all directions: they very much resemble fire-flies, only they are much more swift and rectilineal in their movements. They do not alter either in apparent speed or size as they pro- ceed ; they never flame out or appear to burst ; they very rarely approach the horizon, and having traversed ten or twenty degrees of space, become lost in darkness. “TJ ever am, “ Most faithfully yours, “ GeorGE Buist.” No. 4.—From the Bombay Times, November 1, 1847. “On the 7th of September, about half-past six p.m., a large fire-ball was seen at Poona to shoot from nearly north to south: it then made a sudden sweep, and proceeded nearly at right angles to its previous path. After being _ visible for five or six seconds, it split into a number of large fragments, which « | > 4 es: = See Saar) slowly horizontally from Bootis, passing 1° below Arcturus with numerous stars left behind; here it vanished, but in about 1° reappeared about 14° farther on,-it having moved onwards in the same tract, but invisible until it had gone over 14° in space; it remained _ visible about 5*** altogether independent of the second of time it was invisible. After its second reappearance it was not so brilliant as when first noticed ; indeed it had the appearance of moving rapidly from us; and if we suppose it was moving nearly directly away from us, it would have the appearance of gliding slowly amongst the stars. At the second apparition it made a con- tinuation of its former track 8° in length; its colour was orange-red.—E. J. L.” ~ No. 15.—Note from Dr. Hopkins of Birmingham :— “On Monday, Feb. 15, 1830, walking from Edgbaston to Birmingham, I | was startled by the appearance of a brilliant light in the sky, and looking up, _ for my eyes had been turned to the ground, I perceived a bright mass moving ‘in a direction from N.E. to 8.W. The size of the body appeared nearly that of the full moon. It remained visible about two seconds, moving very rapidly, then nearly disappeared for a moment, and after being visible about two _ Seconds more, suddenly vanished. It left behind it a marked trail of light, which was very distinctly visible for a short time after the disappearance of - the mass. It seemed to have rather a waving motion, but this appearance was probably owing to the thickness of the fog, which rendered the light ‘much less brilliant than it would otherwise have been; as it was, the houses and other objects were rendered much more distinctly visible than they 44 REPORT—1849. would have been by the light of the full moon. The exact situation from which I had a view of this interesting object was about twenty yards farther from Birmingham than the Plough and Harrow public house at Edgbaston ; and the time was, as nearly as I can tell, about ten minutes past seven.” No. 16.—From a letter to the Rev. Prof. Powell :— “ Birmingham, Sept. 13, 1849. “ Rey. Sir,—I furnish you with a written account of what I suppose to be a meteoric appearance, which I saw some years ago at Palamcottah, in South India. I am unable to lay my hand at present upon a brief memo- randum which I believe I made at the time, and therefore cannot furnish the date more accurately than to say it was in the year 1838. “ At about half-past seven o'clock in the evening, two young men living in a house thirty or forty yards from mine, were taking their tea together, with their doors and windows all open, as is usual in India, when their attention was suddenly attracted to a bright light shining outside, which at first they took to be moonlight; but remembering that there was no moon at that time, they went outside to see what it could be. They beheld on looking up a brilliant object in the heavens, shining more brightly than the moon, and instantly came and called me to see it. By the time I had reached the out- side of my house, its brilliance had considerably faded, but even then it was a glorious object. Its position was directly north, its elevation about forty- five degrees, perhaps a little higher; its form I well remember, because of its resemblance to a letter in the Tamul alphabet, and its whole surface, though different in shape, little less than that of the moon. Its shape and relative size to the moon may be represented thus. What ap- pear to me to be its great peculiarities were these: it was perfectly stationary, never moving for a mo- Gre i? ment from the place where it was first seen: and it remained visible twenty minutes from’the time I first saw it, becoming more and more dull and indistinct, till it melted away and was seen no more. should add that it was a starlight night, without a single cloud. ‘‘T have the honour to be, Sir, “ Your obedient Servant, “G, Perritt.” No. 17.— General Results of Observations on Meteors. By Epwarp JosePH Lowe, Esq., F.R.A.S. (1.) Periodicity of meteors. The following epochs are known as periods when falling stars are abun- dant. April 22-25, July 17-26, August 9-11, November 12-14, November 27- 29, December 6-12. To this number I add October 16-18. I have found the month of January frequently to have a brilliant display of meteors, but the day is not stationary. In 1844 they were abundant on the 26th; 1845, on the 31st ; 1847, on the 11th and 13th; and 1848, on the 4th. The annexed shows when falling stars have been numerous in the various epochs since 1841, and when and by whom observed. a April epoch 22,-25. 1848 .... 23 .... on the Clyde .... by Mr. Symonds. Highfield House. . the Author. 1849 .... 20 .... id. Ae id. RA a ie id. ie id. A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 45 _ The greater number this year occurred on the 20th; the April period has _ become rich in its display of meteors in the last two years. a July epoch, 1'7-26. 1846 .... 25 .... Highfield House.. the Author. 30 id. id. 1849 .... 20 id. id. 21 id. id. 23 id. id. 4 id. id. 26 id. id. i id. id. This epoch was very meagre until the present year. a August epoch, 9-11. 1841 .... 10 .... Plymouth ...... Prof. Phillips. 9 .... Greenwich ...... Mr. Hind. 1842 .... 9 .... Gosport ........ Mr. Maverly. 9 .... Greenwich ...... Mr. Hind. 1843 ..¢., 9-13... Cork (vidwars i015) 0 - Prof. Phillips. 10 .... Highfield House.. the Author. 1844 .... 10 .... Durham ........ Mr. Wharton. 10 .... Greenwich ...... Mr. Breen, jun. 1845 .... 10 .... Paris .......... M. Gravier. 11 .... Greenwich ...,.. Mr. Breen, jun. 10 .... Oxford ........ Prof. Powell. BOS 6 2)! NO: sci OM sere) ielarad « M. Perrey. 12 .... Greenwich .,.... Mr. Breen, jun. NS47 226210). 2:4 Durham. x3). «+. Mr. Wharton. 10 .... Oxford ........ Prof. Powell. 1848 .... 10 .... Highfield House.. the Author. 1849... 0% 10 eeaic- id. id. 10 .... London ........ Mr. Birt. 10 .... Gosport ..... ... Mr. Burney. The August epoch rarely ever fails to bring a very abundant display of meteors. In 1841 Mr. Hind counted at Greenwich seventy-two meteors, be- tween 10 and 15"; the greatest number in one hour was from 12" to 13, viz. 24. In 1842, Mr. Hind saw 100 between the 11" and 165. The greatest | number in one hour, from 13" to 144, viz. 20. This year (1849), about | eighty were counted here in an hour, from 10» to 115. The meteors for a few evenings previous to the 10th, when the sky was in a condition for falling stars | to be seen, gave an increase in number each evening. The 10th was only clear for an hour, viz. from 10® to 114. a October epoch, 16-18. 1843 .... 16 .... Highfield House.. the Author. 1844 .... 18 id. id... fi TSG SP T6080. id. id. t U7 GS Dijom eas ees). M. Perrey. # BELG SUSAR: dt BMI aie dia 'e 6 3 M. Laisné. bt 1848 .... 18 .... Highfield House. . the Author. _ This epoch, which has returned so regularly from 1843, I have not seen “entered as a period for falling stars. a a 1st November epoch, 12-14. 1841 .,.. 12 .... Greenwich ,.,... Mr.Glaisherand Mr. Dunkin. 1843 .,.. 11 id. ..+» Mr. Hind and Mr. Paul. 46 rT ie ed “‘REPORT—1849. ~~ i : d 1844 .... 12,13.. Birmingham .... Mr. Onion. .... 12,13,. Highfield House,, the Author. 1845 .... 10 .... Greenwich ...... Mr. Lovelace and Mr. Breen, un. a30...< Bombay’ we. 'os Prof, Orlebar. 1846 .... 11 .... Greenwich ...... Mr. Humphreys, Mr Love- lace, and Mr. Breen, jun. 1847) >. QA, Se." Deyburn jee s* .": Mr. Wharton. 12,13.. Highfield House.. the Author. £27132. Benares ©. fy). o 5% Correspondent to M. Arago. Although this period in former years exceeded all others, still within the last few years the August epoch has been more brilliant. 2nd November epoch, 27-29. . As yet I have never been fortunate enough to see a meteor on these nights. a. December epoch, 6-12. 1846 23) 19>... Bombaf 200s: .-.. Prof. Orlebar. 1847 ....12 .... Highfield House.. the Author. (2.) Meteors crossing the sun as dark spots. ‘ In 1839, in Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 385, Prof. Erman stated that the cold days of the 11th to the 13th of May and the 5th to the 7th of February, were owing to the passage of falling stars between us and the sun. In 1845, the German astronomer Peters had taken observations on solar — spots, which he requested the Astronomer Royal Capocci to have continued. One of the assistants (M. de Gasparis) being thus occupied on the 11th of | May 1845, observed a black body cross the sun; he called Capocci’s attention — to the fact, and he, together with Dr. Démartini and an assistant astronomer (Del Re), witnessed great numbers cross his disc. Being on a visit with my worthy friend Mr. Lawson at Bath (this year), we determined to watch — carefully for these black globules, and accordingly set the 11-foot equatoreal — to the focus of the sun; a 5-foot to that of Venus; a 3-foot to that of the — moon; and a beautiful defining glass of thirty inches, to 400 miles, thinking © by this arrangement to be enabled to detect these bodies, whatever distance they might be from us; unfortunately, from February 5th to 7th, the sun never shone at Bath; however, we received a communication from Mr. Weeks of Sandwich, saying his friend the Kev. Mr. Brown of Deal had seen two deliberately cross the sun’s dise .in a descending are. We looked out © again on the 11th, 12th and 13th of May, but without success. Conversing with my friend Mr. Hind, he informed me that Messier* remarked, that in — 1777 one day he had seen 200 small dark bodies cross the solar dise; to say the least of the phenomenon, it is worthy of a few years’ attention before we - decide this interesting point, especially as the November meteors frequently fail to give us a rich display. é (3.) On a point of divergence of meteors. ¢ The meteors seen in 1839 diverged from a point situated between Taurus” and Pegasus; since thenthe point is stated to be near 6 Camelopardalis. — Both last year (1848) and this (1849), from a great number of observations, — the point of divergence was in or slightly above Cassiopeia on the 9th to the 18th of August, yet, strange to say, until then this point was not observed: there was another situated in Cygnus, which had been plainly discernible since » the middle of July. From that time until the 9th of August, if the paths of * Messier gave a memoir on the subject, entitled, ‘‘ Observation singulier d’une prodigieuse quantité de petites globules qui ont passé au devant du disque du soleil.’ [Mem. Acad. Paris, 1777, p. 464.) ; : : - ? - hae A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 47 4 j the meteors were produced backwards they would nearly all meet at a point _ situated to the east of Alpha Cygni, and on the 10th were near the star Alpha. The number of stars seen this year on August 10th was about eighty, the sky being clear for an hour, from shortly before 10 o'clock to near 11 o'clock. Fifty-five of these had their paths and other features recorded here ; out of this number the following are those noticed proceeding from the direction of these two points of divergence :— From Cygnus ...... 23 . From Cassiopeia .... 26 _ Discordant. ........ 6 55 In 1848. From Cygnus ...... 5 From Cassiopeia .... 8 [3 The two following letters to Prof. Powell will further illustrate this point. “¢ My dear Sir,—The opinion that falling stars diverge from a given point at two periods of the year, viz. August the 10th and November the 11th, is generally believed, but I have seen no hint that they do so at other times ; that they nearly all do I feel perfectly persuaded. From numerous observa- tions on the 20th and 21st of this month, I find they diverge from about the centre of the constellation Cygnus ; last night (July 23rd), which was particu- larly rich ‘in falling stars, gave a position slightly different, viz. ¢ Cygni for _the mean point from which they diverged ; if this point was more attended to, in all probability we should soon have sufficient data to enable us to give at all events a rough element. From a few observations during June, this point would seem to be in Draco, in beginning of May in Bootis, and in April in ‘Canes Venatici. The meteors were few in number in April, May and June, but are now each night becoming much more numerous. “The tail, as it is called, of meteors is apparently of two kinds, the one a continuous streak of light, and the other individual sparks; this does not seem to be owing to the speed with which they move, for I have frequently seen each appearance, whether the meteor was moving rapidly or slowly. “ Believe me yours very truly, “ Highfield House Observatory, near Nottingham, “ EpwARD JosEPH Lowe.” July 24, 1849.” “July 28, 1849. « My dear Sir,—Out of the nine observations on the 26th of July, six gave a point of divergence slightly below p Cygni. Some of the observations last night gave a position rather lower in the Swan. It is pretty evident there is a point of divergence, and that this point is now situated in the Swan, for each night produces more examples of meteors coming from that direction. : “ Believe me yours very truly, “EDWARD JosEPH Lowe.” in 1842, Prof. Phillips noticed many meteors came from the direction of Cassiopeia, and in 1848 the Rev. C. Marriott at Bradfield again noticed this feature in one instance. . _ It seems quite evident that the greater portion of these bodies move in lines parallel to each other; foras proof that the point of divergence is merely owing to perspective, the greater number of stars to the S. and S.E. of us move towards S. and SS,W., whilst those to W. and N.W. move towards W. and W.S.W. This was very evident on the 10th of August this year, for a great number which occurred in Pegasus all moved to S. and SS.W., whereas 48 REPORT—1849, those in Ursa Major, Ursa Minor and Draco descended towards W. and W.S.W. (4.) Interesting features in Meteors of August 10th, 1849. \ In fifty-five meteors recorded on this night, in eleven cases a second falling — star moved almost immediately afterwards in the same or nearly similar track to that which had just gone before; these occurred at h m 4“ ‘ 9 56 0 followed by another in same track in 2 0 9 59 0 ” ” ” 1 0 10: 32.20 ” ” ” 1. 20 10 5 30 ” 3 ” 0 30 IDiey Foy O » » » 0: .30 io 8 60 » ” » 0 30 10 «31 30 ” . 99 0 15 ; 10 43 ® = % 9 1 O 10. U7. 0 9 two others » { 5 ac 10 30 O 5 another is 0 3 10, 88 . 0 39 0 30 ” 2? q The meteors on the 10th mostly moved exceedingly rapid ; 48 are entered — as moving quickly and only 6 as slow. They were generally accompanied — by continuous streaks of light, which they left behind them for one or more seconds; that which occurred at 10% 5™ 30" left a ray of light visible for 31” after the head of the meteor had vanished, which was 7° in length. 24 are — entered as having tails, and 4 without tails. The number seen each five minutes during the hour they were visible, was. h m b m Falling stars. from 9 56 to 10 O 4 10 0 5 3 & 5 10 9 9 10 15 4 ; 15 20 6 i 20 25 6 } 25 30 4 & 30 35 4 3 35 40 6 : 40 4:5 3 f 45 50 4 50 52 2 » The distribution of colours amongst the meteors, was— Colour. No. of Meteors. MOUGW cos arin esinjenp se), 1e LS Be See eee HOUC ss teas eves. oe Fy Colourless.......... 2 i The apparent size, as compared with other objects, was as follows:— 5 No. of Meteors. Rather larger than Venus when nearest @.... . SizelGL VieMUsi eer Avie cvs aco’ oie's a ue eerste 5 99 ROPES LL, SEU eT Se See (5) 9p 2 TSb ing star 010%, ois lel sleterelel'e orc ctarle otele 8 9 One midge sar Ss oi. 3a ety 3 » Srd mag. star and smaller .......... 32 * At this time three moyed in the same track. A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 49 In the 55 falling stars 8 became first visible in Pegasus, 8 in Cygnus, 6 in Andromeda, 5 in Ursa Minor, 4 in Delphinus, 4 in Cassiopeia, 3 in Antinous and Ursa Major, 2 in Aquila, Aquarius, Lyra, Corona Borealis and Cepheus, and 1 in Pisces, Bootes, Perseus and Camelopardalis. Of these 8 became extinguished in Draco and 8 in Pegasus, 6 in Antinous, 4 in Pisces, 3 in Cygnus, Aquarius, Lyra and Bootes, 2 in Sagitta, Cassiopeia, Ursa Major and Perseus, and ] in Andromeda, Delphinus, Ursa Minor, Coma, Berenices, Serpens, Capricornus, Hercules, Camelopardalis and Triangulum. It is pretty evident that the meteors were nearer us on the 10th of August very considerably than on the 16th, as on the latter day, although a few tole- rably sized ones were seen, yet the great majority were meteors very brilliant for their size, which was smaller than the smallest stars that could be discerned by the unassisted eye. (5.) It is acurious fact, that when a falling star is seen to follow another in the same track, it invariably moves at an equal speed with the one which had gone before, z.e. if the first moved rapidly the second would do so also, and if slowly the second would move slowly. The second star I have never as yet seen larger than the first; and generally there has been a considerable differ- ence in apparent size, from the circumstance of the follower of a falling star in the same track partaking of the speed of that which has gone before, and that generally the respective bulks are very different; it might be supposed that the smaller one was an attendant or satellite of the larger one; if this be the case, the meteor that fell at 10° 17™ was accompanied by two satellites ; this strengthens the opinion very much of their being material bodies. On the other hand, if we consider them as shining by reflected light, it is difficult to account for the duminous streak which is often left in the sky after the head of a meteor has itself vanished, and also why a meteor having @ continuous ray of light, if it cross an auroral arch or beam, instantly brightens, a circumstance exceedingly curious and at the same time very apparent: the phenomenon has been noticed here four times, viz. December 3, 1845, September 10, 1846, June 21, 1847, February 20, 1818. b As there are several difficulties attending this phenomenon if we account for them all with one theory or consider them all to be similar in formation, _ T have ventured to suggest three classes :— Ist. Those with luminous streaks. 2nd. Those with separate stars, and those without any appendage. 3rd. Those large bodies with well-defined discs. The Ist class may shine by inherent light or be surrounded by a luminous atmosphere; the 2nd class by reflected light, as described by Sir John Lubbock ; and the 3rd class may be purely atmospherical; as this kind nearly always move in paths discordant to the direction of the other meteors, they are not always spherical, and sometimes change their form: I have seen them alter their colour from blue to red, and in one instance saw a meteor of a blue colour give out orange-red sparks. Mr. Hind tells me he saw a green meteor turn to a crimson colour. I have made numerous inquiries, but could never find any one, excepting Mr. Hind, who had seen meteors move slowly across the field of a large tele- scope; he describes them as appearing better defined than stars, which they resemble, but the time of visibility was too short to allow of a planetary disc a a discovered ; the fragments or streamers appeared like phosphoric lights. 1849, E 50: "8 REPORT—1849. No. 18.—Details of Observations of Meteors. By W. R. Birr. ~ Projection in the plane of the horizon of fourteen shooting stars, observed at Highfield House, near Nottingham, by E. J. Lowe, Esq., on the evening of the 10th of August 1849, between 9" 56™ p.m. and 10" 16™ p.m. The circle bounding the projection represents the horizon, and its centre the zenith. The line N—S the meridian are. The line W—E the prime vertical. The arrow-head indicates the direction of the earth’s orbitual motion at the time of observation, the portion of the horizon N, W being directed towards the sun. The shooting stars marked a and & are considered to be identical with two observed at London. (1) rape Pacis be 1 APN / rs. 1 ‘ las : pie bof 1 : 10 \ 1 Wy ! \ € Vs \. “ / NX, ‘ Projection in the plane of the horizon of two shooting stars observed at London by W. R. Birt, near 10 p.m. of the evening of the 10th of August 1849. The letters a and 6 refer to those shooting stars observed at Nottingham, which are considered to be jdentical with them. (2.) A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 51 M4 ~ (8.) Observations on luminous meteors, August 10, 1849. a No. 1. Between 94 30™ p.m. and 9" 33™ p.m., a rather jarge luminous _ meteor shot from the Via Lactea, nearly midway between Cygnus and Cas- _ siopeia; it was nearer Cassiopeia than Cygnus; its path was apparently straight, across Lacerta, and the point of disappearance between Cygnus and Pegasus considerably below the former and much nearer the latter. It searcely passed, if at all, the line joining « Cygni and 6 Pegasi. It left a train of reddish scintillations, which were more conspicuous about the middle of its course, dying away at each extremity. a No.2. A small meteor, between one and two degrees east of Polaris, . passing downwards. a No. 3. A luminous meteor passing between a and (6 Pegasi, and cutting the line joining them very obliquely; its direction appeared to be parallel to the meridian towards the south; it was small and of short duration, but rather larger than No. 2. a No. 4. A small luminous meteor, near the head of Capricornus, passing south and west. a No. 5. a No. 6. At about a minute or two before 10" p.u., a rather large lumi- “nous meteor shot from above and to the north of Cassiopeia and disappeared just to the north of Cygnus, the points of appearance and disappearance being within the boundaries of each constellation; its apparent path, which was straight, appears to have crossed the head of Cepheus. It was attended by a train of reddish scintillations, more conspicuous in the middle, and ' dying away at each extremity. This meteor was extremely similar to a No. 1 in every respect, save one, viz. direction. ‘The directions of these meteors did not appear to be parallel, but such as to give the idea of divergence; the line of direction of a No. 1 produced backwards, intersecting that of a No. 6 about the point of its commencement. The above meteors were the only ones seen between 9} 30™ p.m. and 104, They were all of a blue colour. _ 6No.1(?). At a very few minutes after 105 p.m., a very large and bright meteor shot from beneath the tail of Ursa Major (the constellation at the ‘time being covered with a cloud), most probably in the neighbourhood of Cor. Caroli; it crossed about the middle of Bootes, e Bootes (?), and vanished to the south of Corona Borealis. I much regret I did not obtain a full view of this fine meteor, which was by far the largest hitherto seen, and I should conceive exhibited the longest path, being engaged at the moment in con- templating Cassiopeia. The light attracted my attention, and on turning I just caught a sufficient glimpse of the meteor to assure me of its magnitude ‘and direction. I had a full view of the train of reddish scintillations which it left behind; this train perfectly agreed with the two I had previously witnessed ; its direction appeared to be very nearly if not quite parallel to the ‘horizon ; it indicated that the path of the meteor was straight. 6 No. 2 (?). Asmall but bright meteor passed directly over Polaris, bisect- ‘ing the star; its course appeared to be in the meridian towards the horizon. N.B. I-am not quite certain which of these meteors occurred earliest, but Tsstrongly suspect that 6 No. 1 was first. bNo. 3. : ' 6No.4. A very splendid globular meteor, about the size of Jupiter at Opposition, of a whitish colour, very slightly tinged with red, passed with a ‘comparatively slow motion immediately over y Pegasi (the star was bisected ). Its path, which was slightly curved, was nearly parallel to the horizon, and ‘the meteor increased in brilliancy as it proceeded until its disappearance, ' E2 . $ 5 ; 52 REPORT—1849. a, the point of which could not have been far removed from the line joining and 6 Pegasi, and produced: y Pegasi was about midway of its apparent path. The path suggested the idea of that of a projectile, the meteor sensi- bly bending to the earth just before the disappearance : there was no train, and the meteor was exceedingly unlike any of the preceding. b No. 5. Within a very short interval, I should say less than a minute, another meteor, of precisely the same size and exhibiting precisely the same characters in every respect, not one excepted, appeared just beyond the point of disappearance of b No. 4. Its path appeared to be a prolongation of that of & No. 4, and it disappeared in exactly the same manner, slightly bending to the earth, or rather horizon, not far from 6 Aquarii. Assuming for the moment, which is not altogether improbable, that the two were only one meteor, which by some means had been extinguished for a short time during its progress, its visible path in the heavens at London would at least be from 15° north Dee. 0° Rt. Asc. to 6° south Dee. 320° Rt. Asc. retrograde, and it crossed the equinoctial about 332° Rt. Ase. b Nos. 1 to 5 occurred by estimation between 10" p.m. and 10° 15™ p.m, certainly not later than 10° 20™ p.m. The appearance of b Nos. 4 and 5 most probably occurred at 10" 15™ p.m. Remarks on the above Meteors. Of the above meteors five claim particular attention, viz. a Nos. 1 and 6 and b Nos. 1 (?), 4 and 5, a Nos.1 and 6 occurring previous to 10" p.m., and b Nos. 1 (?), 4 and 5 after 10° p.m. Each of these meteors are very readily identifiable. After a No. 1 had appeared, a considerable time elapsed before a No. 2 was seen in the neighbourhood of Polaris, and the directions of these meteors were very different and nearly opposite. Nearly half an hour elapsed before a No. 6 became visible, its direction and that of a No. 1, as before remarked, indicating a point of divergence just north of Cassiopeia. With the exception of the meteors in the neighbourhood of Polaris and that between a and 3 Pegasi, those seen in the eastern hemisphere, viz. a Nos. I, 4 and 6, and & Nos. 4 and 5, were directed more or less towards the meridian, — 6 No. 1 (?) was the only meteor seen westward of the meridian; and it is worthy of remark, that while the direction of its motion was towards the meridian, it was in the opposite direction to those in the eastern hemisphere, and this appears to indicate a point of convergence in the south, as well as a point of divergence in the north. These phenomena may greatly assist in determining the position in space of these bodies. It is clear that at the time of observation, the earth was moving towards a given point in the © heavens. The general direction of the meteors in the eastern hemisphere was retrograde, while that in Bootes was direct. Assuming for a moment — that between 9" 30™ and 10" 30™ the earth passed very near a small cluster of meteoric bodies, which was moving in a contrary direction, the majority } ; being sowth of the earth’s path, and one only zorth, the phenomena would — be just as witnessed. All the sowhern meteors would have a retrograde motion, while that of the xorthern would still coincide in the general direc- — tion of motion; but instead of its being retrograde it would be direct, just as — a traveller on a railway sees the objects apparently rushing past him on each — side, their apparent motions being identically the same; yet when these motions are referred to the circle of which he is the centre, it is evident those on his left-hand must have an opposite expression to those on his right. > Upon a comparison of the paths of a Nos. 1 and 6 and } No. 1, which — appear, with the exception probably of the globular meteors b Nos. 4 and 5, — to have been nearest the earth, we may be better able to judge of their k ts : NEBULA LATELY OBSERVED IN THE S1X-FEET REFLECTOR. 53. relative positions, especially with respect to the earth. Taking Lacerta as the middle point of the path of a No. 1, the head of Cepheus as that of a No. 6 and ¢ Bootes as that of 6 No. 1, it is very evident that the earth, or at least its centre, must have passed considerably to the south of the plane passing through the centres of a No. 6 and 6 No. 1, and as 6 No.1 appeared but a few minutes after a No. 6, the distance between them would be con- _ siderably less than that between a No. 1 and either of the others. If, as has been suggested, the direction of the earth’s motion was such as to leave the meteor 6 No. 1 on the north and a No. 6 on the south, both would be suf- ficiently identifiable at any part of the earth’s surface from which they might be visible :—1st, from the priority of the southern meteor ; and 2nd, from the apparent opposition of their motions; and should observations have been made from which the altitudes of each above the earth’s surface may be deduced, it would not be very difficult to determine approximately and within certain limits their distance from each other, due allowance being made for the earth’s motion between the instants of apparition. In connexion with the view here taken of the relative positions of these three bodies, the straightness of their paths strongly indicates the passage of the earth past them. Upon M. Quetelet’s determination of the mean altitude of these bodies being sixteen or twenty leagues, it would appear that when the nearest point of the earth’s surface approaches a meteoric body at or within this distance, the phenomena witnessed would be produced: the body would pass through a segment of the earth’s atmosphere, the path most probably differing but little from a straight line; upon entering the earth’s atmosphere combustion may take place, as suggested by Prof. Powell, and this may give rise_to the reddish scintillations so apparent in the three bodies observed ; these scintillations presented phenomena perfectly in accordance with this notion, being most intense in the middle or deepest part of the earth’s atmo- sphere, and gradually dying off at each extremity. _ The meteors 5 Nos. 4 and 5 appeared to be essentially different from the three we have just noticed; the well-defined globular appearance they presented, the comparative slowness of their motion, the slight curvature of their paths, and their decided increase of brilliancy just previous to their extinction, place them altogether in a different category, and would lead one to expect that at more southern stations they appeared both larger and more brilliant. It would be interesting to obtain observations of these meteors (which certainly were unmistakeable in their character) from places at which they were vertical. At present however we must be content with knowing _ that of the group of meteors observed they were probably the most southern, the plane of their motion being less inclined to the ecliptic than to the — equinoctial. Notice of Nebule lately observed in the Six-feet Reflector. By the - Earu or Rosse, Pres. R.S. Communicated by the Rev. Dr. _ Robinson, Pres. B.A., and ordered to be printed entire among the vb Reports. Ar the Meeting of the British Association at York in 1844, it was an- nounced that a reflecting telescope of six-feet aperture, which had been about two years in progress, was nearly completed, and some slight account ‘was at the same time given of the means which had been taken to render the instrument convenient and effective. A short notice of the principal results 54 REPORT—1849., which have since been obtained may perhaps not be uninteresting to the pre- sent meeting. About the beginning of February 1845, the instrument was so far finished as to be usable; and in the first instance it was directed to some of the brighter nebulz in Herschel’s Catalogue. Many of them were immediately resolved, and very frequently the aspect and form of well-known nebulz were com- pletely changed, fainter details not previously seen being brought out by the great light and magnifying power of the telescope. Before the end of April the wonderful spiral arrangement in 51 Messier was discovered. The specu- lum, though there was a slight defect of figure, was in fine working order, and defined with great sharpness when the air was steady. At the approach of the short nights, when the season for observing the ne- bulz was nearly over, the instrument was dismounted, as it was desirable to take the earliest opportunity of completing certain portions of the mechanism which had been put together in a temporary way in a rough state, and it was not till the close of the year that it was again in working order. During the year 1846 the examination of the nebule in Herschel’s Cata- logue was continued ; many sketches were made, and another spiral nebula was discovered, 99 Messier. The moon was observed occasionally, and the superiority of the instrument with six-feet aperture over that of three under equal magnifying powers, in bringing out minute details, was very remark- able; so great is the effect of light even when we have to deal with an object so bright as the moon with an aperture of three feet. As yet, however, but little time has been devoted to an examination of the moon: the moonlight nights have usually been taken advantage of for expe- riments on the polishing and figuring of the mirrors; and the information which has been obtained relates principally to matters of detail, from which it would be premature to attempt to deduce general conclusions suitable to the present notice. In the succeeding year, 1847, there was but little done; unprovided at that time with an assistant capable of making trustworthy use of the pencil and micrometer, and being almost wholly occupied with the duties incidental toa year of famine, it was impossible to do more than re-examine a few of the objects of the previous year. From the beginning however of the year 1848 till the present time, the instrument has been constantly employed whenever the season and weather permitted it, and the following are some of the results :—H. 604 was found in some degree to resemble the great spiral nebula 51 Messier, but it is a ‘much fainter object, and appears to be made up of elliptic streaks disposed rather irregularly with a tendency to spirality, but without that distinct sym- metrical spiral arrangement which is so marked a feature of 51 Messier. If 51 Messier were seen somewhat obliquely, and were considerably fainter, it — would probably very closely resemble it. H. 854, M.65, has an arrangement of very elliptic annuli, and is apparently a system of the same class seen very obliquely. M. 97, H. 838, is a very extraordinary object; with a dark hollow centre somewhat in the shape of a figure of eight, easily seen, and with a dise irre- gularly shaded, but showing in the shading a decided tendency to spirality when seen under favourable circumstances: two stars are placed in a re- — markable manner in the central opening. We may conceive it to be a spiral system greatly compressed ; the edges are filamentous: H 2205 has a faint — but large spiral appendage, to which the ray as figured by Herschel is insome _ measure a tangent. Several other nebule are recorded in our note-books as _ belonging to the class of spirals. The well-known planetary nebula in Aqua~ NEBULZ LATELY OBSERVED IN THE SIX-FEET REFLECTOR. 55 tius, H. 2098, which in former years had been often examined with a tele- scope of three-feet aperture, and with no other result than that it exhibited a filamentous edge, when seen with the great instrument was found to have two ansz like Saturn. Many have since seen it, and the resemblance to Saturn out of focus has usually suggested itself. It is probably a globular system surrounded by a ring seen edgeways; while H.450, which turns out to have a bright centre surrounded by a comparatively dark ring, and that again by a bright ring, though a much fainter object, is not improbably a system of the same character seen directly. H. 84 and 86 is a remarkable group of nebule; it consists of eight, two of them pretty bright. Such groups are not uncommon, but in this instance there are I believe more nebulz in a given space than in any other group we have noticed ; it was observed by Mr. Stoney. The nebule were not connected by any perceptible nebulosity, but there are cases where a nebulous connection was distinctly traced; several minute nebule or nebulous knots hanging together as it were by a very faint but unmistakeable nebulosity. The nebule of Andromeda and Orion have of course been observed. As to Andromeda, there seems to be little doubt that the companion is resolvable, and the nucleus of the great nebula has that granular appearance which in- dicates resolvability : it has however not been seen as yet under very favour- able circumstances, and we have not commenced a sketch of it. The nucleus was examined on three occasions, and the abrupt edge of the following streak in Mr. Bond’s drawing was traced to its visible limits ; but unfortunately we did not receive the drawing till the nebula was out of reach, otherwise of course more attention would have been directed to it. Subsequent to the re- ceipt of the drawing, the nebula was seen by Mr. Stoney in my absence with the instrument of three-feet aperture, but at a distance from the meridian : the appearance was very much as in Mr. Bond’s drawing, except that the con- trast between the preceding portion bounded by the edge of the following streak, and the following portion of the nebula was much greater. The question however of most interest is, what do these streaks indicate ? With the great instrument, dark streaks have been observed in many of the nebule, sometimes almost straight, as in Andromeda; for instance, H. 887, H. 1909, H. 1041, H. 1149, are cases in point, the streaks being nearly straight. H. 1357, to which Mr. Bond refers, is, if possible, a still stronger case than it appears to be by Herschel’s drawing, as I find a sketch in our journal showing that the appendage is part of the nebula, the nebulosity ex- tending and encasing both extremities of the opening just as in Andromeda, We have also found a variety of examples of curved streaks; for instance, H. 264, H. 491, H. 406, H. 731, H. 854, H. 875, H. 1225, and others. Also H. 1486, H. 464, H. 2241, besides the well-known annular nebula, and the little annular nebula sketched by Herschel, are some of the examples of nebulz with comparatively dark centres; the darkness being apparently of the same quality as the dark streaks, but of a different shape. ' With these facts therefore I think it not improbable that the dark lines noticed by Mr. Bond in the nebula of Andromeda, and which with sufficient power are perceptible in so many other nebulz, sometimes nearly straight, ‘sometimes variously curved, as also the dark spaces, are all indications of systematic arrangement. When we see a dark space in the centre of a pla- hetary nebula, it is impossible to resist the impression that we are looking at an annular system bound together by some mysterious dynamical law. If we see a bright centre, as in H. 450, surrounded by a dark annulus, and that again by a bright annulus, we have a system of another kind; and in the spirals, of which 51 Messier is the most remarkable example we yet have found, 56 REPORT—1849, we have a regularity of arrangement equally accordant with our preconceived notions of the order which should subsist in a regular independent system. The very elongated elliptic annular nebulz, where the minor axis is some- times almost evanescent, show us pretty clearly the nature of the slight, long, dark and nearly straight streak in some cases found parallel to the axis of a long ray. A little consideration of the appearances which annular and spiral systems must present when viewed in different positions, in some instances affords a pretty satisfactory explanation of the confused streakiness we have observed in several of the nebule. This, however unsatisfactory it may appear, is the best explanation our working journal-books at present afford of the streaks observed by Mr. Bond in the nebula of Andromeda. Mr. Bond’s paper has excited so much interest, and I have been so often questioned relative to it, that I have prematurely, in anticipation of more nu- merous sketches and measurements, which will probably throw additional light on the subject, ventured to lay before the Association the very little, which is at present known to us. It was in the spring of 1846 that we first perceived the brighter portions of the nebula of Orion in the neighbourhood of the trapezium breaking up into minute stars. Whenever the sixth star was nicely separated, this appear- ance was clearly perceptible. We had repeatedly examined Orion with the telescope of three-feet aperture, without a suspicion of its being resolvable ; however, its resolvable character once known, we were enabled with it on very fine nights to see some of the stars. With the six-feet telescope, the space within the trapezium is still dark, just as Herschel describes it, and I feel con- vinced there is no optical illusion. Last season my attention was directed by Mr. Stoney to « Orionis, which is on the edge of a dark spot; the dark spot includes the nearer companion, and is about 12” diameter; we have not yet had an opportunity of examining it with the great instrument. A few copies from our collection of sketches accompany this notice: they have been made within the last day or two by a drawing-master in the neigh- bourhood. He has transposed white for black, and enlarged the scale to make them more suitable for exhibition in the Section. In sketching, we employ solely the black-lead pencil, black representing light, and the eye by habit makes the transposition without effort. The copies are not quite accurate, but they are sufficiently exact for the purpose. On the Influence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants, espe- cially of those allied to the Fossil Remains found in the Coal For- mation. By Professor CHaxues G. B. Dauseny, M.D., F.R.S. &. « Ar the Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science held at Oxford in 1847, it was resolved, that a Committee, consisting of Sir — H. T. De la Beche, Sir W. J. Hooker, Dr. Daubeny, Dr. J. D. Hooker, Mr. A. Henfrey, and Mr. R. Hunt, be requested to investigate the influence of carbonic acid on the growth of plants allied to those found in the coal formation.” This investigation was accordingly entered upon by myself in the spring of 1848, by means of an apparatus consisting of two jars of corresponding size, each containing about 2800 cubic inches of air, the edges of which _ INFLUENCE OF CARBONIC ACID GAS ON HEALTH OF PLANTS, 57 rested upon a smooth slate table, having two circular holes perforated in it, into each of which a pan or pot containing the plants to be experimented upon was inserted. ; By the aid of this apparatus I carried on a series of experiments both on flowering plants and on ferns, from which I inferred that the one as well as the other would continue for a fortnight at least unaffected by a dose of car- bonie acid, bearing a proportion to the whole volume of air equal to from 5 to 10 per cent., but that 20 per cent. would prove injurious to the one, as well as to the other, in the course of two or three days. These results were however not offered to the Association at Swansea with any confidence, because the apparatus contrived for the purpose of carrying them on turned out to be defective, the difficulty of cementing the vessels containing the plants to the slate table, so as to render the apparatus impervious to air, being such, that a large supply of gas was each day found requisite, in order to keep up the per-centage to the intended amount. Hence it was probable that during a portion of the time the real quantity of carbonic acid in the jar might have fallen very short of that with which it was proposed to operate. I therefore renewed the experiments in the spring and summer of the pre- sent year 1849, in two ways, either of which had been ascertained by previous trials to preclude in a great degree the danger of leakage, and thus to render the amount of carbonic acid present whilst the experiment was being carried on, tolerably constant. The first was that of allowing the jars, the edges of which had been well ground, to rest upon the surface of a solid and smooth slate table, greased along the line of its contact with the glass; the other to make them dip into shallow iron dishes with double rims, containing water to the depth of an inch, so that the air of the jar might be cut off from the external atmosphere. In neither of these cases was there a sufficient loss of gas to interfere with the results; in the former, the transmission of air between the smooth surfaces of the slate table and the jar being inconsiderable, and in the latter, the quan- tity of gas carried off by solution in the water being much reduced, when the latter was covered with a thin pellicle of oil. Whatever indeed might be the loss in either case sustained, I took care to supply it, by introducing the requisite quantity once every twenty-four hours into the jars which contained the plants. I am therefore now able to offer to the Association, with rather greater confidence than before, the following results, as confirmatory of those which were stated verbally in my Report, but which, for the reasons already assigned, were not published in the Transactions of the Association for last year. May 14th.—In the first experiment, five healthy ferns, named Nephrodium molle, Adiantum cuneatum, Gymnogramma chrysophylla, and two species of Pieris, viz. longifolia and serrulata, were introduced into jar 1 standing in _ water, and a quantity of carbonic acid gas was admitted, which equaled 5 per cent. of the whole amount of air present in the jar. No perceptible change Occurring, the quantity was increased on the 17th to 10 per cent., and this amount was maintained, as nearly as possible to the same point, by occasional additions of the gas, till May 27th. _ At the expiration of ten days there was no perceptible difference in the ap- pearance of the ferns, either with reference to their preceding condition, or _ by comparison with that of five similar ferns, which had been kept for the ‘Same time under the corresponding glass, without any admixture of carbonic acid gas. The experiment was then continued till June 21st, so that the plants were exposed to the influence of carbonic acid gas in all for a period of thirty 58 4-4 - REPORT—1849, three days, besides being subjected for seven days to about 5 per cent. of the same. At the end of this time only two of the ferns appeared at all damaged, namely Pteris longifolia and Nephrodium molle, the fronds of both which were rather discoloured, those of the other three species remaining as before. The same description of experiment was made upon a species of Pelargo- nium, which after having been during twenty-seven days exposed to the ac- tion of 10 per cent. of carbonic acid contained in the air of a large jar, ap- peared in exactly the same condition as a corresponding one placed under glass in a vessel free from any abnormal mixture of that ingredient. From these, and from the experiments of the preceding year, it might be inferred that plants in general are tolerant of a much larger volume of car- bonie acid gas than exists in the atmosphere at present; but it did not therefore follow, that the amount of carbonic acid decomposed, and of © oxygen exhaled, would bear any proportion to the quantity with which their leaves were brought into contact. From several trials indeed which I made as to the per-centage of oxygen present in the jar at different stages of the experiment, I was led to infer that the amount of the latter was not increased in the degree which might have been expected; but, as a more easy way of determining the same point, I introduced a certain number of fresh leaves of an Helianthus, in each case exposing exactly the same amount of surface, into jars filled with water con- taining different proportions of carbonic acid gas. In No. 1, for instance, the proportion of gas to water was only as 1 to 12; in No. 2 as 1 to6; and in No. 3 as 1 to 3. Now it was found, that, instead of the oxygen disengaged by the leaves keeping pace with the supply of carbonic acid, only 0-7 of a cubic inch was given off from No. 3, whilst No. 2 had disengaged 4 cubic inches, and No. 1 3°3 cubic inches; and in another experiment only 0-1 was emitted by No.1; 4°5 by No.2; and 2:0 by No. 3, the other circumstances, as to time, exposure to light, &c., being in all cases the same. If therefore the disengagement of oxygen from leaves be, as is generally admitted, the result of their vital action upon the carbonic acid in contact, under the stimulus of light, it would follow, that where the carbonic acid exceeds a certain amount, that action is in a great degree suspended, There is however an experiment of Count Rumford’s, originally reported in the Philosophical Transactions for 1786, and alluded to by one of my co- adjutors in these investigations, I mean Mr. Hunt, in his late work entitled ‘The Poetry of Science,’ which would seem to imply that the decomposition of carbonic acid by plants was not a vital phenomenon, and consequently could not be influenced by any such circumstance as the application of a super- abundant portion of this gas to the surfacesvof their leaves. Count Rumford states, that the property of causing water to emit oxygen in the sun, is possessed, not only by living plants, but likewise by threads of silk, by wool, and even by spun glass; in which case the decomposition of carbonic acid would seem to be simply the effect of light, the plant merely serving, by the surfaces it exposes to the water, to disengage from it, more rapidly than would otherwise happen, that oxygen which had been obtained without its — direct agency. On repeating this experiment, however, I found, as might have been anti- cipated, that at first no such effect took place when wool, cotton, silk, or spun glass were introduced into the water, but that after some days it occurred abundantly in every one of these cases—the disengagement of the gas however being always coincident with the appearance in the liquid of green conferve, to the action of which doubtless this decomposition of carbonic acid was to be attributed. 7 o re . INFLUENCE OF CARBONIC ACID GAS ON HEALTH OF PLANTS. 59 Accordingly the process went on, whether fibrous substances were placed in the water or not, although in the latter case somewhat less rapidly, the presence of such bodies serving to disentangle the particles of gas from their adhesion to the water more easily than would happen otherwise. There cannot therefore be a doubt, that the common opinion, which regards the emission of oxygen from the surfaces of leaves, whether placed in water or in air, as a vital phenomenon, is the correct one, and hence it is quite con- sistent with analogy, that, as we have already seen, some one proportion of carbonic acid in the air should be more favourable to the exercise of this function, than any other one more considerable in amount would prove. I was therefore encouraged to proceed in my inquiry as to the quantity of carbonic acid contained in air, which was decidedly prejudicial to the health of ferns. With that view specimens of the same five species as before were selected for experiment, and these were placed under the jar which contained about 2800 cubic inches of air cut off from the external atmosphere by water. To ‘this air 1 per cent. of carbonic acid was at first added, and a daily increase to the same amount in the quantity present was kept up, until the propor- tion reached ZO per cent. This same quantity was then maintained in the jar for twenty days, by successive additions to compensate for the ascertained amount of leakage, now found to be inconsiderable, and the appearance of the plants was from time to time examined and noted. It was not till the 13th day that any sensible alteration for the worse was perceptible, when we observed, that in Péeris longifolia the fronds had be- come very brown; in Nephrodium molle and in Gymnogramma chrysophylla two or three of the lower fronds showed signs of yellowness; that those of the Adiantum looked in general very sickly, but that Pteris serrulata did not appear injured. The experiment was however continued seventeen days longer, when it was found, for the first time, that the amount of carbonic acid present in the jar, as ascertained in the usual way by potass, exceeded what had been added; proving more decisively than before, that decay had com- menced. The plants were accordingly taken out, and the following notes respecting their condition were entered in the Minute-Book. Peeris longifolia.—All the old fronds are now dead, but the vitality of the rhizoma is not destroyed, for young fronds are putting out, and appear at pre- sent to be healthy. Pteris serrulata even now appears but slightly damaged, its fronds being only more yellow than is natural. pinta molle seems in the same condition nearly as Pteris longi- ia. * Gymnogramma chrysophylla.—tits old fronds slightly damaged and yellow, but young ones are putting out. _ Adiantum cuneatum.—All the fronds have died down. _ Thus it appears that this large amount of carbonic acid, even if gradually added, would in time prove fatal to plants of the above description, although operating upon them with various degrees of intensity, and apparently not exerting any specific influence upon the stem.and roots. '. That the effect however was attributable; not to the diminution in the pro- portion of oxygen consequent upon the addition of so large an amount of carbonic acid, but to something positively deleterious in the latter gas itself, was inferred, by exposing the plants to air impregnated with ZO per cent. of hydrogen, which in the course of ten days appeared to exert no sensible in- fluence upon their health. There did not appear to be any very material difference in the action of q 60 REPORT—1849. avi % carbonic acid upon plants, whether it were suddenly or gradually introduced ; for when I exposed the same ferns to air into which 20 per cent. of carbonic acid had been added all at once, it was not till the 9th day that any change in their appearance was perceptible, and then only in three of the specimens ; Pteris serrulata and Adiantum cuneatum being scarcely, if at all affected. - However, on the 16th day the influence of the gas was manifest upon all except Pteris serrulata; the per-centage of carbonic acid was found to exceed that which had been added from without, and the condition of the ferns ge- nerally was rather more unhealthy and faded than it had been in the fore- going experiment, where the gas had been added in successive doses*. So much for this part of the investigation, which seems to be in a manner prefatory to the one which may be regarded as the more immediate object aimed at by the Association in suggesting these researches, that being, whether a larger amount of carbonic acid than is present in our atmosphere would increase the vigour, and stimulate the growth, of the tribes of plants which are most connected with the fossil remains found in the coal formation. With reference to this latter question, Iam not so far advanced towards its determination as might have been desired. : During the last five weeks Ferns and Lycopodiums have been living in an atmosphere containing constantly 5 per cent. of carbonic acid, whilst corre- sponding specimens have been placed under similar circumstances, except that the abnormal amount of carbonic acid above stated was absent from the air of the jar. In both instances the Lycopodiums continue up to this time in perfect health, but it must be confessed that the Adiantum cuneatum and fia- gelliforme which have been subjected to carbonic acid appear less thriving than the corresponding plants not so treated. It must be remarked moreover, that the per-centage of gas within the former jar has been increased to 5} per cent., the additional 3 per cent. being attri- butable to the diseased state of some of the fronds. The experiment however shall be continued for a longer period until more decisive results have been arrived at. But supposing it to be ascertained that ferns will exist in air containing 5 per cent. of carbonic acid, it still remained a question, whether the animals that lived at the same period could have resisted the poisonous influence of so large a proportion of this gas. In the coal formation, properly so called, Mollusca and Fish appear to be the animal remains principally detected, and the difference between the struc- ture of existing species, and of those which were in being at so remote a period as the one alluded to, may be urged, as an objection to the idea of. extending to the latter any inferences that might be deduced from experiments instituted upon the former. ; Nevertheless as in so fundamental a function as that of respiration, a si- milar law pervades all the individuals belonging to the same great natural group at the present time, as for instance, what is true in this respect con- — cerning the lowest in the scale of Mammalia, holds good likewise with cer- tain modifications with regard to the highest, it may not be illogical to presume, that the difference as to time would not create any radical change in the re- lations of a particular class of animals to carbonic acid, and in their suscep- tibility to its influence. * I do not find that ferns suffer from confinement in large jars; and at all events, as the circumstances were precisely the same in the two cases, with the exception of the presence or absence of this excess of carbonic acid, the difference in the appearance of the specimens seems clearly referable to the latter cause alone. INFLUENCE OF CARBONIC ACID GAS ON HEALTH OF PLANTS. 61 ‘With reference to the proportion of carbonic acid which water would abstract _ from air containing diffused through it so large an amount as 5 per cent. of this gas, the principles upon which such a problem may be determined have been long ago clearly laid down by Dr. Dalton. As neither carbonic acid, oxygen, or nitrogen are retained in water by vir- tue of any chemical affinity, but simply in the ratio of their respective elas- ticities, it follows that the quantity of these gases present in it will be regu- lated by the amount of each existing at the time in the superincumbent air. We know by experiment, that water would retain nearly about its own vo- lume of carbonic acid; 0°65 of its volume of oxygen; and 0°42 of nitrogen; under the pressure of an atmosphere consisting wholly of the gas so retained. If therefore we suppose the atmosphere in former times to have consisted of carbonic acid 5 per cent. and of common air, maintaining its present con- stitution, 95, that is, of— Maines d2 aise. (st. Sees cd epee lieww. soso. 1. Sede TD Carbonic aeidss. icici. Arak 5 the quantity of each gas retained by a volume of water under such circum- stances would be as follows :— PUB OD, sis: velicdew simistawin sine 1OS102 QR ye Riis nissan ne melew we SOLZRS Carbonic acid ............ °05300 09727 * Water therefore under an atmosphere of this constitution would still con- tain nearly as much oxygen as it does at present, and not more than ‘05, or zp Of its volume of carbonic acid, so that the condition of the gas expelled from the water would be such, as to consist in 100 parts of— Carbonic acid .............. 545 RUE ss hai cin sete aks oi pain a So Os gS te Aso winin ene «ato 00:0 _ Now I am enabled to prove, that a much larger proportion of carbonic acid than that supposed may exist in water without affeeting the health of fish at the present time. On one occasion indeed I agitated some river water in a closed vessel with a mixture of common air and carbonic acid, in the propor- tion of 1300 of the former to 100 of the latter, or in an atmosphere containing 7 or 8 per cent. of carbonic acid, and found that a number of Minnows intro- duced into the water so impregnated died within twenty-four hours, although 29 cubic inches were found by experiment to have taken up only 1 cubic inch of carbonic acid, which is in the ratio of 2°5 per cent. _ Nevertheless it was afterwards found by a number of experiments, that other fish, such as Perch and Roach, would live in water which contained from 5 to 10 per cent. of carbonic acid, the larger of which quantities would be nearly double that which has been shown to be taken up by water under a »pressure of 5 per cent. of the latter gas. On the other hand, where the ’ * As will appear by the following equation :— f Nitrogen’ sss cieiedbcdesesess ade eevee 76X 042=:03192 Oxygen...... decepeccuspesenevaves sees 19 X 065="01235 Carbonic acid PUPP CRETE Se DEeeO DEF ee8 05 x 1:06=:05300 °09727 62 . b REPORT— 1849, quantity present might be estimated at 13 per cent. as compared to the volume of water, all the fish experimented upon speedily perished. Nor was this merely the case with freshwater species, for I have had an opportunity within the last fortnight of repeating the same experiments at Ryde on certain sea-fish obtained off that coast. The species operated upon were those called Golden Maid (Labrus), two sorts of Pipe-fish (Syngnathus), Rock-fish ( Gobius niger), Bull-fish ( Cottus secorpius), and Flounder (Platessa flesus). Of these the Pipe-fishes and the Flounder remained alive for many hours in a tub of salt water containing 5 per cent. of carbonic acid, nor did they appear to suffer in consequence. When the amount was equal to 10 per cent., the Golden Maid (Labrus) was almost instantly affected, as were also the Pipe-fishes above operated upon. Although therefore the difficulty of keeping sea-fish long alive in small quantities of salt-water, after they have been removed from their natural element, renders it more difficult to arrive at satisfactory results with them than with freshwater species, I think myself upon the whole warranted in concluding, that both kinds are equally tolerant of the smaller amount of car- bonic acid, and alike susceptible of the poisonous influence of the larger. Supposing however no error to exist in the calculation I have made above as to the amount of carbonic acid present in the water to which the minnows had been subjected, it will follow that whilst 5 per cent. is innoxious to some fish, 3 per cent. is noxious to others, and that the power of resisting its dele- terious influence differs in different species. Nevertheless there seems reason for supposing, that an amount of carbonic acid in the atmosphere considerably larger than that which exists at present, would not communicate to the waters of the sea and rivers properties incompatible with the life of many fish. Although reptiles are not supposed to have existed generally at so early a period as that of the carboniferous formation, yet as saurians have been de- tected in the coal-beds of Greensburg in Pennsylvania, and in those of Saar- bruck near Treves*, which are regarded as belonging to the same epoch, and as they made their appearance so abundantly in that which comes next to it in point of antiquity, it appeared worth while to ascertain what power of resisting the influence of carbonic acid might be possessed by the tribes now in being which belong to the same class of animals. _ With reference however to this department of the inquiry, the experiments hitherto made by myself are far from numerous: I have kowever found, that frogs introduced under a bell-glass containing 5 per cent. of carbonic acid gas, appeared not to suffer, although they were killed when its proportion amounted to 10 per cent. Similar results were also obtained in experimenting upon newts; so that it would seem, as if, in accommodation to those arrange- ments of nature which were calculated to impart a greater luxuriance to the vegetation of the period alluded to, and to bring about during its continuance a larger accumulation of carboniferous matter, the lower tribes of animals, which at that time alone occupied the earth, were rendered less susceptible of the injurious influence of carbonic acid, than the higher orders subsequently created are found to be. In conclusion then I may remark, that the general tenor of these experiments, so far as they have as yet gone, justifies us in inferring, that there is nothing in the organization of those plants and those animals of the present day, which appear most nearly allied to such as were in existence during the carbonife- * See Lyell’s Travels in America, 2nd Series. ON THE HEAT OF COMBINATION. 63 rous epoch, or even somewhat subsequently to that period, militating against _ the probability, that a larger amount of carbonic acid may have been present in the atmosphere, and diffused through the waters of the sea and rivers, than is found, either in the one or in the other, at the present time; nor is there anything to prevent us from imagining, that the absorption of carbon by vegetables, and the consequent rapidity of their growth, may, at least within certain limits, have borne some proportion to the greater amount of carbonic acid assumed to have been present at earlier periods in the history of our globe, although whether this be actually the case, is a point which I hope to be able hereafter to settle more to my satisfaction, as well as to report the results arrived at on some future occasion. Report on the Heat of Combination. - By Tuomas Anprews, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA. THERE are few molecular changes in the condition of matter which are not accompanied by the evolution or absorption of heat. The quantity of heat which is thus set free or absorbed, bears always a definite relation to the amount of the mechanical or chemical action, and its determination in each particular case is a problem of considerable interest as affording a measure of the forces in action. If we consider the great number of pheeno- mena, mechanical, electrical and chemical, among which the production of heat forms the only bond of connexion which has hitherto been clearly ascertained, although there may be strong grounds for suspecting them to be only modified forms of the action of the same force, the importance of inves- tigations of this kind to the future progress of physical science will become at once apparent. The object of the present Report is to give a general view of the actual state of knowledge on the subject of thermo-chemistry, under which we may conveniently include a description of the thermal effects that occur in che- mical actions of every kind. A few new experiments will be described in their proper places. These will be given in some detail, but when referring to experiments already published, all numerical quantities will, as far as pos- sible, be avoided. Before entering upon the consideration of chemical combinations and de- compositions properly so called, it may be useful briefly to refer to the ther- mal changes which accompany solution. The earlier experiments on this ‘subject having been made solely with the object of discovering frigorific mixtures, do not furnish quantitative measures of any scientific value. But of late years the inquiry has been pursued in a more useful way by Gay- Lussac, Thomson, Karsten, Chodnew and Graham. The salts examined have been chiefly the soluble sulphates, nitrates and chlorides, and the solvents pure water and saline and acid solutions. The principal results of these in- vestigations I have endeavoured to express in the following propositions :— 1. The solution of a crystallized salt in water is always accompanied by an absorption of heat. _ 2. If equal weights of the same salt be dissolved in succession in the same _ liquid, the heat absorbed will be less on each new addition of salt. ' $. The heat absorbed by the solution of a salt in water holding other salts dissolved, is generally less than that absorbed by its solution in pure water. . 4. The heat absorbed by the solution of a salt in the dilute mineral acids, is generally greater than that absorbed by its solution in water. 64 REPORT—1849, As the subject is of great extent and the inquiry has hitherto embraced only a small number of cases of solution, it is not unlikely that some of these conclusions will require hereafter to be modified. From some experiments by Graham on the solution of salts belonging to certain isomorphous groups, there is reason to suspect the existence of a connexion between isomorphism and the absorption of heat in solution. The foregoing remarks apply only to the solution of crystallized salts. If, however, we take a salt which crystallizes with water and make it anhydrous before solution, the thermal results will be altogether different. The anhy- drous salt, when added to an excess of. water, will first combine with its ordi- nary equivalent of water of crystallization, and the new compound will then dissolve. ‘The change of temperature observed is therefore a complex quan- tity arising from the heat of combination due to the union of the anhydrous salt with water, and the heat absorbed by the solution of the hydrous salt. From a comparison of the results obtained on dissolving the same salt in the anhydrous and hydrous states, Graham has endeavoured to deduce the amount of heat due to the combination of the dry salt with its water of crystallization. According to his experiments, the sulphates of water, copper and manganese, disengage the same quantity of heat in combining with the first atom of © water. The sulphates of magnesia and zinc also disengage equal quantities of heat in their complete hydration. The same simple relation is not however observed to hold between the quantities of heat evolved in the complete hy- dration of the first set of salts, or in the combination of the second set with the first atom of water. Neither does it apply to the other sulphates of the magnesian series, ~ None of the experiments hitherto published furnish all the requisite data for calculating with precision the absolute quantities of heat set free or absorbed in these cases of chemical action. The weights of the water and of the salt are given, and sometimes the weight and form of the vessel, and the material of which it is composed; but these data are not sufficient to enable us to deduce the true numbers from the observed increments or decrements of temperature. Knowing the weight and composition of the containing vessel, we may, it is true, calculate its thermal value in water. But other corrections, such as those for the heating and cooling influence of the sur- rounding air, can only be ascertained by special experiments performed under similar conditions to the original observations. Neither have any ex- periments of sufficient accuracy been made to determine the specific heats of the solutions formed. To complete an investigation which would furnish all these elements, would be a work of very great labour, and will probably scarcely be undertaken till our instruments and means of observation are greatly improved. As a first step to such an inquiry, I may here describe a few preliminary experiments on the specific heats of some saline solutions, and on the quantities of heat absorbed in the solution of successive portions of the same salt, To obtain results approaching to accuracy in experiments on the specific heats of saline solutions is extremely difficult, as the errors of experiment are often of nearly the same order of magnitude as the whole differences to be observed. The corrections for the cooling and heating action of the air and ~ for the effects of radiation, cannot be estimated with any certainty by the ap- plication of general formulas founded on experiments made at a different time* ; and the most careful examination of the calibre of the thermometer lr i i a me a 7 i i ‘ * If the vessel be uncovered, changes in the hygrometric state of the atmosphere produce a very marked influence on the rate of cooling, when the excess of temperature above the air — ON THE HEAT OF COMBINATION. 65 tube will fail to render different parts of the scale accurately comparable with one another to a five-hundredth part. The general method pursued in the determination of the following specific heats was the same which I described some years ago*; but to avoid the uncertainties just referred to, alternate experiments were made with pure water and with the solution, under condi- tions as nearly as possible identical, and these were repeated till accurate means were obtained. By this mode of operating, a very great degree of precision may be given to experiments of this kind. The only salts whose solutions have yet been examined are the nitrate of potash, the nitrate of soda and the chloride of sodium. They were all chemi- cally pure. The density of each solution compared with water at the same temperature was also determined. The first solution of nitrate of potash contained for every 100 parts of water 25°29 parts of the salt. The thermal values of the thermometer with large reservoir described in the paper already referred to, in terms of this solution and of water, were found in alternate experiments to be— Solution I. Water. 5044 ¢ 4095 504:7 4107 5050 4116 Mean.... 5047 4106 The temperature of the air during these experiments varied only from 18° C. to 18°5 C. The second and third solutions contained respectively 12°645 and 6:322 parts of nitrate of potash for 100 parts water. Air from 185 to 189. Solution II. Solution III. Water. 4600 4393 4118 4620 4387 4105 4605 4385 4108 4610 aati Mean.... 4610 4387 4110 From these data the specific heats of these solutions at the temperatures at which the experiments were performed, as compared with water at the same temperatures, may be easily computed. I have given them in the following table, as also the specific gravities of the liquids. 5 Il. Iii. Specific heat .......... 0°8135 08915 = -_- 09369 Specific gravity........ 11368 1-0728 1:0382 The solutions of nitrate of soda contained 42°49, 21:245 and 10°622 parts respectively of nitrate of soda for 100 parts of water. The temperature of _ the air ranged from 17%5 to 188 during these experiments. Solution I. Water. Solution II. Water. Solution III. Water. Le 5261 4107 4775 4116 4499 4116 5234 5117 4782 4098 4498 4098 Ny 5247 4119 4787 4100 4488 4100 _ Mean....5247 4114 4781 4105 4495 4105 | ia Il. Ill. ig Specific heat .......... 0°7838 0°8585 09131 yr, Specific gravity ........ 1:2272 ~ 11256 1:0652 es amounts only to a few degrees ; and even in a close apartment the increased agitation of the _ air on a windy day sensibly increases the rate of cooling. * * Philosophical Transactions for 1844, p. 34. 1849, F 66 REPORT—1849. Of chloride of sodium two solutions were examined, the first containing 29215, the second 14°607 chloride of sodium for 100 water. The air was nearly steady between 17°9 and 18°. Solution I. Water. Solution II, Water. 5107 4111 4740) 4111 5127 4106 4733 4106 5128 4731 Mean.... 5121 4108 4735 4108 i Il. Specific heat............ 08018 0°8671 Specific gravity........... 1°1724 1-0942 It may be not uninteresting to compare these numbers with those deduced by calculation from the specific heats of the salts in the dry state. The latter have been nade the subject of experiment by Avogadro and Regnault, but their results do not agree well with each other. I have adopted Regnault’s - numbers in my calculations. Solution. Specific heat Mean spec. heat of by experiment. dry salt and water. Nitrate of potash 1 0°8135 0°8463 » ” 2 0°8915 09145 > . 33 3s 0°9369 0'9566 Nitrate of soda l. 0°7838 0°7847 x > 2. 0°8585 0°8736 a » 4}; 09131 0:9307 Chloride of sodium 1. 0°8018 0°8224: os “6 Zs 0°8671 0°9000 It is obvious that the specific heat of the solution is, in every instance, less than the mean of the specific heats of its component parts, and that serious errors would be committed, if we should attempt to calculate on this principle of the thermal values of solutions which may be formed in the course of our experiments. I have made a short series of experiments on the quantities of heat absorbed during the solution of nitrate of soda and of nitrate of potash, when added in successive portions to the same liquid. The results fully confirm those previously obtained by Graham, but as the experiments were only pre- liminary trials to a more extended investigation, it is not necessary to describe them in detail. I may briefly state, that on dissolving 12-22 grammes of ni- — trate of soda in 250 grammes of water and repeating the experiment with each new solution, till the water was nearly saturated, the following decre- ments of temperature were found :— 1. 280C 6. 1é60C. 2. 243 7 AT eer 8- 1:39 4. PM«gQ SP) pas 5. By the aid of the specific heats already determined, and knowing the thermal value of the vessel in which the experiments were performed (4°3 grms.), I have calculated for experiments 1, 4 and 9 the following numbers, which ex- : i Pi _ ~J ion _ j=) — bb ~J Vie Sms Rasa iat ON THE HEAT OF COMBINATION. 67 press the degrees Centigrade through which one part of water would be raised by the heat absorbed in the solution of one part of the salt. 1. 2. 3. 590 407 309 On dissolving 7-99 grms. nitrate of potash in 250 grms. water and repeating the operation as before, the successive decrements of temperature observed were,— oO 1. 65 C. 5. §=—s B06 C. 2. 249 6. 1-97 3 2-34, Te 1°87 4, 299 8 «1°75 Combination of Sulphuric Acid with Water—In an elaborate memoir on thermo-chemistry, which was published in Poggendorff’s ‘Annalen,’ Hess made the first systematic attempt to reduce the quantities of heat disengaged in the formation of the hydrates of sulphuric acid to definite laws. His ex- periments were made by two distinct methods, which however did not give exactly the same results. In the first or indirect method of operating, equi- valent quantities of SO,, SO, HO, SO, 2HO, &c., were respectively mixed with a large excess of water and the increments of temperature observed in each case. The difference between the increments observed on mixing any two compounds with water, was assumed to correspond to the heat due to the combination of the first compound with the number of equivalents of water necessary to convert it into the second. Thus, if SO, HO added to x HO gave a units of heat, and SO, 3HO added to the same x HO gave 6 units, a—b was supposed to represent the number of units which would be obtained on combining SO, HO and 2HO. In the second, or direct method, each compound was combined with the quantity of water exactly required to con- vert it into the succeeding compound, and the heat measured by observing the increment of temperature of a determinate quantity of water surrounding the vessel in which the combination took place. These experiments have Since been repeated by Graham, Abria, and Fabre and Silbermann, but their results do not generally agree with the statements of Hess. The fundamental principle laid down by the latter is, that there exists a simple relation between the numbers which express the quantities of heat set free in the formation of the successive hydrates of sulphuric acid. If we de- signate by 2 athe heat disengaged in the combination of SO, HO with HO, then, according to Hess, the heat set free in the formation of the other hy- drates will be S OiysritF EO Mea ses, esd nctbevve 8a SO,HO+HO,.......:...,.. Qa SO QE Oda ion ihc ichere diotescods a SO, 8HO ASM Ow obiiosstibis ab oe SO,6HO+#HO............ de In an early part of his memoir, Hess gives 38°85 for the value of a, but ‘this he afterwards changes to 46-94, still maintaining however the accuracy of the ratios. It is difficult to see how this can be correct. The only expe- ‘Timent described by Hess on the combination of the anhydrous acid with water gave the number 305, which bears to 46:94, not the ratio of 8: 2, but Nearly that of 6:5 to 2. Abria obtained a still lower number for the combi- Ration SO, with HO. There can therefore be little doubt, if the experiments | may be relied on, that the first ratio is too high, It remains to be seen how Tar the others haye been confirmed by subsequent investigations. ws FZ 68 REPORT—1849, The multipliers of a for the three latter combinations given in the preceding table are, according to Graham’s experiments, 0°72, 1°35 and 1°18. These numbers agree with Hess’s statement only so far as to indicate that the heat evolved in the combination of SO, HO with HO is nearly the same as that evolved in the combination of SO, 2HO with 4HO. The experiments of Abria were performed by the direct method and with a similar apparatus to that employed by Hess. Adopting the views of Hess as to the quantities of heat in the cases of combination being in simple relations to one another, he arrives nevertheless at very different numbers for the ratios. In the next table I have given Abria’s theoretical whole numbers, as-also the exact numbers which result from his experiments. Theory. Experiment. BOSE TIC ee a re Ee, Se ee ae SO,HO+HO .... Qa ........ 200a SO,2HO+HO.... a .. 0°95a eee LUE es OU) anon eee O'57a SO,4HO+HO.... 3a ........ 0°35a SO,5HO+HO.... 2a¢ ........ 0:22 In the three latter cases, the simple relations in the second column are scarcely borne out by the experimental numbers. The only agreement with the ratios given by Hess is in the combination SO, 2HO with HO, which, according to both experimenters, sets free exactly half as much heat as the combination SO,HO with HO. The value of a, given by Abria, is 39°33. The latest experiments on this subject are those of Fabre and Silbermann, from which I have calculated the following multipliers for a :— SO, BOs HO. oilie-é 2-00a SO, 2HO+HO jie cece onip «u's 0:93a SG BHO HD Nem eatsne. 0°53a SO,4HO+HO 2.2... 004. 0°32a Se FEO 4 FO ind. moitcatcies 0:26a Hess has also attempted to express by simple multiple relations the quan- tities of heat disengaged in the formation of the hydrates of nitric acid, but for the details of his results I must refer to the original memoir. Combination of Acids and Bases.—In the same memoir Hess describes an extensive set of experiments on the heat evolved during the union of certain bases with acids of different degrees of concentration. These experiments serve to illustrate the general principle, that in the formation of a chemical compound the heat developed is a constant quantity, being the same in amount, whether the combination takes place directly at one time or in- directly at repeated times. ‘Thus he finds that on neutralizing an aqueous solution of ammonia with sulphuric acid, containing one, two, three and six atoms of water, there is a different development of heat in each case; but by adding to the results found by experiment in the three latter cases the quan- tities of heat due to the combination of the monohydrated acid, with one, two and five atoms of water respectively, the same number is obtained in each case as in the direct combination of the monohydrated acid itself. This | principle is correct, but it is almost self-evident and scarcely required so elaborate a proof. The bases examined by Hess were potash, soda, ammonia and lime, which he combined in different ways with the sulphuric, nitric and hydrochloric acids. The conclusion at which he arrives is, that the same acid in combining with equivalents of different bases produces the same quantity of heat, but at the same time he expresses some doubt as to the applicability of this principle AOD 4 Meg ig nk be » * owe a> Dr i im we per ay es. f ON THE HEAT OF COMBINATION. 69 to all similar cases of combination. Indeed his own experiments with lime and ammonia do not accurately agree with it; I refer particularly to his ex- periments with ammonia, which, when properly interpreted, appear to me to prove clearly that that base in combining with acids developes less heat than potash or soda, although I am aware that Hess himself has drawn from them a different conclusion. About the time of the publication of the first part of Hess’s memoir, I had completed an investigation of the same subject, but instead of employing strong solutions of the acids and bases, I diluted all the liquids largely with water previous to examining their thermal reactions. In this way I hoped to avoid the complex effects that arise when successive combinations and decomposi- tions of different kinds occur in the same chemical action, and the result fully realized my anticipations. The general conclusion deduced from this investigation may be briefly expressed, by stating that the heat deyeloped during the union of acids and bases is determined by the base and not by the acid. The following special laws will be found to comprehend the greater number of cases of chemical action to which the foregoing principle can be made to apply. 1. An equivalent of the same base, combined with different acids, produces nearly the same quantity of heat. ' 2, An equivalent of the same acid, combined with different bases, produces different quantities of heat. 3. When a neutral salt is converted into an acid salt by combining with one or more equivalents of acid, no disengagement of heat occurs. 4. When a double salt is formed by the union of two neutral salts, no dis- engagement of heat occurs. 5. When a neutral salt is converted into a basic salt, the combination is accompanied by the disengagement of heat. 6. When one and the same base displaces another from any of its neutral combinations, the heat evolved or absorbed is always the same whatever the acid element may be. _ As some of the bases (potash, soda, barytes and strontia) form what we ‘may perhaps designate an isothermal group, such bases will develope the same, or nearly the same heat in combining with an acid, and no heat will be developed during their mutual displacements. _ These laws are not intended to embrace the thermal changes which occur during the conversion of an anhydrous acid and base into a crystalline com- pound. The steps by which such a conversion is effected are generally very complicated, and involve successive combinations and decompositions. We cannot combine, at ordinary temperatures, a dry acid and a dry base; and when combination takes place in presence of water, hydrates of the acid and base are first formed, which are afterwards decomposed, and the crystalline salt finally obtained is sometimes anhydrous, sometimes combined with water. To expect simple results where so many different actions must produce each its proper thermal effect, would be altogether vain, and to introduce the con- "sideration of some of these actions without the whole would only render the _ numbers empirical. In the experiments from which the foregoing laws were _ deduced, the acids and bases before combination, and the compounds after _ combination, were as nearly as possible in the same physical state. The only _ ehange which occurred was the combination of the acid and base, and the heat evolved must therefore have arisen from the act of combination. Such _ changes of temperature as are produced by solution are not in any way con- cerned in producing these thermal effects, as none of the reacting bodies ~ assumed at any time the solid state. The insoluble bases form, it is true, an 70 REPORT—1849. unavoidable exception to this statement, and in the experiments with them, the results would require to be corrected for the heat due to the change of the base from the solid to the fluid state As this correction, however, al- though unknown, must be a constant quantity for the same base, it would not, if applied, interfere with the direct proof of the first law. In an inquiry of this kind, it is important, while endeavouring to generalize the results of experiment, to point out at the same time the differences which occur in particular cases between those results and the numbers deduced from the theory. In the whole range of the science of heat, scarcely a single . general principle has yet been discovered which is strictly in accordance with all the results of experiment ; and from the application of improved me- thods of experimenting, discrepancies of this kind have of late years been found to exist where they had not before been suspected. In the original experiments from which the first of the foregoing laws was deduced, the mean heatdeveloped by the nitric, phosphoric, arsenic, hydrochlo- ric, hydriodic, boracic, chromic and oxalic acids being 6°61, the greatest de- viation from the mean on either side amounted only to 0%15; and a similar remark may be made with respect to the combinations of soda, barytes and ammonia. On the other hand, sulphuric acid disengaged about 0*7 more,than the mean quantity, and the citric, tartaric and succinic acids about 0%5 less. To ascertain whether these discrepancies depended on the state of dilution of the solutions, I repeated these experiments lately with solutions of only half the strength, but although only half the heat was obtained, similar differences were still found to exist. If, instead of taking just the quantity of sulphuric acid required to neutralize the base, we employ a large excess, the heat given out during combination will be nearly 0°-2 less, which reduces the anomaly presented by this acid to about 0°5. The sulphurous acid not having been formerly examined, I have lately made some experiments on its thermal re- — lations to the bases, the results of which are very interesting. Although one of the feeblest acids, it agrees almost exactly with sulphuric acid in the heat developed by its combination with potash. In several carefully conducted experiments the increments of temperature did not differ more than 0°05. Combining this with the fact that acids differing so much in composition and properties as the nitric, boracic and oxalic, also disengage almost exactly the same amount of heat in the act of combination, there will, [ conceive, be little hesitation in attributing the deviations already mentioned to the in- fluence of extraneous causes, and in acknowledging the truth of the principle, that the heat of combination depends upon the neutralization or combination of the base, and not upon the nature of the acid by which the base is neutral- ized. That other causes of change of temperature, of feeble power, do ac- tually exist, may be proved by the following fact. If we add an excess of sulphuric acid to the neutral solution after combination has taken place, a slight fall of temperature, amounting to about 0%1, will occur; if we make the same experiment with sulphurous acid, an increase of temperature of about equal amount will be observed, while with oxalic acid there will be no thermal change of any kind. Now it is very probable that the same causes which produce these slight thermal effects are in operation during the original combination of the acid and base, and if so, they would introduce anomalies into the quantities of heat then developed. There is one important condition, which, as far as my investigations ex- tend, requires to be fulfilled in order that the first law may hold good; viz. the acid must have the power of neutralizing the alkaline reaction of the bases. It is for this reason that the hydrocyanic, carbonic and arsenious acids do not develope the same quantity of heat in combining with potash as ee a a ON THE HEAT OF COMBINATION. 71 the other acids. The sparing solubility of the arsenious acid in water pre- vents an accurate examination of its thermal reactions; but on repeated trials I obtained 0°25 F., on combining with it the same quantity of potash which under similar conditions gave 0°34 with nitric acid. Although a considerable excess of arsenious acid was taken, as proved by the fact that further additions produced no new development of heat, the solution still exhibited an alkaline reaction. The same is also well known to be true of the hydrocyanic and carbonic acids. In the case of bases, such as the oxide of copper, whose salts have all an acid reaction, this criterion will not apply ; but the exceptional acids are so few, and their peculiarities so well-marked, that they give rise to little difficulty in the experimental investigation. The quantities of heat developed by different bases in combining with the same acid are so different, that it is unnecessary to refer particularly to the proofs of the second law. In this case, neutralizing power has no apparent influence on the results, as oxide of silver, which forms salts neutral to test paper with the strongest acids, is one of the feeblest bases if measured by its thermal power. It developes, in fact, little more than one-third of the heat which potash does in combining with the acids. The more recent experiments of Graham and of Fabre and Silbermann, confirm the accuracy of the facts from which the second and third laws were deduced, that no heat is developed on mixing solutions of neutral salts or of a neutral salt and acid*. It is difficult however to obtain, as Graham has remarked, positive proof of the occurrence of combination, when such solu- tions are brought into contact. Fabre and Silbermann indeed are of opinion that acid salts cannot exist in the state of solution. Double Decompositions——When solutions of two neutral salts are mixed and a precipitate formed from their mutual decomposition, there is always a disengagement of heat, which, though not considerable, is perfectly definite in amount. It does not altogether arise from the components of the pre- cipitate having changed from the fluid to the solid state—as it is not always the same for the same precipitate—but it is chiefly connected with the latent heat of the precipitate. If the latter contains water of crystallization, the heat given out is much greater than when an anhydrous precipitate is formed... Experiments of this kind appears at first view to be extremely simple, but it is often difficult to obtain exact results, from the length of time during which the heat continues to be disengaged, even when the combination is aided by brisk agitation. The precipitation of the salts of barytes and lead by a soluble sulphate appeared to present favourable conditions for investigation, and accordingly I made an extensive set of experiments with these classes of salts. This is indeed the only part of the inquiry which I have been able to complete. A few other examples of double decomposition will however be noticed. Chloride of Barium and Sulphate of Magnesia.—Of chloride of barium carefully purified and dried immediately before the experiment at a low red heat, 16°94 grms. were taken in each experiment, equivalent to 19:00 grms. ‘sulphate of barytes. The weight of sulphate of magnesia (dry) was 10°3 grms., which is a little more than sufficient to decompose completely the chloride of barium. The entire weight of the water employed to dissolve the salts was 234 grms., of which one-third was taken to dissolve the sulphate of mag- hesia, and two-thirds to dissolve the chloride of barium. The solutions were contained in vessels of thin copper, the smaller of which, when filled with its * Slight changes of temperature may however occasionally be detected ; but in some cases a development, in others, an absorption of heat occurs. These thermal effects evidently arise from causes altogether distinct from those which produce the combination of acids and bases. yb REPORT—1849. solution, floated in the larger, and could be rapidly rotated, so as to produce in a short time a perfect equilibrium of temperature throughout the whole apparatus. The thermometer attained a maximum about 8! after the solutions were mixed. I have elsewhere indicated the precautions to be taken in such experiments, and shall therefore not refer to them here. In the fol- lowing statements, I have given the temperature of the air, the increment actually observed in Centigrade degrees, and the number of degrees through which | grm. of water would be raised by the precipitation of 1 grm. and 1 equiv. (oxygen=1) of the precipitate. In calculating the latter numbers, all the usual corrections were applied to the observed increments of tem- perature :— 5 5 Temperature of air .......... 18°3 144 ‘Increments observed ........ 1:95 1:96 Heat for 1 grm. BaO, SO,.... 25°4 25:2 Heat for 1 equiv. BaO,SO, .. 368°9 Chloride of Barium and Sulphate of Soda,—The same weight of chloride of barium taken as before, and an equivalent weight of sulphate of soda. ° Temperature of air......... - 20:2 187 Increments observed ........ 1°57 1°55 Heat for 1 grm. BaO, SO, .... 20°4 20°1 Heat for 1 equiv. BaO, SO, .. 2945 Chloride of Barium and Sulphate of Zine. Temperature of air .......... 19°7 19:6 Increments observed ........ 1°69 1°72 Heat for 1 grm. BaO, SO,.... 22°2 22-4 Heat for 1 equiv. BaO, SO, .. 325'1 Chloride of Barium and Protosulphate of Iron. fo} Temperature of air.............. 18-8 Increment observed............-- 1-99 Heat for 1 grm. BaO, SO,........ 25°6 Heat for 1 equiv. BaO, SO, ...... 373°2 Chloride of Barium and Sulphate of Copper. Temperature of air.......... 175 176 Increments observed ........ 1°85 1°85 Heat for 1 grm. BaO, SO, .... 247 246 Heat for 1 equiv. BaO, SO, .. 3594 Chloride“of Barium and Sulphate of Ammonia. Temperature of air.......... 11-3 11 Increments observed .......- 1°85 1°84 Heat for 1 grm. BaO, SO, .... 242 241 Heat for 1 equiv. BaO, SO, .. 352°1 Nitrate of Barytes and Sulphate of Magnesia—aAs the nitrate of barytes is sparingly soluble in water, 10°6 grms. only were taken, which is equivalent to half the quantity of chloride of barium used in the foregoing experiments. The other salts were reduced in the same proportion, fe} Temperature of air.......... 13:9 144 Increments observed ........ 0°82 0°82 Heat for 1 grm. BaO, SO,.... 22:2 21°2 Heat for 1 equiv. BaO, SO, .. 3164 ON THE HEAT OF COMBINATION. 73 Nitrate of Barytes and Sulphate of Soda. ° Temperature of air...... ny One ve 144 Increment observed............+. 0°75 Heat for | grm. BaO, SO,........ 20°5 Heat for 1 equiv. BaO, SO; ...... 2989 Nitrate of Barytes and Sulphate of Zine. Temperature of air.......... 139 14-1 Increments observed ........ 0°83 0°83 Heat for 1 grm. BaO, SO,.... 22°0 22:0 Heat for 1 equiv. BaO, SO; .. 320°7 Nitrate of Barytes and Sulphate of Copper. Temperature of air.......... 144 14-4 Increments observed ........ 0°88 0°91 Heat for 1 grm. BaO, SO, .... 23:0 245 Heat for 1 equiv. BaO, SO, .. 346°2 The salts of lead were next examined. The precipitation of the sulphate of lead took place with the same facility as that of the sulphate of barytes, the thermometer attaining the maximum in eight minutes. Acetate of Lead and Sulphate of Magnesia.—The acetate of lead was pure and in crystals, 4°1'7 grms. precipitated by oxalate of ammonia gave 2°4.54 grms. oxide of lead, which exactly agrees with the theoretical composition of the salt. In each of the following experiments, 30°80 grms. acetate of lead were taken, corresponding to 24°63 sulphate of lead :— Temperature of air.......... 12°7 123 Increments observed ...... soy LO 0°97 Heat for 1 grm. PbO, SO,.... 9:9 5%) Heat for 1 equiv. PbO, SO, .. 187°6 Acetate of Lead and Sulphate of Soda. Temperature of air .......... 123 12-9 Increments observed ........ 0°84 0°86 Heat for 1 grm. PbO, SO,.... 8:3 85 Heat for 1 equiv. PbO, SO, .. 159°2 Acetate of Lead and Sulphate of Zinc. Temperature of air.......... 123 139 Increments observed ...... oe = O41 0°37 Heat for 1 grm. PbO, SO,.... 4:1 3°7 Heat for 1 equiv. PbO, SO, .. 739 _ In the last experiment the precipitation was so slow that the thermometer did not attain the highest point for thirteen minutes after the solutions were mixed. When the salts of lead are precipitated by a neutral oxalate, the heat dis- engaged is much greater than when they are precipitated by a sulphate. I have not examined in detail the increments of temperature in this class of precipitations, but in one experiment, in which the acetate of lead was pre- cipitated by the oxalate of potash, 36°2 units of heat were obtained for each gramme of oxalate of lead. | In the experiments next to be described, a dilute acid was substituted for one of the neutral solutions. 74 REPORT—1849. Chloride of Barium and Sulphurie Acid.—The same quantities of chloride of barium and of water were taken as in the experiments with the neutral sulphates. A slight excess of sulphuric acid was employed to secure com- plete precipitation. Temperature of air’ .......... 178 18-4 151 9:8 Increments observed.......... 3°44 346 3:38 3:42 Heat for 1 grm. BaO, SO,...... 45°6 45°6 440 = 442 Heat for 1 equiv. BaO, SO, ; 654°6 Nitrate of Barytes and Sidpfeoie Acid.—As in the former experiments, half the usual equivalents only were taken. ie) ° Temperature of air.......... 15°0 153 Increments observed .......- 1°50 1°49 Heat for 1 grm. BaO, SO,.... 40°4 39°2 Heat for 1 equiv. BaO, SO, .. 580°2 Acetate of Barytes and Sulphuric Acid.—Half equivalents were taken in this case also. ° oO Temperature of air .......... 12:3 125 Increments observed ........ 1:90 1:91 Heat for 1 grm. BaO, SO,.... 49°5 49°3 Heat for 1 equiv. BaO, SO; .. 720°2 be a Acetate of Baryies and Oxalic Acid.—11'2 grms. of acetate of barytes ands | 5°33 grms. oxalic acid taken. Temperature of air.......... 12:3 128 Increments observed ...... o> 19 119 Heat for 1 grm. BaO, C,O, ., 22°1 21°8 Heat for 1 equiv. BaO, C, O;.. 309°0 Acetate of Lead and Sulphuric Acid.—Of the acetate 30°8 grms. taken and _ an equivalent of the acid. 5 : ° Temperature of air....+..... 14°9 141 Increments observed ......- "284 2°86 Heat for 1 grm. PbO, SO, .... 28°0 29°2 Heat for 1 equiv. PbO, SO, .. 542:0 Nitrate of Lead and Sulphuric Acid.—Of nitrate of lead 26:26 grms. taken. / Temperature of air........ . 98 10°3 Increments observed .......- 1°63 1°66 Heat for 1 grm. PbO, SO,.... 16:3 16°4 Heat for 1 equiv. PbO, SO, .. 309'8 Acetate of Lead and Oxalic Acid —15°4 grms. of acetate of lead were — taken. 3 Temperature Of ain, 5.2: --. 26 2 2 ens 9°8 Tnerement GDSerVed<. ce ae aeekaieuns 2:12 4 Fleattor 1 perm ep, CoO ce sinica ms 4°3 Heat for 1 equiv. PbO, C, O,........ 7929 These experiments can only be regarded as introductory to an extended and interesting subject of inquiry. With such limited data, it would be pre- mature to attempt to draw any general inferences. Solution of Metals in Nitric Acid—Every chemist is familiar with the ON THE HEAT OF COMBINATION. 75 violent action of nitric acid on zinc and copper, and the abundant evolution of gas which accompanies it. But the facility with which the gases may be condensed by the acid solution is probably not so generally known, and when the experiment is made for the first time cannot fail to excite surprise. If a small vessel of thin German glass, of about the capacity of half a fluid ounce, be half-filled with nitric acid of density 1:4, and a slip of zine be sus- pended in the upper part so as not to touch the acid, the flask hermetically sealed, and finally inverted while surrounded with cold water, a very violent action will occur, but without bursting the vessel. Having ascertained these facts, there was little difficulty in measuring the heat disengaged during the solution of the metals in nitric acid. The metal was weighed in a glass tube open at one end, which was introduced into a thin glass vessel containing nitric acid of specific gravity 1-4. The latter was then carefully closed and " introduced into a copper vessel filled with water, and suspended in a metallic © cylinder which was capable of rotation. On inverting the apparatus, the metal and acid came into contact, and the solution was completed in a few seconds. The rotation was afterwards continued for five minutes, which was sufficient to diffuse the heat disengaged through every part of the calorimeter. Solution of Zine in Nitric Acid. oF Hi ill. IV. Temperature ofair 4°5 6:2 8:0 58 Increment found .. 2°66 2°78 2°83 271 Increment corrected 2°65 2°77 2°82 2°71 Weight of zinc .... O-587grm. O600grm. 0615 grm. 0°604 grm. Weight of water ..294°8 2844. 289'°3 2946 Value of acid...... 7°4 69 65 66 Value of vessels.... 14°3 14°3 143 143 Heat of combination 1429 1411 1422 1420 ne we have for the heat disengaged during the solution in nitric acid oI— ; gg 0 wr ies pager 1420 (Me = nL anal ll eae pa 5857 Solution of Copper in Nitric Acid. “i I. ol ul ol: Temperature of air.. 8-9 6°8 7'8 8°5 Increment found...... 2°56 2°58 2°58 2°57 Increment corrected .. 2°55 2°56 2°57 2°56 Weight of copper ....1°202grm. 1:204grm. 1-206 grm. 1:213grm. Weight of water.... 2'74*2 273°2 273°3 275°4: Value of acid ...... 14°5 168 15°6 15°5 Value of vessels.... 16:8 16°8 16°8 16°8 _ Heat of combination . . 648 652 651 650 _ We have therefore for the heat disengaged during the solution in nitric acid of— L.SCM» COPPER os kryen de oso 650 Li CGuhy. GODBCT ois 'zjerys ois: + 2578 _ I made several attempts to determine the amount of heat disengaged in the solution of iron in nitric acid, but although acids of different strengths | were employed, I was unable to obtain satisfactory results, as the iron always assumed the passive state before a sufficient quantity was dissolved to raise the temperature of the water in the calorimeter through 1°. Silver, bismuth 76 REPORT—1849. and other metals were also tried, but the solution did not proceed with suffi- cient energy. The numbers 5857 and 2578 obtained above, are very nearly in the same ratio as 5366 and 2394, which, according to my experiments (and their results differ little from those of Dulong), express the quantities of heat set free by the combustion of zinc and copper in oxygen gas. This shows clearly that the oxidation of the metals is the principal cause of the heat produced during their solution in nitric acid. Other causes of thermal change however exist, which must exercise a considerable influence. Such are the combinations of the oxide with the nitric acid, the separation of the elements of a portion of the nitric acid during the solution, and the condensation of the oxygen gas during the combustion. From these and other circumstances, it is not un- likely that the numbers expressing the quantities of heat disengaged in these reactions will not be found in all other cases to be so nearly in the same ratio as in the foregoing examples; but it may be presumed that the general results will be the same, and that those metals which produce a greater amount of heat by their combustion in oxygen will also produce a greater amount of heat when dissolving in nitric acid. The heat produced by the solution of copper in nitromuriatie acid is, according to the result of a single trial, about +th less than that produced by its solution in nitric acid. Metallic substitutions.—I have lately treated this part of the subject at so great length in a paper published in the Philosophical Transactions, that I shall here only transcribe the general result of the investigation. It is thus expressed :—‘ When an equivalent of one and the same metal replaces an- other in a solution of any of its salts of the same order, the heat developed is always the same; but a change in either of the metals produces a different development of heat.” This is evidently an analogous law to that already stated for the thermal changes which accompany basic substitutions. The numerical results are however entirely different in their details. Combustions in Oxygen Gas.—Since the time when Lavoisier published his celebrated experiments on the heat produced by combustion, the subject has frequently engaged the attention of chemists. But few results were ob- . tained of any scientific value, till the posthumous publication of Dulong’s valuable researches, which have formed the basis of all subsequent inquiries. More recently, Grassi and Fabre and Silbermann have examined thesame sub- | ject, and I have myself lately published a set of experiments upon it, which | were made some years ago. With the exception of some of Grassi’s results, the numbers obtained by the different experimenters agree very nearly with each other, and we may therefore consider the quantities of heat developed by the combination of oxygen with the more important simple bodies and with some of their compounds to be determined with considerable precision. Fabre and Silbermann have also examined the combustion of carbon in the protoxide of nitrogen. A tabular view of nearly all the numerical results hitherto obtained, will be found in the edition of Gmelin’s Hand-book of Che- mistry recently published by the Cavendish Society. I shall here therefore confine myself to a few general observations. “ The following bodies in their ordinary physical states, viz. hydrogen, car- bonic oxide, cyanogen, iron, tin and antimony, disengage nearly the same amount of heat in combining with an equal volume of oxygen. The num- bers which express the heat of combination in these cases do not in fact differ from one another more than j,th part of the whole quantity,—a difference which is nearly within the limit of the errors of experiment. This observa- tion applies only to the quantities of heat actually obtained by experiment. ON THE HEAT OF COMBINATION. a7 But if we apply corrections for the heat due to the changes of physical state which occur in some of these reactions, the same agreement will no longer be observed. Thus in the combustion of carbonic oxide, the resulting com- pound is obtained in the gaseous state, while in the combustion of hydrogen it is condensed during the course of the experiment into a liquid; and if, from the entire quantity of heat evolved in the latter case, we deduct that arising from the condensation of the vapour of water, the result will no longer agree with the quantity of heat obtained in the former case. Protoxide of tin may probably be added to the foregoing list,and perhaps also phosphorus, which disengages however a little more heat than the other bodies. Sulphur, copper and the protoxide of copper, disengage, during their com- bustion in oxygen gas, a little more than half the quantity of heat evolved by the preceding class of bodies. Carbon occupies an intermediate position, while zinc gives out a larger quantity of heat than any of the bodies already enumerated ; and potassium a still larger quantity than zinc. The combus- tion of a large number of carbo-hydrogens, alcohols, zethers and organic acids has been examined by Fabre and Silbermann. Their results prove the opi- nion to be erroneous, that if we subtract the oxygen in the form of water, the remaining elements give the same amount of heat as in the free state. In the reduction of oxide of iron by hydrogen gas, no perceptible evolu- tion of heat occurs, while in the reduction of the oxide of copper by the same gas, it is well known that ignition takes place, unless the experiment is conducted very slowly. These phenomena are at once explained by the fact, that in combining with oxygen, hydrogen gas disengages nearly the same quantity of heat as iron, and twice as much heat as copper. Fabre and Silbermann have observed that the heat of combustion is influ- ‘enced to a considerable extent by the physical state in which the combustible exists before combination. According to their experiments, carbon in the form of the diamond disengages 7824 units of heat during its combustion in oxygen gas; in the form of graphite 7778 units; and in that of wood-char- coal 8080 units. According to my own experiments and those of Despretz, the combustion of wood-charcoal produces only about 7900 units. Fabre and Silbermann have also supposed that they’ were able to detect differences in the quantities of heat disengaged by sulphur in its different allotropic states. The same chemists have also made the remarkable observation, that a much larger quantity of heat is evolved by the combustion of carbon in the protoxide of nitrogen than in oxygen gas. From this it should follow that in the separation of the elements of the protoxide of nitrogen, heat would be set free. Accordingly, by passing the protoxide of nitrogen through a pla- tina tube heated to redness by burning charcoal in a suitable apparatus, it was found that a larger quantity of heat was actually evolved than could be accounted for by the weight of charcoal burned. _ Combustions in Chlorine Gas.—Some years ago, I published the results of ‘an investigation on the quantities of heat evolved in the combination of zinc and iron with chlorine, bromine and iodine; and I have lately given an ac- count of a set of experiments on the combustion of potassium, tin, antimony, mercury, phosphorus and copper in chlorine gas. So far as I am aware, the ‘only other experiments on this subject are those described by M. Abria on ‘the combustion of hydrogen and phosphorus in chlorine. From a com- parison of the results, it appears that in several cases the quantities of heat ‘evolved during the combustion of the same metal in oxygen and chlorine are nearly the same. This observation applies particularly to the cases of iron, tin and antimony. Zinc however disengages a greater quantity of heat with chlorine (6309 units) than with oxygen (5366 units), and copper nearly twice 78 REPORT—1849. as much (3805 and 2394 units). Phosphorus, on the contrary, gives less heat with chlorine than with oxygen (2683 and 4509 units). On comparing the quantities of heat disengaged by different bodies in combining with the same volume of chlorine, it will be found that potassium disengages a larger amount of heat than any other body hitherto examined, twice as much as zinc, and nearly four times as much as tin, antimony or copper. Combinations of Bromine and Iodine.—The heat disengaged by the same body in combining with bromine is less than with chlorine, and with iodine less than with bromine. The greater development of heat in the case of chlorine is at least partly due to that element being in the gaseous state be- fore combination. In some early experiments, I observed that the quantities of heat developed on converting equivalent solutions of the sesquichloride, sesquibromide and sesquiiodide of iron into the corresponding proto-com- pounds were equal. When a solution of protochloride of iron is converted into sesquichloride by agitation with chlorine gas, a definite disengagement of heat occurs, as also in the formation of the sesquibromide of iron by the combination of the protobromide and bromine; but in the corresponding re- action between the protoiodide of iron and iodine, no change of temperature can be observed. Report of the Committee on the Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants and Animals, consisting of Epwin LANKESTER, M.D., Mr. R. Tayyor, Mr. W. Tuompson, Rev. L. Jenyns, Prof. HensLtow, Mr. A. Henrrey, Sir W. C. TREvELYAN, Bart., and Mr. Peacu. Since the last Meeting of the Association, your Committee have made several alterations in the Tables for the purpose of registering the periodie phenomena occurring in plants and animals, which were then submitted for the approval of the members. These tables have been sent to upwards of fifty members of the Association and others, who have undertaken to observe. But few of these tables have yet been returned to the Committee, but they hope at the next meeting to find more abundant fruit of their labours. They _ have to acknowledge, however, the receipt of a very complete registration of — the periodic phenomena of the plants and animals in the neighbourhood of — Swansea, by Matthew Moggridge, Esq.; also observations on periodic phx- nomena for 1848, at Polpero in Cornwall, by J. E. Couch, Esq, ; a list of | the visitation and departure of birds at Llanrwst in Wales, by J. Blackwall, Esq.; and observations on the foliation and defoliation of plants, by T.L. — Lloyd, Esq. Ninth Report of a Committee, consisting of H. EK. Strickuanp, Prof. DAausEny, Prof. Henstow, and Prof. LinDuLEy, appointed to continue their Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds. Dunrine the past summer, a portion of each kind of seed collected in 1841 and 1846 were resown at Oxford and Chiswick, together with a few other kinds contributed by Miss Molesworth, of Cobham Lodge, Surrey. ; Those forwarded to Cambridge arrived just after Mr. Murray (Curator of the Botanic Garden there) had started for a botanical tour in the north, and he did not receive them till his return, when it was too late this year to have them sown. A statement respecting them will therefore be given in the Re- port for 1850. ON THE VITALITY OF SEEDS, 79 _ We again beg to remind persons interested in these experiments, that we shall be glad to receive contributions of seeds of known date, whether old or new, especially those of genera not named in the List submitted to the Meeting of the Association in 1848. _ The qgsults obtained will be seen by reference to the following Table :— No. of Seeds of each . ; Species which vege- Time of vegetating tated at in days at Name and Date when gathered. Ox-| Cam- ford,| bridge. 1841. 1. Vicia sativa ..ssccccsseccesees 2. Daucus Carota 3. Cannabis sativa 4, Pastinaca sativa ...ceccecsssees 5. Brassica Rapa 6. Linum usitatissimum 7. Lepidium sativum ......... we 8. Polygonum Fagopyrum...... 9. Phalaris canariensis ......... 10. Brassica Napus .......... ) 11. Carum Carui ............ ies KC. ; - g® is apparatus of studs, pinion, milled head, key, &c. for moving the rod P-s ee 5 attached to the stud at g*, and serves for the adjustments to — focus (of G). H is the sliding frame suspended in F. h' are the spring bars for re- taining the plates, either metallic or glass, in their proper places. A? are — friction rollers. 3 is a hook with a screw in it, which clamps the gut line, entering a hole in the top of H. ip 7 . ON THE KEW OBSERVATORY. 85 I (Plates I. to IV.) is the pulley ov the hour-arbour of the time-piece. i! the gut line suspending H. 7° is the counterpoise to H. Kis the time-piece, with its weights, pendulum, &c., and a lever with fork, k2, for stopping and starting the clock at any given second. R} is the support of K and F, k? are brass tubular braces. P® and PS are stone pillars, whose common centres are in the mean mag- netic meridian (about). P¥ and P™ are stone pillars, whose common centres are at right angles to the magnetic meridian (quas?). Q are stone brackets fixed in P® and P for the support of V. R is a cross slab of stone, resting on P® and PW’. v\ is the cross piece of mahogany (used in Dr. Lloyd’s arrangement), secured firmly, with-means of adjustments, upon R by bolts and nuts, r* S is the torsion apparatus (of plate, &c.) (Dr- Lloyd’s). > s° the suspending wire, passing round the grooved wheel. s°, on the axis of which 02 rests “ by inverted Y*.” T the glass tube resting on é', which is a fillet contained in é, which is a neck or brass tube attached to V. _ X is a black marble slab, carrying A, #!, &c., and supported upon P% and PS very firmly, but admitting of a small adjustment (on occasion) about the common axis of the suspending wires, s°. Y (Plate IV. fig. 2) is the silvered plate (in the scale board). y} is the magnetic curve produced by the focus of the slit in the moveable shield (6'). y? is the zero line produced by the focus of the slit in the fixed shield (o'). It will be easily perceived that in the arrangement which has now been described no hygrometric expansions and contractions can have sensible effect upon the required result, and J believe that thermometric variations are equally unappreciable. The scale board (Plate IV. figs. 2 and 3), for measuring off rapidly and correctly ordinates formed by the magnetic or other curve with the zero line, is thus constructed :— _ Ais a mahogany board. a, &c. are four screws attaching it to B, which is another heavier board, and which it is well to clamp upon a sloping desk. _ Cis a ruler attached to B by a screw at each end, passing easily through an oblong aperture, and allowing a lateral free motion of the ruler upon B. A blank ivory scale is fixed upon C. eis a milled-headed screw, acting by its shoulder upon a piece which presses C inwards, or against the right-hand edge of Y. _ © and ¢% are screws passing through another ruler, M, &c., fixed immoveably upon B, and acting by their ends upon two little brass sliders which press upon the left-hand edge of Y. This fixed. ruler ™ carries a scale of white metal, upon which divisions, representing hours, half-hours, quarters and five minutes, are engraved, a length of one inch Tepresenting one hour (for the slider H in the case F is moved by the clock at a rate corresponding with these values). Two spiral springs are con- tained in B, which cause the two sliders pressing on Y to resume their nor- ‘mal positions when c? and ¢$ are not employed. _ Tis the ebony stock of the T square. | @ isits blade of white metal, upon which is engraved on one of the fiducial | edges divisions representing fiftieths of an inch, and on the other sixtieths, 86 REPORT—1849. counting from the zero mark, 0, on each series; and it is affixed to T by a milled screw passing through one of the oblong slits at either end, so that either scale may be used, or a blade much more minutely divided might be substituted. A good double lens, or pair of lenses, may be used upon a stand with this apparatus for reading the scales. The manner of using this instrument is perhaps sufficiently obvious. The zero of the ordinate scale (t') is adjusted (if necessary) to that right-hand edge and extremity of the zero line (y*) which is furthest from the me scale, M, transversely (after relaxing the screw near T). The ordinate scale is, secondly, applied to the other extremity of y*; and if the zero point on it should not coincide with y®, then the screw c! is relaxed, and the ap- propriate left-hand screw (either c® or c°) is slowly screwed up until exact coincidence occurs. Then ce! is screwed up again. Particular information, &c. as to the use of the apparatus sent to Toronto was carefully detailed, and some hints relative to the (seemingly) best modes of operating upon the Jong Daguerreotype plates, &c. were set down for the use of Captain Lefroy, &c. These details are not requisite here. The former kind of information has been already published, ¢.e. when my earlier experiments on registration were made known* ; and the latter is comprised in great part (although not in sufficient abundance) in several well-known publications. Proceeding now with the relation of the other circumstances connected with experimental inquiry at Kew, I may add, that at the visit above men- tioned of Colonel Sabine we held some conversation on the subject of con- structing a vertical-force magnetograph, which had previously occupied our attention, when the Colonel relieved me from a difficulty by hinting that an arm might be erected vertically upon the centre of the magnet, to carry the shield with its slit. By this means the injurious proximity of the Jamp to the magnet at night will be entirely avoided. This apparatus is in an advanced state of preparation for Toronto. My correspondence with the Rev. Alfred Weld, respecting the establish- ment of a self-registering electric and magnetic observatory at Stonyhurst, after occupying much time (in making plans, drawings, &c.), has not been as yet followed by the erection of a suitable building at that locality. In August 1848 I received from the Superintendent of the Great Western Railway Electric Telegraph some further and rather curious notices of the deflections of the needles, &c. at Paddington, Slough and Derby. At Pad- dington, on the 9th of August, at about 1" 50™ p.n:., during a storm, an ex- plosion occurred in the office like that of a gun fired, and the cross wire was fused. The same thing occurred at Slough at the same time. . The most remarkable effects upon these wires are those which are pro- duced by fogs; and I apprehend that experiments relative to them would be interesting, and perhaps profitable. Amongst several distinguished visitors to the observatory in the past year, Don Manuel Rico, Director of the Madrid Observatory, came to converse on the subject of erecting an electrical apparatus like ours at that building, and gave me a rough plan and description of it. The site appears to be extremely favourable. Experiments and observa- tions in that latitude would form an important link in a geographical series comprising the observations (now probably going on by means of similar apparatus) at Bombay, and others to be instituted in a very high latitude (as — Alten, e.9.). * Vide Phil. Trans., Part 1. for 1847. ON THE KEW OBSERVATORY. 87 I trust that other gentlemen, visitors to Kew, have derived some little pleasure, and even profit, from the results of their inquiries here, and that my limited correspondence on electric and other subjects with several gentle- men of scientific eminence has not been wholly profitless to all parties. I have usually set down under this head a Jité/le list of proposals for new experiments, or the continuation of old ones; but the number of such-like propositions has accumulated so much faster than the means and time re- quired for their execution, that the catalogue arrives at an almost despairing magnitude. However it shall follow here, because it will at least serve to show that plenty of work could be done at Kew if we had plentiful means. 1. Experiments to determine various points as to the construction of the declination and horizontal-force magnetograph, and particularly Dr. Lloyd's propositions concerning attached lenses. 2. Idem, as to the vertical-force (balance) magnetograph. 8. Idem, as to the completion of a self-corrective system for the barome- trograph. 4. Idem, as to the dest mode of constructing the thermometrograph. 5. Comparison of long and short magnets, and their effects on the regi- stration compared particularly. 6. Experiments in pursuance of some which were commenced here in 1845 on the important subject of “ frequency” of atmospheric electricity ; a subject which has been most unaccountably neglected since the observations of Becearia at Turin in about 1750, and one which seems to me to grow in importance with the growth of our chemical and magnetic information. 7. Experiments in pursuance of some which were made at Kew on insu- lation, and particularly on the insulation of air charged with a known amount of humidity, and at different temperatures, &c., a matter recommended _ for examination by Coulomb. ‘ 8. Experiments in pursuance of the same course, but having especial reference to the measures of atmospheric tensional electricity, as indicated by Henley’s and other electrometers, used in attempting to estimate properly high tensions. _ 9. Experiments on apparatus for observing shooting stars. 10. Experiments on the best mode of pursuing observations on terrestrial temperature, as recommended by Professor Forbes. 11. Experiments on kites at known and constant elevations, in pursuance of one made at Kew in the year 1847, with a view to their real utility in meteorology. 12. Experiments on the comparative advantages of plate and cylindrical surfaces in reference to their use in self-registering instruments, the former on William Nicholson’s construction; and also experiments on a mode of reading off the ordinates on such cylinders. ss REPORT—1849. Report on the Experimental Inquiry conducted at the request of the British Association, on Railway Bar Corrosion. By Rosert Macuet, M.R.LA., Mem. Inst. C.E. Ir having been long loosely rumoured that railway bars corrode less when in use, i. e. travelled over, than when out of use, and the only evidence for this being that they appear to do so to the eye, and several vague speculations having been broached by engineers and others to account for the assumed facts, it seemed desirable to ascertain the truth experimentally, and also to determine at the same time the constants of abrasion by the action of the wheels of railway carriages, this latter being in fact a necessary prior question to the research as to corrosion. A general sketch of the views promulgated on this subject is contained in my Third Report on Corrosion of Iron to the British Association in 1843; a sum of £20 having been placed at my disposal by the British Association at the Manchester Meeting in 1842, for the purpose of these experiments. The first experiments were directed to the object of ascertaining the fuct of any difference in the amount of corrosion by air and water, &c. between railway bars in use and out of use, in an exact and unexceptionable manner ; and from the great weight of the rails requiring a balance of great strength, this was found by no means an easy matter, as the difference of corrosion in any moderate time might be expected not very greatly to exceed the errors of weighing. The first sets of experiments arranged were on the Dublin and Kingstown Railway, upon that part of the line which lies near Sydney Pa- rade, at the Dublin side of the level crossing there. The line is quite straight, the brakes are never applied here, and the rails are level. Three sets of six lengths of fifteen feet rails each, were here laid down upon the coming into town or western line. The direction by compass of the rails at this point is north-west and south- east, and hence these rails were always traversed over in a direction from south-east to north-west. The experimental rails were laid in the following way :—Having been care- fully weighed, viz. two sets of bars of six each were laid into the coming-in line, and secured in the same way as all the others on the line, by cast-iron chairs and compressed wood wedges resting upon longitudinal memel sleepers, and with pine or memel filling-pieces between the chairs, filling up the spaces be- tween the bottoms of the rails and the tops of the sleepers. Of these two sets laid into the line, one set of six bars (No. 2 marked **) was exposed freely and without any preparation, and was placed on the eastern side of the coming-in line; the other of the two sets (No. 3 marked **+) was coated: ail over with boiled coal-tar, laid on the iron when hot, so as to protect it from all corrosion. The third set of (6) bars (marked No. 1 *) was laid upon wood sleepers, chairs, &c., in the same way as the others, but were placed aside by themselves in the middle of the road between the two lines of railway, without any preparation, and freely exposed to corrosion, but not travelled over. All three setsof bars before being laid down or coated were heated in a boiler- maker's oven to a bright red heat, to remove all rust bya scale, leave their sur- faces perfectly uniform and alike, and were permitted to cool slowly without any blows, and ina horizontal position, so as to have as little permanent mag- netism as possible. Thus arranged the three sets of bars stood upon the line in the following order : 4 bi « ‘ La ON RAILWAY BAR CORROSION. 89 a. mob travelled over Nol, manned (2) Noo marked (ea) L BES te coming UL time % N°3 marked (occ) Coal Tarre bee loSydney Parade ee E direction of rains mohow Be pe as re yl Oe OO ce EO OREN a ee fence. Thus the set No. 3, tarred over, is exposed to abrasion alone. The set No. 2 is exposed both to corrosion and abrasion; deducting therefore the ' amount of the former from the latter, we get the amount of corrosion alone of the rails in use, and are enabled to compare this with the amount of cor- rosion of the set of rails No. 1 out of use, and thus at once to ascertain the _ difference, if any exists, and to determine the amount of abrasion for a given weight of traffic, of which returns are kept by the Dublin and Kingstown Railway Company. Half-sized section of Dublin and Kingstown Rail, taken accurately from a filed sheet-iron template of those experimented on, Sept. 1844. Z iy ty y fffyy Vj Fig. 2. Ly Z compressed wood weage Part of memel sleeper. _ The Dublin and Kingstown rails were made at the works of John Bradley and Co. of Stourbridge, and profess to be according to the specification of BO i's the Company’s Engineer of 1833, viz. “ Exterior surface of best rolled iron previously hammered, and the interior of the best =— puddiled iron previously hammered, the proportion being two S C parts of the former and five parts of the latter, and branded as in < margin.” The dimensions as to surface, &c. of the rails is as follows, in accordance with the foregoing section :— ‘ Total perimeter of the rail=11°5 inches:— Total surface per yard running=36 x 11°5=414 sq- ins.=2°88 sq. ft. 90 ; REPORT—1849. Total surface in contact with the wheels=1°5 in. x 36=54: sq. in. per lineal yard of rail. Total surface in contact with filling pieces beneath, and hence partially protected from corrosion, is==1*7 in. xX 36=61'2 sq. in. per lineal yard. Besides this there is the surface covered by the chairs and wedges, which partially but very slightly prevent corrosion, water finding its way between in wet weather very readily. There is one chair at every three feet, which covers about twenty-four square inches, including the wood wedge. The meeting-chairs at every fifteen feet cover twice this. The top surfaces of the rails which are run upon appear to corrode searcely at all, owing to the fine polish preserved by the rolling of the wheels ; if it be assumed that neither this top surface corrodes nor the bottom surface covered with the filling slip, then The total surface per yard lineal exposed to corrosion is=414 sq. ins.— — (54-+61:2)=298'8 sq. ins. and the uncorroded surface=(54+61°2) _ =115'2 sq. ins.=2:08 sq. ft., or the corroded is to the non-corroded surface per yard, as 298°8 : 115°2, or as 2°59: 1; omitting any account of the surfaces covered by chairs, which are common to all the three sets, and do not prevent the corrosion materially beneath. But if the top or running surface of the rail be supposed to corrode equally — 3 with the sides, then The total surface per yard exposed to corrosion is=414 sq. ins.—61°2 =352'8 sq. ins., and the corroded is to the uncorroded surface per yard as 352°8 :61°2, or as 5°76: 1. The set No. 1, not travelled over, corrodes on the top as well as sides, and ; hence exposes to corrosion per lineal yard, 414—61°2=352°'8 sq. ins. The weighings of the three sets of railway bars took place for the first ex- periment on 24th of March 1841: they were previously marked, as mentioned — above, (°), (**), ("**), with a centre punch near one end on the side of the — bar, and each bar of each set numbered from | to 6. The weighings of the coal-tarred set were of course made before the ap- — plication of the varnish, in applying which care was taken not to heat the bars so as to scale them or to abrade, or in any way alter their weights. The weighings were made under my own eye, by David James, an intel- ligent workman, with a beam about six feet long, sensible when loaded with one rail to about 2 ounces avoirdupois, or ;1,;th of the load in one scale, or _ stscth of the whole load. Four accurately adjusted half-hundred weights of — cast-iron, varnished over, prepared from the brass standard were used, and — retained for use again on subsequent removal of the rails, and the other weights were accurate brass standard avoirdupois weights of my laboratory. Each rail was weighed separately, and the weights were checked by myself. The following table gives the data and numerical results of the first series of experiments. All three sets, No. 1, No. 2 and No. 3, were laid down, and the traffic of — the second day of July 1841 was the first that went over them. They were all taken up again and reweighed on the 30th of April 1842, being exposed to corrosion and traffic for an interval of 303 days. ee fo eee (eee ee a an - ON RAILWAY BAR CORROSION. 91 o Taste No. 1.—First set of Experiments, Dublin and Kingstown Railway : rails traversed Brees July 2, 1841 to April 30, 1842 only: period 303 days. _ E Total weight | Total weight |Gross weight|Gross weight} Total loss Firstdif-|Second dif. How exposed, | ofeach rail | ofeach rail | of the set | of the set of weight ference | =diff. be- &e. when exposed.|whenremoved.| when laid | when re- ineach |=Corro-| tween cor. July 2, 1841, |April 30, 1842.) down, moved, set. sion in | in and out use, of use. cwt. grs. |cwt. grs. grs. gTs. grs. 24+-15,885 | 2+13,125 2415,175 | 2+13,125 - | In middle of | line, and not “gy ig railitptesicats - | travelledover. 24.14,875 | 2413125 Set No. 1. Corrosion 2+ 3,900) 24 1,750 2-+432,375 | 24+-28,875 | 9,491,555 | 9,476,250 | 15,305...]......... 2412,950| 24. 6,890 2+ 7,885 | 24 1,970 On the East |side of Up| 2+17,500| 2+19,142 Line. - | 2413,410] 24. 7,875 Corrosion and 2-+-29,975 | 2+-21,875 abrasion, Set No. 2. 24.40,250 24. 3,495 2+23,070 | 2+18,775 On the West |S: | side of Up | 24 3,750} 2— 1,275 Line. no 2+ 2,950) 2— 875 Coal-tarred. Set No. 3. 2421,830| 2416,550 ”|Abrasion only. 2 2+-11,900 | 2+ 8,750 | 9,478,856 | 9,453,350) 25,506 J _ Weare enabled to draw the following conclusions from this Table No. le _ Ast. On thirty lineal yards of rail in use, the amount of abrasion is=25,506 om in 303 days=30,725 grs. per annum, or at the rate of ——_—— Sore — 1024°16 gh. per yard per annum. The following is Mr. Bergin’s statement of the amount i traffic which Passed over the line from 2nd July 1841 to the 30th April 1842. Passengers.—1841. Pet are ema tases. SOOaO Septengee ne aw cree vie cess ‘67,901 October .......... wil VCE DBs November ...........00--. 39,355 December .......22..00+--.+- 36,809 Total, exclusive of Subscribers ...... 362,011 92 REPORT—1849. _ 1842. JaMuary ..cerecevcccsssors 37,674 February .......+++- Ss'eisle'e se 35,534 « Marea icyens a Aistomerove’sistolreaetets's 42,509 LANIT INS je sia keiroline wigs kleminindss -» 53,211 Total, exclusive of Subscribers ...... 168,928 Add. Subscribers 0% esses vee sees 23,226 Total of passengers in 303 days ...... 645,910 persons— which, divided by 15, is = 43,061 tons. Engines and Carriages. No. of trains in all=10,528=same number of engines and tenders atl DCOnSiCACI TA isisc 2 sid\s.b exe oie, ware eee o's =126,336 tons. No. of 1st class carriages= 10,528 No. of 2nd class carriages=33,427 No. of 3rd class carriages=30,364 / Total of carriages=74,319 at 34 tons each=141,537 tons. Gross weight of engines and carriages.... 267,873 tons. Hence the total gross traffic in carriages and passengers Sli SOP URS. saree ok eb os cities pe se ae reek Se =310,934 tons. But a quantity of luggage and-parcels are carried on the line of which no correct account is kept; assuming this at an average of 10lbs. for each passenger, which 645910 x 10 O40 = 2,883 tons. $03 days’ total traffic... .0.. .2ss02 ens -- 313,817 tons. or 378,030 .38 tons per annum. But as the load is uniformly diffused over both sides of each set of rails, only one-half the above load passes over any one given length of rail— or STEN = 189,015 tons, the passage of which produces an abrasion of 1024°16 grs. per yard per 1024°16 189015 or 1760 x*00542=9°5392 grs. per ton per mile. will probably be about the truth, we have annum. Hence =0-00542 grs. per ton per yard, There were 10,528 trains passed over the rail in 303 days ; assuming these 10528 303 x 24 but as the trains only travel from 6 o'clock a.m. to 10 o'clock p.M., or 16 out of the 24, it is at the rate of 2:171 trains per hour, or rather more than one every half-hour. This is probably as fast as locomotive trains are likely to travel constantly on any line; but the actual weight of each train will materially affect the amount of abrasion, as there can be no doubt that at some certain weight the substance of the iron would be ruffled and disinte- grated by the great pressure rolling over it. We can determine in this case the average weight per train, as follows: viz. 43,061 tons of passengers +2883 tons of luggage uniformly diffused over the 24 hours, it is = 1.447 train per hour; = 15944 — 4.56 tons of passengers and luggage per train, 10528 trains, 267873 2 ae iy AP : and tons of engines and carriages=25°44 tons average per train. 10528 trains. : ON RAILWAY BAR CORROSION. 93 Hence the average gross weight of each train is=29°8 tons, or nearly 30 tons. And the remarkable fact appears, that the wseless load per train is to the useful as 25°44 : 4°36, or as 5°83 : 1, or nearly as 6:1; and that the abra- sion or destruction of rail relatively to the useless and useful load are in the same ratio. “ Qnd. We deduce from this, that the absolute corrosion of a length of rail out of use to that of the same rail in use, or exposed to traffic, is in round numbers about, as 15°30 to 6°26, or that the difference in favour of the latter is 9°04; but it will be best to postpone a minute comparison of the rate of corrosion until we have the results of the further experiments also before us. While these experiments were in progress, it seemed very desirable to me to obtain a set of experiments made co-ordinately with the above, but upon a single line of railway where the traffic would be in both directions, viz. backward and forward over the same set of rails; as from views suggested by Mr. Nasmyth, it was possible this might be an important element in the question. Mr. Nasmyth’s views, which are briefly alluded to in my Third Report on the Corrosion of Iron, will be found more particularly detailed by himself in the following interesting letter to me, which I have his permission to publish :-— “ Bridgewater Foundry, Patricroft, May 19, 1842. “ My pear Sir,—On my return from the continent I had the pleasure to receive your valued letter respecting the rusting and non-rusting of railway rails. I have not had any opportunity to obtain the exact comparative rate of oxidation under the two conditions, but so strikingly different is the oxida- tion of the one, as compared with the other, that a very slight glance will satisfy any one that they are under very marked and different influences, in- asmuch as, in the case of the Liverpool and Manchester, the rails of which have been laid and exposed to all the changes of wet and dry for upwards of five years, there is no more appearance of rust than merely a light-brown coating of mud-coloured water, more the result of the splashing of rain; while in the case of the London and Blackwall Railway, in which the car- riages travel alternately east and west on the same rail, the rusting is proceeding at that rate, that although they have not been laid two years, cakes of rust are falling from the sides of the rail, and the ground for 12 inches on each side of the rail is yellow with rust. This may be said to be mere ocular demon- stration, but to any one willing to be convinced, it is most satisfactory proof. I should be most glad to have my observations and theory on the subject brought to the most severe test; but to do this would not be very easy, as ¥ . ef us . . . . 5 to time and similar circumstances, all but the one in question, viz. the one way travelling versus the both ways alternately ; for to be a true experiment, we should have both bars of the same iron in the same place, only one travelled on in one direction, the other in both, and an equal amount of travel on each. The experiment required in that form might be tried by mechanical contrivance, bwt then we know not as yet what is due to the cor- rection with so vast a length of rail as in the case of railroad; but in the absence of any very delicate and ‘scientific-like’ results I am fain to con- | _ tent myself with the most striking difference, which is observed, or may be observed, by any one whose attention is directed to the subject. I may also mention, that on the Liverpool and Manchester line, all the sidings, as they are called, i.e. those parts of the rail which serve for backing trains into when it is desired to permit others to pass them on the same line,—that all 94 REPORT—1849. such sidings are rusting most rapidly ; it is the sides of the rail I hold to as proof, as such sides are in both cases removed from any friction. I may also = Siding i eS name that even the keys and chairs partake of the rusting or non-rusting in- flence, as the case may be. “I have had no means as yet to ascertain whether my conjecture is right or otherwise; but I consider the rolling of the wheels in one direction to confer or induce a magnetical condition on the rails, in the same manner as in the case of inducing magnetism or magnetical property on a piece of iron or steel, by the ordinary method of passing the parent magnet along the iron bar, thus: Fig. 4. = ir tii eo ' tt Hi if a ee 8 | iP The subject is, I think, a very interesting one, and well-worthy of attention, as it may tend to illustrate, on a most grand scale, some of the pure results of the delicate investigations which I doubt not you are familiar with, both as to what has been brought to light by others as well as yourself. If there be any further questions I can answer, you may command me at all times, as “Tam most sincerely yours, “ Robert Mallet, Esq.” “ James NASMYTH.” The Ulster Railway between Belfast and Portadown, which was at that time a single line on the wide gauge, with a bridge rail of 52lbs. per lineal yard as per fig. 5, half-sized section given, and without any chairs, and resting Fig. 5. za on longitudinal wood sleepers, presented an excellent position for this expe- ON RAILWAY BAR CORROSION. 95 riment, and on my writing to Mr. John Godwin, C.E., the Engineer of the line, he at once acceded to my wishes, and undertook the experiment. The following table gives its results, which are not as satisfactory as could be desired, owing to some circumstances which are unexplained, and which induced Mr. Godwin himself to consider the experiments in that light. The two following letters relate to this, and show that care appears to have been bestowed on each step of the process. The only error I am able to remark is, that one-half of the rails B, intended to be exposed to corrosion only, were by some mistake coated to prevent corrosion ; hence in deducing the results of the experiments I have been obliged to double the loss on the three uncoated rails B, so as to get an approximation to the truth. “ Belfast, 8th September 1843. * Drar Sr1r,—I send you enclosed the result of the experiment on the rails which we laid down in June 1842, You will observe that they were taken up in June last, and I would then have sent you the particulars had they not appeared so unsatisfactory. I cannot account for the great difference in the loss of weight, for we were very careful in weighing them. The quality of the iron could scarcely have made the difference ; however, I send you the particulars, and you can draw your own conclusions. «B, 4, 5, 6, were coated, and of course lost nothing. “J am, dear Sir, sincerely yours, “ Robert Mallet, Esq.” “ Joun Gopwin.” ‘ Belfast, 14th November 1844, “Dear S1r,—In reply to your questions relative to the account of the experiments on the corrosion of iron rails which I furnished you with, I beg to say, that the rail no¢ travelled on was the centre rail in the middle of the line ; they were weighed with the same beam and weights as when put down; the weights were properly adjusted; the beam was sensible to a quarter of an ounce ; the rails were weighed separately. “JT am very sincerely yours, “ Robert Mallet, Esq.” “ Joon Gopwin.” _ _ The direction in azimuth, in which the experimental rails were laid upon the Ulster Railway, was north-east and south-west, 38° 13! east of north by compass, as in diagram above. 96 - REPORT—1849. Tasce B. deduced from Mr. Godwin’s Experiments on the Ulster Line, laid down June 15, 1842, removed June 27, 1843: period 377 days. 3 in veri kG ight |G iett| Total Jee eee ee 2 ight t TOSS Wel Toss Wel, 0 OSs = g Mark. | How exposed. whet ei panes when Tad sa of weight in penesacem tween cor. posed of moved of down. removed. | each set. in use, | im use and each rail. each rail. out of use, \él2| 3 |Zlel2] ‘ grs. grs. grs. 1] © | Set No.1. |2|3/22] 33/2}3 191/15 |s, SPsnde sain 2| B. | Between the |2|3/19) 83/2|3|19| 73\Nere coated by 3 rails © not |2/3 |22) 4 |2/3(/21) 0 we must’ double 4 travelled over.| 2 |3 |27|} 33/2] 3 |27| 32lan approximate 5 Corrosion |2|3/19| 3 |2/3]19| 3 jresutt- Albs. 30z. 6 alone. 2{3|19| 9 |}2/3|19| 1 | 17.2.17.153/17.2.15.14 | =29,312 |....... Anee 1] ©© | get No.2 2\|2 18/15 2) 2/17/12 2 Exseied t6 3 |12)153| 2|3 11} 6 3 759 a 3|27|11 |2)3|25| 0 4 eee. 3] 1/103/213| 0) 6 5 Wicoatd 2/3|17|15 | 2| 3 |15|12 11 bs. 6 neoated. | 9/3 \92| 7 |2|3|20| 6 |17.0.17.10 |17.0. 6.10} =77,000 |} 1|000 2/3 \20| 7 |2|3\19| 2 3 ~ 1213)19) 9 |}2)3)19 48,344 ‘ traffic ereaion 213\20| 5 |213/20| 2 u 5 Pitan 9 2/3/25] 53/2] 3 25] 0 Albs. 1 40z. 6 ated. | 2/3 [21] 53|2|3 |20| 8 | 17.2.17. 93|17.2.13. 8 | =28,656 On examining this Table B, it appears that— 1. The absolute loss from abrasion only is=28,656 grs. 2. The absolute loss from corrosion only is=29,312 grs. on the rails not travelled over; and 3. The absolute loss from corrosion only is=48,344 grs. on the rails ex- posed to wear of traffic. Hence in this case the corrosion of the rails out of use is less than that of the rails in use in the ratio, in round numbers, of 29°3 to 48°3, contrary to the received notion. As doubt rested on these results, owing to the circumstances already detailed, I determined to lay down a fresh set of prepared rails upon the Kingstown Railway, and subsequently another set upon the Dalkey Atmo- spheric Line, which, being a single line, stood in the same predicament as the Ulster Railway. One of the greatest difficulties attending experiments of this character, consists in the extremely small amount of weight to be determined (namely, the small loss by corrosion, even in a prolonged period), compared with the weight of the rails themselves, and the great absolute weight of the latter demanding balances of great strength, which are very difficult to be given the requisite sensibility. Where balances only competent to weigh one length of rail at a time are used, as in the case of Experiment No. 1, then the several sources of inaccuracy in each operation of weighing are multiplied — by the number of rails weighed. As, therefore, the error of large balances does not increase quite as fast as the size of the instrument is magnified, it appeared advisable to obtain means of weighing several lengths of rails at once or together; and for this purpose new standard weights were required, as well as new balances. The standard, namely, a brass authorized copy of the standard 56lbs weight, in the custody of the Corporation of Dublin, which is under- stood to be a true duplicate of that formerly in the Exchequer Office, ag ON RAILWAY BAR CORROSION. 97 London, was obtained prior to Experiment No. 1, and was now again used to adjust fourteen cast-iron 56lbs. weights by, so as to enable 7 ewt. of rails to be weighed at once. These cast-iron weights, prior to final adjustment, were coated with a thin covering of copal varnish, to preserve them from corrosion, until again called into use, after the lapse of two years. They were handled with leather slings to avoid abrasion, and preserved in a per- fectly dry place, and checked against the brass standard again before being used to weigh the rails after their removal. A steel beam of 36 inches & eo “a < in length was prepared and carefully adjusted by Mr. Yeates, instrument- maker, Dublin, by which these weights were adjusted. It was sensible to 20 grs., with 56lbs. avoir. in each pan, or to zg} qth part of the whole load. It turned in all its bearings on hardened steel edges, and was found a most satisfactory and accurate instrument. A large beam was also prepared and carefully adjusted, whose length was eight feet, and whose strength was such as to be capable of weighing three lengths of rails at once, or of sustaining a load of above 12 ewt. This beam was of wrought iron, turning on hardened steel knife-edges, and with means of gradually bringing the load upon the beam without jar or vibration. When loaded with three rails and their counterpoise, this very large beam ~-was found to be sensible to 500 grs., or to gggod part of the gross load; and could have been made still more so if requisite. It is probably the largest and most accurate beam ever made. . - Both this and the smaller beam were tolerably equibrachial ; but to avoid any error from this source, double weighings were made in adjusting the weights, and one end of the large beam was marked, and the rails always placed under it, the counterpoise being at the opposite end. This may appear a tedious description of an unnecessary amount of care ; but when it is recollected that the question to be determined relates to a weight of not much more than a single pound in a gross load of nearly 1400lbs., it will be seen that any inaccuracy in the weighings would mate- rially modify, or wholly vitiate the results; and it is to the accumulation of slight errors of this sort, and probably more particularly to want of equibra- chiality in the beams used, or want of attention to always weighing at the one end, that I attribute the want of consistency of the results obtained on the Ulster line of railway. In order also further to increase the accuracy of the result, I proposed to allow a longer period to elapse before again removing the rails from the line when laid down. The same set of eighteen rails divided into three classes of six each, which had been used in the first experiment on the Kingstown line, were now again brought into requisition. They had lain since the former experiment hori- zontally under cover in a dry place, and had acquired a very slight coat of red rust. They were all placed in a boiler-maker’s oven, and exposed to a bright red heat, and then permitted to cool, without being exposed to any blows or jars, in a horizontal position and under cover. They had all now an uniform coat of black oxide (Hammerschlag), very thin and adherent, were pretty free from magnetism, except that due to terrestrial induction; and in this state they were all weighed, and the weights registered, each rail having Teceived a permanent mark at one end. _ The six rails to be exposed to abrasion only, were now heated horizontally to about 400° Fahr. and coated with boiled coal-tar, which rapidly dried into a tough japan varnish. The weighings were made on the 10th October 1842; and on the 18th oe 1842 they were placed upon the up line of the Dublin and Kingstown — 1849. H 98 - REPORT—1849. Railway, at the same place, and in precisely the same order as before, and travelled over for the first time on that date. : They remained exposed to traffic and corrosion for two years, and on the 18th October 1844 were removed from the line and brought home for ex- amination and weighing. Prior to this the beams and the standard weights were again examined as to their accuracy and adjustment, which were found as perfect as before. I prepared to weigh the rails in the same order as before. These rails having been divided into three classes or sets, viz.— No. 1. Not coated, exposed to corrosion alone and not to traffic. No. 2. Not coated, exposed to corrosion, and also to the abrasion of traffic. No. 3. Coated with coal-tar and exposed to abrasion of traffic, but protected from corrosion,— presented, when removed, the following appearances :— The set No. | had a very dark red rusty colour, and an obvious scale of adherent rust all over, which a closer inspection, and on passing the point of the finger over the surface, proved to be papular or tubercular, and nearly uniformly so all over, each separate circular tubercle of oxide being about [pth of an inch in diameter. The spaces between these were less dark- coloured, or buffish; this aspect was quite uniform over every part of the rails, except where they had been in contact with the chairs. The set No. 2 had no scale of rust on the surface, but a perfectly uniform dark buff or reddish buff thin dusty coating of oxide all over the sides and edges ; the top surface was bright and polished by traffic, but the wear was not perceptible in dimension ; the lower surface, where in contact with the wood filling slips, on the sleepers was of a deeper colour, and where in con- tact with some parts of the chairs was bright and polished from the effects of jarring or vibration produced by traffic. There was no loose rust what- ever on any part. The set No. 3, which had been coated with coal-tar, were found bright and polished, like No.2, on the top edge, where borne upon by traffic. The coal-tar varnish was fresh and sound everywhere else, and no rust had taken place, nor any scaling off from any part of the bars. The surface, how- ever, until it was washed clean, presented a uniform tint of yellowish brown, arising from the fine particles of rust from the other rails, and probably also from the wheels, of passing trains being blown upon the coal-tar coating, and washed upon it by rain, &c. Prior to being cleaned for weighing, the whole of these rails were examined as to their magnetic condition. The results ascertained will, however, be best reserved for a subsequent part of this Report. The sets of uncoated rails, Nos. 1 and 2, were rubbed briskly with a fine wire brush until all adherent rust was removed, and then finally cleaned with dry cloths. The set No. 3 was exposed to a heat of about 700° Fahr. over a charcoal fire, until the whole of the coal-tar coating was burnt, and removed as char- coal dust by the brush and cloth. The weighings were then made in the same order and way as before; and the following Table No. 2 gives the results. The rails, after being cleaned and weighed, presented all over a light red- dish black tinge, perfectly uniform, and free from any scaling, or other indi- cation of unequal action. ON RAILWAY BAR CORROSION. 99 Taste No. 2.—Second set of Experiments on the Dublin and Kingstown Rail- way: rails traversed from Oct. 18, 1842 to Oct. 18, 1844: period 730 days. Po g Weights of G ‘ht! First dif-|Second dif. BY | our exposed, (amish, of ratte weigh-(Oraeywaaht or the act. | opeeigat | ference | =a. be q BY &e. a eg together ed together | when laid | When re- ineach |=Corro-| tween cor. A g when exposed. pene amore down. marek head set. ge ty age ont ewt grs. {cwt grs grs gTs grs, grs grs op eee No. al 6-429,750| 6-421,875 At one side | ‘| of line © J - |nottravelled | over. ie Picreeion 6+47,250| 6+42,000 ee MORE 6 TY ir sda 9,485,000 | 9,471,875 | 13,125...|......... 7 Set No. 2. | +] 6422,750| 6— 3,500 On the East | “| side of the J { Up Line : F ee Pisce 6+-77,875 | 64-51°625 8312 Hh Abraniors ee, heart! Hts aechoasuewass o)scagnsasW et vas 9,508,625 | 9,456,125 ae > | Set No. setes]| | . | side of Up “<9 pee J 4813 | J % 4 * |Coal-tarred. Bes Abiaains 6+27,125| 6+ 2,188 mp, ly | Re 4 | eS age a 9,458,312 | 9,410,625 | 47,687 From these results we learn, that in a period of 730 days’ exposure,— 1st. The absolute abrasion from traffic on the six rails was 47,687 grs. avoir. Qnd. The absolute corrosion of the six rails in use, or exposed to traffic and to corrosion, was 4813 grs. avoir. $rd. The ratio of abrasion to corrosion on the rails in use is therefore nearly in the ratio of 47-7 to 4°8, or in round numbers as 48 to 5, or nearly 10 to 1. . _ 4th. The absolute corrosion of the six rails out of use, or not travelled ‘over, was 13,125 grs. avoir. 5th. The ratio of the abrasion of the rails in use to the corrosion of the __ rails out of use is nearly as 47°7 to 13°1, or in round numbers about as 4 to J. 6th. The difference (absolute) between the corrosion of the rails in use and out of use is =8312 grs. avoir. Hence - "th. The ratio of the corrosion of the rails in use is to that of the rails out x of use as 48°13 to 83°12, or in round numbers as 8 to 14. H2 100 REPORT—1849. There ist aerefore on this second experiment a distinct corroboration of the result of the former Table No. 1, viz. that there is a real diminution of corrosion in the rails, due to trafic. The absolute amount of difference is less however in this second experiment than in the first. By Table No 1 it ap- pears that the ratio of the corrosion of the unused, to that of the used rails, was as 15°30 : 6:06; but in the present case we find the ratio to be as 83°12 : 48°13, or as 1 to 2°5 in the former, and : 1 to 1°7 in the latter. ‘Hence the difference is a decreasing one, the causes of which we shall again refer to. r The whole three sets of rails in this experiment were weighed carefully before being cleaned just when removed from the line, and without any ad- herent rust or other matter being shaken off from them, and, as already stated, again weighed after having been brushed and cleaned. The difference showed the amount of adherent’ owide attached as a scale to the uncoated rails, and of varnish coating on the others. The weight of detached matter was as follows :-— No. 1. Uncoated, not travelled over...... 5,250 grs. No. 2. Uncoated, exposed to traffic...... 1,313 No. 3. Coated, and exposed to traffic .... 11,375 consisting all of coal-tar and dust. From this it is apparent that the coat of adherent rust upon the unused rails was on equal surfaces to that on the rails exposed to traffic, as 52°5 to 13°1, or that the adherent rust on the unused rails is nearly four times as thick as on the rails exposed to traffic, proving that the oxide formed on the latter is constantly shaken off by the vibration of passing trains. It is now desirable to give the amount of traffic which passed over the rails during the period of the last experiment, viz.— Traffic in tons passed over the Dublin and Kingstown Railway between 18th October 1842 and 18th October 1844, per T. F. Bergin, Esq. 2? > Tons. 4,041,075 passengers at 15 per ton .........+-- - 269,405 59,243 engines at 15 tons each............++- 888,645 437,791 coaches, average 3} tons each ........ 1,532,268 Total in both directions ............ 2,690,318 The traffic being precisely equal up and down, and the passengers Tons. very nearly so, say for gross traffic over experimental rails one- half the aboves=. (05 9220) 2 Oa vile sae ies ere eee be oie 1,345,159 To which add for ballast brought over experimental rails during the two years, and for luggage .......... amigo iat Ghisip-aten tenses Total load transferred over experimental rails= ...... 1,355,159 or 677,5794 tons per annum. Only half this, however=677,5795 tons in the two years, or $38,7892 tons per annum, traversed each length of ex- perimental rails. This latter weight produced in the two years an absolute abrasion on 30 yards of rail of 47,687 grs. avoir. or of 23,844 grs. per annum, which is nearly 795 grs. abraded per yard per annum, or an abrasion of iron amounting to ‘00235 gr. per ton per yard, or 1760 x 00235=4'136 gr. per ton per mile. The absolute abrasion is therefore less in this second experiment than in the first, in the ratio of 4 to 9°5 in round numbers, proving that the upper surface of the rails gradually alters in texture, and gets hardened by the rolling over it of the loads, so as to be less and less abraded in proportion to the load passed. This fact, however, can only apply to cases where the ON RAILWAY BAR CORROSION. 101 loads are light enough not to disintegrate the surface of the rail, and to places where the brakes are not applied. On many of the lines of heavy traffic in these kingdoms at present the incumbent loads seem from the very first to break up the molecular arrangement of the upper flange of the rail, and hence induce a gradual increase instead of decrease of abrasion; while in places where the brakes are habitually applied, the rails are ground away in flakes with great rapidity, those at some of the stations on the Kingstown line having one-half the upper flange of the rail cut away in three or four years. Through the kindness of Capt. Larcom, R.E., I am enabled to give the amount of rain which fell in the basin of Dublin during the period occupied in this last experiment. The results are taken from the meteorological re- gister kept at the office of the Ordnance Survey, Mountjoy Barrack, Phoenix Park, Dublin. The rain-gauges are situated on a plain 181°8 feet above the Ordnance datum, or low water of spring-tides, at Dublin Bay lighthouse, and have no hills in the immediate vicinity. The annual fall of rain is pretty constant at Dublin; and hence these tables may be viewed as sufficiently applicable to all the experiments related in this report. The average rain, from several years’ registry, is 33°115 inches by Ordnance gauge, and 29°616 inches by that of the Royal College of Surgeons in the city of Dublin, and at an elevation of 51°72 feet above the Ordnance datum. Months. - 1841. 1842. 1843. 1844, January ...... 1-767 1:147 1°886 1°726 February...... 1-210 2°860 1°561 2°517 Miah its o/+,- 1°635 2°314 1°704 2°058 1 Sas ae 1-082 | 0-996 | 2-984 | 1:207 eee oe 2°349 | 3°673 | 4°639 0°295 eee. oe .-| 2°043 2°256 | 2°887 1-479 De Cee 2°763 | 3:183 | 2°246 2°039 August ......| 2°951 1°580 | 2°025 3°634 September ....| 1°489 3°451 1°235 2°847 MEDERODEE |. clas) one 4°810 1°734 3°918 2°824 November ....| 2°781 5°234 2°543 4°992 December ....| 3°245 1:126 0°414 2°412 For the year ..| 28°125 | 29°554 | 28-042 | 28-030 —_— es eee The mean barometric pressure for the years 1842 and 1843, corrected and reduced to 32° Fahr. at Dublin, was— ; LbG Wa 0 ler er 29'926 inches, LSE ages eae 29°870 inches, the cistern of the barometer being 24°5 feet above the Ordnance datum; and the above numbers being deduced from 3600 observations. For these data I am indebted to Professor Lloyd, who obligingly extracted _ them from his results obtained at the Magnetic and Meteorological Observa- tory of Trinity College, Dublin. The mean pressure at Greenwich, where the barometer is 159 feet above the level of the sea, for the years was— VBA 5.) 88 Seedy ete ote 29'687 inches, UBAO. che sines ate 29°832 inches, _ the instruments being strictly comparable. The relations to the corrosion of iron, of variable quantities of rain and of atmospheric pressure may be referred-to in my Third Report on the Corrosion of Iron, Trans. British Association (sects. 286, 305). 102 REPORT—1849. The same sets of rails that had been taken up from the Kingstown line in October 1844 were laid by in a dry place, passed through the same ordeal of heating to a bright red, cleansing and coating (one of the sets) as before; and on the 7th January 1845, the weighings being all completed, the three sets were again laid down on the Dalkey atmospheric single line railway, at a straight part of the line near the Dalkey terminus, in quite the same way and order as before, and fastened in the same way, the set of unused rails being laid at one side of the line of way. The direction of the railway at this place is nearly W.N.W. and E.S.E., corrected for variation; and the traffic is here in both directions over the same rails. The rails were continued on this line for the long period of four years; and on the 7th January 1849 were removed and weighed after prior exami- nation as to state of surface and magnetism, &c. ‘The results are given in— Taste No. 3.—Third set of Experiments on the Dalkey Atmospheric Rail- way: rails traversed from W.N.W. to E.S.E. and the reverse: period from January 7, 1845 to January 7, 1849=1460 days. Weight of Weight of Gross weight| Gross weight} Total loss First dif-|Second dif. g/8 ; 4 : E 4 g ah tel rails as weigh-|"ils as weigh-| “of the set | Of the set | of weight | ference | =diff. be- _— 2 a Ne ed together | €d together | when laid | When re- in each |=corro- | tween cor. when exposed.|When removed). down. moved and set. sion in | in use and and cleaned. cleaned. use. | out of use. 1|° Set No. 1.) |cwt 8tS+ jewt = gis, grs. grs. grs, ers. ers. g|° In middle ~ | of line, and 3|° not travel- 6+ 8,500| 6— 9,250 ese oe) led over. 4|: 7 5).0.| Corrosion [| &+28,625 | 6+18,125 ERT ile age DE ceca Cea ae ..| 9,445,125 | 9,411,875 | 33,250...) 00... ———S-s |) —— ——_ |——_—_ _ | Set No. 2. 6—14,500| 6—58,750 HI Lee 3\" On the East o | sideof Line. 4 oe Corrosion 5\ and pane abrasion. Geen © PPO EM Scsanesacacsses|, cxeve sss eee.e-| 9,482,875 | 9,349,250 | 83,625) 8800 | | | i] g| | Set No. : 6— 9,625 | 6—44,650 24,450 S Broken out ..- | Onthe West 3}. sideof Line. ie ah 4). Coal-tarred. 511 abrasion [| &— 93625 a ta 9,388,750 | 9,329,575 | 59,175 6| only. wa Soe a i ja eae ei ON RAILWAY BAR CORROSION. — 103 Onexamining this table weare enabled todeduce the following results, viz.— lst. The absolute abrasion during the whole period of 1460 days on the six rails is 59,175 grs. avoir, 2nd. The absolute corrosion on the six rails in use, and exposed to traffic in same time, is 24,450 grs. avoir. 8rd, The ratio of abrasion to corrosion on the rails in use is therefore nearly in the ratio of 59°2 to 24°5, or about as 2°4 to 1. 4th. The absolute corrosion of the six out of use and not travelled over was 33,250 grs. avoir. 5th. The ratio of the abrasion of the rails in use to the corrosion of the rails out of use is therefore nearly as 59°2 to 33°3, or about as 1°44 tol, or 17 tol. 6th. The absolute difference between the corrosion of the rails in use and out of use is 8800 grs. avoir, Hence 7th. The ratio of the corrosion of the rails in use is to that of the rails out of use as 24°5 to 87:9, or nearly 88, or in round numbers as 3°14 to 1. Here again then we have corroborated the fact of a real difference in cor- rosion due to traffic, and again we find it a decreasing one as compared with the former experiments. We now proceed to give the amount of traffic on the Dalkey Atmospheric Railway during the four years of these experiments, as deduced from the records of the Company by Mr. Bergin at my request. The whole traffic up and down passed over the experimental rails. Traffic of the Dalkey Atmospheric Railway from 7th January 1845 to 23rd November 1848. No. of trains. No. of coaches. No. of passengers. 86,972 296,048 949,636 The average proportion of the classes of 2nd and 3rd class carriages is one of equality, one of the latter being always a piston carriage ; and the average weights are— Piston carriage.......:.. 5 tons 1 ewt. Second class coach ...... eae ode ear Third class coach........ BE A has And taking the passengers at 14 to the ton to allow for luggage, we have for the weights in the above time— 1,166,155 tons of dead weight in trains 67,831 tons of passengers. Total.... 1,233,986 tons of gross load. But the line was stopped on the 23rd November 1848 for repair, and worked by alocomotive. ‘The estimated traffic for this period up to January 7, 1849, is thus :— Tons. 288 locomotives at 10 tons.......,.. =2880 214 second class coaches. .......... 760 914 third class coaches ............ 706 4274 passengers, 14 per ton.......... 305 Dotabsvdiph jeri 2. 4651 Which, added to the foregoing, gives for the whole period of traftic— 1,233,986 4,651 1,238,637 tons divided into 86,972 + 288=87,260 trains. The average weight per train is therefore only 142 tons. The total load transferred per annum on the average was 309,659} tons. _The half of this=154,8293 tons was therefore transferred over each length of rail annually. 104 REPORT—1849. The total abrasion on 30 yards of rail we have noted at 59,170 grs. in four years, or 14,792°5 grs. per annum, which again is equal to 493°08 grs. per yard per annum. This is equivalent to 00318 gr. of iron abraded per ton per yard, or to 1760 X‘00318=5°597 gr. per ton per mile, or nearly 5°6 grs. per ton per mile. This result corresponds closely with that of the second experiment on the Dublin and Kingstown line, from which we may remark, that although the average weight per train in this instance is only about one-half that of the Dublin and Kingstown line, yet that the abrasion is nearly as great, proving that traffic over the same rails in both directions exercises a destructive effect upon the molecular constitution of the iron, which is equal with trains of a given weight to that produced by trains of double the weight always moving in the one direction only, or in other words, that with equal rolling loads the destruction of the rails by abrasion is doubled by running the traffic in both directions over the same rails. Owing to the fact that the piston car- riage on atmospheric railways has to open the valve, there is rather more pressure exercised by this carriage upon the rails than is due solely to its weight, but this excess is so small as not to affect the question. Hence the excess of abrasion must be due to the motion in opposite directions con- tinually splitting up the topmost fibres of the iron, which have been partially laminated and rolled out by the former train in the contrary direction of motion. Having now arrived at the last of these prolonged experiments, we may combine the results into one table of the 1st and 2nd experiments on the Kingstown line, and of that on the Dalkey line, rejecting that on the Ulster as dubious, and reducing all the results to one common period of 365 days, or one year. TABLE No. 4.—Results of 1st, 2nd and 3rd Series of Experiments reduced to a common period of 365 days. First Experiment|Second Experiment|Third Experiment Nature a fe ated OP 57, ivedtanvaaitl OE Dabes aul. Ba Dalle Hae Kingst. Railway.| Kingst. Railway. way. grs. grs. grs. Abyasion in use ....| 30,725 23,843+ 14,794— Corrosion im use.... 7,023 2,406 + 6,113— Corrosion out of use . 18,436 6,562+ 8,312+ Difference between } corrosion in use 10,893 4,156 2,200 and out of use. . if The preceding are the absolute losses of weight upon 30 yards of rail in one year. The following are the first differences respectively between the abrasions and corrosions as given in the Ist, 2nd and 3rd experiments, 2. e. differences between Ist and 2nd, and between 2nd and 3rd, viz.— Ist and 2nd. 2nd and 3rd. PNDYHSION:. oc cusnamterene Watsie Setituts LOSOO2 eyaaie 9049 Corrosion in use ............ 5A 2 a ae 3707+ Corrosion out of use ....... wy LA 874i. seroma ae 1750+ These do not present a series, but we are enabled to conclude from Table 4,— Ist. That the abrasion by traffic on the same rails constantly decreases in reference to the rolling load. ON RAILWAY BAR CORROSION. 105 It is probable that the rate of this decrease will be more and more slow, and at a certain point of hardness reached by the condensation of the iron of the rail due to the rolling load, it will become and continue constant. 2nd. The corrosion both in use and out of use appears also to decrease gradually upon the Kingstown line. The absolute corrosion in both cases is greater on the Dalkey line, owing to the increased dampness of the situation in which the rails were necessarily placed for experiment upon it, viz. in a shallow cutting with wet bottom. 3rd. The difference between the corrosion in use and out of use, which exists throughout all the experiments, is also a constantly decreasing one. For purposes of general comparison, and of comparison with the corrosion of rails made of other makes or qualities of iron than those of the present experiments, it will be convenient to arrange the following table of the amounts of corrosion, both in and out of use, reduced to one square foot of corroded surface, and for a term of one year. The total exposed surface of the Dublin and Kingstown rail per lineal yard, is=2'88 square feet, but from this we have to deduct the top surface of the rail, which is rolled over in contact with the wheels, and which, being preserved bright, does not corrode, being 1°75 inch wide, which leaves a net surface of corrusion of 2°44 square feet per yard for the rails in use, and of 2°88 square feet per yard for the rails out of use as above. Taking the results of Table No. 4, therefore, we are enabled to deduce Table No. 5, which gives the corrosion in each case per square foot of sur- face of rail, and these results are then comparable with those of Table 15 of my Third Report on the Corrosion of Iron and Steel, &c., Transactions of British Association, and indeed comparable (by the aid of the standard bar as referred to in those reports) with all other results as to corrosion detailed therein, so that these experiments as to the corrosion of railway bars, may be hereafter extended or applied by others to rails rolled of any other make of iron whatever. TABLE No. 5. First Experiment,| Second Experiment, Third Experi Nature of action on the rail. |Dublin andKings-| Dublin and Kings- Da ik eka i town Railway. town Railway. alkey Railway. grs. avoir. grs. avoir. grs. avoir. Corrosion out of use per square foot of 213°38 76°00 96°18 rail per annum.... Corrosion in use, or exposed to traffic per . , | ; square foot of rail LOA ieske 83°53 per annum ...... aammrerences.......... 110°34 30°13 12°65 Thus again the differences show a constantly descending series. If we extract from Table 15, Third Report on Iron, British Association, a few of the amounts of corrosion there given per square foot of surface, and reduce them to a period of one year, the foregoing corrosions will appear in all instances remarkably less. ; The results of Table 15 are, however, not sérictly comparable, as the iron there was exposed to the air and moisture of the City of Dublin, where the smoke and vapours, and excess of carbonic acid, close to the roofs and 106 REPORT—1849. chimneys, accelerate corrosion; still the difference is so remarkable, as to induce the suspicion, that there are some forces engaged which more or less retard the corrosion of iron when exposed in railway bars, in every condition, z,¢. whether travelled over or not. Thus in one year, the losses by corrosion on one square foot of surface of the following sorts of iron exposed in the City of Dublin, were— grs. avoir. 2. Common Shropshire bar ...........00+.--+ 151416 3. Best Staffordshire bar .........000005 05005 “1OLS04 4, Best Dowlais Welsh bar ........ Weteistoatt | round the bars, in accordance with the facts pointed out so well by Dr. Fa- raday. And in accordance with the recent experiments of Mr. Grove, the constantly recurrent induction of magnetism of great intensity in each rail involves a constant change of temperature in the rail, due to this cause alone, and probably an equally constant change in the molecular arrangement of its particles. Such are the facts, so far as I have been enabled to observe them, of the complex relations to electricity, magnetism, and terrestrial temperature of railway bars ; they fail to throw any direct light upon the immediate subject of our inquiry, but since the closest relationship has been proved to subsist be- tween all these molecular forces, and especially since the later refined re- searches of Faraday and Pliicker have shown that changes in the electrical or magnetic state of solids is attended with an instantaneous ehange in the relative groupings of their molecules, and knowing beforehand that chemical action in its most ordinary circumstances is powerfully influenced and modi- fied by the state of grouping, or of aggregation of these molecules, it seems by no means improbable that the chemical action of air and moisture upon the iron of railway bars may be more or less modified by the electrical and magnetic forces that specially apply to them. To reduce this te certainty, demands experiments conducted, not after the manner or with the immediate object of those before us, but by refined research in the physico-chemical laboratory. . Interesting as such researches may be to science, and to which the facts here recorded may perhaps serve as finger-posts at the commencement of the way, they are not of very high value to the practical railway engineer, inas- much as we have already found that the destruction of railway bars by cor- rosion is small in comparison with that by traffic. Nor are we obliged to rest in any vague speculation to find efficient causes sufficient to account for the real difference that we have established between the corrosion of the same railway bar in use and out of use. The three principal causes to which I attribute this difference are,— Ist. The top surface of a railway bar in use is constantly preserved in a state of perfect cleanness, polish, and freedom from oxidation, while the re- mainder of the bar is rough, coated originally with black oxide (Ham- merschlag) and soon after with red rust (peroxide and basic salts). Not only is every metal electro-positive to its own oxides, but, as esta- blished in my SecondReport on the Action of Air and Wateron Iron (sec. 242), a mass of metal, partially polished and partly rough, is primarily corroded on the rough portion. Hence then a railway bar while in use is constantly pre- served from rusting by the presence of its polished top-surface. Such polished surface has no existence upon the rail out of use. 2nd. The upper portion of the rail in use is rapidly condensed and hard- ened by the rolling of traffic over it; and I have also shown in the same reports, that all other circumstances being the same, the rate of corrosion of ON RAILWAY BAR CORROSION. 111 any iron depends upon its density, and is less in proportion as this is ren- dered greater by mechanical means. 8rd. As every metal is positive to its own oxides, the adherent coat of rust upon iron, while it remains, powerfully promotes the corrosion of the metal beneath, and this in a greater degree in proportion as the rust adherent is of greater antiquity, inasmuch as it has been shown that the rust produced by air and moisture, which at first contains but little peroxide (Fe, O, ), continues to change slowly, and becoming more and more peroxidized, becomes more and more electro-negative to its own base. Now the rust formed upon a railway bar out of use continues always to adhere to it, and thus to promote and accelerate its corrosion, while the rust formed upon a railway bar in use is perpetually shaken off by the vibration of traffic, and thus this source of increased chemical action is removed. Of the extent to which this acts, we are informed by the results of the second experiment on the Kingstown Railway, where the weight of adherent rust, formed on removal of the bars out of use, was found to be more than four times as great as that upon an equal surface of the bars that had been in use. We have found that this difference of corrosion in and out of use however is a constantly decreasing one; this arises from the fact that the condensation of the top-surface of the rails ceases after it has reached a certain point de- pendent on the maximum weight of the trains, and that after the lapse of a considerable period a uniform coat of rust is formed upon the rails in use, which is so firmly adherent that the vibration and wind of passing trains are incapable of sweeping it away; and it seems possible that after the lapse of an extremely prolonged time, the difference between the corrosion of the rail in use and out of use might become so small as to be perhaps insensible. To recapitulate, then, we have found that railway bars forming part of a Jong line, whether in or out of use, corrode less. for equal surfaces than a short piece of the same iron similarly exposed ; that the rails in use do cor- rode less than those out of use; that this difference is one decreasing with the lapse of time; that the absolute amount of corrosion is a source of de- struction of the rails greatly inferior to that due to traffic; that it is highly probable that the electrical and magnetic forces developed in the rails by terrestrial induction and by rolling traffic, react in some way upon the che- mical forces concerned in their corrosion ; and that therefore the direction of lines of railway in azimuth is not wholly indifferent as respects the question of durability of rails. I am not aware of any information upon this subject having any character of accuracy which I can refer to extraneous to the present report. In the Franklin Journal, and also in Silliman’s Journal, some few papers occur giving rather long statements as to the wear of rails on the Lowell and other American railways, as also some such in the Mining Journal (London), as to some English lines ; as also some observations upon the abrasion of cast- iron rails, given by Thompson in his ‘Colliery Inventions and Improve- ments. They need not however be extracted here. I might also extend this report to a comparison of the relations which subsist between the surface per yard lineal exposed to corrosion, and the strength and stiffness of the several principal forms of rail in use upon one line; but this can so obviously be done by the engineer for his own purpose, that it seems needless. It is however an element of choice in the form of rails that appears heretofore to have been wholly neglected. _ Iconclude therefore with two practical suggestions, deducible from the _ information we have obtained, having for object the increasing the durability _ of rails, both as against traffic and corrosion. First. Of whatever quality of 112 REPORT—1849., iron rails are rolled, I would suggest that they should be subjected prior to use to an uniform course of hammer hardening all over the top-surface and sides of top flange of the rail. The effect of this would be two-fold ; the rail will be stiffened without any material reduction in ultimate strength ; its sur- face will be hardened and polished, and hence best calculated to resist corro- sion and abrasion ; and lastly, the direction of the principal axes of the erystals of the iron, or of its “fibre,” will for a small depth be changed and brought perpendicular to the surface of the rail, by which the tendency to lamination by rolling traffic will be greatly reduced. It will occur to any practical engineer that machinery may be constructed with perfect facility by which this hammer-hardening may be performed with rapidity and perfect smooth- ness and uniformity, the bar being slowly advanced, end on, under small hammers with suitably formed faces, driven rapidly by power. The total cost of the operation would amount to but a trifle on a ton of rails. Secondly. I wouldsuggest that allrailway bars, before being laid down, should, after having been gauged and straightened, &c., be heated to about 400° Fahr. (but not higher, for fear of injuring the effect of the hammer-hardening), and then coated with boiled coal-tar; this I have proved in the preceding experiments to last for more than four years as a coating perfectly impervious to corrosive action while constantly exposed to traffic. The outlay for this would be very small; and if its value were no more than that after the lapse of eight or more years, when a set of rails had to be replaced in consequence of wear, the whole of the iron, which would have otherwise been dissipated in rust, would be returned to the furnace to be remade, the outlay would be wellbestowed. I would respectfully commend these suggestions to my professional brethren as worthy of trial, and have now fulfilled, so far as I have been able, the commands of the British Association, as to the corrosion and wear of rails. ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 113 Report on the Discussion of the Electrical Observations at Kew. By Wiuuiam RavcuirF Brrr. Tux clectrical observations made at the Observatory of the British Associa- tion at Kew from August 1, 1843, to August 8, 1848, are divisible into two portions, one occupying a period of seventeen months, viz. from August 1843 to December 1844 both inclusive, during which the readings were taken at sunrise, 9 A.M., 3 P.M. and sunset; the other, a period of three years and seven months, viz. from January 1844 to July 1848, also inclusive, during which the readings were taken at each even hour of Greenwich mean time as well as at sunrise and sunset. The last portion, which is by far the most complete, furnishes, from the observations of three complete years, the materials for deducing the diurnal and annual periods of the electrical tension. This has accordingly claimed our first attention and forms the first section of Part I., which is exclusively devoted to the examination of Positive Electricity. The observations at sunrise and sunset, extending over the entire period of the five years, from the variability of the epoch of observation, require a separate discussion ; they accordingly form the subject of the second section ; and the third section is occupied with a discussion of the observations during _ the first seventeen months. Scattered over the entire period of the five years we have several readings of negative electricity, and as they are evidently accompanied by meteorolo- gical phenomena of a peculiar and unmistakeable character which strongly indicate them to be the results of disturbances, rather than their forming any portion of a regular progression of the electric signs, they have also been separately discussed. Their discussion forms Part IL. of this Report. Part I.—POSITIVE ELECTRICITY. Section 1—Discussion of Positive Readings during the Years 1845, 1846 and 1847. During the years 1845, 1846 and 1847, 10,526 observations were recorded in the Journal, including the indications of the night-registering apparatus. Of these— 10,176 were positive ; 324 ,, negative, and 26 ,, not employed in the discussion ; 10,526 In the following table are recorded the twenty-six unemployed readings which were positive; they were in almost every case either preceded or suc- ceeded by negative readings, from which it was concluded that they resulted more from a disturbance in the usual electrical condition of the atmosphere, than that they formed a part of its regular diurnal march: from these cir- cumstances, connected with the high tensions mostly exhibited, it was appre- hended the results would have been materially affected by employing them in the investigation. In the following discussion, readings occasionally higher than some of those em below have been employed, but they have evidently formed either 49, I 114 Vi REPORT—1849. a part of a regular diurnal movement, or have occurred at such hours as are generally distinguished by exhibiting an increase of tension. It was con- sequently considered that a rejection of them would to a certain extent in- terfere with the development of the diurnal and annual curves. The values in the table, as well as throughout the discussion, are recorded in terms of Volta’s electrometer No. 1. The observations were taken with Henley’s in- strument, ] degree of which has been approximately considered to be equal to 100 divisions of Volta No. 1*. * On the 13th and 14th of July 1849, the reporter attended at the observatory for the purpose of comparing the electrometers, and especially determining the value of the readings of Henley’s electrometer in terms of Volta’s standard No.1. The following are the results of the comparison. It appears from upwards of two hundred readings, the charge varying be- tween 50 diy. and 110 div. of Volta No. 1 as read from the scale of the No. 2 electrometer, that the mode of reading adopted by the observer at Kew, during the five years, was to bring the eye into such a position that the inner edge of the straw should coincide with the division read on the ivory are of the instrument. By this mode of reading, I° of Henley would very nearly equal in value 100 div. of Volta; this value has accordingly been retained, as most in accordance with the mode of reading adopted. It will be however evident that the true read- ing would be given, not by either edge of the straw, but by the centre: the diameter of the _ Straw is equal to 2°; consequently when the inner edge coincides with 1°, the true reading must be 2°. From this it is clear that the values in the following discussion are relatively too high, but they will not interfere with the results further than by eapanding the curves ; the inflexions, points of maxima and minima, and the general form of the curves, will be the same, conse- quently the results derived from these curves will be unaffected. It would have been desirable to have applied a correction for this difference in the mode of reading, had not a greater dif- ficulty presented itself in the dissimilarity of the construction of the two instruments, by which the values at different parts of the scale of Henley’s instrument acquire different values in terms of Volta’s instrument. The small extent of range common to both instruments renders it very difficult to express the higher readings of Henley at all accurately in terms of Volta. It is therefore considered best under the circumstances to retain the values as given in the tables, especially as the results are not materially interfered with ; and endeavcur to point out a mode by which the readings of Henley’s instrument may be accurately expressed in terms of Volta, as well as to indicate a more precise method of observation. The standard electrometer No. | of Volta is so constructed that a given electric force causes a pair of straws of a known weight to diverge. Their divergence is measured on a circular arc of the same radius as the length of the straws, which is so graduated as to indicate half the distance in arc between the extremities of the straws in half-Parisian lines, each of the divi- sions, which are at equal distances from each other, being equal to halfaline. It is clear from this construction of instrument, that upon measuring the distance between the straws ina right line, the sine of half the angle subtended by the extremities of the straws is proportional to the electric tension of the charge. : The electrometer No, 2 is so constructed that each division is exactly equal to five of No. 1, and the circular arc is graduated to read at once the electric tension in terms of No. 1. The difference in the electrometers consists in the straws of No. 2 being heavier than those of No. 1, in such a proportion as to increase the value of the readings in the ratio above mentioned. Asin No. 1 the sine of half the angle of divergence is proportional to the tension, soin No, 2 precisely the same value of the tension obtains, viz. the sine of half the angle of divergence, the linear value of the sine itself being proportional to its value in No. 1 for the same force: thus, a force that would diverge the straws in No. 1 to an angle of 30° would only open them in No. 2 to an angle of 6°, and in each instrument the sines of 15° and 3° respectively would represent the same force. There is however no necessity to employ such a determination of the force, the graduation of each instrument being amply sufficient for the purpose. The Henley’s electrometer is so constructed that the force is measured by a straw termi-~ nating in a pith-ball, which together constitute a pendulum that is inserted in a ball working by two fine steel pivots. This pendulum diverges by the electric force from the perpendicular, the angular amount of divergence being measured by a quadrant, graduated to degrees of the circle on an ivory scale. As it is thus used, the readings are not very readily comparable with those of the Volta’s electrometers, in consequence of the Henley readings being in arc, while those of Volta are in linear measure. This difficulty may however be readily overcome by immediately measuring the sine of the angle of divergence, which in this instrument is a measure of the electric tension. Nothing further would be required than to place the elec- trometer in a convenient position for observation by a theodolite, which should be firmly fixed at a known distance from it, The centre of the azimuth circle should be in the precise vertis ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 115 cal plane of the centre of the pith-ball when unelectrified, and should be at cuch a distance that the arc measured by it may be of sufficient range to determine Fig. 1. the length of the sine with tolerable accuracy. The distance between the centres of the azimuth circle and pith-ball should, if possible, be of such a value in half-Parisian lines as to facilitate the formation of a table for obtaining the value of the sine in half-Parisian lines by in- spection, so that a simple observation of the bisection of the right and left limbs of the pith-ball, which of course would be in arc, and the deduced divergence in arc of its centre from its plane of rest when unelectrified, would, with the assistance of the table, give at once the electric tension in half-Parisian lines ; and these readings might readily be converted into terms of Volta’s electrometer No. 1, by properly adjusting the straw, pith-ball, &c. to a definite value, so that a diver- gence of half a Parisian line may be equivalent to a certain number of divisions of Volta’s standard electrometer. In this way, it is clear, the tensions might be expressed in terms of Volta’s standard up to 90° of Henley without the necessity of applying corrections, unless such corrections should be rendered necessary from the effects of gravity on the pendulum. The whole matter may be rendered plain by the annexed diagram (fig. 1). Let A represent the centre of the pith-ball when unelectrified, and B the centre of the azimuth circle of the theodolite. The di- stance B A will form the base of a right-angled triangle, of which the divergence of the pendulum P—A’ is the perpendicular. When the ‘instrument is electrified, the pith-ball diverges in a plane at right angles to the plane passing through its centre when unelectrified, and that of the azimuth circle; or in other words, the plane of its motion passes vertically through the line A C, and is at right angles to the vertical plane passing through the line A B. If now the theodolite is so adjusted that the limbs of the pith-ball may be bisected, the azimuth circle will measure in arc the sine of the angle of divergence, and thus we have given the side and angles of a right- B angled triangle from which the linear measure of the divergence may readily be deduced. The analogy is as follows :—Radius is to the tangent of the horizontal angle, as the distance between the centres of the pith-ball and azimuth circle is to the divergence. Pe Suppose the distance AB = 500 half-lines; The azimuthal angle...... =o: Then Log AB......... «ee = 27698970 5 | Log tan 6° 2.,.sd00. = 9-021620 » Log 5255+ ...... = 1°720590 Consequently the divergence is equal to 52°55 half-Parisian lines in a plane at right angles to the vertical plane passing through the above-mentioned centres. N.B. The diagram is constructed in accordance with the above example. It is not absolutely necessary to employ a theodolite. A telescope furnished with cross wires firmly fixed on a support having its centre of azimuthal motion at a known constant and in- _ variable distance from the centre of the pith-ball when unelectrified, the angle being measured by an arm sufficiently extended to include the angle subtended by the pendulum when de- _ flected from the perpendicular 90°, will be sufficient. A vertical motion should be given to the telescope by rackwork by which it can be raised to the level of the pith-ball when electrified, and it should be farnished with a level, &c. to ensure horizontality. The above remarks have reference to the expression of the electric tension in the linear terms adopted by Volta, viz. half-Paris lines, and are principally applicable to the retention of Volta’s notation so far as the measurement of the sine of the angle of divergence from the per- pendicular is concerned ; but Mr. Ronalds has suggested a much better mode of connecting the readings of the two instruments, viz. a conversion of the readings of Volta’s electrometer (half Paris lines) into measures of arc, so that the readings of the three instruments, Volta No. 1, Volta No. 2, and Henley, and even of the discharger, may all be expressed in degrees of the circle, the sines of which are of course readily ascertainable. 12 116 REPORT—1849. Tasce I. Unemployed positive readings. Div. Div. Volta No. 1. Date. Volta No. 1. 1845. Feb. 23, 8 a.m. | 2000 1846. June 25, 2 p.m. | 4500 1845. May 20, 8 p.m. | 3000 1846. Aug. 1, 4 p.m. | 5500 1845. May 26, noon. 4.500 1846. Aug. 1, 6 p.m. | 5500 1845. June 4,2 p.m. | 3500 || 1846. Aug. 3, noon. | 1500 1845. July 11, 2 p.m. | 2000 || 1846. Aug. 5, Gam. | 3000 1845. Aug. 7, 2p.m.| 1000 | 1847. Mar. 10, 4 p.m. | 2500 1845. Aug. 7, 4 p.m. | 2000 1847. Apr. 29, 4 p.m. | 2500 1846. Feb. 27, noon. | 2000 1847. Apr. 29, 6 p.m. | 1000 1846. Mar. 26, 6 p.m. | 4500 1847. Apr. 30, 2 p.m. | 2500 1846. Apr. 25, 2p.m.| 3000 || 1847. May 3, 2p.m.| 3000 1846. Apr. 26, 6 am. | 2000 1847. July 17, 6 am. | 2000 1846. May 6, 2p.m.| 4500 1847. July 17, 8am. | 3500 1846. May 20, 2 p.m. 5000 1847. Dec. 30, noon. 2000 Diurnat PErRIoD. Diurnal period. Year.—In examining the results obtained from a dis- cussion of the positive observations, it will be desirable to confine our atten- tion first to the diurnal period of the electrical tension, or to those variations exhibited by the electrometers which have a day for the period in which they are completed, and which evidently depend on, or are connected with, the rotation of the earth on its axis. The 10,176 observations upon which the mean diurnal period of the three years is based, are thus distributed among the twelve daily readings. Tasxe II. Number of positive readings at each observation-hour in the three years 1845, 1846 and 1847. be OE Oia! a Soe a Oe ee ee eee Year.|Mid.|2 a.m./4 a.m|6 a.m.'8 a.m.|10 a.m.|Noon.|2 p-m./4 p.m.|6 p.m.'8 p.m.|10 p.m, Sums. 1845.| 222] 236 | 246 | 190 | 341] 327 | 275 | 297 | 302 | 304 | 302 | 332.) 3374 1846.| 234] 257 | 269 | 190 | 353] 338 | 288 | 278 | 287 | 281 | 286] 338 | 3399 1847.| 199] 255 | 289 | 186 | 353] 348 | 285 | 283 | 289 | 289 | 290] 337 3403 It will be remarked, that the greatest number of positive observations were recorded at 8 a.m., and the least number at 6 A.M. The numbers from noon to 8 p.m. do not vary materially in amount; but at 10 p.m. the number again increases. By consulting the following table of the distribution of negative observations, it will be seen that the greatest number occurred be- tween 8 A.m. and 8 p.m. exclusive; this will to some little extent account for the difference; but the principal cause is, that on Sundays the observations were suspended between 10 a.m. and 10 p.m. exclusive. The small number of observations at 6 A.m. arises from the fact, that during the winter months, the personal observations were not commenced until 8 A.M., or more pro- perly speaking until sunrise. ’ ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 117 > TABLE III. ‘Number of negative readings at each observation-hour in the three years : 1845, 1846 and 1847. Year.|Mid.|2 a.m.|4 a.m.!6 a.m.|8 a.m./10 a.m.|Noon.|2 p.m.|4 p-m.|6 p.m./8 p-m.|10 p.m./Sums, —_— 5) 5 11 17 13} 16-} 22 | 20 | 17 15 | 149 1846.) 1 4 4 5 9 18 11 ll 12 } 10 5 4 94 I 1 4 9 11 10 | 13 7 9 5 8 81 _—_—-_ a | | | es | een | | |) — |} —_. —| Sums.) 7 | 10 | 10 | 14 | 29 46 34 | 40 | 41 | 39 | 27 27 «(| 324 See a a a ea ee a | The mode of discussion adopted has been, to arrange all the positive readings under the respective hours of observation, and then to divide their sums by the number of readings at each hour, so that the values recorded in the following tables are the arithmetical means of the readings at each ob- servation-hour. The transcription from the Journal has been most carefully checked, and every precaution taken to ensure accuracy, both in ascertain- ing the number of observations and in calculating the means; in the latter case the arithmetical operations have been executed in duplicate. The re- sults of these computations, as before mentioned, are expressed in terms of _ Volta’s standard electrometer No. 1, all observations of tensions exceeding the range of this instrument having been reduced to its readings (see de- scription of electrometers, ‘ Report,’ 1844, p. 124, and the previous note on p- 114 of this Report). On the Ist of January 1845, when the night-registering apparatus was first brought into use, a note occurs in the register which it is important to transcribe here. It is as follows :— “ The electric tensions at the hours 0, 2 and 4 are estimated by adding a quarter of a degree (of Volta) to the tensions exhibited by the three night- registering electrometers at sunrise, for each hour which has elapsed between the time at which they were charged (by the clock) and the time of observing them (viz. sunrise). *« The rate of loss by these electrometers begins to be inconstant after the tension has exceeded about 50° (of Volta): vde Experiments, 1844, p. — ; if, therefore, the tension at sunrise of any such instrument shall exceed 50°, it is not noted in the Journal*.” TABLE IV. Mean electrical tension at each observation-hour in the three years 1845, 1846 and 1847, with the mean diurnal period as deduced from the whole. Year.|Mid. |2 a.m./4 a.m./6 a.m./8 a,m.|10 a.m.|Noon.|2 p.m./4 p.m./6 p.m.|8 p.m./10 p.m.|Mean. ‘ div.| div. | div. | div. | div. |* div. div. | div. div. div. div. div. diy. 1845.)19°8 | 17-8 | 18-3 | 28°6 | 64:7 | 84:4 |67°9 | 59-9 | 59-2 | 71-1 | 98°9| 117-2 | 63:1 1846./24°3 | 21°2 | 21°4 | 35-4 | 61-1 76°7 |69°6 | 65°5 | 63-5 | 85°0 | 96°3| 87:2 | 61:3 1847.)23°7 | 21-1 | 21-5 | 38-7 | 78°7 | 102-5 | 88:4 | 89-4 | 85-0 | 99-1 |112:°0|107°9 | 76:3 Mean.|22°6 | 20-1 | 20-5 | 34:2 | 68-2 | 88-1 | 75'4 | 71'5 | 69-1 | 84:8 |102-4 | 104-0 | 66-9 ‘ * For a full description of these night-registering electrometers, see ‘ Report,’ 1844, p. 138, under the head of “ Experiments on insulation by means of chloride of calcium.” 118 REPORT—1849. TABLE V. Excess or defect of the mean electrical tension at each observation-hour, as compared with the mean of the year, for the three years 1845, 1846 and 1847, and the mean diurnal period. Year.|Mid.|2 a.m.|4 a.m.|6 a.m.|8 a.m.|10 a.m.|Noon.|2 p.m.|4 p,m.|6 p.m./8 p.m./10 p.m.|Mean. -—— div. | div. | div. div. div. div. div. div. div. | div. | div. div. -| div. + ——— | ————— |} ———— |} —_ | | | | —|-—|—-— | - +/+)/—]-—] +] +] + 1845.|43°3 | 45°3 | 44°8 |34°5 | 16 | 21:3 | 4:8 | 3:2] 3° 8:0 | 35°8 | 54:1 | 63°1 -|—-|—-|-/-| + })+4+/)+4+])+4+] +4) 4+)] + 1846.|37°0 | 40°1 | 39°9 | 25°9 | 0-2 | 15-4 8:3 | 4:2 | 2°2 | 23:7 | 35-0 | 25°9 | 61:3 —-|-}|-—|-/+/] + ]4+]4+] 4+] 4+ ]+].+ 1847./52°6 | 55°2 |54°8 |37°6 | 2°4 | 26:2 {12:1 | 131 | 8:7 | 22°8 | 35°7 | 31:6 | 76:3 ~|-/;-/-| +] 4 +} +] 4 Mean./44°3 46°8 | 46:4 | 32:7 | 1:3 | 21-2 85 | 4°6 | 2:2 |17-9 | 35:5 | 3771 | 66°9 The above tables, which are based upon the numbers in Table II., clearly exhibit a double progression of the electrical tension during the twenty-four hours. The means of the first two years closely approximate, and in connexion with the general course of the numbers, give a proportional confidence, both with regard to the care manifested in making the observations and the faith- fulness of the record. The third year exhibits upon the whole a higher ten- sion, the means at midnight and 2 a.m. being the only values that are lower than those of the same hours in 1846. The mean of all the observations is 66°9 divisions of Volta’s electrometer No. 1. There are only three exceptions to the general fact, that from 8 a.m. to 10 p.M. the mean electrical tension is above the mean of the year. The mean diurnal period, as deduced from the three years, does not exhibit any depres- sion below the mean of all the observations between the above-mentioned hours. The hours that exhibit a depression below the mean are midnight, 2, 4 and 6 a.m., and these are considerably in defect. The hour of mini- mum tension appears to be 2 A.M.,a gradual rise taking place from that hour until 6 a.m. Between the hours of 6 and 8 a.m. a rapid rise occurs, the tension being nearly doubled; it then increases gradually until 10 A.m., when a maximum is passed, after which it gradually declines until 4 P.m., the epoch of the divrnal minimum as contradistinguished from the zocturnal minimum. The tension then rapidly increases until 8 p.M., and at 10 P.M. passes another maximum rather considerably above the maximum of 10 a.m. From 10 p.m to midnight (two hours) the diminution of the tension is enormous, 814 divisions of Volta No. 1. The midnight value is but slightly above the value at 2 A.M., the epoch of the minimum. The diurnal march of the tension is rendered more apparent to the eye by the annexed curves (fig. 2). The general similarity of the movements in the three years, and the close agreement between the curves of these years, and that of the mean diurnal curve as deduced from them, is, to a certain extent, satisfactory. The forenoon maximum is well marked in each case, as well as the evening maximum: in 1846 and 1847 this occurred at 8 p.M., and it may be probable that 9 p.m. may be the hour at which it is most frequently exhibited. The lower readings at midnight, 2, 4 and 6 a.m., demand particular atten- tion. From the note above extracted (see page 117), we find that tensions at these hours, above 50 div. of Volta No. 1, do not enter into the discussion. It is not only highly probable, but the absence of records at these hours, when Henley’s electrometer has ranged rather high, indicates that the conductor ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 119 has ears much Meher ta than 50 div. at the hours of 0, 2 and 4. The inference undoubtedly is, that the means at those hours are too low, and as a consequence, the mean of each year, as well as the mean of all the observations, is also foo low. With regard to the hour of 6 a.m., the value appertains only to the summer, very few observations occurring at this hour in the winter. When we come to discuss the seasons, it will be seen that the higher tensions inva- riably occur in the winter; the value at 6 A.M., upon the whole year, is therefore also too /ow ; consequently, were we in possession cf either an un- interrupted series of personal observa- tions during the day and night, or care- fully executed photographic registers for the same period, we should doubt- less have a curve which would exhibit neither so rapid a rise from 6 A.M. to 8 A.M., nor so great a fall from 10 P.M. to midnight, but would at these hours be more in accordance with its other portions. Of course it is im- portant, in reference to this point, to bear in mind the circumstances under which the observations were made, the personal establishment not having enabled the observer to continue the observations during the night, and the uncertain diminution of the charges of the night-registering electrometers. above 50 diy. rendering it preferable ie ae ta ae not to record the indications of the PI 4 instruments above 50 div., rather than | a 5 insert numbers likely to vary from the truth, and for which there are no certain means of correction. From a consideration of the tables and curves, it will be apparent, that the hour most suitable for observing the mean electrical tension during the entire year is § a.o., the difference from the mean at this hour being 1°3 div. in excess. — Diurnal period. Summer.—The 10,176 observations from which the diurnal period having reference to the entire year has been deduced, are thus divided :— 1845. 1846. Fig. 2. 1847. 3 years. Mean diurnal curves of the electrical tension for the years 1845, 1846 and 1847, with the mean curve of the three years. SUMMEESs cl ea ek wee 5,514 Winter ............ 4,662 10,176 The following table exhibits the distribution of the summer siseteaiions among the twelve daily readings: the months considered to constitute the summer half-year are, April, May, June, July, August and September :— 120 REPORT—1849. TABLE VI. Number of positive readings at each observation-hour in the three summers of 1845, 1846 and 1847, Year.| Mid. |2 a.m./4 a.m./6 a.m./8 a.m.|10 a,m.|Noon.|2 p.m./4 p.m.|6 p.m.|8 p.m.|10 p.m./Sums, 1845.) 135 | 135 | 147 | 176 | 174 | 167 | 135 | 146 | 149 | 152 | 158 | 171 | 1845 1846.| 140 | 149 | 155 | 172 | 175 | 170 | 142 | 135 | 139 | 138 | 148 | 169 | 1832 1847,| 125 | 148 | 163 | 177 | 178 | 173 | 139 | 137 | 141 | 140 | 147 | 169 |1837 Sums.) 400 | 432 | 465 | 525 | 527 | 510 | 416 | 418 | 429 | 430 | 453.| 509 | 5514 These numbers are more nearly equal in their amount than the yearly distribution, Tas_eE VII. Mean electrical tension at each observation-hour in the three summers of 1845, 1846 and 1847, with the mean diurnal period of summer. Year.| Mid.|2 a.m.|4 a.m.|6 a.m.|8 a.m.|10 a.m-(Noon. 2 p.m.|4 p.m./6 p.m./8 p.m.|10 p.m./Mean. — —| —___. —| —— div. | div. div. | div. | div. diy. div. | div. | div. | div. | div. div. div. 1845.| 19-6} 16°0| 17°3| 29°1| 39°4| 34:8 | 29°6| 33°8| 32°6| 36°6| 53°6] 711 | 35°3 1846.) 21°0) 17:4} 19°4| 33°9| 44°9| 47-1 | 34°9| 33°9| 36:3] 40-4] 49-1} 55°0 | 36°5 1847.) 23°5| 20°0| 19°8 | 36°7 | 46°5| 57-9 | 35°4| 37°8| 37°0| 39°8| 49°7| 64:2 | 39°7 —~-| — E ————_ | | —— — ] —-———_ Mean.| 21°3) 17:8 | 18°9 | 33°2| 43°6| 46°7 | 33°4| 35°1| 35:2] 38°9/ 50°8) 63:4 | 37-2 TaBLe_e VIII. Excess or defect of the mean electrical tension at each observation-hour as compared with the mean of each summer in the years 1845, 1846 and 1847, and the mean of the three summers. Year.| Mid.|2 a.m./4 a.m.|6 a.m.|8 a.m.|10 a.m.|Noon.|2 p.m.|4 pm.|6 p-m.|8 p.m.|10 p.m./Mean. div. | div. diy. div. | div. div. div. div. div. | div. div. div. div. — | - + + | + | + 1845.| 15-7) 19°3| 18:0} 6:2 | 4:1 | O05 | 5:7 | 15 | 2:7 | 1:3 |18-3 | 35°8 | 35°3 —|—- + | + + | + | + 1846.} 15-5) 19°1| 17°1| 2°6 | 8:4 | 10°6 16 | 2°6 | 0:2 | 3:9 |12°6 | 18:5 | 36°5 — | - + | + + | +) + 1847.| 162) 19°7| 19°9| 3:0 | 68 | 18-2 4:3 | 199 | 2:7 | O01 |10°0 | 24:5 | 39-7 —|/=}/—-)-}+}4)-}-]};-]+ |4) 4 Mean.| 15°9; 19-4} 183} 4:0 } 6:4 9°5 38 | 2°71 | 2°0 | 1-7.)13°6 | 26:2 | 37:2 In contrasting the numbers in Tables VII. and VIII. with those in Tables IV. and V. having reference to the entire year, we are struck with the greater uniformity that prevails among those appertaining to the summer. The means approximate more closely to each other, the general course of the numbers is more regular, and the rise during the morning hours more gentle, although there is still a considerable diminution of tension between 10 p.m. aud midnight. In contemplating the numbers in Table VIII., indicating the excess or de- fect in comparison with the mean, we sce atta glance that the double pro- gression is well exhibited: at noon, 2 and 4 p.m., the numbers are in defect, or lower than the mean, as well as at midnight, 2,4 and 6 a.m. It may be proper to mention here, that during the summer months the tension seldom / ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 121 rises above 100 div. of Volta No. 1, except at particular hours; this will form a subject of discussion further on; in the meantime it enables us to _ gain some insight into the reason of the diurnal period during the summer months in each year being more in accordance with itself than that of the entire year. ‘The defect of the early morning hours is not so great as the - excess at 10 p.M.; consequently the mean line cuts the entire curve more equably, exhibiting the two maxima above, and the two minima below it. This doubtless arises from the very few tensions above 50 div. that occur during the summer nights, as well as from the observations at 6 A.M., which are generally low. We have therefore a period that differs but little, if any, from the natural progression of the electrical tension: 2 A.M. is the epoch of the principal minimum; the tension gradually rises from this hour until 10 a.M., the forenoon maximum ; the succeeding minimum occurs at noon, the de- cline in the two hours being 13°3 div. ; the rise is then very slow and gradual until 4 p.M., only 1°8 div.; at 6 p.m. the tension increases and mounts rapidly until 10 p.m., the principal maximum ; the decline is then very considerable from 10 p.m. to midnight. TABLE IX. Comparison of the excess or defect from the mean of the diurnal periods de- duced from all the observations, and from those made during the summer months. Season. | Mid.|2 a.m.|4 a.m.|6 a.m.'8'a.m.|10 a.m.|Noon.|2 p.m.{4 p-m.|6 p.m.|8 p.m.|10 p.m.|Mean. diy. | div. died div. | div. | div. ae: an div. div. diy. diy. div, —|—-}—-|/—-|/4+} 4+ ]}/4+]}4+}+])4+]4.] 4 Year . . | 44-3) 46-8) 46-4] 32°7| 1:3 | 21:2] 85 | 46 | 2:2 | 17-9] 35°5| 37-1 | 66°9 —~{|-—|—|—-—| 4+] + —|/+)+ |] + ) Summer.| 15-9} 19-4] 18-3} 4:0| 6:4 95 | 38) 271| 2:0 1°7| 13:6} 26:2 | 37:2 The above table places the diurnal period of the summer months in con- trast with that of the entire year. The annexed curves (fig. 3) exhibit the diurnal march of the tension during the summer months. The same similarity of movement is noticed as in the yearly curves; it is however worthy of remark, that the depression in or about the afternoon does not differ very essentially from that of the entire year, with the exception of the minimum occurring at noon. During the summer the evening maximum is 16°7 div. above the forenoon maximum, and during the entire year it is 159 div. The afternoon minimum is de- pressed below the evening maximum during the year 34°9 div., during the summer it is 30°0 div. This is in decided contrast with the lower branches of the curves, which exhibit a much greater difference. The difference of range in the two series of curves has not been exhibited, from the considera- tion that the nocturnal minimum of the entire year is probably too low. Diurnal period. Winter—The months constituting the winter half-year are, October, November, December, January, February and March. In the tables that follow, the means are not of consecutive months, but of January, February and March at the commencement, and October, November and December at the end of each year. 122 } ya REPORT—1849. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. a EI 8 4 = = = = 4A4.M. 10 A.M. 10 P.M. 2 A.M, 3 4 A.M, 10 A.M. 10 P.M, 2 A.M, | a ° F o FS -2 1845, Mean. s = n 1845. Mean. = s os i= 3 =) = = Mean. & 1846. se Par ae E 3 1846. Mean. so neo 28 33 R= - s° 1847. Mean. 2 + 18475 Mean. a aoe 3S o a) o = ~ — °o 3 Ez 3 summers. Mean. 3 a = . 5 3 winters, Mean. Z a 4 A.M, 10 A.M. 10P.M. 2A.M- 8 E E : Ss S 4 A.M. 10 A.M. 10 P.M. 2 A.M, a 3 = a TABLE X. Number of positive readings at each observation-hour in the three winters of 1845, 1846 and 1847. | Year. /Mia.l2 a.m.|4a.m.|6 a.m.8 a.m. 10 a.m. Noon. 2 p-m.|4 p.m.|6 p.m.'8 p.m./10 p.m./Sums. 1845.| 87| 101 99 | 14 | 167} 160 | 140 | 151 | 153 | 152 | 144 | 161 | 1529 1846. 94 | 108 | 114 | 18 | 178 | 168 | 146 | 143 | 148 | 143 | 138 | 169 | 1567 1847.) 74) 107 | 126 9 | 175 | 175 | 146 | 146 | 148 | 149 | 143 | 168 | 1566 Sums. 255 | 316 339 | 41 | 520] 503 432 | 440 449 | 444 | 495 | 498 | 4662 Mean diurnal curves of the electrical tension for the winters of 1845, 1846 and 1847, with the mean curve of the three winters. tile the ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 123 TABLE XI. Mean electrical tension at each observation-hour in the three winters of 184.5, 1846 and 1847, with the mean diurnal period of winter. Year.| Mid.|2 a.m.|4 a.m.|6 a.m.|8 a.m.|10 a.m.|Noon.|2 p.m.|4 p-m.|6 p.m./8 p-m./10 p.m.|Mean. —_—!)— div. | div. | div. | div. | div. div. div. div. | div. div. div. 1845.| 20°1} 20°2| 19°8) 23:5] 90-9} 136°3 101: 8) 85:2 8. 2 105°6 |148- 6 166°3| 96°7 1846.| 29:2) 26:5 | 24:2) 49°2| 77:0} 106°7 | 103°3] 95°4| 89-2 |128-1 |146°9| 119°4| 90-4 1847.| 23°9| 22°7| 23°6| 76°9|111°4| 146°6 | 138-9|137°9 pee 154°8 |176°1 | 151°9 }119°1 _|Mean. 245 23°2| 22°7| 46°5| 93°71] 130-0 115-8|106-0 101-5. 129-4 |157°3 | 145°5 |102°1 TaBLe XII. Excess or defect of the mean electrical tension at each observation-hour as compared with the mean of each winter in the years 1845, 1846 and 1847, and the mean of the three winters. Year.|Mid.|2 a.m.'4 a.m.|6 a.m.|8 a.m.|10 a.m.{Noon. 2p.m.|4 p.m./6 p.m.|8 p.m.|10 p-m.|Mean.| diy. | diy. | div. | div. diy. div. div. | div. | div. | div. diy. div. div. —|}—-|—/}—-|/-|/+]/+]-|-—|]+]+4+] + 1845.| 76°6| 76°5| 76°9| 73°2| 5°8)| 39°6 | 8:1.]11°5 |11:5 | 89 {51:9 | 69°6 | 96-7 -}/-|/—|-/—| +) 4) 4 +) +] + 1846.) 61:2) 63°9| 66°2| 41°2| 13°4] 16:3 |12°9 | 5:0 | 1:2 |37°7 |56°5 | 29-0 | 90-4 —~|—|;—-|—-/-} +}4+]4+]/ +) 4] 4+) 4+ 1847.) 95:2) 96°4| 95°5| 42°2) 7°7| 27:5 |19°8 | 18-8 | 11°6 | 35°7 |57:0 | 32-8 {119-1 —}—-|—|—-/-| +]}4+]+4+]/-—]+]+4] + Mean.) 77°6| 78°9| 79-4} 55°6| 9:0] 27°9|13°7 | 3:9 | 0°6 |27°3 | 55-2 | 43:4 |102°1 Most of the remarks offered under the head of “Diurnal period, Year,” will equally apply to the present tables. There is, however, one feature that is very striking, viz. the greater range as well as amount of tension during the winter months, and that independent of the low readings during the early morning hours. The double progression is even more decided than in either of the former cases. In tracing the diurnal march we find the minimum at 4. A.M., a comparatively gentle rise takes place at 6 a.M., after which the tension rapidly mounts until 10 a.m., the forenoon maximum; it then gra- dually declines until 4 p.m., the afternoon minimum, and from this hour the rise is very rapid until 8 p.M., the epoch of theevening maximum. A fall of 11°8 div. takes place between 8 and 10 p.m., and then the enormous fall occurs between 10 p.m. and midnight, which we noticed in the yearly curves. The elevation of the evening above the forenoon maximum equals 27-3 div., and the depression of the intermediate minimum is as great as 55°8 div. The recess of the nocturnal maxima and minima from each other is interest- ce. The above phenomena are very clearly apparent in the annexed curves fig. 4:). On Entoating these curves with those of the summer half-year (fig. 3), and comparing both with the curves having reference to the entire year on p. 119, the influence of the winter curves on those of the year is readily seen: the yearly curves present precisely the same general features as the winter curves. Taking this circumstance in connexion with the greater number of higher readings in winter than in summer, it may be inferred that the higher tensions materially influence the general results. The influence 124 we: REPORT—1849. ey PLE: of season in both instances, viz. the difference of tension and the form of curve, is very apparent from the series of summer and winter curves. TaBLeE XIII. Comparison of the excess or defect from the mean of the diurnal periods deduced from the observations in summer and winter. Season. | Mid.|2 a.m./4 a.m.|6 a.m.|8 a.m.|10 a.m.|Noon.|2 p.m.|4 p.m.}6 p.m.|8 p.m.|10 p.m.|Mean. —_—_— diy. | div. | div, | diy. | diy. diy. diy. div. | div, | div. | div. div. div. —~-/-/-/-—-/+]+]-]-]-]+] +4] 4 Summer./15‘9|19°4 |18:3 | 4:0] 6:4] 9:5 378) 21 |. 2:0 1:7 |13°6 | 26:2 | 37:2 ~}/-~/-|]-]-] +/+ ]+]-|]+] 4+] + Winter. |77°6 | 78:9 | 79-4 |55°6 | 9-0 | 27-9 | 13:7] 3°9 | 0°6 |27°3 | 55:2 | 43-4 |102°1 In the above table the summer and winter diurnal periods are placed in’ contrast. TaBLeE XIV. Synopsis of the principal points in the summer, winter, and yearly curves. Even. Max.| Aftern.Min. above below Forenoon. |Even. Max. Nocturnal | Forenoon /Afternoon | Evening Season. |,,... : His 3 son. /Minimum. |Maximum.| Minimum.|Maximum. | | | div. diy, Summer.) 2 a.m. 10 a.m. Noon. 10 p.m. 16°7 30°0 Winter..| 4am. 10 a.m. 4 p.m. 8 p.m. 273 55°8 Year ...J 2am. 10 a.m. 4p.m. 10 p.m. 15:9 34°9 The numbers in the last two columns clearly indicate a greater diurnal range of tension in winter than in summer; and this is very apparent from the curves, the upper portions of those of the winter being much bolder, and the depressions more distinctly marked, than the similar features of the sum- mer curves. It is to be-remarked, that although the diminution of tension between 10 p.m. and midnight is uot so great in summer as in winter, the precipitate downward movement of the curve, which is so strikingly apparent in winter, does not in the summer disappear altogether, so as to give the curve that gentle depression to the nocturnal minimum which characterizes the rise from the afternoon minimum. The three following tables exhibit the mean electrical tension at each ob- servation-hour for each month in the years 1845, 1846 and 1847, with the monthly, seasonal, and yearly means. The characters of the monthly move- ments are exhibited to the eye in the sheets of curves illustrating this report.— See Plates VI. VII. and VIII. 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The last line in the table to which the word “ Means” is prefixed, exhibits the mean tension in each month as de- duced from all the separate monthly observations ; 7. e. the mean tension of _ January, 150°7 div., is the result of all the January observations in the three years. ‘The same thing holds good of the seasonal and yearly mean ten- sions. The curves projected from these numbers will be found on Plate IX. The tensions that enter into the preceding discussion range between 2 div. and 2000 div. in terms of Volta’s standard electrometer No. i. It has - however been considered that tensions above 100 div. of this electrometer, or those measured by Henley’s instrument, are not susceptible of that accu- racy of determination which is requisite in the deduction of results, such as characterize those of modern science. In addition to this, it is apprehended that the electrical tension known more particularly as the tension of serene weather, seldom (if at. all) rises above 100 div., although there may be move- ments indicated by Henley’s instrument which partake of the character of those of serene weather. ; In immediate reference to these points, and considerably elucidating them, remarks occur, either in the body of the Journal or in the notes and addenda accompanying it. In the description of the instruments at Kew published in the volume for 1844 (Reports, 1844, p. 124), the following occurs in refer- ence to Henley’s instrument:— . *« This electrometer has seldom been observed until the Volta No. 2 had risen beyond 90° (in terms of the first, ¢. e. 18 lines x 5); and since the un- certainty and difficulty of measuring the higher tensions increase in a rapid ratio with the increments of tension owing to unavoidable and sometimes almost imperceptible ‘ spirtings,’ and particularly to the falling of rain from the dish or funnel N (fig.2), proportionably less confidence must, of course, _ be placed in our notations of such tensions by means of this instrument.” In the account of the experiments having reference to the employment of photographic methods for self-registering the indications of the instruments, which is appended to the vqlume of observations 1845 and 1846, we have the following remark relative to the objection of the Astronomer Royal as to the non-registry of the kind of electricity :— “‘T had not of course overlooked the objection as to not registering the kind of electricity, but as every former observer of the: periodical electricity of serene weather, (7. e.) that alone which is susceptible of exact measure- ment, and that which is by far the most important and interesting, had ar- _ rived at the same conclusion as myself, (viz.) that it is positive, and that the _ exceptions to this law are extremely rare, and always accompanied by an easily distinguished feature in meteorology.” In the above extracts we have clearly a restriction of the electricity of serene weather to a comparatively low tension, and that the higher tensions, although more difficult to measure accurately, are not near so important as those which characterize serene weather. In immediate connection with this comparatively low tension we have the following remark, recorded on June 23, _ 1844 :— _ “The weather of this day, considered as serene, has been rather remark- able. The signs a little after sunrise were the highest for such weather that _we have had. The thermometer até nine stood at’75°5, the max. also, and the barometer at 29°938. The atmosphere quite clear; the clouds were light, 128 REPORT—1849. rather fleecy, roundish and somewhat detached. Wind N.E. and E,, its force about 500 grms. Daniell’s hygrometer marked 20° of dryness.” At sunrise the electric tension was registered at 65 div. Volta No.1. From this it appears that a tension of 65 div. at sunrise is considered as high for serene weather, and it might be inferred that tensions of a higher value indi- eated some other exciting cause than that which we contemplate as exciting the electricity of serene weather. In the explanations and remarks concerning the Journal, &c. at Kew, pub- lished in the Report for 1844, p. 130, a serene day is defined as follows: ‘In the column N is pointed out (by the letter S) such days as generally occur when the positive charge rises after sunrise, falls early in the afternoon, and rises again in the evening, accompanied by what is commonly understood by the term ‘fine weather ; but there are exceptions to this (rather vague) de- finition, which I believe require some habit, and an acquaintance with the observations of Monier and others, particularly Beccaria, to appreciate.” By glancing at the curves on pages 119 and 122, to which attention has been solicited, it will be seen that the movements, as deduced from the observa- tions in individual years and seasons, as well as those from the entire number during the three years, are perfectly in accordance with the movements in serene weather, and it is only the restriction to which allusion has been made that suggests the probability of the higher tensions being due to a different exciting cause than that of tne electricity of serene weather. In searching for such a cause among the records preserved in the Journal, we are struck with the fact, that in the majority of cases high tensions (7. e. those measured by Henley’s electrometer) are accompanied by fog; and this suggests that it is not improbable that these high tensions may be more or less direct mea- sures of the electricity, not of the atmosphere, but of the condensed aqueous vapour enveloping the collecting lanthorn. Of course the atmospheric electricity, as contradistinguished from that of the condensed aqueous vapour, will be mixed with it, and the conductor will be charged from two different sources, the atmospheric electricity exhibiting by far the smallest amount, and in cases of high charges forming probably but a very small proportion of the whole. There does not appear to be any direct means of separating these tensions ; for if we take the high numbers, a small proportion, as we have already said, must appertain to “atmospheric electricity ;” and if we take the Jow numbers as giving a more accurate measure of this element, on some occasions and especially at certain hours, the tensions exhibited may be those produced by the presence of aqueous vapour either in an invisible or condensed state, so that a degree of uncertainty as to the ¢rue forms of either of these diurnal curves must necessarily exist. Again, it is difficult to determine the point at which to separate the high from the low tensions ; the uncertainty attendant on the readings of Henley’s electrometer, combined with the electricity which alone is susceptible of exact measurement, tends greatly to place all readings of Henley’s instrument in the category of high tensions. As a first attempt to separate the high from the low tensions, 1° of Henley equal to 100 div. of Volta No. 1 was regarded as the separating point; but it soon became apparent that readings lower than 100 div. had an equal claim to be regarded as high, indications being afforded that they were measures rather of the electricity of aqueous vapour than of the atmosphere, The observations of three or four months were discussed in this manner, but the curves of low tension presenting very anomalous characters, the mean readings increasing very considerably towards 8 p.m. led to their abandon- ment, and other separating points were tried from 50 div. and upwards. The result has been that the point 60 diy. has heen employed in the further discus- ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 129 sions of the observations, all readings above and including it being regarded as high, and more or less measuring the electrical tension of aqueous vapour either invisible or condensed ; and all readings below it being regarded as more or less measuring the tension of “atmospheric electricity.” Of course this method is entirely tentative ; the separating point 60 div. has been arbi- trarily fixed, and, as before observed, it is not to be expected that the curves furnished will be true representatives of natural phenomena, when we come to contemplate the two different sources from which the conductor is sup- posed to be charged ; nevertheless it may not be without its use in assisting us to devise some mode by which the two tensions may be effectually separated, either by some subsidiary observations and computations by which the elec- trical tension of the aqueous vapour may be disengaged from the aggregate tension as exhibited by the electrometers, or by directly observing the elec- trical tension of the vapour itself. TaBLe XIX. Mean diurnal period of Jow tension = for the months of January, Fe- bruary, March and April 1845. 4A 10 A.M. 10 P.M A Period. | Jan. | Feb. |March.| April. a | | | ee | ee Low. Feb. ae Qam......| 114 | 195 | 30:6 | 17-7 March, Low. 8 am......./ 341 | 41-0 | 49-8 | 40°3 April. Low. 2 p.m. ..e..| 411 | 57-2 | 49°7 | 37°3 The above table and curves are Feb. 60 div. intended to illustrate the separation of the readings into those of high and Below low tensions. The table contains March. 6odiv. the diurnal periods for the first four months of the year 1845, and the . four upper curves are the projections Below of these periods on the same scale as the curves deduced from all the ob- servations. The four lower curves exhibit the diurnal period for the same months as deduced from the a readings below 60 div. The greater uniformity of the lower curves, especially of January and February as com- pared with the upper, is very apparent. The curves appear naturally to divide themselves into two sets, the greater uniformity appertaining to January and February below 60 div., and to March and April, higher tensions than 60 div. entering as elements into the discussion of low ten- 1849. K 4 A.M 130 REPORT—1849. sions. This seems at once to indicate the variability of any point that may be fixed on for the purpose of separating the two. Uniformity of curve clearly points out uniformity of action, and in endeavouring to obtain a knowledge of the action of the electricity of serene weather on the conductor and electrometers, it is to be presumed that it is to a great extent uniform and regular, and that consequently the curves will exhibit such uniformity . and regularity among themselves. This then, in the absence of some direct means of measuring either the electricity of serene weather or of aqueous vapour, must be our principal guide in endeavouring to separate them ; and although on some occasions greater uniformity may be obtained by either including or excluding particular tensions, yet upon the whole great uncer- tainty must prevail, if we attempt to vary the point of separation without more conclusive data than the mere uniformity of curve. Diurnal period below 60 div., Year—The 10,176 observations at all ten- sions are thus divided :— Below 60 div. ...... 7,529 Above 60 div. ...... 2,647 10,176 Those below 60 div. are thus distributed among the twelve daily readings. TABLE XX. Number of positive readings below 60 div. at each observation-hour in the three years 1845, 1846 and 1847. Year. | Mid. |2 a.m./4 a.m.|6 a.m.8 a.m.{10 a.m.|Noon.|2 p.m.|4 p.m./6 p.m./8 p.m./10 p.m./Sums. 1845.| 222 | 236 | 243 | 172 | 249 | 224 | 202 | 222 | 215 | 197 | 172] 168 | 2522 1846.| 234 | 257 | 267 | 170 | 235 | 214 | 212 | 195 | 201 | 171 | 148) 181 | 2485 1847.| 199 | 255 | 286 | 160 | 229 | 222 | 213 | 210 | 209 | 193 | 161 | 185 | 2522 — | | —— — —_|— | $$ — |} | | | Sums.| 655 | 748 | 796 | 502 | 713 | 660 | 627 | 627 | 625 | 561 | 481 | 534 | 7529 From a consideration of the above quantities, we find that the greatest number of low tensions occurred at the hours 2, 4 and 8 A.M.; 6 A.M. ap- pears to be excepted ; but we must bear in mind that the number 502 refers principally to the summer half-year; with this exception, the smallest number of low tensions occurred at 6, 8 and 10 p.m. It isto be remarked that these periods coincide, more or less, with the principal epochs of minimum and maximum, the whole of the observations being taken into account. TABLE XXI. Mean electrical tension below 60 div. at each observation-hour in the three years 1845, 1846 and 1847, with the mean diurnal period as deduced from the whole. See ee a Year. |Mid.|2 a.m./4 a.m.|6 a.m./8 a.m.|10 a.m.!Noon.|2 p.m.|4 p.m.|6 p.m./8 p.m.'10 p-m.|Mean. div. | div. diy. | div. div. div. div. | div. div. | diy. diy. diy. diy. 1845.|19°8|17°8 |17°5 |19°4 | 26°6 | 28°7 | 29°7 [31-4 | 30°5 | 30°5 |31°6 | 30°8 | 25-9 1846.|24°3 | 21-2 | 21°0 }25°0 | 30:5 | 32-4 |31°3 | 30°5 | 32-0 |34°3 | 35°0 | 36°0 | 28:8 1847.123°7 | 21-1 | 20°9 | 27-1 | 32:1 | 36°0 | 35°5 | 33-9 | 35-0 | 37:5 |38°0 | 39-2 | 31:1 OS TLRS tree Be " ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 131 TasLeE XXII. Excess or defect of the mean electrical tension below 60 div. at each obser- vation-hour, as compared with the mean of the year for the three years 1845, 1846 and 1847, and the mean diurnal period. Year.| Mid. |2 a.m.|4 a.m.|6 a.m.|8 a.m.|10 a.m.{Noon. 2 p.m.|4 p.m.|6 p.m./8 p.m.|10 p.m.|Mean. div. | div. div. | div diy. ‘ div. div. "4 div. y div. | div. z div. div. div. [ pee (a | eS = AG ate stele chem (eats | ste (eats oe 1845.)6°1 | 81) 84 5 | 07 2°8 3°8 | 55 | 46] 46] 5:7 4:9 | 25:99 . ~}-|/-;/-/;+/4+]/+]+]+]+/+#] + 11846.) 4:5 | 7:6) 78} 38] 1:7 | 36 | 25) 1:7) 32] 5:5] 62] 7:2 | 28:8 = ies aa a a5 ae aid agace dlegs ay eae Gia ae 1847.) 7°4 |10°0 |10'2 | 4:0 | 1:0 4:9 44) 28] 39 | 64) 69 81 | 311 -}/-/-];|-/+]/+/+]+/+ ]+ Mean.|6°0 | 85 | 87] 49 | 10] 3:7 | 36) 3:4) 39 | 55 | 62) 69 | 28°6 In the above tables the double progression, so apparent in the curves de- duced from all the positive observations, is but slightly developed. The fore- noon maximum at 10 a.m. rises very slightly above the afternoon minimum at 2 p.M.—only 0°3 div. The evening and principal maximum occurs at 10P.M., presenting the highest mean reading of the series. The year 1847 is marked by an increase in the low as well as in the aggregate tension, this increase appearing after the hour of 4 a.m. If the separation of the high from the low tensions at the point of 60 div. be that which is most accordant with truth, and the above tables exhibit more accurately the movements during serene weather than those which form the preceding part of this discussion, it would appear that upon contemplating the movements as deduced from the three years, there exists a great tendency to soften down or even to obliterate the forenoon maximum in such movements, so as to exhibit an approach to a single progression. The departure from an exhibition of the érwe march of the electricity of serene weather by the numbers before us, has been alluded to, inasmuch as the same cause, viz. the presence of aqueous vapour, must influence the results as deduced from the lower as well as those from the higher readings, and it becomes a curious matter of inquiry as to how far both the subdued maximum of the forenoon and the more decidedly deve- loped maximum of the evening, in the progression of the lower tension, may be due to the presence of such vapour. It is a matter worthy of remark, and ‘certainly is not without great signification, that the curves already discussed agree in presenting a precipitous downward movement between 10 p.m. and midnight. The tables now under consideration present in avery decided manner the same feature: although the extent of the diminution of tension is not so great as in the aggregate curves, yet as compared with the other two-hourly _ movements, it is sufficiently large to constitute a marked contrast to them, and this is by no means to be confined to the tensions we have hitherto ex- amined ; it will be found as we proceed to be an invariable accompaniment to nearly the whole of the curves. _ The mean of the 7529 observations below 60 div. is 28°6 div., or 38*3 div. ‘Tower than the mean of the 10,176 positive observations. The minimum _ occurs at 4 a.m., from which hour the tension gradually rises until 10 a.m.; avery slight depression of 0-3 div. then takes place, the turning-point being at 2 p.M., from which hour the rise is very gradual until 10 p.m., the prin- " Cipal maximum, which is immediately succeeded by the precipitous diminu- ; KZ 132 REPORT—1849, tion above mentioned. These phenomena are rendered more apparent by the annexed curves, fig. 6. 3 3 1 ee 4 4 A.M. 10 A.M. 10 P.M. 2a.M. 1845. years 1845, 1846 and 1847, with the mean 1846, Mean. ( : on 35 é Eg In the following table, the diur- , £4 nal periods, as deduced from the = S aggregate observations and from Es those below 60 div., are placed in ££ contrast. 1847, Mean. 83 z 8 3 Z 5 3 o o 3 = o o 5 3 years. Mean. § i | | 4a.M. 10 A.M, 10 P.M. 2 A.M. 5 vo A ghia ag TABLE XXIII. Comparison of the excess or defect from the mean of the diurnal periods of the entire year, as deduced from the aggregate observations and from those below 60 div. Value. |Mid.|2 a.m./4 a.m.|6 a.m./8 a.m.}10 a.m./Noon.|2 p.m.|4 p.m.|6 p.m./8 p.m./10 p.m.|Mean., div. | div. | div, div. diy. diy. | div, | diy. dy. diy. div. diy. | div. +] 4+ )/+]/+]+}4+) +] 4 Aggregate .. 44: 3 46" 8 46" 4 39" 7\13 | 21-2 | 85 | 46 | 2:2 |17°9 |35°5 | 37-1 | 66:9 + {| +] +] +/+ + Below 60 div. 6 0 8: 5 | 8 8-7 4: 19 1:0 3°7 | 36 | 3:4 | 39 55 | 62 | 69 |28°6 Diurnal. period below 60 div., Summer.—The 7529 observations below 60 div. are thus distributed in the two half-years :— UMMRER eo. Fc we'ste 2. 4846 Wintenieec cn... ste cc's 2OGD ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 133 The following table exhibits the distribution of the 4846 summer obser- vations among the twelve daily readings :— TABLE XXIV. Number of positive readings below 60 div. at each observation-hour in the three summers of 1845, 1846 and 1847. ne a Dieguito ie Pe ee RE IE oy ae ae aris SEM SE raed Papen les phen e ety Year. |Mid./2 a.m./4 a.m.|6 a.m.}8 a.m.|10 a.m./Noon.|2 p.m./4 p.m./6 pam.|8 p.m |10 p.m./Sums. 1845.)}135] 135 | 144 | 160 | 148 | 148 | 126 | 139 | 136 | 128 | 116 | 103 | 1618 1846.) 140} 149 | 153 | 158 | 138 | 139 | 137 | 129 | 129 | 121 | 102 | 119 | 1614 1847. 125] 148 | 160 | 154 | 134 | 138 | 133 | 131 } 131 | 127 | 112 | 121 | 1614 Sums.| 400} 432 | 457 | 472 | 420 | 425 | 396 | 399 | 396 | 376 | 330 | 343 | 4846 This table exhibits a more equable distribution of observations over the twenty-four hours than that which has reference to the entire year; the greatest number occurs at 6 A.m., and the smallest at 8 p.m. TABLE XXV. Mean electrical tension below 60 div. at each observation-hour in the three summers of 1845, 1846 and 1847, with the mean diurnal period of summer. Year. |Mid.|2 a.m.|4 a.m.|6 a.m.|3 a.m.{10 a.m.|Noon.|2 p.m.|4 p.m.]6 p.m.|3 p.m.{10 p.m.|Mean. | div. | div. | div. | div. div. div. div. div. div. div. | div. div. div. 1845.) 19.6) 16°0 | 15°8 | 19°9 | 24°5 | 27:3 | 26°6 | 29°3 | 28-4 | 29:8 131-7 | 31°7 | 24:7 1846,| 21°0|17°4 | 18°7 | 24-4 | 29:0 | 30°1 | 27°5 | 27-0 | 28-2 | 31-2 | 31:2 | 33°3 | 26-2 1847.) 23:5] 20°0 | 18:9 | 26°9 | 32°3 | 35°6 | 34:0 | 32°2 | 33:8 | 35-4 | 37-4 | 39°6 |30°3 TABLE XXVI. Excess or defect of the mean electrical tension below 60 div. at each obser- vation-hour, as compared with the mean of each summer in the years 1845, 1846 and 1847, and the mean of the three summers. Year. |Mid.|2 a.m.|4 a.m.|6 a.m.|8 a.m.|10 a.m.|Noon.|2 p.m./4 p.m./6 p.m.|8 p.m.|10 p.m.|Mean. | | div. | div div div. | div div. div. | div. | div. | div. | div. div div —-}-{/-|—-;-/}+/}/+/+/]/4+/4+] 4+] 4+ 51) 8:7) 89) 4:8) 02) 26 |. 19] 46] 3:7] 51) 7:0 70 | 24:7 —-}-}-/-—-;/+;) +) +] 4+] 4+]}]4+] 4+] 4+ | 52] 8B) 75] 1B] 2:8 3°9 13 | 08] 2:0) 50) 5:0 71 | 26-2 —-|-—|-|- +/+}/+]}]+]/+]+]+ 6°8}10°3 | 11-4 | 3-4] 2°0 3 37 | 1:9) 35 |. 5:1 | 71 93 | 303 —|-|-|- ft pk pt pe + Pt ean.| 5°8; 9°3 | 9:3 | 3°4 | 1:4 3°8 233 | 24] 3:0] 5:01] 6:4 79 | 27-1 al Tn these tables we find the forenoon maximum developed in a greater de- ~ gree than in those having reference to the entire year—a result to be expected _ if the notion be correct that both low and high tensions are influenced by the presence of aqueous vapour in the atmosphere. The number of observations on which these tables are based forms a very considerable portion of the whole of the summer observations—rather above seven-eighths. The entire num- ber is 5514, from which deduct those below 60 div., and we have left 668, or nearly an eighth part of the whole, so that the probability of the forenoon and evening maxima resulting from the presence of aqueous vapour is 134 REPORT—1849. rendered more apparent -in the summer than during the entire year. It is important here to remark, that the results obtained by separating the sum- mer observations from those of the entire year below 60 div. are of an oppo- site character to those obtained by dividing the aggregate observations into summer and winter series. In the case of the aggregate observations we found the summer curves representing the diurnal march, less in extent and less abrupt in their character than those of the entire year. On the con- trary, we find the summer observations of low tension rather bolder in their character and of greater range than those of the entire year. In the former case, that of the aggregate observations, the summer readings were as a mass much lower than those of the winter; there were also a much greater num- ber that would have especial reference to serene weather than of those in the winter, and these circumstances would reduce the summer curves to the form in which we find them. When however we contemplate the tensions below 60 div., there is nothing cut off in the summer from those furnishing the re- sults of the year, the whole of the observations up to and including 59 div. finding entry at all seasons ; but we have a much greater number of low ten- sions during the summer than in the winter, so that a greater portion of the entire phenomena is as it were compressed into the lower readings, and ma- nifests itself by expanding the summer curves as compared with those of the entire year rather than contracting them. j 7 In tracing the diurnal march of | 3 3 3 : S = the tension below 60 div., we find 4A.M. 104.M. 10 P.M. 24.M. the minimum occurring at 2 and 4 a.M.; after 4 A.M. the tension gradually rises until 10 A.M., the epoch of the forenoon maximum ; a fall of 1°5 div. occurs between 10 a.m. and noon, after which a very gradual and regular rise takes place until 10 p.m., the epoch of the evening maximum, which is succeeded by the precipitous di- 1845, Mean. > ane ~~ Men. 22 minution of tension already al- 2 luded to. In the diurnal mini- K 3 mum occurring at noon, and its ne = being followed by a gentle rise to 2 = the evening maximum, we have re- peated toa certain extent the same 47 ao : feature which we noticed as cha- ; ‘2 yracterizing the summer curve of 2 the aggregate observations. There is however one important point of difference which strikingly exhi- bits the influence of the’ higher tensions on the curves: the hours of maxima and minima are nearly 3 summers, Mean. if not the same in both cases, and the gentle rise from noon to 4 P.M. in each instance possesses many features in common, the principal 4am. 10AM. 10P.M. 2A.M. difference being a greater move- E ¥ ment in the aggregate than in the A a low tensions. The point of differ- Mean diurnal curves of the electrical tension below 60 div. for the summers of 1845, 1846 and 1847, with the - ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 135 ence to which we particularly solicit attention is the augmentation in the summer curves of low tension of the forenoon and evening maxima, and their contraction in the aggregate summer curves. ‘This is very apparent on con- sulting the curves. In discussing the high tension during the summer months, this subject will be again referred to; in the mean time we may notice here, that upon the consideration of the high readings measuring the electrical ten- sion of aqueous vapour, it appears probable that these maxima depend on the presence of aqueous vapour for their development. TABLE XXVII. Range of the diurnal curves of electric tension below 60 div. in the summers of 1845, 1846 and 1847, and also in each year. Summer] Yearly Year. | curve. | curve. div. div. 1845.| 15°9 141 1846.} 15°9 | 15°0 1847.| 20°7 | 18:3 _—_——— | ———— | —_——__. — Mean.| 17:2 | 156 TABLE XXVIII. Comparison of the excess or defect from the mean of the diurnal periods of summer, as deduced from the aggregate observations and from those below 60 div. :; ‘Value. |Mid.|2 a.m./4 a.m./6 a.m.|8 aml] 0 a.m.|Noon.|2 p.m.|4 p-m.|6 p.m./8 p.m.|10 p.m.| Means. _ div.| div. | div. | div. | div. div. div. | div. div. | div. | div. div. div. = OS ey Pesala —{—-/-/+]4] 4+ Aggregate ..-| 159] 19°4] 18°3 | 4°0 | 6:4 935 | 38 | 2-1 2:0 17 13°6| 26°2 | 37:2 ee ae eae Below 60 div.| 5°8) 9°3} 9-3] 3-4 | 1:4 3:8 | 2°3 | 2:4 | 3:0 | 5:0 6°4 79 | 27-1 The above table places the aggregate and low tension summer diurnal periods in contrast. Diurnal period below 60 div., Winter.—The following table exhibits the distribution of observations below 60 div. during the winter among the twelve daily readings. TaBLe XXIX. Number of positive readings below 60 div. at each observation-hour in the three winters of 1845, 1846 and 1847. Year. | Mid.!2 a.m.|4 a.m.|6 a.m.|8 a.m.|/10 a.m.|Noon. 2 p.m.|/4 p.m.|6 p.m.|8 p.m.|10 p.m.|Sums. —|—_——. 1845. 87 | 101 | 99 | 12)101)| 76 76} 83 | 79| 69) 56] 65 | 904 | 1846.) 94] 108 | 114} 12] 97] 75 75 | 66) 72) 50} 46) 62 | 871 1847.) 74 | 107 | 126 6| 95] 84 80} 79| 78 | 66) 49] 64 | 908 Sums.|255 316 | 339 | 30 | 293 | 235 | 231 | 228 | 229 | 185 | 151 | 191 |2683 In this table, the greatest numoer of readings occur at 4 A.M., the epoch of the principal minimum, and the least number at 8 p.m., two hours after the evening maximum. It will be remarked, that the morning hours, viz. 2 and 4A.m., exhibit the greatest number, and the evening hours; 6, 8 and 10 p.m., the least. The thirty readings at 6 A.M. are excepted, for the reason stated on page 130. 136 REPORT—1849. TABLE XXX. Mean electrical tension below 60 div. at each observation-hour in the three winters of 1845, 1846 and 1847, with the mean diurnal period of winter. div. | div. | div. | div. | div. div. div. | div. div. | div. | div. div. div. 1845.) 20-1} 20°2| 19°8] 13:2| 29°6| 31°4 | 34:8] 34°8| 34:2] 31:7] 31°5| 29°2 | 281 1846.) 29:2} 26°5| 24:2] 32°1| 32°5| 36°6 | 38:°3| 37°5| 38°8| 42:0] 43:4] 41°3 |° 33:8 1847.) 23:°9| 22:7] 23°6 32°9 | 31°7| 36:8 | 38:0] 36°83] 37-1] 41:5] 39°4| 38-4 | 32:4 Mean.| 24:5 | 23°2| 22°7 24-7 | 31-2] 35-0 | 37-1| 36:3] 36-6] 38-0| 37-7] 36-2 |-31°4 TasLe XXXI.—Excess or defect of the mean electrical tension below 60 div. at each observation-hour, as compared with the mean of each winter in the years 1845, 1846 and 1847, and the mean of the three winters. Year.|Mid.|2 a.m./4 a-m./6 a.m.{8 a.m.|10 a.m.|Noon. 2 p-m.|4 p.m.|6 p.m.|8 p.m.|10 p.m.|Mean. —_—_— div. | div. 1845. 8:0} 7:9 1846.) 4°6| 7:3 1847.) 8:5 | 9°7 Mean.| 6°9| 8:2 4a.M.10a.M. 10 P.M. 2A.M. In order to facilitate the compari- | son of the diurnal march of the low | tensions during the individual winters, which present some striking features of interest, we shall at once introduce the curves to the notice of the reader. On contemplating them, it will be at once apparent that they present se- veral interesting points of contrast. There appears to be a greater ap- proach to a single progression, espe- cially in the winter of 1845. In this curve the maximum occurs at noon and 2 p.M.; the precipitous diminu- tion between 10 p.m. and midnight disappears, the curve taking a gently rounded course from 2 p.m. to mid- night ; there appears to be a slight check to this gradual diminution of tension at 8p.m. The principal mi- nimum occurs at 6 A.M., the rise from this hour to noon being of a bold, rounded character ; it is probable that the true minimum occurs at 4 A.M., twelve observations only contributing to the determination of the value at 6 a.m. On contrasting this curve with those of the summer and entire year aggregate tension, we find the movements during the day reversed, the greatest development occurring about the middle of the day. A much 1845, Mean. 1846, Mean. Fig. 8. 1847. with the mean curve of the three winters. 3 Winters. Mean. Mean diurnal curves of the electrical tension below 60 div. for the winters of 1845, 1846 and 1847, 4A4.M, 10 4.M. 10 P.M, 2A4.M. ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 137 greater number of observations of high tensions contribute to the production of the aggregate curve in winter than in summer, and as a consequence, the observations on which the winter curve of low tension is based are less nu- merous than those on which the summer curve rests. In the curve now before us, the double progression niay be considered if not entirely, as almost disappearing ; the removal of the higher tensions appears to be accompanied by a removal of the forenoon and evening maxima, which is replaced by a maximum near the middle of the day. ‘This is extremely striking when we compare our curve with that of the winter, as deduced from all the positive readings (page 122); in this curve the forenoon and evening maxima are strongly developed, and the depression at 2 and 4 p.m. very distinctly marked. It would appear, on the supposition of the high readings being measures of the electrical tension of aqueous vapour, that in this particular winter (1845), very few measures of such tensions occurred below 60 div., so that in the great majority of instances, the readings below 60 div. were, more or less, measures of atmospheric electricity. The curve itself suggests the inquiry— Is the diurnal march of atmospheric electricity—viz. that which is uncombined with the electrical tension characterizing, or developed by, the presence of aqueous vapour—a single progression? In other words, does the electrical tension of dry air present a curve having simply an ascending and descending ‘branch, the progression being in harmony with the temperature? We shall have occasion to refer again to this subject in a future part of this Report. On turning our attention to the winter of 1846, we find a curve more or less in harmony with those of the summer and entire year, and strikingly in contrast with that of the winter of 1845. It is however to be remarked, that the depression at 2 p.m. is but slight, and very much less than the depression during the summer of this year; the slight check which is apparent in the forenoon rise, at 8 A.M., tends to give the curve an appearance of possessing three maxima; there is indeed a great tendency to assume somewhat of the form of 1845, which appears to be counteracted by the greater development of the evening maximum. _ The winter curve of 1847 may be characterized as exhibiting considerable trepidation, and consisting of alternate but very subordinate maxima and minima, the principal of which occurs at 6 p.m. There is an evident ten- dency to a single progression, having its maximum about the early afternoon hours. This curve is in contrast with that of the winter of 1845, inasmuch as the most rounded portion of the curve is developed in the evening. On directing our attention to the mean of the three winters, we find two maxima, noon and evening, well-developed, but of a subdued character. The evening maximum is the principal; it however rises only 0:9 div. above that at noon; the intermediate minimum occurs at 2 P.m., and is depressed 1°7 div. below the principal maximum. uy TasLe XXXII. Synopsis of the principal points in the summer, winter, and yearly curves below 60 div. : Even. Max.|Aftern. Min. Forenoon |4,-_- Evening | Nocturnal Season. Maximum,| Minimum. Maxinium,| Mininvom,| . 22OVe below Forenoon. |Even. Max. ‘ 7 div. div. 4i1 Summer.} 10 a.m. Noon. 10pm. |2&4am. 41 5°6 p Winter...| Noon. 2 p.m, 6p.m. 4a.m,. 0:9 17 Year ....| 10 a.m. 2 p.m. 10 p.m. 4am. 3°2 3°5 138 REPORT—1849. | This subdued character of the two maxima, as well as the comparatively slight depression of the included minimum, is well seen in the above table ; and when combined with the characters of the individual curves of each winter which have been noticed above, together with the approach of the epochs of maxima in the mean curve to each other, viz. from 10 A.M. to noon, and from 10 P.M. to 6 P.M., a strong probability is suggested, that were we able effectually to separate the high from the low tensions, not at an arbitrary point, but in such a manner that the high tensions of summer (in all proba- bility lower than those of winter) should find entry in their respective de- partment, the result would be, that the low tensions would exhibit a single progression in harmony with the temperature. In the following table the diurnal periods for the winter, as deduced from the aggregate and low tensions, are placed in contrast. TaBLe XXXIII. Comparison of the excess or defect from the mean of the diurnal periods of winter, as deduced from the aggregate observations and from those be- low 60 div. Value. |Mid./2 a.m./4 a.m./6 a.m.|8 a.m.|10 ata | Nobu: 2p.m./4 ptt 6 p.m.|8 p.m./10 p.m.} Mean. —_— div. | div, | div. | div, | div. div. div. | div. | div. | div. | div. div. div. —}-|/—-|-|-] 4+ )/+)4+]-|]4+] 4+] + Aggregate ..|77°6 | 78°9| 79°4| 55°6) 9:0 27:9 | 13°7| 3°99 | 06 | 27:3) 55°2| 43:4 | 102°] —-/-}/-/|-]/-] +.) +) 4+}) 4+] 4] 4) 4+ Below60div.| 6°9| 8:2} 8-7) 67| 0:2 36 | 5:7} 4:9 | 52 66| 63] 48 31-4 Tables XXXIV., XXXV., XXXVI. exhibit the mean electrical tension at each observation-hour for each month in the three years 1845, 1846 and 1847, with the monthly seasonal and yearly means. The characters of the monthly movements are exhibited to the eye in the sheets of curves illus- trating this report. See Plates VI. VII. and VIII. Table XXXVII. exhibits the mean monthly electrical tension at each ’ observation-hour deduced from the observations of three months, also the mean summer, winter, and yearly tension deduced from the observations of three summers, winters, and years. ‘The last line in the table, to which the word “‘ Means” is prefixed, exhibits the mean tension in each month as de- duced from all the separate monthly observations, ¢.e. the mean tension of January, 31°5 div. is the result of all the January observations in the three years. ‘The same thing holds good of the seasonal and yearly mean tensions. The curves projected from these numbers will be found on Plate IX. Previous to proceeding with the discussion of the high tensions, it will be advantageous to pause, for the purpose of recapitulating the principal points that have hitherto come under our notice, and of particularly directing our attention to those that stand out prominently from among the others. 1. We have seen that the discussion of the entire series of the positive observations for the three years furnishes us with series of curves, exhibiting in a most decided manner a double progression. ‘The points of maxima and minima are well-marked, and in most cases they present a tolerable fixity of epoch. Y. 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gopun poSueue ‘)¢gy reat ayy} UL “AIP OQ Mo72q suoryeAasasqo aarytsod ay} [fe Woy poonpep sv ‘ANOY-UOTFeATasgoO YOu JB WOISU9} [LO]IQO9[9 UVOT—TAXXX FTAV ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 141 _ suggested the probability that the forenoon and evening maxima result more or less from the presence of aqueous vapour, either in an invisible or con- _ densed state. _ $8. With a view to submit this notion to the test of observation, an attempt _ has been made (it must be confessed of a very rough and arbitrary character) to separate the high from the low tensions; the point 60 div. of Volta’s elec- trometer No. 1 has been provisionally assumed as the separating point, and ~ all tensions above it have been regarded as high, those below it the converse. ~ The result of this separation, so far as the low tensions are concerned, has been to exhibit series of curves, those of the summer and entire year being -somewhat in harmony with the aggregate curves for the same periods; the ~ forenoon and evening maxima however are greatly subdued, but still the _ evening holds the most prominent position. The curves of the entire year suggest the probability that a single progression would be obtained on the removal of the two maxima. _ 4, The winter curves of low tension strongly confirm this suggestion. The “approach to a single progression is very apparent in the winters of 1845 and 1847; the mean curve however still presents the two maxima, although their -altitudes are considerably more equal in value than any of the curves yet _ contemplated ; their interval in time (6 hours) is also less than most of the others, especially the aggregate curves, the most usual interval of these being ~ 12 hours, ' 5. The salient points characterizing the two series of curves (aggregate ~ and low tension) are a decided development of the forenoon and evening maxima in the aggregate, and a considerable subduing of these features with an approach to a single progression in the low. _ Diurnal period above 60 div., Year.—We are now prepared to enter on the “discussion of the high tensions, with the expectation that the two maxima so _ prominently developed in the aggregate curves will form very decided fea- _ tures in those deduced from observations above 60 div. It is necessary to _ observe here, that the observations above 60 div. will not furnish the entire diurnal march of the high tensions, none being recorded at the hours of mid- night and 2 a.m.; very few indeed are entered at 4 a.m.; and those finding ~ entrance at 6 a.m. being mostly confined to the summer half-year, the diur- ~ nal march cannot be accurately said to commence until 8 a.m. In the fol- - lowing tables and curves, with the exception of those having reference to the _ summer half-year, the diurnal march is given between 8 a.m. and 10 P.M. _ inclusive; in the summer it commences two hours eatlier. __ The 2647 high readings during the three years are thus divided among the twelve observation-hours :— ms Taste XXXVIII. _ Number of positive readings above 60 div. at each observation-hour in the three years 1845, 1846 and 1847. | — | | | |__| —_—_—$ | —_———_ | —— | —-— | | —— | qq“ \— o: 18 73| 75 | 87 | 107 | 130] 164 | 852 | 1846.)......}.....] 2 20 | 118} 124 76 | 83 | 86; 110] 138 | 157 | 914 1 1847,)......| ...... 26 | 124 72} 73 | 80] 96] 129} 152 | 881 64 | 334 221 | 231 | 253 | 313 | 397 | 473 | 2647 In connection with this table it will be observed that it furnishes two 142 REPORT—1849, ‘periods, each being marked by a greater number of readings than the inter- mediate period between them. Of these, the last, viz. that occurring at 6, 8 and 10 p.M., presents the greatest number of observations, and it is to be no- ticed, that both periods coincide with the epochs of the forenoon and even- ing maxima, as developed in the aggregate curves. This of itself indicates that the greatest number of high readings occur at those epochs, and that the maxima result more from a systematic occurrence of the high than the low readings. ‘There is a difference between the greatest number, 473, at 10 p.m., and the smallest (excluding 4 and 6 A.M.), 221, at noon of 252. TABLE XXXIX. Mean electrical tension above 60 div. at each observation-hour in the three years 1845, 1846 and 1847, with the mean diurnal period as deduced from the whole. : Year.|Mid. |2 a.m.|4 a.m.|6 a.m./8 a.m./10 a.m./Noon.|2 p.m./4 p.m.|6 p.m./8 p.m./10 p.m.|Mean. div. div. div, div, div, | div, | div, | div. div. div. div. LE ae 85-0 |116°7 167-7 | 205°6 |173°7 |144°3 |130-2 |146°0 |187°9 | 205°8 |173°2 MOOR; cores] snaree 72°5 |123°9 |122°2 | 153-2 |176°3 |147°6 {137-2 1163-9 |162°1 | 146°2 |149°7 LG a ae 70°8 |110°0 |164°7 | 219°6 |244°9 |249-°2 |215°5 |222°8 |204°4 | 191°6 |205°6 Aiea intel Vs casy 76°6 |116:2 |150°5 | 192-2 |197°8 |178°6 |159°6 |175°8 |184°3 | 181°5 |175°9 TABLE XL. Excess or defect of the mean electrical tension above 60 div. at each ob- servation-hour, as compared with the mean of the year for the three years 1845, 1846 and 1847, and the mean diurnal period. Year.|Mid.|2 a.m./4 a.m.|6 a.m.|8 a.m.|10 a.m.|Noon.|2 p.m./4 p.m./6 p.m.|8 p.m. 10 p-m.|Mean. div, | div, | div. diy, div. | div. | diy. | div, | div. —|/-—|-| + )+]-]-|-] +4] + E840.) oeoas| popes 88°2/56°5 | 5:5 | 32-4 | 0-5 | 28-9 | 43-0-] 27-2 | 14-7 | 32°6 [173-2 —-|-|-]|+]+]-]-]+] 4 nice LR Ma Ses 77:2|25°8 |27°5 | 3°5 | 26°6 | 21 |12°5 | 14-2 | 12-4 —~}|/—|-—j| +] +] +} 4+] +] - UB 4G Hes daliaxseop 134°8 | 95:6 |40°9 | 14:0 |39°3 | 43°6 | 9°9 |17:2 | 1:2 —~|/-}|-]| +]/4+/4+]-/]- Mean.]}......!...s-. | 99°3|}59°7 |25°4 | 16:3 | 21°9 | 2:7 |163 | O-1 Although the movements, as exhibited in the above tables, are decidedly irregular, yet the indications of a double progression are by no means deficient ; they appear very prominently in the period for the year 1845. In this year the rise is very regular until 10 a.m., after which a fall, quite as regular, takes place between 10 A.M. and 4 p.M., and then the tension increases quite as re- — gularly until 10 p.m. In 1846 and 1847 these movements are not so distinet, especially in the latter year, in which a great tendency to a single maximum about 2 P.M. occurs; there is however a subordinate maximum at 6 p.M. In 1846 the two maxima are developed, the forenoon being the principal. The mean curve of the three years exhibits a period of tolerable regularity, in which the two maxima are well-marked, that of the forenoon being the highest; the epochs are noon and 8 P.M. | 4 4 ; 4 : : £ Me ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEw. 143 4 a Previous to examining the summer 1 1 . . . . PP ty ie 0 he curves of high tension, it will be de- sirable to direct our attention to those of the winter ; two circumstances con- tribute to this mode of proceeding. In discussing the curves of low ten- sion, we found the greatest approach to a single progression occurring in the winter, and this would suggest that in the same season we ought to find the most decided development of the two maxima in the curves of high tension, which give to the aggregate curves the feature of a double pro- gression, The great majority of read- ings during the summer being below 60 div., those above will be consider- ably less in number than the high readings in the winter, and it is con- sequently to be expected that the movements of the high tensions (sim- ply considered as such) will be much more irregular in the summer than in the winter: in a word, if we can at all find any unequivocal indications of regularity of movement among the high tensions, weare much more likely to find them in the winter than in the ‘summer. Diurnal period above 60 div., Win- ter.—The entire number of high read- ings, 2647, is thus divided :-— 1845. Mean. 1846,— Mean, 1847. Mean. 3 years. Mean. Winter’ Zoos ccc ceeses 1979 Summer ............ 668 2647 The following table exhibits the distribution of the winter observations over the twelve observation-hours : — Mean diurnal curve of the electrical tension above 60 diy. for the years 1845, 1846 and 1847, with the mean curve of the three years. 4 A.M. 10 a.m. 10 P.M. 2 A.M. E 4 a =) Taste XLI. Number of positive readings above 60 div. at each observation-hour in the three winters of 1845, 1846 and 1847. ” a he ——_—-— 66 84 64] 68} 74] 83] 88 96 | 625 81 93 “1| 77| 76} 93} 92] 107 | 696 80 91 66 | 67| 70} 83] 94] 104 | 658 | | | | | PUESs|ovneus| nevces | ensue 11 | 227 | 268 | 201 | 212 | 220 | 259 | 274 | 307 |1979 7 Y “It will be seen from these numbers that the distribution of readings some- what assimilates to that of the entire year, being more numerous about the 144 REPORT—1849, epochs of the forenvon and evening maxima. It is however much more equable, the difference between the greatest and least numbers, excluding the 11 at 6 a.M., being only 106. A proportionate regularity in the diurnal march may consequently be expected. TABLE XLII. Mean electrical tension above 60 div. at each observation-hour in the three winters of 1845, 1846 and 1847, with the mean diurnal period of winter. Year. |Mid.|2 a.m.|4 a.m.|6 a.m.|8 a.m.|10 a.m.|Noon.|2 p.m./4 p.m./6 p.m.|8 p.m.}10 p.m.|Mean. a | a |e | | ee | ef | div. | div. div. div. div. | div. div. | div. div. div. BAG: Wacuicel ccs voe | see cee 85:0 |184°8 | 231°1 |188-0 |146°6 |139-6 [167-0 |223°1 | 259-1 {196-0 RAG ss tod ..se bas] Ses Sie 83:3 }130°4 | 163-2 |171-9 |145-0 |136°9 {174-5 |198-7 | 164-7 |161°1 sa ae ee Poe 165-0 |206:0 | 248-0 /261°1 |257-1 |235-0 |244°8 |247-4 | 221°8 |238-7 MlGame| ire. -2} sodsas'| saves. 105°9 |172:9 | 213°3 |206°3 |180-9 |169-0 |194°6 |223°3 | 213°6 |197°9 — Tasie XLIII. Excess or defect of the mean electrical tension above 60 div. at each ob- servation-hour, as compared with the mean of each winter in the years 1845, 1846 and 184-7, and the mean of the three winters. Year. |Mid./2 a.m./4 a.m./6 a.m./8 a.m.|10 a.m.|Noon.|2 p.m./4 p.m.|6 p.m.|8 p.m.|10 p.m./Mean. -}-|/+]/-/-|;-/-/4] 4 MB AD eases tasedcs [iwacens 111°0} 11°2| 35:1 8:0| 49°4| 56:4] 29:0) 27-1] 63°1 |196°0 —~|-|+}4+}—/-J/+]4] 4 TSG ics salted enn Newet a6 77°8| 30:7} 2:1 | 10°8} 161) 24:2] 13-4) 37°6| 3°6 |161°1 —-—|-|/ + —~|+]+] - OSE ie becoce lr Rececll |eacas 73°7 | 32°77) 9:3 | 22:4] 184] 3:7) G61] 8:7] 169 |238-7 ~|—-|+/+/—-|-|/-]+] + IMPGAI. | iwac| \etaanell caseee 92°0| 25°0; 15°4 8:4| 17:0! 28-9] 3:3] 25:4] 15°7 |197-9 There can be no question that a much greater regularity of movement characterizes these periods than we found appertaining to those of the entire year. In each of them we find the two maxima well-developed ; in the win- ter of 1847 the forenoon maximum was the highest, but in other respects they . agree more or less closely with the aggregate winter curves. The diurnal march is well-traced: commencing at 8 A.M., we find the forenoon maximum attained at 10 A.m., then a well-marked fall until 4 p.m., the afternoon mini- mum, after which a regular and rather rapid rise until 8 p.m., the epoch of the evening maximum, which is followed by a diminution of tension at 10 p.m. The annexed curves (fig. 10), which may be well compared with those on page 143, exhibit all the winter phenomena of high tension with considerable distinctness. It may be remarked, that in 1845 the evening maximum oc- — curred at 10 p.m., and that a close agreement, in this respect, obtains be- tween the high tension and aggregate curves in the winter of 1845. In our remarks on the winter curves of aggregate tension (see page 123), we noticed the influence which the winter curves exerted on those of the entire year, and suggested the probability that the higher tensions materially in-_ fluence the general results. This is very strikingly illustrated by the com- — parison of the winter curves of high tension with those of the same season as — deduced from the aggregate observations; the main features of the curves in both series are similar, the principal difference consisting in the values of the ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 145 maxima in the winter of 1847. We see at a glance how greatly the forms of the aggregate curves de- pend on the higher tensions. On comparing the two series with those of the entire year (aggregate ten- sion), the influence of the high ten- sions upon the whole is readily traced. We see the winter curves of high tension strongly influencing the winter curves of aggregate tension, and these again the aggregate of the entire year, the threeseries of curves closely resembling each other. The influence of the high tension entire year on the curves of aggregate ten- sion for the same period is not so 1845. 1846. striking ; the summer readings mo- . dify the curves, and illustrate the S remarks we have already offered on a the variability of the point of sepa- G: ration. 1847. . 3 Winters. Mean diurnal curves of the electrical tension above 60 diy. for the winters of 1845, 1846 and 1847, with the mean curve of the three winters. 4A.M. 10 A.M. 10 P.M. 2A.M. i E = =) _-Tasix XLIV. Comparison of the excess or defect from the mean of the diurnal periods of winter, as deduced from the aggregate observations and from those above _. 60 div. Value. Mid.|2 a.m.|4 a.m.|6 a.mn.|8 a.m.|10 a.m.|Noon.|2 p.m./4 p.m./6 p.m.|8 p.m.|10 p.m.|Mean. — |E ——_$J| | — | — |X ——_ | | — | - +|-|-|-] 4+ {4+ - | 92°0 | 25°0 ita 84 117-0 |28°9 | 3:3 | 25-4 | 15:7 /197°9 L 146 ‘ REPORT—1849. In the above table the correspondence within certain limits as to excess and defect, in reference to the mean of each period, is well seen; also the striking development of the forenoon and evening maxima in each case. Upon the continuation of the observations of high tension at midnight, 2 and 4 A.M.in the winter, the mean line would be lowered and the correspondence rendered more complete. During the day the movements do not very materially differ from those of the aggregate curves for the same periods; this is evident from the follow- ing table :— TABLE XLV. j Synopsis of the principal points in the aggregate and high tension winter curves. Forenoon | Evening | Evening Vv Maximum | Maximum | Maximum alue. above above above Minimum. | Minimum. | Forenoon. div. div. diy. Aer ere, O05 YP 26:5 558 27°3 Above 60 div.......... 4403 54°3 10:0 Diurnal period above 60 div., Summer.—The 668 readings upon which this period is based are thus distributed among the twelve observation-hours :— TABLE XLVI. Number of positive readings above 60 div. at each observation-hour in the three summers of 1845, 1846 and 1847. | Year. mia.!2 a.m.|4 et 6 a.m./8 a.m./10 a.m.|Noon./2 p.m./4 p.m.|6 pm./8 p-m./10 p.m./Sums. Thi eee (eae 3 | 16 | 26| 19 9 7 | 13 | 24 | 42) 68 | 227 MEAG! leis] caxces Ba ae Ral. ae 5 6 | 10 | 17 | 46| 50 | 218 GEO A eee eee 3 | 23 | 44) 35 6 6 | 10 | 13 | 35] 48 | 223 Sums.|...... | oe 8 | 53 | 1071 85 | 20 | 19 | 33 | 54 | 123 | 166 | 668 It will be at once apparent that these readings are but unequally distri- buted. As in the former instances, the greatest numbers occur about the hours of the forenoon and evening maxima; but the numbers about noon and 2 p.m. are so small as to render it questionable whether we should regard the periods deduced from the observations as true representatives of natural phenomena: we shall however give them in the same form as the others, and in our re- marks solicit particular attention to the maxima occurring in each summer, either at noon or 2 P.M. Tas_Le XLVII. Mean electrical tension above 60 div. at each observation-hour in the three summers of 1845, 1846 and 1847, with the mean diurnal period of summer. Year. Mid. 2 am.4 a.m.|6 a.m.|8 a.m.|10 a.m./Noon.|2 p-m./4 p.m./6 p.m./8 p.m.|10 p.m.|Mean. { | div. | div. |°div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | aiv. | div. | div, MS lise desl cacevas 85:0 |120°7 |124°3 | 92°8 | 72-2 |122°1| 76°5| 73-1 |114°0 | 130°6 110°6 1846.! Rasith eliaamis 6 72°5 |141°2 |104°3 | 123°3 |238-0 |181-2 |139°7 |105-9 | 88-7 | 106°6 113°3 1847, wosabs| apenas 70°8 |102°8| 89-7 | 145-8 | 66°7 |161°2) 79°5 | 82°3| 88:9 | 126:0 |107-7 Mean........ vessee | 76°6 |118°4 |103°1 | | ee | 125°7 |112°0 153-2 | 96°6 | 85°6 | 97-4} 122-1 |110°5 ea a a - other in value. ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 147 Tasie XLVIILI. Excess or defect of the mean electrical tension above 60 div. at each ob- _ servation-hour, as compared with the mean of each summer in the years 1845, 1846 and 1847, and the mean of the three summers. Year. |Mid.|2 a.m.|4 a.m.{6 a.m.|8 a.m,|10 a.m.|Noon.|2 p-m./4 p.m.|6 p.m./8 p.m.|10 p.m./Mean. —— | ———_—. div. | div. | diy. div. div. | diy. | div. (liy. | div. div. diy. -~|+)/+4+)/-|]-—) 4) - +) + TS45 000...) vooece 25°6 | 1071 | 13:7 | 17-8 | 38:4) 11°5 | 34:1 | 37-5 | 3:4 | 20°0 110°6 — | + + | +/+ |4+|-|- -1846.]......| ...06.|40°8 | 27-9 | 9°0 | 10-0 {124:7|67°9 | 26-4 | 7:4 }246 | 6:7 (1133 -}/-—|-| +)/-|+]-]-]-—] + RBA. ac tt) seves « 36:9 | 4:9 |18°0 | 38:1 | 41:0/53°5 | 28-2 | 25:4 1188 | 18:3 {107-7 — | + +/t+}/+})-)-/-) + Mean.|......| ese | 33°9 | 7°99 | 7:4 | 152 1:5 | 42-7 | 13-9 | 24:9 {13-1 | 11°6 |110°5 4 A.M. 10 ALM. 10 P.M, 2 A.M, In the annexed curves (fig. 11), the general irregularity which is apparent in the tables is very di- stinctly marked. We have already alluded to the maxima at 2 P.M. or noon; with one exception they are the highest of each curve; but how far, from the small number of observations that contribute to their determination, they can be regarded as truly representing a mean increase of the electrical tension above 60 div. at this pe- riod of the day, must, we appre- hend, be left for future observa- tions to determine. It is however likely that even on a long series of years the number of high tensions at noon and 2 p.m. will always bear a very small proportion to those at other hours, especially near the epochs of the forenoon. and evening maxima. In two of the aggregate summer curves, 1845 and 1847, we have small subordinate maxima at 2 P.M., which, when compared with the two principal, are scarcely appa- rent. Nothing of the kind appears in the winter curves, either aggre- 1845.—7F Mean. Fig. It. 1846. = Mean, 1847. 4 | Mean. with the mean curve of the three summers, <= oO > ce Mean diurnal curves of the electrical tension above 60 div. for the summers of 1845, 1846 and 1847, | gate or high tension, so that if the >. 4 A.M. 10 AM. 10 P.M. 2 A.M. maximum about 2 P.M. in summer truly represent a natural phenomenon, it is one peculiar to the summer + months. The close approximation of the values of the means of each sum- _ mer is an interesting feature, which suggests considerable hesitation in de- _ ciding on the character of these irregular curves, The aggregate and low tension summer curyes also agree in their means, differing but little from each ra REPORT—1849. ws Lead L-6F1 6-9F1 L-291 6-91 &-LEL 9-LF1 £-941 GEST 6-61 6-61 Gol FULD. @ 1-191 L-F91 £861 G-FL1 6-9€1 0-SFL 6-141 &-E9T F-0&1 €-€8 seeretees *197UT AA €-€1L 0-114 9-901 L181 £88 9-F¥G 6-901 6-10€ L661 0-686 6181 b-996 0-886 L-912 €-€61 T-821 €-FOL 1-96 @iPL | C-ZL Vensasess 0-66 CFL 6-08 1-62 eLL 6-08 6-661 9-FEL 8-IIL seeeeeree weeeeeeee £61 0-616 L1él 8-SIL 9-SIT 0-F91 6-8€ €-GET 0-101 F8L set eeeree L9L Gol 0:G2 wee eeeres 9-6 e1L GGL 618 0-08 G-L9 G-68T 9-68 £:88 see eeeree se eeeeeee syamung | saquiaoacf} aequiaAoyy} *19q0}9Q |*1aquiaqzdag) “ysndny GIL 9-69 se eeetees 9-76 6-49 0-08 0-08 0-04 “Ane ee etenees L1él I-22 08 ung €-SF1 L-L01 PEL 0-99 0-L 0-00F 0:00¢ S-G0L @€ll 8-986 0:2 “ARI L-L81 L&T 9-0IT 6-6F1 0-806 0-04 €-€9 6-191 8-661 G-6L wt eeeeee ‘tudy st eeeeeee een eereee ‘yore =| ‘Areniqayg | ‘Arenaee | , *poued “ suBaTT hike drag pag ae rand Bg “16 MOON > tee. 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MY Z qq STOprN, SS *raqUIAA | “IauTUMg |-saquie.sg |zequiesony| *1aqo309 |:xequiaydag} *ysndny ‘Amp ‘ung “Key ‘judy *yorey =| ‘Arenagqag | ‘Arenuer *powag -reak pue JaqUIA “IauIUINs ay} JO WOTSUA} [eOII}O9]9 UREUI 9Y} YBIA ‘syJUOUT aaT}Oadsar OY} AopuN pesuvIIE ‘LFRT reak ay} Ul “AIP OQ 220gn suotyeadasgo aarzIsod ay} [[e Wo1y pooNnpap SB “INoY-UOT}VAIASgO YORs 3e UOISUD} [Ld1.1}O9]9 UBITAI—']'T ATAV], 150 REPORT—1849. In addition to the principal results of the discussion of the aggregate and low tensions on pages 138 and 141, we find from that of the high, that the ’ movements of the electrical tension above 60 div. in the winter are such as strongly to confirm the suggestion of the forenoon and evening maxima re- sulting from such high tensions. Tables XLIX., L. and LI. exhibit the mean electrical tension above 60 div. at each observation-hour for each month in the three years 1845, 1846 and 1847, with the monthly, seasonal and yearly means.—The characters of the monthly movements are exhibited to the eye in the sheets of curves illus- trating this report. See Plate X. and XI. Table LII. exhibits the mean monthly electrical tension at each obser- vation-hour, deduced from the observations of three months; also the mean summer, winter and yearly tensions, deduced from the observations of three summers, winters and years. The last line in the table, to which the word « Means ” is prefixed, exhibits the mean tension in each month, as deduced from all the separate monthly observations ; 7.e. the mean tension of January, 277'1 div., is the result of all the January observations in the three years. The same thing holds good of the seasonal and yearly mean tensions. The curves projected from these numbers will be found on Plate XI. ANNUAL PERIOD. Aggregate observations.—One of the principal results of the foregoing dis- cussion has been to exhibit the march of the electrical tension during the twenty- four hours constituting the period of a day. This march has been found to present two well-defined maxima, in most instances removed from each other by an interval of twelve hours, the principal occurring at 10 p.m. and the in- ferior at 10 A.m. Two minima have also been ascertained, the principal at 4 A.M, and the subordinate at 4 p.m. Ata particular season of the year, there have been indications of a curve of low tension presenting considerable approximation to a single progression, more or less in harmony with the curve of temperature; but the curve deduced from all the positive observations is not in harmony with the curve of temperature, inasmuch as neither of the maxima corresponds with either of its turning-points. We must not however forget, that the greatest development of electricity, so far as the diurnal period is concerned, takes place from sunrise to 10 P.M., and includes the period that the sun is above the horizon, and to this extent there is a con- nection between the temperature and the electrical tension. We now pro- ceed to examine those changes of the electrical tension, the period of which is completed in the same time that the earth is occupied in making a revolu- tion round the sun. The following table contains the number of readings in each month of the three years which form the bases on which the results in the succeeding tables rest. It will be remarked, that the greatest number occur in the sum- mer and the least in winter, the cause of which has been already referred to as resulting from the cessation of observations at 6 a.m. during the winter months, ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 151 : ( bas Taste LIII. Number of positive readings in each month of the three years 1845, 1846 v and 1847. ‘1845. 287 | 258 | 228 | 280 | 305| 299 | 330 |313| 318 | 287/220|249| 3374 1846.| 264 | 228/276 259 | 308} 308 | 327 |314| 316 | 269 | 280| 250! 3399 1847. 244| 226 |278| 271 | 313| 300 | 320 |/315| 318 |298/265|255| 3403 —_—|§ —— |} —— | |) | | LT | Sums. 795 | 712} 782) 810 | 926 | 907 | 977 | 942) 952 | 854 | 765 | 754 | 10176 TABLE LIV. Mean electrical tension of each month in the three years 184.5, 1846 and 1847, with the mean annual period, as deduced from the whole. Year.) Jan. | Feb. | Mar. April.|May._ June.| July. | Aug.| Sept. Oct.| Nov. Dec. ‘Mean. div. aly. div. | div. div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. 1845.| 1093) 190-3) 64-5) 56-1 | 38-7) 26:0 | 25:9 | 29-9) 37-5 | 46-2) 83-9] 84-2] 63-1 1846.| 95-9} 100°1| 78-9) 63-7 | 42°8) 33-0} 31°3 | 26-3) 27-2 | 656) 49-8/160-3 | 61°3 1847.| 258-8) 2066] 79-6) 52-2 ia] 28°8 | 59°7| 31:9) 34°3 cat | 78°7| 84:°3| 76°3 Mean.| 150°7| 166°6| 75°0| 57:2 37°9) 29°3 | 38°8 | 29°4| 33:0 50°5) 69°6)109-5| 66:9 TABLE LV. Excess or defect of the mean electrical tension of each month, as compared with the mean of the year for the three years 1845, 1846 and 1847, and the mean annual period. Year.| Jan. | Feb. Mar.| April. May. June, July. | Aug.| Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. |Mean. | | —_—| diy. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | diy. +} 4) 4 ~j}—]—/}—| — |} 4] 4 1845.) 46:2 |127:2| 1-4) 7:0 | 24:4) 37:1) 37-2! 33:2} 25°6| 16-920°8| 21:1) 63°1 +] 4+) 4 —} =} -/-|-|+/—| 4 1846.) 34-6] 38°8 17°6| 2°4 | 18°35) 28°3| 30-0| 35-0) 34:1) 4:311°5| 99:0} 61:3 + | + ska te 130°3 | a | + =| —/}/—]/—-|—|—/+) 4 3°3 | 24°1 | 44:0) 47-5 | 16°6 | 44-4 42°0 | 35°3 2:4) 8:0] 76°3 —_ | —— | | + | =— Mean. 2°7| 42:°6| 66°9 +/+ }/+)-/-|- | -/--| - |- 83°8| 99°7| 8-1] 9°7 | 29:0) 37°6| 28:1 | 37°5| 33-9 | 16-4 An annual period in the electrical tension is not only very perceptible, but unquestionable. It is, with an exception hereafter to be noticed, a single progression having its turning-poiuts in February and June. The exception alluded to consists in an increase of tension in July ; but as this occurred only in one year (1847), it will form the subject of remark further on. From the mean of the three years, we find that June and August present nearly the same electrical tension, the difference being only 0°1 div. In September a small rise occurs which is increased in October; the augmentation becomes more rapid from November to January and then receives a check, the Fe- bruary increment being less than those of December and January. In February the maximum is attained, which is succeeded in March by a very rapid diminution of tension which continues through April and May, the decrements becoming less in value until June, the month presenting the lowest tension. From this progression those of individual years differ to a greater or less 152 REPORT—1849. extent: the turning-points do not occur in each year in the same months, and ~ 4 the range of tension differs materially, a The year 1847, as we have already A. F J. noticed, presents the highest tensions ; this is very apparent from the follow- ing table of range. TaBLeE LVI. Mean annual range of the electrical tension in the years 1845, 1846 and 1847, with the mean annual range of the three. Year. Range. 1845, div. 1845. 164°4 1846. 134°0 1847. 230°0 —_—_—— Mean. 137°3 1846, The greater development of elec- tricity in the year 1847 occurred in the month of January. The annexed curves (fig. 12) are projected on pre- cisely the same scale as those of the diurnal periods, and are strictly com- parable with them, On contrasting the annual with the diurnal period, we find a marked dif- ference which is not of an ordinary character. In the diurnal period we found an increase of tension towards the forenoon, succeeded by a diminu- tion, the tension still continuing high in comparison with readings obtained after 10 p.M.,at which hour the highest tension was most usually observed. The periods characterized by high and low tensions were those at which the sun was above and below the horizon (speaking in a general sense), the development of electricity appearing to 3 be connected with the increase of tem- perature. Inthe annual period the reverse of this takes place : that portion of the year during which the sun is further removed from the northern temperate zone is characterized by the exhibition of electricity of much higher tension than that which is observed during the period when he is nearest thereto. From the months in which the greatest and least tensions occur, it appears that there is a connexion between the annual curve of temperature and that of the electrical tension, the progression of the latter being to a certain ex- tent in harmony with that of the former, but inverse. It is well known that the same characteristic is presented by the annual curve of humidity, which is in inverse harmony with the annual curve of temperature, and this at once Mean anaual curves of the electrical tension for the years 1845, 1846 and 1847, with the mean curve of the three years. A. hel ax. ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW, 153 directly connects the annual period of the electrical tension with that of the humidity, and strongly confirms the suggestion already offered, that the high tensions at least measure the electrical tension of aqueous vapour. In order to illustrate this, the mean annual period of humidity, deduced from five years’ observations at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, is placed in con- nexion with the annual period of the electrical tension in the following table, in which the electrical tension is expressed in entire divisions of Volta’s elec- trometer No. 1, and the humidity in the natural scale, in which complete saturation is reckoned as equal to 1000. Tas_eE LVII. Mean annual periods of electrical tension and humidity. Period. | Jan.| Feb.|Mar. April./May.| June.| July. | Aug.) Sept. | Oct. Electric..,151|}167| 75} 57 Now Dec.|/Mean. 829} 791 | 816 | 845| 874 | 893 /911)| 910) 863 Humid...| 908 | 894 | 856| 821 | TaBLe LVIII. Comparison of the excess or defect from the mean of the electric and humid annual periods. Period. | Jan.\Feb. |Mar. April tay. June.| July. | Aug.| Sept. | Oct.'Nov.| Dec.|Mean. — | | | +] + + Electric..| 84 | 100 10 | 29} 38 | 28 | 38} 34 | 16| 3| 42| 67 = ~ + Humid...) 45 | 31] 7 | 42 | 34] 72 | 47 | 18] 11 | 30 48 47 | 863 The general correspondence as to the months exhibiting the greatest degree of humidity and the greatest electrical tension is very percepti- ble. It is however to be remarked, that the maximum of electrical tension does not occur in the same = month as that of humidity. In Sp Table LVIII., the later occurrence fe of the turning-points of the annual i period of electricity as compared £25 with that of humidity is very striking. — In the annexed curves (fig. 13), the points in which these periods correspond as well as those in which they differ are rendered very ap- parent to the eye. The curve of humidity is projected on a scale suitable for comparing it with that of the electrical tension, 100 divi- sions of the natural scale before mentioned, or one-tenth of the whole, being considered as equal to one inch. Aunid. [=| + Mean annual curves of the electrical tension and humidity. 154 ; REPORT—1849. Low tension.—In the following table, which exhibits the distribution of low readings in each month of the three years, the greater number during the summer is very apparent ; it will be remarked that July presents the greatest number and February the least; the proportion is nearly as 3 to 1. TaBLeE LIX. Number of positive readings below 60 div. in each month of the three years 1845, 1846 and 1847. : Year.) J an. Feb.|Mar.| April. May. June.) July. |Aug.| Sept. | Oct.|Nov.| Dec./Sums. | 1845.|184|107| 145} 211 | 257} 277 | 315 | 287) 271 | 206/113) 149 | 2522 1846.| 146 | 109 | 152} 172 | 268; 280 | 306 | 297) 291 | 198/193) 73 | 2485 1847.| 79 83 | 167 190 | 289; 291 | 273 | 292) 279 | 253} 174 | 152 | 2522 mm | | | | | | | FT as] ‘Sums. 409 |299 | 464 573 814 | 848 | 894 | 876] 841 | 657 | 480 | 374 | 7529 TABLE LX. Mean electrical tension below 60 div. of each month in the three years 1845, 1846 and 1847, with the mean annual period, as deduced from all the posi- tive readings below 60 div. May.) June. | July. Aug.| Sept. | Oct.|Nov.) Dec.| Mean. aes ele ay OTL ei It ee ar div. | diy. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. / diy. | diy. | diy. | div. | diy. | 1845.) 25:8) 30°7| 28-7} 29-0 | 25°2) 21:5 | 22°5 | 24:0) 27-5 | 25°6) 32+4| 28-6] 25°9 1846.) 34°7| 34-6) 35°1| 31:3 | 27°5| 26°8 | 28°5 22:3| 22°8 | 33°3|.30°7| 37-3) 28:8 | 1847.) 38°8] 36°2) 35:2) 35°3 | 27-4 27°6| 36°4 | 28°7| 28°5 | 26°2/ 31°8) 35:0) 31-1 26:2 | 28-1 31+5| 32°9| 28°6 Year.| Jan.) Feb.|Mar.! April. |Mean.| 31°5| 33°7| 33°1) 31:8 | 26°8; 25-4 | 28-8 | 25-0 TaBLeE LXI. Excess or defect of the mean electrical tension below 60 div. of each month, as compared with the mean of the years for the three years 1845, 1846 and 1847, and the mean annual period. Year.) Jan.| Feb.|Mar,| April.|May.| June.|July.|Aug.| Sept. | Oct.|Nov.| Dec.|Mean. ~/+/4+/4+])/-]}-/-|-|+/])-/4]4 1845.) 0:1 |4°8 |2°8 | 3:1 [O07 | 4:4 | 3-4 | 1:9 | 1:6 | 0°3 | 65 |2°7 | 25°9 fe RA ee ea —o) — | See ae 1846.) 5°9 |5°8 (6:3 | 25 | 1:3 | 2:0 |03 | 65 | 60 | 45 |1-9 |85 | 28:8 +}/+/+}/+)-]|-/4\/-|-|-|4+/4+ 1847.) 7°7 | 5:1 [4:1 | 4:2 [3:7 | 3:5 | 5:3 | 2:4 | 26 14:9 10-7 13:9 | 311 +/+)+/+4)/-]-)/4/]-|-/-/4+]/+ Mean.| 2°9 | 5-1 | 4°5 | 3°2 |1°8 | 3:2 | 0-2 |3°6 | 2-4 105 | 2:9 | 4:3 | 28:6 In the above tables we see an annual period nearly similar to that deduced from the entire series of positive observations during the three years. The main feature—that of an increase of electrical tension in the winter and a decrease in the summer—is the same in both periods ; and from this cireum- stance the legitimate inference is, that the low tensions are affected by the presence of aqueous vapour as well as the high ; consequently the arbitrary division at 60 div. fails at all seasons entirely to separate the electricity of aqueous vapour from that of the atmosphere, supposing the true march of the latter to be in harmony with that of the temperature. There are some minor differences between the two periods which it may be interesting to ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 155 notice here. The-progression is not single; it presents a depression at or near the period of the maximum, and an a = A. F, J. 1845, years 1845, 1846 and 1847, with the 1846. Mean, ak BS. 8 = Ba ~ e3 bp Be 5 is ... |30%62 .. |14°50} 12°75|158°75| 8°50/600° |407°50) .. 30°75/22°75| 21° .. 16°37} 19°62} 34°12) 49°37] 65°62 '18°75]34°25| 33°25) 31° | 17°50) 15° (450° 76°25) .. |56°50) 23° +. |48°12] 18°37) 3*87|160°62/450° lig: |62:25) .. | 34°75] 42°25] 20°75/425° | 77°50) 54° |64-75| 5°25 |21'87/20°37| 25° | 16°37) 71°25|800- a7°75158° | 27" | 22° 17°25} 100° sa 38'75| 68°12)27-50| 8° |28°25/17-37] 30°25] 32°50) 65> 216-25 22°75|/62°50| 18° | 62°75) 50° | 51°25) 55" | 51°66) 73°33/11: | 25°50 |37°50)12°50) 52°87) 57°50) .. | 71°25 35°50139°25| .. |158°75| 63°75) 40° .- | 12°75] 56°25)21- | 13°25 |25* [15°75] 29°50) 3°75) 46°87) 35°25 ! 5501 .. | 51°25] 33°50] 22°25] 33°25) 48°75} .. | 32°75/17-50| 15°12 |34°37|52°50) 45°50) 21-37) 83°75) 50°62 |46°25)13° .. 1345 | 25° | 52°50) 66:25] .. | 43°50)30°75| 23° |24°87|29°87) 43°25] 19°75] 58°12) 66°87 15° |46°25|) .. |447°50|168°75) .. 69:75] .. 33°87|23°12| 23°87 |30°50/29°87| 32°75| 38°12) 16°5 | 76°87 48°75|62°25| 27°50|428°75|225° .. |743°75| 42°50) .. |28°25] 10°50 |17°25|30°87) 34°12] 27°50) .. | 23°62 24°75)77°50| 41° |233°75|175° .. {205° | 40°62) 15°75)21°50| 10°25 |26- -. | 33°50] 16°25) 76°25) 55°62 ~. [33° | 51°25)245° 28°25) 65° 9°75| 28° | 23°25/13'50| 14*- |20°62/20°87| 4°50) .. 12°50}195° .. |58°75| 27° | 43°75] 17°50/375° | 61°25) 15°75] 24°75)/21-50) 21°25 |39°62)41°87| 3°87) 41°66) 22°50/178°25 '51°25|63°75| 30° |116°25]112°50/300° | 15°50) 6°50/152°12) 8-75] 29°12 |42°50/26°87| .. | 33°12) 13° [575° '66°33|47°50| 21°25] 68°25] 32°50) 38°75} 8°50) 35° | 25°75/16:75| .. | |30°87/26°62) 30°87) 39°75) 20°75/108°75 136-25/39°25|107°50\198'75| 77°50| 42°50) 26°75] 24: | 33°50] 7°50) 10°75 |35°62/41°87| 60°62) 38°12) 37°50) 42°50 5°75|/61°25| 43°50| .. 17°25] 38" | 36°25] 36°66) 12° |15°87| 13°25 |16°37)14°25] .. 16°75| 37°50} 62°50 27°25|55° -» | 10°75] 13° | 60° .. | 72°50| 28°25/15: | 40°37 |32°37/30° | 15°33] 17°83)192°50| 57°50 .. [37°75] 38°75| 53°33] 7°75/400° | 58°75| 33°75] 21° |14-75) 25°75 |41°25/20°62| .. | 39° |212°50)160" 25° |48°75| 38°50} .. | 20°25) .. a 31* | 38°75)15: | 49°37 |63°12/35° “i -- |162°50| 68°75 7+75|24'25] 20°75|300* | 20° |203°75) 37°50] 17°25) 12°50)16-37| 21°25 |51°62/35°87| .. | 55°83] 97°50) 58°75 28° |19°25] 43°25) .. 42°50} 46°25} 53°75| 1°50) 26°75|16-12| .. |39°12|/30°62) 33°50) 45°66/111°25| 56°25 20°50|24°75|104°75| 18°25] 26°25) 20°25] 30°25) 21°75/159°50)15°25| 30° |12°75}18°87| 60" | 23°75)136-25)375° 48°75|15°25| 65° | 26° | 49°50} 42° | 52°50) 13° | 22° 15°75) 28°75 |16°25)31°25) 50° 59°37|180°62|650" .. |19°75| .. | 23°25/146°25| 13°25] 59°75) 34°50) 33°12] 8°75) 27°62 )26-62/52°50) 41°87/243°75|109°37)183"75 3°25/38°75/116°25| 33°75| 55° | 28°75| 83°75| 76°25] 38°75/11* | 31°25 | 9°50\60- 6°75] 71°25] 41°50} 18°33 36° | 8°50| .. {112°50/201°25) 32°75) .. 53°12} 45°50) .. | 38° |21°16)55°62) 39°37) 66°25) 49°37/408 12 28°75] .. Me 38°75] .. .. | 51°50) .. |19°75) .. |19°87|27°50 From this table has been formed Table LXXIV.,. which contains the greatest and least mean electrical tensions observed in each of the seventeen months, with their differences, and the days on which they occurred. ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 165 Tasle LXXIV. Greatest and least mean daily electrical tension in each month, from August 1843 to December 1844, both inclusive, with their differences, and days of the month on which they occurred. Month Mean daily electrical Days of the month on which the ‘ tension. 2 mean electrical tension was Difference. 1843 and 1844, | Greatest. | Least. Greatest. Least. div. div. div, August ......... 66°33 3°25 63°08 18 29 September ...... 77°50 8°50 69-00 14 30 October ......... 116°25 12°75 103-50 29 4 November ...... 447°50 10°75 436°75 12 21 December ...... 225-00 7°75 217-25 13 22 January ......... 925-00 13°25 911°75 3 28 February 743°75 8°50 735°25 13 18 NEATH ascvecsascs 77°50 1:50 76:00 6 25 RPIEH cccssces ...| 425°00 12:00 41300 1 20 HUES? Sacadeccavce: 64°75 7°50 57°25 6 19 BINGE ids 0k Sex 49°37 5°25 44°12 23 6 TONY! senceoss sens 63°12 9°50 53°62 23 29 August ......... 60:00 12°50 47°50 29 8 September ...... 146°25 3°87 142-38 I 16 October ... .....| 243°75 3°75 240-00 28 9 November ...... 212°50 12°50 200-00 22 15 December ...... 800-00 18°33 781:66 6 29 The greatest mean daily electrical tension occurred in January 1844, and the least in March 1844: the difference (923°5 div.) is the range of the mean tensions during the seventeen months. The numbers in this table bear testimony to the same general fact which we have already noticed in the discussion of the three years’ observations, viz. the great increase of electric tension in winter; but from the nature of the quantities recorded, they are not comparable with the annual curves deduced from the observations of 1845, 1846 and 1847, and from those of sunrise and sunset during the five years. From Table LXXV. we learn that in every month the electrical tension exceeded 79 div. of Volta’s electrometer No. 1. In November 1843, Janu- ary, February, March, April, and December 1844, the highest observed ten- sions at the four observation-epochs were between 1000 div. and 1500 div., or between 10° and 15° of Henley’s instrument. In the remaining months, with the exception of August 13843 and June 1844, the highest tensions were between 100 div. and 500 div., or 1° and 5° of Henley, and in the two excepted months they were respectively 95 div. and 80 div. The effect of the annual progression is very apparent, the higher tensions being confined to the winter months. : During the seventeen months the electrical tension was never observed below 2 div. of Volta No. 1, except on one or two occasions on which the tension was too feeble materially to influence the instrument. ‘The numbers -in the column of least absolute tensions give the lowest observed tensions by Volta’s instrument in the respective months. Tables LXXVI. and LXXVII. exhibit the monthly distribution of all the observations at the four observation-epochs, together with the value of the mean electrical tension at each observation-epoch in each of the seventeen months. 166 REPORT—1849. TABLE LXXV. Greatest and least electrical tension observed in each month, from August 1843 to December 1844, both inclusive, with their differences, and the days of the month on which they occurred. Absolute electrical ten- Days of the month on which the Month. sion in each month. electrical tension was Difference. 1843 and 1844.| Greatest. Least. Greatest. Least. div. div. div. y 17 9am August... 95 2 93 Wee ie 29 3 p.m 7 9am 16 9am September ...... 115 3 112 20 9am 30 S.R 21 9am 1 S.R. 19 9am 3 8.8. October ..... tess 300 3 297 26 9am 4 SR. 16 S.R. 23 S.R. November ...... 1100 5 1095 12 S.S. 29 SR. 4 3p.m.S8.8. December ...... 500 2 498 14 9am 22 3 pam. January .....000. 1200 3 1197 4 9am 10 S.R. - 17 S.R. February....... x: 1000 3 997 49am ie 9 anne : 9 S.R. 9 am. IMATChiwcteyensiees 1500 3 1497 8 9am. 17 S.R. 25 S.R. 9 am. APES Rinses 1000 3 997 1 9am 16 S.R. 5 SS. 17 S.R. Maa, mois sethetves 200 2 198 { cides al ae gee UMC sani vanen so. 80 2 78 30 9am 7 S.R. 4 S.R. 6 S.S. TUY seesseens 100 5 95 23 SS. 7 8.8. 26 S.R. 31 S.R. August ....6.66 105 4 101 29 9am 6 S.R. September ...... 400 3 397 1 9am 16 9am.8.8 October ......... 400 2 398 28 58.8. 9 3pm November ...... 500 4 496 27 9am 16 3 p.m. December ...... 1100 3 1097 6 3p.m 16 9 am. TasLe LXXVI. Number of positive readings at each observation-epoch in each month, from August 1843 to December 1844, both inclusive. Epochs. | Aug.|Sept.| Oct.! Nov.) Dec.| Jan.| Feb.|Mar.| Apr.|May.| June. |July.|Aug.|Sept.| Oct.| Nov.| Dec.| Sums. Sunrise ..| 26) 30] 24; 27] 31] 28] 28) 27] 30] 31] 30 30] 28] 24 | 28) 28) 31} 481 Qam....| 26] 30) 24 |) 28] 31] 26] 28] 27] 29] 31] 30 30} 28] 25 29| 28] 30 480 3p.m....| 25] 29] 23 | 28] 31] 28] 28) 26) 29| 30] 27 26| 27| 25 | 27| 27] 30| 466 Sunset ..| 25] 30] 24 | 28] 31] 27| 25] 27] 29) 30) 29 28} 28] 25] 27] 27| 30; 470 Sums....] 102]119} 95 | 111] 124/109] 109/107 | 117} 122] 116 114] 111] 99 | 111} 110] 121 | 1897 —_ ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEw. 167 TasLe LXXVII. Mean electrical tension at each observation-epoch in each month, from August 1843 to December 1844, both inclusive, with the mean annual period of 1844. Epochs. |Aug,|Sept.| Oct.| Nov. | Dec.| Jan, | Feb. |Mar,| April, |May,| June. |July,} Aug.|Sept.| Oct.} Nov, | Dec, | Mean, ———— |§ | ce, | diy, | div. | div,| div. | div.} div. diy. | div.| diy, diy. | div. diy, | diy, | div. | div. | div. div, div, Sunrise .. |15*7| 26*1]17*4] 105°0 | 407] 127°0 | 93°9 |23°6] 42°0|11°1) 127 | 17*3] 25°8| 19°3] 24:9) 59°3 | 116°5 | 46-1 9 a.m....|34'2/57°0| 73'9| 188°6 | 77°3] 173°1 | 189°3 | 96°0) 128'4 | 30°8] 24°9 | 38°5] 38°1| 57°4) 43°3] 138°7 | 175°8 | 91°5 3 p.m....|18°0 26°9]29°5| 86°6 | 64°8) 142°6 | 151°5 | 35°8| 33:8] 12°0} 18°1 | 20°83) 23°8) 35*1) 38-4] 66°1 | 204°8 | 6o'9 Sunset ..|38°0| 49°2| 44°0) 164°8 | 58°7| 173°1 | 156°5 | 48°7| 39°3 | 32°71] 34°6 | 38°3] 40°1/ 46°3| 56°38) 58°6 | 225°0 | 76-9 Mean... ..|26°4| 39°9) 41°3} 136°5 | 60°4| 153°4 | 147°5 |51°2| 60°7 |21°5| 22°6 | 28-8) 32°0| 39°7| 40'7| 81°0 | 180°0 68'9 The numbers expressing the mean electrical tension of each month exhibit very clearly a mean annual period, which may be advantageously compared with the annual periods already deduced; for this purpose the four annual periods derived from various sources are included in the following table. TABLE LXXVIII. Comparison of the annual periods of the electric tension derived from various sources. Annual period. Jan. | Feb. |Mar.| Apr.|May.|June. Suly.|Aug. Sep. (Oct. Nov.| Dec. |Mean. ac | a | a | | a | i | | | | a diy. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. Sunset, 5 years ...... 171°2 |124°8 |85°6 |68-2 |51°3 | 42-2 [44:0 |39°3 |44°6 [54 8 |87°1 [127-4] 78:4 3 years, 1845 to 1847./150°7 |166°6 |75-0 |57°2 37-9 29°3 |38°8 |29°4 |33°0 [50° 69:6 |109'5 | 66:9 Sunrise, 5 years ...... 118°3 | 7771 |51:0 |39°4 |27°5 | 18°6 |25-1 |20°3 |22°4 |27°5 |59-3 | 71°6| 46:8 The year 1844......... 153:4 |147°5 [51:2 |60°7 215 22°6 |28°8 (32:0 |39°7 40-7 81:0 |180:0| 71:8 Upon comparing the annual period deduced from the four daily readings, in the year 1844, with those recorded in Table LIV., we find the same irre- gularity of movement which characterized each of those deduced from the twelve daily readings in 1845, 1846 and 1847. The contrast in this respect with the smoothness and regularity in the general flowing of the curves, derived from five years’ observations, appears to indicate that this is the shortest term in which the effects of accidental influences may be efficiently eliminated, so as to exhibit the annual progression of the electric tension, either in immediate connexion with, or following at some definite interval, the annual progression of the humidity of the atmosphere. We have already alluded to the protuberance on the upward branch of the sunrise curve, as resulting from a higher tension than ordinary in the month of November 1843 (see p. 162). The fifth column (Nov.) in Table LX XVII. exhibits the extraordinary character of this month, and shows that the electric tension was developed with increased force at each of the observation-epochs: this is very apparent from the comparison of this month with the remaining No~« vembers, and from it we may infer, that upon five years’ observations, the tension of November being of the ordinary character, the annual curve is likely to present a smooth and gently flowing contour. In the table before us the features of the summit of the annual curve are well-marked: we have already alluded to the acuminated and symmetrical character of the summit of the sunset curve (see p. 160). This is amply borne out by the annual curve 168 SEroRT<-1840; of the year 1844, and indeed by the others. Compared with the entire year, the three months, December, January and February, present by far the greatest electrical tension. In shorter intervals than five years, the months of maximum vary, sometimes occurring in the one or the other of the three months; but it appears from the entire series of five years, that the greatest tension is confined to the three months above-named. The shortness of the period over which the observations at 9 A.M. and 3 p.m. extend, combined with the irregularity appertaining to the movements of a single year, render it impracticable to deduce the relation existing be- tween the values at those fixed epochs. Nothing further than the general fact, confirmatory of the results deduced from the observations of 1845 to 1847, viz. that the tension in the forenoon hours is higher than that, in the afternoon, is likely to be attained. This general result, which is very striking, is exhibited in Table LXXIX. During the entire period the electric tension increased from sunrise to 9 a.m.; the mean value of this increase on the seventeen months is 454 div. : this, however, cannot be considered as of equal importance with the mean of the year, because the last five months of the year 1843 contribute to its de- termination. With only one exception, viz. December 1844, the tension de- clined from 9 A.M. to 3 P.M.—imean value as before, 30°6 div. It is not to be considered that the tension actually declines from 9 to 3, for we have already seen that 10 A.M. is the usual epoch of the forenoon maximum, but that the tension on an average is lower at 3 P.M. than at 9 a.m. The table shows an increase from 3 P.M. to sunset, with two exceptions: December 1843 and November 1844, mean value as before, 16:0 div., with the same limitation as _ to the character of the increase, 4 p.m. being the usual epoch of the after- noon minimum. These movements are further illustrated by the next table, which exhibits the excess or defect of the mean electrical tension above or below the mean of each month. There are two or three numbers in the above columns that require a passing notice; most of them proceed very regularly, exhibiting a higher tension than the mean at 9 a.m. and sunset, and a lower tension at sunrise and 3 p.m. The first exception that we have to this order is in December 1843, the mean tension at 3 p.m. being in excess, while that at sunset is in defect. In this month the double progression disappears, the tension de- clining 18°6 div. from 9 A.M. to sunset. The second exception occurs in February 1844, when the tension at 3 p.M. was 40 div. higher than the mean; the usual order of progression was not interrupted ; but from Table LXXVII. it would appear that the increase of tension giving rise to the anomaly just noticed, occurred principally between sunrise and 9 A.M., and wes maintained afterwards. March and April 1844 present similar excep- tions to each other in the tension at sunset being below the mean; the usual course of progression was not, however, interrupted in either case, as appears from Table LXXVIIL. The next exception occurs in November 1844, the tension at sunset being 22°4 div. below the mean: an inspection of Table LX XVII. indicates that the increase of tension, as in the former instances, took place between sunrise and 9 A.M., but was not maintained afterwards— in fact a diminution instead of an increase occurred at sunset; the increase between sunrise and 9 A.M. augmented the value of the monthly mean ten- sion, and this, combined with the reversal of the usual movement at sunset, | occasioned the depression of the mean at sunset below the mean of the month. In December 1844 there are no traces of the double progression, the tension increasing from sunrise to sunset: the epoch of mean tension for the month occurs between 9 A.M. and 3 p.M.; the signs of these mean quan- 169 ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 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Notes on Taste XCII. (*) August 4, 1843.—This thunder-storm was observed at Greenwich : cumulo-stratus and scud were registered there at 38 20™ p.m. with occasional showers, soon after which the sky assumed a very stormy appearance, more particularly in the N. and N.W.; at 32 45™ p.m. a low muttering of distant thunder was heard from dark clouds in the N.W., and thunder has been heard’at intervals to the present time, 5°20™ p.m.: at 42 40™ p.m. rain began to fall, and it has continued: at 4° O™ p.m. a fine double rainbow was visible in the E.N.E., and at 55 20™ p.m. another very perfect one, also double in the E.: at present, 5" 20™ p.m., a large clear break is near the horizon in the W., and it is the only part of the sky which is not covered with a dense -cirro-stratus. At 75° 20™ large loose fragments of scud were passing from _ the §.W., the portions of the sky without cloud being remarkably clear; the - rain which commenced at 4" 40™ p.m. ceased at 5° 30™ p.m.; the last clap __ of thunder was heard at 5" 35™; it proceeded from dark clouds in the E.: _ no lightning was seen during the whole time. The galvanometer was affected, the needle moving towards A. (°) August 15, 1843.—The thunder-storm was observed at Greenwich. At 32920" p.m. cumuli and cumulo-strati were seen; weather hazy. At _ 55 20™ p.m. the same clouds were registered, and the observer thus writes: ~ “Deep mutterings of thunder are heard, proceeding from dark eumulo-strati towards the N.E.: the weather is unusually sultry for this time of the day ; temperature now at its maximum.” At 72 20™ “massive cumulo-strati and nimbi in all directions: at 5" 40™ p.m. aloud clap of thunder was heard from the S.E., and from that time to 6" 10™ p.m. a constant succession of claps _ took place; no lightning was seen: between 55 50™ p.m. and 6? 5™ p.m. the rain fell very heavily : distant thunder has been heard to the present time.” ~ © At 9» 20™ overcast: at 75 40™ a vivid flash of lightning was seen in the __N.E. which was followed by many others, chiefly forked, and accompanied _ by a heavy rolling of thunder, all from the N.E.: at present distant thunder ~ is heard, and occasionally faint flashes of lightning from the N.W.: during 5 the time the storm was in the N.E. the zenith was clear.” Between _ 5° 49™ p.m. and 65 12™ p.m., the galvanometer was affected; maximum de- viation towards A 50° at 55 49™ 3s, and towards B 65° at the same time. This, the greatest oscillation, occurred on the occasion of a loud clap of a 7 . we4erenel ath 186 REPORT—1849. thunder ; numerous other oscillations occurred with thunder, and rain falling in torrents. (¢*) September 10, 1843.—We have here a well-marked instance of the re- gular diurnal march being interrupted by the passage of a cloud in the im- mediate neighbourhood of the observatory. No rain appears to have fallen, yet the instruments were thrown into a state of oscillation, positive to negative, which gradually diminished as the cloud passed off ; a spark or sparks 0°4 inch in length were registered. This cloud appears to have been a cumulo-stratus ; for at Greenwich at 3 p.m. cwmulo-siratus is registered, and during the suc- ceeding twenty minutes a very heavy shower of rain accompanied with thunder is recorded. The electrical instruments were not affected. (2) October 2, 1843.—The connexion in this instance between the heavy rain and negative charge is very apparent, and would, combined with the observation, of September 10, greatly tend to refer the production of the charge to the particular cloud by the agency of which the rain was precipi- tated, rather than to the rain itself. Cirro-stratus was registered at Green- wich from 98 20™ a.m. to 5" 20™ p.m. The violent squall of rain occurred there at 5 minutes before 11 A.M. (*) October 12, 1843.—* Front sunrise until about 11 a.m. dull and cloudy. At about 1] A.m. a heavy rain began and continued until about 12 15™ p.m. At its commencement Volta stood at 25° pos.: immediately afterwards the charge became negative, the maximum of which was 30° of Henley, anda negative state continued until about 2"45™ p.m. ‘The positive charge then remained during the rest of the day. The negative state existed about 1 hour and 30 minutes after the rain had ceased; and the weather during this period was fine and accompanied with sunshine. The duration of the negative state of the conductor, viz. about 3 hours 45 minutes, from about 1] a.m. to 2"45™ p.m., one hour and a half of which time elapsed without rain, is I believe a rare occurrence, and one which I do not recollect to have observed in my former experiments.—[F. R.]” The negative state of the conductor during the three half-hours is remark- able. It appears the sun was shining and the weather fine; but the register does not inform us whether clouds were present or not. On turning to the Greenwich observations we find rain recorded at 11" 20™ a.m., and at 1» 20™ p.m. thin rain falling ; the rain appears to have ceased earlier than this at Kew. From 94 20™ a.m. until 75 20™ p.m. cirro-stratus was registered at Greenwich ; and as this cloud frequently manifests itself in the form of a thin but very extensive stratum, it is not unlikely that it was the source of the negative charge observed. —[W. R. B.] (£) October 28, 1843.—At 3" 20™ p.m. this squall was observed at Green- wich without the hail. The observer thus writes: “At present there isa violent squall: the rain is falling in large drops: the sky is covered with a nimbus: a few minutes since a cumulo-stratus with coloured edges was in — the west, and scud was passing quickly from the west with a fine blue sky — between.” The head of the galvanometer needle deviated towards A 5°. (8) January 31, 1844.—The electrical phenomena of this day being parti- — cularly interesting, and well-marked both at Kew and Greenwich, we cannot do better than present the reader with the records at both observatories. Kew. First Storm.—At sunrise fine, but cloudy. At 8°45™ a.m. a heavy storm of snow and hail began, when Volta stood at 35% pos. The charge im- mediately changed to neg., in the maximum of which charge the Henley vibrated above 90°, and a stream of fire one inch long flowed from the con- ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 187 ductor to the discharger for at least four or five minutes during the time that the storm was at its height. At about 9 the storm had ceased, when the charge returned to pos. maximum 45° of Henley. Second Storm.—At noon another storm of snow and hail began, when Volta stood at 105% pos.; but the charge immediately changed to neg., and the Henley again vibrated above 90°, sparks 1,5, inch. The positive maximum was about 50° of Henley, sparks ;4, inch. Third Storm—At 1" 40™ p.m. a third heavy shower consisting of rain and hail began, when Volta stood at 10%" pos., but the charge immediately changed to neg., when the Henley vibrated between 60° and 90°, sparks 5% inch. The positive maximum during this shower was about 60° of Henley. At 2 p.m. very stormy with heavy rain. At 3 p.m. dull and cloudy. At 4 p.M. heavy snow. From sunset to 10 p.m. dull and cloudy. _ GREENWICH. First Storm.—At the nearest observation, Jan. 304 22" (Géttingen 9" 20™ A.M. Greenwich time), the observer records: ‘A few clouds only here and - there: at 8° 5™ a.m. rain and sleet began falling ; and about 85 40™ a.m. snow fell thickly, soon covering the ground; it ceased about 95 20™, when the clouds broke: wind in gusts to 2, with prolonged lulls.” Negative electricity was observed between 7. and 9 A.M. very weak. Wind N.W., force 1 to 7 lbs., rain falling occasionally. ' Second Storm.—Jan. 31¢ 05, Gottingen 112 20™ a.m. Greenwich. Cirro- stratus and scud; wind in heavy gusts to 23 and 3. At 11"30™ a.m. sparks occurred from 0°05 inch to 0°13 inch in length, 2 in a second. Wind N.W., force 12lbs. At this time a sudden squall of hail, wind and rain occurred ; in an instant the gold leaf of the dry pile apparatus was destroyed, and in removing it the observer received a severe shock. Third Storm.—At 1" 20™ p.m. Greenwich time, Cirro-stratus ; wind in heavy gusts; squalls of hail and snow are frequent ; occasionally, also, a few breaks occur: very dark and gloomy; snow mingled with sleet has again begun to fall. Wind N.W., force 0 to 5 lbs. No electricity appears to have been observed. Between 6 and 9 p.m. negative electricity was observed at Greenwich. Wind W.N.W., force 0 to 2 Ibs. Sleet occasionally falling in small quanti- ties : strong gusts of wind. (*) February 9, 1844.— Cirro-stratus was registered at Greenwich from 9° 20 p.m. to 5° 20™ a.m. of the following morning; two snow-showers oc: curred during this period, one at 11 p.m., the other at 42 10™ a.m., the electrometer-bell ringing during their continuance. Electrical observations were made between the undermentioned times : d hm h m in. Feb. 9 10 55 to 11 35 p.m. max. tension 50 Volta (2) neg., sparks o-10 » 91140, 1154PM. ,, » a0 55) Chui » 0°10 » 10 410, 426am. 5, » G02 %5,0) Ge 5 » O10 (‘) February 26, 1844.—We have in the case before us another instance (see Sept. 10, 1843) of the electrometers being affected by the approach of a eumulo-stratus, and on the present occasion previous to the falling of rain. _ It would appear from the ordinary meteorological observations at Greenwich that the few drops of rain recorded in the electrometer observations at 1» 12™ p.m. were succeeded by a heavy squall of rain, which commenced at 1" 15™ p.m. and continued 10 minutes ; the negative charge continued until 188 REPORT—1849, 1555" p.m. It is worthy of remark, that the approach of the cloud to the zenith, the formation of the heavy rain-drops, and the affection of the instru- ments, the charge being negative, were apparently simultaneous, and succeeded by the sudden gusts of rain constituting the heavy squall. (*) May 18, 1844.—The contrast between the observations at Kew and Greenwich is interesting: it furnishes us with another instance (and perhaps the most striking of the three) of the affections of the instruments by the prox- imity of cloud, mest probably czrro-stratus, which was prevalent at Green- wich, at least before noon. During the changes that occurred there in the electrical charges, small quantities of sleet only fell, and these not in any de- gree measurable, for we find on May 18, 22 hours Gottingen time, the same records of the rain-gauges as on May 17, 22 hours; but at Kew the period marked by the affections of the instruments at Greenwich is characterized by three showers, two of which are recorded as heavy, the electrical changes being considerable. It is to be remarked, that at Greenwich the tension was higher than had been observed previously in the course of the year. These phzenomena appear to point to a common origin of the electricity noticed at the two observatories, viz. the presence of a particular kind of cloud. It cannot in this instance at least be immediately connected with the rain, for although the changes were manifested at Kew during the continuance of the showers, yet electricity of a greater tension than any that had been observed during the former part of the year was recorded at Greenwich ; the same ac- tion was going on at Greenwich without the rain us at Kew with it: the only difference appears to have been, the absence at Greenwich of those particular conditions necessary to the production of the sudden gush of rain most fre- quently characterizing the exhibition of negative electricity, or rather the oscillation of the electrical condition between positive and negative. The instance before us presents a very instructive comparison with the passage of the cloud over the Kew Observatory on September 10, 1843, when the con- ditions for the production of rain did not appear to have existed at Kew, while they did at Greenwich ; yet the electrical instruments at Kew were affected, while those at Greenwich were not. (‘) June 10, 1844.—The records of this shower at both observatories were as under :-— Kew. Previous to the fali of any rain upon the conductor, the Henley rose to 90° pos., sparks 112 inch*. At one time of this high positive charge (before the rain), the Leyden jar, of about 56 square inches coating, on being applied to the conductor, became charged to the intensity of the rod in about 20 seconds. The charge changed to negative shortly after the rain began, max. 55° of the Henley, sparks #5 inch. These high signs lasted about a quarter of an hour, and spirtings occurred from the little ball above the discharger. The negative charge remained a considerable time after the rain had ceased, gradually diminishing. ee Nothing remarkable in the appearance of the clouds; they were rather fleecy or plumose, and not low, but large. * These were the longest sparks which we have yet observed; but on the 31st of January the continuous stream of fire from the conductor to the discharger was much more lasting. If the ball attached to the conductor and above the discharger were placed nearer or at the end of the cross-arm, the sparks would be longer; also if it were smaller. But it is, I fear, in vain to attempt to measure these very high tensions accurately by ordinary electrometers and dischargers. Our Henley was in this instance evidently useless. The shock of the spark reached the elbow without a jar. [Observer at Kew.] | ee ae ee SS ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 189 GREENWICH. June 104 25 Gottingen time, 1" 20™ Greenwich time. Cumuli, cumulo- strati, and dark scud; within the last three minutes the temperature has fallen 3°, the reading just before the observation having been 745, and there was a sudden exhibition of negative electricity ; a large dark cloud was at the time passing over from the N.W.: at 1"27™ p.m. a fine shower of rain began falling ; at 12 29™ the temperature was 62°-0; and at 1" 46™ it was 59%5. Negative electricity recorded between 1" 16™and 1" 44™ p.m., max. tension 20° Volta (2). Wind W., force 0 to 1 lb., rain falling. By means of these records we obtain a further insight into the conditions necessary for the exhibition of the phenomena detailed. Cloud being the origin of the electrical oscillations, appears very evident from the affections of the instruments at Kew previous to the fall of any rain upon the conductor ; and the very high charge communicated to the conductor under these cir-. cumstances is highly instructive. The usual march of the electrical tension was evidently disturbed by the approach of the cloud, although it exhibited nothing remarkable. This disturbance did not manifest itself at Greenwich until the cessation of the rain at Kew. It appears that at this time the ob- server at Greenwich noticed a large dark cloud passing over from the north- west, which was attended by two very remarkable phenomena :—a sudden diminution of temperature, with as sudden an exhibition of negative electricity. This appears to have occurred at least seven minutes before the fall of any rain. The presence of the cloud, the diminution of temperature, and the exhibi- tion of negative electricity, appear to ve closely and intimately connected, and to indicate either that the cloud itself underwent a remarkable physical change, which materially influenced bodies in its vicinity ; or, which is the most probable, that it existed in such a condition as to produce great physical changes in such bodies, so far as electricity is concerned. It is easy to con- ceive, that if by any means the temperature of the cloud should be diminished ; by coming into a colder portion of air, for instance, a sudden agglomeration of its vapour-particles might take place; its electrical ¢ondition be suddenly and extensively disturbed by the enormous tension which these newly formed rain-drops might acquire in consequence of the rapidity of their formation, in some cases the diminution of temperature being so great as actually to Sreeze them and thus produce hail, which at some seasons is not an unfrequent phenomenon accompanying the exhibitions of negative electricity. The electrical influence of the cloud thus circumstanced may not be confined to the mere strip of country over which the rain or hail may fall, but may ex- tend to some little distance beyond its circumference, and thus the signs may be changed without the actual fall of rain in such localities, or the negative State continue after the precipitating portion has left the place of observa- tion. Nor does it follow that rain must necessarily fall from every portion of the under-surface of a cloud; there may be an axis characterized by the lowest temperature ; around this may exist a zone having a higher tempera- ture, and another still higher, the skirts exhibiting the hzghest. It is well known that in showery weather the masses of cumulus present the appearance of highly heaped or vastly piled-up clouds towering high in the atmosphere, and on many occasions these cumular bodies are surmounted by sheets of cirro-stratus, through which their summits frequently penetrate, giving rise to that modification of cloud termed by meteorologists cumulo- stratus. By carefully noticing their mode of formation the idea will be sug- gested of vapour rising from the earth by evaporation with considerable force, 190 REPORT—1849, and which upon passing the vapour-plane is immediately condensed. The supply continuing from below, and the condensation going on above, produce the heaping, piling-up, and general outline of the cloud—which is particularly characterized by its erenated edges, and to which it owes its picturesque ap- pearance—just as steam, which, issuing in an invisible state from the funnel of a locomotive, meets with a stratum of air sufficiently cold to condense it rapidly, by which it assumes in a very decided manner the characters of the highly-heaped cumular clouds. It has been suggested, that the immense masses of these clouds, so commonly met with in the calm latitudes between the trades, may possess some such an arrangement as above-mentioned—at least in the temperature of the rain that falls from them—by their more elevated portions being precipitated by the colder air with which they come in contact; and as it is likely the most elevated part of the cloud would most probably be situated near its centre, the precipitated rain would fall along the axis, and bring with it to a greater or less extent the temperature which contributed to its formation. The other portions of the cloud not being so elevated as the central would produce rain of a higher temperature, the rain falling from the skirts of the cloud being the warmest. One such cloud appears to have come under the writer's notice, at least if the difference in the precipitations may be regarded as indicating differences of temperature, or of elevation of certain portions of the cloud. The cloud was considered to extend over a diameter of about six miles; near the avis a fall ef snow occurred which was surrounded by a precipitation of hail, and from the portions near the shirts, rain fell. It would appear that the tempe- rature in the centre or axis was sufficiently low, or that the summit of the cloud was sufficiently elevated to freeze the vapour-particles before they had run into drops in the usual manner in which snow is formed; but in the zone characterized by the fall of hail, a different process appears to have contributed to its production. Upon the first formation of the drops, the temperature appears to have been above the freezing-point, and it is possible that the relative diminution of temperature in this zone might have been greater than in either the axis or skirts. If so, we have all the conditions for a very rapid formation of rain-drops, which, from their proximity to the snow ‘ on the one hand, and the continued diminution of temperature on the other, might soon become frozen. There can be no question but that so rapid a conversion of aqueous vapour from the aériform to the solid state, must have been accompanied by electrical phzenomena more or less striking; the elec- trical condition of the cloud itself, as before observed, must have been mate- rially influenced, and this as it travelled onwards again influenced bodies in its more immediate neighbourhood as it passed them. In the observations more immediately before us, as well as in numerous others, we find that shortly after the rain began the charge became negative. That the cloud disturbed the usual electrical condition of the conductor is very evident from the observations, and it is to be presumed that, at the time the high positive charge was communicated to the conductor, the heavy rain was falling, although it had not arrived at the observatory ;—in other words, that portion of the cloud in which the diminution of temperature was so great as to occa- sion the rapid formation of rain, and thus alter the electrical condition of the cloud itself, was yet at some distance from the observatory. There might pos- sibly have been at this moment éwo bodies reciprocally acting on each other electrically—the body of falling rain and the cloud; and it may not be at all improbable that it is the actions of these bodies, the one on the other, that influence our conductors, and give rise to the sudden and extensive changes often recorded on the occurrence of squalls of rain, hail and snow. ‘The di- ae ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 191 minution of temperature in the present instance at Greenwich was 15° in 26 minutes, but nothing further than the fall of a fine shower of rain occurred ; probably the path of the heavy rain did not cross the Greenwich Observatory, although the instruments there were influenced, (™) June 18, 1844,—This thunder-storm, which exhibited very interesting phzenomena at Kew, did not extend eastward so far as Greenwich; neither thunder, lightning, rain, nor any affections of the electrical instruments were observed there; the only record at all bearing on the subject is one that in- dicates the presence of cirro-stratus. During the whole time the sky was sompletely overcast at Greenwich. As illustrating the rapid succession of phenomena on these occasions, as well as some of the suggestions in the preceding note, it may not be uninteresting to subjoin the entire record of the observations at Kew. TaB_eE XCIV. Phzenomena of a Thunder-storm observed at Kew on June 18th, 1844. Time Pheenomena. Tension. Spark. Wind. hm ° in. 3 40 p.m.*| Rain beginning .......sceesssseseeeness Henley 22 P. ..1...Jecs..ecnneee Ss. oi Cd ee Rede ecgean acted ceesnncesass Henley 40 P. ...... 0-300 S. BRM Ys “lerp ces sinpcacscctocsnesaverseecceebeswasess’ Henley 50 P. ...... 0400 S. 3 55 p.m. | Distant thunder............-seseeeeee- Henlen/ PayPrinks sae tia S.S.E. 4 Op.m. | Distant thunder...o. seers Henley 5 Ni, .cssssloscecesvoess 8.S.E. RNR RT ALAS DD) liisagnissaoniss $3 sandeep s¥snien of Henley 60 N. (a)...|...-00-000 S.S.E. 4 4p.m. | Distant thunder; no rain............ Henley 65 P. (d)...| escesssseee s. 4 8p.m. | Distant thunder; no rain............ Henlev 60 N. ......]...cceeseeee 8. 4 10 p.m. | A few drops of rain ......ccee ee eeee ee Henley 59 N. ......Jeesseseeee 2 s. Beda pas) Al flash fie seits cede eesccedssessenevses Henley (ce). 415 p.m. [A flash $ ....cc.ccceeeceeeeeesenseeeee ones Henley 60 N. (d). |4 21 p.m. | Distant thunder; a little rain ...... Charge gradually fallling. : 4 24 p.m. [A flash ....c..cessceessceccaceeeneeses No effect on electro/meter. ...| $.S.W. 4 27 p.m. | Rain increasing ...............eceeeeeee Volta 10 Po oo... face ssseeenes 8. 4 34 p.m. | Heavy rain ....ee..cceececee renee neers Henley 35 P.(e)...| 0°300 S. 4 35 p.m. | Heavy rain ...scccscseessesesenureesenees Henley 40 P. ......) 0°350 | 4 47 p.m. | Sudden fall and gradual rise of elec|trometer. 4 51 p.m, | Heavy rain.....ccccsecsessccscsreeneces Volta 7N....... aeancAnaa S.S.W. Bd) Op.m. | Heavy rBit.......ccscccsssucesscerencenee Henley 5 N. ......Jeccseesseeee 8.5. W. 5 4p.m. | Heavy rain and distant thunder ...|Henley 20 N. (/). Prrbeperoy WING TAIN, Foats.s Jose scseces wnyeochivccs Herleyr D7 Ni) 5 < ssip] chive sn seh se S.E. 5 30 pom. | No rain .......csececeseceennee speeay cnr Henley 15 N. ...0..|ecesesssnens S.E. 5 37 p.m. |Norain ......... sole lee haber Segeeiaes Molta: SON. ss. catlgerseegeacce S.E. PRO Tere | NOGA... ve cseacassvenscinareesayeesess Woltagt Ober ccccralrcaseesaccad S.E, The following notes by the writer of this report may probably assist in more distinctly particularizing the principal features of the above-recorded phenomena. ‘The references are in letters of the italic alphabet. _ (a) The occurrence of the flash and the increase of the negative tension may indicate the approach of the cloud as well as the formation of rain. It would appear that from 3° 40™ to this time, 22 minutes, rain had been falling, but not such as to lead the observer to record it as heavy. (6) The maximum tension ; rain had ceased, but great oscillation of the charges existed. (e) This flash appeared to exert a momentary influence on the conductor; the tension was slightly declining, but increased after its occurrence. _ * At 3> 35™ p.m. distant thunder and lightning, Volta at 50° pos. heard at 3 p.m. + Henley fell from 55° to 20°, and quickly rose again. t No effect on the electrometer, a Distant thunder was 192 REPORT—1849. (d) This flash appeared to have no effect on the electrometer. : (e) The “ gush of rain” arrived at the observatory. It may be remarked that after this, thunder was heard but once, and in all the records it is de- scribed as distant. From the time thunder was last heard, 42 21™ p.m., the charge had gradually fallen to Volta 10 div. P. The highest tensions were ob- served, not when the rain was heaviest, but when the discharges (at a distance) took place more frequently. It is probable that after the cessation of these discharges the “ gush of rain” came travelling on, being still accompanied by the causes of its production, and a corresponding oscillation of the tension occurred. (f) The increase of tension on the occurrence of the discharge is very apparent, as well as the gradual decline afterwards, notwithstanding the ces- sation of rain which occurred within the next 11 minutes. (") July 1, 1844.—As the records of this storm have already appeared in the volume of Reports for 1844, page 134, we shall not further introduce them to the reader. On a careful consideration of the record it will be found that the storm may very naturally be divided into three sections, viz. the period of heavy rain previous to the electrical discharges; the period of the discharges themselves ; and the period of rain succeeding the discharges, a portion of which was heavy. ‘he times are as follows :—first period 5" 30™ P.M. to 54 55™ p.m. inclusive=25 minutes ; second period 55 56™ p.m. to 65 24™ p.m. inclusive—2Z9 minutes; third period 62 25™ p.m. to 74 50™ P.M. inclusive=1 hour 26 minutes. We have in the first period a decided instance of heavy rain, characterized on one occasion as very heavy, being in advance of the actual thunder-storm. During the second period neither ¢hunder nor heavy rain, except on one occasion, appear to have been noted: it is however to be presumed, as we shall have occasion hereafter to notice, that from the fre- guency and character of the flashes they were accompanied by both, and the probability is, that during the exhibition of the lightning the rain that fell was much heavier than that in either the preceding or succeeding period. In the third period the heavy rain continued about half an hour. The values of the tensions having reference to these periods are interesting. ‘The mean of the tensions recorded during the first, without having regard to kind, is 32° of Henley; that of the second 48° of Henley ; and that of the third 27° of Henley, or during the heavy rain only, 33° of Henley. The connexion between the high tensions and the electrical discharges from the cloud is very apparent; also the mean values of the tensions during each period of ' the heavy rain indicate a certain relation between them. The entire phe- nomena strongly suggest the existence of an axis characterized by the active development of strong electric action ; the tension of the cloud and probably that of the rain being so enormous that frequent discharges took place to restore the equilibrium. This axis occupied about half an hour in passing the observatory. It is probable the strong action going on in the centre was communicated to a zone of nearly the same breadth in all its parts, in which the principal phenomenon was ¢he rapid formation of rain unaccom- panied by electric discharges. In connexion with this it may be remarked that the third period may be subdivided into two, the first characterized by heavy and the last by light rain; the duration of the first was, as we have already noticed, 30 minutes, namely from 6" 25™ p.m. to 65 55™ p.m. inclusive, and this may probably be regarded as the true termination of the storm. The three periods,—viz. preceding heavy rain; actual thunder-storm; and succeeding heavy rain—do not differ very considerably in duration from each other. The first = 25 minutes, the second =29 minutes, and the third = 30 iB} ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 193 minutes. - It is also to be remarked, that at the commencement and termi- nation of the second, oscillations in the kind of tension occurred, the tension at the occurrence of the first flash being positive 60° of Henley, and that at the last also positive 50° of Henley: the intermediate tensions were negative. Oscillations also occurred during the periods of heavy rain. At Greenwich the same storm was observed, the clouds recorded being cirro-stratus and scud. It appears to have commenced at 5" 49™ p.M., at least so far as the affection of the instruments is concerned; the record is as follows :—[“ This storm first rose in the N.W.; it then passed round to the north, and afterwards to the east, as also did the wind; at 5" 50™ there was a vivid flash of lightning, followed by thunder at the interval of seven seconds; at 54 55™ there was another very bright flash, and thunder followed at an interval of two seconds ; this was a long peal, the crackling continuing from 45° to 59%. Several flashes of lightning took place between 6" and 65 15™, followed by thunder at intervals of one, two and three seconds. Between 62 and 62 20", 0°78 inch of rain fell at Mr. Glaisher’s residence ; -after this time the lightning ceased ; the rain however continued, but not so heavily.” —G. ] From this record it may be gathered that the first flash of lightning oc- curred at 5" 50™ p.m., being six minutes earlier than the occurrence of the first flash at Kew; it is described as very vivid, and followed by thunder at the interval of seven seconds. The second flash, which was very bright, occurred at 5" 55™ p.m., one minute earlier than the first at Kew; it was evidently much nearer than the first observed at Greenwich, the interval being two seconds. Between 62 and 6" 15™ p.m. several flashes are recorded, the point of discharge being upon the whole nearest to the observatory during this quarter of an hour. During the same period six flashes were registered at Kew, from four of which sparks were obtained, the longest being 0-4 inch ; it occurred at 6" 5™ p.m. This quarter of an hour was evi- dently the period in which the focus of the storm passed both observatories, and during the twenty minutes between 6? and 6" 20™ Mr. Glaisher registered 0°78 inch of rain at Blackheath. It is this circumstance to which we wish to refer in connexion with the azis of the storm, it being evidently accom- panied at Blackheath by a great precipitation of rain. Less rain appears to have fallen at Greenwich, about half an inch having been registered during the twenty-four hours from 95 20™ a.m. of July 1 to 9" 20™ a.m. of July 2. During the storm changes of tension occurred, the maximum tension being 30° of Henley and the longest spark 0:23 inch. (°) July 5, 1844.—Between 11" 18™ a.m. and 1" 15™p.m. a thunder-shower passed over the observatory at Greenwich. Positive and negative electricity were exhibited ; heavy cumulo-strati covered the sky until 11" 55" a.m., when heavy rain began to fall and thunder was heard in the N.W.; max. tension 10° of Henley ; sparks max. length 0°13 inch. During this time the weather at Kew is registered “fine but cloudy,” but at 1" to 1> 5™ p.m. a heavy shower of rain is recorded, which does not appear materially to have affected -the instruments. Between 4" 0™ p.m. and 45 46™ p.m. changes are again recorded at Green- wich with rain falling; the electricity was negative until 4" 12™ p.m., when itsuddenly became positive, max. tension observed 120 div. Volta (2). Du- ring the whole of this time the charge was negative at Kew. (®) August 8, 1844.—There can be but little doubt that the fine rain at a distance observed at Kew at 1" 26™ p.m. is the same shower that fell at Greenwich at 1 35™ p.m.; the only link in the chain of evidence required to identify it is the direction in which the fine rain was seen from Kew; both 1849. oO 194 REPORT—1849. conductors were affected almost simultaneously. If the shower seen at Kew and the one that fell at Greenwich be the same, we have another instance of the cloud being the common origin of the electricity exhibited at the two observatories *. It has already been remarked, that one of the most prominent results of the arrangement constituting Table XCII. is the almost constant accompaniment of rain in a falling state when the conductor exhibits a negative charge, and it is to be particularly noticed that this is in striking contrast with the condition of the atmosphere surrounding the conductor when high charges of positive electricity are exhibited, the tension not being in a state of oscillation. In both cases the conductcr may be said to be surrounded by moisture, but the conditions of this moisture are extremely different. In the case of high positive tension such as we have described, the moisture is not in the liquid state ; and even if it may be said to be in contact with the surface of the con- ductor, yet it has not passed beyond the form in which it exists as cloud ; the conductor under such circumstances may be considered as penetrating the cloud ; and bringing to us the electricity of the cloud itself. In the case of falling rain, the conductor is situated below the cloud, the drops impinge on it, and it is evidently a matter of question whether its indications are those of the electricity of the rain, or of a state induced in the conductor by the proximity of the cloud. A note appended to the description of instruments at Kew (Report 1844, page 124), relative to Henley’s electrometer, appears to lead to the conclusion that the latter is the case :—“ The oscillations of the index between the 30th and 35th degrees, sometimes during a heavy shower, plainly show that the electricity of the conductor is washed off, as it were, as fast as brought.” By the electricity of the conductor being washed off, as it were, it would appear that the electric state induced in the con- ductor was momentarily conveyed from it by the falling rain. In connexion with this, we must bear in mind that all rain is not accompanied by negative electricity, nor on the other hand is the negative charge always accompanied by rain. In those instances in which negative electricity has been observed without rain, the state of the weather is printed in italics in Table XCII., and in such cases the presence of cloud alone has been the accompanying phe- nomenon at the Kew Observatery ; nevertheless on some of these occasions heavy rain has fallen at Greenwich. If therefore negative electricity should be, as it appears to be, connected with cloudiness, it ought to present a * Tt is a remarkable circumstance and one demanding further attention, that most of the thunder-storms recorded in the foregoing pages passed more or less to the north-west of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. .We give the following as illustrative of this remark :— August 4, 1843....... N. and N.W. August 15, 1843. ...... N.E., S.E., N.W. June 10, 1844. ...... N.W. July 1, 1844,............ N.W., N., E. July 5, 1844.......... N.W. To these instances we may add that of the remarkable thunder-storm which passed over London on July 26, 1849. In the meteorological observations furnished by the Astronomer Royal, and published in the weekly report of the Registrar-General, it is thus noticed :— “From 1" till 4" p.m. a violent thunder-storm, chiefly situated to the north; the flashes of lightning were vivid and in quick succession, followed by loud thunder at intervals of 15 to 20 seconds generally.” The storm passed over London from §.W. to N.E., striking several buildings in its passage. During the continuance of the storm at Greenwich the electrical tension was strongly positive for a period of two hours and a half, viz. from 1" to 35 30™ while the storm raged in London; at other times, the observer writes, the tension was strongly ne- gative, with frequent constant volleys of sparks and galvanic currents. From the above it may be inferred that London is more particularly exposed to the effects of thunder-storms, most of them passing over the immediate neighbourhood of the metros polis, ae sa So WARES y 2 . ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 195 diurnal period more or less in harmony with it. We have already remarked, that the record of negative exhibitions does not furnish us with sufficient data previous to 1845'to determine the diurnal period ; nevertheless a synop- tical arrangement of the hours included in the entries under the head “ Limits of Time,” furnishes us with an approximation to such a period—at least so far as the time of occurrence of negative charges is concerned. The following table, which is deduced immediately from Table XCII., exhibits the number of times negative charges (more or less) were observed between August 1843 and December 1844, both inclusive, between the hours specified, making in the whole 231. TABLE XCV. Number of readings of negative electricity between the hours specified, from August 1843 to December 1844. Between g F g E afi]. 4 2 aldigia|elelSiclaldidisialalela|4i= Sl alalaloltiz isl alalaiafajalalaisia © [es foo Jor | | fag | B18 [o> [ost te [0 fe [oO IIa B fees | fos |e |S |S] S les [acs [os [a fos Jo fea | le || B 2D RD [ES JOD |S> |S Jr [0 [em [eH fad [0 [ES ]00 Jo [| 1} 5 | 9 |11)10)11)22)21/21)17|23)22)14)12)13)10) 7 | 2 |231 It appears from this table that during the seventeen months negative elec- tricity was not observed earlier than 5 a.M.: at the commencement of the series the numbers are small, but they increase gradually until 11 A.M., im- mediately after which hour they are doubled as compared with the preceding three hours. This value slightly decreases until between 2 and 3 P.Mm., and is again augmented between 3 and 4.p.m. A sudden diminution occurs be- tween 5 and6 p.m. The numbers from 5 P.M. to 8 p.m. are rather higher than those from 8 a.m. to 11 A.m., and Jate in the evening they are again few as at the commencement. The period of the day between 11 a.m. and 5 P.M. is particularly characterized by the more frequent exhibition of ne- gative electricity than either the forenoon or evening, and the ratio as com- pared with these periods is very considerable. It is remarkable that so close a correspondence as regards the development of negative electricity in the middle of the day should obtain in the series of negative readings previous to 1845 and during the three succeeding years (see Table III. page 117). It is perfectly clear that the greatest number of negative readings occurs about the middle of the day, and this of itself would suggest the great probability of the existence of a diurnal period in the exhibition of negative electricity. TABLE XCVI. Mean amount of cloud at each observation-hour, Gottingen mean time, _ as deduced from the observations of six years at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, and expressed in parts of the natural scale,—a sky completely covered with clouds being represented by 100. Mid.|2 a.m./4 a.m.|6 a,m./8 a.m,|10 a.m.|Noon.|2 p.m.|4 p.m.|6 p.m.|8 p.m.|10 p.m.| Mean. 196 REPORT—1849. Taste XCVII. Comparison of the negative readings at Kew previous to 1845, with those also at Kew from January 1845 to July 1848 inclusive, and both with the mean amount of cloud at Greenwich from 1841 to 1846 inclusive, at hourly and two-hourly intervals. rt A.M. P.M. M.}1)2)3/4/5/6)]7)8)9j1O/11)IN.}1] 2]3)4)5/6]7/8]9 {10/11 Neg....] ... Jese[e-sJeeefeee| 1} 5] 9)11]10/11)22/21/21)17/23/22)14}12/13)10) 7] 2)... Neg....| 8 |...|12).../12}...|18}...|34]...|56).../46]...|52).../55).../60).../38).../33]... Cloud .} ... }65].../67|...}69)...|70)...|71]...171)...]71].../69}...|56]...]62).../60}.../61 The numbers in these tables agree, so far as the general fact is concerned, in exhibiting a greater quantity of negative readings during a portion of the day which is distinguished by a greater prevalence of cloud. Dividing the day into two periods, viz. from 8 A.M. to 8 p.m. and from 8 P.M. to 8 A.M., we find that the occurrence of negative electricity is very considerable in the day as compared with the night. Inthe three years 1845 to 1847 (including also the first seven months of 1848), which furnish a comparable scale of num- bers with regard to the cloudiness, the proportion of night to day negative readings is as 2 to 5 very nearly. The same portion of the day, viz. from 8 a.m. to 8 P.M., gives,as compared with the remaining twelve hours, the great- est prevalence of cloud, the mean amount being about 68 hundredths of the whole sky: during the night the mean amount is 65 hundredths, or about three hundredths less. In connexion with this, it may be remarked that the greater prevalence of cloud is rather in advance of the development of ne- gative electricity: the period from 7 A.M. to 7 p.M., and vice versd, gives double the difference between the day and night cloudiness; the mean amount in this case for the day being very nearly 7 tenths, while that for the night is 64 hundredths, or about 6 hundredths less. The proportion of the negative readings is the same. From Table XCII. it may be inferred that on most occasions when negative electricity occurred, the sky was entirely covered with clouds; and this might suggest that it is not so much the general existence of cloudiness in the atmosphere that may be connected with ne- ~ gative electricity, as the presence of certain clouds—cumulo-stratus for instance, or more probably cirro-stratus, from its almost constant occurrence with negative electricity. ‘The remarkable changes that frequently occur from one kind of electricity to the other, often very suddenly, and at the same time very considerable in intensity, clearly show that at the time dis- turbances of no ordinary character prevail, and it may readily be conceived (in addition to the suggestion already offered) that different strata of cloud in different electrical states, operating on each other and on the earth, may very violently disturb the ordinary march either of the electricity of serene weather or of tle aqueous vapour ; and although these disturbances (taking them singly and considering the great uncertainty of their occurrence) may be regarded as purely accidental and obeying no recognized law of periodicity, yet should they result from causes which in themselves are not subject to mere accidental manifestations, but are the results of forces operating on the earth’s atmosphere in a definite manner—producing for instance a greater accumulation of cloud at one period of the day rather than at another, and giving rise to a well-defined march in the manifestation of the cloudiness of the atmosphere, within small limits it is true, but yet sufficient, from six years’ careful observation, to characterize the curve as that of a single progression ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 197 having an ascending and descending branch, the maximum occurring about 40 minutes before noon, and the minimum between 9 and 10 at night—then they must necessarily exhibit somewhat of the same subjection to the laws of periodicity which is characteristic of the causes themselves. That the diurnal occurrence of negative electricity is of a periodical character, the ob- servations of five years, viz. from August 1843 to August 1848, testify in a very unequivocal manner; and although its connexion with the general. cloudiness of the atmosphere may not be satisfactorily made out, yet it by no means follows that it may not be more immediately connected with certain classes of cloud ; for as we have determined a diurnal period in the cloudiness generally, it is not unlikely that certain clouds, the cirro-stratus for instance, may likewise exhibit a diurnal period, being much more frequent in its oc- currence at one portion of the day rather than at another. Upon the whole, the negative readings are obvious indications of considerable disturbances, and their occurrence in much greater frequency at a particular period of the day renders it highly probable that the disturbances themselves are of a sy- stematic character and subject to well-defined laws of diurnal periodicity. Negative readings from January 1845 to July 1848 inclusive —During this period 424 negative charges of the conductor were observed. Their distribution among the twelve observation-hours is seen in the following table, which also includes the mean value of the negative tension at each observation-hour, and the excess or defect of such mean as compared with the mean of the whole. Taste XCVIII. Number of readings, mean tension, and excess or defect above or below the mean of all the negative observations from January 1845 to July 1848, as referred to the twelve observation-hours. Sums Mid. |2 a.m./4 a,m.|6 a.m./8 a.m.|10 a.m.|Noon./2 p.m.|4 p.m.|6 p.m./8 p.m.|10 p.m.| and Means. 8 | 12 12 |} 18 | 34 56 46 | 52 | 55 | 60 | 38 33 424 div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. | div. 36°0 | 24°8 |109-4 |316-3 1938-6 | 566:2 871-7 [891-3 |907°6 |729°9 |721°9 | 870°2| 725°3 —~/-}-|—/+]/-{4+])4])4]/4])-] 4 689°3 |700°5 |615°9 |409-0 |213:3 | 159°1 146-4 |166-0 |182°3| 4:6} 3:4| 144:9] 725:°3 _ We have already alluded to the greater frequency of the occurrence of nega- tive electricity in the middle of the day, and have remarked that the period under consideration agrees with the previous seventeen months in this parti- cular. The line of mean tensions in the above table, in addition to the greater frequency of occurrence in the middle of the day, exhibits upon the whole period a corresponding increase of tension, particularly from 8 a.m. to 4 P.M., a portion of the day characterized by the greater prevalence of cloud (see Table XCVI.). The maximum occurs at 8 A.M., but. from the close approxi- mation in the values of the mean tensions at noon, 2 and 4 p.m., it can hardly be considered as the true inaximum of the diurnal period: it is to be remarked that only 34 observations contribute to its determination, and until a more extended series can be obtained, it must remain a matter of question. The mean tensions at noon, 2 and 4: p.M., taken in connexion with those at 10 A.M. and 6 P.M., present a well-rounded and very regular portion of a curve, which in the absence of further observations may probably be considered as repre- senting at least approximately the portion of the diurnal period of negative / 198 REPORT—1849. electricity from 10 A.M. to 6 P.M. At 8 p.m. the diminution is so exceedingly slight as almost to indicate a tendency to rise at that hour, and at 10 p.m. we have a decided increase: but in connexion with this, it should be borne in mind, that at one of the 33 observations contributing to its determination, the Henley’s electrometer read 70°; and it is easily seen that this high tension very materially influences the result, for if we abstract it, the mean tension is lower than that at 8 p.m. With regard to the mean tensions at midnight and 2 a.., the same remarks apply which we offered relative to the positive tensions at these hours (see pages 118, 119) ; they are for the same reason pro- bably lower than the truth, and indeed more particularly so in the case of nega- tive electricity ; for it is likely that when such electricity has been indicated by the conductor on other occasions than the eight and twelve recorded, it has exhibited much higher tensions than 50 div. of Volta No. 1. The remarkable difference between the values of the mean of all the positive observations for three years (66:9 div.) and of all the negative during 43 months (725°3 div.) is exceedingly interesting, as indicating at once the character of the moye- ments giving rise to the negative exhibitions, viz. disturbances. Fig. 19. Negative Electricity. Cloudiness. Diurnal Curves of Negative Electricity and Cloudiness. The annexed curves (fig. 19) exhibit to the eye the principal diurnal phznomena of negative electricity and cloudiness: 1000 divisions of Volta’s electrometer No. 1 are considered equal to two vertical divisions of the scale on which the negative tensions are projected ; eight hundredths of the scale of cloudiness being also considered equal to two of the same divisions. The points of the curve of cloudiness are placed about one-third of each horizontal division from the vertical or hour lines, the determination being at even hours of Gottingen mean time. The greater prevalence of cloud being in advance of the exhibition of negative electricity, which we noticed when treating of the frequency of its occurrence in the middle of the day, is very striking in the curves before us, which show that the same phenomena obtain in the comparison of the two, whether we regard the occurrence or the value of the tension of negative electricity. There is also another feature which ought not by any means to be overlooked ; it is the similarity in this respect that exists between the curves of negative electricity and cloudiness, and those of the annual period of positive electricity and humidity (see page 153). In. _— ¥ ON ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS AT KEW. 199 both instances the cloudiness and humidity precede the electricity, and strongly indicate that whatever relation may exist between the development of positive electricity and humidity on the one hand, and that of negative electricity and cloudiness on the other, such relations are not only likely to be of a very constant character, but that a similarity exists between the two sets of phe- nomena which goes far to show that the nature of their connexion, if any, ~is also similar ; the one, viz. positive, principally indicating, as we have before remarked, the electric tension of aqueous vapour; the other, viz. negative, the electrical disturbances produced by the sudden precipitation of this vapour when existing as cloud. It would greatly contribute to our knowledge of this part of our inquiry, ifsystematic and comparative observations were instituted at different observa- tories, on occasions of electrical disturbances, of a somewhat similar character, but of course considerably varied in their details, to those adopted on the oc- easions of magnetic disturbances. A principal feature in such observations should be ¢he observation of the electrometers at regular but small intervals of time during the continuance of the disturbance, so that curves of the variations of the instruments might be readily projected at any time afterwards. Pro- vision should also be made for noting the precise instants at which particular and striking phenomena occurred, such as lightning, thunder, a change in the hind of electricity, the commencement of rain, the commencement of heavy rain, the termination of rain either light or heavy, also the same phenomena as re- gards hail or snow. A rain-gauge should also be kept for these particular phenomena ; it should be of such a construction as to admit of its being fre- quently read during the continuance of the disturbance; and its indications should be noted at sufficiently short intervals to afford data from which a curve could be constructed by which the eye could readily judge of the light- ness or heaviness of the rain by the amount precipitated within the interval fixed on. Observations of the kind just alluded to should by no means be confined to the more striking exhibition of electrical phenomena, such as thunder-storms, &c., but upon the slightest.indication of a disturbance they should be immediately resorted to; even on the positive tensions ranging higher than usual, the shorter intervals of observation may with great pro- priety be adopted, if it should be only for the purpose of securing on such extraordinary occasions the epoch of maximum; and in all instances that it may be deemed advisable to resort to them, they should be continued while there is the least indication, either from the appearance of the sky or from - the instruments, of the existence of the disturbance, and in fact until the ob- server is perfectly satisfied that it has ceased. It may be well to remark, that electrical disturbances appear to be very confined in their effects, extending over but a comparatively small portion of the earth’s surface. Mr. Matters Report On the Facts of Earthquakes does not appear, as in- tended, in the present Volume, in consequence of the manuscript having been delayed by the author, pending his researches in foreign libraries, until too late for the period fixed for publication. The Report will appear in the Volume for next year. 1 A UO he | een hand! RP on i sia + : NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF COMMUNICATIONS BRITISH ASSOCIATION ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, BIRMINGHAM MEETING, SEPTEMBER 1849. ADVERTISEMENT. Tue Eprtors of the following Notices consider themselves responsible only for the fidelity with which the views of the Authors are abstracted. iii CONTENTS. —=>>—— NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. a / P. Mr. J.C. Apams on the Application of Graphical Methods to the Solution of sr a certain Astronomical Problems, and in particular to the Determination of the Perturbations of Planets and Comets............cscsccececsseeeeeceeees Beencietene Mr. Henry Buvunt on a Model of the Moon’s Surface............. ane eaapeaenine ces Sir W. Hamizton on some new Applications of Quaternions to Geometry .., Mr. J. P. Jouve on the Heat of Vaporization of Water............eecesesssees Hpncee Rey. Prof. PowExu on De Vico’s Comet .........000008 Seagcanscdscmevssse’sevopes rte on a new Equatorial Mounting for Telescopes ...... Rose Mr. Rosert Rawson on the Friction of Water.......cscssessrseeceereeee srartngrares on Elliptic Integration........,...s006. ResnsccanseeenaerGe trae on the Oscillations of Floating Bodies ............scsceseee _ Sir Davin Brewsrer’s Description of'a Binocular Camera............sseceeeeeees ——————— Improvement on the Photographic Camera ............ on a new form of Lenses, and their Application to the Construction of two Telescopes or Microscopes of exactly equal Optical Power Notice of Experiments on Circular Crystals ............ Additional Observations on Berkeley’s Theory of Vision — Account of a new Stereoscope......... aebabeas a oeccneserste Lorp Brovenam’s Experiments on the Inflection of Light.........ssssssssseeeees _ Mr. J. A. Broun on the Diurnal Variation of Magnetic Declination and the Annual Variation of Magnetic Force...,..ecesesesseseees wis hiedeeb ad side zhials aRev e dee _ Rev. H. M. Grover on an Orbitual Motion of the Magnetic Pole round the Beem bole of the Earth, osjapenaatl ded qasnick ic dia lotavn'nwats «isi ab tdeobbabacs cote cates Rev. Prof. Powziu on some recent Discussions relative to the Theory of the SME CL LTTE. sanisas Uaianssaanplpencninsohesnpnaiancestavéeiaoat PAT Lee Fey On Irradiation......ccssssseeee Rabie at Sits aati obs pub asnceatak aah a= Professor Sroxes on a Mode of Measuring the Astigmatism of a Defective Eye on the Determination of the Wave Length corresponding with evammintiof. the Spectrimn .aciaacltacshdeeiesicceiisssd.vsenpens os exes ace'es Lawes Professor Wurarstrone on Professor Quetelet’s Investigations relating to the Electricity of the Atmosphere, made with Peltier’s Electrometer ...........0e+« —_—. feet. WR. Brer on Shooting Stara vdessesss-sidessecessocesssensocsdctesecoastuasisunees _ Mr. Georee Buist’s Meteorological Phenomena observed in India from January to May 1849 (communicated by Colonel Sykes) ...:ssssessesseesoessees 1 1 1 iv CONTENTS. Rev. Prof. CHEVALLIER on a Rainbow seen after actual Sunset ......eesssseseees Mr. T. Horxins’s Notices of Mirage on the Sea Coast of Lancashire ......... Sir Rosert H. Ineuts’s Letter to Col. Sabine ..........4. snecacedoan wees cacigneenes a Dr. Joun Lee on Meteorological Observations made at Kaafjord, near Alten, in Western Finmark, and at Christiania in Norway ..ssss.ssesssesserecneeeverers Mr. T. Hopkins on the Means of Computing the Quantity of Vapour eka in a Vertical Column of the Atmosphere .....ssscosessccesscrssevsveetsneseecencssens Mr. EpwAkpD JosEPH LOWE on Meteors.........ssseeceeeseseee ake co Seen Casco ines ree Admiral Sir C. Matcoutm’s Notice of a Meteor seen in India on the 19th of last March......ss000 easenavesscnevewansnschieree saeaens Sataeeseaue vececsseesccasseses Mr. Foxiiett Osxer on the Results of certain Anemometers ...ccccssseseseseeees Mr. Aveustus PeTERMANN on the Temperature of the British Isles, and its influence on the Distribution of Plants...........sccecsseserenseccsceoees cntceet neg Mr. Joun Puttuips’s Contributions to Anemometry—The Therm-anemometer Rev. Prof. PowELL on Luminous Meteors...........secssesecsceesscecessssssseetensees Rev. T. RANKIN’s Meteorological Observations made at isegeate: Yorkshire.. — on a singular Atmospheric Wave, in February 1849............ ——__-——-—— on a Phosphoric Phenomenon in a Pond at Huggate, on June L1th, 1849 ...cccscccccccecesecscsove ee vcecccccenrvecene eeeececoes ncescecanes eecccccccccccce on Magnetized Brass...... So cadacsesduchiesass cn cnsacp eee: seme unmdocaee Mr. Georce Rusu on Observations of the Barometer and Thermometer, made during several Ascents in Balloons........ Mae ses cstastaana anceh oa see aaees asoejadecsses Mr. J. Scotr RussEtt on Recent Applications of the Wave Principle to the Practical Construction of Steam-Vessels........ ao bbe catens ap on eneanc em Cramer fod Mr. James Lartro’s Specimens of Incombustible Cloth..... ate ncantpes cna Baseseene Rev. Dr. THomson on Meteorology considered chiefly in relation to Agriculture Mr. Henry Twinrne on Teaching Perspective by Models .......ssecsecesseveesees CHEMISTRY. Mr. G. Bontemps’s Inquiries on some Modifications in the Colouring of Glass by Metallic Oxidesin cin: tiveness nn sasoenenoanecscasedaswsborocesence Mr. C. Brooxe on an Improvement in the pepe of Puategeagie Paper, for the purposes of Automatic Registration ; in which a long-continued action is necessary...... cohitevasee ne atgeeeenecraeen. Doe susWiapey idasteolcehsmdensshesseere Tere Mr. A. CLaupEt’s Researches on the Theory of the principal Phenomena of Photography in the Daguerreotype Process......... meres Toe Guiee cae sash caeaee ee Dr. Dz Vris on the Black Colouring Matter of the Lungs ......-.....+. ieceat aeNe M. Ese.men on Artificial Gems............ SCR ers OUCH opioGr Ae eeesiexe voceues Wier Professor ForncHHAMMER on the Formation of Dolomite ............sesesesseeeeee ———_————-— on a New Method of ascertaining the Quantity of Ormanic: Matter, ins Water crincismes sade sisievancaseveeweseuteeovsduscies abavciterss ce meNanee Mr. J. H. GLapstone on the Compounds of the Halogens with Phosphorus... Mr. Samvet Howakp on a continued spontaneous Evolution of Gas at the Village of Charlemont, Staffordshire ...........csscecsserecececseeeceeeees Jatenwemess Dr. Joun Percy on Copper containing Phosphorus, wit Details of Experi- ments on the Corrosive Action of Sea-water on some Varieties of Copper... Prof. W. B. Rogers and Prof. R. E. Rogers on the Decomposition and pial Solution of Minerals, Rocks, &c. by pure Water and Water charged with Carbonic Acid.,........ seas SORE LE LEE Pree cence wattage lecnateetaneess Prof. ScHRoETTER on the Allotropic Condition of Phosphorus.......s.sseeseeeees CONTENTS. Dr. Scorrern on the combined Use of the Basic Acetates of Lead and Sulphu- ’ rous Acid in the Colonial Manufacture and the Refining of Sugar ...... Stédeee Dr. A. Vaucxer on the Composition of the Ash of Armeria maritima, grown _ in different Localities, and Remarks on the Geographical Distribution of that Plant, and the Presence of Fluorine in Plants......... Poder eceketcwr =; mae aA 4 Mr. W. H. Watewn on a Form of Galvanic Battery.........1.ssssseeesesceeeeeceees Mr. W. Syxes Warp on Motions exhibited by Metals under the Influence of Magnetic and Diamagnetic Forces......ssscsssssesserecesseeterserssraceeseesesaaeaes on a Theory of Induced Electric Currents, suggested by " Diamagnetic PHENOMENA 4.0. eeccestesesscceccccastancsceusess Bececnbauiees SppaciEgaood on the comparative Cost of working various Voltaic Arrangements ....s...-..seesceeseecsensseseeeeesaeccneanenensscessceseueeeeeceesees Soadodhic Mr. W. West on the Presence of Nitrogen in Lenmdeval Waters.......008 Seeeie sate Mr. Grorcer WILson on the Presence of Fluorine in the Waters of the Firth ’ of Forth, the Firth of Clyde, and the German Ocean........s.ssseseessseeesenees Mr. F. C. Wrieutson’s Analytical Investigations of Cast Iron .........sesesceee GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Mr. Rosezrt A. C. Austen’s Notes on the Geology of the Channel Islands ... Mr. E. CuarLeswortu on some New Species of Testacea from the Hampshire Tertiary Beds .........0++00 aida tan Mp neeap cme nceasesns oecisn snes a sia Winiea scp pees enis Seis Mr. Joun Hoge on the Geography and Geology of the Peninsula of Mount Sinai and the adjacent Countries ......ccscccseccsssssccerscecccceccccssoccscscencscees Mr. J. Beers Juxes on the Relations between the New Red Sandcene the Coal-measures, and the Silurian Rocks of the South Staffordshire Coal-field. Mr. Isaac Lza on Traces of a Fossil Reptile (Sauwropus primevus) found in the Old Red Sandstone (communicated by Dr. Buckland) ....,..+0...0sse0 Ravers Dr. G. Lioyp on a New Species of Labyrinthodon from the New Red Sand- * stone of Warwickshire ...... Hi CaS PR c pec SnaA aes Ban anekaaiegeacaas Siena bir ns ania Seal onis Mr. Jonn Morarts’s Note on the Genus Siphonotreta, with a Description of a New Species (communicated by Sir R. I. Murchison) ...... des aga AgseasRee ea M. Barranpe’s Discovery of the Metamorphosis of certain Trilobites (commu- nicated by Sir R. I. Murchison) ........ Pear h sesso saay cctsatene sea socencsssincrns senees “Jl R. I. Murcutson on the Distribution of Gold Ore in the Crust and on the Surface of the Earth ............ Adder eat ascnsiaes vegdbedacustus ss Sesinensass naan toeeee Mr. C. W. Peacu on the Fossil Geology of Contwall maeenea mee eae ete Ranueeen Mr. Joun Pxant’s Notice of the Discovery of Beds of Keuper Sandstone con- taining Zoophytes in the Vicinity of Leicester...... Anne gceece teecsccccecccncscnenen Mr. Lovexu Reeve on the Discovery of a Living Representative of a ai ~ Group of Fossil Volutes occurring in the Tertiary Rocks ............0000+ wnaeheine Mr. Wittram Sanpers on the ee of the Saurians named Thecodontosaurus BAN PALCOSAUrUS....0.ccrorersssscevcecacaceccscsccctcccccccoscevsccsosees SGnrigedocuenacche THE DEan oF Miatenttaueate on the Cause of the general Presence of Phos- ' phorus in Strata and in all fertile Soils; also on Pseudo-Coprolites, and the Conversion of the Contents of Sewers and Cesspools into Manure ............ _ The Rev. D. Wittrams on an original broad Sheet of Granite, interstratified among Slates with Grit Beds, between Falmouth and Truro in Cornwall .... 49 52 52 55 56 56 57 58 60 63 64 Ga 65 67 - 68 vi CONTENTS. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. Mr. Rozert A. C. Austen on some Changes in the Male Flowers of Forty Days’ Maize .....e.ssseeeeeeee tenaseecerescscenesene nognnteedaceessareqsasoncbedepasuiipne ——— on a Series of Mag ealacient Cie cecal in Trifolium repens ...0++eeesescives cu eigaeerynnenctned Ripe aeecea> se -nacserpricas Croat rcp aap Prof. Buckman on Fairy Bins: with Sinica on some of the Edible Fungi by which they are caused .....s.cccsssssssoeereeeces paacns tt sataarenere 4 enldvls - It burns with a pale bluish-white flame, emitting considerable light and heat. Mixed with atmospheric air or oxygen, it explodes with considerable violence on con- tact with flame, or with the electric spark. As it issues from the pipe it has a moist or slightly musty smell, as of sticks partially decomposed, but after keeping for some time in stopped glass jars this is lost, and it becomes perfectly inodorous. When inhaled in large quantities it produces the same effects as hydrogen gas, but it does not appear tc exert any evil influence on the health of the inhabitants of the cottage, when diluted with a large portion of atmospheric air. On Copper containing Phosphorus, with Details of Experiments on the Corrosive Action of Sea-water on some Varieties of Copper. By Joun Percy, M.D., F.RS. Upon analysing a specimen of copper, to which when in a state of fusion some hosphorus had been added, it was found that it contained a considerable quantity of phosphorus, and also a large portion of iron derived from an iron rod employed in stirring the mixture at each addition of the phosphorus. The copper employed was of the “best selected”’—it appeared to be harder than copper treated with arsenic. The details of the analysis of 116-76 grains were given, the result of which was— Phosphorus......sseseseeesecees acres), COS Trt! 24. . Vos steaserteneeneess if. ivddevese? vod OD A second analysis gave— Copper! VinWisataed i645 205 00 A ciay) SFR TrOD) seas s.-scassudilaneo anne i eaetes sean 2:4) Phowphoride cw ie.wsy Wess ivied weedy ecdesen st) Bal 100-54 Tt has long been stated that a very small quantity of phosphorus renders copper ex- _’ tremely hard, and adapts it for cutting instruments, but such an alloy as that formed 40 REPORT—1849. by Dr. Percy has not previously been formed. It is a remarkable fact, that the pre- sence of so large a quantity of phosphorus and iron should so little affect the tenacity and malleability of the copper. The effect also of phosphorus in causing soundness in the casting of copper is interesting, and may be of practical importance. Some experiments were next described, made by Capt. James of Portsmouth, bearing on the ceconomic value of the alloy of phosphorus and copper. By the experiments made by Capt. James on the corrosive action of sea-water, it would appear that this com- pound was much less affected than most other specimens of copper tried. The re- sults derived from exposing measured pieces of copper to the action of sea-water for nine months were as follows :— grains, Electrotype copper, loss per square inch .......... 1:4 Selected copper ....--...0++ seed peh dave seaeed acer Copper containing phosphorus .....6..sseceeereeeee 0 Copper from the “ Frolic” .........ssccccesesseceeeee 1°12 Deckyard copper, No. I ...cessscsseeceesseesereeeeees 1°66 Ditto INOiei, ctecties Ursa teas dak? Gants . 3:00 Ditto INO(Aiessacdes cgedent denets dovewes come ae Ditto NO. 4 v.sesesssceresecsesseetsessres 23S Miantz/spmetalie.ce poeecsesudsecse «vonstune aide dante sec OD The results appear to be of sufficient importance to excite attention to the fact, and to elicit further inquiry, especially when it is remembered how important and ceco- nomic a desideratum it is to the Admiralty to diminish or prevent the corrosive effect of sea-water upon copper. On the Decomposition and partial Solution of Minerals, Rocks, &c. by pure Water and Water charged with Carbonic Acid. By Prof. W. B. Rocers and | Prof. R. E. Rogsrs, of the University of Virginia. In opening this communication, Prof. W. B. Rogers adverted to its important bear- ings upon the chemistry of geology, and the theories of the formation of soils and of the nutrition of plants. He referred to the comparatively isolated experiments of Struvé, Forchhammer and others, as being of tuo restricted a scope to furnish a basis for reasoning generally on the disintegration of rocks, the formation of chalcedonic, zeolitic and other minerals by solution, and the conveyance of inorganic materials into the structure of plants, It therefore becomes a question of importance, whether water pure, or charged with carbonic acid, possesses that general decomposing and dissolving power which some chemists have vaguely and without sufficient evidence ascribed to it, or whether this action applies only to the few materials hitherto tried, and which all contain an alkali. ‘ The experiments of the Professors Rogers were of two kinds; first, by an extempora- neous method with the tache ; atid secondly, by prolonged digestion at the ordinary tem- perature. In the former, a small quantity of the mineral in very fine powder is di- gested for a few moments on a small filter of purified paper, and a single clear drop of the liquid received on a platinum slip is dried and examined by appropriate tests before and after ignition. In the second process a quantity of the finely-powdered mineral is placed with the liquid in a green glass bottle and agitated from time to time for a prescribed period. ‘The liquid separated by filtration is evaporated to dry- ness inaplatinum capsule. The residuum is then critically examined, and, if in suf- ficient amount, is submitted to quantitative analysis. In both processes two parallel experiments were made, the one with pure aérated water, the other with water charged to saturation at 60° with carbonic acid. In the second process, correction was made for the alkali, lime, &c. dissolved from the con- taining glass, by making separate experiments in similar vessels without the mineral powders. 1. When the substance is very minutely powdered before mingling it with the liquid, even the first drops that pass the filter will commonly give a tache containing some of the alkali or alkaline earth that has been dissolved. In this way proof of the action of the carbonated water may generally be obtained in a few minutes after adding it to the powder. In the case of pure water the action is feebler and requires TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 4l a longer time, but with nearly all the substances enumerated it is distinct, and with some of them quite intense. 2. By an independent series of experiments to determine the effects of heat, which were made upon the taches of potassa and soda and their carbonates, and upon those of carbonate of lime and magnesia, as well as upon considerable quantities of these substances successively exposed in a crucible to the heat of the table blowpipe, it was found that the order of volatility was as follows :—potassa, soda, magnesia, lime. The tache of potassa disappeared almost at once, that of soda lingered some time, that of magnesia wasted more slowly, while that of lime remained with little altera- tion for a long time. Before heat was applied the tache of the alkalies or their carbonates would of course ‘be strongly alkaline. That of the carbonate of magnesia also presented a decided and sometimes strong reaction with the test-paper, while that of carbonate of lime gave a merely appreciable effect. But on raising the tache to a red heat, the car- bonate of lime, by escape of carbonic acid, would acquire intense alkalinity, the re- action of the magnesia ¢ache would be but little altered, and that of the alkaline taches would be almiost or entirely. destroyed. As examples of this distinctive testing and of the mode of proceeding in these ¢ache experiments, Professors Rogers gave some details, extracted from the large mass of unpublished results, and called attention particularly to the contrasting phenomena in the cases of Leucite, Olivine and Epidote; the first characterized by potassa, the second by magnesia, and the last by lime. Thus in the case of Leucite, the water tache and carbonic acid water tache were both alkaline, the latter very strongly so. But even gentle ignition for a few seconds, or strong ignition for a moment, was found entirely to dissipate the alkali. In the case of Olivine, the water tache was decidedly alkaline, and that from car- bonic acid water greatly more so. Ignition produced for the first second or two but little change, but its continuance caused a gradual diminuticn of the alkaline re- action, which at the end of ten seconds was reduced to about one-twelfth of what it was at first. With Epidote the tacke presented an extremely feeble reaction before heating. Ignited for a moment, the alkalinity was intense, and after ten seconds of ignition but little abatement of the alkaline reaction was discerned. 3. Referring to the second method of experimenting used by the Professors Rogers, viz. that of prolonged digestion in water or carbonic acid water, Profs. Rogers exhibited results obtained with hornblende, epidote, chlorite, mesotype, &c., showing that the amount of solid matter dissolved by the carbonated water in many of these cases is quite sufficient for a qualitative analysis, even when the digestion has only been con- tinued for forty-eight hours. When further prolonged, they have procured from the liquid a quantity of lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, alumina, silica and alkali, the dis- solved ingredients of these minerals severally amounting sometimes to nearly one per cent. of the whole mass. ‘ 4, In connection with the preceding investigations, the Professors Rogers were led to an examination of the comparative solubility of carbonate of lime and carbonate of mag- nesia in carbonated water. In the standard chemical and geological works the car- bonate of lime is stated to be the more soluble, and on this supposed fact is founded a common theory of the origin of the large quantities of carbonate of magnesia in the magnesian limestones. It was conceived that in a mixed limestone containing both the carbonates, the relative amount of carbonate of magnesia would be augmented through the more rapid removal of the carbonate of lime by the percolating waters, a that thus the mass would approach more and more to the composition of a do- omite, The experiments of the Professors Rogers demonstrate that in water impregnated with carbonic acid, carbonate of magnesia is much more soluble than carbonate of lime. Thus, by allowing the slightly-carbonated water to filter through a mass of magnesian limestone in fine powder, and collecting the clear liquid, analysis detected a much larger proportion of carbonate of magnesia in the soluticn, in comparison with the carbonate of lime, than corresponded with the amount of these substances relatively in the powdered rock. Again, by agitating briskly a quantity of the powder with the carbonated water in a glass vessel and then separating the liquid by filtration, it was 42 REPORT—1849. found that a larger relative amount of the carbonate of magnesia had been taken up by the solvent than of carbonate of lime. From these experiments the Professors Rogers infer that the infiltering rain-water, with its slight charge of carbonic acid, in passing through or between strata of mag- nesian limestone, will remove the carbonate of magnesia more rapidlv than the car- bonate of lime, and that thus the rock will gradually become relatively less magnesian, instead of being made to approach the condition of a dolomite, as is commonly main- tained. Professors Rogers called attention to the fact, that the stalactites in caverns of mag- nesian limestone contain only minute quantities of carbonate of magnesia. An exa-~ mination of those in Weyer’s cave in Virginia had proved that while the milky white opake stalactites contain a small but measurable amount, the sparry and more trans- parent kinds are almost destitute of a trace of this ingredient. It is evident that in such cases the carbonate of magnesia is carried off by the liquid below, and that such is the case seems to be confirmed by the fact of the large amount of carbonate of magnesia found in the springs in the immediate neighbourhood of the cave just named. 5. A fact of much interest noticed in these experiments is the comparative readi- ness with which the magnesian and calcareo-magnesian silicates yield to the decom- posing and dissolving action of carbonated water and even simple-water. This ex- plains the rapid decomposition of most rocks composed of hornblende, epidote, &c., without calling in the agency of an alkali, and it enables us to trace the simple pro- cess by which plants are furnished with the lime and magnesia they require from soils containing these silicates, without our having recourse to any mysterious decom- posing power of the roots of the growing vegetable. 6. In their tache experiments, the Professors Rogers ascertained that the powder of anthracite, bituminous coal and lignite all yielded a discernible amount of alkali to the carbonated water, while the ashes of these materials, similarly treated, gave no alkaline trace on the test-paper. This they think is at once explained by the high temperature at which the ash is formed, which by experiments already noticed is quite sufficient to dissipate any portion of alkali or carbonate originally present in the material. On the Allotropic Condition of Phosphorus. By Prof. Scnrorttrer of Vienna. This communication being already before the world in the ‘Annuaire de Chimie’ of Millon and Reiset, it is unnecessary to do more than briefly state the facts, which Prof. Schroetter illustrated by experiment. When phosphorus is exposed to light or heat, it is found that a peculiar change of colour takes place, and that although it under- goes no chemical change, a very remarkable physical difference is found to have ensued, The ordinary yellow phosphorus is highly inflammable. The allotropic red phosphorus was not ignited by friction, nor by those agents which acted energetically upon the common variety. On the combined Use of the Basic Acetates of Lead and Sulphurous Acid in the Colonial Manufacture and the Refining of Sugar. By Dr. Scorrern. Dr. Scoffern, after a few preliminary remarks on the anomalies which beset the colonial manufacture of sugar, stated the actual amount of pure white and crystalliz- able sugar existing in the sugar-cane juice to be from 17 to 23 per cent., and the amount of juice contained in the cane to be about 90 per cent. Of this amount only 60 per cent. on an average is extracted, and of this quantity only one-third part of its sugar is obtained, in a dark impure condition, instead of white and pure, as it might be extracted. ‘The operation at present generally followed in the colonial production of sugar involved the use of lime, an agent which, although beneficial in separating certain impurities and decomposing others, effects both these agencies at the expense of two-thirds of the original sugar. Various plans had been followed to avoid the use of lime; alumina in its hydrated condition had been employed, but with inconsiderable success. As a purifying agent the basic acetate of lead was known to be most potent, but could not be generally employed, owing to the existence of no efficient means of separating any excess of TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43 that agent which might remain. Dr.-Scoffern effects this separation by means of sulphurous acid forced by mechanical means into the sugar solutions. The process had been used for more than twelve months in one of the large British refineries, and a lump of sugar prepared by means of the operation was exhibited. The advantages presented by this operation were thus summed up:— 1. As applied to cane-juice, and other natural juices containing sugar, it enables the whole of the latter to be extracted, instead of one-third, as is now the case, and in the condition of perfect whiteness, if desired, without the employment of animal charcoal, Owing to the complete separation of impurities, the juice throws up no scum when boiled, and therefore involves no labour of skimming. Finally, the pro- cess of curing is effected in less than one-third of the present time; and the sugar being in all cases pure and dry, no loss in weight occurs during the voyage home. 2. As applied to the refinery operation, it enables the manufacturer to work upon staples of such impurity that he could not use them on the old process. It yields from these staples a produce equal in quality to the best refined sugars produced heretofore, in larger quantity and in less time. It banishes the operation of scum pressing, the employment of blood and lime. Finally, its cost is even less than that of the present refinery process. ‘On the Composition of the Ash of Armeria maritima, grown in different Locali- ties, and Remarks on the Geographical Distribution of that Plant, and the Presence of Fluorine in Plants. By Dr. A. Vaucxner. The presence of icdine in plants growing near the sea, and the absence of that ele- ment in the same species of plants growing in inland situations, have been noticed some years ago by Dr. Dickie of Aberdeen, who likewise found that in the former soda was more abundant, and potash prevailed in the latter. The author found Dr, Dickie’s observations confirmed by his own, and no qualitative analyses of the sea- pink (Armeria maritima) having been made, he analysed the ashes of specimens from three different localities, and cbtained the following results (the carbonic acid and sand found byactual experiment having been deducted, the result calculated for 100):— No. I, No. II. No. I1I. Bothy is sertapeeeates civ awetdeas 8°86 8°85 13:81 Bada) sites deserves Baths hDhanweas « 4:47 oT ee re Chloride of potassium ......... Beats 8:22 26°65 Chloride of sodium ............ 24:03 1 ee oe ae Lime ,..c.cccseseeces A babiavehaye ae 13°50 14:44 9:12 Magnesia ............ Bescpthas «. 10:98 11:95 4:28 Oxide of iron .....ceeeeseeeeees 7:92 6°83 6:62 ALUMINA cecceccsccecenceees are Le Ae eee artic Phosphoric acid .......e00060. 5°77 11:75 21:07 Sulphuric acid .....+...2c0ese00 7:92 8 68 7:33 Silicic acid ....,...seseseecesees 14°58 10°84 11:12 Todine ......sceeeereee tthe Mp COR. Sed ew an< Sits satis Fluorine ........ bee based oe . Traces. Traces. Traces. 100-00 100:00 100-00 No. T. was grown near the sea-shore, and washed by the sea-spray at high water. No. II. was grown on an elevated granitic rock opposite the former locality, No. III. in Mr. Lawson’s nursery near Edinburgh. Several observations are suggested by the inspection of the above results :— 1. The proportion of alkaline chlorides, as well as that of silica, in all three ashes is considerable. _ 2. The quantity of soda is more abundant in the ash of specimens grown near the sea-shore, whilst potash prevails in those grown on the rock. 3. Soda is entirely replaced in the ash of Armeria maritima grown in the nursery. 4. The larger quantity of phosphoric acid and potash in the ash of specimens grown - in the nursery, viewed in connection with the greater vigour and the somewhat changed natural character of the cultivated plant, appears to exercise a great influence on the natural character of Armeria maritima, * F 44 REPORT—1849. 4 5. Traces of fluorine, hitherto found in only few plants, were distinctly detected in all three ashes ; iodine only in specimens grown near the sea shore. The author then adverted to the geographical distribution of the sea-pink in Ger- many, and represented the above analyses as well-calculated to throw light on the causes which contribute to chain some plants to a particular well-defined geognostic formation, by showing that a soil deficient in soluble silica and alkaline chlorides, of which the sea-pink requires a considerable quantity, is unable to sustain the life of that plant. According to Schleiden, the sea-pink, found everywhere upon the arid sand- dunes of the northern coasts of England, is universally distributed over the sandy plains of northern Germany. In middle and southern Germany it is found only in a few places, and these are distinguished by their arid, sandy character; and curiously enough, we find that the Armeria maritima disdains the richest soils in its range of geagraphical distribution. Thus we find in northern Germany the granite, clay-slate and gypsum of the Hartz mountains, and the porphyry and muschelkalk of Thuringia, setting a limit to the 4rmeria maritima, and we meet with it only until we arrive at the Keuper sand plains in the neighbourhood of Niiremberg. In southern Germany it is found extending through the Palatinate, but neither on the Suabian Alps nor the whole alpine region is it found, and it appears at last again on the sandy plains of northern Italy. The fact that the sea-pink is not found in every sandy soil in Germany, sug- gests the idea that those inland localities where it occurs have been perhaps the bottoms of ancient lakes, and that the soil in these places will contain much salt. Jn England and Scotland the sea-pink is found universally on the sea-coasts, but with a few exceptions, we do not meet with it in inland situations. A remarkable excep- tion of this general rule of its geographical distribution in England is offered by the appearance of 4rmeria maritima on the summits of several mountains of the Scottish highlands. How does it happen that it does not occur in the lowlands and localities rouch nearer the sea? The author regretted to have been unable to procure the material for an analysis, which might probably have assisted him in throwing light on the subject; but expressed the hope to be enabled to examine the ash of specimens from the Highlands in the course of the current year, specimens having been pro- mised to him by Prof. Balfour of Edinburgh. In the meantime he communicated an analysis of dried specimens which he obtained from the herbarium of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, but for obvious reasons le does not put much confidence in the accuracy of these analytical results. The analysis however indicated likewise a considerable amount of alkaline chlorides in the ash of Armeria maritima from the Scottish Highlands. 4rmeria maritima is not the only marine plant which presents this peculiarity; several others, for instance Plantago maritima, are found under similar circumstances. Having had no opportunity of examining the localities in the Highlands where these plants occur, the author declined to enter on the theory of this peculiar occurrence, further than to ascribe an important share to the salt, which in the spray of the sea is often carried to considerable heights into the air, and which, it is not unreasonable to suppose, has been deposited again by the rain, par- ticularly in those places which are exposed to regular sea-winds, in such quantities as to answer to the requirements of the sea-pink and other marine plants. He con- sequently recommended naturalists interested in the subject to ascertain whether those localities in Highland mountains, where these marine plants occur, are exposed to frequent sea-winds or not, and to pay general attention to the meteorological conditions of these places. In conclusion, the author stated that distinct traces of fluorine had been detected in the three different ashes of Armeria maritima, and likewise in the ash of Cochlearia officinalis. In the ashes of Dutch Kanaster tobacco no fluorine could be detected, but as tobacco leaves are soaked in water when prepared for Kanaster, it may be that the trace of fluoride of calcium, if present, has been dissolved out by the water, fluoride of calcium having been shown to be soluble in water, to some extent, by Dr. G. Wil- son of Edinburgh. The simultaneous presence of silica in the ashes of most plants renders the detec- tion of fluorine rather difficult, because the methods hitherto known for tracing the presence of fluorine in siliceous mixtures are impracticable, in all cases in which we have to deal with traces of fluorine and large quantities of silica. By following a plan recommended by Dr. G. Wilson, the author was enabled to prove distinctly the TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45 Ld peice of fluorine in the above plants, and he is confident that other chemists, fol- owing the same direction, will find it in other plants in which it is likely to occur. On a Form of Galvanic Battery. By W.H. Wareny. The present form of battery has been the result of an attempt to combine the prin- ciples of the batteries now in use, and to avoid some of their present inconveniences. Its metallic elements are,—highly carbonized cast iron as a negative plate, and ‘zine, prepared in a way to be described afterwards, as a positive plate. The solution is formed by dissolving some of the cast-iron plates, intended to form the negative plates, in one part by measure of oil cf vitriol to eight of water, and when there is no free acid in the liquor, adding one-eighth of oil of vitriol. In the last battery made (one of 6-inch square plates) the zinc plates were prepared by dipping them in dilute sulphuric acid, to cleanse them, washing them well in water, then dipping them in a solution of acetate of lead, and drying the laminal deposit thus obtained over a charcoal fire; mercury, with a little dilute sulphuric acid being then rubbed over the plate, unites with the lead, and this amalgam with the zinc ; the excess of mercury is then driven off by second heating over a charcoal fire, and the plate is prepared. In the form which I have employed, the plates are fixed in a skeleton frame of wood, one-sixteenth of an inch apart, alternately iron and zinc, with glass plates be- tween every metallically connected pair; the frame with its plates is then placed in a trough (of glass in this instance) containing the solution as made above. The quantity of electricity passing has been tested with two separate galvano- meters, and found to be half that evolved from a Maynocth battery, with plates of the same area, in a given time: this experiment has been repeatedly tried when the battery has been just put to work, and when it has been at werk with a galvanometer in the circuit a whole day. j One galvanometer was not very delicate, either in the mounting of the needle or the thinness and number of convolutions of its wire, being designed rather for the measure of large quantities of electricity, than to test the existence of a small amount. The other was extremely delicate in the mounting of the needle, and therefore could be depended on for its registrations; the current from a single cell battery, having a positive plate of 16 square inches active surface, and two negative plates of the same active surface each, passing through a wire one-sixteenth of an inch dia- meter, and 13 inch from the needle, immediately beneath it, deflected the needle more than 30°. __In estimating the quantity of electricity evolved from different batteries, Barlow’s theorem was used; viz. that the quantity of electricity passing through a given gal- vanometer is directly proportional to the tangent of the angle of deflection. It was observed, in testing the above single cell battery, that in every instance when the battery contact was broken, a small bright spark was visible in daylight. It has been remarked that the longer the same solution has been used in an active battery, the longer will the addition of a given quantity of sulphuric acid keep the flowing current of electricity constant ; also that the battery is much more energetic if it be left out of action, for a time equal to that during which it has been in ac- tion, immersed in water; it is also necessary that a considerable volume of solution should surround the plates. This battery is clearly a combination of the principles of the batteries known as Daniell’s, Smee’s, Van Melsen’s, Chevalier Bunsen’s, Sturgeon’s, the Maynooth, SchGnbein’s Inactive and Active Wrought Iron Batteries, and Robert’s. The following advantages peculiar to these.batteries, follow from what has been said above :— 1. Great strength of current both in intensity and quantity. 2. Constancy of action. 3. Protosulphate of iron in pure crystals, and pure carbon in fine powder as a sale- able residuum, also a sulphate of zinc. 4. Very great reduction in the current expense of batteries as well as their first cost, porous tubes not being used. 46 REPORT—1849. 5. The plates may be placed at the sixteenth of an inch, and even less, apart: an enormous acting surface may thus be obtained in a very small space, and an additional strength of galvanic current, owing to the nearness of the plates. 6. There is no danger of the boiling of the solution. 7. The plates once arranged in a suitable framing would not require to be disturbed for a very considerable period. Since the above was written, further experiments have been made, in order to simplify the method of preparing the zinc plates, and the following is the method which appears the best : ; After the plates are cleaned with emery, immersion in dilute sulphuric acid, and then in water, they are dipped into a mixture of about equal parts by measure of saturated solutions of chloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate) and acetate of lead ; they are then rubbed with a cloth and washed, and are ready for use. The superiority of this method of preparing the plates consists in the fact, that local action is entirely prevented, and they only require one preparation until they are quite dissolved ; they are not so liable to break as common amalgamated plates are, and are therefore able to be used as long as any metal remains. They are also more highly positive than common amalgamated zinc plates, On Motions exhibited by Metals under the Influence of Magnetic and Dia- magnetic Forces. By W.Syxes Warp. In the course of a series of experiments in relation to diamagnetism, I observed that the nature of the action upon many metals varied with the intensity of the mag- netic force; and I found that such effects were in accordance with the observations of Prof. Plucker, ‘‘that the diamagnetic force increases more rapidly than the mag- netic in relation to the power of the exciting magnet.” [ took considerable care in procuring specimens of pure silver, copper, lead, tin and zinc, and found that these assumed the magnetic or diamagnetic state according to the power of the magnet employed. I found a magnet of very moderate size and power sufficient if the polar pieces were brought near to eacl: other, and the metals, the subject of experiment, were in small discs and delicately suspended. My attention being particularly directed to the phenomena which Dr. Faraday terms revulsion, I observed that the direction of the revulsive motions changed when the magnetic or diamagnetic state of the metal was changed. When the polar pieces were adjusted within one quarter of an inch apart, and the disc of metal so suspended that one-half was without, and the other half between the polar pieces, another series of phenomena presented themselves. On developing the magnetic force, the disc moves as a pendulum, with a tendency to pass outwards from between the polar pieces; on breaking contact, the disc moved in the reverse direction, tending to pass within the polar pieces. Such motions are remarkable, in that the direction of them is alike in all metals. Such motions appear to result from electrical currents rather than from magnetic or diamagnetic forces; for on sub- stituting for the disc of metal a flat spiral of insulated wire, they were not produced ; but on using a similar spiral, but of which the ends of wire were in good contact, the like phenomena were observed as with a disc. On a Theory of Induced Electric Currents, suggested by Diamagnetic Phe- nomena. By W. Syxes Warp. The phznomena mentioned in the foregoing paper involve many points which cannct be easily accounted for according to the received theories of magnetism. Ampére’s theory may account for magnetic or diamagnetic phenomena taken sepa- rately, but not easily for the changes of condition which take place in the same metal, still less for the changes in the direction of the revulsive motions, particularly those which follow the sluggish condition of the metal under the influence of that amount of force by which the magnetism or diamagnetism are nearly balanced. It also appears that the induced or secondary electric current may be accounted for on the hypothesis that the current in the primary conductor effects a molecular TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 47 disturbance in the parallel or secondary conductor (such disturbance being in the nature of a magnetic affection), and that such disturbance correlatively induces the se- condary current, both when it is produced and when it ceases. This hypothesis is also in accordance with the fact that this induced current is only transient, and also appears the best explanation why the induced is not of equal duration with the indueing current. On the comparative Cost of working various Voltaic Arrangements. By W. Syxes Warp. The author stated that a series of calculations, founded on tables produced to the Chemical Section at Swansea, showed the efficient power of three generally used forms of battery, known as Smee’s, Daniell’s and Grove’s, would be equal when 100 pairs of Smee’s, 55 pairs of Daniell’s, or 34 pairs of Grove’s were used ; and that the expense of working such batteries, as regards a standard of 60 grains of zinc in each cell per hour, would be about 6d., 7id. and 8d. respectively. On the Presence of Nitrogen in Mineral Waters. By W. West, F.R.S. In this paper the author corrects the statement of Dr. Granville, in his ‘Spas of England,’ that the continental chemists do not find nitrogen gas in their analyses of mineral waters ; whence the Doctor infers either some extraordinary difference be- tween the spas of England and of the Continent, or some error in the experiments of British chemists. Mr. West showed, by quotations from many statements, prin- cipally of German chemists, that they at least, in many instances, state the propor- tion of nitrogen found by them, and that in those cases where this is omitted, the absence of nitrogen is not to beinferred, but only that they made no examination of the gaseous contents, beyond ascertaining the quantity of carbonic acid present. On the Presence of Fluorine in the Waters of the Firth of Forth, the Firth of Clyde, and the German Ocean. By Grorce Wixson, M.D., F.R.S.E. In 1846, the author announced to the Royal Society of Edinburgh the discovery of fluorine as a new element of sea water. He was led to search for it, after ob- serving that fluoride of calcium possesses a certain small but marked solubility in water, which explains its occurrence in springs and rivers, and necessitates its occa- | Sional, if not constant presence in the sea. The only specimens of sea water he had | €xamined before this summer were taken from the Firth of Forth at Joppa, about _ three miles from Edinburgh. He obtained the mother-liquor, or bittern, from the _ pans of a salt-work there, and precipitated it by nitrate of baryta. The precipitate, after being washed and dried, was warmed with oil of vitriol in a lead basin, covered with waxed glass having designs on it. The latter were etched in two hours as deeply as they could have been by fluor-spar treated in the same way, the lines being filled up with the white silica separated from the glass, The author has recently examined in the same way bittern from the salt-works at Saltcoats in the Firth of Clyde, but the indications of fluorine were much less di- stinct than in the waters on the east coast. On procuring, however, from the same place, the hard crust which collects at the bottom and sides of the boilers used in the evaporation of sea water, lie found no difficulty in detecting fluorine in the deposit. _ This crust, or deposit, consists in greater part of sulphate of lime and of carbonate of lime and of magnesia ; but it contains also much chloride of sodium, and the other soluble salts of sea water entangled in its substance. When sulphuric acid, ac- _ cordingly, is poured on it, it gives off much hydrcchloric and carbonic, as well as some hydrofluoric acid, and the latter is thus swept away before it has time to _ corrode the glass deeply. The author preferred, nevertheless, to use the crust _ exactly as he got it, that the proof of the presence of fluorine might not be impaired in validity by the possibility of that substance being introduced by the water or re- agents which must have been employed, had the chlorides and carbonates been sepa- _ vated from the crust by a preliminary process. The crust, accordingly, after being _ dried and powdered, was placed along with oil of vitriol in a lead basin covered by eh BNET OS = calle pire 48 REPORT—1849. a waxed square of plate-glass, with letters traced through the wax. A single charge of the crust and acid corroded the glass only slightly ; but by replenishing the basin with successive quantities of these materials, whilst the same plate of engraved glass was used as the cover, he found no difficulty in etching the glass deeply. The author is indebted to his friend Mr. S. Macadam for this simple but effective way of in- creasing the corrosion of the glass, which seems worth the adoption of chemists in all cases where fluorine is sought for. Four charges of material have been sufficient, with all the specimens of sea-water deposit he has examined, to mark the glass strongly. It was kept wet on the upper side, and exposed undisturbed to the action of each charge during twelve hours. Operating in this way, he has found fluorine readily in the beiler-deposit from the waters of the Firths of Forth and Clyde. It is a less easy matter to subject the waters of the open sea to the requisite concen- tration before examination. It occurred to the author, however, that the incrusta- tions which are periodically removed from the boilers of the ocean steamers would serve to determine the question whether fluorine is a general constituent of the sea. He made application, accordingly, at Glasgow and Leith for the deposits in question. Tt appears, however, that the deep-sea steamers which leave the former have their beilers cleaned out at other ports, so that he has as yet been unsuccessful in pro- curing crusts from the west coast of Scotland. He has obtained at Leith the crust from the boiler of a steamer called the ‘St. Kiaran*,” which trades between that port and Montrose; so that the greater part of the water consumed as steam by its en- gines is derived from the German Ocean, although a portion is necessarily obtained from the Firth of Forth. The crust from the boilers of this vessel was treated in the way described, and at once yielded hydrofluoric acid. A single charge, indeed, of the materials marked the glass distinctly, and four charges deeply. We may there- fore infer that fluorine is present in the waters of the German Ocean, for different portions of the deposit yielded it readily, and marked glass as deeply as the deposit from the water of the Firth of Forth did, which could not have been the case if the whole crust had not contained fluorine pretty equally diffused through it. It will be an interesting matter to have similar examinations made of the boiler deposits from the Transatlantic, and other ocean steamers which make long voyages; nor will it be difficult, where the crust is thick, to select portions from the interior of the deposit, which may be regarded as best representing the contents of the sea at a considerable distance from land. From what is known of the comparative uni- formity in composition of sea water, it may safely be inferred that if fluorine be present in the waters of the Firths of Forth and Clyde and in the German Ocean, it will be found universally present in the sea. In one of the interesting communica- tions which Prof. Forchhammer has laid before the British Association, he has shown that the more marked ingredients of sea water vary little over wide areas. One of the ingredients selected by this gentleman to mark the uniformity in composition of the sea, is lime, and as it is exceedingly probable that the fluorine in sea water exists in the state of fluoride of calcium, his observations may be referred to as in harmony with the inference that the element in question is generally diffused through the sea. Other proofs, however, are not wanting. Mr. Middleton, before 1846, came to the conclusion that fluorine must be present in sea water, since it occurred, as he had ascertained, in the shells of marine mollusca, Silliman, jun., without a knowledge of Middleton’s views, drew the same inference, from its invariable presence in the calcareous corals brought to America by the United States’ expedition from the Ant- arctic seas. ‘The author has found fluorine abundantly present in the teeth of the walrus, which points to its existence in the Arctic Ocean; and it seems so invariably to associate itself with phosphate of lime, that it may be expected to occur in the bones of all animals marine and terrestrial. The author has found fluorine likewise in kelp from the Shetlands, but much less distinctly than he anticipated. Glass plates were only corroded so far as to show marks when breathed upon. Prof. Veelcker also was kind enough, at the author’s request, to search for fluorine, when analysing the ashes of specimens of the sea pink * In the account of this paper contained in the Atheneum report of the meeting of the British Association for 1849, the name of the vessel was inadvertently called the ‘ Isabella Napier ’ instead of the ‘St. Kiaran.’ They both traded between Leith and the northern parts of Scotland, SA TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 49 (Statice Armeria), which had grown close to the sea-shore and contained iodine, and found fluorine in the plant, When all those facts are considered, it is not too much, the author thinks, to urge that fluorine should now take its place among the acknowledged constituents of sea water. He has entered at length into the consideration of the natural distribution of this element, and into other details connected with it, in a paper in the Transac- tions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xvi. part 7, and in a communication made to the Association at its Southampton meeting. The author further notices, incidentally, that the only ascertained plant, so far as he knows, in which fluorine had previously been detected, is barley, in which Will found it. In 1846 the author detected this element in American potashes, and it now appears to be one of the constituents of the kelp sea-weeds, although the observations which were made on commercial kelp are liable to the objection, that the fluorine detected might be de- rived from sea water which had dried upon the kelp weed before it was burned. The Statice Armeria may certainly be added to the list of plants containing fluorine, and so may the Cochlearia Anglica, in specimens of which obtained from the Bass Rock, and analysed in Dr. Wilson’s laboratory, Dr. Veelcker has also detected this element. Specimens of etched glass were shown to the Section in illustration of this com- munication. P.S. The specimens of etched glass sent, are seen to most advantage if placed on a sheet of paper and held in direct sun-light, or any other bright flame, so that the shadows of the grooves which form the letters may fall upon the paper. Analytical Investigations of Cast Iron. By F. C. Wricutson. This series of analyses showed the influences of the hot blast in producing the so- called ‘cold short iron,” by occasioning an increased reduction of phosphoric acid, and the consequent increase of phosphorus in the “hot-blast” iron. The respective per-centages were :— ; F I. II. TI. IV. Ve VI. ‘VII. Cold blast ...... wee 047 0°41 0:31 020 021 0:03 0:36 Hot blast ...,....+6. . O51 055 050 O71 054 0:07 0-40 The irons differed also considerably as to the state in which the carbon was con- | tained, the hard white iron resembling impure steel, containing nearly all its carbon in a state of chemical combination, whilst the carbon contained in the gray and | mottled varieties of iron was principally contained only as a mechanical mixture. The presence of sodium and potassium in all the specimens examined was also no- _ ticed for the first time, and it was thought probable that these might materially affect | the qualities of the metal. GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Notes on the Geology of the Channel Islands. By Rosert A. C. Austen, F.R.S. _ Tur object of the present short communication is not to give a detailed account of the mineralogical character of the various crystalline rocks which form so large a por- tion of this group, nor to lay down their topographical extent. The publication of facts of this class does not form any part of the objects of the British Association, and all that I would now attempt is a few general results, for the purpose of discussion, on One or two points in geological investigation, which these islands help to elucidate. The mineralogical constitution of Guernsey in particular, as is well known, was investigated by Macculloch, himself a native of that island. From the position of this group with reference to the coast of France, it is obvious _ that comparisons must be instituted rather with the formations of the Cotentin, than _ with anything on the English side of the channel. One great difficulty which every 1849. 4 50 REPORT—1849. one must have experienced in attempting to investigate the relations of the mineral masses of the Cotentin, arises from the want of natural sections, owing partly to the manner in which its surface is covered by heath and wood, and partly to superficial accumulations; a difficulty, which, though it exists to considerable extent in the larger islands of Guernsey and Jersey, is obviated hy the great extent of coast-line they present. The sedimentary rocks of Guernsey and Jersey are of inconsiderable extent; a small patch of clay-slate occurs in Rocquaine Bay, on the west of Guernsey, and larger areas are occupied by it in the north and north-east parts of Jersey: in the latter they are occasionally siliceous, and pass into subordinate beds of rounded con- glomerate. The whole of this group has been variously moved about, but its general slope as a mass is to east. These beds are evidently a part of the palzozoic series of the Cotentin, and closely resemble that portion of it which, consisting of alternations of compact sandstones and argillaceous shales, are well seen on the north and south of Valognes. The calcareous bands of the French series are altogether wanting, nor did I see any of those peculiar steaschist beds, with nodules of quartz, which in the neighbourhood of Cherbourg underlie the middle part of the group. Organic remains, if not entirely wanting, must be exceedingly scarce in these beds, in which respect they agree with that part of the French series to which I have com- pared them. No trace of any one of the secondary series of formations is to be found over these islands; the surface of the slate rocks has been much denuded, and the like process may have removed whatever newer strata may have at some time existed there ; but from certain characters which the new red sandstone and the cretaceous beds put on in their extension into the west of France, it is more probable that beds of that period never were deposited here. The geological interest which attaches to these islands consists in the relative ages of the crystalline rocks, which form so large a portion of their masses. A circumstance which cannot fail to strike any observer is the very great changes of mineral character which these masses put on, and within very narrow limits : there is, however, a three- fold division, which is apparent enough :— ; 1. A flat-bedded crystalline group, such as that which occurs over the southern half of Guernsey. 2. A granitic group, which includes a series of gray, red, and black granites. 3. A sienitic series, comprising a vast variety of combinations, in which, however, hornblende prevails. The first of these groups, as it is seen in Guernsey, is of great thickness, and though no topographical limits can well be drawn, it may be said to occupy all south of a line from Castle Cornet to Vason Bay ; it is in some places a true granite, at others gneiss, at others a true micaceous schist. It agrees with the next group as to the constituent minerals into which it graduates downwards. The true granites are to be seen over the northern part of Guernsey, nowhere better than in the quarries of St. Sampson’s parish. These latter, as a mass, underlie the first group, and their more massive external character, as well as more uniform cry= stalline texture, may be merely the results of cooling under rather different condi- tions; and the whole may be an intrusive plutonic mass of the same period. On the other hand, portions of the upper group irresistibly suggest the notion that at some time they must have existed as sedimentary strata. In the island of Jersey the true granites occupy the southern portion, and it is. only here that we see their relation to the slate series already noticed. As the slates ap- proach the granite, they become hard and splintery. At this junction enormous veins or branches extend from the granitic mass, as well as the most delicate threads; at places the slate rocks seem reduced to fragments, among which the fluid granite has poured itself, the angular edges being sharp and uninjured. The granite of this island puts on a character more closely resembling stratification than is usually seen; so much so, that in many places,’as for instance in the steep walls of rock beneath the citadel of St. Heliers, it might be, excusably mistaken for a mass of highly inclined sedimentary beds. These division& haye no general angle of dip, but are inclined most unequally ; they may be planes Of cooling which were once horizontal, and have acquired their present position by subsequent disturbance. The extreme smoothness of their surfaces is very remarkable. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51 In the red granites I observed one set of planes running nearly north and south, ‘with a dip to the west and a cross set east and north, and which had a dip north. Hornblende is not absent in the second group of crystalline rocks, as an occasional constituent; and in these cases, as in St. Sampson’s parish, it makes its appearance by gradual increase, and as it were by passage from one rock to another. The third group is quite distinct: the different appearances which it assumes, from the preponderance of one or other of its constituents, would cause it to be described mineralogically under a great variety of names. I noticed, however, a single dyke in the island of Jersey which in one place was an earthy hornblende (wacke), then com- pact greenstone trap, hornblende with distinct crystals of felspar; lastly, hornblende, with large plates of mica. The intrusion of the hornblendic series is of subsequent date to that of the granitic rocks : as to the period in the geological scale at which this took place, it would be hazardous to conjecture; they have broken up and been projected amongst the gra- nites, in the same manner as we have seen that the granites affected the slate rocks. A vast lapse of time must have been required for the cooling down of the fluid gra- nitic masses; yet it is evident that the whole of that structure of divisional planes was complete before the intrusion of the sienitic rocks; an illustration of this represented the dyke in every instance following one of these sets of planes. But for nume- rous other sections, where the granite is seen caught up in the greenstone in great angular masses, it might be supposed that the two rocks were arranged in parallel beds; instances of the subsequent date of the hornblende series is perhaps best seen in Jersey, but good examples are to be found in Guernsey. At several places in this same island is to be seen a deposit of fine sedimentary matter, conforming to the irregular surface of rock on which it rests. These accumu- lations have for afew years past been worked for the purposes of brick-making, so that good sections can be obtained. Their position is on the high table-lands of the south part of the island, so that at the time of their deposition the whole must have been submerged ; but besides this, the beds themselves would indicate a great depth of water. No fossils that I could ascertain have ever been met with. In one or two of the lower portions of this deposit, and where the sands were rather coarser, I detected fine sharp angular fragments of chalk flints ; and guided by many considerations which it would be needless to mention here, but which will readily suggest themselves to those acquainted with the geology of the south-west parts of France, it seemed to me that these beds might be outlying patches of the deep sea eocene period. The geological phenomena of these islands next in date are referable to sub-aérial conditions—the deep disintegration of the crystalline rocks, and the accumulation of the materials so produced. The thickness of these accumulations indicate a long lapse _ of time; they cover not only all portions of the larger islands, but are found capping _ the smaller groups of rocks which surround them: they come down to the present sea-level; they evidently, by their position, belong to a period when the whole of _ those islands had a much greater amount of elevation than at present. The old peat-beds and forest-trees of Catel parish belong to this period of sub-aérial _ conditions, as do also the submerged forests which run out from these islands at so many places, Vason Bay, Grand Cobo. The elevation of the whole of this group at this line was probably very consider- able. Up to a height of no great amount above the sea, the surface is covered by an ac- cumulation of sharp sand, with occasional lines of shingle; chalk flints enter largely into the composition of this. In the parish of St. Sampson it will be seen resting on _ the surface of the granite, as in many of the quarries; but it occurs equally on the sub- | aerial beds; the thickness of these accumulations is very trifling, and can only indi- cate a depression beneath the present level of very transient duration. In the Island of Jersey such lines of inland cliff as that which extends from Gorey southwards, at _ the base of which lie the ancient marine beds, covered along the sea-bord with blown —, would indicate a rather lengthened period of stability before the last change of level. _ Such is the series of physical change which this group of islands appears to have undergone; its geological history is simple compared with many other districts, but for the apparent fact that it should have preserved tracts as dry land through so many surrounding changes, and probably since the post-eocene period, . 4c 52 REPORT—1849. On some New Species of Testacea from the Hampshire Tertiary Beds. By E. Cuarreswortn, F.G.S, Mr. Charlesworth stated that the British Natural History Society had employed collectors to obtain fossils from the eocene strata of Hampshire, and that amongst the 20,000 specimens already obtained were seven new to this country :—1. A Cytherea with the external form of Jsocardia. 2. A Purpura? with a single prominent plait on the columella. 3. A Cancellaria. 4. A shell allied to Cerithium. 5. Murex tripteroides (Desh.). 6. Fusus excisus (Lam.). 7. A variety of Murex defossus (Sow.). Mr. Charlesworth remarked on the importance of investigating particular deposits, especially where there was any danger of good localities being destroyed, as in the case of the Bridlington crag. On the Geography and Geology of the Peninsula of Mount Sinai and the ad- jacent Countries. By Joun Hoee, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Hon. Sec. of the Royal Geograph. Soe. &c. In communicating a brief account of the geography and geology of the peninsula of Mount Sinai, and of the countries immediately adjoining to it, the author in the first place took a hasty survey of the chief’ natural features of the peninsula, beginning at Suez, and following the Sinaic coast of the Gulf of Suez as far as its south point at Ras Mohammed, and thence up the Sinaic coast of the Gulf of Akaba to its north extremity. 4 Secondly. From the Kalah el Akaba down the Arabian shores of that gulf, he de- scribed that region, the little isles of ‘Tiran, Senafer, and others which lie to the S. of Ras Furtak, and then the districts near Ain Uneh and Moweilih, on that coast of Arabia. Thirdly. Passing from Moweilih up the Gulf of Akaba, he gave some views of it, of the Wadi el Araba, and of the neighbouring mountains, as far north as the ruins of Petra. Fourthly. On the rocks of Petra the author offered a few remarks, also on Gebel Harun, and the mountains of the Nabathzan chain, those to the N.W. of Wadi el Jerafah, the great desert of El Tyh, the range El Egmeh, the Sinaic group, and Gebel el Tyh and G. Thughar. Fifthly. Starting again from Suez, he shortly noticed that east region of Egypt which is contiguous to the Gulf of Suez, nearly as far south as the supposed site of Myos Hormus, And, sixthly. In conclusion, he observed upon the general features, the heights of the mountains, the geological formations, the minerals and ores of the peninsula of Mount Sinai. The plain map that accompanied this paper was carefully reduced from a much larger one (which was also exhibited and coloured geologically), drawn and compiled by the author from the maps of Professors Lepsius, Russegger and Robinson (the last ex- ecuted by Kieppert at Berlin), and from the charts of the survey of the Red Sea, by Messrs. Moresby and Wellsted, under the authority of the East India government. For the purpose of keeping the map as clear as possible, and not crowded with names, those of the chief places are alone inserted. The Arabic, the classical and scriptural appellations are added. It was recently engraven by Mr. W. Hughes for the Royal Society of Literature, in order to illustrate the author’s previous memoiron Mount Sinai, now publishing in the forthcoming part of their Transactions *. Mr. J. Hogg also exhibited a copy of the same, which he coloured geologically, principally after Russegger’s maps of Egypt and the Sinaic peninsula, very lately executed at Vienna; but the latter he corrected in some places according to the de- scriptions of Burckhardt and other travellers who had visited them in person. An imaginary section, likewise geologically tinted, was described ; it comprehended the peninsula from Gebel Jaraf on the north to Ras Mohammed on the south. This the author himself enlarged, eight times, from a portion of a more extensive section, neatly engraved with the altitudes derived from Russegger’s work, by Herr Augustus Petermann. * See Second Series, vol. iii. part 2. pp. 183, 236. — cade = TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 53 Two other geological sections, which the author sketched and coloured, were also explained ; the first was a representation of the ‘Granite Peaks of the high Sinaic mountains,’ enlarged after Russegger; and the second was entitled, ‘Section of the Wadiel Araba, from the Gulf of Akaba to the Dead Sea, showing what portion is now lower than the level of the Red Sea.’ He likewise stated that the stoppage of the River Jordan through that Great Wadi (supposed to have once flowed through it) might have been effected by a volcanic agency, traces of which exist about the Dead Sea, and near the head of the same gulf. It is impossible in the limits of the present abstract to follow the author through his several divisions, wherein he carefully recorded the chief facts relating to the rocks, mountains, and plains, and the nature of the respective formations. But some of the geological characters, and the different formations of these countries, as far as they are at present known, are the following — I. Diluvium, alluvium, sand, marine formation, coral rocks, &c. II. Tertiary sandstone, upper Nubian sandstone, and oldest diluvium. ILI. Tertiary limestone and marl. IV. Limestone of the cretaceous series. V. Older sandstone, Nubian sandstone, and its marl (lower cretaceous series). VI. Unstratified or crystalline rocks; granite, sienite, porphyry, diorite, greenstone, felspar, gneiss, chlorite, hornblende, mica and clay-slates, &c. VII. Volcanic rocks; basalt, and basaltic lava. The distribution of these formations over these regions of Arabia and Egypt is briefly thus :— A large tract of beds comprised in I. occurs around the head of the Gulf of Suez and to the N.W., where exist the salt marshes, Szabegha. Then due N. a strip of tertiary sandstone and oldest diluvial beds, II.; next, a narrow piece of tertiary lime- stone and marls, III.; again a large extent of II., interrupted by a natrow belt of III. running N. and S., which stretches out N.E. nearly to 34° E. long. From thence the immense desert of El Tyh with its many plateaux of different elevations, bounded by Gebel el Rahah on the W., the Gebel el Tyh range on the S.W., S., and S.E., nearly to the line of 29° N. lat. consists of IV., limestone of the cretaceous formation, but covered in places by large tracts of sand, gravel, and flints. The western coast of the peninsula is I., about as far as Ras Soddur from the head of the Gulf of Suez on the W.; but tothe E., including more than half the range of El Rahah, III. pre- vails. Between that Ras (cape) and Wadi el Amarah, there intervenes an outlying piece of IV. From the last valley (Wadi) to about El] Hamam Faroun, III. again comes in, which continues a little to the E. of Howara. From Wadi Gharandel to the N. of Wadi Naszb and the well of Morkha, except along the sea-shore and the plain W. of the latter spot, which are of I., bounded on E. by Gebel Watah, and from thence to W. Naszb in a S.W. direction, IV. extends. From that mountain to Sarbut el _ Chadem inclusive, and from Morkha on the coast plain to the head of El Kaa, below Mount Serbal on the W., the sandstone (secondary), V., and its marls occupy that district. Gebel Araba range, near the sea, is of limestone, IV. ‘The long gravelly and sandy plain of El Kaa, which stretches out to the S. extremity of the peninsula is I., and more or less covered with pebbles and detritus of the primitive rocks, VI. Along the coast there follows a small chain, including the remarkable G. Narkus of -V., then succeeds G. Hemam, nearly as far as Tur Bay, composed of IV. Two patches of III. occur N. and S. of Tur; but that small town, the only one in the peninsula, stands on a raised coral bank and sand, I. South of Ras Sebil there is a little tract of III. ; and this reappears at Ras Mohammed; N.W. and N.E. of which _ low promontory some older sandstone, V., intervenes between it and the granitic roots ofthe Gebel El Turfa. East of Sherm, which is of V., volcanic rocks, VII., are seen, and crater-like appearances. hence north-eastwards, V., where an intermediate strip of IV. is found at Wadi Nubk. Along the Sinaic coast of the Gulf of Akaba upto Noweibia from Wadi Orta inclusive, VI. prevails; a little of V. occurring N.W. T at Dahab, and in the lower part of W. Sal. The unstratified or crystalline rocks, VI., range from the S.E. of Sarbut el Chadem, bounded by the S.W., S., and S.E. sides of the elevated sand plain of V., called Debbet el Ramleh, and from Wadi Romman, and the N. end of W. Firan, where it joins W. Mukatteb, along the eastern edge of El Kaa, to the S. termination of the El Turfa chain. Then N.E. of Wadi Sal, and N. of it to the northern branch of 54 REPORT—1849. El Tyh V. continues. Along the Sinaic shores of the sea of Akaba, from Noweibia, near which place is IV., the same extends northwards; somewhat to the west and north of this coast line, rocks of VI. and V. alternate, and occasionally with IV. ex- hibit many remarkable displacements; W. of the granitic Isle of Kureiyeh are black basaltic cliffs, VII., along the beach; then N. some breccia or conglomerate is noticed ; and afterwards granite rocks succeed. Ascending the Wadi el Araba, the mountains on the E. are of VI., chiefly porphyry with granite in places, to about 30° N. lat.; near which occurs the watershed, at about an elevation of 500 feet above the sea in that Wadi, the inclined bed of which, from the gulf to that point, is formed of sand and gravel and debris. Sandstone, V., and some chalky limestone, 1V., are met with on the W. side of the Great Wadi Araba. Those formations are elevated to about the level of the desert El Tyh, and in spots some- what higher. From about the line 30° N. lat. V. extends northwards beyond Gebel Harun and the ruins of Petra, both inclusive,—except an intermediate strip in Wadis Gharundel and Dalegheh running nearly W. and E., which is IV., and all along the E. side of this region, a lofty chain, attaining an altitude of perhaps 3600 feet above the sea, which the author termed the ‘ Nabathzan chain,’ and proceeds a great di- stance north—consists of IV. On the other, the western side of the valley of the Araba, and opposite to Gebel Harun (Mount Hor), the abrupt Gebel Makrah and the peak of Gebel Araif el Naka, or the ‘She Camel’s Crest,’ are likewise of the IV. formation. South of these begins “the great and terrible wilderness” of El Tyh, or ‘ the Wandering,’ which has been already noticed. On the east of the Nabathzan chain, as also of the granitic range of Mount Seir south of the line 30° N. lat., for a vast distance in the eastern desert, and to the S., the limestones of IV. extend. The mountains from Kalah el Akaba, the ‘Castle of Akaba, along the Arabian coast, are granitic, VI. At the promontory Ras Furtak is a low tract of IV. corresponding with that in the N. side of the opposite isle of Tiran, and with that in Wadi Nubk on the Sinaic shore. The coast then, south of the gra- nite mount Gebel Makna, in many places is of I., but between those and the granitic range behind Ain Uneh and Moweilih, the tertiary sandstone II. is, according to Russegger, again developed. Further inland, the sandstones, V., of the lower creta- ceous series prevail. Again, on the coast of Egypt, S. of Suez, Gebel Ataka, which is of the limestone IV., divides a tract on the N. and S. of tertiary limestone, III.; the plain El Baidea being of I. S. of this a very considerable district of the secondary limestone LV. follows. On the heights above Wadi Zafraneh on the N., a strip of granite, VI., takes place, wherein exist traces of old copper mines. Near the coast 8. of Ras Zafraneh, some beds of tertiary limestone and marl, III., and some conglomerate rock, are found. In the Eastern Desert, a little S. of 28° 30’! N. lat. and about 32° 30! E. long., there occurs some of the sandstone, V., of the lower cretaceous series, and called by Russegger ‘sandstone of Nubia.’ The mountains rising between that portion of the desert and the coast are for a great distance southwards primitive or granitic, VI. ; of these Gebel (iarib or Agrib is the loftiest; its summit being elevated to about 6000 feet above the sea level. Both N. and S. of it are observable remains of copper mines. \ The fossils of these tertiary and secondary formations have not as yet been suffi- ciently examined. Capt. Newbold states that he found among the many fossils of the limestone, 1V., Ostree, Echini, Madripore, and Pectines; and Herr Russegger ob- serves, that in the compact chalk rock of the same series, 1V., at Ras Hamam in the Gulf of Suez, he observed remains of monocotyledonous plants; and in the same for- mation, from the Gebel el Tyh, that is to say, compact chalk with flints, were numerous fossils. Mr. John Hogg however conceived it probable that some of the limestone formation, which Russegger assigns solely to the cretaceous series, in the vast district to the N. and E. of Gebel el Tyh, will, on further examination, prove to be of an older limestone. So he thought that certain of the sandstones of V. may, after future discoveries, be more correctly referred to rocks anterior to the secondary, perhaps to the Palzozoic, epoch ; indeed in the older or secondary sandstone, V., Capt. Newbold could find no fossils. And with regard to the ages of the primitive or unstratified rocks, VI., of the Sinaic group, the same traveller, who examined them recently with care, says that the greenstone is the latest, and next in order the porphyry and gra- nite, and that the hypogene schists or slates are the oldest. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 55 Few minerals and ores occur in the Sinaic peninsula; of these iron and copper are the most abundant ; indeed, in hieroglyphics, Professor Lepsius remarks, that the whole country was called Mafkat, 4. e. “ the copper land.’’ Neither lead nor silver has been detected, but near Mersa Dahab, which means the ‘ gold port,’ some assert that gold dust is present, for the teeth of the Ibex are sometimes seen surrounded with it. This probably may be only auriferous pyvites. Hematite, antimony, rock-crystal, cinna- bar, nitre, rock-salt, a yellow clay named tafal, crystallized sulphate of lime, sulphur, gypsum, pebbles of agate and jasper, occur. Thermal springs rise at Gebel Hamam and in El] Wadi near Tur; the former having a temperature of 55° R., and the latter 91° Fahr. The porphyries and granites of the high Sinaic group vary extremely in colours, and some are of great beauty ; the latter resembling those near Assouan. According to Russegger, the highest peaks of that group, in fact of the entire peninsula, rise to 9300 English feet above the sea. A peculiarity in the lower mountain ranges is this :—generally an ascending valley (Wadi) leads up to the summit, which constitutes a plain, and then another Wadi slopes down to the level of the neigh- bouring district. Such is even the present general form of the long Wadi el Araba. The minerals and ores in Eastern Egypt are, the author believes, only iron, copper, and much naphtha or petroleum found at Gebel el Zeit, ‘Mount of Oil;’ and in that part of Arabia which comes within this notice, little ornothing is known of its mineral products. The soil however in several localities is much more fertile, and more abounding in water, than that either in Eastern Egypt or in the Sinaic peninsula. Mr. J. Hogg illustrated his observations with some beautiful lithographed views of Suez, of the mountains in the peninsula, of the head of the Gulf of Akaba, and the site of Petra, by Mr. David Roberts and the late Lieut. Wellsted. On the Relations between the New Red Sandstone, the Coal-measures, and the Silurian Rocks of the South Staffordshire Coal-field. By J. Beutz Juxzs, M.A., F.G.S. The author commenced by remarks on the interesting question of what rocks lay below the new red sandstone of the Midland Counties, and after giving a concise sketch of the structure of that district, directed attention to the particular instance of the South Staffordshire coal-field. He stated that a point of great practical importance was the nature of the boundary faults of the midland coal-fields, whether they were true faults, or only old cliffs of coal-measures with the new red sandstone abutting against them. Having been engaged in the government geological survey of South Stafford- shire, he wished to point out what results had been already arrived at. He showed that each of the three formations entering into the structure of the district (namely, the new red, the coal-measures, and the Silurian) were unconformable to the other ; that this unconformability was rarely locally appreciable, the difference in the dip or strike being slight, but was shown by each of the superior formations resting on dif- ferent parts of the inferior at different places. The nature of this unconformability was exhibited in the cutting of the railway near Dudley, where beds of coal-measure sandstone abutted against a cliff of Silurian shale 20 or 30 feet high, both formations being nearly horizontal. He then briefly described the boundaries of the southern portion of the South Staffordshire coal-field, showing that on the east the new red sand- stone was brought down against the coal-measures by a true downcast fault; that the coal-measures were worked for some distance beneath the new red sandstone, but that they appeared to be suddenly thinning out in that direction near West Bromwich, and thata little east of the present workings the Silurian shale had been driven into, ona level with the thick coal; that Silurian shale had likewise been met with near the surface south of Oldbury, and that it was therefore probable that there was a space on the east side of the present coal-field about Sandwell and Smethwick, where the new red sand- stone rested directly on Silurian shale without the intervention of any coal-measures, but that this space was not of any very great extent, from true coal-measures having been reached not far from the Stonehouse near Harborne, and near Aldridge east of Walsall. He then traced the western boundary from Wolverhampton to Stourbridge, which he showed to be probably a true “downcast fault to the west,” more or less complicated by minor faults and branches which spread from it into the coal-field. Along the southern edge of the field from Stourbridge, south of Halesowen to Lappal and the neighbourhood of Harborne, he described the boundary to be formed simply by A/3Y. 56 REPORT—1849. the superposition of the new red sandstone on the coal-measures, the beds of the latter dipping gently tothe south, and the former resting on them with apparent conforma- bility. He believed that here would be found the true upper beds of the coal- measures, and the lowest beds of the red sandstone, as deposited in that district, but doubted the existence of any beds of passage from one into the other. As a practical conclusion, he stated that while there was every hope that profitable coal-beds lay beneath the larger part of the new red sandstone plain of the Midland Counties and Cheshire, it would not be advisable rashly to commence a search for them, nor without competent direction and advice; that this advice and direction might eventually be hoped for from the Geological Survey of Great Britain under Sir H. De la Beche. He-likewise added, that if he were now asked to fix a limit of depth at which the coal was probably to be attained beneath the new red sandstone, he should say jive or six hundred yards was the least depth the speculator would probably have to sink for it. On Traces of a Fossil Reptile (Sauropus primevus) found in the Old Red Sand- stone. By Isaac Lua of Philadelphia. (Communicated by Dr. Buckuann.) The cbject of this communication is to announce to the Society that I have discovered the footprints in bas-relief of a reptilian quadruped lower in the series than has yet been observed. On the 5th of April last, in the examination of the strata in the gorge of the Sharp Mountain, near Pottsville, Pennsylvania, where the Schuylkill breaks through it, a large mass of remarkably fine old red sandstone attracted my attention. Upon it I was astonished to find six distinct impressions of footmarks in a double row of tracks, each mark being duplicated by the hind-foot falling into the impression of the fore-foot, but rather more advanced. The strata here are tilted a little over the vertical, and the surface of rock exposed was about 12 feet by 6 feet, the whole of which surface was covered with ripple-marks and the pits of rain-drops beautifully displayed in the very fine texture of the deep red sandstone. The six double impressions distinctly show, in the two parallel rows formed by the left feet on the one side and the right feet on the other, that the animal had five toes on the fore-feet, three of which toes were apparently armed with unguinal appendages. The length of the double impression is 44 inches; the breadth 4 inches; the distance apart in the length of the step of the animal 13 inches; across, from outside to out- side, 8 inches. The mark of the dragging of the tail is distinct, and occasionally slightly obliterates a small part of the impressions of the footmarks. The ripple- marks are 7 to 8 inches apart, and very distinct, as well as the pits of the rain-drops. The footmarks assimilate remarkably to those of the recent Alligator Mississippi- ensis, and are certainly somewhat analogous to the Chetrotherium. The geological position of this reptilian quadruped is of great interest, from the fact that no such animal remains have heretofore been discovered so low in the series. Those described by Dr. King, in the great western coal-field, are only 800 feet below the surface of the coal formation (No. 13 of Prof. Rogers, the State Geologist). The position of the Pottsville footmarks is about 8500 feet below the upper part of the coal formation there, which is about 6750 feet, according to Prof. Rogers, and they are in the red shale (his No. 11); the intermediate siliceous conglomerate (No. 12) being stated by him to be 1031 feet thick. These measurements would bring these foot- marks about 700 feet below the surface of the old red sandstone. A mass of coal plants exists immediately on the northern face (upper) of the heavy conglomerate, here tilted ten degrees over the vertical, and forming the crest or “‘back-bone” of Sharp Mountain. This conglomerate mass is about 150 feet thick at the western side of the road below Pottsville. On the same road-side, about 1735 feet from these coal plants (south and directly across the stratification), is the face of the rock tilted slightly over the vertical and facing to the north. It is proper to state that the limestone of the old red sandstone exists here, about 2 feet thick, and underlies these ‘‘ footmarks 65 feet.” On a New Species of Labyrinthodon from the New Red Sandstone of War- wickshire. By G. Luoyn, M.D., F.G.S. After stating the unfrequent occurrence of the remains of this extinct genus of reptiles, more especially of other parts of the body than of the head, and having shown CC - hg ‘ 5 ‘ ~’ TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 57 that on comparison with the remains of other species already described there were good grounds for assigning to the fossil referred to, and illustrated to the Section by a litho- graphic drawing, the rank of a new species, to which he proposed to apply the name Bucklandi, the author proceeded briefly to point out the osteologicai features of the fossil. The specimen was described as consisting of the internal surface of the greater part of the bones of the cranium, presenting both orbits entire, the nasal aperture somewhat mutilated, and about twenty more or less perfect teeth in the su- perior maxillary bone of one side, and also preserving, either by the presence of bone or by impressions left of absent bones, the general configuration of the skull, the di- mensions of which were about 114 inches from the termination of the premandibular to the extremity of the projecting condyles of the occipital bone, and about 9 inches from the outer edge of one temporal bone to that of the other. The general consoli- dation of the bones of the cranium, especially of those forming the orbits, was con- trasted with the comparative loosely constructed skull of modern Batrachians; and the projecting condyles of the occiput were pointed out as highly characteristic of that family. The teeth presented the usual characters of the genus; and the position of the nostril, in conjunction with the other osteological peculiarities, confirmed the com- pound nature and amphibian habits of this reptile. ‘The fossil described was recently discovered in the Bunter-sandstein. Note on the Genus Siphonotreta, with a Description of a New Species. By Joun Morris, F.G.S. (Communicated by Sir R. I. Murcutson.) Among the numerous interesting fossils collected by Mr. John Gray from the Wen- lock limestone and shale in the vicinity of Dudley, is a form which I am inclined to consider belongs to Siphonotreta (de Verneuil), a genus of Brachiopoda, hitherto con- sidered peculiar to the Silurian formations of Russia. The genus having been previously unnoticed in this country, and presenting some peculiarities both as regards the structure of the shell and the mode of attachment, it may not be uninteresting to offer a few general remarks on the subject; more especially as this shell, and some apparently allied forms, have been lately made the subject ofa special notice by Dr. Kutorga of St. Petersburg. In this memoir* Dr. Kutorga has grouped together in one family (the Siphonotretez) four genera, Siphonotreta, Schi- gotreta, Acrotreta, and Aulonotreta, which scarcely present any character in common, and have been in part considered by preceding authors as belonging to different groups or distinct subfamilies of the Brachiopoda. Of the above-mentioned generic forms, two of them have been known for about twenty years. One of them, remarkable for the immense abundance with which it occurs in the lower Silurian grits of the north of Russia, its broken fragments disse- minated in the plane of stratification, giving to the rock a micaceous appearance, was first made known (1829) as a peculiar genus by Prof. Eichwald+, under the name of Obolus (Aulonotreta, Kut.) ; about the same period (1830), Pander} gave the name Ungula to this fossil, and which L. von Buch§ considered to be an Orthis. The other form was also first noticed by Prof. Eichwald in 1829 as a Crania (C. sulcata, C. un- guiculata), which he afterwards (1843) placed under Terebratula|| ; subsequently how- ever M. de Verneuil, in the second volume of the great work on Russia , after a careful examination of these fossils, clearly recognized the differences which separated them from Crania and Terebratula, and gave them the very characteristic name of Sipho- notreta, describing two species, S. unguiculata and S. verrucosa. Since the publication of the work on Russia, four additional species of the latter genus have rewarded the researches of Hern. v. Volborth and other Russian geolo- gists, and which are fully described, as well as those previously known, in the mono- graph by Dr. Kutorga above alluded to, and from which is extracted the following synopsis of the principal characters of the genera in the family. * Uber die Siphonotretezx, von Dr. S. Kutorga, Verhandlungen der Kaiserlichen Minera- logischen Gesselschaft fiir das Jahr 1847, p. 250. + Zoologia Specialis, 1829, vol. i. p. 274, t Beitrage zur Geognosie der Russischen Reichs, 1830. § Beitrage zur Bestimmung der Gebirgsformationen Russland, 1840. || Beitragen zur Kentniss des Russ, Reichs, 1843. {| Russia and the Ural Mountains, 1845, vol. ii. p. 286. 58 REPORT—1849. Sirponotretez, Kutorga. A. With a tubular closed sipho. : a, The external siphonal opening passes from the apex towards the anterior margin. 1. Siphonotreta, De Verneuil. b. The siphonal opening is directed from the apex towards the dorsal margin. 2. Schizotreta, Kutorga (Orbiculotdea, D’Orb.). Opening narrow, slit-like ; no area, nor mark of deltidium. 8. Acrotreta, Kutorga. Opening elongated oval; area triangular and flattened, with a deltidium-like furrow, B. With a furrow-like sipho, opened on the whole hinge plain. 4. Aulonotreta, Kutorga (Obolus, Kichw.; Ungula, Pander). The author adds a series of critical remarks on the above groups, noticing some peculiarities of their geographical and geological position, and concludes by charac- terizing the new species of Siphonotreta. SIPHONOTRETA? ANGLICA. Shell of a rather oval form, depressed, marked by fine lines of growth; surface mi- nutely but concentrically reticulated, reticulation regular with quadrangular areole, and covered with many slender linear tubular spines or their bases, somewhat quin- cuncially arranged ; spines smooth, dilated at the base, a little above which they re- main of nearly uniform size throughout, and are regularly and transversely suleated or contracted, giving the spines a beaded or jointed appearance. The general form of this shell and quincuncial arrangement of the spines resemble §. aculeata, Kutorga; but as that author does not figure or allude to any reticulated structure or the moniliform spines*, this is considered to be distinct; unfortunately the specimen is compressed, so that all the characters are not fully shown, On the Metamorphosis of certain Trilobites as recently discovered by M. Bar- rande. (Communicated by Sir Roperick Impry Murcaison.) Sir Roderick Murchison brought before the Section the important discovery made by M. Barrande, of the metamorphosis of Trilobites, as exhibited in a series of forms apparently very distinct, but which have been shown by that author to belong to the one species Sao hirsuta (Barr.). Referring in the first instance to the extraordinary number of species of Trilobites recently discovered in the paleozoic rocks of Bo- hemia, whether as compared with the small number hitherto known in that tract, or the whole quantity described in other parts of the world, Sir Roderick explained how with untiring zeal and ability, and at considerable cost and labour, M. Bar- rande had been the real agent in opening out this rich field, and how by a long and careful analysis of all its organic remains he had shown that it is essentially of Silu- rian age. In anticipation of a great work by M. Barrande (the ‘ Silurian Rocks of Bohemia’), in which the necessary proofs will be given, and containing among numerous other illustrations 40 plates of Trilobites only, Sir Roderick communicated the following extract of a letter from that author :— «The fact, which is made intelligible by the plate of drawings annexed‘, relates to a species which I have named Sao hirsutu, of which I have verified the gradual development from the embryonic to the adult state. I have been able to discover twenty successive stages in this progress, which took place after development from the egg, as is observed in some of our modern crustaceans. The first stage is marked by a disc two-thirds of a millimetre in diameter, of which the head only occupies the whole of the trilobed surface. In the second stage the thorax appears in a rudimentary state, and it increases in the following stages by the successive addition * The moniliform character of the spines may not be peculiar to this species, but will pro- bably be found to belong to the whole genus, when the spines are carefully examined by a higher power than that used by Dr. Kutorga. T Of these an enlarged diagram by Mr. Salter was exhibited. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 59 each time of a ring, until the thorax has thus acquired seventeen free segments, and the pygidium two anchylosed segments, in all nineteen, which constitute the adult age. During the course of this evolution the form of the different parts of the body is developed in so continuous a manner, that in tracing the successive stages there is no sort of ‘ hiatus.” Towards the sixth stage four isolated grains are observed on each side of the glabella. I name ‘principal grain’ that which is nearest to the axis, and ‘ primitive grains’ the three other and smaller grains, which are arranged in a convex band towards the interior. Now, these four grains are persistent in all the following stages, both in their relative size and reciprocal position, with a constancy and regularity which alone might suffice to establish the specific identity of all these forms. The principal grain is also recognizable upon the adult, but at that age the three primitive grains become merged or lost amidst a crowd of other grains which accumulate around them. They all terminate in assuming a conical form, i. e, they become spines. [The figures show the details. | “Three other species have offered to me an analogous development, but with fewer intermediary stages between the extremes. These are the Zrinucleus ornatus (Stern- berg), Arionius ceticephalus (Barr.), and Arethusina Konincki (Barr.). i “The embryonic evolution out of the egg took place then in species or isolated genera among the trilobites of the Silurian epoch, just as among modern crustaceans. That which is remarkable is, that two of these four species belong to my lowest or primitive fauna, or to my band C, or the schists of Skrey, viz. Sao hirsuta and Ari- onius ceticephalus. You know that the Trinucleus ornatus characterizes my band D, or your Caradoc sandstone * ; and lastly, the drethusina Konincki is found exclusively at the base of my inferior limestone E, which occupies the place of your Wenlock formation. In the three other superior bands of my upper division of the Silurian system, no trilobite has offered to me a trace of a similar evolution. These all appear to be born with the complete number of thoracic segments, but not with all the articulations of the pygidium ¢. “‘T have thought that an acquaintance with this fact would be of some interest to you who first opened out the necropolis of trilobites. * M. Barrande does not consider, with Mr. Salter, that the Trinucleus Caractaci (Murch.) is the same species as the Trinucleus ornatus (Sternb.). tT The comments made by the eminent naturalist M. Milne-Edwards, Member of the Aca- demy of Sciencesin Paris, on this communication, must have so much weight, that a deviation is made from the ordinary practice in giving this abstract of them in a note.—* Prof. Milne- Edwards remarked that this discovery was equally interesting to the zoologist and physiolo- gist. Metamorphoses like those of the insect and tadpole were formerly supposed to be ex- ceptions to the ordinary rule, until the researches of Harvey showed, that the chick in the egg underwent changes quite as extensive and remarkable. It now appears to be a law of nature, that animals are more alike as they are observed at a period nearer their embryonic state ; and it is of the highest consideration in zoology to show, through what stages animals pass before arriving at their adult form. The zoological affinities of the trilobites were long a Matter of dispute. They were first supposed to be Chitons, until Alexander Brongniart showed they were true crustaceans. But the crustacean forms are very varied, and it has been held uncertain whether the trilobites were allied to certain Isopoda, se. Oniscus, or, as Mr. Thompson suggests, to Apus. Barrande’s observations confirm the views of Mr. Thomp- son. The Isopods are born almost with the same form which they retain through life; but the Apus quits the egg in an imperfect state, having but few of the segments which consti- tute the body of the adult. In the young Sao the number of thoracic segments continually increased until the animal was adult; and to each of these (though no traces are now seen) legs were certainly affixed, not like the hard legs of insects adapted to terrestrial movement, but soft and membranous like those of Apus, for swimming in the water. The cephalic shield, which in the youngest stage of Sao formed the whole animal, constitutes but a small portion of the adult; and the amount of change exhibited in successive stages of development is so great, that it would be no wonder if zoologists should have built up upon it numerous ‘species and even several genera. The rule which obtains now, that animals belonging to the same zoological type, though much differing in the adult, lose those differences in states ap- proaching their embryonic condition, is seen even in the remains of animals which perished in the most remote epochs; and thus the tenants of the Silurian seas furnish arguments hitherto afforded by the study of living animals alone.” 60 REPORT—1849. «« How many times, in describing my species, do I think of your assertion, which the facts have so gloriously justified, ‘that the Silurian system is the great centre of the creation of trilobites’! At that early epoch Bohemia seems indeed to have had the privilege of uniting an immense variety and multitude of these crustaceans ; for the number of my species already exceeds 200. If you think this account of the metamorphosis of a trilobite of sufficient importance, announce it in any form you please to the British Association for the Advancement of Science. «J. BARRANDE.” On the Distribution of Gold Ore in the Crust and on the Surface of the Earth. By Sir Rovericx Impzry Murcuison, G.C.S., F.R.S. &c. The recent discovery of considerable quantities of gold ore in California having excited the public mind, and led to some conclusions which he esteemed to be exagge- rated, the author took this occasion of the meeting of the British Association to bring forward the whole subject of the distribution of gold ore over the surface of the ‘earth, not merely to develope his own views and those of others, but also to elicit by discussion, the knowledge of the assembled geologists, mineralogists, miners and statists. An enlarged Mercator’s projection of the world was exhibited, on which all the leading ridges which had afforded gold ore in times past or present, were marked, as taken in a great part from a general sketch-map by M. Adolphe Erman of Berlin, the explorer of Siberia and Kamschatka, which is appended to a geographical and mineralogical description of California by M. Hoppe and himself, as inserted in the ‘ Archiv fiir Wissenschaftliche Kunde von Russland’ (7 band, 4 heft). Referring to the works of Humboldt and Rose on the Ural Mountains, as well as to those of Helmersen and Hoffman, the former of whom constructed some time since a map of all the gold tracts of Siberia, and also citing the other contributions of M. Adolphe Erman on this head, Sir Roderick gave a condensed view of his own obser- vations on the gold regions of the Ural Mountains. His exploration of that chain, in company with his associates M. de Verneuil and Count Keyserling, led him to form the opinion, that great and rich gold veins had alone been produced in the oldest formations, and chiefly where they have been highly metamorphosed by the intrusion of igneous rocks; in other words, that wherever clay-slates, old limestones, and greywacke sandstones (whether azoic or of Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous age), had been penetrated by greenstone, porphyry, syenite, granite or serpentine, and were consequently in a more or less metamorphic or crystalline condition, there auriferous quartzose veinstones most occur, containing gold ore diffused in grains, leaves, lumps, and irregular filaments. Every discovery in the auriferous regions of Siberia and ’ America, as well as all the workings in the Old World in past times, confirm this view, and prove it to be a geological constant, that the azoic and palzozoic rocks, when metamorphosed, are the only great repositories of gold ore. The minute quantities of auriferous pyrites and gold which have been detected in the secondary and younger deposits do not interfere with this generalization. To the general view of Baron von Humboldt, that the richest gold deposits are those which are derived from ridges having a meridian direction, M. Adolphe Erman is de- cidedly opposed; but Sir Roderick is of opinion, that a much greater quantity of gold ore has been obtained from chains having a nearer relation to N. and S. than from those approaching to equatorial or E. and W. directions, due perhaps to the general form of the chief masses of land and the prevailing strike of the palzozoic rocks. He next pointed out an error into which some persons had fallen, of supposing that the chief Uralian mines were worked underground ; the only small subterranean work being one near Ekaterinburg, which affords a very slight profit. All the rich mines along that meridian chain, throughout 8° of N. latitude, are simply diggings and washings which are made in the detritus or shingle accumulated on the slopes of the ridges and in the adjacent valleys, and with one small exception are all upon the eastern or Siberian side. This phenomenon in the Ural Mountains is a necessary result of their structure ; the older and more crystalline formations through which the eruptive rocks have risen constituting chiefly the crest and eastern slopes of the chain, whilst the western slopes are occupied by deposits of younger or Permian age, As the conglomerates and de- RIS TNE PIA NIB ae ap Ae @ TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 61 tritus of the latter deposits contain no traces of gold, though they abound in copper ores, it was pointed out by the author in his work on Russia, that the auriferous veins were there posterior to those of iron and copper, and must have been produced after the accumulation of the Permian system. Exhibiting maps, sections and views of the Ural Mountains, formerly prepared by him, and referring to the description of California by Erman and others, he entered upon a comparison between the two countries, and showed that there were great coinci- dences of mineralogical structure in both, and that with these constants the same results obtained in America as in the Ural; the chief distinction consisting in the apparently larger proportion of gold in the detritus of the newly-discovered deposits of California than in those of the Ural. He contended, however, that no very large tract of California would be found to be as uniformly auriferous as the banks and slopes of the upper tributaries of the Sacramento. That gold ore has been found in certain localities along the western slope of the Sierra Nevada is admitted, but its conti- nuity as well as the breadth of the deposit have yet to be ascertained. And here the author took some pains to indicate the distinction between all such surface operations as those of Siberia, California, and the Brazils, and those works in which, besides the ores of silver, copper, &c., gold also had been extracted from veins in the solid or parent rock; the latter operation being very seldom remunera- tive. Adverting to the fact, that in the Ural Mountains the veinstones “in situ” (in this case little or no admixture with other ore exists) have proved very slightly remu- nerative when worked further downwards, he glanced at an opinion of Humboldt, who looking to the great lumps or ‘‘ pepites” occasionally found in the surface rubbish, sup- posed that there may have been some connection between the production of gold and the atmosphere ; since judging from these specimens, it was from the superficial extre- mity of these quartz veins that the richest bunches of gold must have been derived ; the veinstones when followed downwards having invariably proved either sterile or very slightly productive. The author carefully distinguishes the major part of the auriferous detritus from modern alluvia, and shows that it has been the result of former and more powerful causes of degradation than those now in operation—causes which distributed coarse shingle, blocks and sand, and which wearing away all the associated schists and the most oxidizable ores, left only the harder rocks, particularly the quartz veins, together with the harder and nobler metals gold and platinum. The existing rivers have had little more to do with this phenomenon than that in mountainous tracts ; and where they have a rapid descent, they have occasionally laid bare the edge of the previously-formed and water-worn gold accumulations. By this observation it is not meant to deny, that where existing streams flow directly from rocks “in situ” which are now impregnated with gold, a little auriferous detritus must not naturally be washed down, but simply to prevent the student who may refer to detailed maps of gold tracts from imagining that the rivers are auriferous, except where they derive that quality from the wearing away and breaking down of the mixed materials which constitute their ancient banks. Ina word, British geologists may be assured that gold shingle and sand have been accumulated just in the same manner as the former great drifts of their own country, whether general or local, in which bones of the fossil elephant, rhinoceros, and other extinct quadrupeds occur. Having terminated his account of the geological constants which accompany gold mines in Europe, :\sia and America, Sir Roderick then traced the history of gold and its development, as known to the ancients and our ancestors of the middle ages. He showed that in all regions where the above-mentioned paleozoic, crystalline and eruptive rocks occurred, gold had been found in greater or less quantities, and that just in proportion to the time a country had been civilized, the extraction of the pre- cious metal had diminished; so that in many tracts, as in Bohemia, where gold had formerly prevailed to a great extent, it had been worked out and the mines forgotten. Briefly alluding to the examples at home of gold-works in Wales under the Romans, where Silurian rocks are pierced by trap, and contain pyritous veinstones as described by himself*, and to the former gold of Scotland and Ireland in similar rocks, its oc- casional discovery still in the detritus of the county of Wicklow, and its diffusion in * Silurian System, p. 367. 62: t REPORT—1849. some of the oldest Silurian strata of Merionethshire, he particularly dwelt on the con- tinental tracts formerly so rich, as cited by Strabo, all of which (with the exception of the North Ural or country of the Arimaspes*, from whence, as Humboldt believes, the Scythian ores came) had been exhausted and were no longer gold-bearing di- stricts. This circumstance is explained by the Scythian or Uralian gold having re- mained unknown from the classical age until this century. So completely ignorant were the modern Russians of the existence of gold in the Ural Mountains, or that they had in their hands the country which supplied so much gold to Greece and Rome, that excellent German miners had long worked the iron and copper mines of that chain before any gold was discovered. Even then gold was worked from a solid veinstone for some time before the accidental discovery of gold ore in the ancient al- luvium or drift led to the superficial diggings, which produced at an infinitely less expense the present produce. All the energy however displayed by the Russian miners has failed to augment the amount of Uralian gold much beyond half a million sterling, and as the period is arriving when the local depressions or basins of aurife- rous detritus of that region wil] be successively washed out, the Ural will then re- semble many other countries in possessing actual mines of iron and copper, but a history merely of its gold. Russia, however, has also the golden key of all eastern Siberia, in which various offsets from the Altai*chain (chiefly those which separate the rivers Lena, Jenisei, &c., or stretch along the shores of the Baikal lake) have proved so very productive in their gravel, that for some years they have afforded the enormous annual supply of upwards of three millions sterling, exclusive of the Ural. As in the Ural Mountains, so has it proved to be in South America. There, the Spaniards, notwithstanding their keen search for gold from the days of Columbus to the present time, made many works in the parent rock, but either never discovered its existence or neglected to work it in the gravel and sand of the valley of the Sacra- mento, which tract they left in quiet possession of the native Indians. It was only indeed by the recent accident of the breaking dway of a bank of detritus by a mill race, that this region was opened out for the first time to the colonists of the Anglo- Saxon race. What then is to be the value and duration of these Californian mines ? On the point of absolute value the author does not venture to form an estimate in the absence of sufficient facts and statistical data; but in regard to the duration of this mining ground, he speculates that granting it to be locally much richer than similarly constituted detritus in the Ural, still there is nothing to interfere with the belief, founded on the experience derived from all other auriferous tracts, including those of Bohemia so productive in the middle ages, that, with the activity and num- bers of the men now employed in the works, these deposits may in no great length of time be exhausted. Judging from analogous facts, he is inclined to think, that the very great per-centage of gold ore in the gravel of the valleys of the Sacramento, indicates that the most valuable portions of the original veins have been ground down by former powerful denuding agencies; and if the rule be allowed which obtains very generally in mining, that the richer the veins the less are they likely to be spread over a large mass of parent rock, so is he disposed to think, that it will only be in certain patches that very great wealth will be discovered, and hence that it would be very wrong to conclude, that because rich gold detritus has been discovered on the affluents of the Sacramento, in lat. 40°, and also on the river Colorado in lat. 34° 5’, all the interme-- diate tract of country should prove productive. Considering the vast addition in the few last years made to the European market by researches in Siberia, and seeing that such addition has produced no change in the value of gold as a standard, the author is of opinion (as far as the evidences allow him to judge), that the Californian discovery is not likely to produce any disturbance in the standard. At the same time he ex- presses his full agreement with M. Erman and others, that with the advancement of colonization in the central regions of North Asia, and other parts of the world where civilization has not yet extended, other gold tracts may be discovered, wherever the geological and lithological constants to which he has adverted occur; but neither * If the gold tracts of the Ural Mountains had been explored and continuously worked from the time of Herodotus, they would have been exhausted ages before their occupation by the Russians.—R. I. M. ry TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63° __would this circumstance induce him to fear, that such discoveries (oceurring probably at long intervals of time and for the most part in countries at enormous distances from the means of transport) will much more than compensate for the wear and tear of the precious metal, and the wants of a rapidly increasing population. ; Sir Roderick then briefly alluded to the erroneous opinion of old authors, that the origin of gold had any reference to hot or equatorial climates, as testified by the abun- dance of ore in Siberia, even up to 67° N. lat., and cited a table of M. Erman, which showed, that by far the greatest quantity occurred in northern latitudes, there being every probability, that much more of this ore may be detected in the northern pre- longation of the American chains and in the frozen regions of Russian America, just as it had been discovered in ridges of the north-east of Siberia and even near to Kam- schatka, He reminded his auditors, that in considering the composition of the chief meri- dian ridge of Australia and its parallels, he had foretold that gold would be found in them; and he stated that in the last year a resident in Sydney (Mr. Smith), who had read what he had written and spoken on this point, had sent him specimens of gold ore found in the Blue Mountains, whilst from another source (Mr. Phillips) he had learned, that the parallel N. and S. ridge in the Adelaide region, which had yielded so much copper, had also given more undoubted signs of gold ore. The operation of the English laws of royalty had induced Sir Roderick Murchison to re- present to Her Majesty’s Secretary of State, that no colonists would bestir themselves in gold mining if some authoritative declaration on the subject were not made, The auriferous lines in Australia were marked in the general map. In support of his general views, he called for the evidence of Professor William Rogers of Philadelphia, whose beautiful map of the Appalachian or Alleghany chain was exhibited; and he also fortified his inductions respecting the chief auriferous masses of Mexico and Peru by appeals to Colonel Colquhoun and Mr. Pentland, all these gentlemen being present. References were also made to an article by M. Michel Chevalier in the ‘ Revue des deux Mondes’ (1847), on the silver and gold mines of the New World as compared with those of the Old World; also to the work onthe mines of Mexico by M. St. Clair Duport, to M. Duflot de Mofras, to Mac- apeks ‘Dictionary of Commerce,’ and to Professor Ansted’s ‘Gold Seeker’s Manual.’ In conclusion, he specially directed attention to the distinctions between the two | classes of gold-works, 7. e. in the veinstones and in their debris, and showed, that in the present day as in the remotest periods, the simple digging into and washing of old alluvial accumulations, have invariably proved to be the great source of pro- | duction; whilst in works in the solid rock, on the contrary, the extraction of the gold from the silver alloy and other ores with which it is mixed up therein, and its sepa- ration from them, have proved so expensive, that to mine for gold as the Spaniards _ have done in South America, has frequently proved ruinous even to a proverb *, On the Fossil Geology of Cornwall. By Cuartes WitttaMm Pracu. ; The author commenced by noticing the extensive beds containing fish remains, _ which had been discovered since he communicated to the Section at Cork the few 4 then found; that the beds enclosing these remains extend from near the Rame Head, Whitsand Bay, to the west side of Fowey, and that they are in places abundant; _ Bellerophontes also are rather plentiful, but each appear to have lived and died in BS Bp eerete flocks, rarely being intermixed with each other; a very few Gasteropods _ (Lowxonema) are mingled with them. The beds generally rise at high angles, and are) _ intermingled with trappean and quartzose beds, the line of strike nearly east and a West, with a southerly dip, and appear to have been in places greatly disturbed. __ Underlying these beds on the south side are a series of slaty, arenaceous and cal- cateous ones, containing Corals, Crinoids, Shells, Orthoceratites, afew Goniatites and _ Trilobites, some of these very abundant. These beds are first seen on the east side of ¥ ind The author expressed his regret at not being as yet acquainted with a geological work on _ California by the able American naturalist M. Dana, which had recently been announced. 64 REPORT—1849. Pencarra Point, and extend to beyond the Black Head, St. Austel Bay. Outside these are a series of hard quartzose rocks, commencing at the Cairn near Goran Haven, passing across to Caerhayes Beach, thence to Gerrans Bay; these contain Corals and- Crinoids very rare, Orthides, and other bivalves more plentifully, and Trilobites not uncommon: there are also at these places small beds of limestone, a Jarge series of conglomerates, in which are rolled blocks of limestone filled with crinoids and Ortho- ceratites; these rocks are a little out of the general line of strike. On the north side of these fish-beds are a very extensive range of fossiliferous ones, resting conformably on them; these may be traced from Whitsand Bay to St. Veep, and St. Winnow, and completely occupy the county via Bodmin, Liskeard, &c., to the sea on the north side, Although all the other organisms mentioned as occurring in the southern rocks are found in these, no traces of Trilobites have been noticed until reaching Bodmin; and at Menheniott, a bed exists there containing thousands. The author had also found organic remains rather plentiful at St. Columbporth, and at Newquay in the North Channel; at the latter place splendid Turbinolopsides, Crinoids, Trilobites, and a mag- nificent spine of an Onchus in clay-slates, associated with beds of impure limestone. He remarked upon the very few fish remains that agreed with those found in the old red sandstone (one good specimen of Asterolepis, the species selected by Mr. Hugh Miller to illustrate ‘The Footprints of the Creator’) and those described in the ‘ Silurian System.’ He concluded by saying that when Sir H. Dela Beche made his survey of the county, only three or four places were known to be fossiliferous ; now three-fourths of the county had been proved to be so, and in many places abundant : he trusted the day was not far distant when a new section would be run through the county, and the age of the rocks settled. Notice of the Discovery of Beds of Keuper Sandstone containing Zoophytes in the Vicinity of Leicester. By Joun Puan. In this paper the author describes the position of certain marls in the new red sand- stone laid open by the cutting of the Leicester and Swannington railway, and the existence in them of markings in the sandstone which he refers to the genus Gorgonia. The sections show a thickness varying from 2 to 59 feet of superficial and detrital deposit, below which appear clays, marls, shaly marls and sandstones, offering a total thickness of about 200 feet, of which the first 150 feet contain masses and blocks, some of them weighing many tons, of the sienites, porphyries, and carboniferous limestone of Charnwood Forest and the neighbourhood. Amongst these are gray shaly sand- stones containing the fossils developed between two beds of red clay which thin and swell out very irregularly. Between the sandstones are bands of fine marl enveloping the bodies described by the author as the polypidoms of a coralline, and these occur in great profusion on the surfaces of nearly every band, the bands being also furrowed by other markings. The polypidoms lie confusedly and in all instances occur as sili- ceous casts, the delicate organization of the cells being obliterated. Associated with them at times are thickly-set small granular concretions, giving the surface the appear- ance of shagreen. The strata containing the fossils are considered to represent the keuper sandstone, both by their similar character and their distance from the lias. The author sug- gests for these fossil markings the name Gorgonia Keuperi. On the Discovery of a Living Representative of a small Group of Fossil Volutes occurring in the Tertiary Rocks. By Lovreui Reeve, F.L.S. In the Eocene portion of the tertiary series a small group of Volutes occurs, distin- guished by a peculiarity of form and sculpture which is not found in any living species collected hitherto. The well-known Voluta lima of the British tertiary strata may be regarded as the type of this group ; but there are other fossil species of the group which has been arranged as a subgenus by Mr. Swainson, under the title Volutilithes. During the late expedition of H.M.S, Samarang, a single living example of this type, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 65 very closely and elaborately sculptured, and encircled by two or three coloured bands, was dredged by Sir Edward Belcher off the Cape of Good Hope, from a bank of dead shells, corallines, &c., at the depth of 132 fathoms. _ All the species of Voluta hitherto known in a recent state are of comparatively solid structure, characterized by a copious deposit of enamel on the body whorl on reaching maturity, and none exhibit any detail of sculpture beyond that of longitudinal ribs. The species under consideration is not identical with any of the tertiary species, but of the same type more minutely latticed, similarly coronated, so to speak, and with a similar channeled excavation round the spire. It is proposed to name it Voluta abyssicola, and it will be described and figured in the Mollusca of the Voyage of the Samarang. Prof. W. B. Rogers exhibited the State Survey of Virginia, geologically coloured, and gave a general sketch of the structure of the country, with especial reference to the Faults in the Alleghanies. The State of Virginia comprises an area of 66,000 square miles, containing four distinct physical and geological districts :—1st, the Tertiary plain on the Atlantic; 2ndly, the rising ground consisting of gneiss, mica-slate and other primitive rocks, which lies between the coast plain and the Alleghanies, with- the oolitic coal-field of Richmond occupying a depression on its surface; 3rdly, the Alle- ghany mountains; and 4thly, tlie great western coal-field. The Alleghanies consist of numerous parallel ridges of palzozoic rocks, ranging north-east and south-west, sepa- rated from the primitive region by the “ Blue ridge,” a tract of igneous and highly altered rocks, which may be regarded as the igneous axis of the State. ‘The anti- elinal ridges of the Alleghanies all lean to the westward; and this want of symmetry increases towards the “ Blue ridge,” until the strata forming the western flanks of each ridge are completely inverted, and dip under those on the eastern side; these great foldings and inversions of the strata are frequently attended by enormous faults, the western side of a ridge being absolutely engulphed and the eastern over-riding it; in these cases the Lower Silurian rocks sometimes rest on the inverted carboni- _ ferous limestone, and even on the conglomerates of the coal-measures: the displace- ment of the strata must amount in many instances to 10,000 feet; but if a fault is os traced to a great distance either way, it is found to diminish gradually and terminate _ ina mere flexure of the strata; the length of the faults is sometimes more than 100 miles. Prof. Rogers then mentioned the occurrence of workable anthracite below the _ earboniferous limestone of the Alleghanies. In conclusion, he stated that during a _ recent tour in the Alps he had observed a general conformity in the structure of those mountains with the law of flexures exhibited in the Alleghanies; that is to say, the greatest dip of every anticlinal and synclinal was on the side furthest removed from __ the axis of disturbance: so that the general direction of the ridges and the curvature of the strata would now afford indications of the direction of the dynamic agency by which those flexures were produced. 2 _ On the Age of the Saurians named Thecodontosaurus and Paleosaurus. ¢ By Wiuxram Sanpers, F.G.S. 3 The remains of these animals were discovered in the year 1835 by Dr. Riley and Mr. Stutchbury, who state that the dolomitic conglomerate in which they were im- _ bedded forms the base of the new red sandstone, adopting the views announced by Dr. Buckland and Mr. Conybeare, in their Memoir of the Bristol Coal District. _ This memoir was published in 1822, accompanied by a map and sections, which re- | present distinctly the conglomerate rocks as constituting the lower division of the new _ red sandstone. The age thus assigned to these fossils was adopted by all geologists ; _ itis so described in the best elementary works, and enters into the general statement | made by Professor Owen in his Report on Fossil Reptiles. The Ordnance maps and _ sections present no alteration in this respect; they likewise represent the conglo- _ merate as completely subjacent to the later new red. Nevertheless the elaborate essay of Sir Henry De la Beche ‘ On the Formation of Rocks in South Wales and South-western England,’ in the first volume of Reports of _ the Geological Survey, contains such a description of the new red sandstone beds as to lead the reader to concur with him in believing, that such conglomerates and _ limestones “ may be of different dates,” and that “the cause of their production con- 1849, 5 a 66 REPORT—1849. tinued up to, and included the base of the lias.” The author of that essay also notices certain tranquil deposits of red clays and marls on the surface of the carboniferous rocks, After making these preliminary remarks, Mr, Sanders exhibited a map of the parish of St. George’s, near the mouth of the Avon, and another map of the three parishes of Compton Martin and West and East Harptree, together with sections for the purpose of illustrating the fact, that the spaces coloured on the Ordnance map as conglomerate, are really composed of several small tracts of conglomerate at different elevations, separated by larger tracts of tranquilly-deposited clays, marls, and sand- stones, similar in all respects to those which all concur in marking as the upper part of the new red sandstone. The evidences first, of a regular succession of strata on the sides of the hills; se- condly, of the action of water at low levels; and thirdly, of similar structure of rocks in the lower as in the upper parts, denoting similar depth of water, lead to the con- clusion that the land included in the Bristol district was, during the formation of such parts of the new red sandstone as are therein deposited, subjected to a gradual move- ment downwards, so that the waters first touched the lowest parts of the hills, and then gradually ascended up to the highest point at which the conglomerates are found. ‘This hypothesis is confirmed by the following facts: —On the northern side of the Mendip hills, at the height of 750 to 800 feet above mean sea level, there is depo- sited a conglomerate of the age of the white lias resting on lias strata tranquilly de- posited. On the tract of limestone northwards, called Broadfield Down, a conglomerate of similar age occurs at the height of about 550 feet. On the top of an isolated hill intermediate between these stations, at an elevation of 350 to 420 feet, occurs a lias conglomerate varying from 30 to 70 feet in thickness, not at the base of the lias, but likewise of the age of the white lias. This bed of conglomerate therefore descended from the shores on each side and crossed the valley at a lower level. The continuity of this bed renders highly probable the inference that the strata which are subjacent to this lias conglomerate on the hills, were also more or less continuous from shore to shore. If these views be correct, if the order of succession presented by the strata accu- mulated on the slopes of the hills correspond with the order of time at which they were formed, then a means is afforded of approximating to the age of any given bed resting on the older rocks, by reference to some other bed of known age at a limited distance from the hills and at a lower elevation, with which the given bed may have been in continuity. ; The dolomitic conglomerate containing the Saurians is situated about 300 feet above mean sea level. ‘The nearest horizontal formation is the base of the lias, which is at nearly the same height. The deposits of similar age at a distance of nearly one mile, are lower by about 100 feet, and similar strata at two miles from the limestone range are depressed to the extent of 150 feet. Combining these facts with the prin- ciples previously indicated, the Saurians, which form the subject of inquiry, may be pronounced to have lived during the time of the latest parts of the new red sandstone. Remarks in confirmation were made on the affinity of the Saurians with the Rhyn- chosaurus, and on the improbability that any part of the Permian system exists within the limits of the Bristol district. Mr. H.E. Strickland exhibited some specimens of vegetable remains in the keupert sandstone of Longdon, Worcestershire, where they were first noticed by the Dean of Westminster. ‘These are for the most part fragmentary and obscure, but some of them appear referable to the genus Calamites, and one specimen seems to be a Voltxia, a genus found in the new red sandstone of the continent, but only once before met with in Britain. [This was in magnesian limestone of Northumberland, see Lindley, — Fossil Flora, plate 195.] The state of preservation of these remains is remarkable; for instead of being black and carbonaceous, as is usual with fossil plants of so great antiquity, they are of a light brown colour, and highly elastic, resembling recent dead leaves. When viewed under the microscope these vegetable fragments exhibit the cellular texture in great perfection. The only other locality in Great Britain where plants have been found in the keuper sandstone is at Ripple, three miles E. of Long- don, where Calamites occur, but'the sandstone is not quarried there at present. The only animal remains found at these localities are small teeth and dorsal spines of the Hybodus, : TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 67 | Mr. S. Stutchbury exhibited a large cylindrical bone found by Mr. Thompson of _ Aberdeen in the “ Bone-bed” of Aust Cliff on the Severn, and presented to the Bristol Institution. The strata at this spot consists of the insect limestone, landscape marble, and bone-bed of the lias, resting on the marls of the new red sandstone system. But since the fish remains in the bone-bed belong to the Triassic type, it may be equally well to compare any reptilian remains found in it with those of the new red sand- _ stone. The present bone, though wanting both extremities, is two feet in length, and more than five inches in diameter at one end, where it is broken off abruptly: it is unlike any bone of Chelonian or Enaliosaur, but presents some resemblance to the long bones of small recent Batrachia, on which account Mr. Stutchbury considers it referable to the great Labyrinthodon of the new sandstone. On the Cause of the general Presence of Phosphorus in Strata and in all fertile Soils ; also on Pseudo-Coprolites, and the Conversion of the Contents of Sewers | and Cesspools into Manure. By Tur Dean or Westminster, F.R.S. Since Liebig first suggested the application of fossil phosphates to the same pur- poses with recent bones and guano in agriculture, many inquiries have been directed to such localities as promised to afford a supply of bones, coprolites, &c.; the bone- bed of the lias, exposed on the shores of the Severn, has not yet been worked, and will not repay the cost of working, but the red crag of Felixstow on the coast of Suffolk has afforded many thousands of tons of phosphoric pebbles, mixed with bones of whales and elephants and other large mammalia, and with flint pebbles, siliceous sand and erag-shells; the phosphoric bodies show upon analysis a composition nearly identical with that of the true coprolite. The origin of the pseudo-coprolites in this remarkable deposit must be sought in a period antecedent to the crag, during which the London clay was in progress of formation, and when the muddy bed of the Eocene sea received daily accessions of phosphoric compounds from the dead bodies and féeces of fishes and Molluses which inhabited it. The remains of these creatures, decomposing in the _ mud, evolved ingredients which, combining with the surrounding sediment, became fixed in Septaria and smaller concretions. In deposits of siliceous sand no such com- _ binations could take place, and hence the barrenness of siliceous sands when converted - into dry land. Phosphate of lime exists largely in all organized bodies, and is soluble slowly in water charged with carbonic acid: we may assume that all sea-water con- tains it; it exists in marine vegetables, and in herbivorous and carnivorous fishes and _ Molluscs. The combination of these phosphates with the earthy concretion not only _ purifies the water of the ocean and maintains it in a state adapted for the existence _ of living things; it serves also to form a continually increasing store of fertility against _ the time when the sea-beds shall be elevated and converted into corn-fields. While the crag was in progress, much of the London clay has been wasted by denudation, ad and its Septaria mixed with the shells and bones during the later period of the forma- | tion of the crag. It is probable that the Septaria absorbed a still further quantity of phosphoric matter during their accumulation in the crag: it is possible, also, that | the peroxide of iron which pervades these pebbles and bones in the crag ‘may have % added to the phosphate when all the ingredients were in a semi-fluid state at the bottom of the sea. The Dean then referred to the discovery by Mr. Payne of beds | of pseudo-coprolites in the upper greensand of Farnham. Here sponges and other | organic bodies appear to have served as recipients of the phosphates; the Kimme- ridge clay of Shotover Hill contains abundant casts of the air-chambers of Ammo- _ hites filled with marl, and containing 20 or 30 per cent. of phosphate of lime. Since | all strata containing organic remains have more or less phosphoric compounds, these | must also be present in the soils preduced by their decomposition. Another large | lass of soils is produced from the decomposition of volcanic rocks and granite; in these phosphoric matter is also present, either combined with lime (apatite), or as erate of iron, and here its presence is unconnected with organized remains. In Spain the apatite forms an immense vein in ancient schists; and every specimen brought home by Dr. Daubeny has a radiated and stalactitic structure, showing that they were deposited from water, which must have taken it up previously from other ls, In conclusion, it was suggested that, since clay and marl and lime are em- ployed by Nature to absorb the phosphoric acid produced by the denampopition of r 5 68 REPORT—1849. organized bodies at the bottom of ancient seas and lakes, so they might be applied artificially to deodorize and combine with the phosphates in the sewerage of Jarge towns. On an original broad Sheet of Granite, interstratified among Slates with Grit Beds, between Falmouth and Truro in Cornwall. By the Rev. D. Witu1aMs, F.G.S. This bed of granite is the only one of the kind ever seen by the author, who has traced it over a breadth of four miles by two. It varies in thickness from 4 feet -9-inches to 16 feet, and in dip from 15° to 40°; in some places it undulates repeatedly with the slates, and in one there is a small shift in the slates, whilst the granite is only bent. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. On some Changes in the Male Flowers of Forty Days’ Maize. By. Rosert A. C. Austen, F.R.S. Tue specimens I herewith send were taken from a crop of that variety of the Zea Mais which has recently been introduced into this country as the Forty Days’ Maize: the seed was said to have been raised on the slopes of the Pyrenees, at an elevation of 3000 to 4000 feet, and the variety was considered as more likely to succeed than any of those as yet cultivated in this country. As is well known, the Zea Mais isa moneecious grass: the male flowers are borne in distinct terminal panicles, which rise high and clear of the leaves; the female flowers are contained in lateral cobs, which consist of bracts enveloping a cone; these consist of several double rows (8-10) of flowers; of these the pistils project be- yond the bracts. Several female flowers are grouped together; one only of each group usually perfects its seed, but the abortive ones can be detected, and help to-ac- count for the number of valves which are to be found in conjunction with each seed. The external bracts serve to protect the whole cone of associated female flowers of the maize, and which are not therefore provided for by the hardening of the valves of the corolla, as in Phalaris, &c.; these envelopes are therefore but imperfectly repre- sented in the ears of maize; and it will be observed that where the seed is abortive they are developed more fully. Compared with a crop of four varieties of American maize, of which the heads of male flowers were all full and branched, the contrast was striking: a large proportion of the flowers of the forty days’ maize were single like ears of wheat; another pecu- liarity was, that it presented a number-of heads of naked grain; this change has been noticed, but instances may not have come within the observation of English botanists. Mr. Turpin, as quoted by Moquin-Tandon, thus describes it: ‘‘ Where the transforma- tion of stamens into pistils takes place, there is sometimes a single supernumerary ear, which is usually situated near the summit of the principal axis; sometimes several; in this case each branch bears its own.” This is a true description of the appearance which the heads commonly exhibit; it is in the lower portion of the ear that the grain is wanting in wheat, particularly in cold situations or in cold seasons. With the conversion of stamens into pistils in the terminal panicles, there is fre- quently a suppression of the lateral cobs. The moneecious grasses are mostly tropical or sub-tropical; but in the present in- stance we seem to have an example of a hardy variety of Zea taking the character of the inflorescence of the grasses of the temperate and colder zones. On a Series of Morphological Changes observed in Trifolium repens. By Roserr A, C. Austen, F.R.S. In a paper by Dr. Lankester to the Natural History Section of this Association last year, he referred to instances, he had recently observed, of proliferous clover. In TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69 consequence of some remarks which fell from the several gentlemen named in that paper, at the time the specimens were observed, my attention was drawn to the sub- ject: the results I here offer in the shape of a few notes to explain the drawings*. To such as seek for illustrations of this branch of botanical inquiry, instances will rapidly accumulate from a large list of plants. Some genera however seem to present such changes more readily than others; and again, in some species of a genus they will be frequent, in others rarely, if ever, occur. Morphological changes are very common in Trifolium repens, occasional in Tr. pratense, but in this species they sel- dom extend beyond the calyx, whilst in Zr. incarnatum I have never yet detected an instance, though I have cultivated it for ssme years. Mr. Babington, in his ‘ Manual,’ after the description of T’r. repens, observes, ‘ that in damp seasons the pod is often protruded in the form of a horn, or changed into a small leaf.” This isan exact description of an appearance which the flower-heads fre- quently present, but the formations of pod or leaf seem to be exhibitions of contrary tendencies; in the one the plant hastens to accomplish its end, in the other it breaks away and reverts to the production of leaves. About the end of May in this year, the flowerets consisted of a calyx of the usual size; the petals and stamens were rudimentary, and the plant, as if passing over two stages of its flower-structure, proceeded directly to the production of a pod. These pods contained ovule-like bodies, and were very much larger than the ordinary seed- pods of the plant. About the beginning of June the clover-heads with enlarged pods had a very dif- ‘ferent appearance; one of the white petals was to be seen protruding beyond the calyx, and partly enclosing the pod; this petal was always the vexillum; the re- maining parts of the flower being suppressed as before. As the season advanced, the production of the “horn-like pod”’ was less frequent ; and it was then principally that the substitution of leaves for flower-organs was to be observed: and at the present moment (Sept. 4) it would be difficult to find a single instance of change. From this it would seem, that, according as the conditions at any particular moment may be favourable to vigorous growth or otherwise, the plant advances to the pro- duction of floral organs or reverts to leaves; and as the formation of the several parts of the flower follow in succession, from the calyx upwards, so the part of the flower exhibiting the change will be higher according as the plani’s flowering-season has advanced. The changes indicated in the drawings accompanying the paper were as follows :— I. Calyx.—The calyx-teeth often rise into single leaves; but when compound leaves are formed, the division seems to be as follows: the two large equal teeth, which are _ Opposite the vexillum, form one ternate leaf, and another leaf is formed from the three WIL. Stamens.—Whatever changes the flower may exhibit, these organs are always | _in a state to be recognised, and their reversion to leaves less frequent than in any 1a other part; so that there is more difficulty in determining the number of leaves | which go to form this portion. As two ternate leaves form the calyx and corolla, it might be supposed that the stamens were constructed out of the same number. The _ figures represent cases of a stamen reverting to a leaf with a true stamen attached to its stalk on either side; the single anterior stamen, when it reverts, seems always | _ disposed to form more than a simple leaf, and it is therefore probable that the ten __ stamens (9+-1) may be formed out of four sets of ternate leaves. 4 _ IV. From the well-known character of the pod and pistil in Leguminose, it might _be expected that instances of reversion to leaf would be most frequent in this part of the flower; and a series might easily have been produced which would have repre- _ sented it in every stage of passage ; some of these were given. From these it would appear that the pod is not formed of a whole compound leaf, as either two scales, or two abortive leaves, are constantly to be seen at the base of the imperfect pod on : _ either side; the pod is therefore usually formed out of the middle leaflet. In one * * The paper was accompanied by a series of drawings on an enlarged scale. 70 REPORT—1849. flower-head however each division of the pistil-leaf had become a pod, with a distinct stem, and the ovules inwards. Ovules seem to be produced only when junction of the edges of the pistil-leaf takes place; in other cases leaflets are produced in the place of ovules. In cases where every other part of the floral series has been regularly developed, the pistil occasionally will take the form of a perfect ternate leaf, and then the axis of the plant is continued through the flower. Some of these changes have been already noticed and described; but one com- plete series, extending from the calyx through every part of the flower, has not, that I am aware, been recorded as to this, or indeed any other plant. With respect to the leaves of 7’. repens, it is stated by M. Moquin-Tandon that they occasionally take additional leaflets, and he quotes instances of four, five and seven. In Link’s ‘ Report on Botany’ (Ray Soc. Translation), M. Walpers is quoted for a no- tice of “a monstrous seven-leaved leaf” of this species, who considers the three leaves, as well as the simple leaves, as shortened pinnated leaves. From the very common occurrence of three simple leaves in the place of the com- pound one; from the instance already noticed of the termination of the axis in three opposite pistils, as well as from the structure of the base of the stalk of the ordinary leaves, it would seem rather that they consisted of unions of three simple ones. ‘Though directed to look for instances of pinnated leaves by these notices of MM. Moquin- Tandon and Walpers, I was not able to meet with any. On Fairy Rings, with Notes on some of the Edible Fungi by which they are caused. By Prof. Buckman, F.G.S. After detailing at some length the experiments of Mr. Way on the composition of fungi forming the fairy rings, Prof. Buckman gave an account of the various species which formed fairy rings in the neighbourhood of Cirencester. He stated that at dif- ferent seasons of the year no less than three species of Agaricus appeared on the same ring. The species of Grasses also that composed the ring were found by the author to be constantly the same in the inner and outer parts of the circle in the rings which he examined. The Cirencester species of fungi in the rings were edible, and much sought after by the students of the college, being the Agaricus prunulus. On a remarkable Monstrosity of a Vinca. By Prof. E. Forzus, F.R.S. In this monstrous flower the calyx and petals were normal; the stamens converted into petals, with traces of anthers on the margin of their attenuated bases; within them were six carpels arranged in two whorls; the outer three had no styles and exhibited no sutures on their inner faces; the three inner ones were larger; two were sutured along their inner faces, two bore styles on their tips, the summits of the three styles had united by their basal rings; below the stigma, which was common to all three, two of the styles had been broken away in consequence of the growth of a prolongation of the axis from among the centre of the ovaries; this elongation bore upon its summit a rudimentary flower, consisting of five outer lanceolate segments equivalent to sepals, five linear bodies alternating with the former equivalent to petals; a five-lobed fleshy ring, which might be regarded as a circle of stamens, but which showed no traces of anthers; the four bodies equivalent to carpels, two of them larger than the other two, and one of the two bearing a style terminating in astigma. The monstrosity did not end here; in the midst of these ovaries, arose another but very short prolongation of the axis bearing a cup-like disc, bordered by five leaf-like lobes, and within the margin of the cup was a circle of minute ovule-like bodies ; all the parts of the prolonged axis were green. The observer was inclined to regard this singular monstrosity as an instance of true folial and true axile placentation co-existing in the same flower, The monster was found among some flowers brought to Covent-garden this spring. On the Varieties of the Wild Carrot. By Prof. E. Forsgs, F.R.S. Two species of Daucus, D. carota and D. maritimus, are enumerated as indigenous in our British Floras, and a third has been indicated with a doubt and referred to the TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 71 D. gingidium, The object of this communication was to show that the characters by which these supposed species were distinguished are by no means constant, but on the contrary extremely variable; that the Daucus carota passes gradually into the Daucus maritimus as it approaches the neighbourhood of the sea, and that the plant which has been referred to Daucus gingidium is also a sea-side variety of Carota, There is however an unnoticed form, probably of an extreme variation of the supposed gin- gidium, occurring on the coast of Dorsetshire, which is remarkable for having dusky yellow petals with ciliated margins, whereas all other forms of our carrots have white petals with entire margins. To this variety it is proposed to apply the name eiliatus, This plant, which at first sight has much the aspect of a veritable species, is probably the one mentioned by Decandolle as occurring near Dieppe, and referred by that author to Daucus hispidus of Desfontaines. It does not appear probable however that the plant so called by Algerine botanists is identical with that from the shores of theAtlantic, nor is there any sufficient evidence that either D. gingidium, D. hispanicus, or D. littoralis of Mediterranean floras have been found (as has been asserted) north of the Bay of Biscay. Living specimens of the plants described were exhibited to the Section. On some Abnormal Forms of the Fruit of Brassica oleracea. By Evwin Lanxester, M.D., F.R.S. The specimens in which the monstrosities were observed were gathered from under the Culver Cliff in the Isle of Wight. In many of the specimens the fruit exhibited the external form of the silicle rather than the silique. The beak and the stigma, which normally are fully developed, were reduced to a mere rounded point, and in many cases the distance from the stigma to the pedicel was not more than the sixth ofaninch. On opening these fruits no vestige of a septum could be found, and the partly developed ovules adhered on each side to a continuous mass of vascular tissue uniting the two carpels. Each carpel was broader than it was long, and was com- posed of alittle leaf-like bag, which was puckered and contracted at its union with its fellow on the opposite side. Reticulated veins were easily observed on each of the metamorphosed carpels. From the fruits in this state up to those normally de- veloped, were a series of transitionary forms presenting almost every possible variety of form. The author suggested that these changes in the fruit of a cruciferous plant suggested the possibility that the septum, the beak, and stigma in the Cruciferze were not, as had been suggested by previous writers, foliar or carpellary structures, but that they had a true axile origin, On the Vegetable Productions of Algiers. By G. Munsy. ‘In this paper the author gave a sketch of the various plants which give a character _ to the vegetation of Algiers. He mentioned those which are used as the food of man. Amongst these he entered into a discussion of the species of plants which had been supposed to yield the Jotus of the ancients. He also described the Lichen esculentus, a plant of rapid growth belonging probably to the order of Fungi, and which covers some of the desert wastes of Algeria. It has a sweet taste, is eaten by the Arabs, and is quite capable of sustaining animal life. Mr, Munby suggested that the manna re~ corded in Scripture might be a production of this kind. On the Nervous System and certain other Points in the Anatomy of the Bryozoa. [ By Prof, Aruman, M.D., M.R.I.A. The first notice ef a nervous system in the Bryozoa is due to M. Dumortier, who mentions the existence of a transparent body at the base of each of the tentaculiferous lobes in his genus Lophopus, established for the Polype & Panache of Trembley, these bodies being considered by Dumortier as true nervous ganglions, In referring to the nervous system the appearance just mentioned, Dr. Allman was of opinion that this naturalist has fallen into an error ; but it is nevertheless quite cer- tain that Dumortier had observed the true nervous centre in a yellowish body which exists on the rectal aspect of the cesophagus just behind the mouth, and which he has referred doubtfully to the system of the nerves. bed atin 72 REPORT—1849, Without any knowledge of Dumortier’s discovery, Professor Allman had demon- strated some years ago the existence of this organ in Cristatella, and had also referred it to the nervous system, describing it as the great cesophageal ganglion of the Bryo- zoon. Professor Allman was now enabled to lay before the meeting some additional facts connected with this subject, as he had recently discovered filaments proceeding from the ganglion, so that the distribution of the nerves could now no longer be considered asa matter of doubt. The author described the great oesophageal ganglion in Pluma- tella repens as sending off a large filament to each of the tentaculiferous lobes, a smaller one passing off at each side to embrace the cesophagus, while a very short one ap- peared to proceed from the ganglion and dive into the substance of the cesophagus, where it could no longer be traced, and another set of filaments was observed to pass forwards and distribute themselves to the organs about the mouth. Among other points in the anatomy of the Bryoxoa, Professor Allman mentioned his detection of striz in the muscles, and the tendency of the muscular fibre to break itself into dises. The tube of the tentaculz was shown to be lined by a distinct mem- brane; the invaginated part of the internal tunic was proved to be composed of two portions distinct in structure, separated from one another by a sphincter, and a com- plete system of muscles was demonstrated in connexion with the oral valve. From the facts now laid before the meeting, Professor Allman maintained the ne- cessity of removing altogether the Bryoxoa from the position among the radiate classes in which they had been placed by authors, and raising them at once to the sub-kingdom of the Mollusca. On a New Freshwater Bryozoon. By Prof. Autman, M.D., M.R.I.A. The subject of this communication was discovered in the Commercial Docks on the Thames, during a late examination of that locality in company with Mr. Bowerbank. It possesses many points of resemblance with P/umatella repens, but differs essen- tially from this animal in the circumstance of each cell being separated from its neighbour by a distinct septum, as in Paludicella. On the Reproductive System of Cordylophora lacustris, Allm. By Prof. Autman, M.D., M.R.I.A. Certain branches of Cordylophora lacustris, instead of terminating in polypes, bear upon their extremities an oval vesicle, into which the contained matter of the stem is continued. These vesicles arefilled with spherical bodies, and must be viewed as the true ovarian receptacles of the zoophyte. On Lophopus crystallina, Dumortier. By Prof. Atuman, M.D., M.R.I.A. In this communication the author noticed the occurrence of Lophopus crystallina in the pond of the Dublin Zoological Gardens. This elegant zoophyte is the Polype a Panache of Trembley, and had been first characterized as a genus by Dumortier. It has since been confounded with other genera, and Dr. Johnston, in his excellent ‘History of british Zoophytes,’ adduces Trembley’s Polype a Panache asasynonyme of Alcyonella stagnorum. An examination however of the present zoophyte must convince us of its true generic distinctness, and of the correctness of the views main- tained by M. Dumortier, and subsequently by M. Van Beneden, who has figured and described it in his memoir ‘ Sur Jes Polypes d’eau douce de Belgium.’ Mr. R. Ball exhibited a new dredge which he had recently constructed for natural” history purposes, being an improvement on the instrument called Ball’s dredge. Mr. R. Ball exhibited a drawing, and described the structure of a specimen of Bryarea scolopendra found in Dublin Bay by Dr. Corrigan. Notes on some Tubicole. By C. Srencz Bate. Yerebelia medusa.—The author remarked that while building, this annelide placed the material collected by its tentacular cirri upon its mouth, where it is, he presumes, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 73 covered by the glutinous substance, which when dried forms the cement and tubing of the case. With its mouth the creature places the sand upon its back and then rolls itself from side to side, and again puts forth its tentacula in search of fresh ma- terial. The whole internal cavity of the worm in which the viscera exist is filled by a fluid, by which the animal has the power of moving, the loss of which entails de- struction of all motive power; to preclude which circumstance, upon receiving any external wound, the animal will divide itself by contraction of the annular muscles anterior to the wound, which operation it will also perform in order to escape from the grasp of an enemy. From the head of the animal to about the lower extremity of the stomach is a mass of white granular material, which the author presumes to be the ovaria, on either side of which are ducts leading into several pear-shaped sacs. Early in February the author noticed active motion of the fluid within passing in one direction, excited by a powerful set of cilia; shortly after some-particles of the fluid existing within these sacs seemed to unite together, which became the earliest formation of a new creature; this little animal exists by the introduction within its own system of the parent fluid by which it is surrounded; this is done through a circular umbilical pulsating heart which opens by a slit, situated about: the centre of the young creature. Shortly after, what the author has termed umbilical circulation ceases, and the young worm moves within the uterine sac; as the creature progresses the intestinal canal also becomes more perfect, and shortly after it leaves the sac and enters into a passage or oviduct, one of which on either side traverses the walls of the parent and opens into the rectum beyond the point where the intestinal tube is incorporated with the outer walls of the worm, and there voided. Sabella alveolata (Hermella, Savigny)—After speaking of the habits of this an- nelide and the circulatory system, the author says, in relation to the organs of pro- gression, besides all these there are other setz situated upon the back; these perform a most important office in the ceconomy of these creatures, which is to eject from the cell the fecal matter; that this may be accomplished the more easily, the intestinal canal is extended beyond the creature, making a sort of tail about one-fourth of the whole length of the animal, which is turned forward upon the dorsal surface; the ex- pelled material is taken up by these delicate setze and passed forwards from one to the next until it reaches the entrance to the abode, where, when under water, it is ejected with considerable force, but at other times it is deposited at the entrance and washed away by the first passing wave. Notes on the Boring of Marine Animals. By C. Spence Bate. The latest theory which, possessing novelty, has. been advanced, is that of Mr. Hancock (Brit. Association, Swansea, 1848; and Annals of Nat. Hist. October 1848), Prof. Forbes at the same meeting stated, that “he endeavoured to find the crystalline spiculze (with which the author affirms the foot tobe armed for boring), but without success, either by the aid of the microscope or by chemical tests.” Throughout his paper Mr. Bate accepted the presence of these crystalline bodies as a thing proved, and endeavours to show that the holes dwelt in by marine animals could not owe their existence to any mechanical force by a creature so armed and formed, even supposing the rock sufficiently soft to be mechanically fretted away. Yhe author of this paper noticed a hole so deviating from the cylindrical in figure, that a prominent portion of the matrix projects so as to occupy a position between the anterior edge of the two valves. This fact he argues is in opposition to either of the three theories which naturalists have most favoured. First. It is opposed to the theory of mechanical attrition by an armed foot, since the greatest protuberance exists in juxtaposition with the aperture in the mantle through which the foot must extend itself, and is thus sliown to be inefficient for the purpose, nilly. To that advanced by Mr. Osler, that part which is nearest the foot and consequently the most liable to be acted upon, is the least so. Thirdly. To that which presumes that the animal wears the rock by the means of its own shell, using it upon the principle of an auger; since the presence of such an irregularity precludes the possibility of either valve from moving ventrally forwards, and consequently from a rotatory motion. 74 REPORT—1849. Similar evidence may repeatedly be seen where Pholas parva bores into chalk: the depression between the posterior margin of the valves occupied by the hinge cor- responds with a ridge in the matrix, a circumstance which it was impossible could have occurred if the animal had rotated. Opposing thus all mechanical action, the author resumed the idea of a solvent, but was of opinion that the solvent should be looked for in the element in which the ani- mals exist, and not in the resources of the animal itself. He presumed that it would be found in the presence of the free carbonic acid held in solution by sea-water; the ceco- nomy of the boring animals being simple and uniform throughout creation, the solvent only being directed by them according to their habits, through the process of re- spiration and ciliary currents. He next proceeded to show the action of sea-water upon limestone coasts, attributing their peculiar appearance to the presence of carbonic acid in the sea-water ; and upon rolled limestone pebbles, particularly those which had been previously bored by small annelides, which he presumed gave a passage for sea-water to the centre of the stone, and tended to wear them rapidly and irregulariy, evidence of which may be frequently seen in those which have been perforated by sponges, becoming half-buried in sand, where the exposed side is corroded, whilst the protected part remains uninjured. The author’s opinion was, that the boring of Saxicava was to be attributed to the same means, the animal only causing the solvent to act more uniformly. He believed that the perforations of Saxicava were the work of time, and his experience went to show that the animal could not bore deeper into the rock after it had lost the power of locomotion, which was very early in its existence; after which, excavation only continued to enlarge the cavity so as to adapt it to the increasing buik of the animal, as well as the entrance to the excavation, which in the young barely exceeds the sixteenth of an inch, while in that of the adult it often equals the diameter of the animal, and always bore a corresponding ratio to the thickness of the shell; thick- ness of shell denoting age, and with years the diameter of the bore inereases, With regard to the Pholas tribe, he presumed that they penetrate soft clays through a modification of the same power; that is, in all the Lithophagi the caleareous rock is dissolved by the carbonic acid in the currents induced by the animal, but in that of the borers into clay, the wearing power is the mechanical action of those currents, which ave greatly increased by the muscular power of the animal; the carbonic acid still taking up any caleareous matter which may be present, as in the case where they are found to bore in soft triassic sandstone. In this opinion he considered that he was supported by the observations of Mr, Osler, who in explaining how (what he presumes to be) the rasped waste is expelled during the process of excavation, says, ‘‘ When the projected syphon is distended with water, the Pholas closes the orifices of the tubes and retracts them suddenly ; the water which they contain is thus ejected forcibly from the opening of the mantle, and the jet is prolonged by the gradual closing of the valves to expel the water contained within the shell; the chamber occupied by the animal is thus completely cleansed.” ‘That the Pholas expels material by the force of currents, is shown in this passage, but it is only hypothetical that it had been pre- viously rasped off by the shell. The foregoing evidence shows that Pholas cannot rotate within its cavity ; consequently the waste, seen to be expelled by Mr. Osler, could not have been first rasped off; therefore it is not unfair to presume that it was worn off by the mechanical force of the current excited by the animal. It is only by presuming such to be the case that we can account how Pholas candida ean be found to bore into clay and peat on the coast of Wales, pure sand at Exmouth, and lias at Lyme Regis. The remarkable manner in which shells and rolled pebbles are perforated by Cliona, will easily, the author presumed, be explained by the same theory. He argued that a sporule of Cliona (which is a true sponge in all its conditions) first obtains a footing in some crevice, where it developes itself so as to penetrate the whole fabric, destroying the shell or pebble by simply fulfillmg the condition of its existence, which is by pouring its currents ina given direction, until a passage be broken through by the corroding power of the carbonic acid in those currents. He mentioned a case which fell under his observation, in which a Saxicava was not only checked but turned aside and deformed by coming into contact with Cliona. Neither, from their own power, were eapable of effecting a passage through the other. The sponge from its nature could not be acted upon by the solvent, which it is presumed the mollusk uses; neither could — Cie = TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 75 Cliona (although using the same solvent) destroy the shell of the Saxicava, as both were capable of wearing the oyster-shell, because the Saxicava was protected by an epidermis, —a membrane which he presumed was given to mollusca in general for the specific purpose of defending the shel] from the corroding action of the carbonic acid contained in the water in which they exist. The author also mentioned an instance of two specimens of Saxicava found by him boring in the valve of an oyster, the one at right angles with the other, the one which met the other full on the side being flattened by the contact; this circumstance, to- gether with the wound caused being still in apposition, clearly proves that neither has advanced or moved during a considerable portion of their existence ; moreover a portion of the shell into which they have bored opposite to the opening of the mantle, as stated before, remains prominent, so as to stand between the anterior edges of the two valves, proving beyond a doubt the impossibility of the animal's capability of ro- tating upon its own axis. Of the boring of Patella, the author argued that its form will preclude all idea of its boring by the action of its shell. His observations upon the boring of the Buccinum into the shells of other mol- lusca attributed their power of perforation to the same source, that is to a current charged with carbonic acid passing through the buccal apparatus of that tribe, the lingual riband having no part in the operation; the portion of the incomplete per- foration which would most correspond with this siliceous apparatus was left the most prominent part. The animal, he stated, takes about two days to perforate the shell of the common mussel, and performs the work without the least action on the part of the shell, as must be the case whenever a circular hole is bored by mechanical action. The same theory he presumed will hold in the absorption of the columella in the family of the Purpuriferze ; that which follows the long-continued residence of the Pagurus in the shell of Trachelipods : as also the groove sunk by Spiroglyphus, which annelide affords a good example to illustrate the theory; for it not only sinks a groove in the shell on which it has erected its own, but should its contortions bring it “into contact with any portion of its own shell, it absorbs it equally with any other.” Upon the boring of Teredo he had nothing new to offer, never having had an op- portunity of examining any but dead animals in. old wood; he believed that their anatomy being so different from the mollusca which bore into clay and stone, would account for a different action on the part of the creature, except in Xylophaga, which being free, bored probably, as it is presumed, the Pholas bores; in this idea the author is, he argued, supported by the fact that this animal rarely boves more than an inch deep, and that only into saturated wood, invariably shunning the harder kinds. _ The Prince of Canino made a few remarks on the characters which distinguish the little Blue Magpie of Spain (Pica Cookii) from that of Siberia (Pica cyanea, Pallas). He also stated that the new Caprimulgus of Hungary belonged to the genus Cordylis, On the Genera of British Patellacea, By Prof, E. Forzzs, F.R.S. The great similarity existing between pateiliform shells, the animals of which are so different that they cannot be included in the same genus, has long been known to naturalists, and is one of those apparent anomalies which have been laid stress upon as sources of uncertainty in palaontological inductions: without however very good reason, for the remains of the mollusks in question are rarely found in the fossil state, and the great majority of fossils of that class of animals are such as can be con- fidently depended on. In the course of the researches undertaken by the author and Mr. Hanley for their joint work on the “ History of British Mollusca,” now in progress of publication, a fresh inquiry was required to be made into the propriety with which the British Patellacea had been assigned to known genera. It resulted that among our species we had two forms, for which it becomes necessary to construct new ge- " neric types, viz. the so-called Lottia fulva and Lottia ancyloides, Neither of these - belong to Acmea, with which Lottia is synonymous, but both differ essentially in cha- racters of head, mantle, dentition, and in the latter case, position of body with respect - to shell, As no established genus can receive them, for the former a new genus, 76 REPORT—1849, Pilidium, is proposed, to which Patella ceca of the ‘ Zoologia Danica’ also belongs ; and for the latter a new genus, Propilidium. Pilidium is allied to Acmea on the one hand, and to Propilidium on the other, having the position in the shell of the former genus, and the tongue of the latter. Propilidium links Acmea and its allies with Puncturella and Emarginula, like which it has the apex of the shell turned away from the head of the animal, but has a very different dentition. The British Patellacea may be arranged as follows :— Ist Group. Parextina#. Cyclobranchiate animals; apex of the shell anteal. 1. Patella. A. Branchial lamine extending in front of head; branchial impression in shell unsymmetrical. 1. Patella vulgata. 2. Patella athletica. B. (Patina). Branchial laminz deficient in front of head; branchial impression subsymmetrical. 3. Patella pellucida, 2nd Group. Acmzavz. Branchiz cervical ; apex of shell variable ; rachis of tongue of comparatively single elements. 1. Acmea. Transverse element of tongue double; tentacula oculiferous; apex of shell anteal. 1. Acmza testudinalis. 2. Acmea virginea. 2. Pilidium. Transverse element of shell anteal. 1. Pilidium fulvum. 3. Propilidium. Transverse element of tongue single; tentacula eyeless; apex of shell posteal. 1. Propilidium ancyloide. Then follow Emarginula (two species); Puncturella (one species) ; and Fissurella (one species); all members of a third group, linking the two former with Haliotis and Trochus. Capulus and Calypirea are members of another family. On Beroé Cucumis, and the Genera or Species of Ciliograda which have been founded upon it. By Prof. E. Forszs, F.R.S. At the Birmingham Meeting of 1839, the author, in conjunction with Professor Goodsir, communicated an account of the British Ciliograde Meduse. They then announced the existence in our seas of the true Beroé Cucumis of Otho Fabricius, which they had taken on the coasts of Zetland. Since that time Prof. E. Forbes has availed himself of many opportunities for the observation of these animals, and has been successful in discovering some new features in their economy. He has taken the Beroé Cucumis in many parts of the coasts of England and Scotland, from the Zetland Isles to the Isle of Wight, and has not been able to find any sufficient differences among the individuals to warrant the recognition of more than one species. They vary greatly in size and colour; in the Hebrides they are not unfrequently taken 3 inches in length, but are usually very much smaller on the English shores. He has found that apparently at certain seasons nu- merous individuals of this Beroé produce in the line of their ciliary ribs, and from the belts of motor tissue at the base of the cilia, ovate egg-like pedunculated bodies of a bright orange colour. These can also be produced from the finer ciliary circles of the mouth and of the dorsal extremity. When the animal is in this state, any irritation near the ciliary ribs causes it to contract the neighbouring portion of the body over them, so as to protect them, sheathing the eggs as it were in deep mem- branous canals. Particular attention is directed to these gemmules or egg-like bodies, which may prove to be intermediate states of the Beroé. When the animal is in egg it is extremely irritable, and when irritated gives out the most brilliant vivid green phosphorescent light, always from the vessels beneath the ciliary ribs and from no other part. The badness of the majority of delineations of this animal and a misconception of its true structure, have caused numerous false species and several genera to be con- structed out of one. Thus in the ‘ Histoire des Acalephes,’ by Lesson, all the fol- lowing appear to be founded on Beroé Cucumis: in the genus Beroé, Beroé Forskahlii, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 77 Milne-Edwards, a name proposed for the Medusa Beroé of Forskall, which is the Mediterranean form of the species, and to which Professor Milne-Edwards, in an admirable memoir, very rightly assigned the Beroé ovatus of Lamouroux, the Beroé elongatus of Risso, the Beroé rufescens of Eschscholtz, the Idya Forskalii, Beroé albens, Beroé Chiajit of Lesson himself. The author suggested its probable identity with the Beroé ovatus of Brown, the Beroé Cucumis of Otho Fabricius and Sars, the Beroé Capensis and Beroé punctata of Chamisso, and the Beroé macrostomus of Peron and Lesueur. In spite of the elucidation of the subject by Milne-Edwards, several of the so-called species, as Beroé albens, B. punctata, ovatus and Capensis, were retained by Lesson and distributed even under different genera. Beroé fallax, founded on a figure by Scoresby, is probably the same species. In the genus Jdya of Tremonville, retained on account of the animal having its ‘body open at the two poles” (a misconception founded on some of the curious contractile changes which these animals assume), we find Idya Peronii, which is Beroé macrostomus of Peron, Idya Capensis, Idya Cucumis, the names annexed to Fabricius’s species, Zdya elongatus, a six-ribbed monstrosity, mistaken for a species by Risso, Idya borealis, so far as the reference to Scoresby goes, and Jdya ovata (Beroé ovatus of Brown), all almost without a question identical. Then follows the genus Medea of Eschscholtz (this to Lesson is a Beroé with in- terrupted bands of cilia), in which he places Medea fuigens, the species discovered by Macartney, and Medea dubia, founded on the fountain-fish of the old voyager Mertens, both undoubtedly Beroé Cucumis; whilst Medea arctica, founded on one of Scoresby’s figures, was probably the same. The genus Cydalisia of Lesson himself follows, instituted on account of the presence of “ two little ciliated openings” at the pole op- poste the mouth. Every person who has examined a Beroé knows that the two ittle rays of cirrhi which Lesson means by this phrase, are present in every individual. The Cydalisia punctata is certainly Beroé Cucumis, and the C. mitreformis probably that species. “Then comes the genus Pandora of Eschscholtz, which is defined on account of the ciliary bands being lodged in furrows bordered by membranous folds ; evidently the condition of Beroé described in this communication. The Janira hea- agona, founded on a figure of Slabber, was probably also the species before us. Thus there would appear to be about fifteen species distributed under four if not six genera, constructed out of this one animal. Such proceedings tend to confuse zoolo- gical science, and are the more inexcusable since the full and accurate dissertation of Milne-Edwards on Beroé Forskali was at hand to guide, and is even quoted in Lesson’s work, Prof. E. Forbes laid upon the table several papers containing observations made by the Dredging Committee. He hoped that the Committee would soon be able to present to the Section some general facts as the result of the investigations which had now been going on for so many years. Tf Vitality be a Force having Correlations with the Forces, Chemical Affinities, Motion, Heat, Light, Electricity, Magnetism, Gravity, so ably shown by Professor Grove to be modifications of one and the same Force? By R. Fower, M.D., F.R.S. _ The author, after having shown that each of these modified forces can be excited by any other, or in its turn be the exciter of all the rest, and consequently the antecedent or consequent indifferently of each of the others, proceeded to show that this is equally true of vitality, and that the coils in which these forces are latent, and by whose mo- difications in an excited state they are rendered apparent to our senses, constitute one of the differences between them. For instance, the change of temperature to which ‘the infant is necessarily exposed at its birth, the heat going rapidly out of it, excites _ the motion necessary for inspiration. This gives the oxygen of the air access to the _ carbon of the blood by endosmosis; this again to animal heat. From that electricity _ -may be obtained; and from electricity, by an appropriate coil, magnetism. Gravity the infant acquires by its growth, and can counteract by its muscular contractility. It may be said that an infant affords no evidence of the production of the forces, light, electricity and magnetism, but the experiments of Dr. Faraday have demonstrated that all these may be produced by the vitality of the Gymnotus, and rendered palpable 78 REPORT—1849. to our sight and feeling. So much for the qualities by which vitality has correlations with all other forces. But there still remains a difference—vitality is the artist of its own coils. No other force can make an organ of either an animal or a plant (the coil by means of which their vitality is evinced), Neither a Volta nor an Cirsted could have invented an eye or an ear, or even a graft by which the sap of a fruit-tree is so modified as to differ from that of the parent stock. The author added instances of the light of fire-flies, glow-worms, and some marine animals, as instances of production of light, apparent to the vision of others by vitality. And any person may satisfy himself of the ease with which a flash of light, the pro ducts of his own vitality, may be rendered perceptible to himself, by putting a plate of zine between the gums and the cheek in one side of the mouth and the broad handle of a silver spoon in the other, and then (in the dark) he will see a flash of light at every instant of contact and separation of the zinc and silver. That mind and vitality reciprocally excite and depress each other must be obvious to al! who are attentive to their daily feelings; and all conversant with surgical prac- tice must be aware of the difference in healing of wounds in a healthy or exhausted subject. J.G. Jeffreys, Esq. exhibited some rare mollusca which had been recently col- lected by Mr. Barlee in Zetland. Among these were Rissoa eximia, anew species, of _ which Mr, Jeffreys gave a description; Diphyllidia lineata (Otto), new to the British coasts; Fusus Berniciensis; F. albus; Trochus formosus; Cerithium nitidum; Ros- tellaria pes Carbonis; Scissurella crispata (which was taken by Mr. Barlee alive, and adhering to stones like Emarginula), Megathyris cistellula and Tellina balaustina. On the Course of the Blood in the Circulation of the Human Fetus in the Nor- mal Developement, compared with the Acardian, Reptilian, and Ichthic Circu- lation. By Dr. Macponatp. On the External Antenne of the Crustacean and Entomoid Class, and their Anatomical Relation and Function, showing their connexion with the Olfactory instead of the Auditory Apparatus, and the Homology in the Vertebrate Class. By Dr. Macpona.p. On Lucernaria inauriculata. By Professor Owen, M.D., F.RS. Professor Owen communicated a description of the external characters and anatomy of a Lucernaria which he had found near low-water mark on the flat rocks to the east of Dover, August 1849, attached to the Ulva latissima: it differed from the Lucernaria quadricornis, or L. fascicularis, in having the eight tentaculiferous lobes equidistant from each other, and it differed from the Lucernaria auricula in the absence of any ear- like appendage at the middle of the border of the connecting webs between those lobes. It differed from the Lucernaria campanulata in the absence of the “ two series of foliaceous processes arranged on each side of a white line*,” extending from the sides of the mouth along the middle of each connecting web; and by the presence of a convoluted coloured filamentary body extending from the circumference of the mouth to the tentaculiferous extremity of each of the eight lobes. It also differed from the L. cyathiformis in the tentacles being supported, in clusters, at the extremity of lobes produced beyond the margin of the infundibular disc. ; The specimens varied from an inch to half an inch in length. One variety had ten lobes. The stem of the polype, which is ordinarily slender and as long as the ex- panded body, terminates in an adhesive disc or base, in the centre of which is a small triradiate pore or pit, with a thickened border or sphincter. There is no car- tilaginous lamina in this disc. Four canals commence from the central pore or pit, and ascend the stem projecting into the central digestive cavity, but separated from the cavity by its lining membrane, which is reflected upon the four canals; forming as many longitudinal folds projecting into the digestive cavity. * Johnstone’s British Zoophytes, 1846, p, 249, fig. 56, db, TRANSACTIONS: OF THE SECTIONS. 79 The four canals bifurcate, and are continued along each of the cight lobes to their extremities, where they subdivide, and are continued along each of the thirty or thirty- two tentacles forming the terminal ciuster of the lobe. Professor Owen described a small triradiate pore at the round expanded end of each tentacle, and assigned rea- sons for regarding it as the orifice of the canal traversing the tentacle. He entered into a disquisition as to the function of this system of ramified canals, which is equally distinct from the digestive and generative systems, and contains a clear colourless liquid, with minute organic particles or granules; and expressed his opinion that the system of ramified canals was homologous with the partially-divided abdominal or aquifetous cavity from which the canals of the tentacula are continued in the Actinie. The generative organs were arranged in eight filamentary masses, disposed in short wavy folds along the inner surface of each of the eight lobes. Each mass con- sists of a central lobulated body containing the fusiform capsules of the spermatozoa, similar to, but smaller than those of the Actinie, and this body is surrounded by the looser stroma containing the ova. The large mature and impregnated ova dehisce from the inner surface, or that next the cavity of the infundibular web of the polype. Professor Owen having travelled from Dover to the meeting at Birmingham, had not had the opportunity of comparing his observations with those of any other au- thor, except such as were given in Dr. Johnstone’s excellent work on ‘ British Zoophytes,’—the best manual for the sea-side observer. In reply to some remarks respecting the four longitudinal muscles or ligaments, described by Sars and others as rising up within the pedicle, he remarked that nothing was easier or plainer than the demonstration of the arez of four corresponding canals in his Lucernaria: it re- quired only a neat transverse section of the stalk or peduncle to see that they were not solid, but hollow bodies. The pores on the clavate ends of the tentacles were best seen by viewing them as opake objects with a good reflected light. Since making the above communication, the author has compared his species with all the extant descriptions and figures of Lucernaria, and finds so close a resemblance in that figured in the late French illustrated edition of Cuvier’s ‘ Régne Animal,’ as to lead him to conclude that it is the same species. Itis referredin that work, how- ever, to the Lucernaria auriculata, although differing, like the Dover specimens, in the absence of the ear-like appendages to the webs signified by the name. If those appendages be constant, the specimens described by Prof. Owen, as well as that figured in the ‘Régne Animal,’ are a distinct species, for which the name Lucer- naria inauriculata is proposed. On Improvements in Pathological Drawing. By James Paxton, M.D. The intention of this communication is to recommend the style of cartoon painting as well-adapted to pathological representations. The author has shown that the pic- torial features of pathological drawings ought not to be deficient in the beauties of fidelity of expression and execution, but should possess these qualities in common with works in the fine arts of a more inviting character. For this purpose he has in- troduced a corresponding mode of painting; namely, illustrations of morbid anatomy by cartoons, with plate glass to give the transparent lustre which belongs to oil paintings, examples of which were exhibited to the Section. The colours employed were opake and solid ; permanent white being the medium for moderating the intensity of each tint, in lieu of the transparent medium commonly used on white paper. The lighter and brighter parts of the objéect ate brought out by penciling an opake body of colour on a darker ground. By this method a person. has a singular facility of copying the appearances displayed by disease. . Thus a coloured sketch of Scirrhus Pylorus was executed in an hour. ‘To produce as much of the character of disease on white paper with transparent media, would have occupied several hours. In a highly-finished drawing of Bright’s disease of the kidney, it appeared the labour was vastly diminished by penciling the indications of granular fibrinous deposits upon a deeper colour. The advantages of adopting this method of pathological drawing were pointed out as manifold. First. That we obtain a portraiture of practical medical anatomy in a com- paratively short space of time, and this circumstance is an important consideration, since alldead animal substances speedily undergo a succession of changesin colour. Second. Cartoon painting is peculiarly suited to morbid subjects, inasmuch as it displays their surface, organic development and texture, with greater distinctness and force than 80 REPORT—1849. any other style the author is acquainted with. Moreover it is a style which most readily admits of being rectified wherever it is observed to be defective, as the drawing is uninjured by laying one colour over another to any extent thought needful. Third. Placing plate glass before the picture gives both the brilliancy and softnessof varnish on the surface. } The last suggestion mentioned relative to pathological delineation is, that while the drawing is in progress, the morbid specimen should be kept under a glass dome or. roof; the latter, of a prismatic form, was preferred, from its not reflecting surrounding objects. The escape of any infection or unpleasant effluvia is thus prevented. Be- sides which, this plan preserves the part from the dryness and corrugation which soon take place from exposure to the atmosphere. On the Luminosity of the Sea on the Cornish Coasts. By C. W. Pracn. The author described the state of the weather at the time of observation, comparing it with that which occurred soon after, as well as the animals observed on those occa- sions. He exhibited drawings of many—some new to the British coasts,—one at least of which has been found in the Mediterranean. These were abundant in July, but were destroyed by a heavy gale of wind, since which they have not been noticed ; they belong to the Diphyidiz. The author had a long list arranged in a tabular form of the animals, state of weather, date and hour of observation, the amount of luminosity, &c. ; but only gave a list of animals observed, with a table of the number of observations made in five years, and the changes of weather that took place soon after. VERY LUMINOUS. When the weather has changed suddenly from fine to wet with gales of wind, and When it continued fine. at times tempestuous, with lightning, &c. Ale enustesansee Seaspareeanaas. Li pheeckeste aS ene onpcnesmaennenal GRU s ccaecscneas car catecnecacan 1 TBE ccasstcneicensnae tes imee ces Sl gassed Kiasecas Rasisinaisislp Bensen 2 DSA. ccsantscencearee ees Wet thos enaptnaensn sks «ps ccpaneaure a LES A abet SS a ae ee acenexe 3 List or OnsEcTS OBSERVED. Gasteropoda. Young of Eolis. Tunicata. Tadpole of Botryllus. Cirrhopoda.. Young of— barnacles and cast skins of. Crustacea. : Opossum Shrimp; Zcea; Oniscus ceruleatus; Polyphemus; Cyclops; Cypris. Annelida. A small swimming Annelid. Zoophyta. Laomedea, &c. Acalephe. Willsia stellata. A new one. ; Saphenia dinema. Several other objects, much like the young | ‘Sarsia prolifera. of Zoophytes. Thaumantias octona. Benue inconspicua. ee Bouganvillia nigritella. Diphyidiz, probably Cuboides vitreus, and Lizzia blondina, one something like Calpe pentagona, Lizzia octopunctata. both new to the British seas. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81 Observations and Experiments on the Noctiluca miliaris, the Animalcular Source of the Phosphorescence of the British Seas; together with a few ge- neral remarks on the phenomena of Vital Phosphorescence. By Dr. J. H. Prine. The author referred to the various theories which have been advanced on the sub- _ ject of the phosphorescence of the seas, and to the instances of phosphorescence occur- ' ring both amongst land and marine animals. After reciting various observations by others on the phenomena of vital phosphorescence, he proceeded to detail his own experiments at Weston-super-Mare, upon a small vesicular animal, not exceeding the one-thousandth part of an inch in diameter, which possessed. very remarkable lu- minous properties, This animal the author believed to be the Noctiluca miliaris, and he regarded it as the most common source of the phosphorescence of the British seas. It occurred sometimes in such large quantities, and was so luminous, as to give the sea the appearance of a sheet of fire. Viewed by aid of the microscope, the animalcule is seen to consist of a spherical portion, and a tentaculum, which appears to be a motor organ. It does not appear to possess any special luminous apparatus, but the phosphorescent power is believed by the author to reside in a flocculent mucus secreted by the littleanimal. In giving the results of his experiments on the light emitted, the author found that galvanism produced no perceptible effect, but the electro-magnetic current sensibly increased the luminosity. Oxygen gas increased the light, without exerting any marked influence over the duration of the life of the animal, Contrary to what might have been expected, carbonic acid gas was likewise found to increase the light to a very remarkable degree, far exceeding in this respect the effects of oxygen ; but the animal was killed by it when immersed in it only for _ acomparatively short space of time. Sulphuretted hydrogen speedily deprived the _ animal of life, and consequently destroyed the light; nitrogen, nitrous oxide, and hydrogen produced little or no effect on the luminosity ; strong mineral acids in- creased for a moment but speedily afterwards destroyed the light; ether instantly destroyed the life of the animal; chloroform increased the light and then destroyed the animal. The author then instituted a comparison between his own experiments and _ those of Prof. Matteucci on the glowworm; and after examining the various theories _ put forward to account for the luminosity of animals, concluded that the phenomena could not at present be referred to any more general fact with which we are ac- quainted. Notice of two additional bones of the Long-legged Dodo or Solitaire, brought a Srom Mauritius. By H. E. Srricxuanp, M.A., F.G.S. These bones have been recently sent to England by the officers of the Royal Society _ of Arts and Sciences of Mauritius. They consist of two tarso-metatarsal bones, of " which one is incrusted with stalagmite, and seems to belong to the same individual as _ those figured in the ‘ Dodo and its Kindred,’ plates xiii. xiv., which are now in the Paris Museum. The other specimen is far more perfect than any examples of this bone _ before known, but though apparently belonging to an adult individual, it is of small dimensions, being only 5 inches 8 lines in length. The only defective portion is the " posterior surface of the ecto-calcaneal process, which is slightly abraded. The form _ of the bone precisely agrees with that of the Solitaire, and though of small size, it is _ doubtless identical in species with that bird. — It exhibits in great perfection all those peculiar characters which prove both the Dodo and the Solitaire to have been closely allied to the family of Pigeons; especially the position of the caleaneal canal, which in those birds passes externally to the posterior ridge, whereas in the gallinaceous hirds it passes on the inside of that ridge. __ The author took this opportunity to allude to a paper on the Dodo, in the Boston Journal of Natural History, in which Dr. Cabot, though wholly unacquainted with the researches of Mr. Strickland and Dr. Melville, arrives independently at precisely ‘the same conclusion, viz. that “ the Dodo was a gigantic pigeon.” a On the Growth of Silk in England. By Mrs. Wurtsy. _ I had proposed offering to the British Association a short account of my progress in the art of cultivating silk in England, but I left Newlands before all the produce (1849. ss 6 i 82 : REPORT—1849. of this year could be wound off from the cocoon, and it will not therefore be in my power to make my report as full or as statistical as I could desire. I am however — unwilling that this meeting should pass without endeavouring in some way to satisfy the expectations of those who have been sufficiently liberal to pay regard to my con- victions, that the cultivation of silk may with little trouble or expense be made gene- ral, and in the end. become a profitable speculation. % From the period when I had the honour to place before you an account of my early trials, I have paid attention to the cultivation of the mulberry, especially of that species which I introduced in 1846, viz. the Morus multicaulis of the Philippine «Islands. I have three other kinds of white mulberry, which all grow well at New- lands, but as none are so easily propagated as the Multicauli, or bear so great a weight of leaf, I have increased my plantation with them chiefly. I said in my letter to the Royal Agricultural Society in 1844, that it was as easy to do so as to propagate the willow. I now say that it is much easier, and the pro- duce is more abundant. The produce of the leaf this year has been immense, aud even now, after having plucked them closely to feed my silkworms, they are strong and vigorous, and present a luxuriance of growth scarcely to be-credited unseen. I find the cuttings, which are rooted in the open ground, produce stronger and healthier plants than those struck under glass. One of my earliest pupils has a productive nursery at Godalming of the Morus alba; many others in different parts of England are planting; and if gentlemen in England and Ireland, who have a few acres or roods of land to spare, would plant mulberries for posterity as they do their oaks, we should in a few years be independent of other countries for our supply of raw silk. With regard to the rearing of the silkworm: as their habits become more practi- cally known to me, I find less difficulty in bringing them to perfection; and am con- firmed in my belief, that with due attention to their peculiarities they may be reared in England as well as in any other country, and with as little loss by death. Equable warmth throughout the period of their existence (which may be shortened or prolonged at pleasure), cleanliness, classification and ventilation, with the adaptation of the food (as to its maturity) to the different ages of the insect, will ensure success. I have been this season very successful in rearing the worms I was able to hatch; they had no disease of any kind; they made their cocoon in thirty days; and the silk” I have been able to wind off is as strong and bright and beautiful as that which, in 1844 and 1845, was pronounced superior to the best Italian raw silk. There are many persons in England, and a few in Ireland, who have begun the experiment on asmallscale. It requires time to mature and perfect any undertaking; _ but if I live long enough, and the growth of the mulberry becomes generally encou- raged, I have no doubt my ardent wish to see the cultivation of silk established in~ England will be realized. : Lj ETHNOLOGY. On some remarkable Primitive Monuments existing at or near Carnae (Britanny) ; and on the Discrimination of Races by their local and fixed Monuments. By Dr. Buair. i Dr. Brarr described a visit made in 1834; with Mr. Francis Ronalds, to the bourg of Carnac, in the department of the Morbihan,—the territory of the ancient Veneti, —on the south coast of Britanny, for the sake of examining certain very remarkable monuments of the kind usually held for druidical, but of peculiar character and unusual dimensions, and hitherto but slightly known in this country. He observed upon the surprising richness in these remains of the small district, hardly six miles east and west from Carnac, which they explored. Their minute description of up- wards of seventy notable objects had been printed,—and accurate drawings of the more important lithographed,—but not yet published. These antiquities were of the TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83 usual classes,—pillars, dolmens or cromlechs, tumuli, circles, &c. A stone of sacrifice _ ‘was mentioned, hollowed for receiving the back and shoulders of the resupine human victim ; an obelisk, now fallen and broken, measuring sixty-four feet in length, and computed to weigh upwards of 300 tons; and the Mont St. Michel, a large tumulus surmounting a natural hill, having on it a chapel dedicated to St. Michael, whence its pristine design and use as a temple were inferred. The chief objects of interest, however, were five instances of an arrangement hitherto not elsewhere found. Nine, eleven, thirteen parallel rows or lines of pitched stones, varying from a‘huge to an almost diminutive size, form so many parallelitha, traversing and featuring the country. The lengths, too, are various. One springing near the bourg of Erdeven, extends a mile and three furlongs. Adjoining the heads of the parallelitha, are inclosures, viewed as temples, to which these long avenues led. Three of sets of _ lines lie consecutively and suggest the impression that they were continuous. The _ remaining two lie apart from them, and from each other. If, as the Rev. John | Bathurst Deane,—the precursor, and, by his excellent chart of the ground, (in the _ ‘twenty-fifth volume of the ‘ Archzologia,’) the main guide of these travellers,—has _ reasoned, the intervening spaces were once occupied by similar series, connecting the five into one enormous Dracontium or temple of serpent-worship, imitating the windings of the deified reptile, the whole monument must have been the most stu- pendous of its kind in the world. To this were compared certain Scandinavian monu- ments, having the same character of Fields of Stones; differing herein, that the ‘stones are disposed for the marking out of promiscuous graves ; some being set to ‘express the figure of a boat. The Swedish antiquaries account them battle-fields, turned into the cemeteries of the slain; the boat indicating where some illustrious sea-king or sea-hero lies. Attention was invited to this agreement between the _ monuments of the old Scandinavians and their historically-known spirit and man- __ ners ; whilst those of the Bretons represent, if aright understood by us, that domina- _ tion of the great druidical hierarchy, which stands out as the most conspicuous fea- ture in the social constitution of ancient Gaul. Subordinate discriminations of the _ same tendency were pointed out in certain Scandinavian circles, considered as courts _ of law, suitably to the jealous respect for law and the litigious temper of the old _ Norseman at home; whilst the sacerdotal character of the Celtic remains re-appears, in the Logan or Rocking stones, spread over the Celtic—unknown seemingly on the _ Germanic—soil, and supposed ministrant in oracular uses. The importance of thus _ identifying the characters and monuments of nations, was urged in an ethnological _ view. The extraordinary remains at Carnac invite alike the scientific and the traveller for mere pleasure. On the Alphabet of the Indian Archipelago. By J. Craururn, F.RS. The paper summed up by stating that the nine alphabets of the Archipelago are the produce of five large islands only out of the innumerable ones that compose it. _ The most fertile and civilized island of Java has produced the most perfect alphabet, and that which has acquired the widest diffusion. The entire great group of the _ Philippines has produced a single alphabet; even this one is less perfect than the _ alphabets of the western nations, in proportion as the Philippine islanders, when _ first seen by Europeans, were in a lower state of civilization than the advanced -hations of the west of the Archipelago. * * * * The Indian islanders write on palm _ leaves, which have received no other preparation than that of being dried and cut in slips ; on the inner bark of trees, a little polished only by rubbing; on slips of the _ bamboo- cane simply freed from its epidermis; and on stone, metal, and finally paper. The palm-leaf employed is that of the Contar, or Lontarus flabelliformis. . * * The instrument for writing with on the palm-leaf, on bark, and on the bamboo is aniron style ; and the writing is in fact a rude engraving, which is rendered legible by rubbing powdered charcoal over the surface, that falls into the grooves, and is Swept off the smooth surface. The Javanese alone understand the manufacture of akind of paper. This is evidently a native art, and not borrowed from strangers ;— as is plain from the material, the process, and the name. The plant, in the Javanese age, is called gluza, Broussonetia papyrifera, and the article itself dalwwan changed into dalancan for the polite language. The process is not the ingenious one of China, India, Persia, and Europe, but greatly resembles that making the * 84 REPORT—1849. Egyptian papyrus, and still more closely the preparation of the South Sea cloth, the raw material being exactly the same. With the exception of the Javanese, it does not seem that the natives of the Archipelago ever wrote with ink before they were instructed by the Arabs. Even paper is generally known to the Indian islanders by its Arabian name of Kartas: so that it is probable that a true paper was imported long before the arrival of Europeans, although the natives were never taught the art of preparing it. At present European paper is in general use by all the more civilized nations, to the exclusion of Asiatic. On the Oriental Words adopted in English. By J. CRAw¥FurpD, F.RS. The following is a list, according to Mr. Crawfurd, of such words of Oriental lan- guages as in comparatively modern times have found their way into our own tongue. The greater number will be found in Todd’s edition of Johnson’s Dictionary; and the rest, with few exceptions, in Webster’s American Dictionary. The words that he has collected amount to 160, and came to us, he says—often indirectly, how- ever,—from the Arabic, the Persian, the Turkish, the Hindai, the Malay, the Chinese, and the Polynesian tongues. Following this arrangement of Janguages, Mr. Craw- furd gave the list in alphabetical order for each class. Words derived from the Arabic :—Admiral, Alchemist, Alchemy, Alcohol, Alcoran, Alcove, Alembic, Algebra, Alkali, Amber, Ambergris, Arab, Arabian, Arabesque, Arabic, Arrachi, Arack, Assassin, Barb, Cadi, Caliph, Chemistry, Civet, Chouse, Coffee, Coffin, Cotton, Damask, Damaskeen (damson), Dragoman, Faquaer, Gal- lant, Gallantry, Hegira, Hookah, Hur, Huri, Islam, Lemon, Lime, Mahomet, Mame- luke, Minaret, Mohair, Moslem, Musselman, Mosque, Nabob, Nadir, Naphtha, Nard, Spikenard, Olibanum, Opium, Orange, Otto of Roses, Ottoman, Ryat, Salam, Saracene, Saracenic, Scullion, Sherbet, Shrub, Sofa, Soldan (sultan), Sophy, Tabour, Tam~- — bourine, Talisman, Tamarind. Examples of these derivations :—Alcohel. Al kahala means the sulphuret or common ore of antimony, used by the Arabian women to blacken the eyelashes. According to the Dicticnary of the Spanish Academy, the alchemists were in the habit of distilling this mineral along with ardent spirit, believing that a highly concentrated spirit was the result; and hence the word alcohol, a corruption of al kahala.—Alembic. Anbik, a still, with the article al pre- fixed.—Coffee. Arabic, kahwah,—Turkish, kahve. The English word evidently — comes direct from the Turkish. The coffee plant is a native of Abyssinia, and not of Arabia, for it was not known at Mecca until 1454, only forty years before the — discovery of America. The true name of the plant is ban; and kahwa, or coffee — means ‘“ wine,”’ as a substitute for which the decoction was used, although the — legality of the practice was long a subject of dispute by the Mohammedan doctors. [ From Arabia it spread to Egypt and Turkey, and from the last-named country was © brought to England in 1650. ~ @ Before quitting the list of Arabic words, Mr. Crawfurd said it might be noticed ~ that the Arabs had effected, although in a rude way, far more than the Greeks and Romans towards making the eastern and western worlds acquainted with each other and communicating arts and knowledge. These (until inspired by the fanaticism of a new religion) house-keeping barbarians pushed their religion, arms, arts, and trade within thirty years to the western confines of India, and in eighty-eight years to Spain. They pushed their commerce to China and the remotest islands of the Indian Ocean, which neither Greek nor Roman had ever reached. We owe to their fana- ticism cotton, coffee, the sugar-cane and culture of sugar, paper, arithmetical nota- tion, race-horses, the whole citron or orange tribe of fruits, and all the various pro- ducts of distillation. From the Persian and Turkish languages there are,— Bashaw, Can, Caravan, Cara- vansary, Dervise, Emerald, Fairie, Hindu, Hindustan, India, Indigo, Jackall, Jani- zary, Jasmine, Lac, Lacker, Mogul, Musk, Satrap, Scimitar, Sepoy, Seraglio, Shawl, Semindah, Senanah, Tartar, Turband, Turk. We take as an example— Sepoy. Persian, sapahi, a soldier, from sapah, an army. We have two forms of this word in English. We write the word sepoy when applied to an Indian soldier, and spahi when it applies to a disciplined Turkish soldier. From the Indian and Hindu languages there are,—Araca, Avatar, Bamboo, Banian, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 85 Betel, Bramin, Camphor, Caste, Chintz, Chop, Cooly, Cowrie, Cubeb, Curry, Crone, Gentoo, Lac, Madapollams, Masulipatam, Mullagatawney, Muslin, Palanquin, Raja, Rupee, Sandalwood, Sugar, Suttee, Talapoin, Teak, Toddy. From the Malay are,—Babigroussa, Bankshall, Bantam, Bird of Paradise, Caddy, _ Cassiowary, Catecheu, Cockatoo, Compound, Creese, Gambir, Gambago, Godoron, _ Gutta-purchah, Japan, Junk, Loory, Mango, Mangostin, Musk, Orang-outang, Paddy, Pical, Prow, Ratan, Sago, Sapanwood, Shaddock, Tahil, Upas.—Orang- _ outang. Malay, oran-utan, literally man of the forest, but more correctly a rude or uncivilized man, a savage, a clown, a rustic. The accent, as in nearly all Malay words, is on the penultimate in both words, and not, as we make it, on the last syllable. The naturalists, taking the Bornean individual as the type, establish a class of monkeys under the name of Ourangs; but the propriety of the term is very questionable indeed, seeing that orang means a human being, and is translated by the Latin word homo. The name of orang-outang for any kind of monkey is unknown to the Malays, and the natives of Borneo call the animal mias. From the Chinese are,—Bohea, Congou, Hyson, Mandariue, Nankin, Soy, Tea. The number of these is small, owing to the imperfect monosyllabic dialects of ‘China, which do not, of course, find a ready way into our polysyllabic language. Nearly the whole foreign trade of China is carried on in a jargon of English. From the Polynesian, Mr. Crawfurd finds but three words in general acceptance : _ —Kangaroo, Taboo, and Tattoo.— Kangaroo. This word has found a place in our dictionaries, and was certainly supposed to be an Australian word by Capt. Cook, who first used it and described the strange animal to which it is applied ; yet no such term is to be found in any Australian language. On Ethnical Orthography. By the Rev. A. J. Exits, B.A. On the Ghé Nation of the Gold Coast of Africa. By the Rev. A.W. Hanson. Herein were given in detail numerous practices and ceremonies closely resembling ‘those of the Jews. It was considered that they had not been borrowed from the _ Mohammedans, and that they were not arbitrary. P On the Ethnology of New Caledonia. By A. K. IsBisTEr. a ‘The tribes are referable to three divisions. Of these, the most important are the Tacullis (or Carriers), the best known of the Athabascan races. On certain Additions to the Ethnographical Philology of Africa. «- By R. G. Laruam, M.D. “On the Transition between the Tibetan and Indian Families in respect to Conformation. By R. G. Latuam, M.D. a Feibeamrings attention to the researches of Mr. Hodgson (of Nepaul) on the Kocch, Bodo, and Dhimal, also to those of Dr. Bird on certain affinities between the _ monosyllabic and Tamulian languages. The Garo and Chepang tribes are the most 8 ae fox the study of the transition. & tea | Deals iS On the terms Gothiand Geta. By R. G. Latuam, M.D. Br ‘In objection to the doctrine lately defended by M. Grimm, that the Goths and - Geta were identical, Dr. R. G. Latham found no reason to believe that the Goths were so called until they reached the Getic country, and that the name arose then d there, not earlier or elsewhere. Just as the Germans of England called them- selves North-humbrians aud South-humbrians (the last portion of the name being taken —" the country to which they came), so did the Ostro-Goths and the Visi- Goths. Reasons were given for disbelieving the Guttones and Gothini to be Germanic. ? 3 86 REPORT—1849, On Tumuli in Yorkshire. By Joun Puiruirs, F.RS. In this communication the author explained, by descriptions of certain parts of the old Brigantian territory, and notices of the contents of tumuli which had been opened therein, the kind of aid toward tracing the physical character of ancient in- habitants of Britain which researches into tumuli might be expected to yield. By recent excayations into tumuli on the dry chalk wolds, skulls of British, Anglo- Saxon, and Danish periods had been discovered, and as far as they had been inter- preted they seemed to confirm the opinion that essential differences existed between | the crania of Celtic and Teutonic.races. Authentic data on this subject have been rarely produced in Britain ; but the search for them appears likely to add the valuable evidence of physical structure to the conclusions of philology. On a Finlandic Vocabulary. By Prof. Rerzius. On certain American, Celtic, Cimbric, Roman and Ancient British Skulls. ’ By Prof. Rerzius. ‘his paper consisted in the application of the theory of Arndt, Rask and others, as to the general diffusion of a race akin to the Finns over the whole of Europe anterior to the immigration of the Indo-European tribes. The Celt, generally con- sidered as the earliest inhabitant of the British Isles, has a skull remarkable for its diameter from front to back. Such, also, are the skulls found in barrows of se- condary antiquity. In the most ancient, however, the skull has its chief develop- ment from side to side; the conformation of the aboriginal nations hypothetically allied to the Finn and Laplander. STATISTICS. On the Application of Statistics to the Investigation of the Causes and Pre- vention of Cholera. By Prof. W. P. Auison, M.D. On Prussian Statistics. By Chevalier Bunsen. : Tue author made a statistical statement of the proportions of the races in Prussia, and on the railroads and schools of that country. His information was chiefly derived from the ‘ Statistischen Tabellen des Preussischen Staats,’ by M. Dieterici, the head — of the Statistical Bureau at Berlin, and from private information supplied by the same gentleman. We give a few of the points of this communication. Prussia had, ex-— clusive of Neufchatel, 15,536,734 inhabitants. At the end of 1846, 16,112,938. It therefore ranks fifth as to population of the European States. From Dieterici’s tables we find the population of the great States in 1843 was as follows :— European Russia, with Poland............s0++0 54,762,207 Austrian empire,............65 Meee suepicn tesa esse 30,877,904 GAN CE es haraek tcncitansdsnsacesen tine tansinaeaceatsbes 34,230,178 Bigol stil sent eenpstesareasceaaesacs src esanacean eco ee. 26,991,517 Cuesta tactidiwancttsnces Ath eee Five okt sessseeeee 15,586,734 Prussian Germany contains 1,940,000 Sclavonic inhabitants. There are in the world 42,000,000 who speak German. In the United States, 4,750,000 of Germans, or their immediate descendants, still speaking German. In Pennsylvania, 49 per cent are German speaking people. In Prussia a census is carefullytaken every third year, In 1815 Prussia had 10,250,000 inhabitants. The increase of population from 1815 to 1849 cannot be less than 6,250,000; for according to the constant proportion of increase, the census of 1849 will give a total nearer to 17 millions than to 16 millions TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87 and a half; this is equal to the population of Belgium and Denmark. This increase is greater than in any other part of the continent, Prussian statistics do not afford a confirmation of the theories of Malthus. © Of the increase, 20 per cent. is from immi- gration, the emigration to America being deducted. The chief emigration has been from the neighbourhoods of Minden and Tréves. In 1815, Berlin contained 150,000 inhabitants; in 1848, 420,000; in 1849, 11,000 less. Of the population, 4,500,000 are inhabitants of towns. In Prussia, there are to every 100 males 103 females; in France 1043. More boys are born than girls. In the earlier periods of life, males are to females as 100to99. The standing army of Prussia is 137,000; men capable of bearing arms, 837,000. In 1843, of 4,800,000 women, 2,200,000 are unmarried, or rather without husbands, as widows are included. The average age of marriage for women is from 20 to 21; for men, 25 to 26. Protestants are to Roman Catholics as 5 to’3; Jews number 206,500. The conversions of Jews were from 100 to 150 a year; but since their disabilities were removed, the conversions have increased 50 per cent. ; On the County of Warwick Asylum for Juvenile Offenders. - By C. Horre Bracesrrpce. The paper stated that the asylum was established about thirty years ago upon a simple plan. A few acres of land were attached to the farm-house engaged for the. asylum, but they were subsequently let off, as the soil was not adapted for cultivation by boys, and they were now simply instructed in shoemaking and tailoring. The boys had all committed offences for which they were tried at sessions or assizes, and the coming to the asylym was entirely voluntary on their part, nor was there any means of detaining them. The education given was ofa very plain and simple kind, but had been rendered more valuable by the pastoral care of the clergyman of the parish, the Rev. Mr. Powell. The committee of management consists of county magistrates chosen at quarter sessions. The average proportion reformed had been during the last three years about 65 per cent., and the average cost had been 16/. 6s. 8d. per annum, although 46/. 17s. might be considered the price the benevolent have paid for each reform. [?] A comparison showed that the expense of punishing a criminal boy without reforming him cost the country more than it did to reform him, amounting as it did to 18/. 16s. 10d. per head, exclusive of expenses defrayed by Government in the prosecution and in the transportation to penal set- tlements. On the Fluctuations of the Annual Supply and average Price of Corn, in France, during the last seventy years, with particular reference to the four periods ending in 1792, 1814, 1830, and 1848. By J.T, Danson. It appeared from official sources that there are few of the departments of France in which the average consumption of grain of all kinds per head, per annum, falls short of an imperial quarter; that considerably more than half (by measure) of all the grain food thus consumed consists of wheat ; and that though the use of wheat as a large proportion of the food of the people is confined to particular localities, these localities are so distributed that whatever changes materially affect them may be safely assumed to affect, more or less, the whole country. Hence it was inferred, in the first instance, that the official average prices of wheat might be safely ac- cepted, in France as in England, as indicating the current price of focd. The first period of sixteen years (1778 to 1793) was distinguished from every subsequent period of similar length, and from most of those preceding, by the low average range and also by the uniformity of its prices. The ten years’ average of 1766 to 1775 was 18f. 66c. per hectolitre. From 1778 to 1787 it was only 14f. 33c. In any subsequent period of ten years the average had been very little over or under 20f. The average of the six years, 1788 to 1793, was 21f. 81c.; and during this period the most distress- ing fluctuations occurred; the average price of 1789 being more than fifty per cent. above that of 1787, and the price of 1793 (35f.) being more than a hundred per cent. above that of 1791. Thus ten years of low prices were followed by six of high prices ; and these closed the period. The second period embraced the prices of eighteen years (1797to 1814). From 1797 to 1802 prices were generally high in France, as they 88 REPORT—1849., were throughout Europe. But in the eight years, 1803 to 1810, prices were constantly low in France, giving a general average of only 18f. 60c.; and in each of these years, but especially the last seven, grain was more or less largely exported. The averages here stated are, as usual, those of the astronomical, not of the agri- cultural years. They may therefore be taken to indicate the market value of about two-thirds of one crop and one-third of the next. So the first of the seven good years is to be referred to the harvest of 1803—of that summer during which Bonaparte formed the camp at Boulogne, and prepared his election to the Imperial throne in the following spring. The last ended with the gathering of the deficient harvest of 1810—the year in which the events of the Peninsular war began to run decidedly against France, and in which Napoleon determined upon urging his final and fatal dispute with Russia.. The common average of the three years 1811, 1812, 1813 was 27f. 66c.—an ad- vance of more than fifty per cent. upon the average of the preceding eight years; and the whole rise of price, from 1809 to 1812, was from 15f. to 34f. per hectolitre. The harvest of 1813 was good, and after it was gathered prices fell; but this period was closed virtually by the battle of Leipsic in October, and formally by the abdication of the following April. The third period embraces the sixteen years from 1815 to 1830. It has a striking resemblance to the one preceding. The years 1816, 1817, 1818 were years of general scarcity, like those of 1800, 1801, 1802. -Then also there was a middle period of plenty, marked by the nine years, 1816 to 1827, of moderate or low prices. ‘I'he lowest prices, as before, were in the last years of this time of plenty ; and they were succeeded by the scarcity and high prices of 1828, 1829, 1830. The price of bread in Paris was actually higher in 1829 than at any time in 1816, 1817 or 1818, or at any time since 1800. During the fourth period (the seventeen years from 1831 to 1847 inclusive) were nearly repeated the features which had distinguished the three preceding. At its commencement were two years of high prices. ‘Then followed thirteen years (1833 to 1845), during which the general average of 20f. was only once materially exceeded, when, in 1839, the annual average rose to 22f.49c. The common average of this period was 18f.43c. But the period ended precisely as its predecessors had ended; with two years of prices, which, notwith- standing the use of foreign supplies, more than twice as large as had ever been im- ported in a similar period, were unusually high. Mr. Danson then went over the same ground again with another test—that afforded by a statement, from the Cus- toms account, of the quantity of grain and flour of every description actually ex- ported (of French produce), cr exported and taken into consumption (of foreign produce), in each year; and exhibited, by tables and diagrams, a remarkable coinci- dence of the results obtained by the two methods. And finally, applying both tests conjointly to the period of ten years, 1838 to 1847, he showed the probable value of the excesses of exports and imports respectively, as indicating the addition to, or drawn upon, the national resources consequent upon the annual superabundance or de- ficiency of the home supply. The estimated value of the excess of imports in. 1847 exceeded 320,000,000f.; and they were sufficient, according to the best authorities, to feed the whole population with grain food for forty-five days. In conclusion, two inferences were suggested :—1, That the political dates, 1792, 1814, 1830, and 1848, are also the natural divisions of a history of the French Corn Market since 1778; and 2. That the history of prices (especially as it regards the food of the people) might, in the order of practical importance to mankind, take precedence of the history of politics. On the Progress of Emigration from the United Kingdom during the last Thirty Years relatively to the Growth of the Population. By J.T. Danson. The first complete census of the three kingdoms in 1821 gave us the total popu- lation 21,193,000; in 1831 the number returned was 24,306,000, showing an increase of 3,113,000 in ten years. Whether the number added in each year of this period was greater or less than the number added in the year preceding, could not be known from any comparison of these returns. But in 1841 the number returned was 26,916,000, showing an increase of only 2,610,000. It may therefore be presumed that the number added to the population in each year is now less than was added in the year before; but further, against this decreasing increment of the population, we wot > 2 co RIG De Cy ay WS + iia TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89 have of late years to place a rapid increase of emigration. During the ten years 1821 to 1831, the total number of emigrants was 738,582; and in the seven years 1842 to 1848 inclusive, the number was no Jess than 985,953. And according to the latest complete returns obtained by the Emigration Commissioners (down to the 20th of June last), the number of emigrants in the first half of 1849, was no less than 196,973. Hence it appeared that the emigration from the United Kingdom during the last three years was fully equal to, if it did not exceed, the natural increase of the population; and, in short, that emigration has now been carried on to such an extent, as, if it were maintained, must effectually prevent the further growth of the population. On the Diseases and Causes of Disability for Military Service in the Indian Army. By C. Frxcu, M.D. ~ The native soldier is not subject to a variety of diseases incidental to the European, and many of the complaints common to both are less severe, less complicated, and less fatal in the Indian, from physical constitution, simple nature of his food, and reguiar and temperate habits. He is in a great degree exempt from many of the acute, febrile, and inflammatory disorders so fatal to the European within the tropics. There isa marked difference in the character of the complaints common to both—those of the native being of the asthenic, and those of the Eurcpean being of the sthenic diathesis. In the Asiatic, though there is a less tendency to a rapid course, there is less vigour to resist the encroachment of disease, which exhibits a proneness to be- come chronic and inveterate, occasionally terminating more tardily, but not less certainly, in death. This inferior power of the constitution renders them more prone to disease under slight exciting causes, less able to bear active depletory measures, or on the invasion of disease in an acute form they sink so rapidly that the mortality in the two classes is in agreat degree equalized. From this inferior power of rallying from the attacks of disease, many disorders which at their commencement are acute become in their progress chronic, and terminate in rendering the native soldier inca- pable for service. In order to ascertain the particular diseases which incapacitate the Sepoy, and their relative frequency, it may be deemed requisite that an exami- nation should be made, ona comprehensive scale, of the invaliding rolls, which besides containing a statement of the numbers, enumerate the diseases and causes of disability. On inquiry, Dr. Finch finds no such documents are procurable in this country; hitherto mere numerical returns have been made to the India House. In the absence of more extensive returns, he has been obliged to satisfy himself with the results of a more limited examination, but which will afford a close approximation to a knowledge of the real causes of disability, and enable us to form an estimate of _ their relative frequency. He has submitted to examination the invaliding rolls of three regiments for a period of nine years—from 1834 to 1842, These rolls are of the men presented for examination belonging to the 31st, 40th, and 57th regiments _ of Native Infantry on the Bengal establishment. Undoubtedly there are many cir- _ cumstances which have a temporary as well as a permanent influence on the health _ ofcorps. The chief of these are climate, locality, and nature of the duties required slo S Br ec: a eta one Ape age wr of the men. By a fortunate coincidence, arising from a diversity in the course of their service during these nine years, he is enabled to give illustrations of the effects of these agencies, The 31st had lately returned from service in Affghanistan, The 40th had, within the period selected, completed three years’ service to the eastward, at Kyak Phyon, and the 57th had returned from Barrackpore, after a triennial resi- dence at that unhealthy station. By a reference to the general table exhibiting the numbers invalided, we find the following results :—That there were invalided from “susceptibility to fever 5, and general debility, a frequent consequence of fever, 24; enlargement of the spleen, induced by fever, 3; or from fever and its consequences, atotal of 32. That there were transferred from these regiments for rheumatism and contractions of the joints, a common consequence of rheumatic disease, no fewer than 68. That there had been incapacitated by asthma not fewer than 28; by dyspnoea not less than 6; and by consumption, 1;—from pulmonic disease altogether, 39. _ Disqualified by diseases of the eye, cataract, ophthalmia, and amaurosis, 14. Invalided 90 REPORT—1849. from diseases of the brain, apoplexy, mania, paralysis, and epilepsy, 13, There have been rendered non-effective by bowel complaints, by diarrhoea, 3; by dysentery, 5; total 8. Diseases affecting the whole system, such as scrofula, leprosy, syphilis, and cancer, 9. Eight have been removed from disabilities affecting the bones; 3 from fractures ; and a similar number from loss of teeth. Exostosis 1, and periostitis 1. Incapacitated by diseases of the extremities, 13; 5 by wounds, of which 2 were re- ceived on service; by ulcers, |; and by a peculiar disease, called “ burning in the feet,” 6. From cutaneous affections, 3. The other causes of disqualification, either accidental or anomalous, such as hernia, hemorrhoids, &c.,25. During the nine years stated, 54 men have been incapacitated by general infirmity, or having become unfit—in fact, “worn out.” An abstract of the general tabular statement shows, as disqualified for further service, 282—equivalent to 91 from each corps in this period, or 10 annually; and taking the strength of a native regiment to be 800, we have a rate of 1} per cent. It appears by the list that 54 men have retired from being worn out in the space of nine years. This class included all men who, by reason of their age or length of service, have become unfit for further duty. It is worthy of inquiry to ascertain what are the average periods of life and service at which the native soldier becomes incapable of further duty. In following up this inquiry, it will be necessary to ascertain the averages of ages and service of the several grades sepa- rately ; for were the ages and periods of service of all ranks to be taken collectively in forming an estimate of the mean age or service of those who have been declared * worn out,” it would be by no means a just one. Some of the native commissioned officers serve upwards of forty years, and are beyond sixty years of age at the period of their transfer to the invalids. By including their ages and periods of service in striking an average, we should obtain one obviously too high. It is therefore ne- cessary to subdivide the men invalided, from having been worn out, into three classes, according to the several grades they were in when transferred, viz. commis- sioned officers, non-commissioned officers, and privates. The higher rate of pay, the lighter duties, and the superior pension, induce the native commissioned officers to hang on for a longer period than they would have done had they been in the inferior grades, and even to require a little gentle persuasion to present themselves to the invaliding commissioners when no longer fit fer duty. The same advantages, though in a lesser degree, may have their influence on the minds of the non-commissioned, and induce them to continue in the ranks a few years longer, though, as far as regards pension or duty, there is no difference between the grades of non-commissioned officers, the Naicks and Havildars. Not having attained to these benefits, the Sepoy or private has no great inducement to remain longer in the service than he possibly can; and if he sees no immediate chance of promotion to the next grade, is anxious to exchange the active duties of his condition for the ease and comfort of retirement, and accordingly exaggerates his disability. These considerations have their weight, and may account for the comparative numbers of the several ranks, and the relative ages and periods of service of those who are annually removed. These remarks do not apply exclusively to those who are declared “ worn out,” but to all pensioned, whatever may have been their disqualifying causes for military duty. There have been fourteen commissioned officers pensioned in the period we have submitted for examination ; their average age is 58 years 2 months, and their length of service 38 years 3 months. ‘Twenty-five non-commissioned officers have been transferred in the same time to the invalid establishment from these three corps, of whom the average age is 47 years 8 months, and their length of service 26 years 6 months. During the nine years 1] Sepoys have been struck off the strength of these three corps, having been declared “ worn out” after a service of 24 years 8 months, and at an average age of 44 years 8 months, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91 Taste exhibiting the Diseases and Causes of Disability of the Men Invalided from the 31st, 40th, and 57th Regiments N.I., during the Nine Years from 1834 to 1842 inclusive. Classes. Specific Diseases, |31st.|40th./57th. Total.| Classes. Specific Diseases. |31st. 4oth.|57th. Total. Diseases of the brain— Brought forward| 54 | 60 | 43 |157 Paralysis ......../...] 1} 2) 2} 5 |\Of the bones— Epilepsy ............ 3]...| 3] 6 Exostosis...... Tee! we aihei 1 Mania .......... wae 2 2 Fractures.....ses000 1} 2 3 Of the eye— Periostitis .......064. 1] 1 Cataract .......0...| 2) 2)...) 4 Toothless.........05. ok 3} 3 - Ophthalmia......... veefeee} 1] 1 /Of the skin— Vision impaired ...)...] 3) 6) 9 Anomalous ......... Bae eee Pod Of the ear— Ichthyosis ........... TD hd Aes 1 Deafness) ......0sc0f se] sep bp Leper vulgaris......J...|...| 1) 1 Of the chest— Of the system— Asthma ....s+s004. «{13] 9} 6] 28 Scrofula i... Pe Duh Sy Dyspnea ......e00ee 1; 5}...| 6 Leprosy s..ti lia si veel eee | 6] 6 Phthisis ...........0+5 LARS 1 Syphilis ...........0. WAP 1 Heart’ enlargement|...| 1]...| 1 Cancers. iiie. 258 i c8s DG] sen eat 1 Of the abdomen— _|\Other diseases— Diarrhea............ 2)...) 1) 3 Accidents ...... bea] BA Ai oe Dysenteria ......... 3/2) ...4 56 Anomalous ......... 1]...]/ 3] 4 Spleenenlargement| 1| 2|...| 3 Debility .........66. 11} 2/11} 24 OF joints— Defective speech...| ... Le Ae Contraction......... Tju..] 2) '3 Doubled hand ......} ... vee Oeh, a Dislocation .........)...] 1]...} 1 Fevers ......0s00+ ee ess Sle} 5 Rheumatism ........|21 | 30) 14} 65 Hemorrhoids ...... 1} 1] 1) 8 Of the extremities— Hernia......eceseesse| sae 3/...| 3 Uleers ......c0cccsce Serica eeu pe | Hydrocele ......... wef | ecto Wounds .........000 2} 2) 1] 5 Malingency .........] «.. 1}. 1 WAVICES. cos ceeds cdl sen | Fee Wy 1 Testicle swelled ...} ... Z)..0| 2 Burning in feet ....| ... 1} 5] 6 Worn out .......006. 27/11) 16 54 Carried over...| 54} 60| 43 |157 General total...|103) 92 | 87 | 282 _ Annexed to the paper are the ‘ Vital Statistics of the Hast India Company’s Armies in India,’ by Col. Sykes; and in vol. iii. of our Transactions are tabular statements _ of the transfers and casualties on the invalid pension establishment; of the average Aength of service before transfer ; average age at period of disease, and number of years’ each grade remained on the pension list for the years 1843 and 1844-45 for Bengal, and for Madras for the years 1842-43 and 1843-44. These statements include the _ whole native force of the Bengal and Madras Presidencies during the years specified, and offer, on an extensive scale, an opportunity of comparing the average periods of _ service and ages therein stated with those of the men invalided in the three native corps whose rolls have been submitted to examination. It will be seen that there is a close approximation in the averages stated at which the men of these regiments _ were transferred to the invalid establishment, and the periods mentioned in the tabular statements referred to. The average period of service before transfer of the two _ grades of commissioned officers in the Bengal Presidency was, in 1843-44, 38 years _ 2months 5 days, and in 1844-45, 38 years 10 days. The average age of the com- ~ missioned officers was 56 years 4 months in 1842-43, and 51 years in 1844-45. The _ayerage age of non-commissioned officers was 47 years 6 months in 1843-44, and _ period of service before transfer, 27 years 9 months 18days. The average period of _ the native soldier, or Sepoy, previous to transfer, was 16 years 10 months 4 days; and his age at date of transfer was 42 and 41 years respectively, for the years 1843-44 - and 1844-45, 92 REPORT—1849. On a Form of Table for Collecting Returns of Prices in Ireland. By Prof. W. N. Hancocr, LL.D., M.R.I.A. The primary object of the table is to direct attention to the observation of the facts which give the most correct indications of the state of the poorer classes. The statistical investigations which have been hitherto instituted into the condition of the population have been too much directed to quantities, whilst the more important observations of values have been neglected. Thus we have the census taken in Ireland in the most elaborate manner, showing, not only the number of the popu- lation, but the number of the trees, the number of the cattle, and even of the poultry, in the country. Then we have returns’ shcewing the sizes of farms ; and the agri- cultural returns, showing the number of acres under cultivation for different kinds of crops. Now, I do not propose to undervalue these investigations ; but as long as these returns are not accompanied by returns of prices, the partial knowledge deduced from them is likely to mislead. Thus, the most mistaken propositions have been stated as to over-population, from considering the population tables without re- ference to the rate of wages. Specious theories have with equal boldness been put forward as to the size of farms, from considering the land returns without any refer- ence to the rent obtained from farms of different sizes. As to capital, again, we have had the boldest assertions respecting its want or abundance, arising from a consider- ation of the quantity of money in circulation, the deposits in the savings’ banks, or some other quantity of capital, without any reference to the rate of profit. In like manner we have been told that there is no hope for a nation which lives on potatoes, or that the salvation of Ireland depends on the intreduction of green crops, or of flax, without any scientific investigation of the average prices of such crops, or of the rent which they will produce. But economic science teaches us the real facts from which the condition of a population can be ascertained, and the advantage of different systems of management compared ; and this table is constructed for the purpose of having these facts observed. If we want to compare the condition of the labourer in Connaught with that of the labourer in Ulster, in Scotland, in England, or in America, what do we require toknow? Why, two sets of facts. First, what are the money wages or price of labour in Connaught as compared with the money wages or price of labour in one of the other places. Secondly, what are the prices of the commodities consumed by the labourer in Connaught as compared with the prices of the same commodities in other places? From these we can at once determine the re- lative condition of labourers at different places at the same time; and by simjlar inves- tigations we can compare the condition of the labouring classes at different times in the same place. Thus, if we ascertain that the average price of agricultural labour is in Connaught 64,, in Ulster 10d., in Scotland 1s. 4d., in England 1s. 8d., and in America 3s., whilst the prices of the commodities consumed by the labourer do not, on an average, rise in the same proportion, we see at once that the labourers in America are better off than those in England, who are again better off than those in Scotland, whilst the Scotch are better off than the Ulstermen, and they than the Connaught- men. But the observations for which the table is constructed would, if systematically pursued, serve a scientific purpose of far greater importance. They would enable us to perfect the principles of economic science, and place them on a firm and lasting basis, by applying to them, more extensively and systematically than has been hitherto done, the inductive method of reasoning which has led to such wonderful results in the natural sciences ; for observations of changes in values and prices are to the eco- nomist what observations of the movements of the heavenly bodies are to the astro- nomer—at once the facts to be explained, and the facts by which the truth or falsehood of his theories can be tested. The following is the form of the table :— It is headed with the name of the place where the observations are made; as the prices of different articles of wealth vary from place to place, it is necessary in all observations of prices, to note the place where the observations are made, Then, the prices to be observed are divided into six classes :—1. The price of labour, or rate of wages; 2. The price of the use of capital, or rate of profit ; 3. The price of the use of land, or land-rent ; 4. The price of food; 5. The price of fuel; 6. The price of other agricultural produce. Under each of these heads a sufficient number of kinds of each class are selected to be observed. ‘Thus, under the first class we have—]. Agricultural labourers ; 2. Weavers; 3. Carpenters ; 4. Smiths; 5. Tailors; TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93 6. Men servants ; 7. Womenemployed in agriculture; 8. Sempstresses; 9. Spinners; 10. Women servants. In the second class, price of the use of capital, or rate of profit, we have—11. Interest charged by money-lenders to the poor; 12. Interest charged.on bills above 20/,; 13. Cost of erecting a single-roomed cabin; 14. Rent of a single- roomed cabin. In the third class we have—15. Land let to yearly tenant; 16. Pasture-land; 17. Building-ground; 18. Conacre; 19.° Tenant-right or good-will. For the fourth class we have—20. Flour; 21. Oatmeal; 22. Indian meal; 23. Po- tatoes; 24. Turnips; 25. Mutton; 26. Pork; 27. Fowls; 28. Eggs. For the fifth — _ elass—29. Coals; 30. Turf. For the sixth class—3]. Flax; 32. Hay. Then, for the price of each article, there are two prices to be observed, viz. what is ordinarily considered a high price, and what is ordinarily considered a low price; and the table is constructed to have these observations kept for a period of six months, the prices being observed once a month. These tables are now in the hands of parties in Ire- land, who are making observations. On the Use to be made of the Ordnance Survey in the Registration of Judgments and Deeds in Ireland. By Prof. W.N. Hancock, LL.D., M.R.LA. He said that the Ordnance Survey at present was used to ascertain boundaries for all public purposes, and was also extensively used by private parties. The townland maps were complete for all Ireland, on which the name of every townland was marked with the number of acres contained in it. From the structure of the maps they af- forded the greatest facility, for having tenements marked on them as well as town- lands; as all the boundaries of tenements were on the sheets, except in some of the northern counties, the survey of which was first published, and on which the boun- daries were now being inserted. On the brass plates from which the maps were taken, all these lines were laiddown. He proceeded to show that the Ordnance Survey was thus adapted to be made the basis of a general registry of land, by requiring every deed or judgment to contain the names of the townlands and number of tenements affected by it. The reason which hitherto prevented the adoption in England of a plan of registry with reference to a general map, was the expense. As that expense had been incurred in Ireland, there was no reason why the maps should not be used. He proceeded to explain how the Survey might be used in registering judgments in Ireland; and said that the effect of the adoption of his suggestions would be to get rid of the delay and cost of negative searches for judgments and for deeds, which must now be incurred on every sale of every portion of land however small. In every case where the seller had a common name, or sold a number of portions of Jand, the delay and cost were at present excessive, and in the sale of small proper- ties operated as a complete barrier to the transfer of land. The changes which he suggested would also diminish the delay and costs of Chancery proceedings, as the names and residences of all parties entitled to notice respecting the sale of any _ portion of land would be at once disclosed. This would lay the foundation for ap- plying the doctrine of market overt to land, and obviate the lengthened investigation of title required in every case of sale; as with a perfect registry based on the Ord- nance Survey, it might safely be enacted that after due notice to all parties on the register a public sale bya party having a power of sale should confer a parliamentary litle, the purchase-money, if anybody required it, being lodged in the Court of Chan- cery. He concluded by quoting the opinion of the Real Property Commissioners, that “the subject of registry of deeds and instruments relating to land exceeded in Magnitude and importance all the subjects which they had to consider,” and “ that the regulations of the Act of General Registry in Ireland were imperfect, and occa- sioned unnecessary trouble and expense.” 1 2 The Usury Laws.—Statistics of Pawnbroking. i By Prof. W. N. Hancock, LL.D., M.R.I.A. = In the course of some investigations into the condition of the poorer classes in _ Treland, Professor Hancock's attention was directed to the state of the trade of lend- | ing money among them. He found that while the larger farmers resorted to regular ) banks to make deposits and obtain loans, there were no banks established for the y 94. REPORT—1849. smaller farmers and labourers, who were thereby forced to carry their deposits to charitable banks, and obtain their loans from charitable loan-funds at 93 per cent., or else resort to local usurers at from 25 to 100 per cent. He ascertained that this arose from the laws relating to usury, which made it illegal to charge more than 6 per cent. for loans under 10/. where no pawn was made, although pawnbrokers were allowed to charge on some’sums more than ten times that per-centage. Some per- sons alleged the rates of interest which pawnbrokers were allowed to charge to be exorbitant ; if this was true, the best remedy would he to leave the trade in money perfectly free, and then the competition of money-lenders would reduce the rate of discount, whether on deposit or on personal security, to the least possible amount. But there were two circumstances which indicated that the rate of interest was not so excessive as it appeared to be; first, the effects produced by the lower scale allowed to be charged in England and Scotland; secondly, the failure of the Monts de Piété established in Ireland for the purpose of lending upon pawns cn more favourable terms than pawnbrokers. The restricted per-centage allowed to be charged on small . sums by the regular pawnbrokers in England and Scotland had set up a class of tradesmen, known in London as “‘ dolly-shop keepers,” and in Scotland as ‘‘ wee- pawns,” who evaded the law by nominally purchasing from a borrower articles of less value than the licensed pawnbroker will receive, with a tacit agreement that if the latter comes back in a month or six weeks at furthest, he will get his goods on paying the sum lent, and a bonus, this bonus being a penny per week for one shilling, or at the rate of 4333 per cent. per annum. The obvious remedy for the evils of ** wee pawns,” and the other evils connected with the trade of pawnbroking, was, in Pro- fessor Hancock’s opinion, to leave that trade perfectly free; let borrower and lender make their own bargain, and let the law not interfere except to enforce bond jide contracts, and to protect against frauds. As to Monts de Piété (whose introduction had been advocated by Mr. Henry John Porter at the Meeting of the British Asso- ciation in 1840), the attempt to establish them in Ireland had, after the trial of several years, ended in a complete failure. The whole investigation of the facts with regard to pawnbroking, ‘‘ dolly-shops,”’ ‘‘ wee-pawns,”’ and Monts de Piété, taught a lesson of the folly of legislating on different principles for the poor andrich. The real remedy for the evils of the system was to establish the same freedom in lending small sums that had for some years existed with regard to large sums.. The defenders of the pre- sent state of the usury laws could be reduced to a complete dilemma. For how stood the case? The merchants applied to Parliament for a suspension of the usury laws, on the ground that these laws, instead of keeping down the rate of interest when any commercial crisis tended to raise it above the legal rate, really raised it much higher than it would have risen, compelling them to pay 20 or 30 per cent. when they need only have paid 8 or 10 per cent. If this reasoning were correct, as all economists admitted it to be, could anything be more cruel than to expose the poor to the evils from which rich merchants had been relieved? But if the economists were mis- taken, why was the suspension of the usury laws not repealed, and why were pawn- brokers allowed to violate the spirit of these laws? In the commercial crisis of 1847, whilst the Prime Minister advised the Bank Directors not to charge less than 8 per cent. on loans on approved security, to the rich merchants of London, the law made it illegal for any one to lend small sums to poor farmers to help them through the same crisis at a higher rate than 6 per cent. How were they to get money at 6 per cent. when the market rate of interest was 8 per cent.? When merchants were al- lowed to borrow at 8 per cent,, why should farmers and the poor be prohibited from borrowing at the same rate? On the Discovery of Gold in California. By Prof. W. N. Hancocs, LL.D., M.R.I.A. Professor Hancock proposed to investigate the following questions :—First, on what causes did it depend whether prices in the British dominions would be affected by this discovery? secondly, How could we ascertain whether as a matter-of-fact our prices were affected by it? and thirdly, If our prices were likely to be altered by it, how could we guard against any extensive change in prices being produced? These questions were of immediate and practical importance, for the discovery of the abundant gold and silyer mines in America in the sixteenth and seventeenth nak, SY a ae 6 TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95 centuries produced the most remarkable changes in prices at that period, so that the prices of all commodities were quadrupled in the short space of seventy years. Although this change did not begin to take place till twenty years after the disco- very of Potosi, yet a similar change at the present day, if the causes were in ex- istence to produce it, must be expected to happen with much greater rapidity, as the facility of transit and the promptness with which labour and capital were applied to industrial undertakings would bring the produce of the American mines into the European market with much greater rapidity than in past centuries. It must also be recollected that there was not the slightest provision in the present or past ar- rangements of the British currency to prevent changes in prices being produced to any extent by the gold mines of California if their fertility were sufficient to effect such changes. In investigating the cause of changes in prices, there were two classes of changes to be considered which were perfectly distinct from one another. Sometimes the prices of particular commodities varied without any corresponding variation in the prices of other commodities. At other times the prices of all com- modities partook of simultaneous changes of the same proportion and inthe same direction. Changes of the first class arose from causes affecting the value of the par- ticular commodities in the prices of which they occurred. Changes of the second class were quite independent of the value of the commodities, and arose solely from changes in the value of the metal or other commodity that was used as money. The price of a commodity in any place meant its value estimated in the money of that place, or, in other words, the quantity of money that could ordinarily be there received in exchange for it; and this quantity might increase either from the com- modity becoming more valuable or from the money becoming less valuable. As gold was the standard of value in England, it followed at once that whatever cause af- fected the value of gold as a commodity would affect prices in Great Britain; so that it was only necessary to consider whether the discovery of gold in California would affect the value of gold asa commodity. But this depended entirely on the cost of production of gold there. The answer to the first question might be stated in a few words. The extent to which British prices could be affected by the disco- very of gold in California depended on the difference between the cost of obtaining gold there and the cost at the least fertile mine now worked, or which continued to be worked after the discovery. - As to the second question, it was manifest that it could not be solved directly. No statistical investigation, however carefully pursued, could enable us to ascertain the cost of production in California; for there the prices of labour, of the use of ‘ capital and of raw materials of every kind, were ina state of most rapid fluctuation. It would also be extremely difficult to discover with that certainty which the import- ance of the question would require, the least fertile mine. But there was fortunately an indirect method of discovering the effect of the Californian gold without sending statisticians to that perilous region; and this indirect method gave results far more certain than any that they could discover for us. Let the price of silver be observed in England where gold was the standard of value, and the price of gold on the Con- tinent where silver was the standard. If it were found that the price of silver was rising in England and the price of gold falling on the Continent by the same amount, it might reasonably be inferred that the Californian discovery was affecting the value of gold. But this conclusion could be corrected and verified by a very simple me- thod. Let there be a systematic set of observations of the prices of all the chief commodities in some place in England—say in London. Select from this list of observations the twelve commodities that were ordinarily most constant in value. Observe whether there was now any simultaneous change going on in the prices of these commodities. If they were found to be all increasing in value by the same G amount at the same time, it might be inferred that gold was changing in value; for it was highly improbable that twelve commodities ordinarily constant in value should all change in value to the same extent from causes peculiar to themselves. - Should the result of these observations prove that prices had begun to be affected by the discovery, then it would be necessary to consider the third question—How can we guard against any extreme change in prices being produced? From the manner in which the subject was alluded to in conversation and noticed in the . public prints, it would seem that the community in general was ignorant of the at 96 REPORT—1849. frightful evils which arose when the standard of value, either from natural causes or from the culpable neglect of government, became variable to any serious extent. But those evils were plainly demonstrated by the results of a variable standard in the reigns of Henry the Eighth, James the First and James the Second. The remedy for these evils could be discovered in a very simple way from considering the reason why gold had been maintained as our standard of value. It had been so maintained because for two centuries it had been of all commodities the least variable in value, and therefore the best fitted to serve as the measure of the value of other commodi- ties. Should it now from any cause become variable in value, the same reason that has impelled us hitherto to select it would lead us to take in its place as a standard the commodity which would then become least variable in value. This commodity would, he believed, be found to be silver. Silver was our standard of value for many centuries after the Conquest. It formed a mixed standard along with gold from 1717 till 1774. It was now used as a standard in France, Hamburg and many other European states, and also in the United States of America. There was no reason, therefore, why we should not, if necessary, adopt silver as our standard, and so entirely obviate any variation in prices being produced by the discovery of gold. On the Sanitary Condition of Darwen, Lancashire, with Suggestions for its Improvement ; in a Letter from J. Paton, C.E. On the Tenure of Land in the Island of Madeira. By the Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D., Dean of Ely, F.R.S. The surface of the island of Madeira is singularly corrugated and mountainous ; with the exception of a small portion near the level of the sea on the western coast and the table-lands of the Paul de Serra, a very lofty mountain range, there is abso- lutely no level ground. From the central region of the Curral, which reaches an elevation of more than 6000 feet, a series of steep and precipitous ridges, with deep ravines, the channels of the mountain torrents, radiate in all directions to the sea, reaching it at various elevations, exceeding 2000 feet at Cape Giram about two miles to the west of Funchal, and forming almost everywhere a coast line of great boldness and magnificence. The rocks are entirely volcanic, presenting every va- riety of basalt, compact, vesicular and scoriaceous—tufas, which are sometimes loose and friable and at others more or less solid and decomposing slowly under the influ- ence of the atmosphere—extensive beds of white lapilli and pumice, intermixed with earthy particles, and not disposed in the order of gravity—beds of voleanic mud in various states of consolidation as affected by the action of the overlying lavas—others of voleanic cinders and fragments of volcanic rocks and also of scoriz, occasionally of great thickness, which it would be sometimes difficult to distinguish from the pro- ducts of an iron furnace. The surface which is capable of cultivation, in an island thus physically constituted, bears a small proportion to the whole—more than half of it—the region of the vaccinium and arborescent heaths—is either too barren or too elevated for the successful growth of the cerealia, and affords a very scanty pasturage for cattle, sheep and goats. Much of the remainder is either sterile rock or too pre- cipitous for tillage. Of the parts of the island which are capable of cultivation, a great portion is only maintained in tiat state by walls and terraces, succeeding each other frequently within the distance of a few feet, which not only divide the several occupations from each other, but serve to protect the vegetable soil from being washed into the ravines and torrents by the violent rains which are known to prevail, in their proper seasons, in a semi-tropical island. The richer soils are found generally~in the lower lands near the sea-coast and at the bottom of the ravines. The finest wines are produced between Funchal and Cama dos Lobos and the Etreito, and in a few other favoured localities on the southern parts of the island. No wines of a superior quality are produced at an elevation exceeding 1000 feet; its cultiva- tion ceases altogether when we reach 2000 feet. Among other productions of these more favoured regions we find coffee of a very superior quality, Sugar, which was once extensively cultivated, and formed a large TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97 _ articléof export, is grown in sufficient quantity to supply, in the form of molasses, the wants of the labouring population. The arrow-root is of first-rate excellence. The usual fruits of countries bordering on the tropics—the banana, custard-apple, guava, _ oranges, &c.—are found in great abundance, but rarely cultivated with much care or skill. Wheat, beans and barley, form, besides the vine, the principal articles of cul- tivation, but the produce is quite insufficient for the wants of the population. Maize is beginning to be grown in small quantities in some parts of the island. A species of yam, which is very productive, is cultivated on lands capable of irrigation on the banks of the torrents. The potato, which formed the principal food of the people and which was produced abundantly in the mountains as well as lower lands, has been attacked with the prevalent disease, and its loss has produced the usual disastrous effects which have been observed in other countries amongst those who depended upon it for their support. Sweet potatoes, cabbage and other garden vegetables, are produced in abun- dance, but nowhere of first-rate excellence—no attempt, in fact, is made to procure _ improved seeds or new species of plants or trees. The fruit-trees are such as are na- _ turally produced, and are never grafted. The cultivators follow rigorously the prac- tices of their forefathers, and resist with characteristic obstinacy all attempts at inno- vation. They are too poor or depressed, or too imperfectly educated, to look out either _ for new methods of cultivation or new articles of produce. _. The peculiar tenure of land in Madeira (which prevails more or less in Portugal, Spain and Italy, a relic of the dominion of the Romans, and’ which once prevailed, though under a modified form, in France) is intimately connected with the condition both of the cultivation and uf the people. During my stay in Madeira, in the course of the last winter, I paid particular attention to the conditions of this tenure, and to the consequences which it appeared to produce. It is a subject about which it is diffi- _ cult to procure very accurate or precise information. There are no Portuguese books - (oratall events none which I could procure) which describe it. There are no pub- lished statistical det and none which are easily procurable. The codes also of the Portuguese law, though excellent in principle, and such as, if executed, would be very effective in their operation, are very imperfectly or very corruptly administered, so as to place in many important cases the theory and the practice in striking contrast with eachother. Under such circumstances I felt myself compelled to depend partly upon personal inquiries and observations, and partly upon a series of replies made by a most intelligent Portuguese gentleman to queries which I had prepared very carefully so as to include nearly all the points which could affect the relation of landlord and tenant, and the effects which they produced upon the cultivation of the land and the condition the people. _ By the ancient laws of Portugal, a proprietor could alienate by will to a stranger, y from his natural and compulsory heirs (children or grandchildren, father or mo- grandfather or grandmother), one-third part of his possessions ; and he who had such heirs could dispose of them at his pleasure. A custom afterwards arose, under he authority of the Church, of instituting vinculos, or perpetual entails, upon the al heirs, on condition of providing for the performance of certain masses and ributing certain alms for ever for the souls of the entailers and his progenitors. All that remained when these claims were satisfied became the property of the pos- sessor’ for life, and passed in succession to his heirs, male or female, one or both, ac- cording to the conditions of the vinculo, and upon their failure reverted to the Crown, _ Daring the continuance of the entail the estate could not be charged in any way _ whatever, nor let for any period extending beyond four years of the life in possession, _ or beyond eighteen years of the same event, with the especial consent of the heir in " succession, who claimed, in both cases, the rent with the inheritance: no provision d be made for other members of the family : it continued for ever a life posses- n, and a life possession only in the strictest sense of the term. The union of several vinculos constituted a morgado, and the same term is applied an =e Portuguese language both to the possession and possessor. + The effect of this system, whether due to the influence of the Church or to the passion, so natural to mankind, to transmit their name and influence, in connexion with their possessions, to their most distant pesterity, was the absorption of nearly the whole _ territory (which was not in the possession of the Crown, or of religious establishments) n the hands of the morgados. Their further institution, however, was forbidden by a 1849. q * 98 REPORT—1849. law of Don José the First in 1770, under the bold but generally wise administration of the Marquis de Pombal, which declared the system to be contrary to the just rights of property, and to the just claims of the other memters of the family. A further anda more serious assault upon the system was made by the law of Don Pedro of the 4th of April 1832, which removed the entail from every separate vinewlo which produced a smaller revenue than 200 dollars a year, and from every morgado or union of vineulos of less than twice the amount. The effect of this law is already beginning to be felt in sales of land to English and other capitalists, and the range of its operation is rapidly extending in consequence of the great depreciation of land in Madeira, from the rapid reduction of the value of the wine, which is the staple product of the island. It would appear, however, from the most careful inquiries which I could make (though correct information on the subject is not easily obtainable), that nearly four-fifths of the cultivated lands are still under the operation of the vineulo. There is some land (but not of great extent) belonging to three convents of nuns, the only religious communities which survived the revolution of 1821: some is in possession of the Crown; there are also some customary freeholds held by peasants in the moun- tains ; but the greatest portion of the mountain pasture is in possession of the camaras or municipal bodies of the different parishes, and is commonable by all the occupiers of lands within their limits. So defective, however, is the execution of the law in every part of the island, that those districts are treated as common property, whether for pasturing cattle or collecting fuel, by cutting furze, broom, brushwood or timber, without any system or control. From this cause the noble forests of the interior, consisting of the til, the vignatico, the folhada (all species of laurels), and the tree heaths, many of them of gigantic size, are rapidly disappearing. They served an im- portant purpose in collecting the moisture and feeding the springs and torrents in those lofty regions, which are a principal source of the fertility of the cultivated re- gions below, to which they are conducted by an elaborate system of /evadas or water- courses, which have been in the cqurse of construction during many ages, and many of which are still in progress. The morgados formerly possessed country-houses, sometimes of great extent and magnificence, always with a chapel attached to them, where the masses required by the deed of their foundation were performed. They expected and received many acts of homage and of service from their tenantry, who regarded them as their masters or feudal lords. They brought offerings of their produce upon his marriage or the birth of his heir. They brought fowls to him at Christmas, and a portion of the head of every pig which they killed: if he removed from his — country to his town house, or in his other journeyings, they bore his hammock — (for there are no carriages in Madeira) and his baggage; during the war also, — when the island was in English occupation, and the resort of our Eastern convoys and ships of war, and when their wines bore an exorbitant price, they were gene- rally rich and prosperous, and profuse in their expenditure. The revolution of 1821 swept away these and other feudal distinctions, and Icosened the bonds which con- nected the rich and the poor, whilst the rapid fall of the price of their wines reduced their incomes far below the scale of expenditure which ‘miust of them had adopted. — They began in consequence to anticipate their revenues, by selling the reversion of their crops for years to come to the English merchants. The consequences were — equally ruinous to themselves and to the progress of imprevement ; they became more and more severe in their exactions from their tenantry; their residence in their coun- try-houses became neither convenient nor safe, and they have since been very gene= rally abandoned. The caseiros or occupiers, the successors of the Roman coloni, held their lands” universally upon the metayer system, where the gross produce is divided equally between them and the landlord. They build their own cottages, the walls (of rough masses of basalt or tufa) which surround their occupations or support their soil: they plant their own vines, chestnut, orange, or other fruit-trees ; if water be brought to their lands from the /evadas it is at their own expense ; whatever, in fact, is necessary to bring their land into cultivation is done by them. These improve- ments, provided they are useful, or even when they are not so (for though there is a distinction between them in law there is none in practice), or emfeitorias, are the abso- lute property of the caseire, who cannot be removed from his occupation until his lands rg a | 4 , ‘4 : : = TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99 lord has paid him their full value as ascertained by two public valuers appointed by the camara or municipality of the district. The value thus assessed far exceeds in most cases the real or marketable value (such as the easeiro would obtain if he should sell them, as he is authorized to do, to another person), and it is only in very extraordi- nary cases that the landlord becomes the purchaser. The effect of this regulation is to give the caseiro very nearly a perfect fixity of tenure. The other relations of the landlord and tenant are regulated entirely by the law, or rather the custom of the country, and rarely, if ever, by special contract ; a lease is absolutely unknown, at least as far as concerns the occupation of land; the lord takes one-half of the wine when it issues from the wine-press, one-half of the cora when trodden out from the straw on the threshing-floor, as well as one-half of the straw itself, one-half of the sugar-cane, fruits, garden and other produce, one-half of the grass or of the very various produce which is sold as grass, which is not consumed on the premises. lt should be remarked, however, that*before this division is made, the tithe of all the produce is claimed by the officers of the Government. The more liberal landlords give the seed, and do not claim the smaller articles of produce; but those who are very needy or have leased their claims to a rendeiro or middle-man, as is very com- monly the case, exact their rights with great and oppressive severity. The produce of cattle, pigs, and poultry which are fed on the farm belong entirely to the caseiro. Sometimes the landlords furnish the cattle, &c. at a price agreed upon, and divide the profit upon them when sold, equally, or in some proportion agreed upon with the tenant; it is not unusual, also, to agree upona money price of the corn and other produce, before it is gathered, leaving the risks to the tenant: this is very rarely done in the case of wine. The consequences of these arrangements, where a kind and con- fidential feeling does not exist (as is very rarely the case) between the landlord and the tenant, are such as might be anticipated: frauds become rather the rule than the exception, The ears of corn and other articles are abstracted and concealed or sold. If the factor who watches the interests of the landlord or the middle-man is too vigi- lant he is threatened, and in some cases murdered. If a landlord resides upon his estate in the country and exercises too close an inspection of the productions of his tenants, he is subjected to annoyances and losses, which render his residence amongst them uncomfortable at least, if not dangerous. The occupations of the tenants are generally extremely small. In the richer and more productive districts, they rarely reach an acre of ground ; much more frequently not one-half or even one-tenth of that quantity. There is, in fact, hardly any limit to the extent of these sub-divisions. If a caseiro dies, his children succeed to the inheritance in common, and either divide it, building cottages on their occupations, or hold it in common ; for it rarely happens that they possess sufficient money to be able to buy up the portions of the bem/feitorias which belong to the other claimants, The cultivation is generally of the rudest kind. In large districts we find that wheat has been grown on the same land for twenty or thirty years in succession. The crops, as may be expected, are extremely poor. I could obtain no answer to my inquiries “respecting the average produce per acre: I should think that it rarely reached fourteen -bushels—in most cases not half the number. Many of the crops which I examined _ in April last, a very favourable season, would hardly, in this country, be considered _ worth the trouble of reaping. _- On the mountains, at elevations not exceeding 2000 or 2500 feet, the broom and furze is burnt once in six or seven years, and the ashes manure the land for a crop of rye of the most miserable description. The land is said to be exhausted by the effort, and the experiment is not repeated until the end of another septennial period. _ In the smaller occupations, we find the mixture of productions which we should ‘naturally look for in gardens, without the clean and laborious cultivation which is essential to its success: wheat or barley, sugar-cane, vines, arrow-root, coffee in _ many protected situations, vegetables, peach, fig and orange trees, are intermixed “Without order or arrangement ; weeds of all kinds are allowed to grow freely, parti- _-cularly under the vines, and are cut from time to time, and used or sold as fodder _ for the cattle ; the succession also of many of their productions in a country with a alana of perpetual spring or summer is almost independent of the season; but "No advantage seems to be taken of this singular felicity of the climate: no selection of seeds or plants, no proper pruning, no grafting, no system, no horticultural or. 7% 5 i Y “| 100 REPORT—1849., agricultural knowledge; they follow the practices which they have been taught by their fathers, and resist or neglect all change or instruction with a pertinacity which no prospect of profit can overcome. It is very common to see occupations unculti- — vated, but never abandoned ; for though the law gives the landlord a control over the cultivation, and the means of punishing or ejecting a refractory or a negligent tenant, it can only be practically enforced through the purchase of the demfeitorias, The caseiro may be engaged in other occupations more profitable than the cultiva- tion of his land, or influenced by other motives; whilst the landlord will acquiesce in the loss of the produce which the land is capable of yielding rather than incur the cost of the purchase of improvements, or what are so considered, more particularly when estimated far beyond their value. There are considerable tracts in some of the most favoured situations of the island which are in the situation I have described. Of all the productions of the island the vine is the most extensively and most care- fully cultivated ; the soil most adapted to it is a mixture of the red and yellow tufa, called the satbro and the pedra moile, the latter of which is very light and loose, and would be easily washed away if not mixed with other soil ; another soil, called the cascalha, a de- composing basaltic conglomerate, is also well adapted to the purpose. The clayey soil, called massapez, unless largely mixed with lighter and more friable materials, must be carefully avoided. The vines are planted in trenches dug to the depthof five or six feet ; they are trained upon a framework formed by the stalks of the reed (drundo sagittata) supported upon wooden posts or stone piers at an elevation of five or six feet from the ground, and tied together with twigs of the red willow (Salix rubra): vegetables and weeds of all kincs are cultivated or allowed to grow beneath them, which are gene- rally cleared away in the summer season when the vines are in bearing. It is a necessary effect of this system that the vines are pruned not to but from the root, so as to add during every year to the length of the ancient stem through which the sap is transmitted to the truit: they thus become weaker instead of stronger with the increase of age; aud at the end of little more than twenty years a vineyard must be destroyed and replanted. The fruit also decreases in flavour and richness the further it is removed from the ground,—a fact which the French and German vine-growers fully understand, and consequently have adopted a totally different system. The vineyards are seldom of great extent, the largest not exceeding three or four acres; they are very rarely if ever (except in the gardens of guintas in and around Funchal) cultivated by the proprietors, but almost always by caseiros, the same division of the produce prevailing in the richest and the poorest vineyards ; their produce will vary from one to three pipes per acre. The price to the producer during the last year varied from about 40 dollars in the best districts, to 10 or 12 dollars per pipe; towards the end of the last war the price was nearly three times as much. The vine in its progress to maturity is exposed to a variety of enemies; the innumerable multitude of lizards, rats and bees destroy generally one-sixth part of the produce. The grapes, which are allowed to hang until they are perfectly matured, produce the wines of the richest flavour, and the wine-merchants will frequently double the price per Jaril for wines which are thus preserved ; but when the grapes of the neighbour- ing vineyards are gathered, their enemies crowd to the plunder of those which re- main: it is only by speedily gathering them that they can be saved from entire de- struction. Most of the occupations are too small, or in situations too precipitous for the use of the plough, which is an instrument of the rudest materials and form; but even when it might be advantageously applied it is not generally used: the favourite and almost exclusive instrument of cultivation is the enchada, a slightly incurved pick- axe, which they use with great dexterity to break up rather than upturn the surface of the soil; the spade is rarely used, and they have neither rakes nor harrows. The soil is generally light and friable, and rarely requires the careful breaking-up and tri- turation which is necessary in other countries. The casciro is not allowed to sell the straw or manure which is produced on his tenure; but little care is used either in preserving or preparing it, and the use of artificial manures is altogether unknown. Water in this, as in all warm countries, is the most essential element of fertility. In Madeira, it is diverted into channels or /evadas, from the mountain-stream at high elevations, and conducted by them to the several occupations in the cultivated di- stricts which have acquired by purchase or hiring the privilege of using it. It is di- . TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 101 - vided into a monthly cycle of giri or turns of one hour each, and conducted, in its proper succession, into the several channels which connect it with the separate oc- cupations. Of the public works of Madeira, the Jevadas are much the most consi- derable and much the best managed. The oxen, of which the breed in the island is very active and well-formed, are the only beasts of draught. Carts and carriages, and even wheelbarrows, are un- known: heavy burdens are drawn on sledges by two oxen: lighter burdens of all kinds are carried on the heads of men and women. One-third at least of the in- habitants of the island are thus employed as beasts of burden, carrying fuel from the mountains, articles of produce and skins of wine from their farms. There are some portions of road which are very carefully constructed and paved; but there is hardly a single continuous well-formed road to be found; none to connect, for purposes of draught, the distant parts of the island with each other. Their steepness also in many cases is formidable. There is a principal road in the northern part of the island near St. Anne, with an inclination of 27°. One of the most carefully-paved roads, only recently made, leading from Funchal to the moun- tains, has an inclination of 23°: a road with an inclination of | in 4 is considered practicable and convenient: the Simplon has an inclination of 1 in 12, which is nearly the limit of that which is practicable for carriages. All the horses, or rather ponies, are shod with particular reference to these steep and precipitous roads. The condition of the people in the villages and remote districts is miserable in the extreme, more particularly since the failure of the potatoes. With the exception of Skibbereen and a few other places in Ireland, I have nowhere seen such squalid poverty: their food is chiefly maize, pumpkins, salt fish, and the tunny-fish, which is caught in great abundance off the island. Begging is universal and very importunate, yet the people are generally very patient and courteous. They never meet a stranger without a salutation. They are contented with the means of existence, and would maintain no steady or continuous exertion to attain much beyond it ; but the occa- sional labour which they will go through, more particularly in bearing heavy burdens across the mountains, is astonishing. On a Comparative Statement of Prices and Wages during the Years from 1842 to 1849. By G. R. Porrer, F.R.S. The usefulness, not only to ourselves, but to those who will come after us, of records such as those which I have now to bring forward as a sample, will be apparent to every one who has at any time attempted to investigate the comparative condition at different periods of our working population. To begin with what is emphatically called ‘‘ the staff of life,’ and the price of which is a thing of the very first importance to those who depend upon daily or weekly wages. The four-pound loaf of bread sold in the bakers’ shops in London has been, in the month of July of each year from 1842 to 1849, as follows :— 1842 isscve0s as ee 9} BOAG wit ress osiicnones 8h 1643 2b fo .h0ct Le ees 7d. 1847 ...000c0 Sees lz 2 ee . 82d. 1848 isa nies daschies, Maas pm DBAGE Ie, iiciasss 22050023 72d. BEG | aah La 7d. _ When it is considered that from one-half to three-fourths of the expenditure of the ' most numerous class of the people is for this one article, it cannot be held of light _ importance that a saving of 25 per cent. is made in its cost. Such a saving to the family of a working man—consisting of himself, his wife, and four children—can hardly be less than 2s. per week, which is too often a very considerable proportion of the man’s earnings ; so that it will greatly depend upon this head of expenditure whether or not he and his family are able to provide themselves with decent clothing and with other matters, which, although perhaps not absolutely, nor equally neces- _ sary to the support of life, are yet most important towards the comfort and content- ment of the family. The price of meat is, unfortunately, not a matter of such uni- versal interest as the cost of bread; and it is to be feared that even in ordinarily prosperous times there are very many of our fellow-subjects who are forced to forego its use. But it must be obvious that the numbers thus subjected to privation will, _as already explained, greatly depend upon the cost of bread,—while in large towns it will be found upon inquiry that few or none are, except in the very dearest times, deprived of the occasional or perhaps the habitual use of meat. The prices as quoted 102 REPORT—1849. in the accounts of markets cannot be taken as the prices actually paid for their re- tail purchases by the families of working men; they will, however, afford accurate means for comparison, since no doubt the wholesale price of the carcass must indicate the retail prices charged for its constituents. The following prices are those given for the primest beef (Scots) and South Down mutton at Smithfield in the month of June in each year, 1842 to 1849 :— Beef, Mutton, 1842) ot civamdes's ‘pesado dealt bauer 8 Gs 4s. 3d. LEAD dasdyraahe dar aisin a: Ne cce> smdmmataais perlb.| 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 46] ° 40 MUgOr, TAW -- cones cueees vise a Or7 0 6} 0 58] O 53] O 5 0 43 Sugar; refined! 2270. 0005.55 A 0 9 0 9 08 0 74 | 0 65 0 6 GCoskee vy a jnviereisie'ninis'oinre da obi 2 1 8 1 8 1 8 LYS 1h 14 MOCO (ola tobi pnl> Buckman (Prof.) on fairy rings, and on some of the edible fungi by which they are caused, 70. Buist (George),meteorological phenomena ob- served in India from Jan- to May 1849, 15. Bunsen (Chevalier) on Prussian statistics, 86. Calculating instrument, on a, 118. _ California, on the discovery of gold in, 94. Camera, description of a binocular, 5. , improvement on the photographic, 5. Canino (the Prince of) on the characters which distinguish the little blue magpie of Spain from that of Siberia, 75. Carnac (Britanny} on some remarkable pri- mitive monuments existing at or near, 82. Carrot, on the varieties of the wild, 70. Carte (A. G.) on the use of rockets in effect- ing a communication with stranded vessels, 114. Centrifugal pump, on a, 110. Channel Islands, on the geology of the, 49. Charlemont, Staffordshire, on a continued spontaneous evolution of gas at the village of, 38. Charlesworth(E.) onsomenew species of Tes- tacea from the Hampshire tertiary beds, 52. Chemistry, 34. Chevallier (Rev. Prof.) on a rainbow seen after actual sunset, 16. Cholera, on the application of statistics to the investigation of the causes and prevention of, 86. Christiania, meteorological observations made at, 18. - Cistern, on Kosman’s patent, as a sanitary machine, 134. Claudet (A.) on the theory of the principal phenomena of photography in the Da- guerreotype process, 35. Cloth, incombustible, 33. Coal-field, South Staffordshire, on the rela- tion between the new red sandstone, the coal-measures, and the Silurian rocks of the, 55. Coal mines, on a machine for ventilating, 111. , on Gordon’s plan of ventilating, 125. Comets, on, the application of graphical me- thods to the determination of the pertur- bations of, 1. Comet, on De Vico’s, 2. Uopper containing phosphorus, on, 39. _ , on the corrosive action of sea-water on some varieties of, 39. Cordylophora lacustris, on the reproductive system of, 72. Corn, on the fluctuations of the annual sup- ply, and average price of, in France, 87. Cornish coasts, on the luminosity of the sea on the, 80. Cornwall, on the fossil geology of, 63. Craufurd (J.) on the alphabet of the Indian archipelago, 83. on the oriental words adopted in En- glish, 84. sg INDEX II. Crustacean and entomoid class, on the external antennz of the, and their anatomical rela- tion and function, 78. Crystals, notice of experiments on circular, 6. Daguerreotype process, on the theory of the principal phenomena of photography in the, 35. Danson (J. T.) on the fluctuations of the an- nual supply and average price of corn, in France, during the last seventy years, with particular reference to the four periods ending in 1792, 1814, 1830 and 1848, 87. —— on the progress of emigration from the United Kingdom during the last thirty years, relatively to the growth of the po- pulation, 88. Darwen, Lancashire, on the sanitary con- dition of, 96. Davison (Robt.) ona desiccating process, 114. Desiccating process, on a, 114, De Vico’s comet, on, 2. De Vrij (Dr.) on the black colouring matter of the lungs, 36. Dodo, on two additional bones of the long- legged, or Solitaire, brought from Mauritius, 81. Dolomite, on the formation of, 36. Dredge for natural history purposes, new, 72. Dredging Committee, papers containing ob- servations made by the, 77. Earth, on an orbitual motion of the magnetic pole round the north pole of the, 8. , on the distribution of gold ore in the crust and on the surface of the, 60. Ebelmen (M.) on artificial gems, 36. Electric currents, on a theory of induced, sug- gested by diamagnetic phenomena, 46. Electro-telegraphic communication in En- gland, Prussia, and America, on the pre- sent state of, 133. Ellis (Rev. A. J.) on ethnical orthography, 85. Emigration, on the progress of, from the United Kingdom, during the last thirty _ years, relatively to the growth of the po- - pulation, 88. England, on the growth of silk in, §1. , on the present state of electro-telegra- phic communication in, 133. English, on the oriental words adopted in, 84. Ethnical orthography, on, 85. Ethnology, 82. of New Caledonia, on the, 85. Eye, on a mode of measuring the astigmatism of a defective, 10. Fairy rings, on, 70. Finch (Dr. C.) on the diseases and causes of disability for military service in the Indian army, 89. Finlandic vocabulary, on a, 86. Floating bodies, on the oscillations of, 5. Fluorine, on the presence of, in plants, 43._ 139 Fluorine, on the presence of, in the waters of the Firth of Forth, the Firth of Clyde, and the German ocean, 47. Forbes (Prof. E.) on the varieties of the wild carrot, 70. on a remarkable monstrosity of a Vinca, 70. —— on the genera of British Patellacea, on Beroé Cucumis, and the genera or species of Ciliograda which have been founded upon it, 76. Forchhammer (Prof.) on the formation of dolomite, 36. on a new method of ascertaining the quantity of organic matter in water, 37. Fossil geology of Cornwall, on the, 63. reptile (Sanropus primevus) found in the old red sandstone, on traces of a, 56. Volutes, on the discovery ofa living re- presentative of a small group of, occurring in the tertiary rocks, 64. Fowler (Dr.), if vitality be a force having cor- relations with the forces, chemical affinities, motion, heat, light, electricity, magnetism, gravity, so ably shown by Prof. Grove to be ie of one and the same force? France, on the fluctuations of the annual sup- ply and average price of corn in, 87. Fungi, on some of the edible, by which fairy rings are caused, 70. Gais, Switzerland, on a phenomenon seen at, 17. Galvanic battery, on a form of, 45. Gas, on a continued spontaneous evolution of, at the village of Charlemont, Staffordshire, 38. Gems, on artificial, 36, Geography, physical, 49. of the peninsula of Mount Sinai, on the, 52. Geology, 49. of the Channel Islands, 49. of the peninsula of Mount Sinai, on the, 52. of Cornwall, on the fossil, 63. Gha nation of the Gold coast of Africa, on the, 85. Gladstone (J. H.) on the compounds of the halogens with phosphorus, 38. Glass, on some modifications in the colouring of, by metallic oxides, 35. Gold ore in the crust and on the surface of the earth, on the distribution of, 60. Gold in California, on the discovery of, 94. Gordon’s plan of ventilating coal mines, 125. Gothi and Getz, on the terms, 85. Granite, on an original broad sheet of, 68. Greener (W.) on the manufacture of the finer irons and steels, as applied to gun-barrels, swords, and railway axles, 115. Grewe (J. H.), meteorological observations made at Kaafjord, 18. 140 Grover (Rev. H. M.) on an orbitual motion of the ee pole round the north pole of the earth, 8 Gun-barrels, on the manufacture of the finer irons and steels, as applied to, 115. Halogens, on the compounds of the, with phosphorus, 38. Hamilton (Sir W.) on some new applications of quaternions to geometry, 1. Hampshire, tertiary beds, on some new spe- cies of Testacea from the, 52. Hanson (Rev. A. W.) on the Gha nation of the Gold coast of Africa, 85. Hancock (Prof. W. N.) on a form of table for collecting returns of prices in Ireland, 92. on the use to be made of. the Ordnance survey in the registration of judgments and deeds in Ireland, 93. , the usury laws—statistics of pawn- broking, 93. on the discovery of gold in California, 94. Heatoh (George) on the cause and prevention of the oscillation of locomotive engines on railways, 116. Hodgkinson (Prof. E.) on the strength and elasticity of stone and timber, 118. Hogg (John) on the geography and geology of the peninsula of Mount Sinai and the adjacent countries, 52. Hopkins (T.) on mirage on the sea-coast of Lancashire, 16. on the means of computing the quan- tity of vapour contained in a vertical co- lumn of the atmosphere, 24. Howard (Samuel) on a continued sponta- neous evolution of gas at the village of Charlemont, Staffordshire, 38. Huggate, meteorological observations made at, 29. , on a phosphoric phenomenon in a pond at, on June 11, 1849, 29. India, meteorological phenomena observed in, froin January to May 1849, 15, , contributions to the statistics of sugar produced in, 108. Indian Archipelago, on the alphabet of the, 83. army, on the diseases and causes of dis- ability for military service in the, 89. families, on the transition between the Tibetan and, in respect to conformation, 85. Inglis (Sir Robert H.), letter to Colonel Sa- bine, on a phenomenon seen at Gais, Swit- zerland, 17. Integration, on elliptic, 3. Ireland, on a form of table for collecting re- turns of prices in, 92. , on the use to be made of the Ordnance survey in the registration of judgments and deeds in, 93. , on the agricultural statistics of, 104. Iron, analytical investigations of cast, 49. INDEX II. Trons and steels, on the manufacture of the finer, as applied to gun-barrels, swords, and railway axles, 115. Isbister (A. K.) on the ethnology of New Caledonia, 85. Jeffreys (J.G.) on some rare mollusca re- cently collected by M. Barlee in Zetland, 78. Jukes (J. B.) on the relations between the new ted sandstone, the coal-measures, and the Silurian rocks of the South Staffordshire coal-field, 55. Juvenile offenders, on the county of Warwick asylum for, 87. Kaafjord, meteorological observations made at, 18. Keuper sandstone containing zoophytes in the vicinity of Leicester, on the discovery of beds of, 64. —— of Longdon, on vegetable remains in the, 66. Knight (H.) on a calculating instrument, 118. Kosman’s patent cistern as a sanitary ma- chine, 134. Labyrinthodon from the new red sandstone of Warwickshire, on a new species of, 56. Lancashire, on mirage on the sea coast of, 16. Land in the island of Madeira, on the tenure of, 96. Lankester (Dr. Edwin) on some abnormal forms of the fruit of Brassica oleracea, 71. Latham (Dr. R. G.) on the terms Gothi and Getz, 85. —— on certain additions to the ethnogra- phical philology of Africa, 85. —— on the transition between the Tibetan and Indian families in respect to confor- mation, 85. Latto (James) on incombustible cloth, 33. Lea (Isaac) on traces of a fossil reptile (Sau- ropus primevus) found in the old red sandstone, 56; woodcut, 134. Lead,on the éonitiniedl use of the basic acetates of, and sulphurous acid in the colonial ma- nufacture and the refining of sugar, 42. Lee (John) on meteorological observations made at Kaafjord, near Alten, Finmark, and Christiania, Norway, 18. Leicester, on the discovery of beds of eens sandstone containing zoophytes in the vi- cinity ef, 64. Lenses, on a new form of, and their appli- cation to the construction of two telescopes or microscopes of exactly equal optical power, 6. Light, on the inflexion of, 7. , on some recent discussions relative to the theory of the dispersion of, 8. Lloyd (Dr. G.) on a new species of Laby- rinthodon from the new red sandstone of Warwickshire, 56. INDEX II. Locomotive engines on railways, on the cause and prevention of oscillation of, 116. Lophopus crystallina, on, 72. Lowe (E. J.) on meteors, 24. Lucernaria inauriculata, on, 78. Lungs, on the black colouring matter of the, 36. Macadamized roads for streets of large towns, on the superiority of, 129. Macdonald (Dr.) on the external antennz of the crustacean and entomoid class, and their anatomical relation and function, showing their connexion with the olfactory instead of the auditory apparatus, and the homo- logy in the vertebrate class, 78. on the course of the blood in the circu- lation of the human fcetus in the normal development, compared with the Acardian, Reptilian, and Ichthic circulation, 78. Madeira, on the tenure of land in the island of, 96. Magnetic declination and the annual variation of magnetic force, on the diurnal variation of, 8. pole round the north pole of the earth, on an orbitual motion of the, 8. —— and diamagnetic forces, on motions ex- hibited by metals under the influence of, 46. Malcolm (Admiral Sir C.) on a meteor seen in India on March 19, 24. Maize, on some changes in the male flowers of forty days’, 68. Manure, on the conversion of the contents of sewers and cesspools into, 67. Marine animals, on the boring of, 73. Mathematics, 1. Mauritius, on two additional bones of the long-legged Dodo or Solitaire, brought from, 81. Mechanical science, 110. Metals, on motions exhibited by, under the influence of magnetic and diamagnetic _ forces, 46. Metal, on the eccentric sheet, 128. moulding machine, on the sheet, 126. Meteorological phenomena observed in India from January to May 1849, 15. observations made at Kaafjord and at Christiania, 18. observations made at Huggate, 29. Meteorology, considered chiefly in relation to agriculture, on, 33. Meteors, on, 24. Meteor seen in India on March 19, on a, 24. M‘Gauley (Rev. Prof.) on a new rotary engine, 118. Milward (A.) on an instrument called the “Upton draining tool,” as illustrating a principle by which the resistance of soils to agricultural implements may be consider- ably diminished, 122. Minerals, rocks, &c., on the decomposition and partial solution of, by pure water and water charged with carbonic acid, 40. 141 Mineral waters, on the presence of nitrogen in, 47. Mines, on a machine for ventilating coal, 111. Mirage on the sea coast of Lancashire, on, 16. Mollusca collected in Zetland, exhibited, 78. Monuments, on some remarkable primitive, existing at or near Carnac (Britanny), and on the discrimination of races by their local and fixed, 82. Moon’s surface, on a model of the, 1. Morris (John) on the genus Siphonotreta, with a description of a new species, 57. Munby (G.) on the vegetable productions of Algiers, 71. Murchison (Sir R. I.) on the distribution of gold ore in the crust and on the surface of the earth, 60. Nasmyth (James) on an oil test, 124. Nervous system of the Bryozoa, on the, 71. New Caledonia, on the ethnology of, 85. New red sandstone, on the relations between the, the coal~measures, and the Silurian » rocks of the South Staffordshire coal-field, 55. of Warwickshire, on a new species of Labyrinthodon from the, 56. Nicholson (Wm.) on Gordon’s plan of venti- lating coal mines, 125. Nitrogen in mineral waters, on the presence of, 47. Noctiluca miliaris, on the, 81. Oil test, on an, 124. Old red sandstone, on traces of a fossil reptile (Sauropus prizvus) found in the, 56. Ordnance survey, on the use to be made of the, in the registration of judgments and deeds in Ireland, 93. Ore, on the distribution of gold, in the crust on the surface of the earth, 60. Organic matter, on a new method of ascer- taining the quantity of, in water, 37. Oriental words adopted in English, on the, 84. Orthography, ethnical, 85. Osler (Follett) on the results of certain ane- mometers, 25. Owen (Prof.) on Lucernaria inauriculata, 78. Oxides, on some modifications in the colouring of glass, by metallic, 34, Palzosaurus, on the age of the Saurian, 65. Paper, on an improvement in the preparation of photographic, for the purposes of auto- matic registration, 34. Parkinson (W.) on a water meter, 125. Patellacea, on the genera of British, 75. Pathological drawing, on improvements in, 7. Paton (J.) on the sanitary condition of Dar- wen, Lancashire, with suggestions for its improvement, 96. Pawnbroking, statistics of, 93. Paxton (Dr. James) on improvements in pa- thological drawing, 79. 142 Peach (C. W.) on the fossil geology of Corn- wall, 63. —— on the luminosity of the sea on the Cornish coasts, 80. Peacock (The Very Rev. G.) on the tenure of land in the island of Madeira, 26. Percy (Dr. John) on copper containing phos- phorus, with details of experiments on the corrosive action of sea water on some va- rieties of copper, 39. Perspective, on teaching, by models, 33. Petermann (Augustus) on the temperature of the British Isles, and its influence on the distribution of plants, 26. Phillips (John) on the therm-anemometer, 28. —— on tumuli in Yorkshire, 86. Philology of Africa, on certain additions to the ethnographical, 85. Phosphorescence of the British seas, on the animalcular source of the, and on the phe- nomena of vital, 81. Phosphoric phenomenonin a pondat Huggate, on June 11, 1849, on a, 29. Phosphorus, on the compounds of the halo- gens with, 38. , on copper containing, 39. , on the allotropic condition of, 42. in strata, and in all fertile soils, on the cause of the general presence of, 67. Photographic camera, improvement on the, 5. paper, on an improvement in the pre- paration of, 34. Photography in the Daguerreotype process, on the theory of the principal phenomena of, 35. Physics, 1. Pinions, on correct sizing of, 127. Pipes, chain, for subaqueous telegraphs, 132. Planets, on the application of graphical methods tothe determination ofthe perturbationsof, 1. Plant (John) on the discovery of beds of Keu- per sandstone containing zoophytes in the vicinity of Leicester, 64. Plants, on the temperature of the British Isles, and its influence on the distribution of, 26. , on the presence of fluorine in, 43. Population,labouring, statistical account ofthe, inhabiting the buildings at St. Pancras, 108. Porter (G. R.) on a comparative statement of prices and wages during the years from 1842-49, 101. on the agricultural statistics of Ireland, 104. Powell (Rev. Prof.) on a new equatorial mounting for telescopes, 2. on De Vico’s comet, 2. om some recent discussions relative to the theory of the dispersion of light, 8. on irradiation, 9. —— on luminous meteors, 29. Pring (Dr. J. H.) on the Noctiluca miliaris, the animalcular source of the phosphores- cence of the British seas; with a few ge- neral remarks on the phenomena of vital phosphorescence, 81. INDEX Il. Prussia, on the present state of electro-tele- graphic communication in, 133. Prussian statistics, on, 86. Pseudo-coprolites, on, 67. Pump, on a centrifugal, 110. Quaternions to geometry,/on some new appli- cations of, l. Quetelet’s (Prof.) investigations relating to the electricity of the atmosphere, on, 11. Railway axles, on the manufacture of the finer irons and steels as applied to, 115. Railways, on the cause and prevention of the oscillation of locomotive engines on, 116. Rainbow seen after actual sunset, on a, 16. Rankin (Rev. T.), meteorological observa- tions made at Huggate, Yorkshire, 29. on a phosphoric phenomenon in a pond at Huggate, on June 11, 1849, 29. on a singular atmospheric wave, in Feb. 1849, 29. —— on magnetized brass, 29. Rawson (Robert) on elliptic integration, 3. —— on the friction of water, 3. on the oscillations of floating bodies, 5. Reeve (Lovell) on the discovery of a living representative of a small group of fossil Vo- lutes occurring in the tertiary rocks, 64. Retzius (Prof.) on a Finlandic vocabulary, 86. on certain American, Celtic, Cimbric, Roman, and ancient British skulls, 86. Roads, on the superiority of macadamized, for streets of large towns, 129. Roberts (Richard) on the sheet-metal mould- ing machine, 126. on correct sizing of toothed wheels and pinions, 127. —— on the eccentric sheet-metal and wire- gauge, 128. on the influx and reflux of the tide being rendered available as agents for effecting the motions of clock-work, 128. Rockets, on the use of, in effecting a commu- nication with stranded vessels, 114. Rocks, tertiary, on the discovery of a living representative of a small group of fossil Volutes occurring in the, 65. Rogers (Professors W. B. and R. E.) on the decomposition and partial solution of mi- nerals, rocks, &c. by pure water and water charged with carbonic acid, 40. Rogers (Prof. W. B.), general sketch of Vir- ginia, with especial reference to the faults in the Alleghanies, 65. Rotary engine, on a new, 118. Russell (J. Scott) on recent applications of the wave principle to the practical con- struction of steam-vessels, 30. Rush (George) on observations of the baro- meter and thermometer, made during se- veral ascents in balloons, 29, Sabella alveolata, 73. INDEX II, Sabine (Colonel), letter to, from Sir R. H. Inglis, on a phenomenon seen at Gais, Switzerland, 17. Sanders (William) on the age of the Sau- rians named Thecodontosaurus and Palzo- saurus, 65. Sanitary machine, on Kosman’s patent cistern as a, 134. Saurians named Thecodontosaurus and Pa- leosaurus, on the age of the, 65. Sauropus primzvus, on traces of the, found in old red sandstone, 56 ; woodcut, 134. Scoffern (Dr.) on the combined use of the basic acetate of lead and sulphurous acid in the colonial manufacture and the refining of sugar, 42. Schroetter (Professor) on the allotropic con- dition of phosphorus, 42. Sea, on the luminosity of the, on the Cornish coasts, 80. Sea-water, on the corrosive action of, on some varieties of copper, 39. Silk, on the growth of, in England, 81. Silurian rocks of the South Staffordshire coal-field, on the relations between the new red sandstone, the coal-measures, and the,55, Sinai, Mount, on the geography and geology of the peninsula of, 52. Siphonotreta, on the genus, with a description of a new species, 57. Skulls, on certain American, Celtic, Cimbric, Roman, and ancient British, 86. Smith (J. Pigott) on the superiority of mac- adamized roads for streets of largetowns, 129. Solitaire, on two additional bones of the long- legged Dodo or, brought from Mauritius, 81. Spectrum, on the determination of the wave length corresponding with any point of the, 11. Stars, on shooting, 15. Statistics, 86. Steam-engines, on a method of supplying the boilers of, with water, 132. Steam-vessels, on the recent applications of the wave principle to the practical con- struction of, 30. Stephenson (R.) on the Britannia Bridge, 111. Stereoscope, on a new, 6. Stokes (Prof.) on the determination of the wave length corresponding with any point of the spectrum, il. on a mode of measuring the astigmatism of a defective eye, 10. Stone, on the strength and elasticity of, 116. St. Pancras, statistical account of the labouring population inhabiting the buildings at, 108. Strickland (H. E.) cn vegetable remains in the Keuper sandstone of Longdon, Wor- cestershire, 66. on two additional bones of the long- legged Dodo or Solitaire, brought from Mauritius, 81. Stutchbury (S.) on a large cylindrical bone found by Mr. Thompson in the ‘‘bone-bed” of Aust Cliff, on the Severn, 67. . 143 Subaqueous telegraphs, on chain pipes for, 132. Sugar, on the combined use of the basic ace- tates of lead and sulphurous acid in the colonial mannfacture and the refining of, 42. ——, produced in India, contributions to the statistics of, 108. Sun-dial, on a universal, 34. Sunset, on a rainbow seen after, 16. Sykes (Lieut.-Col.), contributions to the sta- tistics of sugar produced in India, 108. , statistical account of the labouring po- pulation inhabiting the buildings at St. Pancras, erected by the Metropolitan So- ciety for improving the dwellings of the poor, 108. Swords, on the manufacture of the finer irons and steels as applied to, 115. Telegraph, on the copying, and other recent improvements in telegraphic communica- tion, 110. Telegraphs, on chain pipes for subaqueous, 132. Telescopes, on a new equatorial mounting for, 2. Temperature of the British Isles, on the, and its influence on the distribution of plants, 26. Terebella medusa, 72. Tertiary beds, on some new species of Tes- tacea from the Hampshire, 52. Testacea, from the Hampshire tertiary beds, on some new species of, 52. Thecodontosaurus, on the age of the Saurian, 65. Therm-anemometer, on the, 28. Thermometer, on observations of the, made during several ascents in balloons, 29. Thomson (Rev. Dr.), on meteorology consi- dered chiefly in relation to agriculture, 33. Tibetan and Indian families, on the transition between the, in respect to conformation, 85. Timber, on the strength and elasticity of, 116. Trifolium repens, on a series of morpholo- gical changes observed in, 68. Trilobites, on the metamorphosis of certain, 58. Tubicolz, on some, 72. Tumuli in Yorkshire, on, 86. Twining (Henry) on teaching perspective by models, 33. United Kingdom, on the progress of emigra- tion from the, during the last thirty years, relatively to the growth of the population, 88. “ Upton draining tool,” on an instrument called the, 122. Usury laws, on the, 93. | Vapour, on computing the quantity of, con- tained in a vertical column of the atmo- sphere, 24. Vegetable remains in the Keuper sandstone of Longdon, on, 66. Vessels, on the use of rockets in effecting a communication with stranded, 114. Vinca, on a remarkable monstrosity of a, 70. 144 Vision, on Berkeley's theory of, 6. Virginia, general sketch of, 65. Voelcker (Dr. A.) on the composition of the ash of Armeria maritima, grown in different localities, and remarks on the geographical distribution of that plant, and the presence of fluorine in plants, 43. Voltaic arrangements, on the comparative cost of working various, 47. Voluta abyssicola, 65. Volutes, on the discovery of a living repre- sentative of a small group of fossil, occur- ring in the tertiary rocks, 64. Wages and prices during the years 1842— 1849, on a comparative statement of, 101. Walenn (W. H.) on a form of galvanic bat- tery, 45. Ward (W. Sykes) on motions exhibited by metals under the influence of magnetic and diamagnetic forces, 46. on a theory of induced electric cur- rents, suggested by diamagnetic phzno- mena, 46. on the comparative cost of working various voltaic arrangements, 47. on a method of supplying the boilers of steam-engines with water, 132. Warwick asylum for juvenile offenders, on the, 87. Warwickshire, on a new species of Labyrin- thodon from the new red sandstone in, 56. Water, on the friction of, 3. , on a new method of ascertaining the quantity of organic matter in, 37. , on the decomposition and partial solu- tion of minerals, rocks, &c. by pure, and water charged with carbonic acid, 40. meter, on a, 125. Waters of the Firth of Forth, the Firth of Clyde, and the German ocean, on the pre- sence of fluorine in the, 47. INDEX II. Wave, on a singular atmospheric, in Feb. 1849, 29. West (W.) on the presence of nitrogen in mineral waters, 47. Westminster (the Dean of), on the cause of the general presence of phosphorus in strata and in all fertile soils, also on Pseudo-co- ' prolites, and the conversion of the contents of sewers and cesspools into manure, 67. Wheatstone (Prof.) on Prof. Quetelet’s in- vestigations relating to the electricity of the atmosphere, made with Peltier’s elec- trometer, 11. Wheels, on correct sizing of toothed, 127. Whishaw (Mr.) on chain pipes for sub- aqueous telegraphs, 152. on the present state of electro-telegra- phic communication in England, Prussia, and America, 133. Whitby (Mrs.) on the growth of silk in En- gland, 81. Williams (Rev. D.) on an original broad sheet of granite, interstratified among slates with grit beds, between Falmouth and Truro, 68. Wilson (Dr. G.) on the presence of fluorine in the waters of the Firth of Forth, the Firth of Clyde, and the German ocean, 47. Wire-gauge, 28. Wood (Mr.) on Kosman’s patent cistern as a sanitary machine, 134. Wrightson (F. C.), analytical investigations of cast iron, 49. Yorkshire, on tumuli in, 86. Zetland, mollusca collected in, 78. Zoology, 68. Zoophytes,.on the discovery of beds of Keuper sandstone containing, in the vicinity of Leicester, 64. THE END. PRINTED BY RICHARD AND JOHE LE. TAYLOR, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. faci Wen ate per wise Cd eT ates | 2S POM IL phrcce zr es real NPM LH | OT aT P77 N \ N 3 N N : j : \ eae: N yN \ = = Vee N | NEE Sa Fe Lal NSW Zz 00n? oy o fat coocs) [eK a= ae q Se eS SS ; 19% Report Brit. Afsoc. 1842. Pl: 6. Aggregate. Below 60 div. SEPARELaNa re Lt tt st | tT Ty fe Eh. apa CIA | COIS ee > at | a We Fos) (a Be om 2s Jan* {cS a . emir ty PEP HHH nn Curves SoaGmRe : Gives kien of BESaaweea t GRE GWAE. Electrical § | TOE ; BS S2Enas Feby Tension BeBe R ae Fahd BERR ee L845 . 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