Ἢ εἶ tlt Ub τ τοῖς τ aera 4 ἜΗΝ iret ἘΠ ΠΝ HI ὙΜῊΝ a ta τ Meanie, ΗΜ mit " i a —— ν᾿ "ὦ “2 τὰν υ en rie gi ee es REPORT TWENTIETH MEETING BRITISH ASSOCIATION ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; HELD AT EDINBURGH IN JULY AND AUGUST 1850. LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1851. PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. CONTENTS. Ossects and Rules of the Association ..........secceesescscceeccesoeens Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement ......++..s0e00e08 Table of Council from commencement ...... 222.0. ssececceeseeeessencseves Treasurer’s Account Officers and Council Officers of Sectional Committees... .......0.00. cecscsces ceeccesceccsccceences Corresponding Members.. See, eee δ Report of Council to the Gaiters Committee.. ae abe ilies ον Recommendations for Additional Reports and τ ἴῃ Science _ Synopsis of Money Grants .......c.sccccsceecneseeceeceneceeneceeseceseeeeees Arrangement of the General Meetings ............ssecessseseeger ene στε τον Address of the President............sssssescscesneeseccesseececeeceeee teers REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. _ First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena. By ΒΟΒΕΒΤ τε ob, ΜΙΝ ΤΑΙ ἘΔ ει... uni cnessdetevedtacecccsscvuces οί ἐδ ᾿ς On Observations of Luminous Meteors; continued from the Reports of the British Association for 1849. By the Rev. BapEN PoweELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S., Savilian Professor of Ceara in the University of Oxford.. On the Structure and History οἱ of the British Annelida. By THomas Wainer ams, MDs, (SWansedincscccasosoccesr'vosspos senvesceevasieanase esnvecinas 133 iv CONTENTS. Results of Meteorological Observations taken at.St. Michael's from the ist of January 1840 to the 3lst of December, 1849. Ἢ THOMAS MOAT ἘΠ ΠΡ γον εν tes ces caecocscdccccececenseoctwecceiddsscceGe Meme Licre On the present State of our Knowledge of the Chemical Action of the Bolar’Radiations. -By Roper τ HUNT. .........cs.cccscdeseserssceison see een Tenth Report of a Committee, consisting of H. E. Srrickianp, Prof. Davseny, Prof. Henstow and Prof. LinpLey, appointed to con- tinue their Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ......... 160 Report on the Aboriginal Tribes of India. By Major-General Joun ea F.R.S., Vice-President of the eA ΕΟ of MACRO σι ΕΠ Sree ae. Sans rane του eedeed'ss A as, 169 Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from September 12, 1849 to July 31,1850. By Francis Ronaxps, Esq., F.R.S., Honorary Superintendent ...............cccseecseeeeeeeeeeees 176 Report on the Investigation of British Marine Zoology by means of the Dredge. Part I. The Infra-littoral Distribution of Marine Inver- * tebrata on the Southern, Western and Northern Coasts of Great Britain. By Epwarp Forsss, F.R.S., Professor of Botany in King’s College, London, and Palzontologist of the Geological —— of the United Kingdom. ............2-s0+censes eves ee ρονατε είς ον, ἐῤεε σόοι. ἐν Ren 155 Notes on the Distribution and Range in depth of Mollusca and other Marine Animals observed on the coasts of Spain, Portugal, Barbary, ee and Southern Italy in 1849. By Roperr MacAnprew, Fon 4 On the Present State of our Knowledge of the Freshwater Hote By Professor ALLMAN, M.D., F.R.C.S.1., M.R.DAv....scccecsececsseeee 305 Registration of the Periodical Pheenomena of Plants and Animals ...... 338 Suggestions to Astronomers for the Observation of the Total Eclipse of _ the Sun on July 28, 1851. ἜΑ Το vs 00 KQVine eke eee ὉΠ OBJECTS AND RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. ————~<>_— OBJECTS. Tur Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by other Institutions. Its objects are,—To give a stronger impulse and ἃ more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an- other, and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress. RULES. ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES, All Persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be- come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to con- form to its Rules. The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So- cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Members of the Association. The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem- bers of the Association. _ All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Council or Managing Committee, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem- bers of the Association. Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Association, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the approval of a General Meeting. COMPOSITIONS, SUBSCRIPTIONS, AND PRIVILEGES. Lire Mempers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be pub- lished after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all. the offices of the Association. Awnnvat Susscrisers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds, and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this Subscription in any particu- lar year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and all _fulure years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association gratis: but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any sub- sequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association. Associates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound. They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office. vl RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. The Association consists of the following classes :— 1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid on admission Five Pounds as a composition. 2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on ad- mission ‘en Pounds as a composition. 3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to the payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership after in- termission of Annual Payment. ] 4. Annual Members admitted in any year since 1859, subject to the pay- ment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of Annual Pay- ment. | 5. Associates forthe year, subject to the payment of One Pound. 6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council. And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’) price, according to the following specification, viz. :— 1. Gratis.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo- sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845 a further sum of Five Pounds. New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a com- position. Annual Members who have ‘not intermitted their Annual Sub- scription. ; 2. At reduced or Members’ Prices, viz. two-thirds of the Publication Price.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a composition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a Book Subscription. Annual Members, who have intermitted their Annual Subscrip- tion. Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for that year only. ] 3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any of the first seventeen volumes of Transactions of the Associa- tion, and of which more than 100 copies remain, at one-third of the Publication Price. Application to be made (by letter) to Mr. R. Taylor, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street, London. Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries. MEETINGS. The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee at the pre- vious Meeting; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Offi- cers of the Association. GENERAL COMMITTEE. The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the following persons :— 1. Presidents and Officers for the present and preceding years, with au- thors of Reports in the Transactions of the Association. 2. Members who have communicated any Paper to a Philosophical Society, which has been printed in its Transactions, and which relates to such subjects as are taken into consideration at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. oe ee ee ee RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. Vil 3. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, altogether not excee:- ing three in number, from any Philosophical Society publishing Transactions. 4. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, not exceeding three, from Philosophical Institutions established in the place of Meeting, or in any place where the Association has formerly met. 5. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who -are specially nominated in writing for the meeting of the year by the Presi- dent and General Secretaries. 6. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections are ex officio members of the General Committee for the time being. SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Committees, con- sisting severally of the Members most conversant with the several branches of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof. The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation they would particularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and brought under consideration at the next Meeting. The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of particular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons, for the information of the Annual Meetings. ᾿ COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS. The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting aCommittee, which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science. ? All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re- searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects, shall be submitted to the Com- mittee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General Committee, unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recom- mendations. LOCAL COMMITTEES. Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings. Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire. OFFICERS. A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the General Committee. COUNCIL. In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the Meeting. PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS. The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve his right of property therein. ACCOUNTS. 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Sage wr re f ἔΒ90 10 ‘ad “ff LOssajorg ere Sd A CM “UOstty ‘dM Jossajorg “ysmquipa jo patitassacdins ay} 10 Tedwuug “as Ἢ 4 Δ “aa “aT ugor ‘soy Ara, 'Β΄ὍΑ “bsq ‘poz, SOWIE ρον WSU ‘sag ὃ aa 2 ‘STA RSW “CW ‘mopeg Lossqjorg ) “8. ἘΠ “ΤΟ “H'O'D “ΘΟ Ἢ “HUM ‘ouLQsIIg Ἢ SeMIOL, αἴθ [e1OUAH Sp mrarey,, 681 ee Se ee ‘A RTS Ἢ Ἢ “VW ‘pueley Jossoyorg “aout | * JET NIECE 5 Wa Z {(qeouay-sonsme pxorq) efdog prsed 'ἼΟΗ “3430 Ἢ 5 Ἵ Swe “CIT “WM ‘UDLSMAUA GIAVG BIS ne a Ὁ, ΠΑ ee ett Εν σὺ οϑκθ ee ed ‘Ss’ δ ὦ tie "π' 2" a‘ PS ἧν Ἢ “Aroqosoxy jo eq 911, ir cineca Fite νει δὲν 5 ἜΓΗ “ΘΠ Ὅ Ἢ GukaNgey Jo ΠΌΠ OUT Seer een - ee id ysmquripy jo 4soaolg poy 91} "ΠΟΗ͂ qysiy ee es i me Wa “WW ‘SITILAA IOssojorg "AOI "bsg ‘aoueyo sour ᾿ Steere ‘SU “CTT “Ἢ Ἢ ‘taysmorg pus “| "‘a'w “bsg ‘19423077 We Tr ee 8 ie en 8 ae eee ‘SH 4° ps hl O° ‘hepese,y s0ssajorg ‘6ST “δι Jaquiojdeg ‘WVHONIWAIg ‘bsq STEAA wre AA } “ΠῚ "588. 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Ρ ΔΘῊ Γ᾿ ‘Oy “Sua “areg ‘THHOSUDH ‘M Ἢ NHOL US sete cree κε νε κεν trre++syormron Jo ἀσΏΒις ayy, ᾿Θ᾽ΟΤΔΙΡΙΈΗ Jo [req 91, ᾿ “bs “59}ὺῪ UCIT “στ. er - ΠΤ - ---- Sed Gmooreyy “ATM "ΑΘ 5 “ATT ‘Aqser00g "ΔΛ ‘A071 ΟΞ ee i ry ‘SU “πο 6 “bsg ‘Aepeseg Jovqorpt ῬΤΒΙ “06 «θηπιθηᾶος, ὝπΟΧ ‘s'T'a “bsg ‘Teusayy semoys, ) “Sad “Ἢ Ἢ ᾿1935λλθχεῖ prasad ας ‘a ‘AepIOM Jaenyg UYor 'ΠΟΗ ayy, ‘Sud ‘(Ald Jo weed) "α΄ α “MOOOVdd "9 ‘AU om Β΄ Θ᾽ “bea “proper wena Letters ΘΟ ‘ugedsoyy gunoastA "gay" ‘tueTTMZATy Leg x MEMBERS OF COUNCIL. II. Table showing the Names of Members of the British Association who have served on the Council in former years. Acland, Sir Thomas D., Bart., M.P., F.R.S. Acland, Professor H. W., B.M., F.R.S. Adamson, John, Esq., F.L.S. Adare, Edwin, Viscount, M.P., F.R.S. Ainslie, Rev. Gilbert, D.D., Master of Pem- broke Hall, Cambridge. Airy, G. B.,D.C.L., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal. Alison, Professor W. P., M.D., F.R.S.E. Ansted, Professor Ὁ. T., M.A., F.R.S. Arnott, Neil, M.D., F.R.S. Ashburton, William Bingham, Lord, D.C.L. Babbage, Charles, Esq., F.R.S. Babington, C. C., Esq., F.L.S. Baily, Francis, Esq., F.R.S. Balfour, Professor John H., M.D. Barker, George, Esq., F.R.S. Bengough, George, Esq. Bentham, George, Esq., F.L.S. Bigge, Charles, Esq. Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S. Boyle, Right Hon; David, Lord Justice-Ge- neral, F.R.S.E. Brand, William, Esq. Brewster,Sir David, K.H.,D.C.L.,LL.D.,F.R.S. Breadalbane, John, Marquis of, K.T., F.R.S. Brisbane, General Sir Thomas M., Bart., K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L., F.R.S. Brown, Robert, D.C.L., F.R.S., President of the Linnean Society. Brunel, Sir M. 1., F.R.S. Buckland, Very Rev. William, D.D., Dean of Westminster, F.R.S. Burlington, William, Earl of, M.A., F.R.S., Chancellor of the University of London. Bute, John, Marquis of, K.T. Carlisle, George William Frederick, Earl of, F.G.S. Carson, Rev. Joseph. Cathcart, Lieut.-General, Earl of, K.C.B., F.R.S.E. Chalmers, Rev. T., D.D., late Professor of Divinity, Edinburgh. Chance, James, Esq. Chester, John Graham, D.D., Lord Bishop of. Christie, Professor S. H., M.A., Sec. R.S. Clare, Peter, Esq., F.R.A.S. Clark, Rev. Professor, M.D., F.R.S. (Cam- bridge). Clark, Henry, M.D. Clark, G. T., Esq. Clear, William, Esq. Clerke, Major Shadwell, K.H., R.E., F.R.S. Clift, William, Esq., F.R.S. Colquhoun, J. C., Esq., M.P. Conybeare, Very Rev. W.D., Dean of Llandaff, M.A., F.R.S. Corrie, John, Esq., F.R.S. Currie, William Wallace, Esq. Dalton, John, D.C.L., F.R.S. Daniell, Professor J. F., F.R.S. Dartmouth, William, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S. Darwin, Charles, Esq., F.R.S. Daubeny, Professor Charles G. B., M.D., F.R.S. De la Beche, Sir Henry T., F-R.S., Director- General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Dillwyn, Lewis W., Esq., F.R.S. Drinkwater, J. E., Esq. Durham, Edward Maltby, D.D., Lord Bishop of, F.R.S. Egerton, Sir Philip de M. Grey, Bart., F.R.S. Eliot, Lord, M.P. Ellesmere, Francis, Earl of, F.G.S. Estcourt, T. G. B., D.C.L. Faraday, Professor, D.C.L., F.R.S. Fitzwilliam, Charles William, Earl, D.C.L., F.R.S. Fleming, W., M.D. Fletcher, Bell, M.D. Forbes, Charles, Esq. Forbes, Professor Edward, F.R.S. ς Forbes, Professor J. D., F.R.S., Sec. R.S.E. Fox, Robert Were, Esq., F.R.S. Gassiot, J. P., Esq., F.R.S. Gilbert, Davies, D.C.L., F.R.S. Graham, Professor Thomas, M.A., F.R.S. Gray, John E., Esq., F.R.S. Gray, Jonathan, Esq. Gray, William, jun., Esq., F.G.S. Green, Professor Joseph Henry, F.R.S. Greenough, G. B., Esq., F.R.S. Grove, W. R., Esq., F.R.S. Hallam, Henry, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. Hamilton, W. J., Esq., Sec.G.S. Hamilton, Sir William R., Astronomer Royal of Ireland, M.R.I.A. Harcourt, Rev. William Vernon, M.A., F.R.S. Hardwicke, Charles Philip, Earl of, F.R.S. Harford, J. S., D.C.L., F.R.S. Harris, Sir W. Snow, F.R.S. Harrowby, The Earl of. Hatfeild, William, Esq., F.G.S. Henslow, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.L.S. Henry, W. C., M.D., F.R.S. Herbert, Hon. and Very Rev. William, late Dean of Manchester, LL.D., F.L.S. Herschel, Sir John F. W., Bart.,D.C.L., F.R.S. Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., F.R.S. Heywood, James, Esq., M.P., F.R.S. Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A,, F.G.S. Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D. Hodgkinson, Professor Eaton, F.R.S. Hodgson, Joseph, Esq., F.R.S. Hooker, Sir William J., LL.D., F.R.S. Hope, Rev. F. W., M.A., F.R.S. Hopkins, William, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. Horner, Leonard, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S. Hovenden, V. F., Esq., M.A. Hutton, Robert, Esq., F.G.S. Hutton, William, Esq., F.G.S. Ibbetson, Capt. L. L. Boscawen, K.R.E., F.G.S. Inglis, Sir Robert H.,Bart.,D.C.L.,M.P.,F.R.S. Jameson, Professor R., F.R.S. Jeffreys, John Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq. Jenyns, Rev. Leonard, F.L.S. Jerrard, H. B., Esq. Johnston, Right Hon. William, Lord Provost of Edinburgh. MEMBERS OF COUNCIL. Xl Johnston, Professor J. F. W., M.A., F.R.S. Keleher, William, Esq. Kelland, Rev. Professor P., M.A. Lansdowne, Henry, Marquis of, D.C.L.,F.R.S. Lardner, Rev. Dr. Latham, R. G., M.D., F.R.S. Lee, Very Rev. John, D.D., F.R.S.E., Prin- cipal of the University of Edinburgh. Lee, Robert, M.D., F.R.S. Lefevre, Right Hon. Charles Shaw, Speaker of the House of Commons. Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. Liddell, Andrew, Esq. Lindley, Professor John, Ph.D., F.R.S. Listowel, The Earl of. Lloyd, Rev. Bartholomew, D.D., late Provost of Trinity College, Dublin. Lloyd, Rev. Professor, D.D., Provost of Trinity College, Dublin, F.R.S. Lubbock, Sir John W., Bart., M.A., F.R.S. Luby, Rev. Thomas. Lyell, Sir Charles, M.A., F.R.S. MacCullagh, Professor, D.C.L., M.R.I.A. Macfarlane, The Very Rev. Principal. MacLeay, William Sharp, Esq., F.L.S. MacNeill, Professor Sir John, F.R.S. Malcolm, Vice Admiral Sir Charles, K.C.B. Manchester, James Prince Lee, D.D., Lord Bishop of. Meynell, Thomas, Jun., Esq., F.L.S. Miller, Professor W. H., M.A., F.R.S. Moillet, J. L., Esq. Moggridge, Matthew, Esq. Moody, J. Sadleir, Esq. Moody, T. H. C., Esq. Moody, T. F., Esq. Morley, The Earl of. Moseley, Rev. Henry, M.A., F.R.S. , Mount-Edgecumbe, Ernest Augustus, Earl of. Murchison, Sir Roderick I., G.C.S., F.R.S. Neill, Patrick, M.D., F.R.S.E. Nicol, D., M.D. Nicol, Rev. J. P., LL.D. Northumberland, Hugh, Duke of, K.G., M.A., F.R.S. Northampton, Spencer Joshua Alwyne, Mar- quis of, V.P.R.S. Norwich, Edward Stanley, D.D., F.R.S., late Lord Bishop of. Ormerod, G. W., Esq., F.G.S. Orpen, Thomas Herbert, M.D. Orpen, J. H., LL.D. Owen, Professor Richard, M.D., F.R.S. Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce, D.D., Bishop of, F.R.S., F.G.S. Osler, Follett, Esq. Palmerston, Viscount, G.C.B., M.P. Peacock, Very Rev. George, D.D., Dean of _ __ Ely, F.R.S. Peel, Rt. Hon. Sir Robert, Bart., P).C.L., F.R.S. _ Pendarves, E., Esq., F.R.S. Phillips, Professor John, F.R.S. Porter, G. R., Esq. Powell, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.R.S. Prichard, J. C., M.D., F.R.S. Ramsay, Professor W., M.A. Reid, Lieut.-Col. William, F.R.S. Lord M.P., Rennie, George, Esq., V.P.R.S. Rennie, Sir John, F.R.S. Richardson, Sir John, M.D., F.R.S. Ritchie, Rev. Professor, LL.D., F.R.S. Robinson, Rev. J., D.D. Robinson, Rev. T. R., D.D., M.R.I.A. Robison, Sir John, late Sec.R.S. Edin. Roche, James, Esq. Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., F.R.S. Ronalds, Francis, F.R.S. Rosebery, The Earl of, K.T., D.C.L., F.R.S. Ross, Capt. Sir James C., R.N., F.R.S. Rosse, William, Earl of, M.R.I.A., President of the Royal Society. Royle, Professor John F., M.D., F.R.S. Russell, James, Esq. Russell, J. Scott, Esq. Sabine, Lieut.-Colonel Edward, R.A., Treas. R.S. Saunders, William, Esq., F.G.S. Sandon, Lord. Scoresby, Rev. W., D.D., F-R.S. / Sedgwick, Rev. Professor Adam, M.A.,F.R.S. Selby, Prideaux John, Esq., F.R.S.E. Smith, Lieut.-Colonel C. Hamilton, F.R.S. Spence, William, Esq., F.R.S. Staunton, Sir George T., Bart., M.P., D.C.L., F.R.S. St. David’s. Connop Thirlwall, D.D., Lord Bishop of. Stevelly, Professor John, LL.D. Strang, John, Esq. Strickland, H. E., Esq., F.G.S. Sykes, Lieut.-Colonel W. H., F.R.S. Symonds, B. P., D.D., late Vice-Chancellor of the University of Oxford. Talbot, W. H. Fox, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. Tayler, Rev. J.J. Taylor, John, Esq., F.R.S. Taylor, Richard, Jun., Esq., F.G.S. Thompson, William, Esq., F.L.S. Tindal, Captain, R.N. Tod, James, Esq., F.R.S.E. Traill, J. S., M.D. Turner, Edward, M.D., F.R.S. Turner, Samuel, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S, Turner, Rev. W. Vigors, N. A., D.C.L., F.L.S. Vivian, J. H., M.P., F.R.S. Walker, James, Esq., F.R.S. Walker, Joseph N., Esq., F.G.S. Walker, Rev. Robert, M.A., F.R.S. Warburton, Henry, Esq., M.A., M.P., F.R.S. Washington, Captain, R.N. West, William, Esq., F.R.S. Wharncliffe, John Stuart, Lord, F.R.S. Wheatstone, Professor Charles, F.R.S. Whewell, Rev. William, D.D., F.R.S., Master of Trinity College, Cambridge. Williams, Professor Charles J.B., M.D.,F.R.S. Willis, Rev. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S. Wills, William. Winchester, John, Marquis of. Woollcombe, Henry, Esq., F.S.A. Wrottesley, John, Lord, M.A., F.R.S, Yarrell, William, Esq., F.L.S. Yarborough, The Earl of, D.C.L. Yates, James, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE THE GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT from 13th of September JAMES HEYWOOD, J. W. GILBART, C. MALCOLM, } Auditors. RECEIPTS. fe gcd; Hi Sunde ‘To balance brought on from last account ......« BAN GW stasis caro ἘΠΡΕΣΈΝ 360 7 0 Life Compositions at Birmingham and since ,..........cc-eeeeeeeeeees 130 0 0 Annual Subscriptions at Birmingham and since .........+sesseseeee+ tee 206 1 0 Associates’ at Birmingham ...... ECARO-OSHISHO-ER/ rnin gar τ τς τ ον .᾽ 447 0 0 Ladies’ Tickets at Birmingham........ ena Cuatindtewcpisscasvaeasaeseedetgts 237 0 0 Book Compositions .......... eater tea sen enades A Sesiaey ἀπ να πα Van δες ἐὺ 25 0 0 Dividends on Stock (£3500 three per cent. Consols).........:0++++++ 101 18 10 From Sale of Publications :— OT VOMME f casarsien osc cians ee sessacdcndevatoweds ss λιν τ iaitipades satasasty ἀο οἷο. 69. ΠΡΟ ΣΡ ἧς vevece 015 3 3 enenseccscnce acaragevigetnepaesnas ὧν ΒΓ Br ος οὐ τες Rub acadeneegescstoccdconceassres see 0 8 1 ΡΤ τ ΦΕΟΣ ἘΠ Ὧν hee SPRATT ΡΥ ΡΤ τς 312 7 | a Sadat αὐ ads πε ivsoesceesvcceces 17 0 | δ πε eins hessircecint s ποτα ποιοῖς κά βοοι 1138 Ὁ | Di iteevercucdsre sraqeeernseces Rademsese senate 216 0 AO pe cnasewes οὐϑοοιο. ἐφ οοαοεοσοον ες». sameway 019 7 { Dil eretave dotneneaes sgonevseleeyace νον στο δοῦν 1 14 10 . MaMa εκ Δ ¢s'dqsccsassvievsenepdeacoee fond LE, 2 NOMS SRE HSE IG Feeiledncianesaeoeestas sania 1417 0 VAG ach aatestatboclosesqccces ἐς mesheneqccwecs eet 1. 28 Loinssatecesks aaa oss eenssiddhewapeadenes’ reese 512 9 GA his BeoteogN | ὑέος witvauter, ek we | ty ee eres on ese ae OSI, 47 11 0 LO Sic τ ΤΕ Σ᾽ πρός θα ἘΝ ἘΣ ΡΥ, wee 418 6 British Association’s Catalogue of Stars............ 84 17 5 Lalande’s Catalogue of Stars ....+0.......s0ceeeee cot he 11 Lacaille’s Catalogue of Stars ............ccicecsaeeee Ose 4 3 Dove's Isothermal Lines......,.. ἐπέ εις οἰ atemecnigides ter 22 19 90 Lithograph Signatures............ Ὑξετυν. Ne gtaeeenwenivs 0 6 0 —_— 214 6 Ὁ £1721 12 10 ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 1849 (at Birmingham) to 31st of July 1850 (at Edinburgh). PAYMENTS. Bosse dpi Eh BAL ἃ For Sundry Printing, Advertising, Expenses of Meeting at Bir- mingham, and Sundry Disbursements made by the Treasurer And Local Treasurers. ..cessscsccscsesescseedsveciesssecverseseseasees 308 12 4 Printing, &c. the 17th vol. ......e0e..s000 ET econ ag ΠΡ ΤῊ od 290 11 10 Engraving for 18th vol......cse0..seeeseees Ἐλονε θα, ΣῈ or sper τὰς , ata 22 11] Salaries, Assistant General Secretary and Accountant ..........+ 350 Ὁ 0 Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory :— Balance of Grant of 1848 ......... 1 ie tied ew τ EM τον, 4413 2 ™ _ Part of Grant of 1849 ......«ννννν νον pacity tae thaneeesssasdees ἴον, 211 4 10 255 18 0 Transit of Earthquake Waves ......sescess.ses nedduebsSesdtescoehscen « 50 0 Periodical Phenomena of Animals and Vegetables :— ; Balance of Grant of 1848 ........... Ἐπ τ’ eS RRs 2 vee 5 0 0 ταν OF 1849... dicacede sues scunvassacedssaes- dein vgaeteu as maspen 10. Ὁ 0 15 0 0 Meteorological Instruments for the Azore Islands .......sseeeeeeee 25 0 0 Balance in the Banker’s hands ...........sesessscssssseesssonnseee 383 14 0 Ditto in General Treasurer’s and Local Treasurers’ hands... 20 14 9 —— 404 8 9 £1721 12 16 ὠς νος. xiv OFFICERS AND COUNCIL. OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1850-51. Trustees (permanent).—Sir Roderick Impey Murchison, G.C.S*S., F.R.S. John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S. The Very Rev. George Peacock, D.D., Dean of Ely, F.R.S. President.—Sir David Brewster, K.H.,D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.R.S.E. Vice-Presidents—The Rt. Hon. The Lord Provost of Edinburgh. The Earl of Cathcart, K.C.B., F.R.S.E. ‘The Earl of Rosebery, K.T., D.C.L. F.R.S. . Right Hon, David Boyle, Lord Justice-General, F.R.S.E. General Sir Thomas M. Brisbane, Bart., K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L., F.R.S., Pres. R.S,E. The Very Rev. John Lee, D.D., V.P.R.S.E., Principal of the University of Edinburgh. W. P. Alison, M.D., V.P.R.S.E., Prof. of the Practice of Physic in the University of Edinburgh. James D. Forbes, F.R.S., Sec.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh. President Elect.—George Biddell Airy, Esy., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal. Vice-Presidents Elect.—Right Hon. Lord Rendlesham, M.P. The Bishop of Norwich. Rev. Adam Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Geology in the University of Cambridge. Rev. John Stevens Henslow, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. Sir John P. Boileau, Bart., F.R.S. Sir William F. F. Middleton, Bart. J. C. Cobbold, Esq., M.P. T. B. Western, Esq. General Secretaries.—Lieut.-Col. Sabine, R.A., V.P. ἃ Treas. R.S., Woolwich. J. Forbes Royle, M.D., F.R.S., Prof. of Botany in King’s Col- lege, London. Assistant General Secretary.—John Phillips, Esq., F.R.S., York. General Treasurer.—John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S., 6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames Street, London. Local Treasurer.—John Biddle Alexander, Esq. Local Secretaries.—Charles May, Esq. Dillwyn Sims, Esq. George A. Biddell, Esq. George Ransome, Esq. Council.—The Duke of Argyll. Sir H. T. De la Beche. Dr. Daubeny. Sir P. De Grey Egerton, Bart. Prof. E. Forbes. Dr. Faraday. Prof. Graham. W.R. Grove, Esq. John P. Gassiot, Esq. Rev. W. V. Har- court. William Hopkins, Esq. Robert Hutton, Esq. Sir W. Jardine, Bart. Sir C. Lemon, Bart. Sir Charles Lyell. Rev. Dr. Lloyd. Sir C. Malcolm. Professor Owen. G. R. Porter, Esq. Sir John Richardson. Rev. Dr. Robinson. Lord Rosse. Col. Sykes. Prof. Wheatstone. Rev. Dr. Whewell. Lord Wrottesley. Local Treasurers—W. Gray, Esq., York. C. C. Babington, Esq., Cam- bridge. William Brand, Esq., Edinburgh. J.H. Orpen, LL.D., Dublin. Professor Ramsay, Glasgow. William Sanders, Esq., Bristol. 6. W. Orme- rod, Esq., Manchester. James Russell, Esq., Birmingham. J. Sadleir Moody, Esq., Southampton. John Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq., Swansea. J. B. Alexander, Esq., Ipswich. Auditors.—James Heywood, Esq. J. W.Gilbart, Esq. Sir C. Malcolm. OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. XV OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE » EDINBURGH MEETING. SECTION A.—-MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE. President. Professor James D. Forbes, F.R.S., Sec. R.S.E. Vice- Presidents. —The Right Rev. Bishop Terrot. Professor W. Thomson, F.R.S.E. Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. Secretaries. Professor Stevelly, LL.D. Professor 6. 6. Stokes. W. J. Macquorn Rankine, Esq. Professor Smyth, Sec. R.S.E. SECTION B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE, INCLUDING ITS APPLICATION TO AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS. President.—Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E. &c. Vice-Presidents.—Dr. Gregory, Sec. R.S.E._ Dr. Traill, F.R.S.E., Pro- fessor of Medical Jurisprudence, Edinburgh. Dr. Fyfe, F.B.S.E., Professor of Chemistry, King’s College, Aberdeen. Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S., Reg. Prof. Bot., Oxford. 1 Secretaries —R. Hunt, Esq. Dr. George Wilson, F.R.S.E. Dr. Thomas Anderson, F.R.S.E. τ _ SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY- President.—Sir Roderick I. Murchison, G.C.St.S., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Professor Jameson, F.R.S. L. ἃ E. Sir Philip de Grey Egerton, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. Charles Maclaren, Esq., F.R.S.E. Rev. Professor Sedgwick, F.R.S. Secretaries.—-Professor Nicol, F.G.S. Hugh Miller, Esq. A. Keith Johnston, Esq. SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY. President. —Professor Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E. Vice-Presidents.—Sir John G. Dalyell, Bart. Sir John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S. R.K. Greville, LL.D., F.R.S.E. G. Bentham, Esq., F-L.S. ὁ Secretaries. _—E. Lankester, M.D., F.R.S. Professor J. H. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E. Douglas Maclagan, M.D., F.R.S.E. ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTION. President.—Vice-Admiral Sir Charles Malcolm, K.C.B. ᾿ . 4 Vice-Presidents.—Professor J. Y. Simpson, M.D). Dr. R. G. Latham, _E.R.S. Rev. Dr. Edward Hincks. Major Rawlinson, F.R.S. Secretary.—Daniel Wilson, Esq. PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTION. President.—Professor Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E. ; Vice-Presidents.—Professor Owen, F.R.S. Professor Allen Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. L. ἃ E. Professor Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S. SECTION F.—STATISTICS. President.—The Very Rev, John Lee, D.D., V.P.R.S.E., Principal of the ᾿ς University of Edinburgh. Xvi REPORT— 1850. Vice-Presidents.—Rev. Dr. Gordon. Dr. Henry Marshall, F.R.S.E. Pro- fessor William P. Alison, M.D., F.R.S.E. Secretaries. —Professor Hancock, LL.D., M.R.I.A. F.R.S.E. Joseph Fletcher, Esq. G. R. Porter, Esq., F-R.S. James Stark, M.D., SECTION G.——-MECHANICAiL SCIENCE. President.--Rev. Dr. Robinson, M.R.1.A. Vice-Presidents.—George Buchanan, Esq. Professor Gordon. Thomas Grainger, Esq. John Scott Russell, Esq., F.R.S. Secretaries. —Dr. Lees and David Stevenson, Esq. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. Professor Agassiz, Cambridge, Mas- sachusetts. M. Arago, Paris. Dr. A. D. Bache, Philadelphia. Professor H. von Boguslawski, Bres- lau. Monsieur Boutigny (d’Evreux), Paris. Professor Braschmann, Moscow. Chevalier Bunsen. Charles Buonaparte, Prince of Canino. M. De la Rive, Geneva. Professor Dové, Berlin. Professor Dumas, Paris. Dr. J. Milne-Edwards, Paris. Professor Ehrenberg, Berlin. Dr. Eisenlohr, Carlsruhe. Professor Encke, Berlin. Dr. A. Erman, Berlin. Professor Esmark, Christiania. Professor G. Forchhammer, Copen- hagen. M. Frisiani, Milan. Professor Henry, Washington, United States. Baron Alexander von Humboldt, Berlin. M. Jacobi, St. Petersburg. Professor Jacobi, Konigsberg. Professor Kreil, Prague. M. ‘Kupffer, St. Petersburg. Dr. Langberg, Christiania. M. Leverrier, Paris. Baron de Selys-Longchamps, Liége. Dr. Lamont, Munich. : Baron von Liebig, Giessen. Professor Link, Berlin. Professor Gustav Magnus, Berlin. Professor Matteucci, Pisa. Professor von Middendorff, St. Pe- tersburg. Professor Nilsson, Sweden. Dr. Girsted, Copenhagen. " Chevalier Plana, Turin. M. Quetelet, Brussels. Professor Pliicker, Bonn. Professor C. Ritter, Berlin. Professor H. D. Rogers, Philadelphia. Professor W. B. Rogers, Virginia. Professor H. Rose, Berlin, Professor Schumacher, Altona. Baron Senftenberg, Bohemia. Dr. Siljestrom, Stockholm, M. Struvé of St. Petersburg. Dr. Svanberg, Stockholm. Dr. Van der Hoven, Leyden. Baron Sartorius von Waltershausen, Gothia. : Professor Wartmann, Lausanne. Report oF THE ProcEEDINGS OF THE CouNcIL IN 1849-50, as PRESENTED to THE GrNnERAL ComMITTEE ΑἹ Epinspurcu, Wepnespay, Jury 31, 1850. With reference to the subjects referred to the Council by the General Committee assembled in Birmingham, the Council have to report as follows :— 1. In respect to the proposed Recommendation to Her Majesty’s Go- vernment, to establish a Reflecting Telescope of large optical power at a suitable station for the systematic observation of the Nebule of the South- ern Hemisphere, the Council having communicated with the President and REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xvii Council of the Royal Society, had the satisfaction of being informed of the entire agreement of that body in the importance attached by the British Association to the active use of a large Reflector in the Southern Hemi- sphere, and of their readiness to concur in a recommendation to that effect to Her Majesty’s Government. The Council have further to report, that the following Memorial has been drawn up by the Rev. Dr. Robinson, President of the British Association, with the concurrence of the Earl of Rosse, President of the Royal Society, and has been presented to Lord John Russell. Copy of the Memorial to Lord John Russell. “ My Lorp,—At the last Meeting of the British Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, that Assembly came to a resolution which has been adopted by the Royal Society, and which therefore I am directed, conjointly with the President of that illustrious body, to lay before your Lordship. _ “ The purpose is, that the Government be requested to establish, in some fitting part of Her Majesty’s dominions, a powerful reflecting telescope (not less than 3 feet aperture), and to appoint an Observer charged with the duty of employing it in a review of the Nebulz of the Southern Hemisphere. “In evidence of the high importance of such an investigation, it is suffi- cient to refer to the way in which its proposal was welcomed by the British Association. That assembly, comprising upwards of 1500 persons, among whom were found almost every British name of scientific renown, and of whom all are more or less devoted to the pursuit of physical knowledge, may not unfairly be considered an exponent of the national mind on such an occa- sion ; and I have never seen it admit any similar resolution with a more en- thusiastic approval. “For the department of Nebular Astronomy is that which at present has _ the most powerful hold on public.attention, and stands most in need of public assistance. Others are worked out by the pen and in the closet, or by instru- ments of easy attainment, and in establishments already fully organized: the _ only results which they can now yield are uninteresting except to a few, and are valued by the mass only from an instinctive perception of the glory which _ they confer on human intellect. But it is far otherwise with this; the myste- rious forms on which it is employed are at present objectsof universal curiosity, from their position (outworks as it were of the universe), their evident analogy _ to the system of which we are a part, and which we may hope to study in them, and the Dynamic questions which the marvellous arrangements of ' many of them suggest. I may add, that in its origin it is almost exclusively ours ; the fame which will reward its completion should be ours also. The history may be very briefly given. About sixty-eight Nebule had been ill seen and worse described, when the elder Herschel was led to explore them _ by the encouragement and aid of his sovereign George III. To those pre- viously known, he not only added 2500 more, but by classing them, by clear and methodical description, and directing attention to the relations which connect them with other portions of the universe, he gave this branch of astronomy its powerful vitality. His no less distinguished son, following his example with even greater success, has not merely extended the list of northern nebulz to an amount which would have ennobled any other name, but has given the whole work complete precision by an accurate determination of the position of all contained in his own and his father’s lists, thus placing them fully within the reach of subsequent observers. Not content with this, he transported to the other hemisphere those instruments which had rendered 1850. - : c xvii REPORT—1850. such good service in our own, and has thus enriched astronomy with 1600 more equally well observed, but beyond the reach of European astronomers. “ Yet powerful as those instruments were, a much nearer approach to the extreme limit of useful optical power has been made by Lord Rosse: it was . therefore to be expected that his telescope would add considerably to our knowledge of the Nebule, and this has been fully realized. It was in fact a communication of some results obtained by him which directed the attention of the British Association to this subject, and excited a desire of having the same work performed for the southern sky which he is accomplishing in our own. That work implies a minute re-examination of at least all the brighter Nebule of Sir John Herschel’s catalogues ; embodied in drawings, based on micrometer measures, and so correct that each of them may be referred to without doubt by future astronomers as an authentic record of the original’s appearance at a given epoch. Of such drawings we at present possess very few: most of the sketches given by the Herschels are stated by them to be made merely by eye; and even those that were more accurately taken by them are found to require amendment when compared with the appearances in more powerful telescopes. “A task of this kind can only be wrought out by severe and long-con- tinued labour ; and the instrumental means required are such as very few in- dividuals can obtain by their private resources. Even in Europe there are but three telescopes known to exist which are capable of making any great additions to the discoveries of the Herschels; and those three are in the British Islands. This field of research is therefore still exclusively our own; and I trust your Lordship will share my feeling, that the nation’s honour will be sullied if we let it be preoccupied in its most interesting portion by the energy and liberality of any other people. “In submitting to your Lordship this request of the British Association, I feel it my duty to give with it some approximative estimate of the sum which might be required for its accomplishment. “ First, as to the instrument: it has been proved by the experience of Lord Rosse, Mr. Lassels and others, that one of sufficient power can be constructed with certainty and at no overwhelming cost. I have made inquiries of an artist (with whose abilities in this line I am practically aequainted), and have come to the conclusion that a telescope similar to the smaller of Lord Rosse’s 8 feet aperture and 27 feet focal length might be constructed for £2000. This would include an equatorial mounting ; clock-work to make the telescope travel with a star; apparatus for supporting the observer ; and a machine for polishing the speculum, when that operation may be required. If a second speculum were supplied (which seems almost essential in case of accident), it would add about £500 more. Of course some latitude must be allowed in this, but it need not be wide; the work could not be completed in Jess than a year, possibly would employ two. As telescopes so gigantic are erected in the open air, no outlay would be necessary for any building except the Observer's dwelling. ἊΝ “ὁ Secondly, the Observer need not possess very high mathematical attains _ ments; acute sight, and skill as a draughtsman, being his most important re- quisites; and his staff need not consist of more than two or three labourers, one of whom should be a practical mechanic. “11 am quite aware that there are some persons who will consider the sum that I have named above, and the moderate annual expenditure which would be required for a few years, a very unprofitable waste of public money. I feel also assured that your Lordship is not of their number; no man can be — who has ever drunk of the fountain of knowledge, or added to the domain of | REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xix - intellect. I feel confident that the public itself is not with them, and that it would resent as an insult the imputation of valuing at a mere market price the only true elements of personal dignity or national glory. If the spirit of the - age be such that the most despotic sovereigns of Europe feel that they: cannot avoid the necessity of encouraging physical science, much more does it belong to the rulers of the freest and most enlightened nation of the world; and it is due to your Lordship and your colleagues to say that we have always found you to carry out in the fullest extent the requirements of science. ᾿ ‘In hopes that in this instance also our appeal may not be in vain, “1 have the honour to be “ Your Lordship’s obedient Servant, «T. R. Ropinson, ““ President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.” The Right Hon. The Lord John Russell.” 2. In consequence of the Resolution passed by the General Committee relative to the correction of the levels of the Ordnance Survey of Ireland, the President communicated with the Rev. Dr. Lloyd, President of the Royal Irish Academy. The President and Council of the Royal Irish Academy have addressed the Master-General of the Ordnance, recom- mending that the correction should be made, and have received a favour- able reply. 3, In respect to the proposed application to the Master-General of the Ordnance to have the British Are of the Meridian published in its full extent, the Council have had the satisfaction of learning that the President and Council of the Royal Society entirely agreed with the British Asso- ciation in their estimate of the importance of the proposed publication, and that with the concurrence of the Marquis of Anglesey, Master-General of the Ordnance, an application has been made by the President of the Royal ociety to Lord John Russell, to place the necessary funds at the disposal _ of the Ordnance Department, and that the application has been favourably received by Lord John Russell on the part of Her Majesty’s Government. ᾿ 4. The Sub-Committee who were appointed to organise a Committee of _.. Members of the Association, who are also Members of the Legislature, for _ the purpose of watching over the.interests of Science, request permission to submit their plan of proceeding to the Committee of Recommendations, i in order that it may come before the General Committee. _... 8. In pursuance of the authority granted by the General Committee to τ. the Council to make arrangements for the proper distribution of the un- ο΄ sold Copies of the Volumes of Reports of the British Association, the _. Council appointed a Select Committee to consider and report on the sub- ject. A first report of the Committee has been received and will be taken _ into early consideration. 6. For the more effectual discharge of the trust reposed in them of general superintendence of the Observatory at Kew, the Council named a . Committee, consisting of Members of their own body, who at their request undertook the duty of frequent visitation, and of special superintendence . over the experiments and observations to be made there, The Council have great satisfaction in stating that the gentlemen who undertook the _ duties of this Committee have discharged them with remarkable assiduity, τς and that they have been assisted at their Meetings by the attendance of _ other Members of the Council who participate in the desire of rendering . Kew an effective and important establishment. The Council have received C2 . xx REPORT—1850. from the Committee the subjoined Report on the present state and pro- spects of the Observatory. Report of the Kew Committee—“ The grant made by the General Com- mittee for maintaining the establishment at Kew Observatury during the present year being in a considerable degree founded on the results actually secured, and others likely to be obtained by the electrical observations which have been instituted there, the Committee for superintending the Observatory have kept the prosecution and extension of these experiments steadily in view. “ Ever since 1843 a series of measures of the intensity of atmospheric elec- tricity has been accumulated at Kew. By direction of the General Com- mittee in 1848, Mr. Birt was engaged on the discussion of these, and his Report is published in the Transactions of the Association for 1849. By this investigation the seeming irregularity of these phenomena has been in some degree elucidated, and results having a general and systematic value obtained. For example, during the twenty-four hours the electrical tension of the atmosphere acquires two maxima, viz. about 10 A.M. and 10 P.M., and suffers two minima, viz. about 4 A.M. and 4 p.M., these being also nearly the hours of barometrical maxima and minima. Moreover, in the course of the twelve months, there is distinetly a periodicity of electrical tension ; the maxi- mum for the year being in the depth of winter, and the minimum in the height of summer. Mr. Birt has shown the relation of the curve which re- presents the annual movement of the electrical tension to that which describes the humidity of the air. * To the experiments from which these and other interesting relations have arisen, the Committee has been enabled to add a new series of observations on electrical frequency, by which not the intensity of the atmospheric charge, but the vate at which the instrument receives it will become known. These observations were begun under Mr. Ronalds’s direction in March 1850, and were continued for three weeks; but unfortunately the state of Mr. Birt’s health has not only stopped the observations, but deprived the Observatory of the further services of that gentleman. “The Committee will be able to supply the deficiency thus occasioned, and conduct these and other researches in a satisfactory manner, if the General Committee shall think fit to empower them, by the appointment of Mr. Welsh, late Assistant in the Observatory of Sir Thomas Brisbane, a gentleman of whose qualifications for the duties of Observer at Kew, the Committee have ample testimony. “Tn originally accepting the charge of this Observatory (1842), the Asso- ciation was influenced by the facilities which it would afford for the prosecu- tion of experimental inquiries in the physical sciences, for which its locality is peculiarly suitable, and at the close of the first year the Council had esta- blished the following registers in addition to the electrical observations al- ready noticed :— “An ordinary meteorological record with standard instruments; and had made arrangements with Professor Wheatstone for the completion of a self- registering meteorological instrument on a new construction. ; “ The advantage to be derived from self-recording instruments by meteo- rology and magnetism has been often expressed by votes of the Association from an early period of its career. The establishment of Kew Observatory brought these ideas into practical operation. That Observatory has given to science self-recording instruments for electrical, magnetical, and meteorolo- gical phenomena, already of great value, and certainly capable of great further improvement. Mr. Ronalds, whose valuable services have been given gra- tuitously to the Observatory from nearly its foundation, is still intent on im- Ba sets - Se RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. XX1 proving these instruments ; and lately, by employing the new invention of gela- tine paper, he has not only been able to copy exactly the line which is traced on the plate by light, but further to print other copies for distribution. Mr. Ronalds’s Report of the Proceedings at Kew during the past year, which is prepared for reading in the Physical Section, will make known other facts illustrative of the state of the Observatory. Kreil’s Barometrograph, which was received in 1845, has been put in working order. Electrical, magnetical, and meteorological phenomena are those for which the apparatus now collected at Kew is specially adapted, and it is in a condition to admit of their being regularly and constantly registered—in a great degree by self-recording in- struments. But to provide for the constant and regular registration of all these phenomena would be quite incompatible with the limited funds at the disposal of the Association, and inconsistent with the general intention of the establishment—which is an Experimental Observatory, devoted to open out new physical inquiries, and to make trial of new modes of inquiry, but only in a few selected cases to preserve continuous records of passing phenomena. “Tt is on this view of the character of the Observatory that the Committee found their opinion, that it may be maintained in a state of efficiency, and kept always ready to take its proper share in the Advancement of Science, by means of a moderate annual grant from the Association. They have further the satisfaction to report, that the progress of the Observatory in its peculiar field of research is likely to be materially aided by funds provided from another source, the Royal Society having allotted £100 for the purchase of new instruments to be tried at Kew, out of the sum placed at their disposal by Her Majesty’s Government.” 7. The Council have been informed by Sir John Burgoyne, Inspector- General of Fortifications, that the publication of the Mountjoy Meteorolo- gical Observations will be at once proceeded with in compliance with the directions of the Marquis of Anglesey, Master-General of the Ordnance. . 8. The Council have added the following names to the list of the Cor- _ responding Members of the British Association, viz. - Professor Gustav Magnus of Berlin. : Professor W. B. Rogers of Virginia. RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE Epinsureu Merrtine in Aueust 1850. Involving Application to Government or Public Institutions. That a Committee, consisting of the President, the Duke of Argyll, Sir R, I. Murchison, Professor Forbes, and the Marquis of Breadalbane, be appointed for the purpose of urging on Her Majesty’s Government the completion of the Geographical Survey of Scotland, as recommended by the British Association, at their former meeting in Edinburgh in 1834. οὐ That application be made to the Admiralty for the Publication of the - Reports of their Committee on Metals. _ - That a Committee be appointed by the Council, for the purpose of waiting upon Her Majesty’s Government to request that some means be taken to en- sure to the Science of Natural History an effective representation in the Trusteeship of the British Museum. That the Council of the Association be requested to communicate with the Council of the Royal Society, and also with the Government, if neces- Xxii REPORT—1850. sary, respecting the possibility of relieving the Association from the expense of maintaining the establishment at Kew. That Her Majesty’s Government be requested to institute a Statistical Survey relative to the Extent and Prevalence of Infantile Idiocy as a mea- sure greatly conducive to the public welfare. Involving Grants of Money. That the Establishment at Kew Observatory be continued (at the disposal of the Council for that purpose), with £300. That Professor J. D. Forbes be requested to institute a Series of Experi- ments, for the purpose of testing the results of the Mathematical Theory of Heat; that Professor Kelland be requested to co-operate with him; and that £50 be placed at the disposal of Prof. Forbes for the purpose, __ That the Committee for superintending the Publication of the Tabular Forms in reference to Periodical Pheenomena of Animals and Plants, be con- tinued, with £5 at their disposal. That Professor E. Forbes and Mr. Bell be requested to continue their as- sistance to Dr. Thomas Williams in his researches on the Annelida, with £10 at their disposal. That the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds be requested to continue their attention to that subject, with £11 at their disposal. That a Committee, consisting of Mr. R. Hunt, Dr. G. Wilson, and Dr. Gladstone, be requested to investigate the influence of the solar radiations or chemical combinations, electrical phenomena, and the vital powers of plants growing under different atmospheric conditions, with £50 at their disposal. That Dr. Smith be requested to continue his investigation on the Air and Water of Towns, with £10 at his disposal. That, as the printed Queries formerly circulated for the purpose of ob- taining Ethnological data are now out of print, a new and revised Edition of them be issued by Sir Charles Malcolm and Dr. Hodgkin, with £12 at their disposal for the purpose. Rules. That the subject of Geography be separated from Geology, and combined with Ethnology, to constitute a separate Section, under the title of the Geo- graphical and Ethnological Section. That in future no Section shall omit to meet on account of Excursions, unless it be specially so determined in each case by the Sectional Committee. That for the future the names of officers and members of Committees not attending the Meetings of the Association be not published. Notice was given of an intention to propose at the next Meeting, that the sum now paid for Life Composition and Book Subscription (viz. £10) be divided into two sums of £5 and £5, the former sum being a necessary payment by all who compound for Annual Subscription; the latter an op- tional payment as a special Book Subscription. Reports requested. Professor Stokes.—On the General Theory of Vibratory Motions in Elastie Media. Professor Willis—On Acoustics. Mr. G. Buchanan.—On the Strength of Materials . ἪΡ RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. Xxiii _ Mr. Thomas Stevenson.—On the various niodes of constructing Sea Walls, and the actual state of knowledge as to their power of resisting the forces to which they are exposed. Mr. 1. Whitworth.—On his Experiments for the purpose of constructing Accurate Standards of Measure, Dr. Hugh Cleghorn, Professor Royle, Messrs. R. Baird Smith, and R. Strachey, H.E.I.C.S.—On the probable effects, in an ceconomical and physi- cal point of view, of the Destruction of Tropical Forests. Researches, §c. That the Committee on the influence of Carbonic Acid on the growth of Ferns be requested to continue their investigations. That Dr. Percy and Professor Miller be requested to continue their re- searches on Crystalline Slags. That the Committee on Shooting Stars and Auroral Phenomena be reap- pointed. That the Committee on the Instrumental Measurement of Earthquake Waves be reappointed. _. That the Committee of superintendence of the Kew Observatory be con- tinued. Miscellaneous. That the Committee of Members of Legislature, who are also Members of the British Association, who were requested to watch over the interests of Science, and to inspect the various measures which might from time to time be introduced into Parliament, likely to affect such interests, be reappointed, and that the further steps to be taken in this matter be referred to the Council. That the Presidents of the several Sections be requested, with such assist- ance from the Members as they may find desirable, to revise the recommen- dations which have from time to time been adopted in reference to the branches of Science which are taken into consideration by those Sections ᾿ respectively, and to communicate thereon with the Assistant General Secre- tary previous to the next Meeting. That a Committee, consisting of Sir John Herschel, The Aaweedomer Royal, Prof..Forbes and Prof. Powell, with power to add to their number, be empowered to communicate with the Astronomers of Pulkowa on the observations to be made at the next approaching total Eclipse of the Sun, July 28, 1851, and to draw up suggestions for the guidance of observers generally. That the Memorial of M. Kupffer be printed for circulation among the officers. It appearing that two recommendations for Reports, viz. On the Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System, and on the History and Advances of Vegetable Physiology, which had been adopted by the Committee of Sec- tion D, had not been presented to the Committee of Recommendations, it was directed that these be communicated to the Council at its next Meeting: _ the following are the terms of these Resolutions :-— “ That Professors Sharpey, Goodsir and Allen Thompson, and Dr. Laycock, with power to add to their number, be requested to prepare for the next Meeting of the Association a Report on the History of, and Advances in our knowledge of the Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System, from the date of the last Report on this subject. “That Dr. Lindley, Arthur Henfrey, F.L.S., and Dr. Lankester, with χχὶν REPORT—1850. power to add to their number, be requested to prepare for the next Meeting . of the Association a Report on the Advances in our knowledge of Vegetable Physiology, from the date of the last Report on this subject.” That two Botanical Works, presented by Professor Parlatore, be deposited in the Library of the University of Edinburgh. That the Tables of the distribution (in depth) of Marine Animals, by Mr. M‘Andrew, be printed im extenso in the Volume of Reports of this Meeting of the Association. That Major General Briggs’s paper On the Aboriginal Tribes of India be printed entire in the next Volume of Transactions. Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Oljects by the General Committee at the Edinburgh Meeting in August 1850, with the Name of the Member, who alone, or as the First of a Committee, is entitled to draw for the Money. Kew Observatory. & 5. a. At the disposal of the Council for defraying Expenses........ 300 0 0 Mathematical and Physical Science. Fornus, Prof. J. D.—Experiments for the purpose of testing the results of the Mathematical Theory of Heat .......... 50 0 0 Chemical Science. Honz, Mr. R.— Influence of the Solar Radiations or Chemical Combinations, Electrical Phenomena, and the Vital Powers of Plants growing under different atmospheric conditions.. 50 0 0 Situ, Dr.—Investigations on the Air and Water of Towns.. 10 0 0 Natural History. α Srnicktanp, H. E.—Vitality of Seeds............ were. | ΤΠ} Lanxester, Dr.—Periodical Phenomena of Animals and Vege- tables’... 5. ei leieinwalelereicral = Saigo So cc ec cevens ἢν epee Prof. E.—Report on British ‘Anneiaan” Mh we bls Maree . 10 0 0 Ethnology. RiieccGials Sir Cuartes.—Printed Queries for obtaining Eth- nological Data ...... AU Pe RR Pe Ae Grants....<.. £448 0.0 © ν δια, “4 το Fd cok, = Were GENERAL STATEMENT. peveral Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants for Scientific Purposes. 1834, £ ς. d. Tide Discussions .... 20 9 0 898. Tide Discussions .... 62 0 0 BritishFossilIchthyology 105 0 0 £167 0 0 1836. Tide Discussions .... 163 0 0 BritishFossilIchthyology 105 0 0 Thermometric Observa- MONEgeEC sees ὃ 0 0 Experiments on long- continued Heat .... 17 1 0 Rain Gauges ......--. 913 0 Refraction Experiments 15 0 0 Lunar Nutation ...... 60 0 0 Thermometers ...... 15 6 0 £434 14 0 1837. Tide Discussions...... 284 1 0 Chemical Constants .. 2413 6 Lunar Nutation ...... 70 0 0 Observations on Waves. 100 12 0 Tides at Bristol ...... 150 0 0 Meteorology and Subter- ranean Temperature. 89 5 0 VitrificationExperiments 150 0 0 Heart Experiments.... 8 4 6 Barometric Observations 20 0 0 Barometers’.......... 1118 6 £918 14 6 1838. Tide Discussions...... 29 0 0 British Fossil Fishes .. 100 0 0 Meteorological Observa- tions and Anemometer (construction) ...... 100 0 0 Cast Iron (strength of). 60 0 0 Animal and Vegetable Substances (preserva- SOL ess τού σι 19. 110 Carried forward £308 1 10 £ s δὲ Brought forward 308 1 10 Railway Constants .... 41 12 10 Bristol Tides .......- 50 0 0 Growth of Plants .... 75 0 0 Mud in Rivers ...... 3 6 6 Education Committee... 50 0 0 Heart Experiments.... 5 3 O Land and Sea Level 267 8 ἢ Subterranean Tempera- CULE Seve να πος vee 8 6 0 Steam-vessels ........ 100 0 0 Meteorological Commit- CEE τ shel alesersiaretetete aren COLON ὃ Thermometers ...... 16 4 0 £956 12 2 1839. Fossil Ichthyology .... 110 0 0 Meteorological Observa- tions at Plymouth .. 63 10 0 Mechanism of Waves.. 144 2 0 Bristol Tides ........ 35 18 6 Meteorology and Subter- ranean Temperature. 21 11 0 VitrificationExperiments 9 4 7 Cast Iron Experiments. 100 0 0 Railway Constants .... 28 7 2 Land and Sea Level 274 1 4 Steam-Vessels’ Engines. 100 0 0 Stars in Histoire Céleste 331 18 6 Stars in Lacaille...... 11 0 0 StarsinR.A.S.Catalosue 6 16 6 Animal Secretions..... 1010 0 Steam-engines in Corn- wall ...... aex hata) ae . 50 0 0 Atmospheric Air...... 16 1 0 Cast and Wrought Iron. 40 0 0 Heat on Organic Bodies 3 0 0 Gases on Solar Spec- } PERU eh, νυν ἡ 22 0 0 Hourly Meteorological Observations, Inver- ness and Kingussie.. 49 7 8 Fossil Reptiles ...... 118 2 9 Mining Statistics...... 50 0 0 £1595 11 0 SSS s. ὦ. 10 8 0 0 0 0 1 6 12.--O 0 O 18 8 0 Oo 0 0 1 10 6 ὃ 00 0 Ὁ £1235 10 11 11 2 12 0 8 0 14 7 17. 6 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 111 xxvi REPORT—1850. oa £ 1840. Brought forward 539 Bristol Tides ........ 100 0 0 | Fossil Reptiles ...... 50 Subterranean Tempera- Foreign Memoirs .... 62 EERE onc he vicee cscs 13 18 6 | Railway Sections 38 Heart Experiments. . 18 19 0 | Forms of Vessels 193 Lungs Experiments 8 13 0 | Meteorological Observa- Tide Discussions...,.. 50 0 0 tions at Plymouth .. 56 Land and Sea Level .. 611 1 | MagneticalObservations 61 Stars (Histoire Céleste) 242 10 0 | Fishes of the Old Red Stars (Lacaille) ...... 415 0 Sandstone ....+.+. 100 Stars (Catalogue) .... 264 0 0 | Tides at Leith........ 50 Atmospheric Air.,.... 15 15 0 | Anemometer at Edin- Water on Iron........ 10 0 0 burgh .....-..e00- 69 Heat on Organic Bodies 7 0 0 | Tabulating Observations 9 MeteorologicalObserva- Races of Men....ss08 ὅ HANG Os peso ose 5217 6 | Radiate Animals.s.s0 3 Foreign Scientific Me- AGING [Fy «ci ais/dis we wow 11 ἀπ. Working Population #10000 1842. School Statistics ...... 50 0 O | Dynamometric — Instru- Forms of Vessels 184 7 0 ments .. 6. sees “ει. ὁ EME Chemical and Electrical Anoplura Britannia .. 52 Pheenomena........ 40 0. 0] Tides at Bristol ...... 59 Meteorological Observa- Gases on Light ...... 80 tions at Plymouth .. 80 0 O | Chronometers......-. 26 Magnetical Observations 185 13 9 | Marine Zoology ..... Ὡς ἢ £1546 16 4 | British Fossil Mammalia 100 ———=—= | Statisticsof Education... 20 Marine Steam-vessels’ 1841. . Engines .. «τ τον 28 Observations on Waves. 30 0 0 | Stars (Histoire Céleste) 59 Meteorologyand Subter- Stars (British Associa- ranean Temperature. 8 8 0 tion Catalogue of) .. 110 Actinometers ......-. 10 © 0 | Railway Sections...... 161 Earthquake Shocks 4. 17 7 0 | British Belemnites.... 60 Acrid Poisons..... .ss 6 0 O | Fossil Reptiles (publica- Veins and Absorbents.. 3 0 0 tion of Report) .... 210 Mud in Rivers....... . 5 0 O | Forms of Vessels...... 180 Marine Zoology ...... 15 12 8 | GalvanicExperimentson Skeleton Maps ...... 20 0 Ὁ Rocks ... 6 Ὁ 6 τσ σ κεν 5 Mountain Barometers... 6 18 6 | Meteorological Experi- Stars (Histoire Céleste). 185 0 0 ments at Plymouth.. 68 Stars (Lacaille) . 79 5 0] Constant Indicator and Stars (Nomenclature of) 17 1.91»: Dynamometric Instru- Stars (Catalogue of) .. 40 0 0 ments «-seeereeees 90 Water on Iron........ 50 0 0 | Force of Wind...... oan dO Meteorological Observa- LightonGrowthof Seeds 8 tions at Inverness .. 20 0. 0 | Vital Statistics ....-.. 50 Meteorological Observa-~ Vegetative Power of tions (reduction οἵ)... 25 0 0 Seed@;...-cccesses {ἃ Carried forward £539 10 8 Carried forward £14428 8 4 GENERAL STATEMENT. xxvii ἘΞ Ἐπ AIR ῖ oe gay δ Brought forward 1442 8 8 Brought forward 977 6 7 ~ Questions on Human Uncovering Lower Red B Rage)... Hae ies 7 9 O Sandstone near Man- 1449 1 chester Pre 6} 8 2 ὁ 4 4 6 UPS Vegetative Power of 1843 Seeds oes ep τ} 5 8 8 ἃ Marine Testacea (Habits Revision of the Nomen- te 10 0 0 clature of Stars .... 2 0 0 M uta aati TRE TM 10 0 0 Reduction of Stars, Bri- Marine ΠΡ ον, Ἔκ ΌΜΩΣ 21411 tish Association Cata- Ρ : ah R ee A ‘logue ....... nie eh: μὰ. υὖ.. 6 reparation cae ae ‘ δ ἜΜΕΝ Peet on British Fossil Mam- Anomalous Tides, Frith made 100 0 0 | PMOL cam: seaee LOO OO Wt ace ao) eckde ee ae Physiological aperations of Medicinal Agents) 20 0 0 Vital Statisties.....5.. 86 6 Additional Experiments ontheFormsofVessels 70 0 0 Additional Experiments ontheFormsof Vessels 100 0 0 Reduction of Observa- tions on the Forms of Vessels .....52... 100 0 0 Morin’s Instrument and Constant Indicator... 69 14 10 Experiments. on the Strength of Materials 60 0 Ὁ £1565 10 2 — eee Hourly Meteorological ᾿ Observations at Kin- gussie and Inverness 77 12 8 Meteorological Observa- tions at Plymouth .. ὅδ 0 0 Whewell’s Meteorolo- _ gical Anemometer at | ariymenth ......... 10 0 0 Meteorological Observa- tions, Osler’s Anemo- meter at Plymouth .. 20 0 0 Reduction of Meteorolo- gical Observations... 30 0 0 Meteorological Instru- ments and Gratuities 39 6 0 Construction of Anemo- meter atInverness.. 56 12 2 1844, Magnetic Co-operation. 10 8 10 Meteorological Recorder for Kew Observatory Action of Gases on Light Establishment at Kew Observatory, Wages, ~ Repairs, Furniture and PSUNCTIES 2450556205 ~ Experiments by Captive 50 18 133 ᾿ Meteorological Observa- tions at Kingussie and Tnverpiess .. oi a th CompletingObservations at Plymouth........ Magnetic and Meteoro- logical Co-operation. . Publication of the Bri- tish Association Cata- Balloons, ‘n> os 2% a... 8h logue of Stars ...... Oxidation of the Rails Observations on Tides ᾿ of Railways........ 20 on the East Coast of Publication of Report on _ Fossil Reptiles .,.. Coloured Drawings of 40 Scotland .......0.. Revision of the Nomen- clature of Stars.. 1842 Railway Sections.... 147 Maintaining the Esta- egistration of Earth- blishment in Kew Ob- _ quake Shocks...... 30 SERVBLOTY os .. «666. Report on Zoological Instruments for Kew Ob- So Co _ Nomenclature...... 10 0 0O a ~-~€arried forward £977 6 7 SEFVALOTY .. ..4...... 96 7 Carried forward £384 2 > ΧΧΥΪῚ REPORT—1850. £ 5. d. £ 5. Brought forward 384 2 4 Brought forward 399 10 Influence of Light on Meteorological Instru- BES soe wtatstone τὰς dhe. O ments at Edinburgh 18 11 Subterraneous T empera- Reduction of Anemome- ture in Ireland...... 5-00 trical Observations at Coloured Drawings of Plymouth......,+-. 25 0 Railway Sections. . 15 17 6 | Electrical Experiments Investigation of F osail at Kew Observatory 49 17 Fishes of the Lower Maintaining the Esta- Tertiary Strata .... 100 0 0 blishment in Kew Ob- Registering the Shocks servatory ....+.-. . 149 15 of Earthquakes, 1842 23 11 10 | For Kreil’s Barometro- : Researches into the graph ....eee0-- 25 0 Structure of Fossil Gases from Iron Fur- Shells ..... “66 ἐκ ο. 20 0 0 AGEN, Tein ὍΝ s.0/ ons 50 0 Radiata and Mollusca of Experiments on the Ac- the ASgean and Red tinograph Bae pie exicnpililen sO Seas... .scenes 1842 100 0 0 | Microscopic Structure of Geographical distribu- Shells” ’.. 200 des oc rp: (oes tions of Marine Zo- Exotic Anoplura..1843 10 0 ology ... .1842 010 0 | Vitality of Seeds..1843 2 0 Marine Zoology. of De- Vitality of Seeds..1844 7 0 von and Cornwall 10 0 0 Marine Zoology of Corn- Marine Zoology of Corfu 10 0 0 wall ....+.40- . 10 0 0 Experiments on the Vi- Physiological Action of tality of Seeds..... ἐπα 9. 0158 Medicines ..... 20 0 0 Experiments on the Vi- Statistics of Sickness ‘and tality of Seeds..1842 8 7 8 Mortality in York .. 20 0 0 Researches on Exotic Registration of Earth- Anoplura.........- 15 0 0 quake Shocks ..1843 15 14 8 oe ee on the £3831 9 9 Strength of Materials 100 0 0 ——= Completing Experiments 1846. on the Forms of Ships 100 0 0 | British Association Ca- Inquiries into Asphyxia 10 0 0 talogue of Stars, 1844 211 15 0 Investigations on the in- Fossil Fishes of the Lon- ternal Constitution of don Clay .. .« ssn .. 100 0 0 Metals..... ro ETE 50 0 0 | Computation ofthe Gaus Constant Indicator and sianConstantsfor1839 50 0 0 Morin’s_ Instrument, Maintaining the Esta- 1842 sess evcccase 10 8 6 blishment at Kew Ob- £981 12 8 servatory ........ 14616 7 τἃ.-.-. ᾿ Experiments on _ the 1845. Strength of Materials 60 0 0 Publication of the British Researches in Asphyxia 6 16 2 Association Catalogue Examination of Fossil Of Stars τὲ τεὴν .. 651 14 6 Shells ....... φορὰς EO ae Meteorological Observa~- Vitality of Seeds..1844 2 15 10 tions at Inverness .. 30 18 11 | Vitality of Seeds..1845 712 8 Magnetic and Meteoro- Marine Zoology of Corn- logical Co-operation 16 16 8 wall ..sesesescesee 10 0 0 Carried forward £399 10 1 Carried forward £605 + pee DER pe ial τὸ ἐς τοι. ieee Ἂ ; - eo τοουν se lat taee GENERAL STATEMENT. Bovis. de Brought forward 605 15 10 Marine Zoology of Bri- Ms Doce Gea tee OO On ὃ Exotic Anoplura..1844 25 0 0 Expenses attendingAne- mometers ......-. 11 7 6 Anemometers’ Repairs. 2 3 6 Researches on Atmo- spheric Waves .... 3.8.8 Captive Balloons..1844 819 8 Varieties of the Human RACE 5.6. sn.oios nie 1844 7 6 8 Statisticsof Sickness and Mortality at York.. 12 0 0 £685 16 0 1847. Computation oftheGaus- sianConstantsforl1839 50 0O 0 HabitsofMarineAnimals 10 0 0 Physiological Action of Medicines ........ 20 0 0 Marine Zoology of Corn- πιο ον Ὁ 10 0 0 Researches on Atmo- spheric Waves...... 6 9 8 Vitality of Seeds...... 4 7 7 Maintaining the Esta- blishment at Kew Ob- servatory.......... 107 8 6 £208 5 4 1848. Maintaining the Esta- blishment at Kew Ob- Servatory .......- 171 151] Carried forward £171 15 11 XX1X & s. d. Brought forward 171 15 11 Researches on Atmo- spheric Waves .... 9510 9 Vitality of Seeds .... 915 0 Completion ofCatalogues of Stars .......... 70 0 0 On Colouring Matters. 5 O 0 On Growth of Plants... 15 0 0 £275 1 8 1849. Electrical Observations at Kew Observatory 50 0 0 Maintaining Establish- ment at ditto ....,. 76 2 ὃ Vitality of Seeds...... 5 8 1 On Growth of Plants.. 5 0 0 Registration of Periodi- cal Phenomena.... 10 0 9 Bill on account of Ane- mometrical Observa- CONS: «6 κα. ἐν γον MOM UA DO £159 19° 6 1850, Maintaining the Esta- blishment at Kew Ob- servatory ... eee. 209 18 ἢ Transit of Earthquake Waves, cstaaiss pois yO: Ou O Periodical Phenomena 15 0 0 Meteorological Instru- strument, Azores .. 25 0 0 £345 18 0 Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee. Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money for scientific pur- poses have been entrusted, are required to present to each following meeting of the Association a Report of the progress which has been made; with a statement of the sums which have been expended, and the balance which remains disposable on each grant. Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific purposes from the funds of the As- ‘sociation expire at the ensuing meeting, unless it shall appear by a Report that the Recommendations have been acted on, or a continuation of them be ordered by the General Committee. In each Committee, the Member first named is the person entitled to call time be required. _ on the Treasurer, John Taylor, Esq., 6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames Street, London, for such portion of the sum granted as may from time to Xxx REPORT—1850. In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate the payment of personal expenses to the Members. In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua- tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named shall be deemed to include, as a part of the amount, the specified balance which may remain unpaid on the former grant for the same object. General Meetings (in the Music Hall). On Wednesday, July 31st, at 8 p.m., the late President, The Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D., M.R.I.A., resigned his Office to Sir David Brewster, K.H., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.R.S.E., who took the Chair at the General Meeting, and delivered an Address, for which see p. xxxi. On Thursday, August Ist, Professor Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E., delivered a Discourse on the Passage of the Blood through the minute Vessels of Ani- mals, in connection with Nutrition. On Monday, August 5th, Dr. Mantell, F.R.S. &c., delivered a Discourse on the Extinct Birds of New Zealand. On Wednesday, August 7th, at 3 p.m., the concluding General Meeting of the Association was held, when the Proceedings of the General Committee, and the grants of money for scientific purposes were explained to the Members. The Meeting was then adjourned to Ipswich in 1851*. * The Meeting is appointed to take place on Wednesday, the 2nd of July. ee —— δ. ῥῶ ADDRESS BEY SIR DAVID BREWSTER, K.H. D.C.L. F.R.S.L. ἃ V.P.R.S. Epins. ASSOCIATE OF THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF FRANCE. GentLEmMen,—The kind and flattering expressions with which Dr. Robinson has been pleased to introduce me to this Chair, and to characterise my sci- entific labours, however coloured they are by the warmth of friendship, cannot but be gratifying even at an age when praise ceases to administer to vanity or to stimulate to ambition. The appreciation of intellectual labour by those who have laboured intellectually, if not its highest, is at least one of its high rewards, When I consider the mental power of my distinguished friend, the value of his original researches, the vast extent of his acquire- ments, and the eloquence which has so often instructed and delighted us at our annual reunions, I feel how unfit I am to occupy his place, and how little I am qualified to discharge many of those duties which are incident to the Chair of this Association. It is some satisfaction, however, that you are all aware of the extent of my incapacity, and that you have been. pleased to accept of that which I can both promise and perform—to occupy any post of labour, either at the impelling or the working arm of this gigantic lever of science, On the return of the British Association to the metropolis of Scotland, I am naturally reminded of the small band of pilgrims who, in 1831, carried the seeds of this Institution into the more genial soil of our sister land—of the zeal and talent with which it was fostered and organized by the Philo- sophical Society of York—of the hospitality which it enjoyed from the Primate of England—of the invaluable aid which it received from the uni- versities and scientific societies of the south—and of the ardent support with which it was honoured by some of the most accomplished of our nobility. From its cradle at York, the infant Association was ushered into the gorgeous halls of Oxford and Cambridge—the seats of ancient wisdom and the foci of modern science. University honours were liberally extended to its more active members ; and, thus decorated, our Institution was eagerly XXxii REPORT—1850. welcomed into the rich marts of our commerce, and into the active localities of our manufacturing industry. Europe and America speedily recognized the importance of our rising Association, and deputies from every civilized nation hastened to our annual congress, assisted at our sectional meetings, and have even contributed to our Transactions valuable reports on different branches of science. It may be interesting to those who are here for the first time to learn the names of some of those distinguished individuals by whose exertions and talents this Association has attained its present magnitude and position; and I feel as if it were peculiarly my duty to do honour to their zeal and their labours. Sir John Robison, Professor Johnston, and Professor J. D. Forbes, were the earliest friends and promoters of the British Association. They went to York to assist in its establishment, and they found there the very men who were qualified to foster'and organise it. The Rev. Mr. Vernon Harcourt, whose name cannot be mentioned here without the expression of our admiration and gratitude, had provided Jaws for its government, and, along with Mr. Phillips, the oldest and most valuable of our office-bearers, had made all those arrangements by which its success was ensured. Headed by Sir Roderick Murchison, one of the very earliest and most active ad- vocates of the Association, there assembled at York about 200 of the friends of science. Dalton, Pritchard, Greenough, Scoresby, William Smith, Sir Thomas Brisbane, Dr. Daubeny, Dr. B. Lloyd Provost of Trinity College Dublin, Professor Potter, Lord Fitzwilliam, and Lord Morpeth, took an active part in its proceedings; and so great was the interest which they ex- cited, that Dr. Daubeny ventured to invite the Association to hold its second meeting at Oxford. Here it received the valuable co-operation of Dr. Buckland, Professor Powell, and the other distinguished men who adorn that seat of literature and science. Cambridge sent us her constellation of philosophers—bright with stars of the first magnitude—Whewell, Peacock, Sedgwick, Airy, Herschel, Babbage, Lubbock, Challis, Kelland, and Hopkins ; while the metropolitan institutions were represented by Colonel Sabine, one of our General Secretaries, Mr. ‘Taylor, our Treasurer, Sir Charles Lyell, Colonel Sykes, Mr. Brown, Mr. Faraday, Professors Owen and Wheatstone, Dr. Mantell, Lord Northampton, Lord Wrottesley, Sir Philip Egerton, and Sir Charles Lemon. From Ireland we received the distin- guished aid of Lord Rosse, Lord Enniskillen, Lord Adare*, Dr. Robinson, Dr. Lloyd, Sir William Hamilton, and Professor Maccullagh ; and men of immortal names were attracted from the continents of Europe and America —Arago, Bessel, Struve, Liebig, Jacobi, Le Verrier, Encke, Erman, Kupffer, Ehrenberg, Matteucci, Rogers, Bache, and Agassiz. The young members of the Association, to whom we owe much, and from whom we expect more, will excuse me for not making an individual reference to their labours. Their day of honour will come when our brief pilgrimage has closed. To them we bequeath a matured institution, and we trust that they will leave it to a succeeding race with all the life which it now breathes, and with all the glory which now surrounds it. It has been the custom of some of my predecessors in this Chair, to give a brief account of the progress of the sciences during the preceding year ; but, however interesting might be such a narrative, it would be beyond the power of any individual to do justice to so extensive a theme, even if your time would permit, and your patience endure it... I shall make no apology, * Now the Earl of Dunraven. ADDRESS. XXXIll however, for calling your attention to a few of those topics, within my own narrow sphere of study, which, from their prominence and general interest, may be entitled to your attention. I begin with Astronomy, a study which has made great progress under the patronage of this Association ; a subject, too, possessing a charm above all other subjects, and more connected than any with the deepest interests— past, present, and to come—of every rational being. It is upon a planet that we live and breathe. Its surface is the arena of our contentions, our pleasures, and our sorrows. [It is to obtain a portion of its alluvial crust that man wastes the flower of his days, and prostrates the energies of his mind, and risks the happiness of his soul; and it is over, or beneath, its verdant turf that his ashes are to be scattered, or his bones to be laid. It is from the interior, too—from the inner life of the earth, that man derives the materials of civilization—his coal, his iron, and his gold. And deeper still, as geologists have proved—and none with more power than the geolo- gists around me—we find in the bosom of the earth, written on blocks of marble, the history of primzval times, of worlds of life created, and worlds of life destroyed. We find there, in hieroglyphics as intelligible as those which Major Rawlinson has deciphered on the slabs of Nineveh, the remains of forests which waved in luxuriance over its plains—the very bones of huge reptiles that took shelter under their foliage, and of gigantic quadrupeds that trod uncontrolled its plains—the lawgivers and the executioners of that mysterious community with which it pleased the Almighty to people his infant world, But though man is but a recent occupant of the earth—an upstart in the vast chronology of animal life—his interest in the paradise so carefully prepared for him is not the less exciting and profound. For him it was made: he was to be the lord of the new creation, and to him it especially belongs to investigate the wonders it displays, and to learn the lesson which it reads. But, while our interests are thus closely connected with the surface and the interior of the earth, interests of a higher kind are associated with it as a body of the system tu which we belong. The object of geology is to unfold the history and explain the structure of a planet; and that history and that structure may, within certain limits, be the history and the structure of all the other planets of the system—perhaps of all the other planets of the universe. The laws of matter must be the same wherever matter is found. The heat which warms our globe radiates upon the most distant of the planets ; and the light which twinkles in the remotest star, is, in its phy- sical, and doubtless in its chemical properties, the same that cheers and enlivens our own system; and if men of ordinary capacity possessed that knowledge which is within their reach, and had that faith in science which its truths inspire, they would see in every planet around them, and in every - Star above them, the home of immortal natures—of beings that suffer and of beings that rejoice—of souls that are saved, and of souls that are lost. Geology is therefore the first chapter of astronomy. It describes that portion of the solar system which is nearest and dearest to us—the cosmo- politan observatory, so to speak, from which the astronomer is to survey the sidereal universe, where revolving worlds, and systems of worlds, summon him to investigate and adore. There, too, he obtains the great base line of the earth’s radius to measure the distances and magnitudes of the starry host, and thus to penetrate by the force of reason into those infinitely di- stant regions where the imagination dare not venture to follow him. But _ astronomy, though thus sprung from the earth, seeks and finds, like Astraa, 1850. d XXX1V REPORT—1850. a more congenial sphere above. Whatever cheers and enlivens our terrestrial paradise is derived from the orbs around us. Without the light and the heat of our sun, and without the uniform movements of our system, we should have neither climates nor seasons. Darkness would blind, and famine destroy everything that lives. Without influences from above, our ships would drift upon the ocean, the sport of wind and wave, aud would have less certainty of reaching their destination than balloons floating in the air, and subject to the caprice of the elements. ~ But, while a knowledge of astronomy is essential to the very existence of social life, it is instinct with moral influences of the highest order. In the study of our own globe, we learn that it has been rent and upheaved by tremendous forces—here sinking into ocean depths, and there rising into gi- gantic elevations. Even now, geologists are measuring the rise and fall of its elastic crust; and men who have no faith in science often learn her great - truths to their cost, when they see the liquid fire rushing upon them from the volcano, or stand above the yawning crevice in which the earthquake threatens to overwhelm them. Who can say that there is a limit to agencies like these ? Who could dare to assert that they may not concentrate their yet divided energies, and rend in pieces the planet which imprisons them? Within the bounds of our own system, and in the vicinity of our own earth, between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, there is a wide space, which, according to the law of planetary distances, ought to contain a planet. Kepler predicted that a planet would be found there ; and, strange to say, the astronomers of our own times discovered at the beginning of the present century four small planets—Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta—occupying the very place in our system where the anticipated planet ought to have been found. Ceres, the first of these, was discovered by Piazzi, at Palermo, in 1801; Pallas, the second of them, by Dr. Olbers of Bremen, in 1802; Juno, the third, by Mr. Harding, in 1804; and Vesta, the fourth, by Dr. Olbers, in 1807, After the discovery of the third, Dr. Olbers suggested the idea that they were the fragments of a planet that had been burst in pieces; and, con- sidering that they must all have diverged from one point in the original orbit, and ought to return to the opposite point, he examined those parts of the heavens, and thus discovered the planet Vesta. But though this principle had been long in the possession of astronomers, nearly forty years elapsed before any other planetary fragment was dis- covered. At last, in 1845, Mr. Hencke, of Driessen, in Prussia, discovered the fragment called Astrzea, and in 1847 another called Hebe. In the same year our countryman, Mr. Hind, discovered other two, Iris and Flora. In 1848, Mr. Graham, an Irish astronomer, discovered a ninth fragment called Metis. In 1849, Mr. Gasparis of Naples discovered another which he calls Hygeia ; and, within the last two months, the same astronomer has discovered the eleventh fragment, to which he has given the name of Parthenope*. If these eleven smal! planets are really, as they doubtless are, the remains of a larger one, the size of the original planet must have been considerable. * Ceres, 1801, Jan. 1, Piazzi. Iris, 1847, August 13, Hind. Pallas, 1802, March 28, Olbers. Flora, 1847, Oct. 18, Hind. Juno, 1804, Sept. 1, Harding. Metis, 1848, April 25, Graham. Vesta, 1807, March 29, Olbers. Hygeia, 1849, April 12, Gasparis. Astrea, 1845, Dec. 8, Hencke. Parthenope, 1850, May 11, Gasparis. Hebe, 1847, July 1, Hencke. Victoria, 1850, Sept. 13, Hind, It is remarkable that eight of these twelve planets were discovered by astronomers, each of whom discovered two. Mr. Hind has now discovered three. ADDRESS. ΧΧΧΥ What its size was would seem to be a problem beyond the grasp of reason. But human genius has been permitted to triumph over greater difficulties. The planet Neptune was discovered by Adams and Le Verrier, before a ray of its light had entered the haman eye; and, by a law of the solar system recently announced tothe world, we can determine the original magnitude of the broken planet long after it has been shivered into fragments; and we might have determined it even after a single fragment had proved its exist- ence. This law we owe to Mr. Daniel Kirkwood of Pottsville, a- humble American, who, like the illustrious Kepler, struggled to find something new among the arithmetical relations of the planetary elements. Between every two adjacent planets there is a point where their attractions are equal. If we call the distance of this point from the sun the radius of a planet’s sphere of attraction, then Mr. Kirkwood’s law is, that in every planet the square of the length of its year, reckoned in days, varies as the cube of the radius of its sphere of attraction. This law has been verified by more than one American astronomer ; and there can be no doubt, as one of them expresses it, that it is at least a physical fact in the mechanism of our system. This law requires, like that of Bode, the existence of a planet between Mars and Jupiter; and it follows from the law that the broken planet must have been a little larger than Mars, or about 5000 miles in diameter, and that the length of its day must have been about 575 hours. ‘The American astronomers regard this law as amounting to a demonstration of the nebular hypothesis of Laplace ; but we venture to say that this opinion will not be adopted by the astronomers of England. Among the more recent discoveries within the bounds of our own system, I cannot omit to mention those of our distinguished countryinan, Mr. Lassell of Liverpool. By means of a fine twenty feet reflector, constructed by himself, he detected the only satellite of Neptune which has yet been dis- covered, and more recently an eighth satellite circulating round Saturn—a discovery which was made on the very same day, by Mr. Bond, Director of the Observatory of Cambridge in the United States. Mr. Lassell has still more recently, and under a singularly favourable state of the atmosphere, examined the very minute, but extremely black shadow of the ring of Saturn, upon the body of the planet. He observed the line of shadow to be notched, as it were, and almost broken up into a line of dots, thus indicating mountains upon the plane of the ring—mountains, doubtless, raised by the same in- ternal forces, and answering the same ends, as those of our own globe. In passing from our solar system to the frontier of the sidereal universe around us, we traverse a gulf of inconceivable extent. If we represent the radius of the solar system, or of Neptune’s orbit (which is 2900 miilions of miles), by a line two miles long, the interval between our system, or the orbit of Neptune, and the nearest fixed star, will be greater than the whoie cir- cumference of our globe—or equal to a length of 27,600 miles. The pa- rallax of the nearest fixed star being supposed to be one second, its distance from the sun will be nearly 412,370 times the radius of the earth’s orbit, or 13,746 times that of Neptune, which is 30 times as far from the sun as the earth. And yet to that distant zone has the genius of man traced the Creator’s arm,—working the wonders of his power, and djffusing the gifts of his love—the heat and the light of suns—the necessary elements of physical and intellectual life. It is by means of the gigantic telescope of Lord Rosse that we have be- come acquainted with the form and character of those great assemblages of stars which compose the sidereal universe. Drawings and descriptions of ΧΧΧΥΪ REPORT—1850. the more remarkable of these nebula, as resolved by this noble instrument, were communicated by Dr. Robinson to the last Meeting of the Association, and it is with peculiar satisfaction that 1 am able to state that many import- ant discoveries have been made by Lord Rosse and his assistant, Mr. Stoney, during the last year. In many of the nebule, the peculiarities of - structure are very remarkable, and, as Lord Rosse observes, ‘‘ seem even to indicate the presence of dynamical Jaws almost within our grasp.” The spiral arrangement so strongly developed in some of the nebule, is trace- able more or less distinctly in many; but, “‘ more frequently,” to use Lord Rosse’s own words, “there is a nearer approach to a kind of irregular, in- terrupted, annular disposition of the luminous material, than to the regularity observed in others ;” but his Lordship is of opinion that these nebulz are systems of a very similar nature, seen more or less perfectly, and variously placed with reference to the line of sight. In re-examining the more re- markable of these objects, Lord Rosse intends τὸ view them with the full light of his six-feet speculum, undiminished by the second reflexion of the small mirror. By thus adopting what is called the front view, he will doubt- less, as he himself expects, discover many new features in these interesting objects. It is to the influence of Lord Rosse’s example that we are indebted for the fine reflecting telescope of Mr. Lassell, of which I have already spoken; and it is to it, also, that we owe another telescope, which, though yet un- known to science, I am bound in this place especially to notice. I allude to the reflector recently constructed by Mr. James Nasmyth, a native of Edin- burgh, already distinguished by his mechanical inventions and his observations on the moon’s surface, and one of a family well known to us all, and occu- pying a high place among the artists of Scotland. This instrument has its great speculum twenty feet in focal length, and twenty inches in diameter ; but it differs from all other telescopes in the remarkable facility with which it can be used. Its tube moves vertically upon hollow trunnions, through _which the astronomer, seated in a little observatory, with only a horizontal motion, can view at his ease every part of the heavens. Hitherto, the astro- nomer has been obliged to seat himself at the upper end of his Newtonian telescope; and if no other observer will acknowledge the awkwardness and insecurity of his position, I can myself vouch for its danger, having fallen from the very top of Mr Ramage’s twenty-feet telescope, when it was directed to a point not very far from the zenith. Though but slightly connected with astronomy, I cannot omit calling your attention to the great improvements—I may call them discoveries—which have been recently made in Photography. I need not inform this meeting that the art of taking photographic negative pictures upon paper was the invention of Mr. Fox Talbot, a distinguished member of this Association. The superiority of the Talbotype to the Daguerreotype is well known. In the latter, the pictures are reverted and incapable of being multiplied, while in the ‘Tailbotype there is no reversion, and a single negative will supply a thousand copies, so that books may now be illustrated with pictures drawn by the sun. The difficulty of procuring good paper for the negative isso great, that a better material has been eagerly sought for; and M. Niepce, an accomplished officer in the French service, has successfully sub- stituted for paper a film of albumen, or the white of an egg, spread upon glass. This new process has been brought to such perfectioa in this city by Messrs. Ross and Thomson, that Talbotypes taken by them, and lately exhibited by myself to the National Institute of France, and to M. Niepce, ADDRESS. XXXVIL were universally regarded as the finest that had yet been executed. Another process, in which gelatine is substituted for albumen, has been invented and successfully practised by M. Poitevin, a French officer of engineers; and by an ingenious method which has been minutely described in the weekly pro- ceedings of the Institute of France, M. Edmund Becquerel has succeeded in transferring to a Daguerreotype plate the prismatic spectrum, with all its brilliant colours, and also, though in an inferior degree, the colours of the landscape. These colours, however, are very fugacious; and, though no method of fixing them has yet been discovered, we cannot doubt that the difficulty will be surmounted, and that we shall yet see all the colours of the natural world transferred by their own rays to surfaces both of silver and paper. But the most important fact:in photography which I have now to mention is the singular acceleration of the process discovered by M. Niepce, which enables him to take the picture of a landscape illuminated by diffused light, in a single second, or at most in two seconds. This acceleration is produced by adding from 30 to 45 grains of honey to the white of each egg according to its size. By this process, he obtained a picture of the sun on albumen so instantaneously, as to confirm the remarkable discovery, previously made by M. Arago, by means of a silver plate, that the rays which proceed from the central parts of the sun’s disc have a higher photogenic action than those which issue from its margin. This interesting discovery of M. Arago is one of a series on photometry which that distinguished philosopher is now occupied in publishing. Threatened with a calamity which the civilized world will deplore—the loss of that sight which has detected so many brilliant phzenomena, and penetrated so deeply the mysteries of the material world —he is now completing, with the aid of other eyes than his own, those splendid researches which wili immortalise his own name and add to the scientific glory of his country. From these brief notices of the progress of science, I must now call your attention to two important objects with which the British Association has been occupied since its last meeting. It has been long known, both from theory and in practice, that the imperfect transparency of the earth's atmo- sphere, and the inequal refraction which arises from differences of temperature, combine to set a limit to the use of high magnifying powers in our telescopes. Hitherto, however, the application of such high powers was checked by the imperfections of the instruments themselves; and it is only since the con- struction of Lord Rosse’s telescope that astronomers have found that, in our damp and variable climate, it is but during a few days of the year that telescopes of such magnitude can give sufficiently distinct vision with the high magnifying powers which they are capable of bearing. Even in a cloudless sky, when the stars are sparkling in the firmament, the astronomer is baffled by influences which are invisible ; and while new planets and new satellites are being discovered by instruments comparatively small, the gis gantic Polyphemus lies slumbering in his cave, blinded by thermal currents, more irresistible than the firebrand of Ulysses. As the astronomer, however, cannot command a tempest to clear his at- mosphere, nor a thunder-storm to purify it, his only alternative is to remove Kis telescope to some southern climate, where no clouds disturb the serenity of the firmament, and no changes of temperature distract the emanations of the stars. A fact has been recently mentioned, which entitles us to antici- pate great results from such a measure. The Marquis of Ormonde is said to have seen from Mount Etna, with his naked eye, the satellites of Jupiter. XXXVIil REPORT—1850, If this be true, what discoveries may we not expect, even in Europe, from a fine telescope working above the grosser strata of our atmosphere? This noble experiment of carrying a large reflector to a southern climate has been but once made in the history of science. Sir John Herschel transported his telescopes and his family to the south of Africa, and during a voluntary exile of four years’ duration, he enriched astronomy with many splendid discoveries. Such a sacrifice, however, is not likely to be made again ; and we must therefore look to the aid of Government for the realization of a project which every civilized people will applaud, and which, by adding to the conquests of science, will add to the glory of our country. At the Birmingham meeting of the Association, its attention was called to this sub- ject; and, being convinced that great advantages would accrue to science from the active use of a large reflecting telescope in the southern hemisphere, it was resolved to petition Government for a grant of money for that pur- pose. The Royal Society readily agreed to second this application ; and, as no request from the British Association has ever been refused, whatever Government was in power, we have every reason to expect a favourable answer to an able memorial from the pen of Dr. Robinson, which has just been submitted to the minister. A recent and noble act of liberality to science on the part of the Govern- ment justifies thisexpectation. It is, { believe, not yet generally known that Lord John Russell has granted £1000 a-year to the Royal Society for pro- moting scientific objects. ‘The Council of that distinguished body has been very solicitous to 'make this grant effective in promoting scientific objects ; and I am persuaded that the measures they have adopted are well-fitted to justify the liberality of the Government. One of the most important of these has been to place £100 at the disposal of the Committee of the Kew Observatory. This establishment, which has for several years been sup- ported by the British Association, was given to us by the Government as a depository for our books and instruments, and as a locality well-fitted for carrying on electrical, magnetical, and meteorological observations. During the last six years, the Observatory has been under the honorary superin- tendence of Mr. Ronalds, who is well known to the scientific world by his ingenious photographic methods of constructing self-registering magnetical and meteorological apparatus. On the joint application of the Marquis of Northampton and Sir John Herschel, as members of the Association, her Majesty’s Government have granted to Mr. Ronalds a pecuniary recompense of £250 for these inventions; and I am glad to be able to state, that Mr. Brooke has also received from them a suitable reward for inventions of a similar kind. Under the fostering care of the British Association, the most valuable electrical observations have been made at Kew, and Mr. Ronalds has con- tinued, from year to year, to make those improvements upon his apparatus which experience never fails to suggest ; but I regret to say, that in conse- quence of our diminished resources, the Association, at its meeting in 1848, came to the resolutionofdiscontinuing the observations at Kew—appropriating, at the same time, an adequate sum for completing those which were in pre- ress, and for reducing and discussing the five years’ electrical observations which had been published in our annual reports. I trust, however, that means will yet be found to maintain the Observatory in full activity, and to carry out the original objects contemplated by the Committee. Having had an opportunity of visiting this establishment a few weeks ago, after having inspected two of the best conducted observatories on the Continent, where γ ary: ADDRESS. XXXIX the same class of observations is made, I have no hesitation in speaking in the highest terms of the value of Mr. Ronalds’ labours, and in recom- mending the institution which he so liberally superintends to the continued protection of the Association, and to the continued liberality of the Royal Society. From the facts which I have already mentioned, and from many others to which I might have referred, the members of the Association will observe with no common pleasure, that the Government of this country has, during the last twenty years, been extending its patronage of science and the arts. . That this change was effected by the interference of the British Asso- ciation, and by the writings and personal exertions of its members, could, were it necessary, be easily proved. But though men of all shades of political feeling have applauded the growing wisdom and liberality of the state, and though various individuals are entitled to share in the applause, yet there is one statesman, alas! too early and too painfully torn from the affections of his country, whom the science of England must ever regard as its warmest friend and its greatest benefactor. To him we owe new institutions for advancing science, and new colleges for extending edu- cation; and had Providence permitted him to follow out, in the serene evening of life, and in the maturity of his powerful intellect, the views which he had cherished amid the distractions of political strife, he would have rivalled the Colbert of another age, and would have completed that systematic organization of science, and literature, and art, which has been the pride and the glory of another land. These are not the words of idle eulogy, or the expressions of a groundless expectation. Sir Robert Peel had entertained the idea of attaching to the Royal Society a number of ac- tive members, who should devote themselves wholly to scientific pursuits ; and I had the satisfaction of communicating to him, through a mutual friend, - the remarkable fact, that I-had found among the MSS. of Sir Isaac Newton a written scheme of improving the Royal Society, precisely similar to that which he contemplated. Had this idea been realized, it would have been but the first instalment of a debt long due to science and the nation ; and it would have fallen to the lot of some more fortunate statesman to achieve a glorious name by its complete discharge. It has always been one of the leading objects of the British Association, and it is now the only one of them which has not been wholly accomplished, “to obtain a more general attention to the objects of science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind which impedes its progress.” Al- though this object is not very definitely expressed, yet Mr. Harcourt, in moving its adoption, included under it the revision of the law of patents, and the direct national encouragement of science, two subjects to which I shall briefly direct your attention. In 1831, when the Association commenced its. Jabours, the patent laws were a blot on the legislation of Great Britain; and though some of their more obnoxious provisions have since that time been modified or removed, they are a blot still, less deep in its dye, but equally a stain upon the cha- racter of the nation. The protection which is given by statute to every other property in literature and the fine arts, is not accorded to property in scientific inventions and discoveries. A man of genius completes an inven- _ tion, and, after incurring great expense, and spending years of anxiety and labour, he is ready to give the benefit of it to the public. Perhaps it is an invention to save life—the life boat; to shorten space and lengthen time— the railway ; to guide the commerce of the world through the trackless ocean xl REPORT—1850. —the mariner’s compass; to extend the industry, increase the power, and fill the coffers of the state—the steam-engine; to civilise our species, to raise it from the depths of ignorance and crime to knowledge and to virtue—the printing-press. But, whatever it may be, a grateful country has granted to the inventor the sole benefit of its use for fourteen years. That which the statute freely gives, however, law and custom as freely take away, or render void. Fees, varying from £200 to £500, are demanded from the inventor ; and the gift, thus so highly estimated by the giver, bears the great seal of England. The inventor must now describe his invention with legal precision. If he errs in the slightest point—if his description is not sufficiently intelligible—if the smallest portion of his invention has been used before—or if he has incautiously allowed his secret to be made known to two, or even to one individual—his patent will be invaded by remorseless pirates, who are ever on the watch for insecure inventions, and he will be driven into a court of law, where an adverse decision will be the ruin of his family and his fortunes. Jmpoverished by official exactions, or ruined by legal costs, the hapless inventor, if he escapes the asylum or the workhouse, is obliged to seek, in some foreign land, the just reward of his industry and genius. Should a patent escape unscathed from the fiery ordeal through which it has to pass, it often happens that the patentee has not been remunerated during the fourteen years of his term. In this case, the state is willing to extend his right for five or seven years more; but he can obtain this extension only by the expensive and uncertain process of an act of Parliament—a boon which is seldom asked, and which, through rival influence, has often been -withheld. Such was the patent law twenty years ago; but since that time it has re- ceived some important ameliorations; and though the British Association did not interfere as a body, yet some of its members applied energetically on the subject to some of the more influential individuals in Lord Grey’s Government, and the result of this was, two acts of Parliament, passed in 1835 and 1839, entitled ‘“‘ Acts for Amending the Lay touching Letters Patent for Inventions.” Without referring to another important act for re- gistering designs, which had the effect of withdrawing from the grasp of the patent laws a great number of useful inventions, depending principally on form, I shall notice only the valuable provisions of the two acts above mentioned—acts which we owe solely to the wisdom of Lord Brougham. By the first of these acts, the patentee is permitted to disclaim any part either of the title of his invention or of the specification of it, or to make any alteration on the title or specification. The same act gives the Privy Council the power of confirming any patent, or of granting a new one, when a patent had been taken out for an invention which the patentee believed to be new, but which was found to have been known before, though not pub- licly and generally used. By the same act, too, the power of extending letters patent was taken from Parliament and given to the Privy Council, who have, on different occasions, exercised it with judgement and discrimi- nation. By the second act, of 1839, this last privilege was made more attainable by the patentee. These are doubtless valuable improvements which inventors will gratefully remember ; but till the enormous fees, which are still exacted, are either partly or wholly abolished, and a real privilege given under the great seal, the genius of this country will never be able to compete with that of foreign lands, where patents are cheaply obtained and better protected. In proof of the justness of these views, it is gratifying to notice, that, within these few days, it has been announced in Parliament ADDRESS. ΧΙ that the new Attorney-General has accepted his office on the express con- dition that the large fees which he derives from patents shall be subject to revision. The other object contemplated by the British Association. —the organi- zation of science as a national institution—is one of a higher order, and not limited to individual or even to English interests. It concerns the civilized world :—not confined to time, it concerns eternity. While the tongue of the Almighty, as Kepler expresses it, is speaking to us in his Word, his finger is writing to us in his works; and to acquire a knowledge of these works is an essential portion of the great duty of man. Truth secular cannot be separated from truth divine ; and if a priesthood has in all ages been ordained to teach and exemplify the one, and to maintain, in ages of darkness and corruption, the vestal fire upon the sacred altar, shall not an intellectual priesthood be organized to develope the glorious truths which time and space embosom—to cast the glance of reason into the dark interior of our globe, teeming with what was once life—to make the dull eye of man sensitive to the planet which twinkles from afar, as well as to the luminary which shines from above—and to incorporate with our inner life those won- ders of the external world which appeal with equal power to the affections and to the reason of immortal natures? If the God of Love is most appro- priately worshiped in the Christian Temple, the God of Nature may be equally honoured in the Temple of science. Even from its lofty minarets the philosopher may summon the faithful to prayer ; and the priest and the sage may exchange altars without the compromise of faith or of knowledge. Influenced, no doubt, by views like these, Mr. Harcourt has cited, in support of this object of the Association, the opinion of a philosopher, whose memory is dear to Scotland, and whose judgement on any great ques- tion will be everywhere received with respect and attention:—I refer to Professor Playfair, the distinguished successor, in our Metropolitan Univers sity, of the Gregorys, the Maclaurins, and the Stewarts of former days, who, in his able dissertation ‘‘On the Progress of the Mathematical and Physical Sciences,” thus speaks of the National Institute of France :— ** This institution has been of considerable advantage to science. To de- tach a number of ingenious men from everything but scientific pursuits— to deliver them alike from the embarrassments of poverty or the temptations of wealth—to give them a place and station in society the most respectable ᾿ς and independent—is to remove every impediment, and to add every stimulus to exertion. ‘To this institution, accordingly, operating upon a people of great genius and indefatigable activity of mind, we are to ascribe that superiority in the mathematical sciences which, in the last seventy years, has been so ~ eonspicuous*.” This just eulogy on the National Institute of France, in reference to abstract mathematics, may be safely extended to every branch of theoretical and practical science; and I have no hesitation in saying, after having re- cently seen the Academy of Sciences at its weekly labours, that it is the noblest and most effective institution that ever was organized for the pro- _ motion of science. Owing to the prevalence of scientific knowledge among all classes of the French population, and to their admirable system of ele- _ mentary instruction, the advancement of science, the diffusion of knowledge, _ and the extension of education, are objects dear to every class of the people. _ The soldier as well as the citizen—the Socialist, the Republican, the Royalist . * Encyclopedia Britannica, Diss, 3d, sec. 5, p. 500. 1850. e -. ὰ ΧΙ REPORT—1850. —all look up to the National Institute as a mighty obelisk erected to science, to be respected, and loved, and defended by all. We have seen it standing, unshaken and active, amid all the revolutions and convulsions which linge so long agitated that noble but distracted country—a common centre of affection, to which antagonist opinions, and rival interests, and dissevered hearts, have peacefully converged. It thus becomes an institution of order, calculated to send back to its contending friends a message of union and peace, and to replace in stable equilibrium the tottering institutions of the state. Tt was, doubtless, with views like vhese that the great Colbert established the Academy of Sciences in Paris, and that the powerful and sagacious monarchs on the Continent of Europe have imitated his example. They have established in their respective capitals similar institutions—they have sustained them with liberal endowments—they have conferred rank and honours on their more eminent members; and there are now in this assem- bly distinguished foreigners who have well earned the rewards and distine- tions they have received. It i is, therefore, Gentlemen, no extravagant opinion, that institutions which have thus thriven in other countries should thrive in ours—that insulated societies, which elsewhere flourish in combination, should, when confined, flourish among us—and that men, ordained by the state to the undivided functions of science, should do more and better work than those who snatch an hour or two from their daily toil, or from their nightly rest. In a great nation like ours, where the higher interests and objects of the state are necessarily organized, it is a singular anomaly that the intellectual interests of the country “should, in a great measure, be left to voluntary sup- port and individual zeal—an anomaly, that could have arisen only from the ignorance or supineness of ever-changing administrations, and from the intelligence and liberality of a commercial ‘people—an anomaly, too, that could have been continued only by the excellence of the institutions they had founded. In the history of no civilized people can we find private establishments so generously fostered, so energetically conducted, and so suc- cessful in their objects, as the Royal Societies of London, Edinburgh, and Dublin, and the Astronomical, Geological, Zoological, and Linnzean Societies of the metropolis. They are institutions that do honour to the nation, and they will ever be gratefully remembered in the history of science. But they are nevertheless defective in their constitution, limited in their operation, and incapable, from their very nature, of developing, and directing, and rewarding the indigenous talent of the country. They are simply subscription socie- ties, which pay for the publication of their own Transactions, and adjudicate medals entrusted to them by the beneficence of others. They are not bound to the exercise of any other function, and they are under no obligation to do the scientific work of the state, or to promote any of those national ob- jects which are entrusted to the organized institutions of other lands. Their President and Council are necessarily resident in London; and the talent and genius of the provinces are excluded from their administration. From this remark we must except the distinguished philosophers of Cam- bridge and Oxford, who, from their proximity to the capital, have been the brightest ornaments of our metropolitan institutions, and without whose aid they never could have attained their present pre-eminence. Tei is, therefore, in the more remote parts of the empire that the influence of a national institution would be more immediately felt, and nowhere more powerfully than in this its northern portion. Our English friends are, we ADDRESS, xliij believe, little aware of the obstructions which oppose the progress of science in Scotland. In our five universities, there is not a single fellowship to stimu- late the genius and rouse the ambition of the student. The church, the law, and the medical profession hold out no rewards to the cultivators of mathe- matical and physical science ; and were a youthful Newton or Laplace to issue from any of our universities, his best friends would advise him to renounce the divine gift, and to seek in professional toil the well-earned competency which can alone secure him a just position in the social scale, and an enviable felicity in the domestic circle. Did this truth require any evidence in its support, we find it in the notorious fact, that our colleges cannot furnish professors to fill their own important offices; and the time is not distant when all our chairs in mathematics, natural philosophy, and even natural history, will be occupied by professors educated in the English uni- versities. But were a Royal Academy or Institute, like that of France, established on the basis of our existing institutions, and a class of resident members enabled to devote themselves wholly to science, the youth of Scotland would instantly start for the prize, and would speedily achieve their full share in the liberality of the state. Our universities would then breathe a more vital air. Our science would put forth new energies, and our literature might rise to the high level at which it stands in our sister land. But it is to the nation that the greatest advantages would accrue. With gigantic manufacturing establishments, depending for their perfection and success on mechanics and chemistry—with a royal and commercial marine almost covering the ocean—with steam-ships on every sea—with a system of agriculture leaning upon science as its mainstay—with a net-work of railways, demanding for their improvement, and for the safety of the tra- veller, and for the remuneration of their public-spirited projectors, the highest efforts of mechanical skill—the time has now arrived for summoning to the service of the state all the theoretical and practical wisdom of the country —for rousing what is dormant, combining what is insulated, and uniting in one great institution the living talent which is in active but undirected and unbefriended exercise around us. In thus pleading for the most important of the objects of the British As- sociation, I feel that I am not pleading for a cause that is hopeless. The _ change has not only commenced, but has made considerable progress. Our scientific institutions have already, to a certain extent, become national ones, Apartments belonging to the nation have been liberally granted to them, _ Royal medals have been founded, and large sums from the public purse de- yoted to the objects which they contemplate. The Museum of Giconomic Geology, indeed, is itself a complete section of a Royal Institute, giving a scientific position to six eminent philosophers, all of whom are distinguished members of the British Association: —and in every branch of science and literature, the liberality of the Crown has been extended to numerous indi- viduals, whose names would have been enrolled among the members of a National Institution. The cause, therefore, is so far advanced; and every act of liberality to eminent men, and every grant of money for scientific and literary purposes, is a distinct step towards its triumph. Our private _ institutions have in reality assumed the transition phase, and it requires only an electric spark from some sagacious and patriotic statesman to combine in _ one noble phalanx the scattered elements of our intellectual greatness, and _ guide to lofty achievements and glorious triumphs, the talent and genius of the nation, -~ rane xliv REPORT—1850. , But when such an institution has been completed, the duties of the state to science are not exhausted. It has appreciated knowledge but in its abstract and utilitarian phase. For the peace and happiness of society, it would be of little avail were the great truths of the material world confined to the educated and the wise. The organization of science, thus limited, would cease to be a blessing. Knowledge, secular and divine, the πω current of the intellectual life-blood of man, must not merely descend through the great arteries of the social frame: it must be taken up by the minutest capillaries before it can nourish and purify society. Knowledge is at once the manna and the medicine of our moral being, When crime is the bane, knowledge is the antidote. Society may escape from the pesti- lence, and survive the famine; but the demon of ignorance, with his grim adjutants of vice and riot, will pursue her into her most peaceful haunts, destroying her institutions, and converting into a wilderness the paradise of social and domestic life. The state has, therefore, a solemn duty to per- form. As it punishes crime, it is bound to devise means for its prevention, As it subjects us to laws, it must teach us to read them; and while it thus teaches, it must teach also the ennobling truths which display the power and the wisdom of the great Lawgiver—thus diffusing knowledge while it is extending education, “and thus ‘making men contented, and happy, and humble, while it makes them quiet and obedient subjects. It is a great problem yet to be solved, to determine what will be the state of society when man’s physical powers are highly exalted, and his physical condition highly ameliorated, without any corresponding change in his moral habits and position. There is much reason to fear that every great advance in material civilization requires some moral and compensatory an- tagonism ; but however this may be, the very indeterminate character of the problem is a warning to the rulers of nations to prepare for the contingency by a system of national instruction, which shal either reconcile or disregard those hostile influences under which the people are now perishing for lack of knowledge. REPORTS ΟΝ THE STATE OF SCIENCE. First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena. By Rosert Mautet, (.Ε.. Μ.Κ.1.4. THoss striking phenomena of nature which are of comparatively rare and uncertain occurrence, have ever been the longest held bound in the darkness of superstition, the last to receive the light of truthful investigation. In following down the long ‘page of man’s discovery of nature, we shall see that it is only in its latest lines that storms and tempests, hail and lightning, comets, meteors, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, have been emancipated from the superstition (not confined alone to the vulgar) which viewed them not as occasional manifestations of the laws of one Creator, always acting and always fit and worthy of our highest efforts to discover and elucidate, but as the peculiar weapons given into the hands, and subject alone to the depraved and capricious wills of the powers of evil, by whose malignant aid the witch or the sorcerer should ride the tempest or blast the crop, the nations be stirred up to war, the fall of the great ones of the earth be por- tended, or monarchs perplexed with fear of change. Thus, says Butler, in his ‘Analogy of Religion,’ cap. iv., ‘We know, in- deed, several of the general laws of matter, and a great part of the behaviour of living agents is reducible to general laws, but we know nothing, in a man- ner, by what laws storms and tempests, earthquakes, famine and pestilence become the instruments of destruction to mankind. - - - These laws are so wholly unknown to us, that we call the events which come to pass by them accidental - - though all reasonable men - - conclude that the things which vie this appearance are the result of general laws, and may be reduced to ‘ em.” _ Long since the comet has ceased to be a portent, and its recurrent period may be predicted. The lightning flash has been identified with and con- trolled into the electric carrier of our mandates, and we have begun to com- prehend the chain of causation concerned in tempests, tornadoes and hail- storms. Last of all, the earthquake is but just emerging from the gloom of vulgar superstition and learned neglect into the light of physical truth, and is about to take its place as one of the pheenomena of acknowledged cosmical laws, whose conditions shall be capable of complete interpretation, although _ perhaps from the number of these (as is the case throughout geology) we may _be for ever incompetent to predict the occurrence of the phenomenon. Such having been the past state of human knowledge as to earthquakes, an extensive research into the narratives and histories of these events soon convinces one, that in the absence on the part of past authors of any true 1850. B 2 REPORT—1850. guiding hypothesis, of any distinct idea of what an earthquake really is, of any notion of what facts might have been of scientific importance to observe, and what were merely highly striking or alarming, but only secondary ac- cidental circumstances due to changes of surface, or the complication (never attempted to be disentangled) of all these with the facts of closely adjacent volcanic eruption,—in the want of all these, as well as of any calmness or unexaggerative observation during such alarming visitations, few facts of the character and precision requisite to render them of value to science can be col- lected with certainty. The true observation of earthquake phenomena is yet to be commenced and the required facts are to be collected, the most im- portant of them by methods not dreamed of until very recently. In collating the multitudinous and vague accounts of earthquakes, there- fore, I have been compelled to reject vast numbers of statements, either for want of the necessary conditions to scientific value, or of sufficient authen- ticity (as when given, not as an eye-witness, but upon common hearsay by the narrator), or of the facts given having any real bearing upon the scien- tific question. The staple of earthquake stories, in fact, consists of gossip made up of the most unusual, violent or odd accidents that befel men, animals or structures, rather than of the phenomenon itself. Very few of these narratives state even the precise direction or duration of the shock, and the chief value of a complete discussed catalogue of earthquakes, from such accounts as we have, would be to present some indications as to the nature of their diffusion over the earth’s surface, and of their distribution in time ; such catalogues have been prepared for limited districts by M. Perrey, by Von Hoff, and by some few others, and a much more extensive one will form a future part of this Report. In the succeeding Report, I have not thought it necessary to refer to author- ities except in cases of rarely noticed and important facts ; in other instances the references might be innumerable. As it is impessible to observe facts to any good purpose, so is it equally impracticable to select them from the records of others for any useful scien- tific end without some guiding hypothesis ; in this respect I have been guided by that theory of earthquake dynamics, which I have enunciated*, and which defines an earthquake to be “ the transit of a wave of elastic compression in any direction from vertically upwards to horizontally in any azimuth, through the surface and crust of the earth from any centre of impulse, or from more than one, and which may be attended with tidal and sound waves dependent upon the impulse, and upon circumstances of position as to sea and land.” It is unnecessary, I would hope, for me to add, that I have not selected the following facts to suit any theory, but have impartially taken note of all that I could find that appeared of importance to science, whether at first sight making for or against my own views. Let me add, that in this course of ex- tensive research through earthquake narrations, I have not met with a single fact recorded that was not resoluble upon my theory, or equally irre- soluble upon any, and of doubtful credence. Before proceeding it may be desirable to take a very brief survey of the several other theories (if such they may be called) which have been at dif- ferent times promulgated, in a word, of the literature generally of earth- quakes, omitting those views now palpably absurd, such as the ancient Mon- golian and Hindoo notion, that the earth rests upon a huge frog, which, when he scratches his head, produces an earthquake, &c. As the best and most rapid mode of doing this, I shall give in the order of time, and as nearly as possible in each author’s own words, the peculiar * Trans. Roy. Irish Acad. vol. xxi. part 1. ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHANOMENA. 3 Views and statements made by the successive writers upon our subject, making few remarks by the way. I have deemed it worth while to transcribe Aristotle and Pliny’s statements of the facts of earthquakes as observed in and before their days, more fully than perhaps some may think their views deserve; this however I have done, because it is not unimportant to compare now, the observations as to fact of those confessedly accurate observers, in very ancient periods, with our own latest ones, upon phzenomena presumedly, and as proved to be by the comparison, the same. I omit the earliest Greek notices of earthquakes, and take the matter up with Aristotle, through whose works, and even those portions usually sup- posed spurious, as the book “ De Plantis,” many passages occur touching upon our subject. His main views, however, are contained in the following extracts :— “Περὶ δὲ σεισμοῦ καὶ κινήσεως γῆς μετὰ ταῦτα λεκτέον" ἡ γὰρ αἰτία τοῦ πάθους ἐ ἐχομένη τούτου τοῦ γένους ἐστίν. Ἔστι δὲ τά γε παρει- λημμένα μέχρι τοῦ νῦν χρόνου τρία καὶ παρὰ πριῶν. ᾿Αναξαγόρας τε ap 6 Κλαζομένιος καὶ πρότερος ᾿Αναξιμένης ὁ Μολήσιος ἀπεφήναντο, κα τούτων ὕστερος Δημόκριτος ὁ ᾿Αβδηρίτης. ᾿ ᾿Αναξαγόρας μὲν οὖν φησὶ τὸν αἰθέρα πεφυκότα φέρεσθαι ἄνω, ἐμπίπτοντα δ᾽ εἰς τὰ κάτω τῆς γῆς καὶ τὰ κοῖλα κινεῖν αὐτήν' τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἄνω συναληλίφθαι διὰ τοὺς ὄμβρους, ἐ ἐπεὶ φύσει γε πᾶσαν ὁμοίως. εἶναι σομφὴν, ὡς ὄντος τοῦ μὲν ἄνω τοῦ δὲ κάτω τῆς ὅλης σφαίρας, καὶ ἄνω μὲν τούτου ὄντος τοῦ μορίου ἐφ᾽ οὗ “τυγχάνομεν οἰκοῦντες, κάτω δὲ θατέρου. Πρὸς μὲν οὖν ταύτην τὴν αἰτίαν οὐθὲν ἴσως δεῖ λέγειν ὡς λίαν ἁπλῶς εἰρημένην" τό τε γὰρ ἄνω καὶ κάτω νομέξειν οὕτως ἔχειν ὥστε μὴ πρὸς τὴν γῆν πάντῃ φέρεσθαι τὰ βάρος ἔ ἔχοντα τῶν σωμάτων, ἄνω δὲ τὰ κοῦφα καὶ τὸ πῦρ, εὔηθες, καὶ ταῦθ᾽ ὁρῶντας τὸν ὁρίζοντα τὴν οἰκουμένην, ὅσην ἡμεῖς ἔσμεν, ἕτερον ἀεὶ γιγνόμενον μεθισταμένων, ὡς οὔσης κυρτῆς καὶ σφαι- ροειδοῦς" καὶ τὸ λέγειν μὲν ὡς διὰ τὸ μέγεθος ἐπὶ τοῦ ἀέρος μένει, σείεσθαι δὲ φάσκειν τυπτομένην κάτωθεν a ἄνω δι’ ὅλης. Πρὸς δὲ τού- τοις οὐθὲν ἀποδίδωσι τῶν συμβαινόντων περὶ τοὺς σεισμούς" οὔτε γὰρ χῶραι οὔτε ὧραι αἱ τυχοῦσαι μετέχουσι τούτου τοῦ πάθους. Δημό- ᾿Κρίτος δέ φησι πλήρη τὴν γῆν ὕδατος οὖσαν; καὶ πολὺ δεχομένην & ἕτερον : ὄμβριον ὕδωρ, ὑπὸ τούτου κινεῖσθαι" πλείονός τε γὰρ γενομένου διὰ τὸ Ἷ μὴ δύνασθαι δέχεσθαι τὰς κουλίας ἀποβιαζόμενον ποιεῖν τὸν σεισμὸν; καὶ ἡ ξηραινομένην καὶ ἕλκουσαν εἰς τοὺς κενοὺς τόπους ἐκ τῶν πληρε- στέρων τὸ μεταβάλλον ἐ ἐμπίπτον κινεῖν. ᾿Αναξιμένης δὲ φησι βρεχο- μένην τὴν γῆν καὶ ξηραινομένην ῥήγνυσθαι. καὶ ὑπὸ τούτων τῶν ἀποῤ- ῥηγνυμένων κολώνων ἐμπιπτόντων σείεσθαι διὸ καὶ γίγνεσθαι τοὺς σεισμοὺς ἔν τε τοῖς αὐχμοῖς καὶ πάλιν ἐν ταῖς ὑπερομβϑβρίαις" ἔν τε γὰρ τοῖς αὐχμοῖς, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, ξηραινομένην ῥήγνυσθαι, καὶ ὑπὸ τῶν ὑδάτων ὑ ὑπερυγραινομένην διαπίπτειν. "Eder δὲ τούτου συμβαίνοντος ὑπονοστοῦσαν πολλαχοῦ φαίνεσθαι τὴν γῆν. "Ere δὲ διὰ τίν᾽ αἰτίαν περὶ τόπους τινὰς πολλάκις γίνεται τοῦτο τὸ πάθος οὐδεμιᾷ διαφέ- ροντας ὑπερβολῇ τοιαύτῃ παρὰ τοὺς ἄλλους : : καΐτοι ἐχρῆν. Ὅλως ὃ δὲ 7 οἷς οὕτως ὑπολαμβάνουσιν ἀ ἀναγκαῖον ἧττον ἀεὶ τοὺς σεισμοὺς φάναι γίγνεσθαι, καὶ τέλος παύσασθαί ποτε σειομένην" τὸ γὰρ σαττόμενον μαύτην ἔχει φύσιν. "Oar εἰ τοῦτ᾽ ἀδύνατον, δῆλον ὅτι ἀδύνατον καὶ ταύτην εἶναι τὴν αἰτίαν. BQ 4 REPORT—1850. : “ANN ἐπειδὴ φανερὸν ὃ ὅτι ἀναγκαῖον καὶ ἀπὸ ὑγροῦ καὶ a ἀπὸ ξηροῦ γίγνεσθαι ἀναθυμίασιν, ἁ ὥσπερ εἴπομεν ἐν τοῖς πρότερον, ἀνάγκη τού- των ὑπαρχόντων γίγνεσθαι τοὺς σεισμούς. Ὑπάρχει γὰρ ἡ γῆ καθ᾽ αὑτὴν μὲν ξηρὰ, διὰ δὲ τοὺς ὄμβρους ἔχουσα ἐν αὑτῇ νοτίδα πολλὴν, ὥσθ᾽ ὑπό τε τοῦ ἡλίου καὶ τοῦ ἐν αὐτῇ πυρὸς θερμαινομένης πολὺ μὲν ἔξω πολὺ δ᾽ ἐντὸς γίνεσθαι τὸ πνεῦμα" καὶ τοῦτο ὅτε μὲν συνεχὲς ἐ ἔξω ῥεῖ πᾶν, ὅτε δ᾽ εἴσω πᾶν, ἐνίοτε δὲ καὶ ᾿μερίξεται. Εἰ δὴ τοῦτ᾽ ἀδύνα- Tov ἄλλως ἔχειν, τὸ μετὰ τοῦτο σκεπτέον ἂν εἴη ὁποῖον κινητικώτατον ἂν εἴη τῶν σωμάτων' ἀνάγκη γὰρ τὸ ἐπὶ πλεῖστόν τε πεφυκὸς ἰ ἰέναι καὶ σφοδρότατον μάλιστα τοιοῦτον εἶναι. Σφοδρότατον μὲν οὖν ἐξ ἀνάγκης τὸ τάχιστα φερόμενον" τύπτει γὰρ μάλιστα διὰ τὸ τάχος" ἐπὶ πλεῖστον δὲ πέφυκε διϊέναι τὸ διὰ παντὸς ἰέναι μάλιστα δυνάμενον, τοιοῦτον δὲ τὸ λεπτότατον. “Ὥστ᾽ εἴπερ ἡ τοῦ πνεύματος φύσις τοιαύτη, μάλιστα τῶν σωμάτων τὸ πνεῦμα κινητικόν' καὶ γὰρ τὸ πῦρ ὅταν μετὰ πνεύ- ματος 7), γίγνεται φλὸξ καὶ φέρεται ταχέως. Οὐκ ἃ ἂν οὖν ὕδωρ οὐδὲ γῆ αἴτιον εἴη, ἀλλὰ πνεῦμα τῆς κινήσεως, ὅταν ἔσω τύχῃ ῥυὲν τὸ ἔξω ἀναθυμιώμενον. Διὸ γύγνονται νηνεμίᾳ οἱ πλεῖστοι καὶ μέγιστοι τῶν σεισμῶν' συνεχὴς γὰρ οὖσα ἡ ἀναθυμίασις ἀκολουθεῖ ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολὺ τῇ ὁρμῇ τῆς ἀρχῆς, ὥστε ἢ ἔσω ἅμα ἢ ἔξω ὁ ὁρμᾷ πᾶσα. Τὸ δ᾽ ἐνίους γίνεσθαι καὶ πνεύματος ὄντος οὐδὲν ἄλογον" ὁρῶμεν γὰρ ἐνίοτε “ἅμα πλείους πνέοντας ἀνέμους, ὧν ὅταν εἰς τὴν γῆν ὁρμήσῃ θάτερον, ἔσται πνεύματος ὄντος ὁ σεισμός. ᾿Ελάττους δ᾽ οὗτοι τὸ μέγεθος γί ovTat διὰ τὸ διῃρῆσθαι τὴν ἀρχὴν καὶ τὴν αἰτίαν αὐτῶν. Καὶ γυκτὸς δ' οἱ πλείους καὶ μείζους γίγνονται τῶν σεισμῶν, οἱ δὲ τῆς ἡμέρας περὶ με- σημβρίαν' νηνεμώτατον γάρ ἐστιν ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολὺ τῆς ἡμέρας ἡ με- σημβρία (ὁ γὰρ ἥλιος ὅ ὅταν μάλιστα κρατῇ, κατακλείει τὴν ἀναθυμίασιν εἰς τὴν γῆν" κρατεῖ δὲ μάλιστα περὶ τὴν μεσημβρίαν) καὶ αἱ γύκτες δὲ τῶν ἡμερῶν γηνεμώτεραι διὰ τὴν ἀπουσίαν τὴν τοῦ ἡλίου" ὥστ᾽ εἴσω γύγνεται πάλιν ἡ ῥύσις, ὥσπερ ἄμπωτις, εἰς τοὐναντίον τῆς ἔξωθεν πλημμυρίδος, καὶ πρὸς ὄρθρον μάλιστα" τηνικαῦτα γὰρ καὶ τὰ πνεύ- ματα πέφυκεν ἄρχεσθαι πνεῖν. "Edy οὖν εἴσω τύχῃ μεταβάλλουσα ἡ ἡ ἀρχὴ αὐτῶν ὥσπερ Ἐὔριυπος, διὰ τὸ πλῆθος ἰσχυρότερον ποιεῖ τὸν σεισμόν. Ἔτι δὲ περὶ τόπους τοιούτους οἱ ἰσχυρότατοι γίνονται τῶν σεισμῶν, ὅπου ἡ θάλασσα ῥοώδης ἢ ἢ ἡ χώρα σομφὴ καὶ ὕπαντρος. Διὸ καὶ περὶ Ἑλλήσποντον καὶ περὶ ᾿Αχαΐαν καὶ Σικελίαν, καὶ τὴς Εὐ- βοίας περὶ τούτους τοὺς τόπους" δοκεῖ γὰρ διαυλωνίξειν ὑ ὑπὸ τὴν γῆν ἡ θάλαττα. Διὸ καὶ τὰ θερμὰ τὰ περὶ Αἴδεψον ἀπὸ τοιαύτης αὐτίας γέγονεν. Tlept δὲ τοὺς εἰρημένους τόπους οἱ σεισμοὶ γίνονται μάλιστα διὰ τὴν στενότητα" τὸ γὰρ πνεῦμα γενόμενον σφοδρὸν διὰ τὸ πλῆθος τῆς θαλάττης πολλῆς προσφερομένης ἀπωθεῖται πάλιν εἰς τὴν γῆν, τό γε πεφυκὸς ἀ ἀποπνεῖν ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς. Al re “χῶραι ὅσαι σομφοὺς ἔχουσι τοὺς κάτω πόπους, πολὺ δεχόμεναι πνεῦμα σείονται, μᾶλλον. Καὶ ἔαρος δὲ καὶ μετοπώρου μάλιστα καὶ ἐν ᾿ ἐπομβρίαις καὶ αὐχμοῖς γίνον- ται διὰ τὴν αὐτὴν αἰτίαν' αἱ γὰρ ὧραι αὗται πνευματωδέσταται" τὸ γὰρ θέρος καὶ ὁ “χειμὼν, τὸ μὲν διὰ τὸν πάγον, τὸ δὲ διὰ τὴν ἀλέαν ποιεῖ τὴν ἀκινησίαν' τὸ μὲν γὰρ ἄγαν ψυχρὸν, τὸ δ᾽ ἄγαν ξηρόν ἐστιν. Καὶ ἐν μὲν τοῖς αὐχμοῖς πνευματώδης ὁ ἀήρ' τοῦτο γὰρ αὐτό ἐστιν ὁ αὐχμὸς, ὅταν πλείων ἡ ἀναθυμίασις ἡ ξηρὰ γίγνηται τῆς ὑγρᾶς" ἐν δὲ 2 ταῖς ὑπερομβρίαις πλείω τε ποιεῖ τὴν ἐντὸς ἀναθυμίασιν, καὶ τῷ ἐν- ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHZNOMENA. 5 απολαμβάνεσθαι ἐν στενωτέροις τόποις καὶ ἀποβιάξεσθαι εἰς ἐλάττω τόπον τὴν τοιαύτην ἀπόκρισιν, πληρουμένων τῶν κουλιῶν ὕδατος, ὅ ὅταν ἄρξηται κρατεῖν διὰ τὸ πολὺ εἰς ὀλίγον. πιληθῆναι τόπον, ἰσχυρῶς κινεῖ ῥέων ὁ ἄνεμος καὶ προσπίπτων. Δεῖ γὰρ νοεῖν ὅτι ὥσπερ ἐ ἐν τῷ σώματι ἡμῶν καὶ τρόμων καὶ σφυγμῶν αἴτιόν ἐστιν ἡ τοῦ πνεύματος ἐναπο- λαμβανομένη δύναμις, οὕτω καὶ ἐ ἐν τῇ γῇ τὸ πνεῦμα ; παραπλήσια ποιεῖν, καὶ τὸν μὲν τῶν σεισμῶν οἷον τρόμον εἶναι τὸν δ᾽ οἷον σφυγμὸν, καὶ κα- θάπερ συμβαίνει πολλάκις META τὴν οὔρησιν διὰ τοῦ σώματος (γίνεται γὰρ ὥσπερ τρόμος τις ἀντιμεθισταμένου τοῦ πνεύματος ἔξωθεν ἔσω ἀθρόου), τοιαῦτα γίνεσθαι. καὶ περὶ τὴν γῆν. “Ὅσην δ᾽ ἔχει τὸ πνεῦμα δύναμιν, οὐ μόνον ἐ ἐκ τῶν ἐν τῷ ἀέρι δεῖ θεωρεῖν γυγνομένων (ἐνταῦθα μὲν γὰρ διὰ τὸ μέγεθος ὑπολάβοι τις ἂν τοιαῦτα δύνασθαι ποιεῖν) ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐν τοῖς σώμασι τοῖς τῶν ξῴων' οἵ τε γὰρ τέτανοι καὶ οἱ σπασμοὶ πνεύματος μέν εἰσι κινήσεις, τοσαύτην δ᾽ ἔχουσιν ἰσχὺν ὥστε πολλοὺς ἅμα πειρωμένους ἀποβιάξεσθαι μὴ δύνασθαι κρατεῖν τῆς κινήσεως τῶν ἀῤῥωστούντων. Τὸ αὐτὸ δεῖ γοεῖν γινόμενον καὶ ἐν τῇ γῇ» ὡς εἰκάσαι πρὸς μικρὸν μεῖζον. Σημεῖα δὲ τούτων καὶ “πρὸς τὴν ἡμετέραν αἴσθησιν πολλαχοῦ γέγονεν" ἤδη γὰρ σεισμὸς ἐν τόποις τισὶ γινόμενος οὐ πρό- τερον ἔληξε, πρὶν ἐκρήξας εἰς τὸν ὑ ὑπὲρ γῆς τόπον φανερῶς ἁ ὥσπερ ἐκ- νεφίας ἐξῆλθεν ὁ κινήσας ἄνεμος, οἷον καὶ περὶ Ἡράκλειαν ἐ ἐγένετο τὴν ἐν τῷ Πόντῳ νεωστὶ, καὶ “πρότερον περὶ τὴν “Ἱερὰν νῆσον" αὕτη δ᾽ ἐστὶ μία τῶν Αἰόλου καλουμένων νήσων. Ἔν ταύτῃ γὰρ ἐξανώδει τι τῆς γῆς; καὶ ἀνήει οἷον “λοφώδης ὄγκος μετὰ ψόφου" τέλος δὲ ῥαγέντος ἐξῆλθε πνεῦμα πολὺ, καὶ τὸν φέψαλον καὶ τὴν τέφραν ἀνῆκε, καὶ τὴν τε : Διπαραίων πόλιν οὖσαν οὐ πόῤῥω. πᾶσαν “κατετέφρωσε, καὶ εἰς ἐνίας τῶν ἐν ᾿Ιταλίᾳ πόλεων ἤλθεν' καὶ νῦν ἔτι ὅπου τὸ ἀναφύσημα τοῦτο ἐγένετο, δῆλόν ἐ ἐστιν. Καὶ γὰρ δὴ τοῦ γυγνομένου πυρὸς ἐν τῇ γῇ ταύ- τὴν οἰητέον εἶναι τὴν αἰτίαν, ὅταν κοπτόμενον ἐκπρησθῇ, πρῶτον εἰς μικρὰ κερματισθέντος 7 τοῦ ἀέρος. Τεκμήριον δ᾽ ἐστὶ τοῦ ῥεῖν ὑπὸ τὴν γῆν τὰ πνεύματα καὶ τὸ γυγνόμενον περὶ ταύτας τὰς νήσους" ὅταν γὰρ ἄνεμος μέλλῃ πνευσεῖσθαι VOTOS, προσημαίνει πρότερον" ἠχοῦσι γὰρ οἱ τόποι ἐξ ὧν γίνεται τὰ ἀναφυσήματα, διὰ τὸ τὴν θάλατταν μὲν προω- θεῖσθαι ἤδη πόῤῥωθεν, ὑπὸ δὲ ταύτης τὸ ἐκ τῆς γῆς ἀναφυσώμενον ἀπωθεῖσθαι πάλιν εἴσω, ἧπερ ἐπέρχεται ἡ θάλαττα ταύτῃ. Lovet δὲ ψόφον ἀ ἄνευ σεισμοῦ διά τε τὴν εὐρυχωρίαν τῶν τόπων (ὑπερχεῖται γὰρ εἰς τὸ ἀχανὲς ἔξω) καὶ δι᾽ ὀλογότητα, τοῦ ἀπωθουμένου ἀ ἀέρος. Ἔτι τὸ γίγνεσθαι τὸν ἥλιον ἀχλυώλη καὶ ἀμαυρότερον ἄνευ νέφους, καὶ πρὸ τῶν ὀρθρίων σεισμῶν ἐνίοτε νηνεμίαν τε καὶ κρύος ἰσχυρὸν, σημεῖον τῆς εἰρημένης αἰτίας ἐστιν. Τόν τε γὰρ ἥλιον ἀχλυώδη καὶ ἀμαυρὸν ἀναγ- καῖον εἶναι, ὑπονοστεῖν ἀρχομένου τοῦ πνεύματος εἰς τὴν γῆν, τοῦ δια- λύοντος τὸν ἀέρα καὶ διακρίνοντος, καὶ πρὸς τὴν ἕω, καὶ ἡ περὶ τοὺς ; ὄρθρους, νηνεμίαν τε καὶ ψῦχος. Τὴν μὲν γὰρ νηνεμίαν ἀναγκαῖον ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολὺ συμβαίνειν, καθάπερ εἴρηται καὶ πρότερον, οἷον μεταῤῥοίας εἴσω γινο- μένης τοῦ πνέυματος" καὶ μᾶλλον πρὸ τῶν μειζόνων σεισμῶν' μὴ διασπώ- evov yap τὸ μὲν ἔξω, τὸ δ᾽ ἐντὸς, ἀλλ᾽ ἀθρόον φερόμενον ἀναγκαῖον ἰσχύειν μᾶλλον. Τὸ δὲ φῦχος. συμβαίνει. διὰ τὸ τὴν ἀναθυμίασιν εἴσω περιτρέπεσθαι, φύσει θερμὴν. οὖσαν καθ᾽ αὑτήν. Οὐ δοκοῦσι δ᾽ οἱ ἄνεμοι εἶναι θερμοὶ διὰ τὸ κινεῖν τὸν ἀέρα “πλήρη Ψυχρᾶς ὄντα καὶ πολλῆς ἀτμίδος, ὥσπερ τὸ πνεῦμα τὸ διὰ τοῦ στόματος φυσώμενον. Kai γὰρ 6 REPORT—1850. TOUTO ἐγγύθεν μεν ἐστι θερμὸν, ὥσπερ καὶ ὅταν ἀάξωμεν" ἀλλὰ δι ὀλιγότητα οὐκ ὁμοίως ἐπίδηλον. Π όῤῥωθεν δὲ ᾿ ψυχρὸν, διὰ τὴν αὐτὴν αἴτιαν τοῖς ἀνέμοις. ᾿Επιλειπούσης οὖν εἰς τὴν γῆν τῆς τοιαύτης δυ- νάμεως, συνιοῦσα διὰ ὑ ὑγρότητα ἡ ἀτμιδώδης ἀποῤῥοὴ ποιεῖ τὸ ψῦχος, ἐν οἷς συμβαίνει τόποις γίνεσθαι τοῦτο τὸ πάθος" τὸ δ᾽ αὐτὸ αἴτιον καὶ τοῦ εἰωθότος ἐνίοτε γύγνεσθαι σημείου πρὸ τῶν σεισμῶν" ἢ γὰρ μεθ᾽ ἡμέραν, ἢ μικρὸν μετὰ δυσμὰς, αἰθρίας οὔσης, νεφέλιον λεπτὸν φαίνεται διατεῖνον, καὶ μακρὸν, οἷον γραμμῆς μῆκος εὐθύτητι διηκριβωμένον, τοῦ πνεύματος ἀπομαραινομένου διὰ τὴν μετάστασιν. Τὸ δ᾽ ὅ ὅμοιον συμ- βαίνει καὶ ἐν τῇ θαλάττῃ περὶ τοὺς αἰγιαλούς" ὅταν μὲν γὰρ κυμαίνουσα ἐκβάλλῃ, σφόδρα παχεῖαι καὶ σκολιαὶ γίνονται αἱ ῥηγμῖνες" ὅταν δὲ γαλήνη > διὰ τὸ μικρὰν ποιεῖσθαι τὴν ἔκκρισιν λεπταί εἰσι καὶ εὐθεῖαι.. Ὅπερ οὖν ἡ θάλαττα ποιεῖ περὶ τὴν γῆν, τοῦτο τὸ πνεῦμα περὶ τὴν ἐν τῷ ἀέρι ἀχλὺν, ὥσθ᾽ ὅταν γένηται. νηνεμία, πάμπαν εὐθεῖαν καὶ λεπτὴν καταλείπεσθαι, ὥσπερ ῥηγμῖνα οὖσαν ἀέρος τὴν νεφέλην. Διὰ ταῦτα δὲ καὶ περὶ τὰς ἐκλείψεις ἐ ἐνίοτε τῆς σελήνης συμβαίνει γύγνεσθαι, σεισ- pov" ὅταν γὰρ ἤδη πλησίον 2 ἡ “ἀντίφραξις, καὶ μήπω μὲν a πάμπαν ἀπολελουπὸς τὸ φῶς, καὶ τὸ ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου θερμὸν ἐκ τοῦ ἀέρος, ἤδη δ᾽ ἀπομαραινόμενον, νηνεμία γίνεται, ἀντιμεθισταμένου τοῦ πνεύματος εἰς τὴν γῆν, ὃ ποιεῖ τὸν σεισμὸν πρὸ τῶν ἐκλείψεων. Γίνονται yap καὶ ἄνεμοι πρὸ τῶν ἐκλείψεων πολλάκις, ἀκρόνυχοι μὲν πρὸ τῶν μεσονυκ- τίων ἐκλείψεων, μεσονύκτιοι δὲ πρὸ τῶν ἑῴων. Συμβαίνει δὲ τοῦτο, διὰ τὸ ἀμαυροῦσθαι τὸ θερμὸν τὸ ἀπὸ τῆς σελήνης, ὅταν πλησίον ἤδη γίγνηται ἡ «φορὰ ἐν ᾧ γενομένων ἔσται ἡ ἔκλειψις. ᾿Ανιεμένου οὖν ᾧ κατείχετο ὁ ἀὴρ καὶ ἠρέμει, πάλιν κινεῖται καὶ γίγνεται πνεῦμα τῆς ἐκλείψεως πρωϊαίτερον. Ὅταν δ᾽ ἰσχυρὸς γένηται σεισμὸς, οὐκ εὐθὺς, οὐδ᾽ εἰσώπαξ παύεται σείσας, ἀλλὰ τὸ πρῶτον μὲν μέχρι περὶ τεττα- ράκοντα πρόεισι πολλάκις ἡμέρας, ὕστερον δὲ καὶ ἐφ᾽ ἕν, καὶ ἐπὶ δύο ἔτη ἐπισημαίνει κατὰ τοὺς αὐτοὺς τόπους. Αἴτιον δὲ τοῦ μὲν μεγέθους τὸ πλῆθος τοῦ πνεύματος, καὶ τῶν τόπων τὰ σχήματα, δι’ ὧν ἂν ῥυῇ: ἣ γὰρ ἂν ἀντιτυπήσῃ, καὶ μὴ ῥᾳδίως διέλθη, μάλιστά τε σείει, καὶ ἐγκαταλείπεσθαι ἀναγκαῖον ἐν ταῖς εὐσχωρίαις, οἷον ὕδωρ οὐ δυνάμενον διεξελθεῖν. Διὸ καθάπερ ἐ ἐν σώματι οἱ σφυγμοὶ οὐκ ἐξαίφνης παύονται, οὐδὲ ταχέως, ἀλλ᾽ ἐκ προσαγωγῆς ἅμα καταμαραινομένου τοῦ πάθους, καὶ ἡ ἀρχὴ ἀφ᾽ ἧς ἡ ἀναθυμίασις ἐγένετο, καὶ ἡ ὁρμὴ τοῦ πνεύματος δῆλον ὅτι οὐκ εὐθὺς ἅπασαν ἀνάλωσε τὴν ὕλην, ἐξ ἧς ἐποίησε τὸν ἄνεμον, ὃν καλοῦμεν σεισμόν. “ἕως ἂν οὖν ἀναλωθῇ τὰ ὑπόλοιπα τούτων, ἀνάγκη σείειν" ἠρεμαίτερον δὲ καὶ μέχρι τούτου, ἕως ἂν ἔλαττον 7 τὸ ἀναθυμιώμενον, ἢ ὥστε δύνασθαι κινεῖν ἐπιδήλως. Ποιεῖ δὲ καὶ τοὺς ψόφους τοὺς ὑπὸ τὴν γῆν γινομένους τὸ πνεῦμα, καὶ τοὺς πρὸ τῶν σεισμῶν. Καὶ ἄνευ δὲ σεισμῶν, ἤδη που γεγόνασιν ὑπὸ γῆν" ὥσπερ γὰρ καὶ ῥαπιζόμενος ὁ ἀὴρ παντοδαποὺς ἀφίησε ψόφους, οὕτως καὶ τύπτων αὐτός" οὐθὲν γὰρ διαφέρει" τὸ γὰρ τύπτον ἅμα καὶ αὐτὸ τύπ- τεται πᾶν. Προέρχεται δ᾽ ὁ ψόφος τῆς κινήσεως διὰ τὸ λεπτομερέσ- τερον εἶναι, καὶ μᾶλλον διὰ παντὸς ἰέναι τοῦ πνεύματος τὸν ψόφον. “Ὅταν δ᾽ ἔλαττον ἢ ἢ ὥστε κινῆσαι τὴν γῆν διὰ λεπτότητα, διὰ μὲν τὸ ῥᾳδίως διηθεῖσθαι οὐ δύναται κινεῖν: διὰ δὲ τὸ προσπίπτειν στερεοῖς ὄγκοις καὶ κοίλοις καὶ παντοδαποῖς σχήμασι, παντοδαπὰς ἀφίησε φωνάς" ὥστ᾽ ἐνίοτε δοκεῖν, ὅπερ λέγουσιν οἱ τερατολογοῦντες, μυκᾶσθαι ΟΝ THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE ΡΗΞΝΟΜΈΝΑ, 7 τὴν γῆν. Ἤδη δὲ καὶ ὕδατα ἀνεῤῥάγη γυγνομένων σεισμῶν" αλλ᾽ οὐ διὰ τοῦτο αἴτιον τὸ ὕδωρ τῆς κινήσεως, GAN ἂν ἢ ἐξ ἐπιπολῆς ἢ κάτωθεν βιάξηται τὸ πνεῦμα, ἐκεῖνο τὸ κινοῦν ἐστὶν, ὥσπερ τῶν κυμάτων οἱ ἄνεμοι, GAN οὐ τὰ κύματα τῶν ἀνέμων ἐστὶν αἴτια" ἐπεὶ καὶ τὴν γῆν οὕτως ἄν τις αἰτιῷτο τοῦ πάθους" ἀνατρέπεται γὰρ σειομένη, καθάπερ ὕδωρ (ἡ γὰρ ἔκχυσις ἀνάτρεψίς τις ἐστιν)" GAN αἴτια ταῦτα μὲν ἄμφω ὡς ὕλη (πάσχει γὰρ, GAN οὐ ποιεῖ)" τὸ δὲ πνεῦμα ὡς ἀρχή" ὅπου δ᾽ ἅμα κῦμα σεισμῷ γέγονεν, αἴτιον, ὅταν ἐναντίω γίγνηται τὰ πνεύματα. Τοῦτο δὲ γίγνεται, ὅταν τὸ σεῖον τὴν γῆν πνεῦμα φερο- μένην ὑπ᾽ ἄλλου πνεύματος τὴν θάλασσην, ἀπῶσαν μὲν ὅλως μὴ δύνηται" προωθοῦν δὲ καὶ συστέλλον εἰς ταὐτὸν συναθροίσῃ πολλήν" τότε γὰρ ἀναγκαῖον ἡττηθέντος τοῦτον τοῦ πνεύματος ἀθρόαν ὠθουμένην ὕπο τοῦ ἐναντίου πνεύματος ἐκρήγνυσθαι καὶ ποιεῖν τὸν κατακλυσμον. Eyévero δὲ τοῦτο καὶ περὶ ᾿Αχαΐαν᾽ ἔξω μὲν γὰρ ἣν νότος, ἐκεῖ δὲ βορέας. Νηνεμίας δὲ γενομένης, καὶ ῥυέντος εἴσω τοῦ ἀνέμου, ἐγένετο τό, τε κῦμα καὶ ὁ σεισμὸς ἅμα" καὶ μᾶλλον διὰ τὸ τὴν θάλατταν μὴ διδόναι διαπνοὴν τῷ ὑπὸ τὴν γῆν ὡρμημένῳ πνεύματι, ἀλλ᾽ ἀντιφράττειν. ᾿Αποβιαζόμενα γὰρ ἄλληλα, τὸ μὲν πνεῦμα τὸν σεισμὸν ἐποίησεν, ἡ δὲ ὑπόστασις τοῦ κύματος τὸν κατακλυσμόν. Κατὰ μέρος δὲ γίγνονται οἱ σεισμοὶ τῆς γῆς, καὶ πολλάκις ἐπὶ μικρὸν τόπον" οἱ δ᾽ ἄνεμοι οὐ κατὰ μέρος. Κατὰ μέρος μὲν, ὅταν αἱ ἀναθυμιάσεις αἱ κατὰ τὸν τόπον αὐτὸν καὶ τὸν γειτνιῶντα συνέλθωσιν εἰς Ev ὥσπερ καὶ τοὺς αὐχμοὺς ἔφαμεν γίγνεσθαι, καὶ τὰς ὑπερομβρίας τὰς κατὰ μέρος. Καὶ οἱ μὲν σεισμοὶ γίγνονται διὰ τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον" οἱ δ᾽ ἄνεμοι; ov. Τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἐν τῇ γῇ τὴν ἀρχὴν ἔχει, ὥστ᾽ ἐφ᾽ ἐν ἁπάσας ὁρμᾶν" ὁ δ᾽ ἥλιος οὐχ ὁμοίως δύναται: τὰς δὲ μετεώρους μᾶλλον, ὥστε ῥεῖν, ὅταν ἀρχὴν λάβωσιν ἀπὸ τῆς τοῦ ἡλίου φορᾶς ἤδη κατὰ τὰς διαφορὰς τῶν τόπων, ἐφ᾽ ἕν. “Ὅταν μὲν οὖν ἢ πολὺ τὸ πνεῦμα, κινεῖ τὴν γῆν, ὥσπερ ἂν ὁ τρόμος, ἐπὶ πλάτος μὲν, γέγνεται δ᾽ ὀλιγάκις καὶ κατά τινας τόπους. οἷον ὁ σφυγμὸς, ἄνω καὶ κάτωθεν" διὸ καὶ ἐλαττονάκις σείει τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον" οὐ γὰρ ῥᾷάδιον οὕτω πολλὴν συνελθεῖν ἀρχήν" ἐπὶ μῆκος γὰρ πολλαπλασία τῆς ἀπὸ τοῦ βάθους, ἡ διάκρισις. “Ὅπου δ᾽ ἂν γένηται τοιοῦτος σεισμὸς, ἐπιπολάζει πλῆθος λίθων, ὥσπερ τῶν ἐν τοῖς λίκνοις ἀναβρατομένων. Τοῦτον γὰρ τὸν τρόπον γενομένου σεισμοῦ τὰ περὶ Σέπυλον ἀνετραπὴ καὶ τὸ Φλεγραῖον καλούμενον πεδίον, καὶ τὰ περὶ τὴν Λιγυστικὴν χώραν. Ἔν δὲ ταῖς νήσοις ταῖς ποντίαις ἧττον γύγνεται σεισμὸς, τῶν προσγείων. Τὸ γὰρ πλῆθος τῆς θαλάττης καταψύχει τὰς ἀναθυμιάσεις, καὶ κωλύει τῷ βάρει, καὶ ἀποβιάξεται. Ἔτι δὲ ῥεῖ, καὶ οὐ σείεται κρατουμένη ὑπὸ τῶν πνευμάτων. Καὶ διὰ τὸ πολὺν ἐπέχειν τόπον, οὐκ εἰς ταύτην, GAN ἐκ ταύτης αἱ ἀναθυμιάσεις γίγνονται, καὶ ταύταις ἀκολουθοῦσιν αἱ ἐκ τῆς γῆς. Αἱ δ᾽ ἐγγὺς τῆς ἠπείρου νησοῖ μόριόν εἰσι τῆς ἠπείρου. Τὸ γὰρ μεταξὺ διὰ μικρότητα οὐδεμίαν ἔχει δύναμιν: τὰς δὲ ποντίας οὐκ ἔστι κινῆσαι ἄνευ τῆς θαλάττης ὅλης, ὑφ᾽ ἧς περιεχόμεναι τὐγχάνουσιν. Περὶ μὲν οὖν σεισμῶν, καὶ τίς ἡ φύσις αὐτῶν, καὶ διὰ τίν᾽ αἰτίαν γίγνονται; καὶ περὶ τῶν ἄλλων τῶν συμβαινόντων περὶ αὐτοὺς, εἴρηται σχεδὸν περὶ τῶν μεγίστων."--- Ἀριστοτέλους, περὶ Μετεωρολογικῶν, Β, Κεφάλαια a καὶ θ΄. ᾿ ᾿ ἐν ἐς Πολλάκις δὲ καὶ συγγενὲς πνεῦμα εὔκρατον ἐν γῇ παρεξωσθὲν εἰς 8 REPORT—1850. μυχίους σήραγγας αὐτῆς, ἔξεδρον γενόμενον ἐκ τῶν οἰκείων ToTOY, πολλὰ μέρη συνεκράδανεν. Ἰ]ολλάκις δὲ πολὺ γενόμενον ἔξωθεν ἐγκατειλήθη τοῖς ταύτης κοιλώμασι; καὶ ἀποκλεισθὲν ἐξόδου μετὰ βίας αὐτὴν συνετίναξε, ζητοῦν ἔξοδον ἑαυτῷ, καὶ ἀπειργάσατο πάθος τοῦτο, ὃ καλεῖν εἰώθαμεν σεισμόν" τῶν δὲ σεισμῶν, οἱ μὲν εἰς πλάγια σείοντες κατ᾽ ὀξείας γωνίας. ἐπικλίνται καλοῦνται" οἱ δὲ ἄνω ῥιπτοῦντες, καὶ κάτω Kat ὀρθὰς γωνίας, βράσται" οἱ δὲ συνηζήσεις ποιοῦντες εἰς τὰ κοῖλα, χασματίαι" οἱ δὲ χάσματα ἀνοίγοντες, καὶ γῆν ἀναῤῥηγνύντες, ῥῆκται καλοῦνται. Τούτων δὲ, οἱ μὲν, καὶ πνεῦμα προσαναβάλλουσιν" οἱ δὲ, πέτρας" οἱ δὲ, πηλόν᾽ οἱ δὲ, πηγὰς φαίνουσι τὰς πρότερον οὐκ οὔσας" τινὲς δὲ, ἀνατρέποντες κἄτὰ μίαν πρόωσιν, ods καλοῦσιν ὥστας" οἱ δὲ ἀναπάλλοντες, καὶ ταῖς εἰς ἑκάτερον ἐγκλίσεσι Kal ἀναπάλσεσι διορθοῦντες ἀεὶ τὸ σειόμενον, παλματίαι λέγονται, τρόμῳ πάθος ὅμοιον ἀπεργαζόμενοι."---ἰ Ἀριστοτέλους, περὶ Koopov, ἹΚεφάλαιον & Ἔ, Such are Aristotle’s facts and opinions. The main difficulty of mastering his views, consists in the interpretation we put upon the word πνεῦμα. It is very difficult to discover whether by it he means, simply the wind, or some “ universal life of the world,” the expansive efforts of elastic gases, or merely some unknown force beneath, that which Humboldt calls “the reaction of the interior of a planet upon its exterior.” I incline to adopt the latter view. The doctrines of the eloquent Seneca are next in ancient importance; they have been well said by Humboldt to contain the germ of almost everything that has been advanced in modern times as to volcanic action in its large sense. “Tdeoque antequam terra moveatur, solet mugitus audiri, ventis in abdito tumultuantibus: nec enim aliter posset, ut ait noster Virgilius, ‘Sub pedibus mugire solum, et juga celsa moveri,’ nisi hoc esset ventorum opus. Vices deinde hujus pugne sunt; desinit ca- lidi congregatio, ac rursus eruptio, Tune frigida compescuntur et succe- dunt, mox futura potentiora. Dum ergo alterna vis cursat, et ultro citroque spiritus commeat, terra concutitur.”—Senec. Natur. Quest., lib. vi. 13. “Quidam ita existimant. Terra multis locis perforata est, nec tantum primos illos aditus habet, quos velut spiramenta ab initio sui recepit, sed multos illic casus imposuit. Alicubi diduxit, quidquid superne terreni erat, aqua: alia torrentes exedere, illa zstibus magnis dirupta patuere, Per hee intervalla intrat spiritus: quem si inclusit mare, et altius adegit, nee fluctus retro abire permisit, tunc ille exitu simul redituque pracluso, volutatur. Et quia in rectum non potest tendere, quod illi naturale est, in sublime se in- tendit, et terram prementem diverberat. “Etiam nune dicendum est, quod plerisque auctoribus placet, et in quod fortasse fiet discessio. Non esse terram sine spiritu, palam est. Non tantum illo dico, quo se tenet, ac partes sui jungit, qui inest etiam saxis mortuisque corporibus ; sed illo dico vitali, et vegeto, et alente omnia. Hune nisi ha- beret, quomodo tot arbustis spiritum infunderet, non aliunde viventibus, et tot satis? Quemadmodum tam diversas radices, aliter atque aliter in se mersas foveret, quasdam summa receptas parte, quasdam altius tractas, nisi multum haberet anime, tam wmulta, tam varia generantis, et haustu atque alimento suo educantis? Levibus adhuc argumentis ago. Totum hoc celum, quod igneus ether, mundi summa pars, claudit, omnes he stella, quarum inveniri non potest numerus, omnis hic ccelestium ceetus, et, ut alia preeter- * See note at end. ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHZ NOMENA. 9 eam, hic tam prope a nobis agens cursum sol, omni terrarum ambitu non semel major, alimentum ex terreno trahunt, et inter se partiuntur; nec ullo alio scilicet, quam halitu terrarum sustinentur. Hoc illis alimentum, hie pactus est. Non posset autem tam multa, tantaque, et seipsa majora, terra nutrire, nisi plena esset anime, quam per diem et noctem ab om- nibus partibus suis fundit. Fieri enim non potest, ut non multum illi supersit, ex qua tantum petitur ac sumitur; et ad tempus quidem, quod exeat, nascitur. Nec enim esset perennis illi copia suffecturi in tot ce- lestia spiritus, nisi invicem ista excurrerent, et in aliud alia solverentur. Sed tamen necesse est abundet ac plena sit, et ex condito proferat. Non est ergo dubium, quin multum spiritus interlateat, et czeca sub terra spatia δὲν latus obtineat. Quod si verum est, necesse est id sepe moveatur, quod re mobilissima plenum est. Numquid enim dubium esse potest cuiquam, quin nihil sit tam inquietum quam aér, tam versabile et agitatione gaudens?” —Natur. Quast., lib. vi. 15, 16. “ Maxima ergo causa est, propter quam terra moveatur, spiritus natura citus, et locum e loco mutans. Hic quamdiu non impellitur, et in vacanti spatio latet, jacet innoxius, nec circumjectis molestus est. Ubi illum extrin- secus superveniens causa solicitat, compellitque et in aretum agit, scilicet ad- huc eedit tantum, et vagatur. Ubi exemta discedendi facultas est, et undique obsistitur, tune, βὰν, δ. ee magno cum murmure montis Circum claustra fremunt,’ quee diu pulsata convellit ac jactat ; eo acrior, quo cum valentiore mora luc- tatus est.”—Natur. Quest., lib. vi. 18. After Seneca we may at once transcribe the views of Pliny :-— ** Haustu aque e puteo presensisse ac pradixisse ibi terre motum..... Et hee quidem arbitrio cujusque existimanda relinquantur ; ventos in causa esse non dubium reor. _ ©Neque enim unquam intremiscunt terre nisi sopito mari, cceloque adeo tranquillo ut volatus avium non pendeant, subtracto omni spiritu qui vehit : nec unquam nisi post ventos, condito scilicet in venas et cava ejus occulta flatu. Neque aliud est in terra tremor quam in nube tonitruum; nec hiatus aliud quam cum fulmen erumpit: incluso spiritu luctante et ad libertatem exire nitente. __ “Varie itaque quatitur, et mira eduntur opera alibi prostratis mcenibus, alibi hiatu profundo haustis, alibi egestis molibus, alibi emissis amnibus: nonnun- quam etiam ignibus, calidisve fontibus, alibi averso fluminum cursu. Pro- cedit vero, comitaturque terribilis sonus, alias murmur, similius mugitibus, aut clamori humano, armorumve pulsantium fragori: pro qualitate ma- teriz excipientis formaque vel cavernarum vel cuniculi per quem meat, exi- lius, grassante in angusto eodem rauco in recurvis, resultante in duris, fer- _ yente in humidis, fluctuante in stagnantibus, item fremente contra solida. _. Itaque et sine motu sepe editur sonus. Nec simplici modo quatitur, sed tremit vibratque. Hiatus vero alias remanet, ostendens que sorbuit, alias occultat ore compresso, rursusque ita inducto solo, ut nulla vestigia extent, urbibus plerumque devoratis, agrorumque tractu hausto. Maritima autem maxime quatiuntur. Nec montuosa tali malo carent. Exploratum est mihi _ Alpes, .Apenninumque szpius tremuisse.......Ideo Galliz et Egyptus minime quatiuntur, quoniam hic estatis causa obstat, illic hyemis...... “ Navigantes quoque sentiunt non dubia conjectura, sine flatu intumes- cente fluctu subito aut quatiente icti, Intremunt vero et in navibus posita geque quam in edificiis crepituque prenuntiant: quin et volucres non impavidz sedentes. Est et in ccelo signum preceditque motu futuro, 10 -REPORT—1850. aut interdiu, aut paulo post occasum sereno ceu tenuis linea nubis in lon- gum porrecte spatium. Est et in puteis turbidior aqua nec sine odoris taedio. “ Sicut in iisdem est remedium quale et crebri specus preebent : conceptum enim spiritum exhalant, quod in certis notatur oppidis que minus quatiuntur, crebris ad eluviem cuniculis cavata. Multoque sunt tutiora in iisdem illis quz pendent: sicut Neapoli in Italia intelligitur, parte ejus que solida est ad tales casus obnoxia. “Tntissimi sunt edificiorum fornices, anguli quoque parietum, postesque, alterno pulsu renitente. Et latere terreno facti perietes minore noxa qua- tiuntur. Magna differentia est et in ipso genere motus; pluribus siquidem modis quatitur. Intissimum est cum vibrat crispante edificiorum crepitu : et cum intumescit assurgens, alternoque motu residet: innoxium et cum concurrentia tecta contrario ictu arietant: quoniam alter motus alteri reni- titur. Undantis inclinatio et fluctus more quedam volutatio infesta est: aut cum in unam partem totus se motus impellit. ‘“Desinunt autem tremores, cum ventus emersit: sin vero duravere non ante quadraginta dies sistuntur: plerumque et tardius, utpote cum quidam annuo et biennii spatio duraverint. “ Factum est et hoc semel, quod equidem in Etrusce disciplinz volumini- bus inveni, ingens terrarum portentum...... . Namque montes duo inter se concurrerunt, crepitu maximo assultantes, recedentesque inter eos flamma fumoque in ccelum exeunte interdiu....... Eo concursu villz omnes elise: animalia permulta que intra fuerant exanimata sunt. ...... Non minus mirum ostentum et nostra cognovit tas, anno Neronis principis supremo -..+..+.+pratis oleisque intercedente via publica in contrarias sedes trans- gressis in agro Marrucino....... “Fiunt simul cum terre motu et inundationes maris, eodem videlicet spiritu infusi ac terre residentis sinu recepti....... “ Eadem nascentium causa terrarum est, cum idem ille spiritus, attellendo potens solo non valuit erumpere. Nascuntur enim nec fluminum tantum in- vectu, sicut Echinades insula ab Acheloo amne congestz, majorque pars fEgypti a Nilo, in quam a Pharo insula noctis et diei cursum fuisse Homero credimus ; sed et recessu maris, sicut eidem de Circeiis. “Quod et accidisse in Ambraciz portu decem millium passuum inter- vallo et Atheniensium quinque millium ad Pireeum memoratur, et Ephesi ubi quondam edem Diane alluebat. Herodoto quidem si credimus, mare fuit supra Memphim usque ad AZthiopum montes: itemque a planis Arabiz. Mare et circa Ilium, et tota Teuthrania quoque campos intulerit Meander. Nascuntur et alio modo terre ac repente in aliquo mari emergunt velut paria secum faciente natura, queeque hauserit hiatus alio loco reddente.”— Plin. Nat. Hist., lib. xi. 81, 89. And thus we may pass from classic times to the middle age of earthquake history. Multitudes of tracts, pamphlets and books, of the fifteenth, sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, exist on our subject, most of them recording some par- ticular earthquake, and straightway founding a theory thereupon; but others there are giving good résumés of all past knowledge of the subject, and a few of remarkable interest from the singularity or originality of their views. A mere list of these books would fill many pages; and as in a second part of this Report I hope to present as perfect a bibliography as possible of earth- quakes, so I shall only notice here such of these works as having come under my notice, appear to be of more than ordinary interest, still proceeding in order of time. ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHZ NOMENA. 11 Liberti Fromondi, Coll. Louvainiensi Proff., was the author of a work on meteorology, ‘ Meteorologicorum Libri sex’ (4to, Antwerp, 1527). The last chapter of his fourth book is dedicated to a good résumé of all the ancient knowledge of earthquakes, divided under the heads of — 1. Que causa efficiens terre motus. 2. Species terre motus. 3. Que loca obnoxia terre motibus. De magnitudine et duratione terre motus. Que anni tempora maxime sentiunt terre motus. Que signa antecedentia terre motus. Effectus terrze motus. - 8. Timor numinis causa finalis terrze motus. - 9. Comparatio cuniculorum nostrorum militarium cum terre motu. As to the first cause, after noticing the old Greek notions of Neptune, *Evvooiyaoy καὶ Σεισίχθονα, and several others of a mythological character, he agrees with Aristotle :— “ Sententia Aristotelis et verissima est, spiritum subterraneum causam esse terre motus effectricem. Probatur, quia quoties terra pulsu pertunditur aut dehiscit, evolant halitus aliqui, spe pestilentes, ignis etiam aliquando et cineres : ergo ille fuit qui terram rupit et eam suffodiendo concussit. Idem patebit post ex omnibus terrz motus affectibus.”—p. 197. This passage is remarkable, as showing the sense in which “spiritus terre,” πνεῦμα; as used by Aristotle, is interpreted by Fromondi, ὃ. 6. as our volcanic force of elevation in Humboldt’s extended sense, “the reaction of the interior upon the exterior of our planet.” _ As to the species of earthquakes (art. 2), Fromondi thus classifies :— _ “ Auctor libri de mundo et ex eo 1). Damascenus, septem species acci- dentarias terrze motus fecit, 2. 6. 1. Epiclintz sen inclinatores. 2. Braste seu effervescentes. 3. Chasmatie. 4. Rhectz (viam effringunt). 5. Oste (uno impulsu). 6. Palmatiz (vibrant). 7. Mycetie (cum mugitu). Aristoteles tamen duabus speciebus, pulsu et tremore, contentus fuit, sed _ tertiam inclinationem optime Seneca adjecit. _ “Pulsus est motus quo terra, instar arteriz animalis, diastole et systole _ vicissim erigitur et subsidit, vel generalius est qui terram succutit, unde a _ Seneca vocatur succussio. Tremor enim concutit et vibrat: inclinatio vero = unam solam partem totum onus suspendit......septem autem alice spe- ἢ 4. 5. 6. 7. cies a diversitate effectuum sumpte sunt et ad tres istas possunt revocari.”—- . 201. 4 Of the Rhectz, Fromondi says :— “Ceterum pulsus Rhectes et effractor, omnium sine dubio est pernicio- _cissimus, deinde longa et undans inclinatio que parietes et fastigia zdificio- ‘Yum extra fundamenti perpendiculum suspendit. Brevis autem et crispans tremor partem inclinatam statim contrario motu in sedem restituit, preevenit- que lapsum, unde Plinius, lib. ii. cap. 82, ‘ Latere etiam facti parietes minore noxa quatiuntur,’ inquit.”—p. 202. __ As to the places subject to earthquakes :—Egypt, he says, was very free rom them, and so was Belgium, especially its southern and Dutch por- 12 REPORT—1850. tions ; but he quotes from ‘Gemma Cosmocritica,’ lib. ii. cap. 1, an account of two earthquakes in Flanders in the years 1554 and 1569.—p. 204. On the magnitude and duration of earthquakes he gives several facts :— About the year 369, under Valentinian, and in 1116, nearly the whole world was shaken, and in 1601 Asia, Hungary, Germany, Italy, Gaul: ‘uno fere momento feruntur tremuisse.”—p. 205. Of the duration he judiciously says, “incerta etiam est et inconstans.” The earthquake of 1601 was forty days, that in Italy of 1538 fifteen days ac- cording to Fallopius, and again in 1570, one lasted for two whole years, accord- ing to Fabricius of Padua. Averrdes says Spain shook for three whole years in his time. Aristotle says forty days was a usual time: “ Sepe solennes fuisse.” It is remarkable that this early author well distinguishes between the total duration of the earthquake and the time of and intermittence be- tween the several shocks—a distinction so much neglected by modern nar- rators. Fromondi enumerates several presages of earthquakes, and then classifies their effects into nine species in cap. 7; but his division is bad, mixing up primary, secondary, and doubly secondary effects without di- stinction. Passing chapter Sth as not bearing on physical questions, the chapter 9th is perhaps the most remarkable in Fromondi’s book. In this he seeks to show the strong analogy that subsists between the effects of mines charged with gunpowder, and even of bombshells, when exploded, with those of earthquakes ; and he gives a curious diagram to illustrate his views (p. 219, Antwerp Edit.), which however he does much more forcibly by referring to the effects observed at the blowing up of the bridge over the Scheldt at Antwerp by the Duke of Parma, by means of a lighter full of powder floated in under it and so exploded, and the blow of which was felt over great part of Holland; and again by those observed in 1546, on occasion of the blow- ing up by a stroke of lightning of a tower at Malines, containing much gun- powder, when part of the town walls were shaken down by the blow, and the water so emptied out of the neighbouring river that the fish were found at a distance on dry land. ‘Del. Terreemoto dialogo del. Signor Lucio Maggio, Gentilhuomo Bo- lognese.’ 4to, Bolog. 1571. A curious book with much observation, and a digest of all the ancient and then current opinions. Lib. i. gives a discussion of all the conceivable causes of earthquakes. 3 In lib. iii. he enunciates eleven signs or presages of earthquakes, viz. 1. Stillness of the air. 2. Gloom and obscurity of the sun, haze, &e. 8. Eclipse of the sun. 4. Unusual conduct of animals. 5. Muddiness of wells. 6 and 7. Motions and swellings, or odours of the sea without any wind. 8. Various sounds in the earth and air. 9. The appearance of columns of smoke or of exhalations in the air. 10. Comets. 11. Certain appearances of the sun on the night preceding the earthquake. These were partly the learned, partly the popular notions of his time in Italy, and continue nearly unaltered as matters of popular belief in that country to the present day. One of the most remarkable tracts or works on earthquakes which I have — discovered is that ““ Francisci Travagini, super observationibus a se partis, tempore ultimorum terreemotuum, ac potissimum Ragusiani: Physica disqui- sitio, seu giri terre diurni indicium.” 4to, Lug. Bat. 1679; and also a Vene- tian edition of 1683: a copy exists in the British Museum. It seems to be about the earliest attempt to found a physical theory of earthquake motion, and presents a singular instance of that coasting along very close to a truth ON THE FACTS OF BARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 13 which is yet never attained, of which the history of all observational science is full. The author begins by stating that a horrible earthquake had occurred on the 6th of April, 1667, which had almost thrown down the whole of Ragusa, and then proceeds in a very clear way to relate the observations which he had made during its occurrence, while at Venice, the earthquake having shaken the whole of Romagna, &c. He then describes the motions of the earth, “ moveri multiplicatis vibrationibus, ab occidente ad orientem et reciproce ;” then the wave motions of the water in the Venetian canals, no- ticing the relations of the directions in length of these channels to that of the shock, the waves running along the canals, whose lengths were from west to east, and from bank to bank, or across all others. He then describes the directions in which belfries and other buildings were shaken; then the mo- tions of pendulous bodies, as church lamps, and describes his own sensations as like those of a man in a boat in motion which had struck some obstacle. From all his observations he concludes, “ Ecce igitur, mi lector, ex obser- vatione communi in eodem terremotu, quasi tres gradationes seu facies; prima qua motus illi est mixtus ex succussatione atque ex laterali illa vibra- tione, ita tamen ut lateralis ista vibratio minor sit succussatione, quod accedit eo loco ubi maxime deszevit causa movens. “ Altera qua motus iste etiamnum mixtus minore preefert succussationem, quam vibrationem, quod contingit in locis remotioribus abs causa movente, ubi plus minusve desidit illa succussatio pro ratione, majoris aut minoris suze remotionis causa movente. “ Tertia denique, ubi sola lateralis illa vibratio percipitur, quod contingit in locis remotissimis ab illa causa movente, que tamen sint intra spheram activitatis illius, cujusmodi erat Venetia nostra respectu motus Ragusei.” Having found that all the lateral vibrations were from west to east and the contrary, he proceeds further to inquire into the physical conditions that will satisfy the above complex motions, and without troubling himself much to inquire as to the nature of the first mover, but merely glancing at the opinions commonly held up to his time, he at once assumes any force what- ever to break through the crust of the earth. ‘Ex natura inquam cum semper tempore terreemotu aliquid videatur ali- cubi foras prorumpere certe quicquid illud sit ut sic foras prorumpat debet revera terram supra stantem succutere, sed nihil omnino quod prorumpendo debeat sic lateraliter eandem vibrare: enimvero ita si foret sequeretur totum terre globum eodem motu tune sic vibrari et ex equo vibrari super axem suum, quod experientia ipsa arguit falsitatis manifestissime.” In illustration of this he gives the following figure: “Terra sit A, loco ubi sunt vel sulphura vel nitrum, vel aque bullientes, &c., sit B. Sentiatur motus corporis exiturientis a D per B usque ad E. Si motus iste esset etiam vibrationis lateralis a B ad D, necessario deberet etiam terra vibrari a D in F, et ab F in E ob solidam continuitatem totius globi, secun- dum omnes sue partes.” This last expression is a very remarkable one ; it is the first glimpse, as it were, that I can find in any author, of a true conception of pulse forces moving in solids, a notion that none of the ancient _ authors on earthquakes seem ever to have approached; all of them insisting _ upon the cavernous and perforated interior of the globe being the condition essential to the transmission of earthquakes. 14 REPORT—1850. He then proceeds to a diagram explanatory of the Ragusan earthquake : “Verum ut magis sibi constet hec nostra opinio, ac solidius firmetur, ipsi diligentius hic consideremus singulares omnes illos affectus qui supradictis materiis dum terram movent atque exitum suum moliuntur possunt adscribi quocumque modo debeant prorumpere: statuo igitur hane figuram. ABCF sit hypogeeum seu locus subterraneus in quo materia ejusmodi reclu- ditur. Ragusium sit in D, Venetiz in E, Nea- polis in I—Pars terre concusse sit in E, Ὁ, O, I hoc supposito— vi- detur certe quod spiri- tus ille exituriens de- beat | quaquaversum spherice agere ac dif- fundi nempe ab A ad C, ad B et ad F, ita tamen ut haud dubie longe violentius feratur ipa in altum secundum li- neam perpendicularem ad B quam per lineas obliquas AC et AF, cum de spirituum ejusmodi natura sit potissimum ut perpendiculariter in altum de- ferantur : atque adeo sua succussione deferent terram BD versus G, ut con- tigit Ragusii, ubi et exhalationes et flamme et odores ac similia visa sunt expirare.” : Travagini then proceeds further to develope the conditions according to which the pulses (succussationes) will travel to the outward points of his diagram. He finds the vast mass of matter moved in the directions AH, AO, by the smaller force in these directions, a difficulty in his way ; and by another diagram (which I copy as an illustration of the peculiar mode of treatment of the author) he proposes to show the effect of distance upon the pulses and their mode of propagation :— « Certum enim quod iteratos dicti mallei ictus omnia vibrabuntur versus illam partem ad quam ictus illi adiguntur, et quod tamen ipsa tabula uulla- tenus usquam discessit a loco suo aut divelletur ab aliis tabulis contiguis.’ He then proceeds to show by another pair of diagrams, how that upward and downward pulses of the earth’s crust may produce a lateral swing in bodies ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 15 fixed upon it. Thus he says, let A represent the earth, whose surface, A DBI, is thrown up by-some force so as to assume the form between D and I of DCI; further, let there be two rods, DC, DB, jointed at D, which shall represent one-half of the elevated portion of the earth’s crust, viz. DC, DB. in the former figure. Now, he says, if motion towards and away from the rod A be given to the rod DC, round the point D, then will the pendulums fixed to the rod DC swing laterally. The question of partial elevations by earthquakes, and their presumed effects upon the length of the day at the place, are then discussed. The au- thor then proceeds to show how that, by the repetition of insensible pulses, motion may at last become sensible at a given point; from this, and from the (unhappy) assumption that all earthquakes vibrate from west to east and the contrary, which he admits to be an essential condition upon which his final conclusion depends, he proceeds to make out an imaginary theory to account for all earthquakes as being related to a sudden or partial cessation of the earth’s rotation, according to the Copernican view, taking care, however, to put in a precautionary clause, “ Salva quam ecclesiasticis statutis debeo reverentia.” On this conclusion we need make no remark, but in the au- thor’s own words, from his Epistle Dedicatory, “ Nempe quod cum isti tune crederent motum illum esse in suo capite, qui tamen fere erat in terra ipsa ; ego e contrario gyrum illum quem mihi videor in terra conspicere, totum in capite meo perpetior.” _ Although thus finally led off from all that is true in his subject and to an absurd conclusion, the work of Travagini is a truly remarkable one, from the peculiar inductive and experimental manner in which he treats a subject _ previously never regarded but as matter of the vaguest guessing, and from _ his appearing to be the first who obtained some imperfect glimpse of earth- _ quake motions being due to pulses, or wave forces, in solids. ___ Hooke’s discourses of earthquakes were delivered before the Royal ἢ Society about 1690, and were published in his posthumous works, by _ R. Waller, Sec. R.S., in 1705, fol. Though called a discourse of earth- _ quakes, these lectures are, in fact, a sort of system of physical geology, in ' which the forces, forms, conditions and effects of elevation of land are largely _ Considered, but in which the ingenious author loses sight perfectly of what _ an earthquake is, and systematically confounds all sources, sorts and degrees _ of elevatory forces and their effects, with the transient action and secondary effects of earthquakes as rightly defined. These lectures are a repertory of ‘much valuable information and thought to the geologist, but add little _ indeed to the subject of their title. Hooke divides the effects of earthquakes into four sorts ; viz.— | The first sort or genus. 1st species.—The raising a considerable part of a country which before 16 τ REPORT—1850. aT γὸ lay level with the sea, many feet, nay sometimes many fathoms above its former height. 2nd species.—The raising of a considerable part of the bottom of the sea, and making it lie above the surface of the water, by which means divers islands have been generated and produced. 3rd species.—Raising considerable mountains out of a plain or level country. 4th species.— The raising of the parts of the earth by the throwing on of a great access of new earth, and for burying the former surface under a covering of new earth many fathoms thick. The second sort or genus. lst species.—A sinking of some part of the earth’s surface lying a good way inland, and converting it into a lake of almost unmeasurable depth. 2nd species.—The sinking of a considerable part of the plain land near to the sea below its former level, so that the adjoining sea comes in and overflows it. 3rd species—A sinking of the parts of the bottom of the sea much lower, and creating therein vast vorages and abysses. 4th species—A making bare or uncovering divers parts of the earth which were before a good way below the surface, and this either by suddenly throwing away these upper parts by some subterraneous motion, or else by washing them away by some kind of eruption of waters from unusual places vomited out by some earthquake. The third sort or genus. Species 1.—Are the subversions, conversions, and transpositions of the parts of the earth, The fourth sort or genus. Species 1.—Are liquefaction, baking, calcining, petrifaction, transfor- mation, sublimation, distillation, &c. So much will serve for a sample of Hooke, who in fact uses earthquake in a sense commensurate with all geological action on the earth’s surface; and it is perhaps rather in this sense, than in its strict one, that he comes to the true conclusion that “there is no country almost in the world but has been some time or other shaken by earthquakes.”—>p. 311. He even gives an undue importance to his own sense of the word. Thus he supposes that elevations by earthquakes may have changed the centre of gravity of the earth and the length of the year. One sentence will suffice to give a notion of Woodward’s views:— - “This subterranean heat or fire being in any part of the earth stopt by some accidental glut or obstruction in the passages through which it used to ascend, and being preternaturally assembled in great quantity into one place, causes a great rarefaction and intumescence of the water of the abyss, putting it into very great commotions ; and making the like effort upon the earth expanded upon the face of the abyss, occasions that agitation and concussion which we call an earthquake.”—Woodward, Nat. Hist. 1695. ‘ The Earth twice shaken wonderfully, or an analogical Discourse of Earth- quakes,’ by J. Ὁ. R. 4to, Lond. 1693-94, said to be by Rouffional, a French Protestant minister, a curious and learned tract, with ten corollaries discussed. He previously inquires,—Cap. 1. How many sorts of earthquakes there are. Cap. 2. What was the nearest natural cause of this earthquake. Cap. 3. ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 17 An earthquake hath not properly an end, yet its chief ends are sickness, inundation and sterility. Cap. 4. An examination of how earthquakes differ and agree in form and second causes, and in regard to aspects of the planets. The ten corollaries are— 1. Whether it be true, as Pliny affirms, that France and Egypt are sel- dom shaken, by reason of the heat and cold, &e. 2. Why rivers decrease by earthquakes. 3. Why those places lying on or encompassed by sea and rivers are ob- noxious to earthquakes. 4. What credit may be given to Plato of the island Atlantis drowned by an earthquake. 5. Whether exterior wind entering the earth from above be able to move it. 6. Whether subterraneous exhalations are generated by the sun’s beams. 7. Whether some more solemn times of earthquakes are to be appointed for any certain reason. In this he discusses Aristotle’s opinion of the Equinoxes, and quotes ‘ Agricola de Metal.’ p. 29, against him. 8. Why birds are frightened by an earthquake. 9: Whether vaults in houses are safest from earthquakes. 10. If the late earthquake be so ended that the same countries through ’ which it went are secure from its iteration. He decides in the negative, _ giving a long list of authorities for earthquakes occurring repeatedly in _» the same places, with short intervals and continuing for long periods. In the year 1693, John Flamsteed published a letter, in which, after de- ling with a sort of method, some of the facts observed, lhe proposes a ysical theory of earthquakes. His views, however, are abundantly vague d obscure ; he supposes some ztherial explosive matter to exist in ‘the nosphere, by the occasional firing of which, the shoek is given to buildings, ps, &c. Nothing but the name of the illustrious author would make this mphlet deserve notice. _ There is a curious book by Hottinger (Hittingeri Dissertationes de Terra Motu), partly scientific, partly theological. The title of one dissertation e fourth) will give an idea of the book :— “Unde Terre motus immittantur, sintne fortuna pure naturales an θεή- Ot.” ᾿ Amontons (Mém. Acad. des Sciences, 1703) endeavoured to prove that atmospheric air might be expanded by heat to a sufficient degree of pressure, en confined under the earth, to produce volcanic effects, and those of tthquakes. Stukeley’s arguments, against this and all other views, that me the direct expansion of elastic fluids as the immediate cause of earth- lakes, derived from a consideration of the vast areas shaken at once by the , are worthy of perusal, though not free from error, and intended to ain his own views of their electrical origin only. hat electricity in some unknown undescribed and incomprehensible way the direct cause of earthquakes, was specially pleaded for by Stukeley, al, Beccaria, Priestley and several others, whose imaginations, filled the power and grandeur of the electrical phenomena, which their expe- iments perpetually brought before them, and adapting in a loose and con- used way some of the electrical phenomena that are constantly observed to sompany the secondary effects of great earthquakes, referred the whole to agency of their favourite force, and were satisfied. ‘Their precise works and words need not be quoted. The Rev. John Mitchell, Fellow of Queen’s College, Cambridge, published per on earthquakes, in the 51st volume of the Philosophical Transactions, 1860: which, up to a very recent date, was by far the most important and c a 18 REPORT—1850. remarkable work upon the subject, though very much overlooked. His principal views are best given in his own words. He commences by refuting the notion, that there is any necessary con- nection between the air, or the weather, or state of moon and tide and earth- quakes. And assuming then that they have an origin under ground, he enunciates the following propositions, sustaining each with its appropriate facts: — Ist. The same places are subject to returns of earthquakes, not only at small intervals for some time after any considerable one has hap- pened, but also at greater intervals for some ages. 2nd, Those places that are in the neighbourhood of burning mountains are always subject to frequent earthquakes, and the eruptions of those mountains, when violent, are generally attended with them. 3rd. The motion of the earth in earthquakes is partly tremulous and partly propagated by waves, which succeed one another, sometimes at larger and sometimes at smaller distances; and this latter motion is generally propagated much further than the former. Ath. It is observed in places which are subject to frequent earthquakes, that they generally come to one and the same place, from the same point of the compass. I may add also, that the velocity with which they proceed (as far as one can collect it from the accounts) is the same, but the velocity of earthquakes of different countries is very different. 5th. A great earthquake (such as the Lisbon one) has been succeeded by several local ones since, the extent of which has been much less. From a discussion then of the known facts of volcanoes, he concludes, ** That in all probability the fires of voleanoes produce earthquakes. That, however, the vibrations, &c. felt close to voleanic foci, either at their first formation or after, are not of the precise nature of earthquakes, or at least; differ in degree from them: and that— “ΤΠ greater earthquakes seem rather to be occasioned by other fires that lie deeper in the same tract of country, and the eruptions of voleanoes which happen at the same time with earthquakes, may with more probability be ascribed to those earthquakes, than the earthquakes to the eruptions, when- ever, at least, the earthquakes are of any considerable extent.” He then proceeds to give, considering the time he wrote, a wonderfully large and accurate view of the general conformation of the superficial crust of the earth, its arrangement into strata and beds, their relative position and co-ordination at distant places as to horizon, the nature of faults, dykes, &c., and from all he concludes that “from the want of correspondence in the fissures of the upper and lower strata, as well as on account of those strata which are little or not at all shattered, it will come to pass that the earth cannot easily be separated in a direction perpendicular to the horizon if we take any considerable portion of it together; but in the horizontal direction, as there is little or no adhesion between one stratum and another, it may be separated without difficulty.” After this he endeavours to show that the explosive power of volcanoes is due to pent-up vapour or steam, produced by the contact of water with masses of incandescent matter in the earth; that the alternate repose and activity of their action may be accounted for on this hypothesis, and that the expansive force is adequate to the phenomena, &c.; and having established this mechanism, he proceeds to announce the precise mode of formation and of propagation of the wave, in which he conceives earthquake motion to consist: he says, “ As a small quantity of vapour almost instantly generated ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHZ NOMENA. 19 δὲ some considerable depth below the surface of the earth will produce a _ vibratory motion, so a very large quantity (whether it be generated almost instantly or in any small portion of time) will produce a wave-like motion: the manner in which this wave-like motion will be propagated, may in some _ measure be represented by the following experiment :— “Suppose a large cloth or carpet (spread upon a floor) to be raised at one edge, and then suddenly brought down again to the floor, the air under it, being by this means propelled, will pass along till it escapes at the opposite side, raising the cloth in a wave all the way as it goes. In like manner a _ large quantity of vapour may be conceived to raise the earth in a wave as it passes along between the strata, which it may easily separate in a horizon- _ tal direction, there being, as I have said before, little or no cohesion between _ one stratum and another; the part of the earth which is first raised being bent from its natural form will endeavour to restore itself by its elasticity, _ and the parts next to it beginning to have their weight supported by the vapour; which will insinuate itself under them, will be raised in their turn, till it either finds some vent, or is again condensed by the cold into water, _ and by that means prevented from proceeding any further.” _ Several successive waves, he then proposes to show, might be thus gene- rated, and their height will be greater the nearer they are to the point of their origin. In the third part of the paper he endeavours more minutely to describe _ the mechanism of the focus, as to how the water gains access; why the roof _ should fall in, &c., and applies some of the facts or fancies to the recorded secondary conditions of earthquakes, and to the fluctuations of the sea, which result from them. And in the seventh section, he shows, that by in- stigating the point of departure of various great sea-waves, when observed at nt points of arrival, after any great earthquake, whose origin is (as he ses that of all great earthquakes to be) under the sea, we may find point vertically over the focus of original disturbance. This he does as ects the great Lisbon earthquake, and shows a most remarkable percep- n of the nature of the motion of waves of translation, far more than the state exact knowledge of the subject at the time would have made us suppose ible: Lastly; he inquires whether it be then possible to determine any- = as to the depth of the focus of disturbance below the surface, but it can be only guessed at; but that, if we could carefully observe and ekon the thickness of upturned strata at some great volcanoes, we should ve at it. Such is Mitchell’s paper; which I have analysed at some length, from its mportatice. It contains much that is useful, mixed with the leading fallacy as to the nature of the earthquake wave of shock. Wo other works on the facts of earthquakes require to be mentioned, — The History and Philosophy of Earthquakes,’ and ‘ Mémoires Histo- et Physiques sur les Tremblemens de Terre,’ par Mons. Bertrand, ἃ yes 1757. n the former; the facts of ten great earthquakes are recorded, and in atter; those of Switzerland; and all such others as the author could col- ouguer, in his ‘Voyage en Peru,’ whither he accompanied the French micians to measure an are of the meridian, conceives volcanoes and hquakes as one and the same; and “due to gaseous inflammations and losions. The weakest shocks are those from the earth already shaken ; strongest, those caused immediately by the inflammation, which are ana- us to the roarings of the volcanoes, and which are repeated more or less c2 SER LS TS πα τ σα 7 - — a -- 20 REPORT—1850. frequently, according to the facility with which the materials take fire, and also as their volume has relation with the extent of the spaces in which they are enclosed.” His views are nearly identical with those of Don Ulloa, but are more clearly expressed by the latter, who says— “ The bursting of a new volcano causes a violent earthquake ; this tremu- lous motion, which we properly call an earthquake, does not so usually happen in case of a second eruption, when an aperture has been before made, or at least the motion is comparatively small.” ‘“ Volcanoes owe their origin to sulphurous, nitrous, and other combustible substances in the bowels of the earth; these, mixed and turned into a paste, with subterraneous waters, ferment and take fire (this was Lemeri’s view); by dilating the contiguous wind or air its volume is so increased, as to produce the same effect as gun- powder fired in a narrow space.” “ The subterraneous noise proceeds from the ignition of the airs on exploding.” Dolomieu’s theories, as to the Calabrian earthquake of 1789, are not very different. ‘Interior waters, increased by those from the surface, may have run into the focus of ΖΕ πᾶ: they would in consequence be converted into very expansive vapour, and strike against every obstacle to their dilatation.” He has previously shown that Calabria itself is not a voleanic country; he therefore proceeds :— “ Provided these should have met with channels conducting them to the cavities below Calabria, they would have been capable of occasioning all those convulsions of which I have given a description.” Sir W. Hamilton concludes from all his examinations of the Calabrian earthquakes, that “some great chemical operation of the nature of the vol- canic sort was the cause.” (Phil. Trans. vol. Ixxiii.) Thus the older writers fix their regards wholly upon the presumed focus or origin of the explosion, as Dolomieu calls it, but none, except Mitchell, attempt to show any distinct train of causes by which the forces here origi- nating, in a centre of volcanic activity, are transferred and become opera- tive at vast distances and in lands not subject to voleanic action. Nor, it must be confessed, have modern authors, even Humboldt, been much more successful in this, or in shaping to themselves a distinct idea of what the nature of the earthquake shock itself is. The words—“a trembling,” “a vibration,” “a concussion,” “a movement,” “δὴ undulation,” are to be found scattered through the narratives of earthquakes, but even amongst scientific authors these records refer merely to the effect upon their senses, of the motions of the earth’s surface, and not to any definite or precise idea, either of the origin or the mode of propagation of the shock. Humboldt in his latest work, the ‘ Cosmos,’ as well as in his ‘ Personal Narrative,’ does not express himself with clearness upon earthquake move- ments. He seems disposed at one place to adopt the theory of Mitchell im- plicitiy ; yet at another, one fancies he has some notion of the earth-shock being a wave of elastic compression, and therefore propagated in a totally different manner from that of the subteraneous lava tidal wave, moving the _ solid crust above it, in which Mitchell’s theory consists: his clearest expres- sion of view is perhaps in the following sentence :—“ The filling up of fissures with crystalline matter interferes by degrees with the free escape of vapours, which confined become operative through their tension in three ways —concussively, explosively, or suddenly up and down, and as first observed in a large portion of Sweden, liftingly or continuously, and only i in a long period of time perceptibly altering the level of the sea and Jand.” Here he confounds as thoroughly as the ancient authors, the direct effects in perma- nent elevation of land by volcanic or other action from beneath, with the ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE ΡΗΞΝΟΜΕΝΑ. 91 transient effects of the earthquake which may result from such actions. _ He does not attempt to assign the law of motion of any one of the several _ orders or sorts of earthquake waves. The shocks, he says, are either hori- zontal and vertical, or rotatory and vorticose in direction; the two former, he says, are always observed together—the latter is rare ; several secondary effects of earthquake action, such as twisting of buildings or their parts, _ landslips, &c. he gives an erroneous account of. τ΄ But this is rather anticipating as to date: before concluding, however, the - in his 10th chapter an account of earthquakes, which, for his day, is lumi- _ nous and good. He briefly and correctly describes the principal phenomena; _ traces a distinct connection between volcanic and earthquake effects ; proposes the sudden evolution of steam by contact of water with igneous _ matter at great depths as the immediate cause of both ; conceives the horrid Moises as due to the rending of rocks or strata, and seems to have had some _ obscure notion that the internal heat of our planet might be independent of any form of combustion. : _ In 1835, a copious and exceedingly strange work, the ‘ Théorie des Vol- _ cans,’ par le Compte A. de Bylandt Palstercamp, appeared at Paris, 3 vols. 0, with fol. atlas. We have here nothing to do with the author's singular attempt to build up a theory of volcanic action, indeed almost a cosmogony, from considerations derived from the relations and reactions on our planet, of light, heat, elec- - tricity and magnetism. With all its wildness and incoherence it carries per- haps a dim fore-shadowing of truth. In his first volume, p. 373 to 392, he devotes a section to the consideration of earthquakes, as derivative effects of volcanoes. This, like indeed every ‘other part of the book, bears the peculiarity of containing some truths, or uasi truths, much in advance of the author's day, mixed with a great deal of absolute error. He clearly recognises earthquakes as merely one class of effects due to oleanic action ; but although he uses the word vibration, &c., and has even rrived at some of the phenomena resulting from wave motion clearly enough, 5 obvious that he has formed no clear idea of pulses transmitted through ic media in virtue of the elasticity of the solids themselves ; his vibrations, their origin, are nearly analogous to those of Mitchell. Shocks or ws transmitted through and from cavities under the earth, suddenly filled or emptied of aériform fluids, which actually lift up and again drop down the lls of these cavities in rising and falling, originate and constitute Bylandt’s shock. So far, therefore, he is not beyond his predecessors. But further :— “Etablissons d’abord comme principe que les effets des tremblemens de terre sont toujours contradictoires aux causes qui les produisent, et dirigés 5 le sens inverse, et que les mémes causes produisent des effets contra- ires dans les lieux opposés.” “Les causes des tremblemens de terre dent toujours dans lintérieure de la terre et 4 une certaine profondeur. en élévant une perpendiculaire du fond de cette profondeur et en trans- ttant le mouvement du point le plus bas au plus élévé, l’effet sera celui ἢ pendule, c’est-d-dire contradictoire entre les deux extremités. Lorsqu’on a senti 4 la surface une vibration ou oscillation dans la direc- 22 REPORT—1850. tion du nord au sud, il fallait replier la cause vers sa veritable direction qui était du sud au nord.” He divides earthquake movements into three classes—“en verticaux ou directs, en horizontauz ou indirects, et en circulaires ou accidentels, comme ni tenant 4 aucune cause, ni a aucun systéme regulier.” After explaining that by the first he means direct upward and downward motion over the volcanic centre, “et proviennent du gouflement de la matiére,” he proceeds to the horizontal motions :— “Ce mouvement ondulatoire ressemble aux vagues de la mer, et ne dure, comme tous les tremblemens de terre, que peu d'instans; du moment ou lélévation s'est fait, elle s’abaisse de suite, et ne reste jamais permanente. Un tremblement de terre quelque violent qu'il soit ne peut éléver le terrain que par ondulation de 4 a 5 pieds au plus.” He here, and in the succeeding passage, clearly recognizes the difference so usually overlooked, between the transient elevation, and as immediate de- pression of surface due to the passage of the earthquake shock, and the per- manent elevation produced directly by volcanic action from beneath. He seems to have had small knowledge of the facts of great sea-waves ; and seems (p. 378) to consider them sufficiently explained by “the contra- dictory effects” in producing a surge, of severe shocks taking place under the sea bottom. Although horizontal shocks are indirect and only “la conséquence d’une cause directe ou de son contrecoup,” he considers they produce more formidable effects than the direct or vertical ones; but he does not get at the true cause: he says, “ cela dépend des corps conducteurs et de la forma- tion du sol, car il existe dans l’intérieur de la terre d’immenses cavernes sur lesquelles la croute superficielle n'est pour ainsi dire que suspendue;” and a violent direct shock, he thinks may throw these fragile crusts down at a distance, and bury cities, &c. And as to the third class, or “ secousses accidentelles,” he is of opinion that they are due only to the occasional and capricious falling in of such cavities, and are in fact not properly a part of earthquake phenomena at all —an easy way of disposing of the question. One of the most remarkable of the author’s conclusions is, that,—“ La distance ἃ laquelle les tremblemens de terre étendent leur choes, dépend en premier lieu de la profondeur du foyer dans lequel la commotion s'est développée, en second lieu de la liaison des conducteurs du mouvement dans lintérieur de la terre.” It is to be borne in mind that his “conducteurs” are not solid vibratory bodies, but always hollow tubes or ducts in the interior of the cavernous earth. In page 385, in a passage too long for transcript, Bylandt well insists upon the impossibility of earthquakes being properly considered as causes or means of geologic elevation, but simply effects and symptoms of the action elsewhere of the great elevatory forces acting slowly from beneath. He proceeds :—“ Mais aprés avoir comparé les tremblemens de terre entre eux, définissons les mathématiquement, et éprouvons que les effets des tremble. mens de terre, sont entre eux en raison inverse du carré de distance de chaque point de la surface au centre du foyer.” Those who desire to know the author’s demonstration of this, and that the effects of earthquake shocks are in the opposite direction to the shocks themselves (owing to the inertia of the bodies overthrown), must refer to the work itself, and to the very curious atlas of plates and diagrams accompanying it. One of Bylandt’s diagrams, ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 23 - however, is so strange a mingling of the false and the true, that it is worth transcription. LN 4 ΝΕ νεῖ, lel las ᾿ Volcanic focus. = The title given to this diagram, in which, it is to be observed, the lines _ divergent from the centre do not merely represent lines of force, but channels of subterraneous voleanic communication, is, “ Les effets des tremblemens ‘ de terre sont entr’eux en raison inverse du quarré des distances de chaque _ point de la surface au centre du foyer et leur produits seront contradictoires, dans les lieux opposés,” that is, the towers at both sides will fall inwards.— = (Bylandt, planche 7.) ᾿ς Dr. Young, in his lectures upon Natural Philosophy, casually notices the _ probability that earthquake motions are vibratory, and are analogous to those of sound, &ec. This view, however, was first put, I believe, in a definite form _by Gay-Lussac, at the termination of an exceedingly able paper on the _ chemical theories of volcanoes, in the ‘ Annales de Chimie:’ he says— “Un tremblement de terre comme I’a trés bien dit le Dr. Young est ana- 3 logue a un tremblement d’ air, c’est une trés fort onde sonore, excité dans la _ maasse solide de la terre par une commotion quelconque, qui s'y propage avec a méme vitesse que le son s’y propagérait, Ce qui surprend dans ce grand et terrible phénomene de la nature c’est l'étendue immense a laquelle il se fait sentir les ravages qu’il produit et la puissance de la cause qu'il faut lui > -§ppposer. “Mais on n’a pas assez fait attention au branlement facile de toutes les rticules d’une masse solide. Le choc produit par la téte d’une épingle, ἃ "πη des bouts d’une longue poutre, fait vibrer toutes ses fibres, et se transmet, tinctement a l’autre bout a une oreille attentive. Le mouvement d’une ire sur le pavé ébranle les plus vastes édifices et se communique a ravers des masses considérables, comme dans les carriéres profondes au ssous de Paris, Qu’ y aurait il donc d’étonnant qu’une commotion trés e dans les entrailles de la terre la fit trembler dans un rayon de plusieurs aines de lieues? D’aprés la loi de transmission du mouvement dans les ps élastiques la couche extréme ne trouvant pas a transmettre son mouve- t ἃ d’autres couches, tend a se détacher de la masse ébranlée; de la 6 maniére que dans une file de billes, dont la premiére est frappée dans sens des contacts, la derniére seule se détache et prend du mouvement. st ainsi que je concois les effets des tremblemens 4 la surface de la terre, omment j'expliquerais leur grand diversité en prenant d’ailleurs en con- ation, avec M. De Humboldt, la nature du sol et les solutions de conti- fé que peuvent s’y trouver. En un mot, les tremblemens de terre ne sont que la propagation d’une motion a travers la masse de la terre, tellement, indépendante des cavités uterraines, qu'elle s’étendrait d’autant plus loin que la terre serait plus mogéne.”—Annal. de Chim. vol. xxii. p. 428, 429. . In Von Hoff’s ‘ Geschichte der Veranderungen der Erdoberflache,’ 5 Theil, _ Gotha, 1822 to 1841, much information as to earthquakes is to be found ; »» 94 REPORT—1850. the author however limits himself almost wholly to the descriptive character which a history of the earth’s superficial changes alone requires, and says little of theory, and asI shall have large occasion to refer to him hereafter in reference to earthquake catalogues, the present notice of his work may here suffice. Hoffinan and Kries may also be noticed as German authors on earthquakes. In 1843, the Professors H. D. and W. B. Rogers of America commu- nicated a paper to the British Association of rather an elaborate character upon the phenomena and theory of earthquakes. They adopt Mitchell’s view, and suppose the earth-wave an actual fold of the solid crust, produced by a lava-wave of translation on the surface of the molten matter beneath. They infer from two great earthquakes that this moves at from 27 to 30 miles per minute, either in nearly straight or in curved lines, according to the form and position of the focus or points of volcanic action. The sea-waves of earthquakes they suppose to be broad undulations of the water moving in the same direction with the pulsation of the crust and corresponding in breadth with that of the undulations of the earth’s crust; yet these, say they, moved at the rate of 34 miles per minute, in the case of the New England earthquake of 1756, and of 5 miles per minute in that of Lisbon; astriking inconsistency with the velocity previously assigned to the earth-wave. The tremor or vibratory jar accompanying the great shock or earth-wave, they suppose arises from the crushing of the strata through which the shock asses. ᾿ In 1844 appeared Mr. Scott Russell’s full report upon sea and other waves, the laws developed in which as to the motions of waves of translation had an important effect upon the immediately subsequent advance towards a com- plete and true theory of earthquake phenomena. In February 1846, the author's paper upon the dynamics of earthquakes was read to the Royal Irish Academy, and published in vol. xxi. part 1 of the Transactions of that Academy, in which the first attempt was made to establish upon strict physical bases a theory that should embrace and account for all the recorded phenomena of earthquakes, both on land and sea. How far he has succeeded in this, futurity must decide. In June 1847, Mr. Hopkins produced his report on the theories of ele- vation and earthquakes (Trans. Brit. Assoc.). The principal features of this paper are, a digest of his previously published mathematical papers on the formation of fissures, &c. by elevations and depressions; a popular résumé of the acknowledged laws of formation and propagation of elastic and fluid waves, and the partially placing in a mathematical dress the author's theory of earthquake motions as developed in the paper last alluded to; to this is to be added a demonstration of a method for finding analytically the depth of the centre of disturbance, from observations made with a seismometer, such as that described by the author. (Trans. Roy. Irish Acad. vol. xxi.) I have thus brought the literature of earthquakes down to the present time; in doing so I would not be misunderstood as attempting a complete ac- count thereof, but such merely as is sufficient to mark the progress of human knowledge of our subject ; I have therefore omitted to notice the able résumés of such literature given by Sir C. Lyell (Prin. Geol. chap. 28 to 33), and by several other authors. Neither have I at all adverted to the works of authors writing specially of volcanoes, as, although connected with our subject, not _ properly belonging to it. I now proceed to the more immediate subject of this Report. ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHZ NOMENA. 25 In commencing a Report upon the facts of earthquakes, it would be de- sirable, if possible, first to discuss and state the distribution of their occur- rence both in time and in space upon the earth: for either of these, however, complete data are not yet in existence ; no catalogue of earthquakes has ever yet been compiled which endeavours to embrace in number and condi- tion those recorded even since the invention of printing. The completest catalogue that could be compiled would not give much more than the places convulsed and the dates of the occurrence approximately ; yet such would not be without important use, and I have accordingly made considerable progress in the laborious task of having such a catalogue prepared, and trust to be enabled to give the results of its completion and discussion in a second part of the present Report at a future meeting. Meanwhile I may state (provisionally) that ) Ist. Earthquakes occur over all parts of the earth’s surface, both on land and under the ocean. Egypt was one of the countries long believed to be free from earthquakes, from which no doubt, like many other parts of the world, it enjoyed during a long historical period a considerable immunity. But that even Egypt has been absolutely exempt from earthquakes, seems disproved by the scattering of the gigantic ruins of the Memnonium, bearing all the marks of having _ been thus overthrown, and by the distinct testimony of Strabo, that one ᾿ς of the two colossal figures of the plain of Thebes was commonly said in his _ time to have been overthrown by an earthquake :— “ ἐνταῦθα δὲ δυοῖν κολοσσῶν ὄντων μονολίθων ἀλλήλων πλησίον, ὁ μὲν σώζεται, τοῦ δ᾽ ἑτέρου τὰ ἄνω μέρη τὰ ἀπὸ τῆς καθέδρας πέπτωκε σεισμοῦ γενηθέντος, ὥς φασι.᾽᾿---ϑέγαῦ. Rer. Geogr. lib. xvii. The question of earthquakes occurring in Egypt is set at rest however by Bishop Pocock the traveller, who tells us in his ‘ Description of Egypt,’ p. 195, “It has hardly been known that they had any earthquakes in Egypt, but in January 1740 they had three great shocks, which threw down mosques _ and several houses.” 2nd. They occur in all time, at all seasons, and at all hours of day and night. ᾿ς So that were we able to survey this planet’s history in all time, we should find no portion of its crust which had not at some period or other been convulsed by earthquakes ; and could we have intelligence constantly from over its entire surface, we should find that no day passed free from one or many of these phenomena. ο΄ Seneca, in a passage as remarkable for its truth as for the dignity of its | expression, affirms his belief in the universal dominion of change, and of earthquakes over all the earth :— τ΄ “Omnia ejusdem sortis sunt, etsi nondum mota tamen mobilia; erramus | enim si ullam terrarum partem exceptam immunemque ab hoc periculo credimus: omnes sub eadem jacent lege, nihil ita ut immobile esset natura -concepit : alia temporibus aliis cadunt ; et quemadmodum in urbibus magnis ‘une hec domus, nunc illa suspenditur, ita in hoc orbe terrarum, nunc hee pars facit vitium, nunc illa. Tyrus aliquando infamis ruinis fuit. Asia duo- decim urbes simul perdidit. Anno priore Achaiam et Macedoniam que- cunque est ista vis mali que incurrit nunc Campaniam lesit. Circuit fatum, et siquid diu preteriit repetit. Quedam rarius solicitat, sepius quedam : _ nihil immune esse et innoxium sinit. Non homines tantum, qui brevis et _ caduca res nascitur; urbes oreeque terrarum et litora et ipsum mare in ser- 96 REPORT—1850. vitutem fati venit. Quo ergo nobis permansura promittimus bona fortune, et felicitatem (cujus ex omnibus rebus humanis velocissima est levitas) habi- turam in aliquo pondus et moram credimus? Perpetua sibi omnia promit- tentibus in mentem non venit, id ipsum supra quod stamus stabile non esse. Neque enim Campaniz istud aut Achaiz, sed omnis soli vitium est, male coherere, et ex causis plurimis resolvi, et summa manere, partibus ruere.’”— Quest. Nat. lib. vi. 3rd. There seems at present no sufficient ground for affirming that one portion of the earth’s duration has been more subject to their occurrence than another ; 4th. Or that one portion of the earth’s crust has always been more subject to earthquakes than another. 4th bis, But some portions of the earth’s crust appear to have sustained a sort of periodicity in their visitation by earthquakes —long periods of repose being followed by shorter, but still long periods of agitation. Thus Antioch affords perhaps the most remarkable instance, having for a long period been shaken nearly every year during the Roman empire, then having a period of repose of nearly 300 years, and then again becoming very subject to these convulsions. 5th. But those portions of the earth’s surface which lie in or. around the great present lines or centres of volcanic action do appear at present to be most subject to earthquakes, 6th. And earthquakes are most prevalent and most violent in some relation to the activity and intensity of the volcanic ac- tion, at these lines or centres, at given times. There appears to be beyond question the closest sympathy within all vol- canic areas (i.e. areas where active volcanoes are found and surrounded with formations due to their former and present action), between the activity of the voleanic vents and the shocks of earthquakes. Thus, in 1816, slight earthquakes at Scaccia in Sicily preluded the eleva- tion of the new island Julia. When Monte Nuovo was thrown up in 1538, on the day and night before above twenty shocks were felt, When Monte Rossi was formed by /Etua in 1669, and when the enormous fissure of twelve miles in length at once opened up the bowels of the volcano, an earthquake shook down Nicolosi and damaged Catania. The eruptions of 1811 and 1819 were also attended with earthquakes. In Iceland earthquakes*long preluded the great eruption of Skaptar Jokul, and reached their maximum violence on the day of the eruption, 11th of June, 1783. At Lancerote in the Canaries, violent earthquakes preceded and followed the eruptions, near the shore, of 1824, Santorin in the Greek Archipelago, was separated from Therasia by an eruption in the year before Christ 236, which, according to Pliny, was attended with earthquakes ; and several more recent submarine eruptions, near it, have been also accompanied with earth- uakes. ᾿ In ἃ word, every great eruption, in whatever part of the world it has been ob- served, aud whether from a volcanic vent on land, or formed beneath the sea, is accompanied by earthquake shocksof greater or less violence and duration. ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE ΡΗΖΝΟΜΕΝΑ. 27 _ But conversely, not only are eruptions thus accompanied by earthquakes, but earthquakes, though not always, are on almost all great occasions accom- panied by eruptions or perturbations of established volcanic action, For ex- ample, during the great Calabrian earthquake Stromboli was noticed to be less active than it had been for years before, and at Messina, “the com- mandant of the citadel saw the sea at a quarter of a mile from the fortress rise up and boil in a most extraordinary manner, accompanied with a horrid noise, while all the rest of the water in the Faro was tranquil” (Sir W. Hamilton); and afterwards there was shoal water at the spot where before it had been deep. In the great Chilian earthquake of 1820, at the moment the shock was felt at Valdivia, in lat. 39° 50’ S., two volcanoes near it burst at once into eruption for a few seconds, and then again became quiescent. (M. Place, Quart. Journ. vol. xvii.) At Concepcion, volcanoes broke out from beneath the sea at the time the great sea-wave rolled in (or probably before it ?). Hot springs have frequently sympathized with earthquakes at great di- ᾿ς Stances, as those at Toepliz, which ran dry, and then again flowed discoloured | _ with iron rust during the great Lisbon shocks. No one is ignorant of the | melting of the chain cable of the Volage man-of-war at anchor during an earthquake off the coast of South America; and instances might be multi- plied almost without limit of similar events during the period of earthquakes _ which have not been begun with visible eruptions from neighbouring vents. ea ; _ Thus the close connection of volcanic action and of earthquake movements τς must be viewed as abundantly established. ___. There appear to be over the earth’s surface at least twenty eruptions per annum, and probably quite as many considerable earthquakes. Several in- stances are on record of earthquakes haying at once ceased on the opening up of yoleanie vents near or more distant, Thus Strabo (lib. i. p, 85) re- lates, that the shocks of the island of Eubcea ceased as soon as a crevasse formed in the Lelantine plain, which discharged “a river of fiery mud,” ὁ, ὁ. _ of lava. That such vents are efficient at enormous distances from the shaken country is well evidenced; it is only, in other words, that earthquake shocks are transmitted from their centres to vast distances. There are not data to enable us now to affirm what portions of the earth’s surface are now or have been at given epochs least affected by earthquakes, hor does it follow that those most remote from volcanic active centres will be those least subject to éarthquakes; on the contrary, there is reason to % Ayppose that the intervening formations, in the nature and depth of their _ rocks or loose materials, have much influence upon this. It is certain that 7th. Many portions of the earth’s surface, which are not now active volcanic centres, nor very closely adjacent thereto, nor yet the centres of extinct volcanic action, are subject to fre- quent earthquakes. Thus earthquake shocks have been felt even in the loosest alluvial depo- sits of Holland, around Middleburg and Flushing, in the great Prussian plain, and at Cutch, in the low-lying Delta of the Indus. 8th. Regions which are the centres now of extinct volcanic ac- tion do not appear more subject to earthquakes than other regions whose formations are altogether non-volcanic. 9th. Although regions of active volcanic action are those also of most frequent earthquake movements, yet the most violent 28 REPORT—1850. earthquakes do not appear to be those whose theatre of action is closest to the volcanic vents themselves: on the contrary, the most violent recorded earthquakes appear to have con- vulsed regions lying some degrees away from the nearest volcano in action. 10th. And in general the most violent recorded earthquakes have occurred within a certain undetermined radius round active volcanic centres, not far inland or in the heart of con- tinents, but upon the sea-coasts, or near them. Some doubt however hangs over this last, as some very ancient earthquakes of tremendous intensity appear to have occurred in central and northern Asia. Whether the proximity of the sea also is directly concerned or not is unde- termined: it seems probable that all the great lines or centres of active vol- canic action are near the sea-coast, and that their propinquity determines that of the earthquake. 10th dis. It seems to be the opinion of Humboldt, that the area of shaken country also sometimes enlarges in consequence of a previous violent earthquake. Thus, “It is only since the destruction of Cumana in 1797, that every shock of the southern coast is felt in the mica-slate of the peninsula of Ma- niguarez.’—(Cosmos.) The centre of disturbance also shifts its position during long-continued earthquakes. Thus, in the Calabrian earthquake it moved twice northward eight or nine leagues, and in the New Madrid earth- quakes of 1811 to 1813, the progress northward in the basins of the Mis- sissippi, the Ohio and the Arkansas was remarked. This opinion, however, is hard to give unquestioned credence to, if we bear in mind that earthquake shocks are not communicated through tubes or vents, torn in any way or already existing under ground, but are best pro- pagated and go furthest where the ground through which they pass is most solid, dense and homogeneous. 11th. Earthquake shocks have been felt on the ocean at vast distances from any land, and in some cases the shock has been nearly vertical and occurring in places where the depth of water was profound, and where no phznomenon on the sur- face of the ocean indicated any volcanic action then active beneath. On this we may remark, however, that the most formidable volcanic ac- tivity, greater probably than we have any experience of on the dry land, may possibly exist constantly or occasionally in the bed of the deep ocean, and yet no trace of it beyond a transient earthquake shock be known to those floating over the surface. At a depth of five miles of sea water we can well imagine that lava poured out would be rapidly cooled, that steam formed would be condensed long before it reached the surface, that rocks projected upwards into so dense a resisting medium would fall back long before they reached even the sun’s light, and that pumice or other light and porous pro- ducts of volcanoes on land or in shallow water may have no existence under such prodigious pressure. Great confusion prevails amongst earthquake narrators as to the use of the word shock. We find constant mention made of the “shock lasting several ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHZNOMENA, 29 2 ἃ minutes ;” “the shock continued nearly an hour,” and other such vague ex- pressions. The abuse of language here consists in almost every author using the words, duration of the shock, as synonymous with the whole period of motion, comprehended from any one commencement to the next great pause during the occurrence of the whole earthquake. To be able at all clearly to comprehend these narratives, it is necessary to bear in mind that the word, shock, is properly limited to the single motion due to a single impulse; that this motion occupies an extremely short time in passing a given station, and that when “ the shock lasting some minutes,” &c. is spoken of, it means that for some minutes there was a succession of these motions with short or variable intervals between them ; ὃ. 6. ἃ great number of shocks in quick suc- cession. Hence we find that 12th. The earth-wave or shock is a motion of great velocity and occurring during a very short moment of time at any given spot. It varies indefinitely however in force and in extent of motion; sometimes it amounts to a concussion like the blowing up of a mine at a great depth under one’s feet; at other times it 15 ἃ mere vibration scarcely to be felt, like that produced by a carriage running over a distant pavement; yet these are but degrees of the same thing. So again the rapidity with which the shocks succeed each other varies. Sometimes a single powerful shock is felt alone, or but two or three are felt in pretty rapid succession, and then a period of complete or of comparative tranquillity occurs, during which the shocks are so reduced in power as to require attention to perceive them; and in this ease they often recur with such rapidity as to convey to the observer the idea of a vibration or continuous jar, and this often along with the roll of the greater wave-like shock. It has been ascertained that sixteen vibrations per second, or 960 in a minute, is about the limit at which the ear distinguishes between a continuous sound or tone, and a regularly recurring noise or jar. I am not aware that any information exists as to the relative sensibility to recurrent vibrations of the ear, and of the nerves of feeling generally ; but assuming them to be about _ the same, it follows, that when the number of shocks per second is about six- teen, nothing will be felt but a continuous vibration or jar by an earthquake observer, whilst below this number the separate vibrations or shocks can be distinguished. This view, I conceive, clears up one very puzzling cir- ᾿ς eumstance hitherto looked upon as deducible from most earthquake narra- _ tives, namely, that there are two distinct sorts of shocks, the explosive and the » vibratory, or three, as Humboldt makes out, by adding the vorticose to the _ number. It appears just to conclude from all narratives rightly interpreted, _ that there is but one order of earth-wave or shock, namely, the normal _ wave, and possibly small transversal vibrations transmitted along with it, and these capable of reflexion, dispersion, change of velocity, &c.; but that _ the rate of succession and the individual intensity of each shock vary in- g definitely. 3 _ 13th. The total duration of motion at a given spot varies indefi- ey ἀρορεοέρεος κὸν nitely, or between limits which have not been ascertained. _____It appears to be established that in the greatest earthquakes, the most Ε. violent shocks are very few in number, sometimes only one, usually not more *. than three or four, and that to these the great mischief is due, so that in a few seconds a vast country is laid waste and its cities and towns overturned, as in the great Calabrian earthquake of 1783; that these great shocks recur a 30 REPORT—1850. at intervals wholly irregular, but that in the intervals between (and preceding and following) these, there is occasionally a more or less continuous recur- rence of smaller shocks; these also have their irregular periods of greater and of less repose; so that‘on the whole the earthquake is often, as to time, likean occasional cannonade during a continuous but irregular rattle of musketry. The small rapid shocks are usually in close precession and succession to the great ones, and coexist with them. Thus, Don Palaccio Faxar, in his de- scription of the earthquake at Caraccas, of March 26, 1812, says, “ The weather being fine, a hollow roar like that of a cannon was heard and was followed by the shock, which lasted about 17 seconds; this was succeeded by a shock lasting 20 seconds; and after 14 seconds’ interval by a third of 15 seconds’ duration. Total duration|1 minute and 15 seconds with a motion from W. to E.” (Quart. Journ. vol. ii. p. 402.) The total duration of motion (7. 6. of violent rising and transverse undula- tion) of the great earthquake of Caraccas (March 26, 1812), was estimated by some at 50 seconds, by others at 1 minute 12 seconds.—Humboldt, Per. Nar. vol. iv. p. 17. : Again, as to the New Zealand earthquake of 19th October 1848, “ At five in the morning a sharp shock. The extreme force of the shock lasted rather less than a minute; there was considerable motion for 34 minutes, and the vi- bration lasted for 8 minutes from the commencement of the shock.”— West. Rev. July 1849. The Syrian earthquake of 1759 also lasted altogether about 8 minutes (Dr. Russell, Phil. Trans. 1760), but a continuance of very small shocks at intervals, or of very small and rapidly recurring shocks, has been often ob- served for long periods of time. Thus, in the Andes, the earth has quaked incessantly for days together; and on the eastern slopes of the Alps of Mont Cenis, about Fenestrella and Pignerol in 1808, in North America, at New Madrid and Little Prairie, north of Cincinnati after 1811, and at Aleppo in 1822, shocks were felt hour by hour for several months ; so also at Comrie in Scotland, at longer intervals, they have long been felt ; and at Zante, in the Greek Archipelago, slight shocks, at all hours, are almost continual, as long as the present inhabitants recollect. Humboldt is of opinion that this prolonged continuance of slight shocks only occurs in districts remote from any active voleano. This however does not appear to be borne out by the observations made in New Zealand. In the earthquake there of October 1848, the shocks continued nearly five weeks before they became insensible, the district being one immediately adjacent to active volcanoes. There were during the larger portion of the time at least one thousand shocks per day. (West. Rev. July 1849.) The recurrence of slight shocks at nearly regular intervals, and having an apparent connection with the recurrent projections from closely adjacent vol- canoes, has been observed ; thus, Humboldt remarked shocks on Vesuvius and on Pichincha, which were regularly periodic, and from 20 to 30 seconds be- fore each projection of ashes and vapour. 14th. The absolute area convulsed at one earthquake epoch, varies within indeterminate limits, and is related apparently in its extent to the maximum force of the shocks. Instances are recorded of very violent single shocks having been felt which were limited to very small areas, and here usually the direction of the shock has been nearly vertically upwards. This has been most remarkable in ob- servations made at sea; and slight shocks, however numerous, do not appear to actuate large areas, but in the greater earthquakes the total space shaken ¥ ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 31 is enormous; thus, in the great Lisbon earthquake of November 1755, an area of the earth’s crust more than four times the surface of all Europe was shaken. It was felt inthe Alps, on the shores of Sweden, in the West Indies, on the - Jakes of Canada, in Ireland, in Thuringia and in Northern Germany ; at Toepliz (where the hot springs ran dry), and at the Lesser Antilles, the usual tide of two feet or so was one of twenty feet. Thus, taking the area shaken at 3300 miles long and 2700 miles wide, which is equal to 7,500,000 square miles, and supposing the motion only extended to an average depth of twenty miles, there must have been 150 millions cubic miles of solid matter put in motion, a mass which conveys to the imagination some notion of the enormous power of the originating impulses. Yet let it be remembered that the whole of this mass was never in motion at once, but merely a comparatively small crest or wall of its particles put in motion, which transferred their moving force again to those beyond. - The earthquake in Syria in 1759, extended, says Sir C. Lyell, over a space of ten thousand square leagues, and for three months continuously this vast area was shaken. Hamilton thinks the main force of the great Calabrian earthquake was - comprised within a circle of 44 miles diameter, or 1520 miles area, but that its shocks were felt throughout a circle of 144 miles diameter or over an area _ of country of 16,286 square miles. M. Place (Quart. Journ. vol. xvii.) says of the earthquake of 1820, the | principal force was exerted in a circle of about 50 miles diameter, the centre - alittle N.E. of Valparaiso ; persons N. of that felt the shocks trom the S.W., _ those to the S. of it from the N.E. The earthquake was felt from Copiabo _ inthe north to Valdivia in the south, distant 900 miles, and convulsed not Jess than 100,000 square miles. | Sometimes however the area shaken even by a very violent shock is ex- _ tremely limited; thus the city of Coquimbo was destroyed in great part by a _ shoek in 1820, which produced no alarm and did no mischief in any other | part of the country, according to M. Place (Quart. Journ. vol. xvii.). The _ shock here probably in every case is a vertical one, from directly beneath, _ and at a small depth as regards centre of impulse. 15th. The shock or earth-wave is a true undulation of the solid crust of the earth. _ “The sand in the streets of Port Royal rose like waves of a troubled sea,” says the recounter of the great Jamaica earthquake of 1692. ο΄ Theamount of undulations, and the rapidity with which these succeed each other, differ, but the great mass of earthquake observers concur in descri- bing a distinct undulation of the surface of the ground. In the greatest _ shocks this undulation has been often visible to the eye, as in the great _ Jamaica earthquake, where the passage of the wave was said to be rendered _ visible by the opening and immediate closing in again of fissures (this how- ever needs confirmation). It is indirectly rendered evident by the tops of ᾿ς trees bending over first to one side and then to the opposite, and by various _ other motions described as communicated to solids and liquids. ᾿ς Whenever the undulation of the surface has been described as most distinct, the direction of the shock has been also described by being nearly horizontal ; _ where, on the other hand, the shock has been felt as coming up from beneath, _ the undulation of the surface has escaped observation or not existed. _ In the smaller shocks, whatever their direction may have been, the undu- _ lation of the surface has not been observed, that is to say, was not directly observable ; but it has been inferred from observations made as to the oscilla- ἣ ες 32 REPORT—1850. tions communicated to fluids, pendulums, &c.; and there is no reason from any recorded facts for supposing that the small jarring and rapidly recurrent shocks are less undulations than the greater ones, though the former may mutually interfere and be incapable of recognition as undulations directly by the unaided senses. 16th. The undulation which constitutes the earth-wave or shock has a real motion of translation. The shock travels over the shaken country visiting it in succession (where the direction is nearly horizontal, which is by far the most usual case) ; this is generally obvious, and the cases of simultaneous shock over large areas are rare. “ The motion evidently moves along a line” (ὦ. 6. horizontally and parallel to itself), ““ and at the same time moves upwards so as to produce an undu- lating motion. Any one who has been in the habit of swimming in the sea during a considerable swell, must have felt something of this; the wave comes on and moves the swimmer’s body forwards, but not so much as it moves it upwards when under the full influence of the wave.” Such is the graphic account of the describer of the New Zealand earthquake of 1848. —(West. Rev. July 1849.) Thus also at Messina, in the great Calabrian earthquake, the shock was seen to commence at one end of the Faro, and in rapid succession to overturn the houses and buildings of the city, advancing along to the other end, “like a succession of mines rapidly sprung beneath.” So in the earthquake of Lisbon, the distances travelled by the shock were so immense that the ordinary measures of time became sufficient to point out roughly the intervals of its successive arrival at distant places ; and from such observations Mitchell has constructed a table, by which, with wonderful ac- curacy for his time, he has calculated both the time of transit of the shock and of the great sea-wave which subsequently broke upon so many different shores. But such calculations cannot be precise, because we do not know the exact direction of motion of the shock, which is probably never perfectly horizontal at any given spot. 17th. The direction of translation of the earth-wave or shock varies from vertically upwards, to horizontally, or nearly hori- zontally in any azimuth. This is evident from all earthquake narrations; butin carefully discussing these I conceive the following propositions will be found borne out :— a. In shocks felt after having traversed a long distance, ἑ. 6. at long distances from the point of impulse, the shock is usually, if not always nearly horizontal. 6. In great earthquakes within a considerable radius, and in all within a certain range of the centre of impulse, the direction of the shocks is sensibly inclined more or less upwards. 6. In some of the greatest and most destructive recorded shocks, the di- rection of the movement has been nearly vertically upwards, as in the great-shocks of Calabria and at Riobamba in South America. d. The direction of successive shocks often varies during the continuance of the same earthquake. Thus during the Calabrian earthquake, the point from which most of the shocks seemed to come moved northwards, by a distance of eight or ten leagues, at each of two epochs, 5th and 7th of February and 28th of March. e. It sometimes happens that two shocks, moving in different directions, arrive at the one spot in close succession, or almost together. In this ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHZ NOMENA. 33 τ΄ ease, it has been stated that one shock is observed moving nearly horizon- ξ tally, and the other nearly vertically, or very much inclined to the horizon. ___ f& There is no good evidence of two shocks arriving together, or nearly so, at one point, both horizontally, and from different points of the horizon. Such an occurrence has been often inferred from phenomena admitting of another solution (as we shall see when speaking of vorticose move- ments); but there is no ὦ priort reason why, from two distant centres of impulse, horizontal shocks should not be felt at once; and this seems to have been remarked by Humboldt in Asia. 18th. The motion of translation of the earth-wave or shock is rectilinear and not curvilinear. _ All observers concur in stating, that the general direction of motion of the shock, whether horizontal, inclined or vertical, is rectilinear. Such is the testimony of the unaided senses. It is also the conclusion to be drawn from the motions observed as given by the shock when more or less horizontal, to fluids in bowls or tubs, to pendulums, to candelabra in churches, to furniture, &c.; and from the motions directly given to men, who have felt _ themselves “jerked upwards,” as in New Zealand (West. Review, July 1849); _ or to articles thrown on to others, asa barrel standing close to a mass of jars, and caused to leap up upon them, as at New Zealand ; or to a ship’s mast, un- _ shipped by a shock from beneath at sea. But from a misinterpretation of some such phenomena, authors of the highest ability have affirmed, that there are other shocks which are not recti- ~ linear in their motion of translation, but consist in avorticose or twisting motion of the ground, a rapid rotation in fact of any given point round some distant centre. The Italians distinguish popularly three sorts of shocks, the orizontale, _ the oscillatorio and the vorticoso. The twisting of the Calabrian obelisks has been given as the most convincing proof of this; and Humboldt (Cosmos) says, * Circular or rotatory concussions are the rarest, but they are the most dan- gerous of all. The twisting round of the steeple of the church at Inverness, _ Seotland, on the 13th of August, in the year 1816, as related in Tilloch’s ᾿ς Magazine, vol. xlviii. p. 150, though a little known or noticed instance, is a far ‘more remarkable one than that of the oft-recited obelisks. Twisting round of walls without throwing them down, plantations of trees which had previously stood in parallel rows deflected, the directions of the ridges of fields covered with grain altered, were observed at Riobamba, Feb. 4, 1797, and in Calabria, Feb. 5and March 28, 1783.” He adds, “ With the latter phenomenon of rota- tion, or the transposition of fields and cultivated plots of ground, of which one ‘has occasionally taken the place of another, there is connected a translatory Motion, or mutual penetration of several strata. When taking the plan of the tuined city of Riobamba, I was shown a place where the whole furniture of one _ dwelling-house had been found under the ruins of another. The loose earth of the surface had run in streams like a fluid, of which it must be conceived that it was first directed downwards, then horizontally, and finally upwards.” I maintain that there is no evidence whatever, from any observed facts, for assuming any vorticose motion of the shock, or any other than a recti- — one. The case of the Calabrian obelisks and of the church of La _ Merceda at Valparaiso, I believe it is admitted that I have disposed of in my aper on the Dynamics of Earthquakes, read to the Royal Irish Academy in 1846, and shown that rectilinear motion is sufficient to account for all Such cases of twisting. In the cases above adduced by Humboldt, he has - fallen into the greater error of mistaking the secondary effects of landslips, and THEIR twistings of the land, for those of vorticose motion, as I shall more ἢ σαν explain when treating of the secondary effects of earthquakes. ν᾿ 0. ‘ D ΒΗ 34 REPORT—1850. Lastly, the observer of the New Zealand earthquake of 1848 records, that certain vessels of milk had a movement of rotation given to the fluid they contained, so as to accumulate the cream in the centre. (Westminster Re- view, July 1849, p. 402.) He appears only to énfer rotation from the accu- mulation of the cream in the centre. This accumulation might take place from oscillation in one plane only in a shallow milk vessel; but admitting at once the rotation, there is no ground for concluding vorticose motion in the shock from this. Indeed this observer himself goes much nearer it when he says, “‘ Some of the shocks had a cross motion,” &c. It is not easy to say what this exactly means ; but one can readily see, that if oscillation be given to a fluid in a circular vessel, first in one plane, and then, while this continues, in another plane forming an angle with the previous one, by a subsequent shock whose direction was different, rotation will be at once communicated to the fluid ; and this I believe to have been the solution of this case. M. Place records, and the same has been done by others, that in some of the South American earthquakes a conical cavity was found worked out in the ground, around the base of the trunks of palms and large trees. This would appear at first sight like a vorticose twisting round and round of the stem, so as to work out this hollow; and such a twisting actually took place no doubt; but any inverted pendulum with an elastic stem, such as a tree is, the centre of gravity of whose head does not coincide with the vertical plane passing through the centre of elastic effort of the stem, will thus rotate from a single impulse given in one right line; and it is the tendency to do this that con- stitutes the vice of all inverted pendulums as seismometers. While, however, I consider it proved that there is no evidence whatever for any other mode of propagation or translation of the earth-wave or shock than that of a right y—— line in any given direction towards the earth’s surface, } or parallel to it, 1 am prepared to admit that upon iy |) ͵ Uj this very principle it is possible for a most violent ΗΠ Ἴ wrenching or twisting motion to be given to any spot ἡ ζ of tolerably large size upon the surface of the earth. Ἰ Uj If, for example, from a centre of impulse at a great depth below the centre of a surface comprehended by a circle of, say a mile in radius, and in a direction to meet the extremity of any given radius, a shock be transmitted, and that by rapid and continuous change in the nature and direction of the impulse, a quick succession of such shocks be transferred round the whole circumference of this circle, 50 as to describe by their path a cone in the solid earth, whose apex is the centre of impulse, and whose base is the circle on the surface before defined, then as each portion of this circle is lifted in rapid succession, it is manifest that all upon and within it, and by connection of parts all for a distance, gradually disappearing around it, will be shaken by a violent wrenching motion, which will make every body upon the surface describe an irregular conical figure in space also. But while it is thus worth while to show that such a complex movement may result from simple rectilinear wave motion, I have been able to find no record that gives the least presumption of any such phenomena having ac- tually occurred, when the facts are rightly interpreted in accordance with admitted mechanical laws. Let it be noticed however here, that there are, ἃ priori, strict grounds of exact science for believing, that in all great shocks of earthquake, besides the transmission of the great wave in the normal direction from the point of origiual impulse, there will necessarily be transmitted one, if not two sets of » : ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 35 transversal waves, of much less dimensions, and whose time of arrival at a given distant point from the origin, will be somewhat later than that of the normal wave; and where the normal is transmitted in a direction horizontal, or nearly so, these transversal secondary waves will be felt as a short tremor, or shaking up and down, and crosswise to the line of translation of the normal wave, and almost at the same time with it. (See Poisson, Mem. Acad. Scien., 1816, 1817, 1823.) This combination of motion is clearly described by Aristotle; and when experienced by alarmed persons, unused to precise observation, may well give rise to the extraordinary and perplexing accounts of the nature of the movements which abound in earthquake narratives. 19th. The earth-wave or shock has in all cases a true wave form upon the surface of the earth, and when its direction of trans- lation is guam proximé horizontally along the earth’s surface, the crest of the wave advances along a given line and parallel to itself. _ For this more perfect evidence is desirable. In the case where the shock comes up vertically, or nearly so, from beneath, we have evidence that the demolition of buildings, &c. has been greatest where the shock has been felt most vertical, as under the town of Oppido in the great Calabrian earth- uake, and that all around this the destruction became less and less as the ᾿ς direction of the shock was more inclined, yet not diminishing with a very _ strict regularity. ᾿ς Now as in such a case the mere change of direction of shock from vertical _ to inclined would have the directly opposite tendency, if taken alone, as the ; inclined shocks all around would, if equal in extent of movement, throw _ down buildings, &c. more effectually than a vertical one (as is evident), the change in destructive power must have been due to another cause, namely - to the actual amount of motion having been greater at the centre under Oppido than in circles receding around it. Hence we conclude that the _ greatest amount of motion was at the centre, where the shock was vertical ‘at Oppido, and that here the crest of the wave was raised the highest ; that, in fact, at the moment of the shock the whole surface was momentarily raised _ into a very flattened dome-shaped wave (the height of the dome being of _ course extremely small as compared with its diameter), and again dropped _ down to its former configuration of surface as the wave passed outwards at all sides. __ Whatever differences may be due in such cases to differences in terrene formation, this must never be overlooked, namely, that supposing a shock _ transmitted through a perfectly homogeneous mass from a deep centre of effort, and the pulses passing outwards in all directions in spherical shells, __ there will be a circle, upon the earth’s surface, somewhere at a determinate ~ horizontal distance from the central point vertically over the centre of effort, in which the upsetting or overturning power of a shock of given intensity - will be greater than at any point within or without this circle; within, be- ἘΠ % πο. -... 36 REPORT—1850. cause here the direction of shock is more vertical, and therefore less caleu- lated to overturn buildings, &c.; and without, because the power of the shock, though there more horizontal, has become weakened by distance of transmission. Thus let a be the centre of effort, ὦ, δ' the extreme limits of shock, α, 6 the vertical passing through the centre of effort, then some points, e,e', on the earth’s surface, 8, 6, 6, b, will lie in a circle, where the shock will be more potent in overthrowing buildings than in any other within or without. But when the surface of observation lies much further away from the centre of impulse, so that the shock advances along the surface, apparently horizontally, then there is more distinct evidence that its advancing crest is linear. Thus in the Calabrian earthquake, observers remarked many build- ings, or even whole villages, overthrown at the same moment along a distant line of country ; and this demolition appeared to progress in a similar way over the country. Similar facts are recorded by Prof. Rogers of American earthquakes. (Trans. Brit. Ass. for 1843-44.) There is every @ priori reason to suppose, that the crest of such a wave, being the intersection at the surface of the spherical shell of elastic com- pression produced by the original impulse of whatever sort beneath, moves upon the earth’s surface outwards, from the point immediately above its deep. centre of impulse, in lines parallel to themselves, and which are large circles, or several intersecting large circles, or possibly occasionally ellipses, and with the dimensions of the wave itself continually decreasing, but with unaltered. velocity of transit, save in so far as this is effected by changes in the character. of the formations through which it passes. This has not yet been proved by any direct observation, and it remains still to be found what is the curve or form assumed by the crest of the nearly horizontal travelling earth-wave or shock. But to this we shall more particularly allude when referring to the desiderata of our knowledge of earthquakes. To those lines along which the shock is simultaneously felt in passing outwards from the origin, I have proposed to give the name of coseismal lines. 20th. The earth-wave or shock has determined dimensions in height and breadth, or in altitude and in amplitude, and these are dependent upon the force of the original impulse, the nature of the materials through which it passes, and the. distance it has travelled. Here also much evidence remains to be collected. Thus much, however, we know, that in some ratio the shock is greater, in other words, the wave is’ larger, as the originating impulse is more powerful. The absolute dimensions of the wave have never yet been correctiy ascertained, nor is this possible without the aid of well-constructed instruments. All that we know is, that’ these dimensions vary from waves whose altitude and amplitude are but a small fraction of an inch, to those whose motions were such and so great, as te throw down the heaviest buildings; to detach vast landslips and whole mountain-sides of rock, or even, as affirmed of the great stroke at Riobamba, to throw the bodies of human beings many feet into the air. [This latter’ case, however, though recorded on the authority of Humboldt, not from his own observation, however, but from testimony given to him, seems much to need confirmation. ] From all these, however, and generally from the narratives of the effects of all great earthquakes, there is good ground for believing that the altitude and amplitude of the great wave of shock may amount to many feet in either — dimension. [I have in a former publication (Admiralty Manual, ‘ Earth- rpms ae ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHA NOMENA. 37 quake Phenomena’), stated that ‘the wave or shock, travelling at the rate of perhaps thirty miles per minute, often takes ten or twenty seconds to pass a given point; and hence that its amplitude must occasionally be many miles.” _ The fact of one shock taking ten or twenty seconds to pass a given point, however, is only derived from the narratives of great earthquakes, and from the extremely loose use by authors of the word shock, as confounded with whole period of motion, possibly consisting of many rapidly successive shocks (as already adverted to): this conclusion as to dimension of the wave requires to be taken with caution. 21st. The velocity of transit of the earth-wave or shock has never been correctly ascertained for any one locality or occasion. A loose approximation was made by Mitchell to the speed of transit of the shock in the Lisbon earthquake, from which he deduces a mean velocity of about twenty miles a minute, or 1760 feet per second. Humboldt states the velocity (‘Cosmos’) to be from five to seven geogra- phical (German) miles per minute, which is about twenty or twenty-eight statute English miles per minute, and by others various vague and insufficiently supported statements of its velocity have been made; but the truth is, the real velocity has never yet in any one instance been even approximately ascer- tained. No mean velocity, such as those given by Mitchell and Humboldt, CAN be true, for if it be granted that the shock isa wave due to the elasticity of the materials through which it travels, then the velocity must vary as these _ alter, and be dependent on their density and moduli of elasticity. _ This we do know, however, that its velocity is extreme in passing through _ some formations, and very great in all. ‘“ The ground,” says M. Place, speak- ing of the great Chili earthquake, “rose and fell with inconceivable rapidity like a mine sprung beneath one’s feet.” Such are his words; and Dolo- _ Mieu quotes almost the same as the experience of those who had felt the | Calabrian shock at Messina. Thus the shock from below upwards upon a British ship at sea, eleven leagues from Manilla, as recorded by De Guignes ἴῃ 1796, in his account of the Philippine Islands, was so sharp and sudden as to unship and splinter the mainmast; and the Winchelsea, a British ship | from Bengal to England, was similarly struck on the 10th of February 1823, i in lat. 52° N. and long. 85° 998! E.; and Dr. Percival states, that in the earth- ᾿ς quake felt in Lancashire in September 1777, “a passage-boat upon the Εἴ Bridgewater Canal was stopped in its course as if it had struck upon a cable | or other obstacle” (Ann. Reg. vol. xx. p. 79); and ships have been repeat- | edly strained so as to leak by such a shock at sea. The velocity of the _ shock in sea-water is probably about 4700 feet per second. Stones have been observed projected out of walls to a considerable distance by the shock, tearing themselves from the mortar-bed; and, what is more direct proof of | great velocity, bodies of great stiffness and small inertia have been bent or | _ twisted, as for instance, an iron cross and a rod bearing the arms of Hun- _ gary, which were both bent by an earthquake at Pesth in the last century, _ but my authority for which I have been unable to recover. A somewhat _ similar case is recorded by Professor Ferrara (Silliman’s Journal for 1826). On the 5th of March 1823,” he says, “ the vane on the top of the palace- _ gate at Catania, upon which he bent his eyes, was bowed in a direction from ΝΕ, to S.W., and remained so bent 20° from the plumb-line until it fell.” * A tall slender palm-tree he saw do the same.” Few better proofs can be found of the amazing force and velocity of the lateral shock than the overthrow of the Rhodian Colossus—a bronze figure, steadied by being filled with stone as to its lower limbs, and cramped with lead into the solid masonry of the mole. “ Ante omnes autem in admira- A afi 38 REPORT—1850. tione fuit Solis Colossus Rhodi......... septuaginta cubitorum altitudinis fuit. Hoe simulacrum post quinquagesimum sextum annum terre motu prostra- tum, sed jacens quoque miraculo est......... spectantur intus magne molis saxa, quorum pondere stabiliverat constituens.”—Plin. Nat. Hist. ].xxxiv. 18. It was thus overthrown, according to Eusebius, in the second year of the 139th Olympiad, or 221 years before the Christian zra. In coherent formations, or rocky strata, there seems ἃ priori ground to suppose that the velocity of the earth-wave is not less than 10,000 feet per second, but it may be much less in loose and incoherent material. I trust in a future Report to be able to give the results of some actual admeasurements of the velocity of earth-waves in various formations, co- herent and incoherent, the experiments for which are now in progress. 22nd. The direction and velocity of translation of the earth- wave or shock change occasionally in passing from the boun- daries of one formation to those of another. This part of the subject demands much additional careful observation. It has been long remarked, that buildings have been variously affected in the same earthquake in different localities, which varied in the nature of their subjacent formations, or in their levels or elevations. The change in destructive effect from the same shock has generally been most evident along the lines of boundary separating different formations, And along such junctions, shocks have been described as succeeding each other in opposite directions, but with a difference in force, with scarcely any interval in time betwixt them, and the second shock being the weaker one. Thus in the New Zealand earthquake of 1848 most of the shocks came from the North or N.N.E., but very few of the shocks appear to have come from the opposite direction, ἐ. 6. S.E. and §.S.E. “ May these,” says the nar- rator, “ be a sort of subsidence from the southward after some upheaving from the northward?” He appears, however, to zvfer the directions from the move- ments of furniture only. The Lisbon shock was felt all over Spain, except in Catalonia, Aragon and Valentia; it is difficult to see why these should be excepted ; but the difficulty may arise (assuming the fact) only from our ignorance of the nature of the intervening formations. (Encyc. Londinensis, in verb.) Dolomieu, in his dissertation on the Great Calabrian Earthquake, says, the shocks sustained by the houses and villages situated upon the hills on the solid rock, were less felt and did less damage than those which occurred in the plain. It is to be recollected that the general formation of Calabria, from the axis of mountains towards the sea, as described by Dolomieu, may be roughly represented by the following section :— a 6 a. Granite. e. Sand, or scarcely coherent sandstone, a®, Slates. ἢ. Clay of great de! ὃ, Decomposed granite. e. Alluvium ; black rich earth. : a 4 ἢ ) 3 ' Ἷ ᾿ a 4 ς : ; “ ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE ΡΗΦΝΟΜΕΝΑ., 39 There is no voleanic rock of any sort, he affirms, in any part of Calabria visited by the earthquake of 1783. The great plain consists of a vast collection, as it were, of small table- lands, separated by deep ravines, having steep escarpments cut into the clay and sand or sandstone by the action of the rivers and torrents. These ravines are often 500 to 600 feet in depth below the table-land, which is highly cul- .tivated above them, and the sides of these ravines are of the dense clay or scarcely coherent sandstone. All these slope up and abut against the sides of the Apennines, which form the axial line of the country. This somewhat tedious account is necessary to make the remarks here- after to be made as to the secondary effects of earthquakes intelligible. The centre of effort in this earthquake was under the great plain, and pro- bably about under where once stood the village of Oppido, but at an unknown depth. The observations made amount to no more than this; that the shocks did less mischief to structures on the granite or slate rocks of the hills than they did to those on the plain of clay, &c.; that the destructive effects of the shocks were very great along the line of junction of these, at the bases of the hills (from which some of the philosophers of that time concluded that the earthquake came from the mountains), and that along this line, shocks in close succession were felt, not only horizontally and vertically, but also in opposite directions. Now we may ἃ priori account for these facts, on the principle that the velocity of the shock or earth-wave depending on the density and modulus of elasticity of the formation through which it passes, and its velocity being greatest in those whose elasticity is highest, while its range of motion ‘is most limited in the same ; therefore the shock here was of less velocity in the plain than in the rocky hills; but had in the former a longer range of oscillation, and hence did most mischief in the plain. Along the line or plane of junc- tion of two formations of different elasticities, &c., the earth-wave will change _ its course and also its velocity (like light in passing from one medium to another); and here the wave will be divided, part of it will be refracted, and part will be reflected (or total reflexion may take place if the angle of inci- ' dence be suitable at the plane of junction); and the latter portion of the wave will in such case double back upon itself, and give rise to a shock in the opposite direction to the first one. Hence along such a line of junction the destructive effects will be very great. Although the direction of transit of part of the shock is changed by thus passing from one formation to, an- other, and its force also modified, yet it often happens that such changes do μοῦ arrest much of its main progress or effects. _ Even large ranges of mountains abutting on plains of soft material are shaken through and through, and the shock is transferred beyond them, Thus the shock at Lahore in India of 1832, passed through the chain of Hindu- _ Cutch to the Upper Oxus, and even to Bokhara; and in South America they pass through “the littoral chains of Venezuela and the Sierra Parime.” (Humboldt, ‘ Cosmos.’) _ Such differences in effects of shock due to situation have been repeatedly | observed. Humboldt says that at Quito, which stands at the foot of the active volcano of Rura Pichincha, 8950 feet above the sea, and contains large and lofty buildings, with spires and domes, he has been often surprised at the severity of the shocks which he has felt, and which nevertheless but ΤΡΆΓΟΙ. rent the walls; whilst in the plains of Peru much weaker oscillations injured even lowly houses built of cane ; and many other instances might be quoted. To myself the explanation of the facts which theory gives appears, 40 REPORT—1850. I confess, here sufficient; but the observations made so far, of the facts them- selves are too loose and inapposite to say that as yet theory has here been tested by the fact. This truth must never be left out of view, that there are two elements in the problem of destructibility to buildings, columns, &c. in the case of every shock, viz. 1st, its absolute range of motion and velocity ; and, 2nd, the direction of its motion, which may be such as to be incapable to overthrow a given building, however great its range and velocity ; gene- rally it will probably be hereafter found that, ceteris paribus, shocks in a direction nearly but not quite horizontal, with large range and moderate velocity, do the most mischief to all ordinary buildings of masonry. Another circumstance must be borne in mind also in considering the facts recorded of the Calabrian earthquake, which modified materially the dif- ference in effect upon the plain and in the hills. 7 ὑῶν BP Let the above be a rude section of the country shaken, of which we have already given the general geology. Let p be assumed as the place of the centre of impulse at any depth under the great plain, below the bed of soft material, and either between it and the first hard rock, or within the masses subjacent ; in this case it is evident the arrows a, 6 will be the directions of emergence of the shock in the plain, but the arrows ¢ and d will be those of emergence of the same shock in the hills, and buildings situated at » and 9 along their slopes will be principally exposed to the waves c, and d,, given off at right angles to the normal wave e and d, and therefore less shaken ; while buildings at the remote side of the mountains, f, will receive the full violence of the shock. Dolomieu attributes much of the difference of de- structive effect on the hills and on the plains to the “ motion of the concus- sions in the latter being more irregular, being modified by communication through the medium of a soil yielding more or less to the force which convulsed it, and consequently transmitting it unequally. In the mountains, on the contrary, notwithstanding that the agitation of the surface was pretty considerable, they were less destructive. The rocks on which the towns were built communicated to them a more regular motion, being better conductors ; the soil after each oscillation resumed its position, and the edifices preserved their fixity.” “ So,” he continues, “a glass full of water will bear a great vibration without a drop being spilt, while it is emptied by the least irregular shake.” It is very difficult to see what he precisely meant by this, but it is evident that a solid foundation of rock will favour the preservation of build- ings, rather than a yielding one of clay, under shocks otherwise the same. The great earthquake of the Caraccas (March 1812) is stated by Hum- boldt to have been everywhere more violent in the Cordilleras of gneiss and mica-slate, or immediately at their foot, than in the plains, and this difference was peculiarly striking in the plains of Varinas and of Casanara. In the valley of Aragua the commotions were very weak, and at Coro, situated ᾿ i ON THE FACTS OF BARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 41 upon the coast between towns at either side which suffered much, no shock at all was felt. These differences, says Humboldt, in the direction and pro- pagation of the shock are probably owing to the peculiar arrangement of the stony strata. (Per. Nar. vol. iv. p. 19.) Again, it is manifest that in estimating the demolishing effects of any shock upon buildings, very much depends upon the direction in which the shock acts upon the building with reference to its particular form and struc- ture, and as this was not sufficiently known or attended to by former ob- servers, fresh information remains to be collected by competent persons as to this part of our subject. , This concludes the first branch of our subject, viz. all that relates directly to the earth-wave or shock ; and we now proceed to the sound-waves, which are more or less connected with it. 93rd. Earthquakes occur which are accompanied by various sounds, having a subterraneous origin, and which may either precede, or accompany, or succeed, the occurrence of shocks, or precede, accompany, AND succeed, the shocks of some of them; and again, earthquakes occur, even of the greatest violence, unaccompanied by any sound whatever. The intensity of the sound is by no means in proportion to the violence of the earthquake. One of the most tremendous earthquakes on record, that of Riobamba, occurred, according to Humboldt, unaccompanied with any _ noise whatever. The kind of sound has been very variously described, so variously as to induce the belief that there are different sounds on different occasions. _ Humboldt says (‘Cosmos’), “ It is either rolling, or rustling, or clanking, like chains being moved, or like near thunder, or clear and ringing as if obsidian _ or some other vitrified masses were struck in subterraneous cavities.” One tannot but imagine that in the latter similitude the ear has borrowed its impression from the preconceived view of the author’s mind. _ Professor Krashenikoff, of St. Petersburg, in his description of Kamschatka, as translated by Dumaresque (1760), says, Earthquakes happen here several times in the year. The most violent that was observed, was in the beginning of February 1759, which, during a westerly wind, lasted exactly six minutes ; and before it a noise was heard and a strong wind under ground, with a hissing which went from north to south.” By some the sound has been directly compared to that of quenching a mass of red-hot iron in water. There was _ashock of earthquake at Coningsby in Lincolnshire, in England, on the 6th _ of February 1817, and also at Holderness near it, when it was heard “ like _ Waggons running away upon a road; and so forcible was the illusion, that _ Waggoners on the roads actually drew up their teams to let the supposed _ runaway waggon pass them safely. While this was heard at Coningsby, they _ heard also at intervals of about a second of time, sharp and loud noises like the discharges of gunshots; and all gradually died away to a grumbling noise, _which shifted from the east to the south.” (Quart. Journal, vol. xviii.) τς: Hollow bellowings is a common expression with narrators. The describer of the New Zealand earthquake of 1848 (West. Rev., p. 397, for July 1849) | says, “ The earth is in a continual state of tremulousness, and the dull sound | of the earthquake is continually heard. This sound has been much ex- _ aggerated ; it is something like the sound of a railway train rumbling through Ἄς a tunnel, I mean as heard by a person outside and near the mouth. I have also heard nearly a similar sound made by a very large steam ship chimney, 49 ᾿ΒΕΒΡΟΕΒ1---1850. except that the earthquake sound is less sonorous. It has been compared with distant thunder and with distant guns, but it is more rumbling in its nature; in short, it admits of no exact comparison. I have noted that when the shocks occur during a heavy gale, this dull rumbling sound is not per- ceptible: it is overcome by the nearer noise of the wind.” The allusion to the steam ship chimney here relates to a peculiar and most powerful sound, a true musical tone, which is produced occasionally when there are powerful blazing fires under the boilers, with a strong draft, and the furnace-doors are partially shut, in which case the funnel acts as a great organ pipe, to which the furnace-doors play the parts of reeds, and the draft of the fire that of bellows. The note here is about the lowest that the organ is capable of sustaining. I have myself met a gentleman who had for a long time resided in the convulsed districts of South America, and whose occupation as a mining engineer gave him large opportunities of observation, and who compared the noise most usual to that of steam blowing off into cold water: a low irre- gular rumble, accompanied with still more irregular, sharp detonations, such as we may hear frequently in travelling by railway, when steam is blown from the engine boiler into the tender to heat the cold water therein ; the note however being in the case of earthquakes far graver than in this instance. In the Caraccas earthquake (April 1812), the explosions of the voleano of the island of St. Vincent were heard at the Rio Apura, like the discharge of the heaviest artillery; the distance in a straight line being 210 nautical leagues, of 20 to a degree, a distance as great as from Mount Vesuvius to Paris. (Humboldt’s Per. Nar., vol. iv. p. 27.) Yet the “ Bramidos,” however awful and loud, may be derived from a very slight original stroke or grinding together of rock surfaces, the volume of sound being multiplied by the vast surface of the earth from which at nearly the same instant it is transmitted to the air and thence to the hearer. Thus, for example, the large blocks of stone on the Breakwater of Plymouth, or on the piers of Kingstown Harbour, Ireland, are some of them so circum- stanced, as to oscillate slightly like logan-stones, and to strike together under water by the motion of the waves, with, however, a force and range of mo- tion so slight, that, when left dry at low water, and moved thus by hand, the blow is quite inaudible at a few feet distance ; nevertheless, when so moved by the swell under water, the noise and crash sound quite formidable, and would at first lead the hearer to suppose the whole structure was washing away from beneath him, when thus heard on a calm clear day with a swelling sea. There is a deep mountain tarn in Ireland, Lough Bray, one boundary of which is a steep mural precipice under water; when a stone of a few pounds weight is dropped gently from a boat at this side of the lake, the crash of its descent under water, as it falls over the face of the precipitous rocks which emerge from the dark waters, conveys a most awful impression. So also the ticking of a watch, inaudible even to the holder when held in the hand, becomes distinctly heard across a large room when laid on a table. The signals in use by a blow given to the side of a diving-bell, and clearly trans- mitted through some fathoms of water, are also in point. The intensity of the sound heard at a given station will depend in some degree upon the same circumstance that will determine its time of occurrence with relation to the shock, and it will also much depend upon the sonoricity of the media (formations) through which it passes to be heard. Thus, what- ever may be the original impulse producing the noise, whether fracturing of ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHANOMENA,. 43 ] ᾿ strata, falling in of rocks, grinding of masses over each other, or the reper- ᾿ς eussion produced by steam, evolved by the heat of molten matter under the earth or sea, and again suddenly condensed by being driven into contact with cold water; in any of these cases if the centre of impulse producing the noise, be distant from that producing the shock, or if the two waves, 7. 6. that of sound and of shock, arrive to the ear through different media, they will arrive at different moments. So if the impulse be extended along a line of impact passing away from the listener, he will hear a prolonged sound from a single blow, producing perhaps but a single shock. The general rule, however, ἃ priori, is that the sound-wave and the earth-wave of shock travel at the same speed through the same formations, and if they arise from one common impulse will generally reach the ear and observer at the same mo- ment; and accordingly this is by far the most usual case recorded; but innumerable perturbations and complications of this may and do take place, many of which I have remarked upon in my paper on the Dynamics of Earthquakes (Trans. R. I. Acad.), and for brevity here I pass them over as easily predicted by those versed in acoustics. In most earthquakes perhaps, certainly in very many, a sound is heard before the great shock, and usually a vibratory jar felt also. The earth- ᾿ς quake ) Tiffliz, in Georgia, of 29th of January 1818, was so. (Quart. Journ. vol. vii. Count Mercate, in his account of the earthquake of 20th of December _ 1820, at Zante, says the sound was heard before the shock was felt. (Quart. Journ. vol. xviii.) ᾿ς Hamilton says of the Calabrian earthquake, “ All agreed that every shock _ seemed to come with a rumbling noise from the westward, beginning with _ the horizontal and ending with the vorticose motion.” (Phil. Trans. vol. __ Ixxii.) This does not apply to the great shock of the 5th of February, “ which _ was from below upwards.” In the Chili earthquake of 1822-23, the explosive sound and great shocks seem to have arrived simultaneously. (Mrs. Graham, Geol. Trans. vols. i. ii. ser. 2. p. 413.) Dolomieu says, the Calabrian shocks “ were preceded by a loud subterra- neous noise like thunder, which was renewed every shock,” speaking not however of the great upward shocks. “ This great shock,” he says (5 Feb.), _ “occurred without the prelude of any slighter shocks, without any notice whatever, as suddenly as the blowing up of a mine.” “Some however pretend that a muffled interior noise was heard almost at the same moment.” The great Lisbon earthquake “began with a noise like the rumbling of _ earriages, which grew gradually louder until it equalled the loudest artillery, _ and then the first great shock occurred.” (Phil. Trans. vol. xlvi. xlix. lviii.) ___In some very great earthquakes it should be remarked that a very loud __ noise has been heard a very considerable lapse of time after the shock. _ Thus at Quito and Ibarra the great noise (el gran ruido) was heard eighteen or twenty minutes after the shock. At Lima and Callao, in the great earthquake of October 1746, the subterraneous peal of thunder was heard at Truxillo fifteen minutes after the shock. These great noises could scarcely have been due to the same impulse that produced the original shock, but more probably to a subsequent one, whose shock was delivered in a different | direction to the first, and hence not felt at the places where the sound was heard, which may have reached them indirectly and through the air. | The time of transit of the sound-wave will manifestly differ, whether it reach the ear through the sea or through the solid land; in the former case 44 REPORT—1850. its rate will be about 4700 feet per second, and in air about 1140, and at the following rates for the rocks or formations, given below :— Lias limestone .. ........ ..3640 feet per second. Coal-measure sandstone ....5248 Ἔ Oolite: sale δὲ te inv εἶν aadldoor 5723 a Primary limestone......... . 6696 i Carboniferous limestone .... 7075 Hardslates;. cnet. ii Ὁ τοί suv 12757 ” For granite and igneous rocks we have as yet no data, but the rate will be greater than in any of the preceding. Another remarkable fact observed as to sound is, that in some great earth- quakes sounds have continued to be produced at comparatively regular intervals for long periods after the shock, but unaccompanied with any sen- sible motion of the ground. Boussingault informs us, that, after the earth- quake of New Granada in 1827, noises like the discharge of cannon were heard in the whole of the valley ef Cauca fora long period, at nearly regular intervals of thirty seconds, and several other instances of the same sort are recorded ; these, like the slight noises in Perthshire at present, I should be disposed to attribute to the periodic fracturing in cooling of newly-formed igneous rock below or near the country where they are heard. As there are shocks of earthquakes without any sound, so there are sub- terraneous sounds heard often without any shocks. Thus in Caraccas, on the plains of Calabozo, and on the banks of the Apure, a branch of the Orinoco, over a region of 9200 square miles, Humboldt informs us there was heard on the 30th of April 1812 an extraordinary thundering noise without any shock, while the voleano of St. Vincent, in the Lesser Antilles, at a distance of 632 miles to N.E., was pouring out lava; this, he adds, was as if an erup- tion of Vesuvius was heard in the south of France, In the great eruption of Cotopaxi in 1744, subterraneous noises like those of cannon were heard in Honda on the Magdelana River. The crater of Cotopaxi is 18,000 feet above Honda, and separated from it by the colossal mountain chain of Quito, Pasto and Popayan, full of valleys and rents, and in distance 436 miles apart. The sound. he says, was certainly not propagated through the air, but through the earth, and at a great depth. During the violent earthquake of New ὦ Granada of Feb. 1835, subterraneous thunder was simultaneously heard at Popayan, Bagota, Santa Marta, and Caraccas (where it continued for seven hours without any movement of the ground); also in Hayti, Jamaica, and on the lake of Nicaragua. The subterraneous noises of Mexico, which continued without any trace of earthquake at Guanaxuato, for more than a month from midnight of Janu- ary 9, 1784, and are known there as the bramidos y truenos subterraneos, described as if thuuder-clouds lay beneath the feet of the inhabitants, from which issued slow rolling sounds and short quick claps of thunder,—belong to this order also ; and there can be little doubt but that Pliny formed his notion of earthquake theory from such sounds, when he says, “ Neque aliud est in terra tremor, quam in nube tonitrum, nee hiatus aliud quam cum fulmen erumpit, incluso spiritu luctante et ad libertatem exire nitente.”—Plin. lib. ii. 79. After recording many of these singular phenomena, Humboldt (‘ Cosmos’) sums up oddly enough in these words :—‘“ Thus do chasms in the interior of the earth open and close, and the sonorous waves either reach us or are in- terrupted in their progress,’—apparently forgetting for the moment that the sounds must be conveyed more surely and more rapidly through the solid crust of the earth than through any fissure. These sounds, without shock, must be attributed to impulses given in such directions, and with such a re- — γ ΝΣ Ν b Ρ ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHZNOMENA. 45 gulated force as is sufficient to affect the air, from some quarter near the - hearer, most probably by the vibration of great tabular or mural surfaces of rock, but insufficient to shake the ground under his feet; or sometimes to the impulse of shock, being principally directed by circumstances of formation in one direction, while only enough of the original impulse is enabled to pass in others towards the hearer to affect his sense of sound, without his feeling a shock. Where the resonant surfaces are so vast as in these cases, extending over a whole surface of rocky country, a very slight vibration will produce an overwhelming sound, of which some familiar illustrations have been already given. In every case it should be borne in mind, that from a distant horizontal centre of impulse, or rather from a point vertically above it, two sets of sound- waves must arrive to the hearer from each shock capable of being heard at all, viz. one coming through the earth rapidly and directly, and the other emerging first vertically upward through the earth to the surface immediately above the centre of impulse, and transferred thence laterally through the air at the usual rate; hence any single blow delivered in the depth of the earth’s erust will be heard, if heard at all, at a distance, not as a single, but as a pro- _ longed rumbling sound, or as two distinct sounds. - We now pass on to the consideration of the effects of earthquakes upon the ocean or sea when their centre of impulse is beneath it. 24th. Where the centre of impulse of an earthquake is under the sea, and within a certain distance (usually a comparatively small . one) of the land, the sea at about the moment that the shock is ἦ felt by an observer on the shore is seen to swell and to retire ξ from the beach slightly, and at a certain interval of time after q the shock (dependent upon the distance of the centre of im- . pulse), a great sea-wave of translation rolls in upon the shore. The originating impulse of earthquakes being either 1st under the sea, or _ 2nd on dry land, gives rise to some difference in the nature and succession : of the phenomena constituting the whole phase of one complete shock. Thus | considered, ἃ priori, if the origin be inland, we may, if stationed on the beach, | have the following succession of waves for one complete phase of shock :— i | 1. The earth-wave of shock, accompanied and perhaps preceded and fol- lowed by sound-waves through the earth. __ 2. The sound-waves through the air. 8. The forced sea-wave, as I have denominated the small wave produced on the beach at the moment that the earth-wave of shock either plunges | ἢ _ beneath the sea, or vice versd, emerges from it when the origin is under ____ the ocean. If the origin be under the ocean, then the succession for one complete’ phase of shock will be— __ 1. The earth-waves of shock and sound together, or nearly so. 2. The forced sea-wave lost upon the beach. __ 8. The sound-wave through the sea. ᾿ς 4 Sound waves (possibly) through the air. __ δ. The great sea-wave of translation, which rolling in upon shore with Εἶν immense velocity and violence, completes the catastrophe. __ Some of these may be wanting in given instances, or the order of the ~ sound-waves may be slightly different from causes already adverted to, but’ ἢ € above-named order of theoretic succession represents nearly that which _ has been recorded of most great earthquakes. | _ Inthe records of many of these, the peculiar wave phenomenon occurring» 40 REPORT—1850. on the beach, to which I have given the name of the forced sea-wave (Dy- namics of Earthquakes, Trans. Roy. Ir. Acad.), is mentioned. Thus Darwin (‘Journal of a Naturalist’) says, “In almost every severe earthquake the neighbouring waters of the sea are said to have been greatly agitated ; the disturbance seems generally, as in the case of Concepcion, to have been of two kinds: first, at the instant of the shock the water swells high up on the beach with a gentle motion, and then as quickly retires ; secondly, some time afterwards the whole body of the sea retires from the coast and then returns in waves of overwhelming force.” ‘“ During most great earthquakes, and especially in those on the west coast of America, it is certain that the first movement of the waters has been a retirement.” Some authors have attempted to account for this by assuming that the water retains its level, while the land is suddenly elevated or thrown up out of it and again dropped down to its former level; but Darwin well says, “surely the waters close to land, even of a steep coast, would here partake of the motion of the land.” Darwin views this secession of the water as due to the first action of the great sea-wave formed or forming far out at sea. J have, on the other hand, endeavoured to show that it is due to the traversing along under the sea of the crest of the earth-wave of shock, which moves so fast as to force up a low broad unbroken ridge of water vertically over it, which is imperceptible while the earth-wave is moving under deep water, but becomes visible as it approaches the shallow shore ; and the effect of the sudden coming in to land, of this earth-wave, carrying the forced sea-wave as it were on its back, is, that at the moment they part company upon the beach, the beach itself is for the instant elevated to the height of the earth-wave and as instantly dropped again, so that slipping from under the sea, the earth-wave gives to the sea for the moment the appearance of having retired and again advanced to its former level. (See Dynamics of Earthquakes, p. 18, 20.) In this Report upon the facts of Earthquakes, it would be out of place to do more than refer to my memoir above alluded to for more detailed speculations of the subject. Combinations analogous to those which f suppose produce the forced sea- wave, will also account for those strange movements of distant lakes, islands, rivers, &c. recorded as occurring in connexion with distant great earthquakes. Thus may be produced the oscillations often observed in inland lakes far removed from the convulsed centre, as in the highland lakes of Scotland, on occasion of the great Lisbon earthquake, and of the South Carolina earth- quake of 1811, when the course of the Mississippi was temporarily arrested below New Madrid; or as in the Calabrian earthquake, where the course of the river Metramo was thus momentarily stopped, and then began again to run; in the latter cases the crest of the earth-wave, bearing a forced wave of water over it, having run up stream like a moving subaqueous or partial dam across the river. But a far more striking phenomenon is THE GREAT SEA-WAVE which so often rolls in upon land at the conclusion of great earthquakes. This has never been observed to take place in any earthquake whose centre of impulse was inland, however violent. Thus in the Calabrian earth- quake there was no great sea-wave, for the great wave that swept the mole of Messina and drowned the Prince of Scilla and many thousands of his people, was produced by the sudden fall into deep water of an enormous mass of rocky mountain close at hand, detached by a shock. On the other hand, wherever the origin has been at sea, and especially in the great South American and in the Lisbon earthquakes, an immense rolling wave has come in shore some time after the shock has been felt, and this has travelled in ἡ from the offing: the height of these waves has never been accurately mea- sured; that of the Lisbon earthquake, at Cadiz, was said to have been 60 feet, and about 18 feet at Funchal in Madeira. These waves have been repeatedly observed, and from a remote antiquity, as by Thucydides; and in South America some of the shores, or even lands comparatively remote from the shore, still present traces of their violent pas- sage in times very remote, with the same circumstances as at the present day. They are described as rolling in one long unbroken ridge of water with a steep impending front, and not breaking until after they had rolled some distance inland, overwhelming and sweeping away everything in their rapid and impetuous course. Darwin says, “It is remarkable that while Taleahuano and Callao near Lima, both situated at the head of large shallow bays, have suffered severely during every earthquake from great waves, Valparaiso, seated close to the edge of profoundly deep water, has never been over- whelmed, though so often shaken by the severest shocks.” A good account of the great earthquake of Talcahuano and of the great _ sea-waves thereof, will be found in the London Geogr. Journ. vol. vi. p. 319; the inundation of the sea, the author says, was similar to that recorded by Thucydides (iii. 89). The incoming of the great sea-wave, if in water of moderate depth and ona sloping beach, is immediately preceded by a slight recession of the water at the shore. The first great wave is often succeeded at intervals by others growing less and less; in the Lisbon earthquake there were eighteen such waves on the shore at Tangier. _ I must again refer to my ‘ Dynamics of Earthquakes,’ (Trans. Roy. Irish Acad.) for discussion of the theory of these great sea-waves. I have endea- voured to show that they are produced by the actual disturbance of the sea- bottom, directly over the point of original impulse ; that a wave is here gene- ᾿ rated like that produced by dropping a stone into a pond, and is transmitted | in constantly enlarging circles, or at least in closed curved figures. This wave translates itself outward in all directions, with a speed dependent upon the _ depth of the water over which it is passing, and at last reaches the shore, or _ perhaps many distant shores, its line of motion being widely different at _ those points, perhaps, from that in which the shock was felt there. Its di- _ mensions depend upon the force of the original impulse and the extent of sea-bottom simultaneously exposed to it, and the depth of the water and its force, time of breaking, &c. upon the form of the shores, depth of water close inland, and so forth. The view I have taken accounts for all the facts that have been recorded, satisfactorily to the demands of the science of tidal and - fluid wave motion; but I am thus brief upon this part of the subject because _ there are extremely few facts as to the dimensions, direction of motion, __ time of arrival, or other circumstances of great sea-waves that.have as yet been observed at all with accuracy. Navigators have often remarked and been placed in peril by, a peculiar sort | of inshore waves called “rollers” coming upon them suddenly and most unex- | pectedly: I just notice these here, as it remains as yet uncertain whether these - ~ are nodal waves produced by the junction of several smaller waves far out on _ the ocean surface after storms, or be in some way connected with our subject. __ It seems probable that in the great ocean such vast nodal waves or rollers are frequently produced and propagated to great distances from the regions | of storm where they originate, and may simulate many of the phenomena of | earthquake great sea-waves. + A good account of these will be found in Captain Owen’s narrative of the ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHA NOMENA. 47 oe ee ee or 48 REPORT—1850. surveying voyages of the Leven and Barracouta, on the east coast of Africa, in 1821 and following years, vol. i. p. 288. One of the ships was nearly wrecked off Quilimani by one of these rollers, “which burst with fury on the decks, bearing everything before it, nearly swamping the ship, and throwing her on her beam ends.” 5 Capt. Owen says, “ The roller moves as a precipitous hill of water from 10 to 50 feet in height, overwhelming everything in its course. They are observed on all the shores of the Atlantic south of 30° N. lat., sometimes rising in a perfect calm, probably from past gales in distant parts; but their true cause is not yet known.’”—Owen, Voyages, p. 288. We now pass to some remarks upon the secondary effects produced by the proper phznomena of earthquakes, viz. by those which we have already treated of. Again let it be observed, that most authors have very confused notions as to the essentially different nature of earthquakes and of permanent elevations or depressions of land. An earthquake, however great, is incapable of producing any permanent elevation or depression of land whatever ; its functions of eles vation and depression are limited solely to the sudden rise and as immediate fall, of that limited portion of the surface through which the great wave is actually passing, momentarily. Hence, it is inexact, or rather untrue, to class earthquakes as amongst the causes of permanent elevation or depression of the land. But as earthquakes are unquestionably closely connected with vol- canice forces, and with those nearly identical forces upon which permanent elevations and depressions without eruption depend, so there are few earths quakes of any magnitude that are not accompanied by permanent eleva tions and depressions of the land. These and the earthquake have a common origin, and are to be regarded as each the symptom of the other; but while the elevation or depression of the land may cause the earthquake, or rather be the immediately forerunning event to the earthquake, the earthquake can never cause the permanent elevation or depression of the land. I dwell upon this because it is important to our future progress in earthquake knowledge, that we should form a clear conception of what it is, and how far its limits extend, and clearly distinguish these from both the permanent elevations and depressions, often of vast extent, that accompany their occurrence due to the great elevatory forces of the interior of our planet, and also from all those secondary, or doubly secondary phenomena, which change the face of the country shaken, but which are only contingent and accidental effects of the earthquake, and which vary with the local conditions of the country in which they occur. The confusion resulting from having lost sight wholly of this distinction is well seen in the extracts [ have given from Hooke’s discourses of earthquakes in a preceding part of this Report. | In reading over the narratives of earthquakes at large, we are constantly told of mountains being removed from one place to another, of valleys being oblite- rated, of the course of rivers being altered, springs and fountains spouting up, fissures and chasms of vast depth and extent being formed, with smoke and flames issuing from them, lakes formed where none were before, and so forth; all of which are said in a word to have been produced by the earthquake. For example :—* Terres quoque motus profundunt sorbentque aquas; sicut cirea Pheneum Arcadia quinquies accidisse constat. Sic et in Coryco monte amnis erupit posteaque cceptus est coli. Illa mutatio mira ubi causa nulla evidens apparet; sicut in Magnesia calidas factas frigidas: salis nom mutatursapore. Et in Caria, ubi Neptuni templum est, amnis qui fuerat ante dulcis mutatus in salem est..... : ) “ Rhodiorum fons in Chersoneso nono anno purgamenta egerit. Mutantur | ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHANOMENA,. 49 et colores aquarum, βίους Babylone lacus estate rubras habet diebus XI. Et Borysthenes estatis temporibus ceruleus fertur, quanquam omnium aquarum tenuissimus: ideoque innatans Hypani. In quo et illud mirabile, Austris flantibus superiorem Hypanim fieri.”—Plin. Nat. Hist., lib. xxxi. 30. Again :—“ Sepe motu terrarum itinera flaminum turbantur et ruina in- terscindit aquas, que retentz novos exitus quzrunt, et aliquo impetu faciunt aut ipsius quassatione terre aliunde alio transferuntur........ quod accidisse ait Theophrastus in Coryco monte, in quo post terrarum tremorem nova vis fontium emersit.”"—Senec. Nat. Quest., 1. iii. L1. Tt will be necessary to go somewhat into detail, not only to record some of these facts, but to show how they depend upon the accidental features of country as affected by earthquake motion. These phenomena were presented in great variety and upon a peculiarly grand scale in the great Calabrian earthquake; and we are chiefly indebted to Sir William Hamilton, in his account of them addressed to the Royal Society of London, for first pointing out the true relation that they bore to the earthquake itself. _ The general geological features of the Calabrian plain which have been _ already given, the great tabular surface of clay, sand, and soft decomposed _ rock, divided by deep ravines and river courses, must be now borne in mind by the reader. The following then are some of the principal secondary phzeno- | mena that were there observed, and which are more or less common to all | earthquakes on land. lst. Vast landslips take place. _ The shock transferred horizontally through the plain (either as the normal _ or wave at right angles to this), on reaching the steep escarpments of the _ valleys, shook down enormous masses of these; the deep clay banks above split into fissures, extending to a great depth, and the weight of superineumbent _ stuff often forced out the base of the escarpment into the middle of the ravine or valley, so that the upper part of the bank fell nearly perpendicularly (in _ some cases 500 feet), and was deposited with all its trees and crops growing upon it atthe bottom. In other cases, where the escarpments were less steep, Jandslips in the more ordinary form took place, and the upper lands slid down Over a rough inclined plane of previous ruin, sometimes leaving nought but a ' chaos of upturned trees and crops, with mud and soil and sand at the bottom ; | and at others, where the thickness of the mass detached was greater, or the sur- face over which it was launched was more uniform, landing the whole upper ace safely down some hundred feet, with even houses, standing firm on the _ surface and all the crops uninjured: people descended unhurt on such sin- gular and mighty vehicles; but often the surface over which the slip was _ launched was not a plane, but curved or twisted, so as to change the direction Οἵ motion of the moving mass; and here the mass was sometimes broken to Pieces, but at others its surface was only twisted and distorted in rude copy f that over which it had passed and on which it came to rest. Thus, straight 5 of elm-trees and of olives became curved, furrows straight from the ough became twisted and contorted. _ Childrey, ‘ Britannia Baconica,’ gives several instances taken from Cam- _ den’s pages, of the effects of great landslips in altering the form and directions | ‘furrows, hedge-rows, landmarks, &c., and one especially of twenty-six acres of land which so moved in Herefordshire in 1571. (Hooke, Dis. of Earth- quakes, p. 309.) Another great English landslip is recorded in Baker's ‘ Chro- _Nhicle,’ p, 419, near Kynaston, in Herefordshire. These are the phenomena " ao appears to have mistaken for evidences of vorticose shocks. =) 1850. E. 50 REPORT—1850. Again, these landslips often took place from both sides of a straight valley at the same moment, or from two projecting headlands at opposite sides, one higher up the valley than the other (when in the latter case the shock passed the valley, not directly across, but diagonally), and then the vast debris meeting in the bottom of the ravine, by the mutual reaction of one side against the other, forced up a huge mass in the middle, often to half the height nearly of the table-land at each side, z.e, to 250 feet above the bottom of the valley, and thus a so-called hill or mountain was formed in the valley. Thus, near Terra Nuova, when the whole town of Mollochi di Sotto was detached with many vineyards, and descended into the ravine on whose bank it before stood, “some water-mills that were on the river having been jammed between two such masses as these were lifted up by them in the middle of the valley, and are now seen on an elevated situation many feet above the level of the river.” (Hamilton, Calabrian Earthquake, Phil. Trans., vol. Ixxii.) And in the plains also wonderful effects of the propagation of pressure to vast distances by superincumbent weight are recorded by Hamilton, Spallanzani and Dolo- mieu. Thus, says the latter, “In the deep valleys of the rivers Tricucio, Birbo and Boscanio, sand and clay ran like lava, or asif carried away by water; in other places considerable portions of mountains ran for several miles in their way to the valleys, without falling to pieces or even changing their shape.” — Hamilton says that the loose underlying sand formation, when wetted by the damming up of the rivers, &c., became a sort of fluid rollers, upon which the _ most enormous masses were moved; in one place, two portions of land,each about a mile long by half as much wide, with all their cultivation, were thus — moved bodily down a valley, a distance of more than a mile; and a mountain mass of sand and clay was moved (or at least was affirmed to have been moved) nearly four miles. 2nd. New lakes and river-courses are formed, and old ones obliterated. In many places the valleys dammed across by these landslips arrested the course of the rivers passing through them, and formed lakes of great size and profound depth. In some places these dams were so stanch from their clayey material, that the lakes, brimful, overflowed the table-land at the sides — of the valley, and traced out new river-courses on the plain, which again fell into the old course further down, the new course rapidly eroding the soft — alluvial plain, and preparing to form in course of time a new ravine as deep as that that had been dammed so suddenly. These lakes became putrid from — the masses of vegetable and animal matter brought into them, and had to be drained at once by public measures to avoid pestilence. But in many cases the dams, unable to resist the pressure of the rising waters above them, burst — at length, and the debacle totally altered the form and features of the valley for — miles below, overspreading everything with a rounded and fluent mass of — mud and slime, imbedding vast numbers of trees and vegetables, animals and — men, to become the organic remains of the post-tertiaries to our own remote — posterity, should the present ceconomy of the earth last long enough. ’ How well does Hamilton remark of all this !—* What causes a confusion in all accounts of this (and he might have added of all earthquakes) is the — not having sufficiently explained the nature and peculiarities of the soil and situation. They tell you that a town has been thrown a mile from where it stood, but without mentioning one word of a ravine on the edge of which it stood (as at Terra Nuova) ; that woods and corn-fields have been removed in the same manner, when, in truth, it is but upon a large scale what we see — ON THE FACTS OF BARTHQUAKE PHZ NOMENA. 51 %; every day upon a smaller, where the sides of hollow ways, having been ‘undermined by rain-waters, are detached into the bottom by their own weight ;” or he might have added, shaken down by anything causing vibra- tion, as the passage of a waggon or cart. 3rd. New valleys are also hollowed out. Not only are they hollowed out gradually, as above, by the erosion of newly- formed river-courses, but they are made at once by the slipping of vast masses of soil. Thus, along the bases of the hills, says Dolomieu, referring to those above the great plain along the whole length of the chain, the soil, which adhered to the granite of the bases of the mountains, Caulone, Esope Sagra, end Aspramonte, slid over the solid nucleus, the inclination of which is steep, and descended, leaving almost uninterruptedly from St. George to beyond Christina, a distance along the base of the hills of nearly ten miles, a chasm between the solid granite nucleus and the sandy soil of the plain. Thus ΟΠ avalley was formed of great length in a moment, parallel to the mountain sides and below them; but this cut off the drainage of the mountain slopes _ from the plain, and hence in after years the ridge of debris forming one side of the valley would become cut through and traversed by streams and torrents descending to the plain, dividing it into isolated masses of hills, and soon de- _ stroying all recognition of its singular mode of formation. _ A ravine was measured by Grimaldi, which was formed nearly a mile long, 105 feet wide, and 30 feet deep, in*the district of Plaisano; another was ae at Cerzulle, three quarters of a mile long, 150 feet wide, and 100 eet deep; and one at La Fortuna about a quarter of a mile long, 30 feet wide, and 225 feet deep; and various others are mentioned which it is need- 4 __ less to detail here. ᾿ς Without enlarging the list, “ what is said will be sufficient to demonstrate,” _ says Dolomieu, ‘that the singular circumstances attendant on the earthquake were the natural effects of a violent shock acting on a sandy ground pre- _ viously opened and torn by torrents.” “The general effect was, that of heaping together the soil, establishing slopes where there were before steep __ escarpments, disconnecting masses that had bases insufficient for their bulk, - only supported by lateral adherence, and of filling interior cavities.” __ These landslips, had they occurred in land reposing upon hard rock, such _ as clayslate or granite, and more especially if the deep beds of clay already contained pebbles and boulders of hard stone, would in their progress have _ furrowed and grooved the subjacent rocks, and left thereon permanent traces of their movements, that would have presented to a geologist, thousands of _ years after, all the aspects of ice or glacier action, and where no other grounds _ to suspect earthquake origin existed, would probably have been set down to _ these causes. Let us remark here the vast difference in effects that these secondary phe- _ by valleys and rising into mountain crests. How different would be the _ effects in our own country of a great earthquake that should shake at once the London basin, and ‘all the eastern side and south of England, and the Isle of Wight with the mountains of North Wales, and the Grampians! Wight, how utterly would its surface and geology be changed in a day; what changes on the face of the cultivated banks of the Severn, the Thames, _ the Medway, to say nothing of our brick-built cities! Yet how different from the effects in Snowdonia and the Grampians! Here, or in any such regions E2 52 REPORT—1850. of hard and elastic rocks, vast crevasses may be rent into the mountain masses, huge blocks may be detached at the instant of the shock (as at Messina, and as seen from the deck of the Volage, when a mighty cliff de- tached itself, and plunging at once into deep water disappeared), and may fall into the valleys, and be shattered into fragments, vast, angular and with- out order, such as we see filling the commencement of the pass of the Spliichen above Chiavenna. But the mountain torrents still find their way through or over such debris, the dams formed are not water-tight, their ma- terials are too huge, and interlock too much, to be moved by debacle any great distances; the whole iron frame of the country is too elastic and too strong to be very greatly altered, and the earthquake leaves but compara- tively slight traces of its destroying hand, save upon the frail habitations of man, and upen his best and largest works. Ath. Fissures of various sizes are formed in the earth’s crust. These are directly formed in the solid rock. Sir Hans Sloane describes the rocks in the Blue Mountains of Jamaica as greatly shattered in 1687 by the earthquake. Mrs. Graham describes the granite rock of the beach at the promontory of Quintero in Chili, after the earthquake of 1822, as found rent by sharp recent clefts, very distinguishable from the older ones, bué running in the same direction. Many of these could be traced to a distance of a mile and a half across the neighbouring promontory, where in some instances the earth parted, and left the base of the hill exposed. (Geol. Trans., vol. i. 2nd series, p. 415. Hot eee frequently are found issuing from such clefts in igneous rock. Thus Humboldt tells us that the ‘‘ Aguas calientes de las Trincheras burst out from a granite rock, split into regular fragments” (Cosmos); and many other similar instances may be found recorded. Most, if not all writers on this subject have tacitly assumed however that all fissures formed during earthquakes are due to the direct action of the shock ; and some accounts, such as that of the great Jamaica earthquake of — 1692, affirmed “ that the ground undulated like a rolling sea, and that fissures opened as the undulations passed, two or three hundred of which might be seen open at once; that these opened and closed again rapidly, as the un- — dulation rose and fell; and that people were even caught and bitten in two by these Titanic mouths ; that some, thus swallowed up, were again cast out.” Assuming this narrative veracious, I for some time believed the opening © and closing of fissures by the direct passage of the earth-wave to be possible — in incoherent formations. On further consideration of the subject, however, — I am disposed to reject this solitary and truly wonderful Jamaica narrative, for the present at least; and judging from a connected view of all the other narratives of earthquakes, to state my strong impression, that fissures, at least those of any magnitude, any that are more than rents or cracks in rock or masonry or other coherent bodies, are never produced during earthquakes directly by the transit of the shock, but are solely the result of secondary — actions, and due either— - 1. To landslips, more or less complete. 2. To subsidences in the ground, due to subterranean action at great depths, of the true elevatory and depressory character, and producing lateral slips by resolution of motion. 8. To elevations of the ground produced in the same way, and producing similar effects. ᾿ 4, To the action of water, either forced up from beneath, or removing lie deli ΚΑΤ. Ἀδουπονξξριοιρθωνοπαοειθαον aca thao a ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 53 land or softening it by lateral action, as in newly-formed rivers and __ lakes, and thus producing slips. The following are some of my reasons for this conclusion. The limits of elasticity of none of the soft materials of which plains of clay, &c. consist, and indeed of none of the incoherent formations that we are acquainted with, are sufficiently great to permit of the formation of fissures of the width and size upon record. The fissures that have been carefully observed have always been found parallel to great escarpments or to lands that have slipped; thus all the observers of the Calabrian earthquake concur in stating that the great fissures were parallel to the faces of the steep banks of the ravines or valleys, and more numerous the nearer they approached them; and those curious ‘radiating fissures at Jerocarne, which are alluded to and figured by Sir Charles Lyell, are probably no exception, but most likely arose from the ground having fallen away in all directions around, which it would do if cir- eumstanced as an insulated mass, surrounded wholly or on three sides by the usual deep gorges with precipitous sides, of the Calabrian plain. I cannot possibly attribute such “ fissures, like cracks in a broken pane of glass,” to either subsidence or elevation of such a mass of deep soil, which was never- theless imperceptible to the eye. Bishop Pocock, in the third book of his ¢ Travels in Thrace and Greece,’ states that “‘ cracks were formed of six inches wide, by an earthquake which occurred at Zeitoun, but that it is situated on the south side or slope of a hill at the foot of a high mountain.” So that __ here there was a supported and an unsupported side to the embankment upon which the town stood. The fissures formed by the first shock of Calabria _ were greatly widened by subsequent ones; now this would not be the effect _ of direct action of the earth-wave, an elastic wave; but it would be just that ᾿ς of slow separation, due to subsiding away, from any cause which left gravita- - tion to act; in fact, in a common slip upon a railway embankment may be _ seen in little, if the soil be favourable, all the phenomena recorded of earth- _ quake fissures in incoherent material. The first great fissures are produced _ when the slip occurs; others are formed in its mass after it has assumed a _ state of comparative repose. These, like the crevasses of a glacier, are all _ transverse to its general line of motion, just as they are in the earthquake | transverse to the line of motion of the shock, or may be; but every new vi- | bration, every passing train widens the mouths of these fissures, until the _ whole mass of the slip has gained its position of final repose. 4 Again, some of the widest of these chasms, recofded as fissures, are of comparatively very small depth in relation to their width. Thus one at _ San Fili, the government Calabrian Commissioner, Grimaldi, found was half a mile long, two and a half feet in breadth at the surface, and only twenty- by five feet deep; and the deepest fissure I can find any record of, does not ex- ceed five hundred feet, and this does not seem to have been measured, and . is probably exaggerated. Now as the wave of elastic compression and ex- tension, or shock, traversed miles in depth of the earth’s crust at these places, le t is inconceivable that these fissures, if produced by its passage, should not | correspond with it in depth, or at least much more nearly than these com- | paratively shallow dimensions represent. _ Moreover, many of these fissures were crescent-shaped, as that near _ Soriano, and figured in the government account of the earthquake, and the _ Curve was extremely short and excentric; it is difficult to conceive such a form _ of fissure produced by fracture, i.e. by a shock of any sort or degree of vio- lence; while the excessively irregular figure of some others of the fissures, _ as that at Polistena (also figured), makes them quite as irresoluble on the fracture theory ; and indeed the gradual closing in of all these fissures by the slow subsidence of the soil, as noticed by the Government Commission 54 REPORT—1850. of the Neapolitan Academy, and also by Sir W. Hamilton, is alone sufficient to show that the elasticity of the formation in which they occurred was far too small to permit their formation by fracture. Of the extent of these subsidences at the time of the earthquake various instances have been recorded, such as the cylindrical lining of the well of the convent at Terra Nuova, being left projecting out of the soil like a tower, nine feet above the surface, and the lateral motion of the mass of soil in which it was dug, also evidenced by the whole well having got an inclined position from the vertical. That these subsidences produced often hollows of a cup form is not wonderful. In conclusion, I conceive the formation of all fissures, where effecting soft or incoherent formations, to be due to varieties of subsidence due to one form or another of landslips or land removal by water; that they may be and are produced in hard rock, and in buildings, &e., directly by the transit of the shock, I also conceive there is no doubt of, and this leads me next to a singular fact often recorded, viz. 5th. At the moment the fissures open in the earth, fire and smoke (apparently) have been observed to issue. On this matter much new and exact observation would be most desirable. The narratives geuerally affirm that flame made its appearance momentarily at the mouth of the fissure, and that a volume of smoke, or some say dust, was vomited forth and hung for some time above the mouth. That some earthquakes have been observed from points situated so directly above and so close to the focus of veleanic action beneath, as to make all this quite possible in its most literal sense, cannot be doubted, when we call to mind the Volage’s chain cable having been made incandescent, and even partly melted, as she swung by it at anchor on the coast of South America ; or Captain Tilland’s narrative in the Philosophical Transactions for 1811, of the submarine volcano, which he actually saw rise, upon the surface of the sea, near the island of St. Michael’s, when laying to, within a few cables’ length of the spot. Within four hours after the first visible commotion, the summit of the crater was 20 feet high above water, and 400 or 500 diameter ; and before he left, it had raised itself to 80 yards in height. Volumes of steam were discharged, the sea was violently agitated as though boiling, light- ning-flashes were emitted from the clouds above, and water-spouts formed in various places around showed the violent disturbance of electric equilibrium. A continuous noise like musketry mingled with discharges of cannon stunned the ear, and the shocks of earthquake felt were sufficient to shake down part of a cliff upon which some observers stood. Many such records show how closely men may sometimes approach the “ Atri janua Ditis,” and live in the midst, as it were, of the smoke and fervent heat of the unknown regions within; but when the occurrence of flame and smoke is recorded of fissures in non-voleanic lands, and in territories suffering from earthquakes whose origin is manifestly far away, as in the Lisbon one for example, some different solution must be sought for. The following suggests itself as at least worthy of future investigation. The experiments of Becquerel and other electricians have shown, that when fracture in a solid takes place, a powerful electrical disturbance is the con- sequence. This will be great in proportion as the surface and mass fractured are themselves large. When therefore a fracture of a mile long and of many feet in depth is formed, whether by subsidation and slipping, or in any other way in soft material, and yet far more when one of those greater fractures in hard rock takes place, such as have been described when a whole mountain mass has been rent in two at a blow, the disturbance of electric equilibrium ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHZNOMENA. 55 may be expected to exceed that of a heavy thunder-storm, and may, guoad this particular part of earthquake phenomena, realize the dreams of the older philosophers, who thought an earthquake was a thunder-storm under ground. In this then I believe is to be found the usual source of the flame or flash, seen suddenly to appear and vanish at the mouth of the rent, and the iden- tification of the supposed flame or flash with electricity in an analogous case, was made by Sir W. Hamilton, who alludes to its violent disturbance always in the cloud above the crater of a volcano in eruption, though he suggests no origin for such disturbance in the case of fissures opening, from which he had satisfied himself by subsequent examination, that there was no evidence . of flame or volcanic exhalations of any sort having issued from their mouths. And as to the smoke which has even been described by some authors as dust, I fancy it has been none other in almost all cases, if not in all. Eye-witnesses of the falling of towns and cities by earthquakes describe the volume of dust that rises from the shattered buildings as instantly ob- scuring the scene of desolation from view; thus Catania in 1692 disappeared in an instant in a cloud of dust; and any one who has seen a large blast fired in a quarry of hard rock will remember the dust that rises through and over the falling and shattered masses. There can thus be no doubt that the rend- ing of a mountain mass of rock must be attended with similar volumes of dust, and that the same must attend the fracture of earthy materials, such as the clay of the plains of Calabria or that of Lisbon, which from the dry- ness and heat of both climates must be for many feet down in a friable con- dition. But there is another cause yet for the cloud of steam, or dust and steam, even when the walls of the fissure may be perfectly wet. By the sudden yawning of one of these vast chasms a void space is instantly opened, into which of course the surrounding atmosphere immediately rushes; a partial vacuum is thus for the moment produced just above the mouth of the crevasse ; the great mass of air suddenly rarified or expanded has its capacity for heat increased, its sensible temperature is therefure as suddenly lowered, and a deposition of vapour, in form of a great cloud, takes place above the érevasse, which is greater or less in proportion as the dew-point is higher or lower at the time and place. Conversely, if the crevasse be wet and suddenly opened, to a considerable depth, the temperature of its sides and of the water dripping from them being that due to the depth, and therefore above that of the air at the surface, will instantly fill it with steam or vapour ; this will rise and mingle with the air above in the form of steam clouds at every breath of wind that enters the chasin and disturbs its repose, will be slowly driven out by the descent of the colder surrounding air of the surface, or may be wholly expelled if the crevasse close again, as it often does; and these sources of change of state in the air and vaporization of water, gr condensation thereof, are them- selves powerful causes of electrical disturbance. Whether therefore the formation through which a fissure or crevasse is éloven during an earthquake be hard or soft, dry or wet, on the mountain or in the plains, whether it be due directly to the earth-wave or shock, or se- condarily to stibsidence or slipping, I conceive that there is abundant evidence of sufficient meteorological and electrical disturbance to account for the elouds of steam or supposed smoke, flashes or sudden flame, and dust, so often mentioned as occurring far from volcanic active centres. Smoke in the true and ordinary sense of this word, it may be remarked in passing, has never been observed by any competent authority actually issuing from even any volcanic vent. The gaseous products are almost wholly vapour of Water, holding some acids, as SO? and Cl+ H, in suspension, 56 REPORT—1850. and various solids in the form of fine dust or sand; but bodies in that pecu- liar intermediate state between mechanical suspension as sand, and chemical diffusion as vapour, such as constitutes common carbonaceous smoke, and ’ whose peculiar characteristic it is to deposit a portion of its mass as a soot or sublimate of some sort, and the remainder to float for days or weeks permanently in the air in an uncondensed and unprecipitable state, do not seem ever to issue from the interior of true volcanic vents; so that there is ἃ priori the strongest improbability of smoke having ever been really seen to issue from an earthquake fissure. Compare the younger Pliny’s account of the eruption in which his uncle perished, where his graphic account of the thick darkness that in a moment overwhelmed them in absolute obscurity and almost choked them, cannot be mistaken for smoke, though he calls it “a thick cloud.” 6th. Water often spouts from fissures, wells and springs, or bursts up in unexpected spots from the ground at the mo- ment of the shock; and it also is rolled out of the mouth of great fissures or crevasses, often in a turbid and discoloured state, and sometimes for a considerable time after the earth- quake. These phenomena, various and singular as they are, and apparently per- plexing, as we find them recorded in earthquake narratives, all arrange themselves into order and become of simple solution when once we have got the key to the whole, which is this :—They are all cases of reaction, in which the inertia of masses of water lodged in the earth is brought into play by the passage of the shock, through its solid parts, or they are secondary effects of those cases of slippage and subsidence, which, as we have already shown, are themselves secondary effects of the shock. This will be most rapidly made clear by a few instances. In the Jamaica earthquakes of 1687 and 1692, Sir Hans Sloane informs us, that “of all wells, from one fathom in depth to six or seven, the water flew out at the top with a vehement motiun,” ὃ. 6. at the moment of the shock, which was here a vertical one. The sudden motion of the transmitted wave (the earth-wave) is, to use Humboldt’s words (‘Cosmos’), “increased at the surface in conformity with the general laws of mechanics, according to which, when motion is communicated in elastic bodies, the outermost free-lying stra- tum tends to detach itself from the others ;” like the last of a train of billiard balls, which alone flies off, when the first is struck ; or to illustrate the fact (not this principle), if one hold a cylindrical tumbler (the well) nearly full of water, and suddenly raise it up a couple of feet vertically and there suddenly arrest it, the water will in great part leap out of the glass. The water of springs and natural wells is contained in the earth chiefly in two forms; it either lies in plates or bands of fluid in the crevices of rock formations, which are mostly either vertical or inclined to the horizon, and are usually of great length and depth and of constricted width, or the water lies in beds of sand and gravel, lying stretched out over large spaces, fol- lowiag sometimes the contour of the surface, and at others cropping out here and there, where the springs themselves bubble out to the surface; or again they lie in the vacuities which have been washed out between the beds of stratified rocks; or lastly, in the caverns and sinuous apertures that have been dissolved out of calcareous rocks, as about Trieste and in Ireland, &c. Now, in the first case, when the earth-wave passes nearly horizontally a ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHZNOMENA. 57 through a formation of rock, bearing vertical or inclined plates of water, each of these will be powerfully compressed at the moment of the passage of the shock, for it is by the compression of the water only, that the shock itself can be transmitted onwards to the rock beyond the plate of water; and as fluids transmit in all directions equally, any pressure communicated to them in one, so the water in each such plate will press upwards at the moment of the shock, and will fly upwards, because in this direction resistance is least ; and as the pressure, though but for an instant, and even often acting through a very restricted range, yet acts on an enormous surface, namely, on perhaps the whole length and depth of the water plate, each amounting to miles, at the same instant, its total effect, guoad the volume of water displaced, is very great, for it is as though a piston of very short stroke but of enormous surface suddenly expelled water through a comparatively very small aperture. But furthermore, the spouting fluid has acquired a certain velocity which it does not lose at once, and has further an elasticity of its own, as well as the solid walls that compress it ; hence it spouts higher, and a rather greater volume of water is expelled from the fissure than is due merely to the diminution of its capacity by the passage of the shock and to the speed with which this is effected. Shocks in a vertical direction will affect such plates of water, if vertical or nearly so, precisely in the way already described for open cylin- drical wells. Proceeding now to the case in which the water lies in a water-bearing bed or in several, of sand or gravel, overlaid by rock or by clay, or any other im- pervious material: if the direction of shock be horizontal, as before, the water in such reservoirs will, by its inertia, oscillate first in the opposite di- rection to that of the shock, and then again in the same direction as the shock moves; and if in either of these directions its bed crop out to the surface, or it can find vent to it any other way, it may suddenly emerge in vast. volumes, and from the principle just alluded to, of quaquavérse pressure, such pourings out of water are not confined narrowly, to the line of direction of shock or its opposite, but may occur at any angle to it, laterally, or up- wards, or downwards. But let us now take the case in which a country underlaid by such a water-bearing bed or beds is exposed to a vertical shock or one nearly vertical. Here, on the principles already stated, every open well, or natural fissure or duct communicating with the water-bed through the impervious strata above, will spout out volumes of water; and if there be considerable tracts over which there are no such artificial or natural vents, or whose combined areas are insufficient to ease off the sudden pressure of the water upwards, it may break through the retentive stratum above, whether of rock or of clay, &c., at the points of least resistance, and there spout out where water had never been known before, and may bear with it volumes of gravel, sand, and mud from the beds below. Now these were just the conditions of the great Calabrian plain, and of that of Lisbon and of Port Royal. In Calabria, as we have seen, a vast deposit of clay forms the surface of the plain, described by Dolomieu as consisting of ‘a stratum of vegetable earth, argillaceous, black or reddish, very strong, very tenacious, and from four to five feet in thickness,” beneath which lie various formations resulting from the decomposition of granite, and under this “ἃ white micaceous clay rather unctuous and ductile ;’ and beneath all, the deep bed of sand and scarcely coherent sandstone, which he informs us is a water-bearing stratum in most places, and to which he says “the roots of the trees penetrate to a great depth in search of the humidity always contained in the lower part of the sand.” Sir William Hamilton also describes the “swampy plain of Rosarno” as 58 REPORT—1850. “ consisting of clay,” and the higher grounds reposing on the sides of the hills above it ({. 6. the under stratum), as “of a gritty sand.” Now the great shocks of Calabria, three in number, were almost vertical, and spoutings of water, both out of wells and crevices, and out of spots where before there was neither aperture nor water, were numerous. And these conditions give me the means of explaining the very curious circum- stance of the sand-cones and circular hollows found in the plain of Rosarno, ἡ as described by the Calabrian Government Commissioners, and also figured and described by Sir C. Lyell (Principles of Geol. p. 465). They say, ‘in the plain of Rosarno were found numerous circular hollows, for the most part about the size of a coach-wheel, but some larger and some smaller; these, like wells, were full of water within a foot or so of the surface; on digging down, they were found to be funnel-shaped cavities in the clay, full of sand, and some which were dry presented nothing but an inverted cone of sand in the clay-bed, concave in the centre on the top, and rippled off at the edges. Eye-witnesses had seen these hollows suddenly formed by the spouting up of water mixed with sand during the earthquake, which was thrown to a considerable height. In the great Chilian earthquake of 1820, M. Place describes similar sand-cones as formed on the banks of the river Concon, fifteen miles from Valparaiso, each, he says, with a crater-like cone in the inside ; and he describes the plain there as clay with a substrate of sand.” (Quart. Journ. vol. xvii.) And Mrs. Graham, in her description of the Chilian earthquake of 1822-23, says, “In all the small valleys the earth of the gardens was rent and quantities of water and sand forced up through the cracks to the surface. In the alluvial valley of Vefia a la Mar, the whole plain was covered with cones of earth about four feet high, occasioned by the water and sand which had been forced up through funnel-shaped hollows beneath them, the whole surface being thus reduced to the consistence of a quicksand.” (Geol. Trans. vol. i. 2ud ser. p.414.) Similar sand-cones, under similar conditions, are recorded in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine,’ vol. ix. p- 72, as having been formed during an earthquake at the Cape of Good Hope on December 5, 1809. Thus this phenomenon is seen not to be an isolated or peculiat one, but common to several earthquake-shaken countries resting on water-bearing sand beds. Sir W. Hamilton “thinks the phenomenon easily explained ;” thus, “the impulse having come from the bottom upwards, the surface of the plain suddenly rising, the rivers which are not deep would naturally dis« appear, and the plain returning with violence to its former level, the rivers must naturally have returned and overflowed, at the same time that the sudden depression of the boggy grounds would as naturally force out the water that lay hid under their surface.” He says he obsetved that ‘‘ where this sort of phenomenon had been exhibited the ground was always low and rushy.” His explanation is scarcely intelligible, and certainly not true. I am not aware that any other writer has attempted a rigid explanation of the spoutings of water and sand, ὅδ. in earthquakes, but from what has preceded, I think I may lay claim to having, for the first time, done so; and we may now see that the Calabrian sand-cones were simply the ajutages through which in the lowest places, and where the swampy clay offered the least resist+ ance; the bed of water, reposing in the great sand-formation beneath, broke forth at the moments of vertical shock, sweeping up more or less of the sand, along’ with the water. The form of these cones, as figured in section by Sir Charles Lyell, is pre- cisely that which an issuing fluid would shape to itself. Wemay readily see now what prodigious secondary effects in dislocation and removal of masses, such violent and sudden hydrostatic pressure brought to bear under a large ON THE FACTS OF BARTHQUAKE PH4Z NOMENA. 59 surface of undulating country and of soft material may produce, and what shattering and breaking up into blocks, it may be capable of when acting thus from beneath upon countries consisting of stratified rock in a tolerably level and unbroken bed. Lastly, from crevices formed during an earthquake, water has been ob- served to pour out in vast volumes for a considerable time after their for- mation, at which moment they were dry, and within them the water slowly welled up at first. This case is not to be confounded with the obvious one of a crevasse having some underground communication with a higher source, then opened to it as a mouthpiece, for the first time, and the explanation of which is obvious ; but the following seems to be its solution: the crevasse, if formed in deep clay, as in Calabria, or Lisbon, or Jamaica, and rent down toa water-bearing stratum at its lowest parts, will have the base of its sheer sides soon sapped by the water at bottom and by that dripping from its walls, and there beginning to slip, its sides will gradually bulge inwards, first at the bottom, and this rising upwards slowly, the whole chasm will close in and gradually eject and press out over its lips, the whole of the water it had before contained, though this may have at first stood fathoms below the surface; and as the whole capacity of some of the crevasses we have seen is immense, and the closing up gradual, a large stream may thus be kept running from many of them for a long eriod. 5 This gradual closing in (and no doubt from this combination of circum- stances) was remarked in many of the great crevasses of the Calabrian plain ; the enormous force with which the sides closed together, was remarked with wonder by those who dug out the remains of buried habitations, and found beams and masonry, furniture, utensils, and bodies of men and animals pressed together and compacted into one undistinguishable mass; but such a result will excite no wonder in those who have had an opportunity of carefully examining the phenomena and effects of any great landslip, or even slip of heavy embankment, or of the effects of the “creep and crush” in our deep coal pits. To such a subsidence taking place suddenly, no doubt, was due the dreadful disappearance of the quay of Lisbon in 1755, which became suddenly perched as it were upon the very brink of a vast crevasse, formed under the waters of the Tagus, which rapidly softening the blue clay upon which Mr. Sharp (Geol. Proceed. 1838, p. 36) informs us the lower part of the city is founded, soon caused tlie banks of the rent to yield under its overwater load; and to a similar cause must the sinking of the quay or mole at Messina be ascribed, which was built upon a submarine bank of clay and sand, sloping rapidly off into profoundly deep water close bys The water poured out from these spouting apertures or from large crevasses, has often been described as im- pregnated with foreign matters ; these have chiefly been described as “ hepa- tic, or sulphureous, or bituminous,” and have mostly been recorded as coming from the overflow of ‘crevasses some time after the earthquake; of course water-bearing beds full of soluble mineral matter will eject more or less of these with their fluid contents; but when such crevasses affect deep inco- herent formations containing sulphurets and organic matter together, rapid decompositions will give rise to all thosé horrible evolutions of foul water and poisonous gases that have been recorded so often, and especially in the Jamaica earthquake of 1692. If, for example, such wet crevasses as we have been considering were to be Operied in the deep carboniferous formations of Westphalia or Lower Saxony, or éven in some of our Own coal-measures, with what rapidity the coal and 60 REPORT—1850. pyrites of the latter, and the strange mixture of pyrites and vegetable matter, which Mitscherlich describes as used in Saxony for making copperas from, and which only needs to be dug out and moistened to heat and decompose spontaneously, would give rise to black and fcetid water, saturated with sulphates, evolving torrents of sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid, and mingled with red mud of oxides of iron! Again, should such crevasses affect a country such as that of the salt formation of Cheshire, and stretch also into some of the neighbouring coal-measures, what rapid and important chemical action would result from all the above, brought into contact with | saturated solutions of common salt, with gypsum, with limestone and with clays dissolving into a paste at the first approach of moisture ! What enormous evolutions also of carburetted hydrogen from the coal-beds would the sudden relief of superincumbent pressure give vent to! Before proceeding to another branch of our subject, it will be proper here just to notice some few wnusual and ill-ascertained phenomena, of which the facts are doubtful or incomplete, and for which no perfect explanation can be offered :— Ist. Fixed objects are said in a few instances to have been inverted; thus by the “ sbalzo” or leap into the air, fixed pavement is affirmed by the Neapolitan academicians to have been thrown upwards, and found after- wards in its own place, but with the stones inverted. 2nd. In the midst of the universal ruin and prostration of a whole town or village, a single edifice, and often one not remarkable for strength or for humility, has stood quite uninjured. Thus at Radicina, in Calabria, a single small square house of one story remained standing, all the rest of the town being prostrated ; similar events have been noticed in South America, where— 3rd. “ Nodal points or lines” occur, namely, isolated portions of country which constantly escape the shocks which convulse the parts all round them ; these portions are so well known, Humboldt says, that the Peru- vians say “the rocks form a bridge,” “rocas que hacen puente” in Spanish. 4th. Shocks felt in deep mines, as in the Marienberg in the Saxon Erzge- birge, not felt at all at the surface, and é converso, shocks at the surface not felt at all underground, as at Fahlun and Presberg in Nov. 1823. It would be easy to speculate on the probable causes of such pheenomena, on the known grounds of reflexion, refraction and total reflexion of elastic waves at certain angles, but the facts themselves are too doubtful to make it at all useful. But we must leave this subject, fertile as it is in consequences, having, as I trust, developed the nature of secondary effects from the earth- wave itself, sufficiently for the purposes of this Report, and proceed to a few remarks upon the secondary consequences of the great sea-wave. 7th. The great sea-wave, when it comes ashore, after the partht quake, produces all the effects on land οἷ, ἃ great debacle. It does not appear needful to enlarge much upon this, as everything re- mains to be done in the way of accurate collection of facts, of which we have very few, principally due to Mr. Darwin, to W. Parish (see Geol. Soc.) and to Virlet (Bull. de la Soc. Géol. de acti tom. iii. p. 103), who has re- corded some curious facts as to the effects of a great sea-wave that broke over Santorin and the island of Sikino, seven leagues off, after the earthquake of September 1650. Mr. Parish, in a memoir presented to the Geological Society of London in November 1835, has collected all the historical notices of great sea-waves ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 61 which he was then able to discover accompanying earthquakes on the coasts ‘of Chili and Peru; in 1590 the sea rose over Chili for some leagues, leaving ships, dry far inland; in 1605 such a great wave swept away the greater part of Areca. In 1687 Callao was similarly overwhelmed, and ships were carried from the roadstead a league into the country ; the shock of this earthquake was felt by Wafer 150 leagues from the coast out at sea. He also saw at Santa, three miles from Callao, three rotting ships in a valley, where they had been carried inland over a low intervening hill in 1687. In 1746, Callao was again swept away, and vast heaps of gravel and sand left where it stood; large ships were thrown far inland by this wave. Lima has suffered in the same way with Cavallos, Guanape, Chancay and Guara, and the valleys of Barranea, Sape and Patevilea; when Penco was thus destroyed in 1751, a similar but less wave reached Juan Fernandez and overwhelmed houses along the shore. Mr. Alison (Pro. Geol. Trans. 1835) describes similar waves of the earth- quake of Chili of Feb. 1835; but it is unfortunate that no precise levellings or sections were made of the land swept over in any of these cases, or observa- tions of gravel boulders, &c. moved, which would have been highly important. This dearth of facts is the more to be regretted, because our theoretical knowledge is more perfect of liquid waves than of those of elasticity, as respects this our subject, and observations of the effects in denudation, trans- port, and effects on vegetable and animal life, producible by their agency, would have important bearing upon other extensive regions of geology ; and when facts and observations as to the precise effects produced by great sea-waves shall hereafter have been collected, it may provide geologists with a new instrument of investigation by which to trace upon many distant shores the evidences of ancient earthquakes, whose origin was below the ocean, and of which no other record remains capable of being investigated. In examining the many meagre notices of earthquakes which I have had occasion to collate in reference to this Report, I have been struck in several instances with notices of sudden recessions, and as sudden subse- quent unusually high risings of the sea, in various places where there was no account of any accompanying earthquake, either there or anywhere else at the same time. Thus of the Thames at London in 1762, and in 1767, of the sea at Malaga and at Leghorn in 1774, and in several other tidal rivers and estuaries, small but unusual fluctuations have been recorded ; some of these occurred in great éarthquake years, but there are no recorded shocks occurring anywhere at the times given for these fluctuations. I am disposed therefore not to attribute such to earthquake shocks at all, but to the sudden slippage under water of large masses of submarine banks of sand or mud. Where such banks accumulate in large masses, often, indeed generally, with one steep side next deep water, the progress of accumula- tion upon the top is equilibrated either by slow and gradual subsidation of the whole mass, or by sudden and partial slippages into deep water of portions of the mass; such a circumstance occurring upon a very moderate scale would be sufficient in a narrow estuary to produce a wave of translation liable to be mistaken for the effect of an earthquake. In thus examining in a more detailed and systematic manner than has previously been done, the secondary effects of earthquakes, I have been able, I trust, to cause the geologist to bear constantly in mind the broad distinction between the great cosmical forces of permanent elevation and depression, one of the secondary efforts of whose paroxysmal efforts _is the production of earthquakes, and the secondary effects of earthquakes 62 . REPORT—1850. themselves. The distinction is most important to the clear conception of both. While to the former is reserved the mighty task of perpetually yet so gradually (as on the whole not to interfere with the inhabitants of our globe) lifting fresh land from beneath the ocean bed and dropping others below its waves, so that the earth, which has already “ waxed old as doth a garment,” shall be renewed again and “changed like a vesture,” and its fitness for the support of man and animals ever preserved, the geologist becomes convinced that as the volcano is itself but insignificant in all its results taken by them- selves, when compared with the totality of the mighty cosmical law of which it is at once the superficial index, and also the most striking evidence; so the earthquake, great and formidable as are its effects upon man and upon his works, is as nothing when compared with the enormous forces in whose throes it receives its birth. Yet as in our estimations of the united effects through time of the sum of all the forces acting upon the surface of our planet, we are compelled to take large account of those directly due to volcanic foci, active and extinct, so the secondary phenomena that we have pointed out and endeavoured to systematize, produced by the transient yet violent passage. of the earthquake shock, cannot be neglected in their continual and reiterated effects upon our earth, but should form an element in all our attempts to estimate and explain the past revolutions of its surface. So far as our knowledge yet enables us to judge, the office of earthquakes, the general resultant geological effect of their secondary action, is not one of elevation but of depression, of degradation and of leveling, although always probably preceded and accompanied by the proper forces of elevation to whose action it is referable. Perhaps the most remarkable of the secondary effects of earthquakes to a remotely future supposable posterity, may be the prodigious mass of organic remains of men and animals mingled with many of the least perishable of man’s works which will be found entombed in our existing, most recent, or at least most superficial formations, when these may have become depressed, heated, consolidated and altered in texture and re-elevated to become the pleistocenes of future races of mankind. To estimate thenmumbers of men only that have perished by earthquakes within the period of history is im- . possible; thousands have repeatedly been in a few moments entombed ; 60,000 persons at Lisbon, 10,000 at Morocco, 40,000 in Calabria, 50,000 in Syria, and probably 120,000 in the same country in the time of Tiberius and Justin Elder, a.p. 19 and 526. In the reign of Justinian earthquakes shook the whole Roman world re- peatedly ; Constantinople shook for forty days; an impulsive and vibratory motion was felt, enormous chasms opened, huge and heavy bodies were dis- “ charged into the air, and the sea advanced and retreated beyond its usual margins; a part of Libanus was thrown into the sea and became a mole for Botrys in Pheenicia, At Antioch 250,000 persons perished, May 20, Α.}. 526, and at Berytus all the students. of civil law there collected, July, a.p. 551. (See Procopius, Agathias, and Theophanes, as quoted by Gibbon.) On the 2lst of July 365, in the second year of Valentinian, a fearful earthquake shook almost the whole Roman world; and the retreat and sub- sequent rolling in of the great sea-wave of the Mediterranean is described as tremendous, sweeping two miles inland and carrying ships over the tops of houses, so that at Alexandria 50,000 persons lost their lives. (See Liba- nius, Sozomen, Cedrenus and others, as quoted by Gibbon.) In the earth- quake of Messina, 1692, 74,000 persons are said to have perished, some accounts raising thenumber to 100,000 (Practical Reflections on Earthquakes, ᾿ἢ ἘΌΝ SP ey > i A ἢ 4 Ὁ e x 1} ΟΝ THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHAZNOMENA. 63 by John Shower, 1750, 8vo). In the year 602 a second earthquake of the country about Antioch slew 60,000 persons. (Cluverius.) In the earthquake in the province of Quito of 1797, notwithstanding the thinness of the population, 40,000 natives are stated by Humboldt to have been buried in crevasses or under the ruins of buildings, or drowned in lakes or ponds temporarily formed. (Per. Nar. vol. ii. p. 237.) Such are the numbers to be met with in narratives ; and if we suppose but one great earthquake in three years over the whole earth, and that this in- volves the entombment of only 10,000 human beings, and that such has been the economy of our system for the last 4000 years, we shall have a number representing above 13,000,000 of men thus suddenly swallowed up, with countless bodies of animals of every lower class. Sir Charles Lyell then with good reason suggests that even in our own time we may yet find the remains of men and of their habitations and implements thus buried deep and embalmed as it were, by earthquakes that occurred in the days of Moses and the Ptolemies. But such entombments extend also largely to the vegetable world; masses of vegetable matter, entangled beds of broken branches and leaves and single trees, with all their peculiar insect and other inhabitants, have with man thus found a common grave. And at the present moment, short as has been the lapse of time, were excavations carefully made in the deep clay and sand of the Calabrian plain, there can be no doubt but that evidence would be dis- covered throwing much light upon the nature of those obscure processes by which vegetable and animal forms are mineralized and preserved, and that we should already find many of the trunks of trees buried in the sand, converted into brown coal or lignite, and thus presenting us with an ex- planation of that puzzling fact we so often see in the sandstones of our own coal-measures, as for instance at Gascube Quarry near Glasgow, where in the midst of perfectly clear undiscoloured beds of sandstone of enormous thick- ness, we now and then find a trunk of a single tree buried and fossilized, but bearing no traceable relation, either to the direction of the beds in which it is found, or to any conceivable process of their deposition. How readily may such facts be brought to bear upon the heterogeneous gathering together of multitudes of forms, such as those of the-fish of Monte Bolca, at one spot! and again, reflectively, the occurrence of such remains thus thrown together, may become the indices to us, of the loci of ancient earthquakes, as erratic blocks are assumed to be of ancient ice. Nor must the effects of great sea- waves, in entombing beneath the sea in littoral deposits, the various natural and artificial productions of the land, be overlooked. ‘The great sea wave,” says Caldcleugh, “in its reflux brings everything to sea along with it.” (Phil. Trans. 1836, p. 21.) Large however as thus would seem to be the gross effects of earthquake action upon the organic world, they are probably insignificant in comparison with the aggregate entombment even of man alone, due to the every-day progress of accidental events ; and shipwrecks alone will probably disclose a vaster mortality, ‘when the sea shall give up her dead,” than all that have perished by earthquake and its effects. It only remains now for me to make a few observations upon the assumed and presumable CONNECTIONS BETWEEN ASTRONOMICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA AND EARTHQUAKES; and first as to the former. Numerical discussions of earthquake catalogues have been made by several persons, as the Abbé Scina of Palermo, Von Hoff, Merian, Hoffman, Cotte and Perrey, for the purpose of discovering their frequency at any one particular period of the year, or during the lapse of some centuries ; but always upon insuf- 64 REPORT—1850. ficient bases, generally confined to some one district, so that none of their conclusions can be received as certain or even very probable yet. The three last of these authors come to the conclusion, that in the tropics at least, the periods of the equinox are rich in earthquakes. ‘ Tdeoque post austros noxii precipue terre motus. Noctu Auster, interdiu Aquilo vehementior...... .+eeeees-+ Et autumno ac vere terre crebrius moventur, sicut fiunt fulmina...........++- .- Item noctu seepius quam interdiu ; maxime autem motus existunt matutini vespertinique : sed propinqua luce crebri, interdiu autem circa meridiem. Fiunt et Solis Luneque defectu, quoniam tempestates tune sopiuntur. Precipue vero cum sequitur imbrem zestus, imbresve eestum.”—Plin. Hist. Nat., 1. ii. 49, 84. These, like many of the opinions of the ancient learned upon similar questions, are but the ex cathedrd repetition of popular and ill-founded notions. Perrey’s large catalogue (Mem. Cour. des Scav. Etran. de Belgique, tom. xix.) applies to central Europe or to the basins of the Rhine, Rhone, Danube, and to France and Belgium, only, and extends from the 9th to the 19th cen- turies. As we purpose returning to this part of our subject upon an extended base, it is scarcely worth while here to extract his tables, merely stating that his general result shows a preponderance of earthquakes in the winter, ὃ. e. in the months of January, February and March, for the whole, which seems again con- firmed by the discussion alone, of the results of the 17th, 18th and 19th centu- ries, during which the accounts are more to be relied on than at remoter dates. Perrey’s Table, in which he seeks to deduce the resultant direction of all shocks in a given region, and the inéensity of the shock, on the assumption that this intensity is proportional to the number or reiteration of shocks at a given point from one direction, is probably of doubtful value, from the more than uncertain hypothesis on which it rests. On the Influence of the Season of the Year and Time of Day upon Earth- quakes.—Von Hoff remarks, “ As we have already noticed, a dependence of the earthquake upon the time of year has occasionally been supposed to have been remarked. In the equinoctial regions earthquakes have been thought to occur more frequently during the rainy season than at any other time of year. Sometimes they have been supposed to be peculiar rather to the pe- riod of the equinoxes, sometimes to the winter months; with many other similar opinions. Indeed examples are not wanting which appear to favour such views; as for instance, the observation, that of all the earthquakes which occurred in Sicily from 1792 to 1831 (Hoffman in Poggendorff’s An- nalen, b. xxiv. s. 52), double as many took place in March as in any of the other months. Still however an almost more profound obscurity hangs over the question, whether earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are more peculiar to one time of the year or day than to another, than over the consideration of the other connections of these phenomena with those of the atmosphere. This subject has also been treated of in an elaborate manner in another paper on the causes of earthquakes (Mémoire couronnée, Utrecht, 1820-28, and enlarged, Leipzig, 1827-28) by Herr Kries, who has brought forward instances in no small number, which prove that earthquakes, even of the most violent kind, have occurred at every time of day and in every season of the year.” “1 myself (says Von Hoff) have in another place (Poggendorff’s Annalen, b. xxxiv. (110) 8. 99 f.) made the experiment of collecting and arranging all the instances of earthquakes which occurred during ten years, in order to find whether any one time of the day or year presented a greater number of these phenomena than the others. The result of these re- ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 65 searches however seems to be, that with respect to this relation of earth- quakes also, no law can be laid down. We must consider it as an established fact, that both earthquakes and volcanic eruptions may occur at any time of the day or year, since experience has shown this with respect to almost every time. The only question which remains on the subject is, whether we can ascribe to any one or other season or time, a greater ten- dency to produce or favour the production of such phenomena. A mere collection of facts, even though embracing a long period of time, would of itself hardly supply an answer to this question ; since, in order to draw to- lerably accurate conclusions from such a collection, many other circum- stances would have to be taken into consideration. We ought not to content ourselves with collecting and arranging a mere successive list of these phe- nomena, but on the contrary, we should compare with one another only the most considerable, and those which occurred in the same climate, with other precautions of a similar nature. That, however, the motions (Bewegungen) which are always going on, in the inner portions of the earth, are at certain times much more energetic and more continuous than at others, numerous examples testify. There have been periods of many years in which these motions remained continuously violent and widely spread, as from 1666 to 1694, 1749 to 1768, &c.; and others in which for several years they seldom manifested themselves. On the whole, however, if it be probable that the idea of any influence exercised by the atmosphere upon the volcanic process should be considered as overturned, the opinion of the influence of the time of day or year upon the occurrence of earthquakes, &c. will retain but little probability.” (Von Hoff, Gesch. Verand. Erdober, Th. iv.) Seneca, ‘ Quest. Nat.’ vi. c.1; a writer in the ‘ Annal. de Chim.’ vol. xlii. p- 416 ; Cotte, in ‘ Journ. de Phys.’ for 1807, p. 161; and Hoffman, ‘ Hin- terlassene Werke,’ Theil 11, have discussed the question as to whether earth- quakes are more frequent at one season than at another. Kant, in his ‘ Phys. Geogr.,’ vol. ii. p. 199, thinks they occur chiefly in the spring and fall of the year. Smith, in his ‘Memoirs of Sicily,’ p. 6, states, that thirteen earthquakes occurred there betwixt the 10th of January and the 28th of the succeeding March. Shaw, in his ‘ Travels in Barbary,’ p. 152, comes to the conclusion that they are most frequent there at the end of summer and iu autumn. All these however are observations on far too narrow a basis. ' Hoffman, ‘ Hinterlassene Werke,’ xi. 357, and Kries, ‘ Ursachen des Erd- _ beben,’ p. 8, have givena large catalogue of earthquakes during the Christian epoch. Arago, in ‘ Annal. de Chim.’ xlii. p. 409, has discussed the earth- _ quakes of forty years at Palermo. Pouqueville has given a list of sixty-three earthquakes at Joannina from 1807 to 1825. Cotte gives a list of 338 earthquakes in the ‘Journ. de Phys. for 1807. Hoffman has compared _ these with the forty years’ earthquakes of Palermo (Poggen. Annal. xxiv. 52, and xxxiv. 104), and Von Hoff (whose great ‘Chronik der Erdbeben’ has never yet been fully discussed) has compared all these with those for the years 1821 to 1830, occurring in the northern hemisphere. And Merian _ (Uber die in Basil Wahrgenommenen Erdbeben’) has given a list of those oc- _ curring at Basil. All these the author of the able article Erdbeben (L. F. | Ka&amtz) in the ‘ Allgemeine Encyklopadie der Wissenschaften und Kunste,’ ~ von Ersch und Gruber, Theil 36, has arranged in the following table by | months, adding the sum in another column :— : | | 66 REPORT—1850. Month. Cotte. | Hoffman. | Merian. |VonHoff.| Total. January 24 4 12 31 71 February 95 5 14 36 80 Moarehys 3.342. 23 13 6 81 73 April ...., 26 4. 5 29 64: May.is), sake 16 1 11 33 61 UNA +. indies 28 6 3 33 70 Sealy τοῦς ets 42 4 7 20 73 August . 34 6 8 31 79 September ...| 25 6 12 24. 67 October 38 2 11 41 92 November 22 4, 14. 26 66 December 35 2 15 34. 86 These approach so near to equality, that upon this limited induction there is ΒΗ ground for supposing one season more plentiful in earthquakes than another, This branch of the subject however cannot be deemed complete until from the largest possible catalogue of earthquakes, extending over the whole historical period, a similar deduction with suitable precautions shall have been made. A singular work, now very scarce, was published in 1729, by a professor at Lima, entitled ‘L’Horloge Astronomique des Tremblemens de Terre,’ in which he undertakes, from a discussion of 108 earthquakes occurring in his own time, to predict that of their recurrence; the period of tide and state of the moon are the immediately influencing causes, according to him, as well as the moon’s place in the zodiac; the eritical time is confined to six hours and some minutes of the horary circle, within which the moon is on the meridian of the place ; and he says he has confirmed his results by 148 observations in 1729, and 70 in the subsequent year, which proved correct. Mr. Edmonds, in the Cornwall Polytechnic Journal, has also endeavoured to connect the oceurrenee of earthquakes with the period of the moon; he shows that several of the most disastrous have occurred the day after the first quarter. [ mention these latter authors, not as attaching any importance to their conclusions, but as showing to those who will consult the originals, the wrong direction in which such researches have been made. As respects observed direct connexion with meteorological phenomena, the following comprises most of the information to be had :— Ist. The Weather generally. Although in numberless accounts we read of peculiar appearances before the earthquake, as red lurid skies, red and blue suns, &c., and during the continuance of earthquakes, of strange appearances and threatening portents in the sky, yet, judging from all the narratives of the best observers, there seems to be no ground for supposing that there is anv connexion between

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[5 8) OF SG 00 ‘GT [5 ΒΌΠΠΘΙ) uayoag 06 ‘OF ΟΟΙ αι "9 ΟΟΙ ΤΣ ΝΠ ΤΥ, "UL Ὃς ‘OL Sete meter ene Feseeeeee ‘oc ‘OF 06 001-01 "Ss ‘08 02 28 ΝΎ * snoluep 909g “"** SNdATU 19499 q ΠΟ. “8 0e-02| 2-02 “13 0g ον “13'S | OF seeeeeeweres! eT tg 81 “οὐσοοσοο “3 “τ 09 85 ΠῚ “Ul 01-ς CI-L % “19 06 0Z-I ind 0Z ‘OT ΠῚ "sg zl 0z seer eerenestees SNUITXeUL 193094 13's |ce‘or| og‘se | αἰ 9 PTET eET errr i “Wl 09 ‘ZI seeeeseereee STITT Ὁ OF Ἔ 09 “8 21 ‘G 07-2 “5 og [ἢ ἀ fee “ SORES ἐς ἢ ἡ os Ac 08 “8 ‘09 ‘cP (rede (Ou cr [Sin uehs 08-z ‘ys [tr] ge-oe “Δ [teeterese see eeetesons "S OL ‘0g se eeeteee {:] 0-02 tet eeeeerees "5 eeeeeteee 02 Zz 3 [06 81 777 5 82 025-91 18 Og frets sires Π9 ΘΩ͂ ad's | 66 ΟΡ τ cassie gre ΕΠ ὃς Of-SE “19 os 0z "s tesereees! ρρπρῦ | 4S cI tteeereae ΠΣ “Δ ΠῚ ΟἹ Ι “18 seerecnee cl 9 “13 0ς ‘2z seeteeweeees og “ys OF “Ὁ 09 -ΟΖ lees "13 08 “ys 65. 556 κηενρεννε coe 0-01 8. |38‘0L| 06 8 οἵ * ΒΠ1Ό1115 1|91094 seeeecencercee see Β17ΠΠ09 891150 09 Ὁ Ὅς ‘CP TOR erates seer eaeee seer teow 001-Ρ Ot el ee GG. Nennenersaiscteseses *s 108 ‘OZ ‘s | 0G ‘cr “19 eeesecocee ce ΤΌΣ 08. ἃ rete ogegy 555 ΤῊ. “1 0s seerereee “al ΟἿ 0¢ ‘el OL "ul * “9 02 0s “ΔΑ st κκκε σον cl Φ “UL soevoeeoers’ BJETNOLINEGNS VULT ON BRITISH MARINE ZOOLOGY. See eeeeve see estes scaslseccegeeaiseusesaveleoerssseslsttungsesieurasesesses 9G “ys OF * “8 eoenseres 0¢ 06 eceteroes ἐ κ "ys “13 02 cl 8 ‘| 08-02 8.15} ΟΥ̓ αονυυδονοοῦ ἐἐἐ δεν αν τοσενξ δε σε σέή "I seeeetene ΟἹ “ys ‘U 02 01-ς “3 “13 tet eeeees teeeeereroesees IGMOISOT BUILT ὑπ- | Ὁ 1 Gp fot ΟἹ "Ul ‘Ss ΟΟΙ Be Gone) Goo) Gary “ ΩΝ ΟἿ zi) 68 | 05) OZ OOI-ST ε 02 * αϑ [eres] og τ sereeseeseseoeeers ΘΠ ΒΡΠΌΟ BPIT seeeeeeeees! og TT 0 ‘el weveeeree Ξ - 1 Perera "13 81 os “ἰ en 04 ‘oF ‘og ον ποτ 6. ὌΡ97 “5 ΕΣ esl Re MO 06-ST “4 ΤΟ cee ἐμ ον σοι REPORT—1850. i 08 ‘cr Peet tweeter enter ela e sew ae eee eee eesteeel weaeeeee® *SULOTIUS 5. 7577 18 wae eeeee 001-02 δ’ cP 8 02 "13. "5 Ἢ 8 “ys “lL ‘s &% see eeeeee 06 001 ο 08 8. 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BOOVOTA ΔΘ, ΒΌ.Ή, GF ‘0Z 2750 suaqna saqsery, Φεφοσοφομε ΒΠΡΙΟΌ]3 ἀΘΊΒΌΧΉ, stsreese* TIspoor eulooorydg see eeroeeees CT αϑ freessree] agagg “1775 ππππ πη 2-ST "g eee neneee og ‘eZ wooreeeee|* . ἐπε ζε, γὼ OF “ΔΑ 81 nad fevers] οσπρζ [777 76} Ὑππηηητὶ ΠΟ ΡΠ ag freee! ργ 08 See κεφ οἑ κεν νο σε καἰ κοοε σε κου "48 ser eeeens 0g "GZ “ys weerttees “8 teeenenes 07 “Δ Prever rrr 6- Ὁ} “Δ se esecces -ς ϑ tet enenee Zz deesesene) [6 Gai cscsadeee og ‘OL “ys “Δὰ GossaweneHi@T ‘e-p “Ur Ὅτ τ Ἐ' 02 ὍΡ | “wu “Ul "5 Weocesese GI “21 ‘OL “τῷ τα 06 “ul 81 "UL "ys Tet eeeees OF ‘og CL 81 “Ss «3 Σ 06 sae 8l | “™ "Ur ete eewens OF ἴα ae Ol CZ 81 | ‘# 04 τι Fee weeeee { Ἡπαντενι ον] OBOE ; 8 ἀϑ [1565 657 π. 675-05 sumo YI EF) SWOT 70} “ΒΥΙΠΟΠ78}} ᾿ΒΏΙΟΙ2Ό; ΠΟ i 5 sever ene 04 eee eeweee o¢-s¢ “ys weet et eee 0z tee ew eres leoreseeee 2 [eee ect eppeg διποοοι!αρ “13 νι uw “48 04 “ys 0¢ 8 Ὁ 08 001-ς Ὁ ΩΣ 02 ὋΖΦΖ φοφοι νόον 00I-S A CO Ξ ΕΣ Go er ¢01-0 “a y seers remUeIS VUODOITAG σον ** ΒΙΠΠΠΟΙΠῚ Βιποοο 0 τε δηοογῆθι eutosorydG Ἢ [πη 57 ὁ ΔῈ soreeerereeee eprqqe eantydg 06-¥F “MM ON BRITISH MARINE ZOOLOGY. Φ [τοὶ No) seeerererees pavngxay Bintqydo, sereeereeess r gnseqad ΒΙΠΊΘΌΠΟΟ OF-S peeeeeees oe erry see sesreeleseeetsesees trteeeeesl οΖ hesroerne ἢ δ. *SULOY} BJ) ᾿ΒΙΠΟ 1701 “5 weeeeeese “Δ Fee eeseeelenerersesese teeeeeres! Gray ᾿ΒΥΠΟῚ 2} “SULOTIeF seseereseees βράοαπο @{NqVULOD ‘punoin| -peag | ‘eaty |‘punory} ‘peeq | ὁ ον ae UC Oa ee) a ee OF a et Sa ee ee A ie Tee coe a7 Se” eh as ..} δὴν alee amine mie : ee δι. δ Saw bre λδιωτο sraapaist ae et et eee ὃ : ers = A ee | wane . . og . . . . . . 9, bd . PALLIOBRANCHIATA Hypothyris British genera Test. Motuusca. LAMELLIBRANCHIATA Megathyris PTEROPODA Hyalxa Terebratula Crania GASTEROPODA Spirialis Chiton ES, SR ats τ πον οὐ LN --- -ι ome “ss δ, ἀκ νόος ὁ. ie Ἔν δε υ τς αὐ mice τ τ eo} ὧν .e« a, .0 8 ὦν ee Ἐπ ας OR ONS τὰ Ὁ Sa els) ὦ ν᾿, MO eee ον ΘΑ Ne ὩΣ ΜΞΝ εἰ ρου Se wes sae Oty ὦ τυ © ιν ἀν Ὁ ον δ΄. .Φ. eer et ὁ- ἄποιον. Or en eam Herel! le oe S @ Petes. 4 516 oe) ene nah al κ' ἮΝ nee ὦ οὖσ ἐδ Oye eee OS aya κατ ἂἄν δον ΡΝ CAS. 'e: Truncatella Cerithiopsis Trichotropis Emarginula Otina ..... Acmza Pilidium Propilidium .. Dentalium Pileopsis.. Calyptrea Fissurella Puncturella Haliotis Trochus Phasianella Adeorbis Scissurella Tanthina Littorina Jeffreysia Skenea Skenea? Turritella Aporrhais Cerithium Scalaria Odostomia Eulimella Natica Lamellaria Velutina Patella ! τ a — ON BRITISH MARINE ZOOLOGY. @ ig 192 5 95 | oo] Fe) 2s | sehsl a8 [Ξ8 Φ x ne ῷ 9 24 Ba. 8 British genera. a3 44 Ξ a os 2 28 Be a aga Ξ = : ES g ge 23 28 | 22°) 28 | 3g | se 355. es 8 ΞΞὃ a | a ees |. a ee als —_ [== | .-............. Test. Morxusca. GASTEROPODA. Purpura ....0....sc0.0000, 1 1 | (1) are πο tra) 1 1 1 1 Murex .......... HUM 3 2 2 4 1 2 1 1 1 8 GSMS) FAs νον ἃ lie weal 9 0 2 Ρ 3 2 6 4 6 3 Buccinum ............... 4 1 1 a 1 1 2 2 2 0 ΟΥ̓ΘΕΒΒΙ cs rept. wis ctas ἐμ. 8 2 3 Ν᾽ τῷ 9 2 1 ἢ Trophon............ Sees ie 0 1 Dara (Oe 2 3 3 3 1 Mangelia ...... afin Ms 15 0 9 see [| 2k. el 11 15. | 34 Marginella ...... ἐὰν ἢ 1 3 1 ce I 1 1 0 5 0) SE BPR SO eae RIN 0 0 RZ SELEY 1 0 4 POCA ταν seca ον τινα 1 1 1 de 1 1 1 1 7 Tornatella ............... 1 1 1 sez : 1 1 1 2 3 linea γδϑὴλ lim οι 0 7 ἢ 3 8 4 18 | 13 |: Coe ai a 6 0 2 ὃς 1 4 3 4 3 Pleurobranchus.........) 2 2 Deni 0, ἘΣ 1198 * 0 1 6 Aplysia ....... τῆς ἠδ 1 0 1 F eet * 1 0 1 6 Conovulus ............... 2 2 0 τ Ἀ 1 ὃ 3 EcHINODERMATA. ; Comatula ....... ashi ate 0 1 5 1 2 vie 2 1 Ophiura ............ rt etl eb Or} = 2 Saf 2 2 0 1 3 Ophiocoma.......... fe cl EY 2 5 1 5 6 0 10 11 Euryale ........... ἰὼν sey [LOR 0 0 van 0 * 0 3 1 Uraster .......... SEE. out 4 | 8 4 εὐ Zee ἃ 1 3 3 MORI PUAN, coisas cs cue neces cy 2 1 1 = 1 1 0 2 1 ΠΗ irr 2 0 2 kit 1 2 0 3 ὃ Palmipes............. ἔξ} 0 0 uy 1 1 0 0 1 Asterina ........... AS 1 1 0 as * * 0 0 3 Goniaster ....... ΠΣ 2 0 0 1 1 1 0 4 1 JASLETIAS 0 :,. ᾿ς ἀρνί 1 0 1 Ap = 1 1 0 4 4 Luidia.......... Ἐπ τος sea 1 0 1 Ἢ ie, 1 1 0 1 1 Echinus .................. 7 2 3 Et 1 2 4 1 6 7 Cidaris ............ Bayar 1 0 0 ἐς ἫΝ 0 * 0 1 1 Echinocyamus ......... 1 0 1 ὡς ᾽ 1 1 1 1 1 Brissus ....... Loy ont 1 0 1 3 0 1 0 2 2 Amphidetus ............ 2 1 2 1 1 ? 2 2 Spatangus ...............| 1 0 ΤΡ ΤΟΣ 1 1 ? 1 1 Causes which seem to determine or to have determined the peculiarities of the horizontal distribution of Species on the western coast of G'reat Britain. These seem to be mainly,—first, the influence and distribution of existing oceanic currents; and secondly, the geological changes which the region has undergone since the tertiary epoch, and during the last term of that epoch. The first is the climatal influence, acting by its regulation of the temperature of the sea; the second, a geological influence, the action of which, so far as the present epoch is concerned whilst under review, has passed away. _ Along the southern coast of England, the upper portion of the Coralline zone (18-30 fathoms) has a wide extension from the shore towards the eastern extremity of the English channel, occupying its whole breadth and gradually narrowing along the coasts of Devon and Cornwall, where the deeper por- tion of the same region approaches the land more nearly than elsewhere on the western English coast*. To the extension and connection of lands * The naturalist, besides consulting the usual hydrographical charts, cannot do better than study the interesting Map of the English Channel by Mr. Austen, published in the Geological Journal. 262 ; . REPORT—1850. across the eastern channel, ancient but not anterior to the existing population of the British seas, we may ascribe some of the peculiarities of our southern- most marine fauna, especially the presence there of southern forms of mol- lusks, inhabitants of the Littoral or Laminarian zones, and undoubtedly colonists from a more southern assemblage, such as we now see in the Channel Islands, The inhabitants of greater depths taken off the Cornish coast at considerable distances from shore, we have seen to be species of a different climatal character, boreal instead of southern; and when the distribution of animals on the Nymph Bank and off the southernmost coast of Ireland shall have been more fully explored, we shall find—at least, so the facts already made known indicate—that there is a large tract of considerable depth in the southern part of St. George’s Channel, of the great deep-sea fishing-grounds, charac- terized by this boreal fauna, bearing a close relationship with the extinct fauna of the northern drift of the south-eastern districts of Ireland and parts of the coast of Wales.. A great part of the Irish sea is very shallow, rarely sufficiently deep to affect the character of its fauna; parts of its floor, as be- tween the Isle of Man and Lancashire, barely emerging from the Coralline zone, and its deepest portions of any extent scarcely infringing on the region of deep-sea corals. Between the Isle of Man and the Mull of Galloway, it is true, there is the deep and narrow ravine, 150 fathoms in its deepest part, discovered by Captain Beechey and dredged by him. But the results of his valuable research, carefully investigated by a most able naturalist, Mr, W. Thompson of Belfast, have shown that we have no fauna in that limited gulf at all corresponding to its depth, and that its contents are normally inha- bitants of shallower regions. For this reason, the absence of the assemblage of subarctic or boreal. species met with in all the older British submarine areas of considerable depth, and the curious interruption in the distribution of the smaller terrestrial quadrupeds which occurs in this quarter, reaching, as many of them do, the extreme parts of the south of Scotland, yet not in- habiting the nearest portions of Ireland opposite or any part of that island, I am induced to hazard the conjecture, that the great. ravine in question dates its origin from a period later than the close of the glacial epoch, yet before that of the general spread of the greater part of the Germanic fauna and flora over these islands—of that part which, from causes varying in different spe- cies of animals and plants, was the more tardy in its progress. In the regions of the Clyde and along the inner Hebrides we have a great variety of depths ; but the phenomenon most striking is the great depth of many of the lochs, often of considerable dimensions, whilst the entrances to them are exceedingly shallow ; and in some cases the seas without them for a considerable distance are very shallow also. The fauna of these isolated deeps is very different from that of the Gallovegian ravine, for in the former we find assembled and imprisoned creatures which are characteristic of very deep regions of the sea, and which are mainly of a marked Scandinavian character. Sometimes, — as in the neighbourhood of the Croulin islands, between Skye and the Ross- shire coast, we find a deep area of the sea thronged with Scandinavian spe- cies, living on the remains of the ancient glacial sea-bed and mingled with the exuviz of their extinct ancestors, and of other creatures, now wholly ex- tinguished within our seas, of an equally boreal or even arctic complexion. We have to sail a long way from the islands before we come to the edge of the permanently 100-fathom line, which, as we go northwards, must be sought for considerably to the west of St. Kilda and north of the desolate rocks of Sulisker and Rona. Around the Zetland Isles is the region in which the British explorer has the best opportunity of inquiring into the features of the fauna of the greater abysses of our seas, though of these depths we can scarcely claim more than the 100-fathom region as coming within the com- ON BRITISH MARINE ZOOLOGY. 263 pass of British natural history. The soundings for a degree and a half north of Unst do not reach 300 fathoms; and from the Naze of Norway to the coast of Scotland there is a line of soundings not reaching to 100 fathoms, quite sufficient, as may be seen from an examination of the tables here given, to keep up a considerable communication and interchange with the Scandinavian marine fauna. That the diffusion of Lusitanian forms along our southern shores and for some distance up St. George’s Channel is due to the action of southern cur- rents and their climatal influence, must be evident to any person who will compare the range of those species with the course and extension of Rennell’s current, which, striking towards our shores from the coast of Spain, im- pinges on our south-western English provinces and diffuses its influence over an area exactly corresponding with the extension of our marine creatures of southern types. The extension, more or less powerful in different years, of the Gulf-stream towards the Irish coast, and the combined influence of it and its branch-current already mentioned, affects an area extending from our south-western English province round the western coast of Ireland and im- pinging on the western shores of Scotland in its northern portion, sufficient to account for the curious curve.of distribution taken by those animals which range in that line almost from Devon to Zetland, but are rare or absent in the central portions of the Irish sea. The setting-in of the arctic current from the centre will account for the transmission to our northern shores of numerous Scandinavian forms. But no action of currents, as at present maintained, can account for the isolated patches and imprisoned assemblages of glacial animals to which I have more than once alluded in this Report. To account for them we must trace the physical conformation of the British seas in an epoch anterior to the present, and by doing so, shall find that the causes similar to those now in action differently disposed, will give us a clear insight into the origin of these phenomena. I have elsewhere theorized fully on this subject*, and have only to add, that all subsequent researches, a great mass of which is embodied in this Report, go in the strongest manner to confirm the views I had ventured to advance. Desiderata within this area.—A great deal may yet be done for the ex- ploration of the part of the British seas which has furnished the subject of this Report. Although little that is new, if anything, can be expected from the coasts of Hants, Sussex and Kent, yet it would be satisfactory to have a well-filled series of dredging papers relating to those counties. The central portion of the English channel and its entrance have yet to be systematically explored, and the depths of the Cornish coast and around the Seilly Isles should be sedulously examined. Off the entrance of the Bristol channel are isolated, or nearly so, patches of 60 fathoms and thereabouts which require to be carefully explored. The deeper portions of the Irish sea should be looked to more minutely. A more difficult task, and one which can be hardly hoped for fulfilment without the help of a steam-vessel and continued calm weather, is the dredging of the deeps off the Hebrides in the open ocean. Much of the deep sea area around the Zetlands is sure to reward the explorer. The lochs of Sutherlandshire have not as yet been systematically examined. And lastly, though I fear the consummation, however devoutly wished for, is not likely soon to be effected, a series of dredgings between the Zetland and the Faroe Isles, where the greatest depth is under 700 fathoms, would throw more light on the natural history of the North Atlantic and on marine zoology generally, than any investigation that has yet been under- taken. * Memoirs of Geological Survey, vol. i. 964 REPORT—1850. Notes on the Distribution and Range in depth of Mollusca and other Marine Animals observed on the coasts of Spain, Portugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849. By Rosert MacAnprew, Esq., F.L.S. List of Species of Mollusca obtained in Vigo Bay during the first week of April and the last week of August 1849. Depth. |Ground.| Living at ΤΣ Saxicava arctica ....... 6600} «γε νος sand | 8 fath. | rare |smooth variety in mud. Corbula nucleus ...... Saal oa lieder mud |5 to 25f.) abun. Nezera cuspidata........00..) s+ mud | 20 fath. | rare. Pandora rostrata.......++++- 4 fath. | mud | ...... rare. —— obtusa......... Et ake | peande/ 10 fathy| ‘rare. : Thracia villosiuscula?...... ..ee | Sand | 8 fath. | rare. Lyonsia striata ............ 4 fath. | mud] ...... rare. Solen siliqua ....... Bey ΕΘ ΕΣ sand |low water] freq. {sold in the market. ῬΗΝΙΝ st cetcarcoseeterssl! voerees sand jlow water| freq. VAGINA .seececeecenee| teeeee sand |low water| freq. Psammobia vespertina ...| ...... sand |low water| freq. —-~ tellinella.........---...| Sfath. | null. | ...... rare |valves small. Tellina tenuis .......e......., Shore | sand| ...... | freq. —— donacina...............| shore | sand] ...... rare. —— distorta?.....+......---| Sfath. | sand | ...... rare. CYASSA, «++. .008 Mosndeeute shore | sand] ...... rare jone valve. serrata ...... τι 10 fath.| sand] ...... rare |one valve. Diodonta fragilis.......60...] cesses sand | shore | abun. jone living. Syndosmya alba ........000.] eeeeee mud | 10 fath. | freq. prismatica .........00.] τ 555 mud | 10 fath. | rare. Scrobicularia piperata shore eee reget | PALE. Donax anatinus .......+.... soecee Se ec not ab. Mesodesma donacilla......) ...... sand | shore | freq. Mactra subtruncata ...... we. | Sand |5 to 10f.| freq. truncata? .....0..e00+ meats sand | shore | rare [ΟΥ̓ solida. Lutraria oblonga...........- shore | sand] ...... rare |valves. —— elliptica ....ceceesceeee] cover - sand |low water| rare |sold in the market. —— TUgOSA.......4+ δον ο.... 58. to4f) oe. | ...... num. |valves, three pairs. ὦ Tapes Virginea......ceccesee.] eeeeee mud | 8 fath. | abun. |very highly coloured. —— decussata ......... Ἐπ ΑΠΝΕΣ ΣΕ sand |low water| freq. —— pullastra.......ecceeeee] ceeeee sand |low water) freq. jlarge. ——_ AUITED ...eeeserecees ἘΠῚ mies Sees sand |low water] freq. jlarge. Venus verrucosa..........+- we... | Sand | 5fath. | freq. BEM DUH a. θὰ ϑθσεδλς wae mud } 20 fath. | freq. —— fasciata ........0.0+ Εν Yoavene null. | 8 fath. | lim. ΟΥΑΙ coesseseeerecseree| 5} 5560 null. | 8fath. | freq. Lucinopsis undata ......... 3fath. | mud] ...... rare. ΠΡΟ mints Viocessveavecses| leccees null. | 8 fath. | abun. Astarte triangularis «.....} ...... null. | 8 fath. | rare. Artemis exoleta .......00.2.| ...06 sand |low water] abun. |finely coloured, sold in market. ἸΣΠΟΥΒΕ voce sp iieapsstwee|t ovens sand |low water| ... jmore rare than preceding. Cardium edule .2...0..0...] 2206 . | sand | littoral | abun. — echinatum ..... poesia tiiarenc. sand | littoral | rare. tuberculatum ......... _..... | mud | littoral | rare jone specimen more square than — ciliare...... Meee as nesee|ilenst ee mud | 10fath.| freq. | medium specimen, norvegicum [loured. —— papillosum, var.......) .. BF sand | 10fath.| lim. jonly a few specimens, rose-co- EXIZUUM veesereceecerce] κ 6625. sand | shore | local larger than British specimens. Trucina’Tactea” 27-2. νεν να] asses mud | 10 fath.| rare. digitalis .......... Bees | Peenves sand 110 to 15f.) rare. — flexuosa .........0....0} eevee mud | 4fath. jr.&sm. —— spinifera.........000.0.| se... | mud [10 to12f, local. ΟΝ SOUTH-EUROPEAN MARINE INVERTEBRATA. 265 -.-....ὄ.ὕὄ-.....σ.--’ὁ..----Ξ-ς-ς-ὀ-ς-ς.---. -- ---- 8888 ᾽.'"....- - -ς--. Depth. |Ground,| Living δὲ fe sie Lucina spinifera var. ......) «ννννν mud [10 {012 ἢ. local |smooth, cream or buff-colour. Montacuta bidentata...... wees mud | 4 fath. | rare. Kellia suborbicularis ......} ...... mud | 8fath. | freq. jin dead shells of Tapes virginea. Lepton squamosum......... Sfath. | sand] ...... rare |valves. (shells. Galeomma Turtoni.........} νιν νον mud | 10 fath.| v.r. |one specimen in mud with dead Kellia? (genus uncertain)| ... mud | 5fath. | rare οὗ same genus, perhaps species, as a shell, procured alive un- Mytilus Galloprovincialis 2] ...... rocks | littoral | abun.} der stones in Faro Harbour. — edulis? ..... seeeveseee! ς ρα δ rocks | littoral | abun. jentrance of the bay. Modiola tulipa............... caneee mud | 12 fath.| rare. Crenella marmorata ......} ...... gravel| 12fath.| rare jin Ascidiz. — costulata..........0.. “1 shore ΚΝ ΤΕΥ ΌΣ v.r. jone valve. Nucula nucleus .........00.[ 0s... mud |5 to 25f.} freq. Seems ΠΙΑ Sa delseuy's St τε ΕἼΘ ῚΣ ἐς mud |20 to25f.| rare. — nitida 0. Mia mud [20 to 25f.| freq. Arca tetragona ....... seco} Sfath. |nul.&gr| .....». rare |valves. — lactea............ eooeeel Sfath. Inul.&gr.| ...... rare |valves. Pectunculus glycimeris ...)_ ...... |nul.&gr.| 8 to 12 f.| rare Avicula tarentina .........] 0 ...e0 mud | 8 fath rare jone living, several dead on the j shore, where they were proba- Pecten maximus............ seeoue-- | Sand | 8 fath. | freq. | bly brought by the Seine nets. —— opercularis .........065) sess sand | 8 to 20f.| not f, |small. --- VATIUS ........s0cceecees| | pete sand | 8 fath. | not f. — obsoletus ............ 8fath. | sand] ...... rare |valves. — distortus........... BRE (hate rocky | 6 fath.. | local. BPWINS; ..ceecscvcesis.54 20fath.| mud] ...... rare |valves. — fuci....... cessseeseseeee{ 10 fath. | sand | ...... rare |valves. Ostrea edulis ......... (ον νά νον es ++» {low water abundant in shallow water near the head of the bay, and ex- cellent quality. —— —— var. parasitica.) ...... ++» |low water] ... {covering rocks near head of the Anomia ephippium.........). ...... s. ἃ gr.| 10 fath. | freq. [ bay, small. —— patelliformis .........) ..... - [8. ἃ gr.) 10 fath. | rare. [trance of bay. Crania anomala ............] 0 ...... 25 fath. | v.r. |dredged one specimen near en- Chiton rufus ........ 9). bi ane -++ |L.w.to12f,| abun. jcreeping on the shore and at- —— fascicularis ......... Ps eee 8. &m.| 8 fath..| freq. | tached to dead shells, &c.; —— marginatus............) 2 littoral | freq. | some came up with the chain —asellus ......... wie si seve 8. & τὴ, 8 to 12f.| freq. |. every time we got under way. ——$ ]RVIS ooeeee.ssesee vere] sevens [Se & m./ 8 to 12 f.| rare. |) — cancellatus............) 0... 8. & τη. 8 to 12 f.} rare. Patella vulgaris ........ sens] cence littoral | abun. |— pellucida......... “Berd! ores 8 fath. | freq. jon fucus. | Acmeea virginea ............) ὦν μον | Sand | 8fath. | freq. jlarge. |Emarginula rosea ...... mall ou eee sand |8 to 12f.| freq. |not large. Fissurella reticulata Ae | Re ee 8to12f.} rare |small. τερον ones eeee eee] ceeees 8to12f.| rare |small. Calyptrea sinensis .........] © ...... shells ji, w. to20f.| v. f. Bollea aperta ............00.] se... mud | 4 fath. | freq. — scabra........... etek? 4 fath. | mud | ...... rare. Bulla hydatis ............ -.eee | Daud |sh.to4f.) ν. ἃ. ——$ AKETA .... κε ννννννννενον eee | mud | 4 fath. | freq. — cylindrica ..........0.) ss. sand | 8 fath. | freq. — lignaria .......0.......] νννννν mud | 10 fath. | v.r. jone specimen. — umbilicata ...... «ὁ 4 fath. | mud. - | local. —— truncata...............| 4 fath. | mud | ...... | local. Aplysia depilans....... sere] νέον, | Sand jl.w.to8f.! ... Jextremely abundant on the | Rissoa Ulva .......00...00000- 4 fath. | mud Pe local. | - shore. - —— vincta....... sessseeeeee| 4 fath. | «2. [low water] local. — costata .......... see-| 4 fath, cc) eae rare. —- costulata............... 4 fath. ὙΠ} ...ὅὕὅἢν Υ͂. Τ΄ — labiosa ...............| 4 fath. soneessv) Seq. —— interrupta? .........} Πννννος Ae 4 fath. | local. rg ΄ 266 REPORT—1850. Rissoa striata ........... εἰν] create che τ — pellucida............... : δὰ ἘΠῚ. δὰ ἔξ τ ΘΒΣ ΤΩ, ἔγχος εὐνξοι εν ις Ὁ 02.04 οἷν —— calathiscus ............ ν sabe (Acasa — cimex? aletegenes teens —— Violacea? ............ cae ΕΓ τς Alvania albella ............ Odostomia of 2 or 3 species} ...... KONGERS τς. τες Sete ἄπονα ΚΕ 4 fath. Chemnitzia elegantissima./4 to 12 f.| sand | ..... —scalaris .......... siestlthitath. vw] Band! ἡ... Ὁ ως —— fulvocincta............| eases " : only one specimen. fenestrata ............ ὁ} Md fs 5. ἦρι ὃ only two specimens, —— indistincta? ......... only two specimens. == SCalaris (τον, εὐ βυϊαύπον Batid)| dew only two specimens. a fragment, large. _—_ NEW? s.cccsecsts Eulima polita ............. oul) ocd a Sige subulata .......ec0000. eee eee err —— monilifera? ......... ΓΕ ΤΕ one, dead and imperfect. Velutina levigata ......... «οὐνος r " small. Tornatella fasciata .........| ...... Ἴ ++. Jone, young. Lamellaria perspicua ......] «....- animal a bright orange colour. Haliotis tuberculatus ...... P| doe, ... |fragment. Scalaria communis.........}....... τς — Turtoni .......... οὐ aoe Ὁ adele —— clathratulus ......... ᾿ς. Badal κ᾽ υϑοινυ Vermetus semisurrectus| ...... oe ... extremely abundant, in large (Serpula tubularia) groups brought in by fishing —— triqueter.......... Cod Mas Cee a ν᾽ 3 nets. ——= Muller. ὡς ς πος τὴ 200s Solarium luteum............| 0.2.06 ..» Jone, living. —— stramineum .........| ....0s Η ... fone, living. Trochus umbilicatus ἐεεεξ A tumidus . aa Pree ee ee Seteee (qy- young of preceding ?). TS MABLUS sr eseecacccacessces| bade — Laugieri.......... sects +} Sand | ...... ΟἸΠΟΥΆΓΙΠΒ.᾽.,. «οὐ ἐσερϑα ναι! ext . Ziziphinus ...... ἐξ ον | τευ: 8 fath. CEASSUS) sconsonecneos dhpibetes. ds ΕΥ̓ shore. nsdbaes σῶον ες A ὦ 10 fath. « jon fucus (gy. vars, of T, einera- Adeorbis subcarinatus ... ee eres .| rius). Phasianella pulla............| 0 σίνος ee ‘ 2 Lacuna puteolus? ......... Al ee ... Jone dead specimen. Littorina littoreus ......... tebead wa Seem μη ΠΥ ΣΡ wee eh : . Jon fucus. HAAS ?:.. “πὶ δ τ φυς εἰ 5’ 8}. ὦ οὐδέ Turritella tricostalis ......} «.+... sand —— terebra .....-....cc000] 0.0.1 εἷς mud Cerithium reticulatum ...| | ...... mud —— perversum .........605 4 fath. oes ith Pleurotoma attenuatum .../6 to 10 f.} mud | ...... COStATIIN νι τοῖς, τ mud MINCATE ΡΤ ΠῚ ΠῸ sand —— elegans ....... ssccacce| 9. ΒΈΜΕΜΙ SANG; ., “..5.:. -++ Jone specimen. —pbrachystomum ...... 12 fath.| mud | ...... more rare than preceding ; very produced. minute, depressed, bicarinated ᾿ς ON SOUTH-EUROPEAN MARINE INVERTEBRATA. 267 Fre- quency. ———— | | ————————————— | Depth. |Ground.| Living at Pleurotoma purpureum ... —— septangulare .........| 00... sand | 8 fath. ... {two, fine and large. — coarctatumorSmithii} ..,... sand | 8 fath. | rare Fusus contrarius ...,.....+«+ 8 fath. | sand | shore ... jobtained seven living specimens on shore near the town, five —— muricatus ......660-6) eee sand | 8fath. | v.r. | deadin 8fath.near the mouth corallinus .........06:] .....- sand | 8 fath. | freq. | of the bay. 15 fath.| sand | ...... rare |carinated ; some resemblance to Murex erinaceus .,,.00..-++-| seeess tes shore | freq. P. lapillus. — Edwardsii ...........-) ...... εἶν shore | freq. — cristatus? var.? ...| ...10 sand | 8 fath. ... |three specimens together. Triton variegatum ........-) ...... sand | 8 fath. ... Jone, living. —— COTrUgAatUM ....... 66} ννννον sand | 8 fath. ... 1016, living. Chenopus pes-pelecani ...| ...... sand | 8 fath. | local. Purpura lapillus ....... ΒΜ ΛῊΕΕ.Σ ... | littoral | freq. |near the town and low down ; the baysmalland dark colour, Nassa macula ......+++..5-5. 4to 8f.| freq. | at head of the bay large and ——— VATICOSA .....-seseee eee 4 fath. | rare. white. — reticulata .......,.065 : hat RR freq. jordinary form, in sand, dark co- loured undulated var. in mud. 20 to 25f.| ν. ἃ. |large, never striated. Ringuicula auriculata Buceinum, new Sp. .....62-} ees. mud |6 to 25f.| ν. ἃ. |smooth, purple, obscurely Nesea minima ....+...... 8 fath. | sand | ...... local. | banded ; animal very active. Erato levis ...-.c.cessseeees] eevee sand | 8 fath. .-. {two specimens living. Cypreea Europea .......55 6 so. sand | 8 fath. Dentalium dentalis ΟΥ̓ quadrangulare ............| ...e6 mud {5 to 20 ἢ.) abun. —— tarentinum,......e0...} sseeee mud |5 to 20 f.| rare. Czecum trachea ............ 8 fath. | sand | ...... rare. ---- ——— MEW? naeerecereee| concen mud | 20 fath. | local |pellucid, very narrow in propor- tion to length, 3in.: greenish colour when living. sevens oe γι ... |gathered from rocks at entrance of the bay, sold abundantly for food, and much esteemed. Spirorbis. Pollicipes cornucopia ...... Balani. Clitia verruca. Acasta Montagui. Anatifa vulgaris. —— striata. 4 species of Echinus. 4 species of Star-fishes. 4 species of Comatula. Holothuriz. Cucumariz. Aleyonium digitatum. —?—. Pennatula (Med. species). Actinie &c. Zoanthus Couchii. dwardsia. eritillun. _ Vigo Bay extends 16 or 18 miles inland; in mid-channel the bottom is muddy, 25 fathoms, near the entrance, gradually shoaling as you proceed upwards ; the littoral fauna, which is of a British or Celtic character, better developed towards the head of the bay, being more abundant, and the indi- viduals attaining larger size. , Of the preceding list of 200 species of Mollusca (omitting Balani and Le- pades), twenty-six are not inhabitants of the seas of the British Islands, viz. — 9608 REPORT—1850. Tellina serrata. Mesodesma donacilla. Lutraria rugosa. Cardium papillosum, var. Lucina digitalis. (genus unknown). Mytilus galloprovincialis. Solarium stramineum. Trochus Laugieri. Turritella tricostalis. Fusus contrarius*. Pleurotoma maravigni. Murex Edwardsii. cristatus ?. Chiton rufus*. Triton variegatum. » new ?*, corrugatum, Fissurella gibba. Ringuicula auriculata. Rissoa violacea ἢ. Buccinum (new ?)*, Chemnitzia (new)*. Dentalium quadrangulare. Solarium luteum. (new ἢ)". The shell which I have designated above under the name of Fusus contra- vius I believe to be distinct from the reversed var. of F’. antiquus. Of the species not British, at least twenty have been found in the Medi- terranean ; the exceptions are marked * in the list, and of these two, viz. Fusus contrarius and Buccinum, new species (which may be a var. of B. mo- destum), I look upon as doubtful. The subjoined list contains thirty species found at Vigo, and not known to inhabit the Mediterranean. Six of them may be considered doubtful, viz. Fusus contrarius and Buccinum (new ?), for the reasons already mentioned ; Natica monilifera and Lacuna puteolus, because they are in the Vigo list upon the faith of single, old, dead and imperfect specimens; Natica Alderi and Pecten obsoletus, because possibly identical with N. Marochiensis of authors, and a Pecten procured at Gibraltar. The twenty-nine species procured at Vigo, but not, in the Mediterranean, all inhabit the British seas except six or seven (marked * in the list), Fusus contrarius being doubtful. Natica monilifera ?. Alderi. Velutina laevigata. Trochus tumidus. cinerarius. Lacuna puteolus ἢ. Donax anatinus. Mactra truncata. Tapes pullastra. Kellia? (genus unknown)*. Pecten obsoletus. Chiton rufus*. marginatus. Littorina littoreus. —— asellus. rudis. : ,new?*, saxatilis. Patella pellucida. Fusus contrarius*. Rissoa ulvee. (carinated). pellucida. Purpura lapillus. vincta. Buccinum (new ?)*. striata. Dentalium —— (new*). Chemnitzia, new ?*. From the foregoing lists, it appears that the marine fauna of Vigo, as regards Mollusca, is more nearly related to that of the British Isles than to that of the division in which it is situated, the Lusitanian. The only land shells I met with in the neighbourhood of Vigo, are,— Helix nemoralis. barbula. —— revoluta. Helix aspersa. caperata. —— cellaria. ΟΝ SOUTH-EUROPEAN MARINE INVERTEBRATA. ΄ 269 I attempted to dredge off the Berlings bearing E.S.E. 8 or 10 miles, but could obtain no bottom with 200 fathoms’ line. Species obtained by dredging off Cascaes Bay, south of the rock of Lisbon: bottom hard sand, depth 15 to 20 fathoms. Corbula nucleus. Solen ensis. Solecurtus legumen. Syndosmya alba. Artemis lincta. Venus striatula. Cardium aculeatum (young). Pinna (fragment). Patella pellucida (gy. southern limit of range ὃ). Localit Bulla cylindrica. Odostomia conoidea. Chemnitzia fulvocincta. Eulima subulata—7 or 8 living. Nassa varicosa. Cymba olla—2 living (gy. most northern locality 3). Drepcinc Paper No. 1. Date, 5th of April, 1849. Depth, 15 to 30 fathoms. Distance from shore, about 14 mile. , Ground, coarse sand, mud. Region, y, Cape St. Mary’s, South Coast of Portugal. Species obtained. Serpula filograna . arctata Pholas dactylus Corbula nucleus Pandora rostrata Thracia phaseolina ΠΣ. — pellucidus —— antiquatus Lutraria ὃ Psammobia tellinella ... —— ferroensis Tellina distorta —— planata Donax trunculus. Mactra stultorum — subtruncata Cytherea chione Ditrupa subulata or co- Dentalium quadrangu- NHRC ehedewhcravenes.s ores —— tarentinum......... eee eeeee senescence “σον... Solen siliqua ...... ἀπο υϊο Solecurtus candidus ... ΠΣ ΠΣ Diodonta fragilis......... Bee eeeene —— coste ....... ΠΟ ΤΗΣ as —— politus ...... Cor cre Syndosmya alba ......... Ervillia castanea ......... —— venetiana ..........+ peeenee Number of dead 1ving| specimens. specms. 1 group innum. a fragment. valves. 1 valve. a fragment. fragments. a valve. frag. of 1 or 2) species. valves. valves. 1 valve. 1 4 valves. 2 valves. 2 valves. valves. num. valves. num. valves. num. valves. fragment 2 1 valve. | | Number Species obtained. of livin Spee τὰς ΕἸ ἢ Venus verrucosa...-...... fragment. | —— striatula............. abun. | —— fasciata ............ 1 —— CASINA «.. το ννννννενον xe fragment. Circe minuta ............ 3 Cardium edule ......... valve. |—— levigatum ........ 1 papillosum, var....} 5 fasciatum .......... 1 valve. Cardita trapezia ...... valve. Lucina lactea ............ ὩΣ valve. —— spinifera ........... "Δ 1 — digitalis ............ 4 valves. divaricata ......... 7 valves, | Diplodonta rotundata...| . valves. | Mytilus afer? ............ διά valve. |Modiola ....sssesees.eeeee oat valve. | Nucula nitida ............ 1 —— radiata .......... cA ee Leda emarginata......... num. valves. Arca tetragona ......... valves. || —— lactea ........6... ona |* tara valves. Pectunculus glycimeris | ... valves. Pinna ingens ?..........+ fragment. Pecten maximus. —— opercularis......... c valves. varius .........6 =o eB hecat valves. polymorphus ...... το valves. Emarginula fissura ......} «.. 2 Fissurella gibba ......... eas 2 Calyptrea sinensis ......| ... 3 270 REPORT— 1850. ache! Number . . -_- | Number of dead 3 P ~_« | Number of d Species obtained. ed specimens. Species obtained. τ ΤΩΝ spe im cua. Bulla truncata.........+.. Bi 2 Pleurotoma elegans...... 6 4 Natica Guilleminii ...... 4 —— purpureum......... fragment. ἘΠΡΤΕ pcovsiccesesnss ΝΥ 1 — striolatum ......... 1 Tornatella fasciata ...... aaa fragment. ||-—— attenuatum......... several. Eulima polita .........-+. ΡΞ 1 —— Smithii ............ several. Trochus ziziphinus ...... ἘΝ FPA MENE. |] ——. ———_.. oye sesevnece 1 several. Montagui ......... vas 1 Murex erinaceus ......... ri fragment. canaliculatus ....... ate 1 Chenopus pes-pelecani eee fragments. Turritella terebra ...... 18 Nassa reticulata ......... 5 —— sulcata ........60. He 2 —— macula «.... ὑόν νον “4. 1 Phasianella pulla......... ας 1 VATICOBA, ον «ον τάνὴ οὐ 4 Cerithium vulgare ...... 3 Bucciaum modestum ...1 6 ——reticulatum ...... : several. Ringuicula auriculata...| 4 12 —— perversum ......... Aa 1 The port of Faro in Algarve is situated behind the low islands, or rather salt marshes which form Cape St. Mary’s (Cabo de Santa Maria), There are several channels leading to it, but only one (facing the east) navigable for vessels drawing 8 to 12 feet water. At low water most of the channels are over a succession of sand-banks. nearly dry: bottom mud, with abundance of Zostera. This is only accessible at high tide I remained in the port five days, but was able to do but very little in the way of research. The following is a list of the shells obtained in the harbour and on the neighbouring shore, the species marked * being procured alive :— Pholas candidus. —— dactylus. Petricola lithophaga*. Venerupis irus*. Panopea Aldrovandi— numerous valves, 2 or 3 united. Solen siliqua*—in the market. ensis. — vagina*—in the market. Solecurtus legumen—valves. strigillatus—valves. Psammobia vespertina—valves. costata (Hanley)—large, con- centrically wrinkled, radiated. Tellina tenuis. Diodonta fragilis. Syndosmya prismatica*. Serobicularia piperata. Donax trunculus. politus. Ervillia castanea—several perfect shells, united valves, but none alive. Mactra helvacea—numerous valves on the exposed shore. stultorum. subtruncata*. Lutraria elliptica*. oblonga*. Lutraria rugosa. Cytherea chione. Tapes aurea. decussata. perforans. Venus verrucosa. fasciata*. striatula. Circe minuta. Artemis exoleta. lincta. Cardium edule*. var. rusticum of Mont. var.—very wide in propor- tion to length. norvegicum. tuberculatum, exiguum ?*. Lucina lactea. Bornia corbuloides* — abundant under stones. ? Τ genus unknown*—abundant under stones. Kellia suborbicularis*. —_— + Somewhat resembling Bornia corbuloides in form, but larger, much wider, opake, An . mi es ON SOUTH-EUROPEAN MARINE INVERTEBRATA. Mytilus galloprovincialis*. minutus. Modiola barbata. tulipa. Crenella marmorata*. Lithodomus caudigerus*—in stones found in Asturias, but not at Cadiz or in the Mediterranean. Arcalactea*—abundant under stones. tetragona*—one under stones. Pectunculus glycimeris—abundant valves, used by fishermen instead of lead. Lima scabrella ?. Pecten maximus. —— varius. Ostrea edulis. Chiton marginatus ? ?* -—— fascicularis*. Patella vulgaris*. Siphonaria concinna*. Fissurella greeca. Bulla striata. Natica intricata*. — Guilleminii. Sigaretus haliotoideus (of Lam.). Littorina neritoides. ᾿ Phasianella intermedia—on Zostera. Rissoa labiosa—on Zostera. lactea. Chemnitzia elegantissima. +Trochus crassus?*, var.—pale colour (Qy. is it met with further south? ). — umbilicatus*—on Zostera. =——— striatus*—on Zostera. 271 Trochus Laugieri*—on Zostera. : canaliculatus*—on Zostera. » var. ἢ » var. P Turbo rugosa. Turritella sulcata. Cerithium vulgatum. reticulatum. —~— perversum. Murex corallinus*. truncatus*. Brandaris*. -- erinaceus*. Edwardsii*. Triton variegatum*. corrugatum. cutaceum. Chenopus pes-pelecani. Purpura hemastoma. Cassis saburon ?—two, dead. Nassa reticulata. macula. Columbella rustica. Mitra (yellow, large). Cymba olla—picked up abundantly from bottom of a narrow channel at low water. Cypreea Europza*. Conus mediterraneus—abundant on muddy banks. Serpula triqueter, &c. Balanus*—on stones. , two species*—upon fishermen’s cork. -_—— It will be noticed, that of the foregoing list, there are only Trochus umbi- licatus and crassus (doubtful), and perhaps Chiton marginatus (a doubtful determination), British species not found in the Mediterranean. Dredged at San Lucar de Barameda (mouth of the Guadalquivir), 12th, 21st, and 22nd of April, locality not favourable for dredging ; bad enough for anchorage on account of the strong tide and freshwater coming down after the heavy rains—sandy shore. The most abundant species were Mactra stultorum, ordinary variety, and one pure white in about equal plenty; 7 ἴ- fina coste not uncommon ; valves of Lutraria rugosa small. Numerous com- mon South European species. Between the bar of San Lucar and Cadiz I made use of the dredge at Various points, in 8 to above 20 fathoms, and found the bottom to be black €pidermis furnished with minute tufts of hair arranged in rows, diverging from the limbs, Giving it the appearance of being striated. N.B. I have formerly found dead and worn specimens on the shore of Asturias, when I Supposed it to be Bornia complanata. 1 procured the same, or an allied species, smaller, _ dead, from mud in Vigo. T Possibly a variety of T. articulatus, or intermediate between the two species. 272 Ὶ REPORT—1850. . é mud, with hardly any shells except Nucula nitida and Turritella terebra. Between Cadiz and Cape Trafalgar, I met with better success (see dredging papers No. 2 and No. 8). DrepcinG Parer No. 2. Date, 23rd of April, 1849. Loeality, between Cadiz and Cape Trafalgar. Depth, 30 fathoms. Distance from shore, 8 to 10 miles. Ground, sand and gravel. Region, Number | Number of Species obtained. of living dead Observations. specmmns.| Specimens. Gastrochena cuneiformis ...) lor2]| ...... in the root of the coral (gy. Oculina ?). DAXICAVA ALCUICA 2..00.-,0c0ree] sores 1 minute. Corbula nucleus ............06+ several. Pandora obtusa ..........+++ 1 1 & valves. Solecurtus antiquus ...... epaleyanaens valves. Psammobia ferroensis.,.......|2 young. Tellina serrata......c0ssscc..s02| ἐρῖνος valves. Syndosmya alba ............... 1 —— intermedia? ............) 1 Ervillia castanea......... MES Sonate 2 valves. Mactra subtruncata ......... ΤῸ 1 valve. Tapes virginea.......... δον ΉΤΟ several. Cytherea venetiana............| ...... valves. Venus Verruc0sa ..........2620] ceeeee 1 valve. —— fasciata .....Ἄενννννννν Ἢ 3 VELA ys hte nsaseenscsaewecs reece valves. Circe minuta ............000 πον 4 Astarte incrassata?............| shoe 1 valve. Cardium echinatum ..-......| ...... 1 valve. —— TOSEUM ὃ... νννννννκνννννον 6 —— minimum ........+.. Score ἢ Hitteinairad ule! fwecec dense tres thn em ones valve. —— digitalis ...............6 sal wiecaties 1 & valve. —— spinifera.....eeeccccceeee] cave δ valve. Diplodonta rotundata......... Σοῦ καρ valve. Modiola vestita ............66- 1 Nucula nitida ............ Bec ob) ah Leda emarginata...............] sc. num. valves. Area Tacted: «5.020056. sss.od--0s0 1 —— Obliqua ceeresesececsecaee] eeeee 1 valve. —— antiquata? ............... 5 _|num. valves. —tetragona .....-.........) cee 1 valve. Lima fragilis ...... sesteenecats ἜΤΟΣ 1 valve. Pecten maximus ............ ὀπὴν χα ξ ἐν fragments. —— opercularis......... awdasie| ay doen fragments. ---- VATIUS cesses ;cosvcyscecson| posses fragments. —— polymorphus ............] ...... fragments. Fissurella graeca? ........0...) eevee 2 Calyptreea sinensis ............ 4 Vermetus —— sees... seeese 1 Bulla cylindrica ......... ame oath fe trun¢éata......... ΒΕΔ Ν Ὑ τοτοςς several. Rissoa Montagul........+...06.] scree 3 cee ee ene Snore ΕΣ ὑπο: 1 allied to vitrea? Odostomia conoidea ......... several | several. --- ACU ca reeesiseceereeseere sesso nn ςἝΞἝ΄-.΄---΄ ὕ ἀο-πτἃςᾺχκνὍΧῚτ τ’ 3 ΟΝ SOUTH-EUROPEAN MARINE INVERTEBRATA, 273 ‘ Number | Number of Species obtained. of living dead Observations. specmns.| specimens. Eulima polita ................4. 2 2 subulata........ ἜΝ τ 3 .|Chemnitzia elegantissima ...1 3 — TULA... ese serenereeroenes 1 : ----- —— NEW? ... νννννννννννν 1 ll very slender oblique undulated ribs. —— —— new (rosea) ...... λῆς ὃ 3 —— fulvocincta? ............ 1 Scalaria communis..... Caepese|” oz scee 1 broken. Trochus ziziphinus ............ Resse 1 —— millegranus ......000..6) we... 1 Turbo rugosus .........+0508- esses | 2 Opercula. Turritella terebra ............| several. —— tricostalis ....... τς ΠΕΡῚ several, Cerithium reticulatum ......} ...... several. —— PEFVETSUM ...c0.eseeeeeee! ννννον 1 Fusus corneus (Lin.) .........) .... 1 Pleurotoma gracilis ......... Sate 1 —— brachystomum .........} ...... several, —— reticulatum var. spino- sum...... seadaanascusiees<< eres ΤᾺ} ——,, NEW SP. «..Ὁ6 6 εννννον τὸ εἶπα cock 1 banded, black and yellow. Buccinum modestum ......... 1 several. —— MINUS... ee seseeseeceeeree| :Ξξς ΚὦΧ 2 Nassa reticulata ...... Rise oete = 1 several. —— macula ...... Radeoaetccee several | several. Ringuicula auriculata......... several} several. Dentalium quadrangulare ...| several | several. Ditrupa subulata ............ several | several. BIANUS: voc. escseesssoesceuvecea| 1 Adna anglica ........... eee yl Seat = sent” on Caryophyllia. Numerous Zoophytes, a large red coral, Occulina. DrepGinG Paper No. 8. Date, 26th of July, 1849. Locality, 8 miles north and west of Cape Trafalgar. Depth, 15 fathoms. Distance from shore, 5 miles. Ground, coarse sand with broken shells. Region, No. of living| No. of dead specimens. | specimens. Observations. Species obtained. ee ee Dentalium entalis or taren- Οἰπαπι ....... {ον diate βου ΝΠ eens 4 Ditrupa strangulata? ........ few. Serpula intorta ...............) few. —— triqueter............0..005| few. Corbula nucleus ....... as caves 6 Pandora obtusa .......0...00. 1 —— rostrata ....... 1 Solen ensis ......... 1 seseeel (Small. ‘Psammobia ferroensis 1 valves. _|—tellinella............. enspabigemeken valves. Mactra elliptica >........0...... eee valve [51η8]]. NSIT EE RER IES BEES οὐ τυ προ το ρου οτος es τ 1850, oF 274 REPORT—1850. No. of living] No. of dead Species obtained, specimens. | specimens. Observations. Lutraria elliptica..........00...| ~~ sees. 1 valve. Dapes-Wireinea..........+..0..200 3 abundant. Cytherea chione .........00065:] τος valves. WEMGWENG τ: τοις πνεῖν ᾽ς ossaes 1 valve. Venus fasciata..............006 6 —————ICABING “οἱ νους ἐν οδόξοι δεν 6.2} Saves 1 OVEGA |. .casnasonseresuasya> 2 —— striatula..............006- 1 RENCE WIND. ccanssa.casenceme 5 Astarte triangularis .........} ...... valves. Cardium papillosum .........) 22... 1 & valves. Lucina digitalis ..............+ 2 Kellia suborbicularis .........) .....+ 1 valve. | Modiola tulipa...........20000.. 1 Nucula nucleus ............+6. 1 | PAI ~ .cvccncestceveseey 8 CUR NUUIAbAscasacyccsssces ssceethn sactecs a valve. AYCA CEWUHPONA ᾿ς Jasssceosccts| —scoace valves ἘΞ lactea .....cceccecceceseees 2 Pectunculus glycimeris ...... 1 1 Lima subauriculata............) ...00 1 valve. Pecten maximus ............0.. 3 — opercularis ............... TOF: ioe cers ss small. —folymorpius cn] 8 | ΠῚ inact inerusted with sponges, ὅδ. Ostrea edulis ........«οονονονον abundant. Anomia ephippium ............ abundant. ΘΗ τὴν ΡΥ 2 :- o sence 30 to 45f.| freq. Leda emarginata............] (ἐν τος 4to12f.| local. | BUCUNGH oace-casescccee all Bacar. 30 to 40f.| freq. PARA) τε see cet seeing ... | 20fath. | rare /small, living; resembles 4. fusca. — lactea ....... pasrtneanes se. |20t012f.) local. —— antiquata .......... ..| sees. {30t045f.) local [numerous valves, few living. —— raridentata .s..e...s00.) eeeee 45 fath. | v.r. |three specimens. —— tetragona ............ δος 30 fath. | v.1. jone specimen, small. Pectunculus glycimeris ...|_ «..... 30 fath. | rare |small, one very large valve on shore. PIUNGSUIN) Govcnscevevresc =] Mises oe 8fath. | local jmud. Avicula tarentina .........| shore eities 1 Pinna squamosa ......... ...| Shore ... | local |fragments at various depths. Lima fragilis .......... Seek LONER RSs] πε ae local’ |valves. TONCTB soos oes .....| 10 fath. | ...... | local |valves. —— subauriculata.........| «...... | 35fath. | rare jone living, small, several fragments. —— scabrella? .........+ το ‘shore "|"100.... local |valves. Pecten maximuS ....+....++- sh.to 40 f.| 4 to 25f.| freq. —— opercularis ............] seeee 20 to 40f.| local |small. VALLUS, .cs.ccensaden sense ΠΕΣ 8 fath. | freq. —— distortus...... ἘΠ ΤΣ cul τος , 8 fath. | local. polymorphus .........] esse 6 fath common on shore. ———=_ PIDDUS,.. 0. .00dersueeee 15 to 45f.) 25 fath. one, living, numerous valves. —— obsoletus? ............ ..... | 30fath. | ... jone, living. ON SOUTH-EUROPEAN MARINE INVERTEBRATA. Depth. Pecten ENGL S .οννονννο τὴν ΡΟ —— Similis............06008. 20 to 40f. Ostrea edulis ............... 8 fath ees ry Anomia ephippium —— patelliformis Hyalza tricornis Cleodora το Ν᾿ κνρόνε κέ έσοσννν φόνον εν εν er Beem RINGOL 22a deed ithe stisut)walass a Siphonaria concinna Acmea virginea Haliotis tuberculata, var.? See eee werner eeeenr| stance sen eee Emarginula elongata Fissurella rosea errr ere rey Seeeeeceeses| %88 ene Costaria? ............ Capulus ungaricus Calyptrea sinensis ......... Bulla lignaria .......... elas eylindrica ΟΣ eee eneeee eens Seer eererees —— acuminata | Rissoa cimex ..... τ — calathiscus... —— Montagui —— 2 others Eulima polita —— nitida etre ewes weno eee tees ΟΣ sree ee eeenenses Peewee eee κεν σον Eulimella acicula —— — (Scille ?) .. Odostomia conoidea —— spiralis ............005 __ |Chemnitzia varricosa _|—— elegantissima ....... rr —— varicosa — scalaris seeeee errr eer. seeeee shore Sennen ee eeseees Peete tem esse see 15 to 30f, —— — or cerithium ? .|15 to 30f. | Natica Guilleminii ......... 0 to 40 f. | | —— intricata ........0...... Oto 12 ἢ. _|—— bicallosa. — sordida ...... BaiGan υϑν 12 fath vena teen eeeeeeees| — waeeee —— sagra »— macilenta?............ _ | Sigaretus Liason ae eee: shore Scalaria communis .........]...... — clathratulus ......... sh.to10 f —— Turtoni? .........., shore Vermetus gigas ..... seenees sh.to 10f —— glomeratus —— cancellatus? ......... — semisurrectus (Ser- | pula) — triqueter penpals — filogranus ἢ. a eaeeeeeeeee| - eeu.) Pe ee eereeeesaseeeeeee| στον. 5 Living at ἜΡΙΑ 30 fath. | rare Yeu local shinee local. various | freq. 8 fath. | rare. sh. to 8 f. 8 fath. | sh. to 8 f. littoral | freq, littoral | freq littoral | freq. 8 fath freq. shore | local Gi freq. littoral | freq. 8 fath. | freq. litt. to 8 f.| local 8 fath. | local Kiss rare Oto 30f.| va even rare 12 fath. | rare. Bee « local ΕΝ local AOC 1 is freq. 575 Ae freq. Ἐν freq. ΠΣ freq. 15 fath. | rare 15 fath. | rare. eee 1 spm 15 fath. | local 15 fath. | local 8 to 30 f.| local 8to30f.; rare nabs 1 10 fath. | local δά δωοε rare aes rare. 30 fath. [1 small. ΤΕ rare. 12 fath. | freq. 8 to 10f.| freq. αὐτά. Wark 8 to 20 f.) local. 8 fath. | local. 30 to 40 ἢ rare. aves rare. shore | local. ἡ. rare. ee local. 8 fath. | local. 8fath. | local. 8 fath. | local. 8.fath. | local. 8 fath. | local. local 277 destitute of spines. valves. Oe varieties, aspera, electrina, &c. one, pellucid, radiated with pink. fragment. . jangulated. some large. whorls flat, deeply grooved between. | | 278 REPORT—1850. Depth. | Living at Pecten corneus ?....... ἐν δ} "ΘΙ |” sizes. < Solarium stramineum? ...| 40 fath. | 40 fath. ——pseudo-perspectivum?| 40 fath.| ..... ; re δεν .ἐξ..}: ZO Fathi). vies Trochus Laugieri .......... it 8 fath. —— striatus ..........ὁος οκο τ ταν, ες littoral —— Montagui ............ 12 to 40 4. 15 fath WAP US eat uestencteccaces| pease ses 8 to 15 f. —— granulatus ............| see 8 to 15 ἔ, PLOTS «vats anak doses oof hid faghis!| vrai. —— fanulum .............62| eeeeae 6 to 10f. —— divaricatus ............]) γνννον littoral —— articulatus ............) cess. littoral ἘΞ. RICHALGH | cccencesdsce]| cctese littoral —— Vieillotti............ ΠΕ littoral — conulus, var. .........} sseeee 10 fath. — fragaroides............| 2... littoral —— ziziphinus ............ ssaxee | VOMEGIS E Turbo rugosus....,.......... 0 to 30f.| 8 fath. Phasianella pulla......... πο cssnes 8 fath. Littorina littoralis .........) 2... Se littoral neritoides ...,.....+.- eevee littoral Turritella tricostalis ......) ...... 0 to 30f. ἘΞΞΞΞΞ BEE UES wc vasccssdecal) πάει: 8 to 40f Mesalia sulcata ............] ..s.0 8to 15 ἢ -- ----- --.-.-.-ϑννενεεννννἝ i? cosets 15 fath. —— ? —, new .........] eee 15 to 30 ἢ. —? Robe suaenanaeamane τιν 15 to 30 f. Cerithium vulgatum Sent eee littoral ΡΘΗ ΒΟ νον εν, ποιοῖς lit.to 12f, —— perversum ............ 10to30f.| ‘. . rare. 279 of Mediterranean. of Mediterranean and bay. of Mediterranean. bay. small variety. Mediterranean. on Gorgonia. some of the smaller specimens finely striated longitudinally with a waved appearance. small, transparent, not much arcu- ated, narrow end grooved fore and aft. Few species of land-shells on the rock ; the prevailing are— Helix pisana. virgata. Helix lactea, var. Hispanica. Bulimus acutus,. 280 REPORT—1850. List of Shells procured at Malaga from 6th to 11th of May 1849, with the addition of some species obtained in same locality on a former occasion. Dentalium fissura, or ru- bescens. —— tarentinum....... ἘΞ ΣΕ, Pholas dactylus candida ....... τ». -- parva ~—— Vagina.........006 meine Solecurtus legumen ...... —— antiquus............... Psammobia ferroensis...... Diodonta fragilis............ Scrobicularia piperata...... Tellina cost (mew)........... —— pulchella.............56) tenuis....... —— depressa.... — distorta punicea planata Syndosmya alba ............ Donax trunculus............ venustus...........- ae Mesodesma donacilla ...... Lutraria elliptica........... oblonga —— rugosa...... acre Mactra subtruncata Tapes Beudantii............. —— geographica ......... Cytherea venetiana......... chione Venus gallina BETIAUMIA co sansievcesaes — fasciata ovata ἡ new? Circe minima Artemis lincta............... Cardium aculeatum......... tuberculatum ......... edule fasciatum Cardita calyculata Lucina lactea Pectunculus violascens ... Nucula polii...... ae nese —— nucleus Leda emarginata............ Avicula tarentina............ Pe ere ry Bente υ seen κεν κε κκσεν ee eee ered συ π᾿ Chama gryphoides .........|” Mytilus afer........ssee.seoee Crenella costulata Pecten varius Ostrea edulis πο 5 Dead at shore shore shore shore shore shore shore shore shore shore shore shore shore seeeee teens ὌΝ serene shore weneee Living at 4 fath. 8 to 30f. 4.6... ΠΩ seeeee eeeeee ween sees 4 fath. shore shore shore 4 fath. 4to12f. 4 fath. 4 fath. 35 fath. 4to 12f. 4tol2f. 35 fath. 4 1012 ἢ. 4 fath. 4 το 8 {, 4 το 8 ἢ. 4to8f. littoral littoral 4to8f. 35 fath. 4 το 30f. 4to8f. 35 fath. littoral 4 fath. 4to 8f. 4to8f. Fre- quency. local |a// the specimens have (upon close local. rare rare rare freq. freq. local. freq. local. freq. local. local. freq. local. local. local freq. freq. freq. local. local. local. abun. freq. freq. freq. freq. local. 1 valve. freq. local. local. local. freq. abun. freq. freq. freq. examination)a very narrow fissure, valves. valves. valves. in the harbour. some resemblance to 7. coste, but larger and with more colour. | sold for the table and much } esteemed; obtained by men wa- ding with nets, as shrimps in England. procured extensively for food. large, closely laminated. . jrocks. . |harbour. ‘ large and fine. two fine groups. . jrocks, the common species. en en ας.“ ον ——— ON SOUTH-EUROPEAN MARINE INVERTEBRATA. 281 Dead at | Living at jake Anomia ephippium and var. Clectrina .........s.0008 “1 shore | 4to 8f.| freq. Hyalea tricornis ...... sanese|) SHOTE {Ὁ ize. see rare. Chiton fascicularis .........} ...... littoral | freq. Patella, species uncertain | ...... littoral | freq. Siphonaria concinna ...... ss... | littoral | freq. Emarginula elongata ......|0 to8f.| ...... local. Fissurella rosea ..... Pre AE seeeee | littoral | local. Calyptreea sinensis .........| ...... | Oto8f. | abun. Sigaretus haliotideus ... shore ators one. Bulla aperta...... shore 4fath. | freq. Truncatella Montagui...... shore ...... rare. Rissoa monodonta .........} ..... - 4fath. | abun. {on Zostera. a EARION ls cn ccecs accnciuatali. iouvess 4 fath. | freq. jon Zostera. ——, new sp. > Ancroreee sos φορῶν a 35 fath. | rare |resembling R. abyssicola, but di- Odostomia conoidea ...... «ss... | 35 fath. | local.| — stinct. Chemnitzia elegantissima .|_ ...... 35 fath. | local. Neritina viridis ........ deta? vo de, 4fath. | local jon Zostera. Natica sordida............... 30 fath.| ...... one —— sagra ...... Pere eee shore | 4to8f.| freq. — Guilleminii............] shore | ...... freq. —— intricata......... τ ‘Sore! | 6... local. Tornatella fasciata .........] shore | ...... local. Tanthina nitens ............ shore το δον rare. Scalaria communis ......... shore | ...... local. —— pseudoscalaris ......) shore | ...... local. Vermetus gigas ............ shore | ...... local. —— —, gy.corneus?...| shore | ...... local. Solarium stramineum......}| shore ἘΠῚ rare. SS μέλειν σε τος, deus τυ ἐλ ἐς oc Wace 3 35 fath. | rare jon Avicula, minute, flat, bicarinated. Trochus ziziphinus ...... | Shore 4 fath. | local. —— Striatus .......cesceees φόνου. 4 fath. eae extremely abundant on Zostera. ----- MAZUS eo. sevseenereees| cecace 4fath. | freq. — Laugieri............... shore 4fath. | freq. — conulus, var. ......... eee: 4to8f.| local |small. —— granulatus .........006) oe. 4fath. | rare. —— tessellatus ............ shore | ...... local. — Richardii ...... aiinainch ius See littoral | freq. —— divaricatus ............ ἐών | littoral | freq. — articulatus ............ ag, littoral | freq. —— Vieillottiv......cceccee] ceceee littoral | local. — fragaroides............ ...se- | littoral | freq. Meena arises: τσ. “etc. littoral | freq. Phasianella pulla, τ ΣΕΛ, ἡ, τὰ. 4 fath. | local. Littorina neritoides.........| shore ἘΠ rare. —— PETA --.-γ.6.0{ἀκκνννν αὐ νννν ἃ littoral | abun. —— tigrina (D’Orbigny) | ...... littoral | local. Turritella tricostalis ...... shore | νεῖν... ++ la fragment. —terebra ............ se] ..ceee 1210 851. freq. Cerithium vulgatum ...... shore | ...... freq. .} τ. -- reticulatum ...........| shore naveee freq. —— perversum ........... shore | ...... rare. Cancellaria cancellata......) ...... 4fath. | freq. Pleurotoma brachystomum]| 30 fath veces | local. —— ginnannianum ......| ... ae 4fath. | local. _ |—— attenuatum.......... * «. | 210 4. local —— lavigatum ............1 Πνλννςς 2 to 4 ἢ. | local Triton variegatum .........) 0.0... 4fath. | local. ‘Cassis sulcosa .......... Κρ] Shore cock local Murex trunculus............ éeaias 4fath. | freq. | —— brandaris «ee. | 4fath. | freq. f —— erinaceus «. | 4to8f.| freq. 982 Dead at Nassa mutabilis .........-+- Reka — neritoides .........+.- shore ---- ΤΙΒΟΊΠΪΗ ᾿.......... 6.0} ovsses = FECICUIALA ᾿...........} senece -- ΤΡ Pollia maculosa ........se++| sees es Buccinum Minus......seeeee] eeeeee —— variabilis......0+.-.++s- shore — corniculum.........++- shore —— BTANUM .....-0eee eee es shore ΞΕ MOCEStUM?...cccreneee] coenee Columbella rustica .......2.] sss0es Ringuicula auriculata ...... 2 to 8 ἢ Mitra ebeneus..........ecsee] seeeee Cymba olla ............0eeees shore Cypraea pyrum ....6 γε λλενν shore CULOPRA «2... κεν τενον shore Conus mediterraneus ......«} ..-.+- Spirula Peronii ......+++.+- shore Anatifa fascicularis........- shore mae AEFIAUEIS, (owes ses ss ven'soe shore Balani. Large Asterias, abundant. Comatula, abundant. ZoanthusCouchii uponAvi- cula. REPORT—1850. Living at Bl 4to8 f.| freq. eee local 4to8f. | freq. 4to8f. | freq. 4to8f.| freq. littoral | freq. |rocks. 4fath. | v. ἃ. jon Zostera. ἢ freq. ete bs freq. 4fath. | freq 4to8f. | local |two varieties. littoral | abun 548% freq. littoral | local Pape local wy he local. papaks freq. littoral | freq. toe freq. ἥν ... |numerous valves. marek local, Se ees ee ee ee ς ὉὙἫὉσαυ να Sea-bottom mud, to a distance of 5 or 6 miles from land. A small shrimp-formed crustacean, claws short and broad, emits a sharp snapping noise when taken in the fingers and even after it is in spirits. The species not uncommon in most of the ports I visited in the Mediter- ranean. On the 12th of May, between Malaga and Carthagena, attempted twice to dredge, but obtained no bottom with 350 fathoms line. Carthagena, 14th to 16th of May. ss Fre- Dead at | Living at quency. Saxicava arctica ...........- Ree 35 fath. | rare. Petricola lithophaga ...... shore | ...... freq. Venerupis Irus, var. ...... τέ shore 1: ;..... freq. Newra cuspidata............ : 90 fath. | ΄...... rare |valves. costulata.............00 : .... | 30fath. | rare lone living. Tellina balaustina ......... - .... | 30fath. | rare. —— serrata oe... esses eee ΒΟ pcapee rare |valvyes. —— planata .......ἨΚλεεεενν BEE πιο: local. —— PUNICEA ...... 0 γε ννλ κεν 0Ὑ8 1}. | oo... rare |valves. —— distorta .....ἁἀὐνννννννεν Pie ἢ ἀξ cacese local. —— donacina.............+ 7 Tat. | κεν... local. — fabula ...........0. 2.008 PAA. | peaces local. Diodonta fragilis............ shore | ...... local, Syndosmya .......ss0s+.sscee] MUG | ...... 40 fath. | rare |small, pellucid. Donax trunculus............ shore | ...... freq. --- VENUSTUS 00... seeecerees shore 1. ...... local ——— Ἀν». Sa ὦ ON SOUTH-EUROPEAN MARINE INVERTEBRATA, 283 Living at ab cy. Tapes florida ............... vee ΤΠ ΒΠΟΥῈ UE... local |(small). | Cytherea venetiana......... a HT ath . | rare. —— Chione.........00000000| SAMA | oe... - | local small, τς Soe freq. antes 30 fath. freq. —fasciata ............005 εἶς τὴν! ae 30 fath. | local. Circe minima ............... »~& mM) ...... 30 fath. | local. Lucinopsis undata ......... oes dat Ca rare jone specimen. Cardium levigatum ........|s. ΠΕ One .| rare |young. —— exiguum............+6.| Weed | ...... - | local. — papillosum ............ i 5 . | local. —— echinatum ............| weed | ...... . | one. Cardita trapezia ............ eo IRHOFEM Paes ces freq. — suleata ............... See eer ee one large. Lucina lactea .............6. Be a ies: sod a ee freq. inifera...............| mud | ...... «| local. tes cae’stdsesessent = seeess | local. cnwenasateea|! WEEGTI as .ὅἱ .| local |small. a rotundata...... weed a Wome ec local. “=== fon eee eee weed} ...... . | local |very convex, yellow or buff. Kellia corbuloides ......... «. | Shore | ...... local. Modiola tulipa .............. weed | ...... « | local. —— petagne ....6......04. owe WO BHOTE =: 1} - - 41... local. Mytilus minimus............) ... | shore | ...... freq. Nucula nucleus .........++. 8. ἀξ my]. .| freq. sescoccccscccoseee| SANG |’ ....43 . | local. Wacsavecssctscesees | local. Leda emarginata............ mud] ...... local. —— striata.........seececene 8: ὅδ πα. Ὁ, ] local. [a fusca. Arca... srecaresecens 18. δὲ ma} 40 fath, | oo... valve |same as at Gibraltar. resembling Pecten gibbus . eee 8. & m. ΙΓ ee local |valves. Merrett weed | ...... one. .| —— striatus ?............ eos] Sand |) ....0: . | one. —— polymorphus ......... sand ION Σ local |valves. —— pes-felis? ............ 5. & m. PMP ΤῈΣ ως _|fragment. Spondylus gederopus...... s. & m. oni BRS local jvalves. Anomia ephippium......... 8. & m. freq. Chiton marmoreus ......... s.& mM.) ....... .| rare. bape at .| one jsame as at Gibraltar, rs eat .| one |small. ee) shore? 4 U2...2 local |small. ee 5.2} cies local. Ἐπ τάκ συ τ σεν: Ὁ} “Sash, ἢ ἈΠΟΘ YN)... local. Calyptrea sinensis ......... 8. & IN|’ ..5<08 ~| abun. _ |Crepidula unguiformis .../s. & m. ὄνον | ONC. | Bulla striata ............42. s.& m.| 30fath.| ...... one. acatte | rare. can ealt Remons .| local. Sige σεις, ΜΆ ΑΙ one. eae rare. —— ——, new spec.? ...| ..Ψ. ‘| local |Subcylindrical, thin, pellucid, — striatula? Forbes ...| ... hod ὦ σὲ local. | broad, extremity contracted, Auricula bidentata? ...... τς apa’! | τιν one. | giving the appearance of Cu- oa shore | 5fath. | local.| Vieria. soseusescuscvastse ἜΣ shore 5 fath. | local. dae ἐξερεν | local. |—— purpurea .... ee. «ss Ἢ shore | ...... local. _ |—— Bruguieri ............ oe Ὁ} οὐκ v. Tr. + | Shore | ...... freq. seeeeeseeees ves co... | freq. i ..convewiued Ke δὲ freq. at one, 284 REPORT—1850. LL LLL LLC Ground.| Dead at | Living at Pace Odostomia .......... Reageaea le. RE ΤΩΣ vie ces = 30 to 40f.| rare. ‘ Eulima polita ............... s.& m + |d0to40f.) rare. — distorta .............4. Βρ δὲ liad. Lee 30 fath. | ver. | —— subulata ............... 8. δὲ mi} ...00. 30 fath. | rare. | Natica macilenta....... soos {So 8. Miia tace cae 30 to40f.| rare. —— intricata............... s.& m.| see 40 fath. | rare |small. —— Alderi...............00. 82:60 χα κα ν co cae 30 to 40f.| rare. | Scalaria crenata ............ Tas shore vee ees one. | —— pseudoscalaris ......} ... shore | ...... rare. Neritina viridis ............) weed | shore 5 fath. | abun. Vermetus semisurrectus Ϊ (Serpula)......... ΞΡ ΒΑ. 10... ἐζοε: 30 fath. | local. Vermetus gigas ............ sand |... 30 fath. | local. —— cancellatus? .........) sand | ...... 30 fath. | local. Trochus striatus .......... e+] SANd | -ceese 4 fath. | freq. --- ----- Gaya ducccncanncs alts Maibibds Sones 4 fath rare. Phasianella pulla....... ἐκ... WEEE νυνὶ ΤΠ 4fath. | local. intermedia? ......... weed | ...:.. 4fath. | local. Littorina petrea..... ...... on shore. |. (ον freq. Turritella tricostalis ......!s.&m.} ...... 30 fath. | local. — terebra ......s0e...eee 8. τα <0e 30 fath. | local. Cerithium reticulatum ...} weed | ...... 4 fath. | freq. —— PETVETSUM ...00...08- weed | 4 fath seoeee | local. Fusus muricatus .......06.../8. & m.|...... 30 fath. | rare |two specimens. —— corallinus ............ sand Se 8 fath. | local. —— corneus, Lin..........] sand | ...... 8 fath. | local. Pleurotoma gracile......... sand |30to40f.) ...... rare. levigatum ...........-| sand | Sfath. | ...... rare. —— purpureum............ sand | 8fath. | ...... local. ginnannianum ...... mud] ...... 10 to 40f.| local. — brachystomum, and about 3 others............ DIMA ἡ μΤ 30 to 40f.| local. Nassa neritoides ............ sand | ...... 8 fath. | freq. Buccinum minimum ......! sand | ...... 8 fath. | local. Ringuicula auriculata ...... π΄} δι 40 fath. | local. ΟΠ ΤΕ τ VIS....- Odostomia conoidea ?...... 10 fath.) .....- Chemnitzia elegantissima .|35 & 10 6} ...... om SCHIATIS. iin craves ers 95 fathid| ewes... indistincta? ......... 35 fath. |. ....-- Eulimella acicula ......... 35 fath.'| “aces ; Natica millepunctata var. maculosa .....-+ ΒΕ Nied/aut cc's ied Meets ---ΞΦ SAQTA veeserseee τὴ Sfath. |)... — Alderi....... πος it ΚΥΡᾺ 8 fath Neritina viridis .......+.+++ 8 fath Wien oe Tornatella fasciata ........- Bfath, || ies. .7 Scalaria communis ......... 5. fath, | ash... lamellosa? .... 96.666 55 35 fath. | Ὁ 6.6, Trochus crenulatus......... δι} Sas Ziziphinus ......+++0+ 35 fath. | 35 fath dubius ....... aenaeews 86 1 8Π|6},ϑένι.. — tessellatus ....... ab Ai PME littoral REPORT—1850. γ Fre- quency. rare |small. v.a. fragments. valves. valves. valves. valves. valves. local local local local rare local. local local v.r. freq. freq. local local. rare. rare. local valves. valves. valves. valves. valves. valves. valves. in the market. | local. rare |valves, white. rare. freq. v.¥. local. local. local. rare. rare. abun. ... |in a dead Cassis. freq. rare. one rare. rare. local. vV.r. local. local. local. local. a fragment. animal resembling B. aperta; shell and gizzard small and totally dif- ferent. Vail: rare local. rare. rare. rare. a fragment. large. freq. |in the market. rare. local. local. rare. rare. rare. local. local. rare. freg. |large. ΟΝ SOUTH-EUROPEAN MARINE INVERTEBRATA. 287 Dead at | Living at ane Trochus articulatus.........) ....- littoral | local —— crenulatus, var.? ...;8tol0f] ...... local — Vieillotti............... 8tol0f.) ...... local Phasianella pulla .........} .....- 8 to 10.) local. |, =——. InterMEMIA ........0000] anaes 8 to 10f.| local. Turbo rugosus.......... νων. 35 fath.| ...... | local jyoung Littorina ρα τοθᾶ ......... 0 εν} ceeeee littoral | freq Turritella tricostalis .....,| ..... 35 fath. | local |small. Be PETCUNE ξεν ουκονξινο!, sovcee 20 fath. | local |mud. Cerithium vulgatum ......} ...... 6fath. | freq. VAT. ees eee scene] caer 35 fath. | local —— adversum .,.......055 ΟΡ 8 to 10f.| local. —reticulatum ....,.... 0,10 fo}. ccvteas local. Cancellaria cancellata..,,..| ...... | 8 0 20 ἢ) freq. Pleurotoma balteata ......) 35 fath.| ...... ... |afragment, banded, black and yellow. Pleurotoma ...... Roa vaccts¥er|r cuss se 10 fath. | rare. Fusus COrneus........0......| seeeee 8 fath.-| local —corallinus ............ AP A 10 fath. | local. ---- C]€gansS .....seeeresees| ceveee 10 fath. | rare. Murex cristatus ............} sees 6 fath. | rare. Triton variegatum ......... shore | ...... local {market — nodiferum ............ shore } ...... local |market Chenopus pes-pelecani ...} ...... 8 to 10 f.| local Purpura hemastoma ......| ...... littoral | local |market Columbella rustica .........] .....- littoral | freq. Mitra ebeneus...... CORELARG | EEE 8 to 10 4 local. —— Savignii ..νννννννννννον 8tolOf.| ...... local. }—— columbellaria.........] ....+. 35 fath. | rare. | . Cassis SUICOSA .........c00000] ceeees shore | freq. \market Nassa reticulata .....5.,..0] seer 6 fath. | freq. ---- METIECA oo. reeseseveeee| νερόν 6 fath. | freq. Ὁ Ἰαμρηϊα......... πον δ προς 6fath, | freq, BASE occ ΑΘ {πὰ ΟΝ Boned 6to10f.| freq. shane 35 fath.| one large, reticulated, serrated opercu- AS at 6+o010f.| local. | lum. we. | 6tol0f.) freq. —— minus........ pach 15. Σὰ 1 Anse 6 to 10f.| local Marginella clandestina ...| ...... 35 fath. | freq. ---- πΠ]Π!]Δοθα. nacasccerecsce|, cendes 8 fath. | freq. | Ovula spelta ...........00.. Sfath. | ...... rare. i ςς...:.ὃ02 0... 30 fath.| ...... local Ringuicula auriculata......| ...... 35 fath. | local. Cypreea erosa? ............ ΒΈΜΟΙ, - ..uese +». {fragment —— CUYOP#A ...... sees ee Pe Pet: i: Pa ee local. em IMEX ............ὁ.6 scene SMAI Woe χουνε, local Conus mediterraneus ......| «+... shore | dead Of the foregoing, those from 10 fathoms and under were obtained in the harbour, sand and mud; from 35 fathoms off Cape Matafus, east point of the bay, sand; and from between 10 and 35 fathoms in the bay, mud. Spondylus gederopus, Lithodomus lithophagus, Arca noe, &c., sold alive in the market, but brought from Mahon. I was disappointed in not being able to dredge on the ground of the great coral fishery between Algiers and. Tunis, but the wind was too strong when I passed over it. - Goletta, near Tunis, 23rd to 27th of May. _ Dentalium fissura or rubescens, white. .Tellina coste. _ Solemya mediterranea. Lutraria rugosa—a valve. 288 Mactra stultorum. Tapes florida ? Donax trunculus. Scrobicularia tenuis—shore of the lake. REPORT-—1850. Cardium edule, var.-~shore of the lake, small, wide, thin. ?—shore of the bay, strong, triangular, fewer ribs (22), and other common littoral species, In Tunis Bay 25 fathoms, mud. Corbula rosea ?—small, thin, pellucid, numerous. Cytherea venetiana—small. Arca noe—valves. Arca antiquata ?—valves large. Bulla striata. Natica olla. millepunctata—banded var. Nassa neritea. Erato levis. DREDGING Date, 29th of May, 1849. Cerithium fuscatum (living). Trochus articulatus (living). tessellatus (living). Helix pisanat. Glandina follicula—larget. Bulimus decollatus—larget. Clausilia papyraceat. Helix melanostomarf. naticoidest. alive. \ dead. Paper No. 3. Locality, north-east of the Island of Zembretta, mouth of Gulf of Tunis. Depth, 35 fathoms. Distance, 14 to 2 miles from the island. Ground, sand and gravel with occasional rocks. No. of living| No. of dead Observations. Species obtained. specimens. | specimens. Dentalium tarentinum ...... 3 -- --- νᾶγ. Fc vos coasaves| ΠΟ tway ac 2 striated with waved appearance. CBCUM TTACHER) .ccccscccerese| Ὁ νον 3 Ditrupa subulata, var.......... several | numerous. —— subulata .........000.ce0e 1 few 5Π18]]. (Gibraltar. lee tcectscetecccecees] — cneree 1 pellucid, notched aperture, species at Saxicava arctica .....cc0cscec0.| cecaee 2 Sphenia Binghami............ 1 Corbula nucleus ............... several. ——— TOSCA 2... seeveenseesenens 2 Nera cuspidata ............6 600} seveee 1 —— Costulata......secrereeres| veneer 1 Pandora obtusa .......sesse000| seers 1 Thracia phaseolina? ......... νυ οἰκο young. Solen pellucidus .......+-..+... ΡΠ 4 lence young. Syndosyma ........ Dee τον δος young, pellucid. PENUIS ἐὐο νον -νούονενοῖτος 2 Psammobia costulata ......... 1 young | 3 valves. " Tellina donacina.............+ ΣΟ το valves —— CT ASSA ...-.0.....seeerences 2 young |... very minute. —— balaustina .............0.{ ceeeee valves. PUNICET S| Wiiccel dees e. ce 1 young: pulchella τς ἐς ὩΣ οὗτος Boas valves. Ξε IBLOIUR ics vsanceisssanses| κι yauane valves. mA ιν ἐτ ιν τον το νννρ ον! τοῦτον ϑ small. Lucina spinifera ..............+ ite s\paaipera small. —— bipartita..........00.0.6 1 2 & valves. —— divaricata .......ἁἀὐννεννζ ceveee 1 valve. —— digitalis ................4 4. valves. —— —, gy. astarte ?...... 2 | 6 valves. Cytherea chione .....0s00.0.02.|. scasee 1 young. Artemis exoleta ?...........60++ several | ...... minute. Circe minuta ...... etaitis ictee ΠΣ ΣΝ [αϊδαίει + The most abundant land shells among the ruins of Carthage. ΟΝ SOUTH-EUROPEAN MARINE INVERTEBRATA. 289 No. of living] No. of dead Species obtained. specimens, | specimens. Observations. Venus fasciata............00008 several | ...... minute. —— striatula....... ess άνε 5. ..| 2 young. —— ovata ..........5. τ several. Cardium papillosum ......... 4 several. —— fasciatum ............... 1 p—— lzevigatum ........c0.c0s he cab lal Rinads young. —— minimum ............... 2 nae ΚΝ ἘΠ 1 small, white. Cardita trapezia? ............ 1 valves. ἘΞ COrbIS ............cc cesses numerous | numerous.|the most abundant species, most dead. Nucula nucleus ............ +s.| nuMerous | Numerous. —— radiata ......... ἀπ τίου ἢ 5 numerous. Leda emarginata......... sad tae lf le eavecs valves. —— striata............. assets few. Arca tetragona ...............| 1 young. — lactea vee. at 4 [wide. = Pd 1 valve |resembling antiquata, but short and το τος ΞΘ cones 1 valve reticulated. Pectunculus glycimeris ...... 2 see fyoung. —— lineatus? ........ ΟΣ ΩΝ 1 Diplodonta apicalis? ......... 2 valves. Modiola tulipa ................. 1 several val. Crenella rhombea ............ 20 valves. ore ΠΑΡ ΡΟ ΟΕ ΓᾺΡ ὅς: 1 valve. he —— marmorata............... 2 Beets minute. Avicula tarentina ...... δἰ ας 1 small ..... {attached to a yellow Gorgonia. Lima fragilis .................. 1 valves. — subauriculata...... atest De valves. Pecten Jacobzeus...... Bee an tai valves. ----- ν 18... .νννννονενννννννον ere | aivsices small. —— opercularis ............... 6 small. —— distortus (pusio) ...... 1 valves. —— Similis..............cc0eeee 1 valves. —— obsoletus or striatus?.!.) ...... 1 valve. — > aaigl gia a ies A | eee several |valves. ΝΠ ὑπ τ τς Π ἧς several |valves. ‘Chama gryphoides Pe: as 1 | Anomia ephippium............ ἌΝ Ἢ small. Terebratula detruncata ......) ...... several. \@hiton levis ...........0... ἐξ 2 Haliotis tuberculatus ? ny περ o GRRSe 1 )Emarginula elongata .........} ...... 2 1--- capuliformis ......... etl eee 1 | Fissurella BYRCA......46 Cre ΈΚΕΔΌΝ 2 one large, one small. '|Calyptreea sinensis ............{ 00.00. 1 : j ‘Crepidula eels πο ΕΣ 2 [daris. 1: — πὐχιϊοκία:............(ἁ( νον TARA δ νι τὰς small, on operculum of Murex bran- mllzea aperta ...........0.8 ΡΤ cope 1 }—— scabra? ..............5 cas 1 Bulla hydatis .............. ΝΣ 4 several small. |—— truncata...... Se daee uae ..| few. |— Cranchii.................. ae 2 | —— cylindrica .......οννννννν 0 ceeeee 4 Rissoa calathiscus ............{ esse few. | —— cimex............ aoerereeslth eaters few —— Montagui ............. sales MPs re few. ‘ —— acuta .........06 Sa τς ashoe few Desmarestii ......006...| τρέμον A 1 PBEOEUICTI ὅν... ἐετον τ senses 1 ΠΑ τ few. PULPULEA "το λοττυσου σεν, τοῖον 1 - oO στ τε τονε διε ἘΠ ΓΟ 3 or 4 "18650. Ὶ ᾿ υ 290 REPORT—1850. \No. of living} No. of dead Species obtained. specimens. | specimens. Observations. Odostomia conoidea.......... ΤΑΝ ΟΣ ΩΣ polished like Eulima. Chemuitzia elegantissima a 1 several = 1 TL UTA Aen taoiess 1 πο sca wcccsaceercc| pete 2 πετοοῖος ρ 9 oa oh ΤΡ ΠΥ Τ᾿ 2 indistincta? ............ ΠῚ 1 Eulima nitida ............... she 2 subulata <.....ce.0... edge: 3 Ἐπ ΠΕ ΠΕ acicwla’?'..sks.cs \ — oe ΟΝ SOUTH-EUROPEAN MARINE INVERTEBRATA. small, coronated. small. large, smooth. young. Dead at | Living at ee Natica millepunctata ...... 8 fath. | ...... local. See. cick Ὁ stoceoeneesl™ st tee 6 to 12f.} local —— intricata ........« “φόνον ὁ ον νον 12 fath. | local —— marochiensis (Alderi) sete 12 fath. | local. —— Guilleminii............ 8 fath. | ...... local. Sealaria © .....05....cseeceeee. 40 fath.| ...... v.r Vermetus cancellatus ......] ...... 8 fath. | local. Trochus fanulum.......00...] © ννννον 8 fath. | local —— crenulatus ............ 8 fath. | ~ ....0. local. canaliculatus ......... 6 fath. | ...... freq. divaricatus freq. —— fragaroides freq. |—— articulatus freq. granulatus local —— Vieillotti............... local. Jussieui .......00...0+ local. — conulus, var. ......... local. see ee eae et tensions local — — (var. of T. ca- naliculatus ?) ......s0+06. 8. fath. | ...... one Phasianella vieuxii .........) 0... 8 to 10 f.| local. Cerithium vulgatum........J 0.2... shore | freq. reticulatum............ 8 fath. } ...... freq. —— perversum ............ 8 fath. ] ...... local. Fusus corneus ...........00-] seceee 8 fath. | one ᾿Ξ FOREFALUS ὅ εν. γος. ἐν. |) case ue 80 fath. | rare. — corallinus ..........--] ss... 30 fath. | freq. Pleurotoma reticulatum ...| 6 fath. | ...... local. —— purpureum ............ 6 fath. |i ΜΝ rare. ere ECE cceesesactscastel'l calles 20 fath, | rare. — Smithiior striolatum, MERC. OCnicae aasee-orses 8 fath. ἊΣ ΚῸ: rare. Murex Edwardsii ........006] νννννν shore | freq. —— CTIStatUS ......00e.ceeee| νοννον shore | freq. Triton reticulatum ......... 8fath. | ...... local. Chenopus pes-pelecani ...| 8 fath. | 10 fath. | local. Pollia maculosa ............) 0 20... shore | abun. Nassa macula ..........c0002| υννννν 8 το 10 1.) freq. — mutabilis .......0.....) ce. 8 to 10 f.| local. ter Feigao dais omnis sigs 10 fath.| ...... rare. Buccinum corniculum......| ...... shore | freq. —— variabile ............... shore | ...... freq. —— D’Orbignii............) 0... shore | freq. —— scriptum.. ..... easly! cabase 6 to 10 ἢ local. Columbella rustica .........] ...... shore | abun. Mitra lutescens ............ 10 fath.| ...... local. BPE=VENENEUS! cess , ἐς ν...} ὐδνςς 8 to 10 ἢ] local. Ringuicula auriculata......| ...... 30 fath. | local. rato laevis .../....2.cseeeec) sccece 12 fath. | local. Marginella secalina.........} ...... 20 fath. | local. —— clandestina............] ss... 30 fath. | freq. Conus mediterraneus ...... 8 fath ἐπέ, sc local. 297 A remarkable large annelid, 15 to 18 inches in length and about an inch across the back. No land shells worthy of note. Ditrupa subulata? alive in great abundance off Catania in 25 fathoms, sand. 998 REPORT—1850. | Port of Messina, 16th of June, 40 fathoms, sand and gravel. Tellina serrata—living, one small. Nassa reticulata. Montacuta bidentata. — macula. Astarte incrassata. prismatica, 18th of June attempted to dredge in the Faro of Messina, but could get no bottom in consequence of the strong current. 20th of June caught a shark 9 feet in length, after it had afforded us a fine oppertunity of watching and admiring its movements in the water. The stomach contained a sea ἴον], heads, legs, ἄς. of fowls thrown overboard some hours previously, a small canvas rag, several cuttle-fish beaks, a quantity of feathers, &c. Bay of Naples, 26th and 29th of June. Dead at | Living at eae | ΣΕΜΕΙ Ὁ oy αὐ δειξε. Corbula nucleus ............ wee |8tol0f.| freq. Thracia phaseolina? ......) ...+.. 8tol0f.| rare. | Solecurtus antiquus «......)8tol0f.) ...... local |valves. —— Strigilatus .......c000:| sence | | osesee freq. jin the market. ; Solemya mediterranea ...} ...... 8 to 12f.} local |very young. Tellina distorta .......6ἀ6ὐνν ᾿ς seseee 8 to12f.| abun. i = /SEITALA τὰς τς τον, Δ] ~ weoses 8 to 12f.| local |valves. . ΥΠΟΌΒΠΙΥ δ, ....... κεν νον ον 8} ΡΝ 8 to 12f.| local |minute, transparent. Donax trunculus............] ss. 2to4f.} abun. jsold in the market. Tapes aurea? .....0.0e..06 «| 8tolOf.) ...... | local jsmall. Cytherea chione ...,........] ....+. 8to1l0f.| freq. jsmall. NEGHANA Atoccccssesesl” \esesee 8 to 10f.| local. Venus Verrticosa . -.........1] sean 8 to 10f.| local. ALIN) voveccerercccets|’ costes 2to4f.| abun. Circe minuta στιν τομὴ τον τονε} πονοῦν 8 to 12f.| local. Cardium papillosum ......| ...... 30 to 40f.| local. Cardita sulcata ........006...] see 8 fath. | local. Lucina sinuosa’......0...06..| seeeee 30 fath. | v.r. |small. SPIRO sacks as ceechoes lake eecne 30 fath. | local. MIVATICAL A oo! as. scas ctf μον τοῖν 8 fath. | local. Ea iee casiaeescwotsen{a erence 8 fath. | local |very convex, yellow. Montacuta substriata ......) ...... 30 fath. | freq. jon a Spatangus. IE MLBTA Ὁ ccansaccracce|\onesaees 30 fath. | rare. ferruginea ............ 30 fath.| ....... | v.r. jone, imperfect. Kellia corbuloides ......... S fathe Pec. ς local valves. Mytilus minimus............] sees. littoral | freq. Modiola barbata ......402...] sees 2 fath. | local jupon Area noe. Chama gryphoides .........] ...... 2 fath. | local jupon Area noe. Nucula nitida ......... ΤΉ essen 8 fath. | local. Leda emarginata............ Genter 8 fath. | local. m= ἈΡΓΙΆΤΗ, κε ον υς τς το κοῖν as 5481} levees 30 to 40f.| local. Nye MO Gieeseec orto ste cc lot oveee 2 fath. | freq. |in the market. ; f ALDH a Sees os ces occe le wars 2 fath. | freq. jin the market. ¢ Pectunculus glycimeris ...| ...... 30 fath. | rare. (ated. CETTE a aire ἘΠΕ Σ 10 fath: }0ont... ... |one specimen, minute, white, stri-| Fissurella rosea .........006| ννννον shore | local. —— gibba ....... ἈΘΕΤΕΙ͂Ν ΠΟ ΤΑΙ ieee, local. me δος, ἐσ ον Wee ἐκ ὃ ΑΣ local, Haliotis tuberculata?......| ...... shore | freq. |market. Bulleea seabra’ ee-iasseecess| 0 as-sar- 30 fath. | local, ᾿ ADSTED γώ. nctscetegaceesth meses. 8 fath. | local. 3 Bulla Cranchii............... seeeee | 30 fath. | local. : τὸν local. local. ON SOUTH-EUROPEAN MARINE INVERTEBRATA. 299 Dead at | Living at i Rissoa Desmarestii .........| 8 fath. | ...... local. Eulimella acicula...........-| ...... 10 fath. | local. ee τ ΕΝ 10 fath. | local. Odostomia conoidea ......} ...... 10 fath. | local. lee see esse eeee ene νον | 10 fath,| rare. ------ το ὐνννυννννεεννεννζΊ, — caceee 30 fath. | rare. Chemnitzia elegantissima ? 2] seaeee | 10 fath. | local. ΝΠ echeness ave 30 fath.| ....-. local. Natica olla Bocesten sae Rabat el acta 8 fath. | local. —— macilenta ........... alae 10 fath. | local. —— AIdeVi.......cscceeeeeee| eens 10 fath. | local. τοὺ πε πε τ occa . | 30 fath.| rare |coronated, same as at Syracuse. Vermetus......c0...s00e τ εϑεο 10 fath. | local. Tornatella pusilla ? ἐπε saves. 30 fath, | one. PEPE RCC... τς κνννννν νι δ τ sece'ss 80 fath.| one /minute. Fusus.. πο at Sepece 12 fath. | local |minute, species at Gibraltar. Pleurotoma ‘elegans... ἘΣΤΕ τέ ἐόν {10 fath. | local. attenuatum......... βάν ras cae 8 fath. | local. —— ginnannianum ......| ...... 8 fath. | local. — brachystomum ......| ...... 10 to 80 ἢ. local. —— NANNM «-. eee eseeeeeees 10 fath.| ...... local. —— purpureum...... eeeeee] 10 fath. |... local. === US ec ἘΝ daiede=ae 10 fath.| ...... | local. Nassa varicosa........+...066 ww... |8tolOf.| freq. Ringuicula auriculata......| ...... 10 to 30f.| local. Dentalium dentalis? ......| ...... 10 fath. | local |ten ribs. —— tarentinum.........005] sess 10 fath. | local. Ditrupa subulata. DrevGine Paper No. 6. Date, 4th of July, 1849. Locality, Gulf of Cagliari, south-east of Colombo Point. Depth, 20 to 25 fathoms. Distance from shore, 3 to 4 miles. Ground, sand and gravel. Region, Species obtained. gavel πο ties i Observations. Dentalium dentalis .........) seseee several. -/ —— rubescens or fissura ... 1 Crecum trachea ............006| sevens 1 Ditrupa subulata or strangu- Rate: 2. aed dvettuavenveves sel Severely ----- --ττ......ἀὑἀενννεννννον VAS ΟῚ with notched apex. Gastrochena cuneiformis ...|_...... 1 in a fragmeut of Triton variegatum. Corbula nucleus............... 3 1 : Newra cuspidata ...... κόρος 1 Psammobia ferroensis ......| ..... . 1 ἃ valves. Eee COStUIAtA ”...cdsevscviass|® «ον οὺς 2 Tellina donacina...............) cesses valves. ee MOISCOLGA cia vtessceeteres 1 valves. —— balaustina .......... ROL 1 valves. Syndosmya ..........cseeseeee 1 valves |small. —— tenuis? (prismatica?).) ...... valves. 300 REPORT—1850. BO. ee PSR a) a Se eee No. of living] No. of dead Species obtained. specimens. | specimens. Observations. Cytherea chione...... ΡΟ ΝΕ 1 young | valve. VENELIANA .....eceeeseeee| te eeee 1 minute. Venus fasciata ......2+...0.6- 1 —— OVATE oer ec Ὁ ννννν κε κέκενον numerous, Artemis exoleta ...........:000) seeeee valves. Astarte incrassata ......... ews 3 Cardium levigatum ......... ac 1 —— exiguum, var.? ......... 1 TINIMUM ....00.-cc00c0s] coeree 1 —— papillosum..............4] serees valves. Cardita sulcata ...... ed aces ΘΚ sca: large. —— tYAPCZIA coe. .ceceeeseeeees 2 Lucina spinifera............00.| seeeee valves. Wictea® cc-s0s-.s Sf ae: Te eee valves. Chama gryphoides ............ 1 1 Modiola barbata......... io 2 ——- tulipa........eeeeeeeecene res ies young. Nucula nucleus .......0-..c008| cee eee valves. a FAUIOCA ον deweesesrseeesye|| τ cerane valves. Leda emarginata ............. 2 valves. —— Striata .....«ενννννκεεκον 2 1 Arca tetragona .......... augue 2 cere eens Sac8eae τ ὅπ δ 1 valve Pectunculus glycimeris ὃ... 1. ΠΣ small Pn Ἴδε ες cos ses cen fs ΕΔ pe .cacsns fragment. Lima subauriculata .......6.| -..00s fragment. Pecten Jacobus ...... Sucve ihe —nciere fragment. polymorphus......666...| 0 -see+ valves. —— similis «ον νννεκεννεννν πο: Ὁ valves. —— opercularis.........++ atl See valves. —— hyalinus........:.00...05 1 valves. ———=_ SUICAETS ....202-.cseerevee| . eosens valves. ᾿ Terebratula detruncata ....... -.+... 1 Crepidula fornicata ........... 1 —— unguiformis .........+ rr eter cara 2 Calyptraea sinensis .........064] ΠΟ γεν νον 1 Bullea aperta............00005 1 1 Bulla umbilicata? .........- ἜΣ ΠΎΡΕ 1 striatula? ......... maeties|inn Vosiie sis 1 ACUMINALA csccscvoscnces| vreewe 1 truncata.....-......06+ Are sets so 2 —— hydatis ................+- “6. 1 — obtusa or mamillata...) ...... 1 Rissoa violacea ...ssesseceeeee| ΠΟ σεν σον 1 —— Calathiscus.........06...] serees few. —— SCabra ? ....ececeesereeves ῬΕΎ τ 1 Odostomia conoidea ......... 3 —— interstincta (Flem.) ... 1 Chemnitzia fulvocincta ...... 1 —— pallida? or varicosa ...)) «4. 1 —— gracilis ?........ ede Sanetl ieee shes 1 —— elegantissima? .......0.) sese- 1 NaticaAlderi or marochiensis}_ ...... 1 = NAC ENGA gowns τον τον smaap | \seaees 1 — millepunctata .....0600) sees 2 small. Scalaria COMMUNIS........-665] senses 1 Vermetus gigas ....60..seeeee 1 triqueter ....... sieawnanee few. — glomeratus ....... ccesme| tle We Trochus COnulus....c-..seeesee] savers 1 —— crenulatus ...........0008 τας 1 a’ pepe ee ee ee ΝΕ 7 Ve νὰ ιν Be ie = ΟΝ SOUTH-EUROPEAN MARINE INVERTEBRATA, 301 ES Se τυ τς eee ete ee .....Ὁ0ῦῷΚΧ ἑ( Ὧιἀ:οτττ συ ες No. of living} No. of dead Species obtained. specimens, | specimens. Observations. Trochus €XiguuS.......sececeee| sense 3 cece cc tcteereeeeneee 1 Phasianella Vieuxii ......... 1 +] Turbo rugosus seeeeeeerseseee] eee | neeeee an operculum. Turritella terebra ............ 2 —— tricostalis .............++ 1 Cerithium vulgatum, var.?...} ...... 4 —— reticulatum ......00.....:| seesee several. Pleurotoma gracile............} ...... 1 —— brachystomum ......... 1 1 —— ginnannianum ........) ...... 1 -- ---- OCG Teseecerees| © canes 1 ea on eenuaticceeaievasl, “sscauae 1 Fusus corallinus..........0.... 1 Triton variegatum ..........661 eee fragmént. Chenopus pes-pelecani ...... ...... 2 young. Mitra Savignii wo... eee] cece ee Marginella miliacea .........) J... 1 —— clandestina .......0...0..| scseee several, 2 Holothurie, &c. Mahon, 9th and 10th of July, sand. Dead at | Living at ee Dentalium tarentinum ...| ...,.. 30 fath. | local. —— fissura or politum?.| ...... 8 fath. | local |white. —— dentalis of Phillippi| ..,... 8 fath. | freq. Corbula rosea............006| seers 8 fath. | freq. —— nucleus ...........000e] cee ees 8 fath. | freq. Thracia villosiuscula ......) ...... 8 fath. | rare. Psammobia costulata...... 8 fath. | ..-.... rare. Tellina distorta .........606) ss... 8 fath. | local. Symdosmya...sce..csceseseoe| ceneee 10 to 30f.| local. Donax venusta ............ shore | «s+... local. Mactra stultorum .........| ...... shore | freq. Tapes virginea .........++6 see | LO fath. | local. —— —— nitens?....... «| 10 fath.| ...... . |... fone, imperfect. Venus verrucosa.....6....2.| γένος 8 fath. | freq. Cytherea...... Reston δεν το ιν 10 fath.| ...... local {species obtained at Malta. Circe minuta ........seeee0e] veces 10 to 30f.| local. Cardium exiguum .........} ...... 10 fath. | local. ΕΟ CHIATE coc nceises cones]! Meanncs 4 fath. | freq. |mud. ‘Cardita trapezia............ shore | shore | freq. Lucina divaricata .........] ...... 10 fath. | local. —— spimifera ......ssccc000] ceaee 30 to 35 f.| local. —— or Diplodonta ......} ....., 10 fath. | local |yellow. Montacuta substriata...... wae. 90 10 88 f.| freq. lon Spatangus purpureus, small. , Lepton squamosum ......| 10 fath.| ...... rare |valve. Lithodomus lithophagus..| ...... shore | freq. Modiola tulipa .......... lt AeA 10 fath. | local. Mytilus galloprovincialis..) ...... shore | freq. ----- MINIMUMS eres} cee νον shore | freq. Chama gryphoides........-| ...... | 8 fath. | local. Leda emarginata Pa Aa 8 fath. | local. PATCA NOE:..5....c00ccceseescs|ig) oocese shore | freq. Pecten glaber............... 10 fath.| ...... | local jvalves. —— sulcatus .......e.e00.0. 10 fath.| ...... |'local |valves. POstrea edulis ........-...000] ssveee | arenes freq. |market. Spondylus gederopus ....| ...... shore j freq. |market. 302 REPORT—1850. Dead at PCAUIE - ---.: Ὥστ τε tenth” tucaes: ΟΕ ἘΠ ΠΡΗΣ το τπνουννοςν τόνοις PRTCUR Miva ssc... .--s00cceses shore Fissurella reticulata ...... 30 fath ΞΟ ὙΘΗΘΑ cbccesccestscsaeet 8 fath. Calyptreea νυ ]ρατίβ.........} ΠΟ γόνον Haliotis tuberculata ?...... 8 sh. Bulla aperta.......... ΡΟΣ ΕΣ Rissoa calathiscus ......... 8 to 10f. —— Montagui ............ 8 to 10f. coronata (costata?).| 8 to 10 f. Neritina viridis ............. 8 to 10f. Natica millepunctata...... 8 to 10f. Scalaria communis......... 8 fath. Trochus crenulatus ........ 8 to 10f. CXIPTUS ...<-2seecesewe 8 to 10f. canaliculatus, var.? .| 8 to 10 f. —— Jussieui............... 8 to 10f. — Richardii ............ 8 fath — —...... ἘΣΤΕ ΡΣ 8 to 10 ἢ, cs tevisesseess 8 fath ————TANMIMI, 5 cssacseecccasll Jaceees ’ Phasianella pulla .........{ s..00. —— Vieuxii ............... 8 fath. Cerithium perversum...... 8 fath. Fusus corallinus............| «sss. LOYNEUS incase csecceccssl Ὁ προ τῆς Pleurotoma attenuatum...| 8 fath. MINCALE eS sscsetes sasascl) vieestes —— multilineatum ?......]} 8 fath Seieanesvaccovacrs 8 fath Murex Edwardsii .........] ...... ἘΠ ΘΘΊΗ, ς μον sosssestiaceeewes Triton reticulatum......... 8 fath DNAS a TICTILED, ..o.ccesec cece. 8 fath PILAR. τι «ἐτοῖν a aeecs = PECICOIALA, Sac. ον cise] Goaeeee eee eceee cece 8 fath Buccinum corniculum ...} ...... scriptum ........ ΡΤ — d’Orbignii............) -.... ania De sce snetenes 8 fath. Columbella rustica.........| ...... Ringuicula auriculata...... 30 fath. Marginella miliacea ...... 10 fath. Cyprea plex ....0<...<00.0- shore Conus mediterraneus...... shore Most of the preceding were obtained in the harbour, but a few outside, where the bottom was a very white sand, covered with Zostera to the depth Living at “θεν. eeeaee seeeee eens oer -- seeeee Fre- quency. rare jupon Spondylus. local. | local |small. local. local. freq. rare jof small size, much used in shell local. | work. local. local. rare. local. local. local. freq. freq. local. local. freq. rare |carinated, obtained similar in Malta. rare. freq. |fine and large. local. local. local. .| local. local. local |species at Gibraltar. | rare. ; local. ; local. local. Ἵ freq. freq. rare. freq. .| freq. freq. rare |small. freq. local. local. local. freq. local. local. |} » local. freq. of above 20 fathoms; beyond which, in 25 to 35 fathoms, I obtained several specimens of Spatangus purpureus (with Montacuta substriata), also nume- rous examples of Zurbinolia milletiana, dead, of smaller size than the Cornish specimens. A small schooner is constantly employed in taking shell-fish for sale at Algiers, where they are retailed in the market, the vessel returning when all is sold for a fresh supply. The assortment appeared to consist of oysters, Spondylus gederopus, Area noé, Lithodomus lithophagus, Venus verrucosa, &e- ΟΝ SOUTH-EUROPEAN MARINE INVERTEBRATA. 303 Drepcinc Paper No. 7. Date, 12th of J uly, 1849. Locality, off Conijera (one of the smaller Balearic Islands), near Cabrera. Depth, 40 fathoms. Distance from shore, 2 miles. Ground, very white sand and nullipore with abundance of sea-weed and coral. Region, coralline. No. of living] No. of dead Species obtained. specimens, | specimens. Observations, Pandora rostrata ...... aawanc| daniecant valves. Solen ensis...........0cc30ss.te) daeses afragment. Solemya mediterranea ......} ...... fragments. Psammobia costulata.........].. +... 2 & valves. Tellina distorta? ............ 1 2 & valves. Syndosmya tenuis? ......... 1 Mactra subtruncata .........) se... | eases a small valve. Cytherea chione............... 4 | πῆ: young. —— venetiana ...... ἐξ τεϊν 1 valves Venus casina? ...........2.4. sees | fragments. — fasciata ......... eehcaes: 3 ΞΘ OVAL . 20. cscecscaccenccrer| ἐνίκων. 1 & valves. Circe minuta .............000+- 3 1 & valves. Cardium levigatum .........) ....0. 2 —— papillosum.........6605 ah ovens: 1 = erinaceum ;.... εν εν ννννν wa... | fragments, ----- FOSEUM ? eesicccceceeeee 3 | . +. {rose colour, convex. —— MINIMUM .... ese eeeeee | cee 1 Lucina or Diplodonta ...... ...... 1 & valves. Kellia suborbicularis ......... 1 Crenella marmorata .....:... 2 Arca tetragona ..... pa ΕΣ CE | entree attached to nullipore. —— barbata ...ccccesceseceaee Te ais 30: attached to nullipore. Pectunculus glycimeris ......] ...... valve. —— violascens .....:..: ΠΕΡ ἘΣ «+ | fragment. Lima squamosa .......4..... SEIT ἐδ. valve. ἷ — subauriculata.......:066] sce valve {half an inch long. — fragilis ....... ἌΣ Seana valve. ‘Pecten Jacobzeus ............{ .2-. valves. — polymorphus............ 2 valves. — opercularis ......4s.5.. 1 valves. —$ VATIUUS sii sisecccissceeceees 6 —similis ......... ἘΠΕ ΕΣ 1 valve. — striatus ....... LO ae 2 Anomia ephippium ......... 4 Chiton marmoreus? ....... ia 1 — fascicularis ? ............ phy tole. pale reddish colour, very different from Umbrella mediterranea......)....... 1 ordinary. Emarginula elongata.........]) 2.0... 1 small. ee ptrea vulgaris............ 4 hydatis ....2....4..... est] 1118 3 —— striatula? .........ssssea} veces 1 | Chemnitzia..............s0008 ἘΝ os ae resembles C. fulvocineta, pink colour. Odostomia conoidea ......... 1 Natica macilenta ............ 2 — Guilleminii .......0.00) 0 cc... 2 —— Alderi or marochiensis 1 — millepunctata ΤΡ dushed sdeseg 1 small. | Sigaretus perspicuus .........) 0 ...... 1 | Tornatella fasciata............ lh joel (aa young: | Vermetus gigas? ..:......... 3 -- a ge «ἀν dubia 5 Trochus magus ......sss0.e0e0 1 304 REPORT—1850. No. of living} No. of dead Species obtained. specimens. | specimens. Observations. Trochus exiguus ............) ΝΣ 4 conulus, Var...........65 Ϊ Goh fe literer eas small. Ξξεεη εν παρα ancs-ce cal sumiew adtl 5 small, ribbed. Turritella tricostalis ......... 3 Cerithium vulgatum, var. ... 6 mee TOUICUIATUIN <2. 2ccccs00+| seceee 1 PETVEFSUM ...00..-s00000 | 2 Pleurotoma lineare ......... 2 Fusus pulchellus ............ 3 Murex crispata ............... τς ἦτον 1 Cassis 810 οϑᾶ......ννννννννννον lee rest 1 with hermit crab. Mitra columbellaria ......... 1 Marginella miliacea ......... | 1 several. Ἐ--- ΒΕΟΔΙΙΠΒ ccansincssescnsuel 2 1 Ringuicula auriculata......... lmao sashes few. Cypraea europea........e..c006) sees 1 Ditrupa subulata ............ ho ara fragments. op cats coe sbecesecons ἘΠῸῸ 2° ᾿ |notched aperture. A small species of Echinus..| several Ophiure ...,....... Τ λιν τ. ἢ several. Spatangus purpureus ......... ἰώ esse 1 Various corals. Actiniz. In sailing from the Balearic Islands to Gibraltar 1 observed Ianthina nitens, not unfrequent, and occasionally with spawn attached ; also Velella and “oe a Pteropoda become more rare proceeding eastward. Lisbon, 10th of August, sand and mud, 7 to 12 fathoms, strong tide. Corbula nucleus. Syndosmya alba. Lutraria oblonga (dead). Mactra subtruncata. Cardium ciliare. Nucula nitida. nucleus. Pecten polymorphus—dark colour, gy- northern limit ὃ varius. opercularis. Ostrea edulis. Anomia ephippium. Chiton rufus. Bulla akera, var. ? fragilis ?—shore, living. Chemnitzia elegantissima. gracilis pi Odostomia conoidea ?. new (brown). Rissoa monodonta. Sealaria clathratulus. Trochus millegranus (young). ——. ziziphinus. —— umbilicaris (dead). Littorina rudis—dead, one. Cerithium reticulatum. Pleurotoma coarctatum. Nassa macula. varicosa. Murex erinaceus. At Cintra I found the following few land shells, 6th to 8th of August :— Helix lactea. aspersa. hortensis—most southern loca- lity I have observed it in. —— pisana. caperata. spurca. barbula. polentina. cellaria. —— crystallina. Helix umbilicata. Bulimus acutus. obtusus. decollatus. Pupa muscorum? I believe a distinct species, more elongated, having an extra whorl and an extra tooth. ——, minute. Clausilia rugosa? (slender). Balea perversa, gy. southern limit ? ee ee eee ON FRESHWATER POLYZOA. 305 On the Present State of our Knowledge of the Freshwater Polyzoa. By Professor ALLMAN, M.D., F.R.C.S.1., M.RL.A. Tue discovery by Trembley* of a compound polypoid animal, which he found in the year 1741 in the freshwaters near La Haye, and to which he gave the name of “ Polype a Panache,” followed almost immediately by the detection of the same animal in England by Bakert, who described it under the name of “Bellflower animal,” constitutes an interesting epoch in the history of zoology. The “ Polype a Panache” was nearly a century afterwards rediscovered by M. Dumortier, and described by this naturalist under the name of Lophopus _ erystallinus in an-elaborate and important memoir published in the Bul- letins de Acad. de Bruxellest. The Lophopus crystallinus presents a fine typical example of those polypoid molluscous animals, which, long confounded with the genuine polypes, were at last distinguished by the nearly simultaneous labours of Grant, Edwards and Thompson, and elevated into a distinct class under the names of Polyzoa, Thompson§, and Bryozoa, Ehrenberg |\. Thompson’s name has the priority over that of Ehrenberg, and is perhaps even more expressive than that proposed by the celebrated zoologist of Berlin ; justice to its author therefore requires its adoption, and in the present Report I shall employ it instead of the more generally used though more recent name of Bryozoa. The Polyzoa constitute a class whosé marine representatives are very nu- merous, and- which has also examples of great elegance and interest in the still and running waters of the land. It is with these freshwater forms that the present Report is to be occupied. The discovery of the “ Polype ἃ Panache” (ZLophopus erystallinus) is the first recorded instance of the detection of a freshwater Polyzcon. This little animal had been carefully examined by Trembley and Baker, and both these naturalists, in the account they have left us of its structure, have shown them- selves acute and faithful observers. It is singular that though Trembley and Baker had pointed out all the essential characters of polyzoal structure in Lophopus, the significance of their discovery should have remained unre- cognized for nearly a century, and that it was not tilla similar type in certain ‘Maarine polypoid animals arrested the attention of naturalists, that the import- ance of this type and its true bearing on systematic zoology began to be appreciated. The discovery of Zophopus was followed within a few years by that oy Plumatella, Cristatella and Aleyonella; but these genera were imperfect] distinguished from one another, and our knowledge of their anatomy remaine for many years exactly as it had been left by Trembley and Baker. A length Raspail{], in 1828, published a very elaborate paper on Aleyonella- Elaborate, however, as is this memoir, copiously furnished as it is with well- executed figures, it tells us very little of value ; in correctness of anatomical detail it falls far behind the accounts left us by Trembley and Baker; and though Raspail’s attempt to unite Plumatella repens with Alcyonella fungosa** * Trembley, Mém. pour I’Hist. des Polypes d’eau douce, Mém. III. ‘tT Baker, Employment for the Microscope, part 2. chap. x. _ t Dumortier, Recherches sur 1’Anat. et Physiol. des Polypes comp. d’eau douce, Bul. de VAcad. Roy. de Bruxelles, 1835. : ἃ Zoological Researches, No. 1, 1830. || Symbole Physicez, 1831. -{] Raspail, Hist. Nat. de !’Alcyonelle fluyiatile, Mém. de la Soc. d’Hist. Nat. de Paris, tom. iv. __** The Aleyonella stagnorum of Lamarck was originally described by Pallas under the name οὗ Aleyonella fungosa, in a memoir published in the Novi Commentarii Academie Petropo- 1850. x / "?< 306 REPORT—1850. may admit of some defence, the union of all the other known species with this same form must be considered a retrograde step, which, were it not so obviously false, might have materially retarded further progress in this de- partment of zoology. As it was, however, Raspail’s memoir gave a stimulus to inquiry, and a number of investigators now applied themselves to the sub- ject with zeal and with a success which might have been expected from the advanced state of general zoology, and from the increased means of research which improved microscopes had placed in the hands of naturalists. Among those who now most materially advanced our knowledge of the freshwater Polyzoa, must be especially mentioned MM. Gervais, Dumortier and Van Beneden. To Gervais we are indebted for the first complete zoo- graphic view of the subject, the determination and diagnosis of the genera and their systematic distribution*, while Dumortier and Van Beneden have both contributed most important information on the anatomical structure of certain species. Wan Beneden moreover has given us a complete memoir on the whole of the species inhabiting the freshwaters of Belgium, a memoir, which, both in a zoographical and zootomical point of view, is certainly the most valuable we possess; while within the present year an excellent paper on the anatomy of certain genera, with descriptions of new species, has been published by Mr. Hancock ζ in the ‘ Annals of Natural History.’ My own researches have been from time to time communicated chiefly to the meetings of this Association and of the Royal Irish Academy ; and though they have not been hitherto brought together into a connected memoir, they are to be found in a detached form in the proceedings of both these bodies. All the known forms of freshwater Polyzoa may be included under six genera, whose relations and leading diagnostic characters are represented in the following Table. These genera embrace seventeen species, sixteen of which have already been found in Britain. Family. Genus. Ceencecium free, Wd- SCRISTATELDID AS S.....ccccesvectassevcencce manteucece= PALUDICELLIDA 02-000. «οτος saeco -.cte>socces-dscseasabancesaes ao Paludicella. stitute of valve litane, tom. xii. Van Beneden has been the first to point out the priority of Pallas’s name, and in his Recherches sur les Bryozoaires fluviatiles de Belgique, has restored it after a lapse of many years; a revision, which justice to the original describer of the species, as well as — the laws of Natural History nomenclature, demand, and which I shall gladly follow in the present Report. * Annales Franeaises et Etrangéres d’Anatomie, 1839. + Van Beneden, Recherches sur les Bryozoaires fluviatiles de Belgique, Mém. de l’Acad. Roy, - de Belgique, 1848. Ζ On the Anatomy of the Freshwater Bryozoa, Ann. Nat. Hist., 2nd Ser. vol. v. p. 173. meas elle «« bee galt Baas ine £3 whee ON FRESHWATER POLYZOA. 307 ‘ ANATOMY. Definition of terms.—The old notion, which, by mistaking the zoological rank of the Polyzva, erroneously referred them to the class of the Polypes, caused the same terms to be applied to them which were also used to desig- nate the various parts of the true polypes. The-recognition, however, of a type of structure in the Polyzoa totally distinct from that of the Polypes proper, necessitates a change in the terminology employed in their description. On these grounds I have ventured to substitute some new terms for those previously used; while our increased knowledge of polyzoal structure neces- sitates the use of certain additional terms of which we have no representatives in the descriptive terminology of previous authors. For the term Polype, therefore, originally applied not only to the Anthozoal radiata, to which its use ought to be confined, but also to the retractile portion of the Polyzoa, I have substituted in the following Report that of Polypide*. ‘To the common dermal system of a colony, which, as well as the solid basis of the true Polypes, was formerly known under the names of Polypary and Polypidome, I have applied the term Caenecium+. The ccencecium is composed of two perfectly distinet tunics ; to the external I have given the name of Eetocyst{, and to the ‘internal that of Hndocyst§. The sort of dise or stage which surrounds the mouth and bears the tentacula, I have called Lophophore||. The Perigastric 4] space is the space included between the walls of the endocyst and the ali- mentary canal. The terms now enumerated are such as I believe the nature of the subject strictly requires. I am fully aware that the changing of an established ter- minology is highly objectionable where it can possibly be avoided, but in the present case, where the very same terms are in two different classes of animals applied to organs in no respect homologous, the purposes of a rigidly scien- tific description can, I believe, only be served by some such change as that which I have here ventured to introduce. I. Organs for the Preservation of the Individual. A. Dermal system.—The Polyzoa are all compound animals, and by the expression, Dermal system, I intend to be understood, the Canecium or common connecting medium of the colony. It is formed of a number of little chambers or cells organically united, in each of which is contained a polypide, and consists of two portions, which must be carefully distinguished, an internal tunic, soft, transparent and contractile (the endocyst), and an external investment (the ectocyst), which varies greatly in texture and form in the different genera. The endocyst lines the interior of the cells, and when it arrives at their orifice would protrude beyond the ectocyst, were it not that it here becomes invaginated or inverted into itself, and then termi- nates by being attached round the base of the tentacular crown; during the exsertion of the polypide it undergoes eversion, which, however, in all the freshwater species is but partial ; a portion of the endocyst, as we shall after- wards more particularly see, remaining in a permanently inverted condition, in this respect differing remarkably from the marine species in which the | eversion of the endocyst is perhaps in all cases complete. The endocyst thus constitutes a series of cells or sacs in organic continuity with each other, and in which the polypides surrounded by the perigastric fluid are suspended. fhese sacs are all closed above, where they are attached to the polypide, and below have in some cases their cavities in communication with those = ο΄ * Πολυποὺς, εἶδος. T Κοιψὸς, οἰκίον. 1 ᾿Εκτὸς, κύστιΞ. τὰ ” ᾿ ᾿ νεῖ Evdoy, κύστις. || Λόφος, popéw. { Περὶ, γαστήρ. Ἷ x2 908 REPORT—1850. of neighbouring sacs, while in others this communication is interrupted by the existence of septa, to be presently described. The structure of the endocyst in all the six genera is cellular, and in all cases admitting of favourable observation ; transverse muscular fibres, to be afterwards described, may be detected in it. Shortly after its inversion it becomes altered in texture, losing its contractility and assuming a thinner and more membranous appearance ; in this condition it continues till it ter- minates by being attached to the base of the tentacular crown; this thin non- contractile portion of the endecyst constitutes the tentacular sheath which encloses and protects the tentacula during the retracted state of the poly- pide. A portion, perhaps the whole, of the inner surface of the endocyst is clothed with vibratile cilia. The ectocyst, or external investment, is in most of the species composed of a tough pergamentaceous brown membrane, strengthened by the deposition of irregularly-formed siliceous particles, which, except towards the apertures, where these particles are deficient, give to the ectocyst an opacity which ren- ders an observation of the contained parts a matter of considerable difficulty. In some species of Plwmatella and in Alcyonella flabellum, and A. Benedeni, the earthy particles are entirely absent from a longitudinal line which com- mences wide near the aperture of the cell, and gradually narrows as it passes downwards, when it soon assumes the appearance of a prominent keel, and then loses its transparency by the deposition of earthy matter, as in the rest of the tunic. The perfectly transparent wide origin of this line gives to the orifice of the cell the appearance of a deep notch at one side. In Frederi- cella a slightly prominent keel is also apparent, but the netch-like transparent space does not exist. In Cristatella the ectocyst would at first sight seem to be entirely absent, and the eccencecium to be composed exclusively of the endocyst. A careful examination, however, proves that both are present, and that the ectocyst consists of a highly-organized flexible and transparent tunic, of very evident cellular structure, and quite free from every kind of earthy deposit. The whole of this tunic is contractile, and presents below a flattened dise desti- tute of apertures. Upon the disc, which closely resembles the foot of a gasteropodous molluse, this singular colony creeps about upon the stems and leaves of aquatic plants, exposing its beautiful plumes to the light and warmih of the sun. Lophopus also at first sight conveys the impression of being destitute of an ectocyst, and having the place of this tunic supplied by a peculiar unorganized gelatinous secretion, in which the colony is enveloped. This apparently gelatinous investment is however in reality a distinctly organized tunie, which seems formed of a cellular or areolar tissue, enclosing in its meshes a transpa- rent and colourless fluid. That such is its structure becomes apparent when the animal has undergone partial desiccation after removal from the water, for then the ectocyst loses a portion of the fluid which had been imprisoned in its tissue, and its membranous nature becomes revealed. Neither Trembley nor Baker takes any notice of this gelatinous envelope. M.Dumortier men- tions it, and represents it in his figure*, while M. Van Beneden believes it to be an accidental investment acquired by the animal during confinementt. The ectocyst in Paludicella is formed of a smooth pergamentaceous semi- transparent membrane, free from earthy deposit, and of a deep brown colour. Towards the orifice of the cell it becomes thin and delicate, and is here strengthened by four longitudinal horny ribs. The part of the ectocyst to which the ribs are attached is carried inwards during extreme retraction οὗ * Dumortier, doe. cit. + Van Beneden, (oc, cit. ON FRESHWATER POLYZOA. 309 —— _ the polypide. These ribs I look upon as the true homologue of the sete which crown the cell in Bowerbankia and other marine Polyzoa; if these sete were reduced in number to four, and instead of being free were at- tached to the sides of the cell, they would at once be converted into the ribs of Paludicella; the fact of their being connected to one another by a delicate ,membrane does not in the least invalidate the view here taken, and the cir- cumstance of their being detached from the sides of the cell will account for the different mode in which they are withdrawn during retraction. The septa already alluded to as existing between the cells of certain fresh- _ water Polyzoa, are formed both by the ectocyst and endocyst. In Paludicella they acquire their maximum in development and constancy; they exist here ; between every cell, and consist of an annular process which projects trans- __-versely from the ectocyst into the interior of the cell, with a covering of endocyst on its upper and under surface. The septum thus formed is ren- dered complete by the aperture in its centre being closed by a peculiar body, which projects into the cavity of the cell at each side. The structure of this body is remarkable ; it consists of a central mass or nucleus, surrounded by a distinct layer of somewhat elongated cellules placed perpendicularly to the surface of the nucleus. The body which thus closes up the centre of the annular septum has, without doubt, some office to perform besides that of simply completing the septum ; but upon the nature of this office I can form no satisfactory opinion. In the other genera the septa are by no means so constant ur complete as in Paludicella. In several species of Plumatella, especially P. coralloides, septa exist, but these generally occur only at inter- ~ vals, leaving several cells between them, which communicate freely with one another; not unfrequently the septum itself is imperfect, admitting of a com- munication through its centre between two neighbouring cells. In Aleyonella fungosa, and in Fredericella sultana, imperfect septa may here and there be observed, while Cristatella and Lophopus would seem to be quite deprived of them, the cells in these genera all opening into one another.. B. Organs of Digestion —The digestive system is very similar in all those species in which the lophophore is bilateral ; these we shall therefore consider together; Paludicella, the only representative of the division with orbicular lophophore, presents some peculiarities, and should be examined by itself. 1. Species with bilateral Lophophore.—The mouth is a simple edentulous orifice of a circular or slightly crescentic form, placed in the centre of the body of the lophophore, and consequently occupying the bottom of the ten- tacular crater. Its margin is slightly elevated, and is continuous posteriorly, with a hollow valve-like organ of very: peculiar formation. This organ arches over the mouth, and may be aptly enough compared in shape to the epiglottis of certain mammifers. The cavity in its interior communicates through an opening in the lophophore with the perivisceral space ; its anterior walls are thick, and densely clothed on their external surface with vibratile cilia, while the posterior walls are thin, membranous, and transparent, and destitute of cilia. It may be observed, when the polypide is exserted from its cell, to be in a constant motion, which consists in an alternate elevation and depression of the organ. The elevation is effected by distinct muscular fibres, which are visible through the transparent posterior walls, and will be afterwards more particularly described, while the depression is probably the result simply of an antagonistic elasticity. On the true function and import of this curious organ I am unable to throw any light; though it is here described in con- nection with the organs of digestion, its relation to the digestive system is | perhaps very remote. It may possibly be more correctly viewed as connected with sensation. i 810 REPORT—1850. From the mouth an esophagus of considerable length leads downwards to the stomach ; it becomes gradually narrower as it approaches the latter, into which it opens by a very distinct conical projection. To the esophagus immediately succeeds the stomach, without the interven- tion of any distinct gizzard, such as we find in Bowerbankia and certain other marine Polyzoa; and I cannot explain the statement of so excellent an authority as Siebold, who asserts that he has seen in Aleyonella a gizzard with an organization precisely similar to that of Bowerbankia*. The stomach is a large thick-walled sac, and may be divided into two portions, first a nearly cylindrical prolongation, which by one extremity immediately receives the cesophagus, while by the other it is continuous with the remaining por- tion of the stomach; it may be called the cardiac cavity of the stomach. The second division forms the greater portion of the stomach ; it is also of a nearly cylindrical form; its direction is almost continuous with that of the former, but it is longer and wider; it terminates below in a rounded cul-de- sae; to distinguish it from the other, I shall call it the pyloric cavity of the stomach. Between the cardiac and pyloric cavities there is no marked line of demarcation, the structure of both being quite similar; notwithstanding, however, the similarity of structure, I believe there are physiological grounds for the distinction, for I consider the cardiac cavity as the true homologue of the gizzard in Bowerbankia. On a level with the continuation of the cardiac into the pyloric cavity arises the inéestine; it springs from the pyloric cavity, with which it com- municates by a very defined orifice. The pylorus is distinctly valvular, and is furnished with prominent lips, which project into the intestine, and admit of the orifice being dilated or contracted, or even completely closed. The intestine is very wide at its origin, and passes up along the side of the cardiac cavity and cesophagus, rapidly diminishing in diameter till it terminates in a distinct anus just below the mouth. Histology of Alimentary Canal.—The histological structure of the alimen- tary tube is somewhat complex. In the walls of the stomach I have suc- ceeded in detecting three distinct layers. InternaHy we have a thick layer of a yellowish: brown colour ; this is thrown into strong longitudinal rugz, which, however, become less prominent in the czl-de-sac of the pyloric cavity; it is composed of transparent spherical cells filied with a clear fluid con- taining brown corpuscles. When the animal has been long left without food the brown corpuscles disappear from the cellules, and the stomach becomes colourless. Externally to this coloured layer, which we may perhaps view as the representative of the liver, is a layer of elongated colourless ecellules, whose long axes are placed perpendicularly to the surface of the stomach. The third and most external layer consists of delicate circular fibres which surround the stomach, and are without doubt muscular; these fibres are particularly evident towards the fundus of the pyloric cavity, and are much less distinct as we ascend towards the cesophagus. The fundus of the pyloric cavity seems indeed to differ from the rest of the stomach in structure and function ; the strong longitudinal rugee and deep brown colour of the internal layer nearly disappear in it, and during the process of digestion we may per- ceive that the peculiar peristaltic action of the walls is more marked in it than in the remainder of the cavity, from which it is every now and then separated - by a momentary hour-glass constriction. In the cesophagus the internal layer of brown-coloured cellules is wanting, and thereare no longitudinalruge. The layerof elongated cellules, however, 1s well-developed, and gives to this part of the alimentary canal a sort of tesselated * Lehrbuch der Vergleichenden Anatomie der Wirbellosen Thiere, § 38. note 1, a. ON FRESHWATER POLYZOA. 311 appearance, when viewed under a high power of the microscope ; external to this, another layer, possibly muscular, seems also to be present. The mouth and upper part of the cesophagus are clothed with a ciliated epithelium ; but I could detect no appearance of cilia further than a short distance down the tube. The structure of the intestine closely resembles that of the cesophagus ; vibratile cilia, however, are altogether.absent. In Cristatella the cellules of the internal layer are large, and filled in the well-fed animal with a clear greenish-blue fluid. With the exception of the mouth and upper portion of the cesophagus, no part of the alimentary canal is ciliated in the species with bilateral lopho- phores. The whole tract is highly irritable, the presence of alimentary matter stimulating it to rapid and vigorous contraction. 2. Species with orbicular Lophophore.—In Paludicella articulata, the only freshwater representative of the species with the lophophore orbicular, the mouth is a perfectly circular orifice, with slightly projectile margin, and is totally destitute of the valve-like appendage which is found in all the other freshwater species, The upper part of the cesophagus is wide, and may perhaps here, more decidedly than in the other species, be distinguished as pharynx. It soon contracts into a long narrow tube, which leads to an oval sac corresponding to the cardiac cavity of the stomach in the other fresh- water Polyzoa, and to the gizzard in certain marine species. This sac is much more distinct from the great cavity of the stomach than in the other Polyzoa of fresh water. It enters this cavity near its upper extremity, and presents here a well-marked constriction; in extreme retraction of the polypide it is bent back upon the rest of the stomach. The great cavity of the stomach ‘is of a nearly cylindrical figure ; from its upper extremity arises the intestine. This tube presents, just after its origin, a wide dilatron, and then suddenly contracting, continues as a narrow cylindrical tube to its termination just below the mouth. The stomach is furnished with an internal layer of coloured cells, as in the other species, but is destitute of longitudinal ruge. The pylorus is clothed with long vibratile cilia, which extend for a short distance into the cavity of the stomach. The mouth and upper part of the pharynx are also clothed with a ciliated epithelium. The whole course of the alimentary matter, from the moment of its pre- hension to its final ejection, may be easily witnessed in many of the fresh- water Polyzoa. If a polypide of Plumatella repens be watched while in an exserted state, different kinds of infusoria and other minute organic bodies may be observed to be whirled along in the vortices caused by the action of the tentacular cilia, and conveyed to the mouth, where many of them are at once seized and swallowed, and others rejected. The food having once entered the cesophagus, experiences in this tube no delay, but is rapidly conveyed downwards by a kind of peristaltic action, and delivered to the stomach ; and at the moment of the passage of the alimentary matter from the cesophagus into the stomach the cardia may be observed to become more prominent. In the stomach the food is destined to experience considerable delay ; it is here rapidly moved up and down by a strong peristaltic action, which first takes place from above downwards, and then inverting itself, propels the contents in an opposite direction. Every now and then the fundus of the stomach, which, as has already been said, seems to perform some function distinct from that of the rest of the organ, seizes a portion of the alimentary mass, and retains it for a mement by an hour-glass restriction separate from the re- mainder, and then powerfully contracting on it, forces it back among the other contents of the stomach. All this time the food is becoming imbued 312 REPORT—15850. with the peculiar secretion of the gastric walls, and soon assumes a rich brown colour. After having thus undergone for some time the action of the stomach, the alimentary matter is delivered by degrees into the intestine, where it accumulates in the wide pyloric extremity of this tube. After continuing here for a while in a state of rest, and probably yielding to the absorbent tissues its remaining nutritious elements, portions in the form of roundish pellets become separated at intervals from the mass, and are slowly propelled along the tube towards the anus, where, having arrived, they are suddenly ejected into the surrounding water and rapidly whirled away by the tentacu- lar currents. It was these excrementitious pellets that Turpin mistook for unarmed ova in Cristatella. C. Organs of Respiration and Circulation—Upon the tentacular crown and the walls of the perigastric space would seem, among the Polyzoa, chiefly to devolve the function of bringing under the influence of the aérating medium the nutritious fluid of their tissues. The tentacular crown of a Polyzoon consists of two portions, namely, first, a sort of stage or dise (the lophophore) which surrounds the mouth; and secondly, of a series of ¢entacula which are borne in an uninterrupted series round the margin of the lophophore. The lophophore is throughout almost the entire class of an orbicular figure; but in the freshwater genera Crista- tella, Lophopus, Plumatella and Alcyonella, its posterior margin, or that which corresponds to the side of the rectum, is prolonged into two long tri- angular lobes or arms, so as to cause the lophophore in these genera to pre- sent the form of a deep crescent, round whose entire margin the tentacula are borne in one continuous series. This condition of the lophophore is found in no marine species. In /’redericella the arms of the crescent are obsolete, and the lophophere here may, on a superficial view, appear orbicu- lar; but a careful examination will render manifest its departure from the orbicular form, the side corresponding to the arms of the crescent being slightly prolonged obliquely upwards; a similar tendency to assume a bi- lateral form may also be observed, as Van Beneden* has already pointed out in certain marine genera. Paludicella is the only freshwater genus in whose lophophore not the slightest trace of bilaterality can be detected. The lophophore in all the genera forms the roof of the perigastric space ; in the species with crescentic lophophores, the arms of the crescent are tubular and open into this space; the interior of the arms is clothed with vibratile cilia. The tentacula are tubular, closed at their free extremity, and opening by the opposite through the lophophore into the perigastric space ; in all the Polyzoa they are armed upon their opposed sides with vibratile cilia, arranged in a single series, and vibrating towards the remote extremity of the tentacle upon one side, and towards the base on the other. In Fredericelia I have suc- ceeded in detecting two very distinct layers entering into the structure of the tentacula, a condition which I have also made out, though not so evidently in other genera, and which is in all probability common to the whole class. The external layer consists of rounded cells filled with a colourless fluid, and often presenting a bright nucleus. Some of those cells which lie upon the back of the tentacle become in certain genera enlarged, giving a vesicular appearance to the organ; this is particularly evident in Cristatella. The in- ternal layer is a delicate transparent membrane, in which I could detect no trace of structure; it resists putrefaction longer than the external cellular layer, and forms the immediate walls of the tubular cavity. A nervous fila- ment and muscular fibres, to be presently described, may also be traced into * Recherches sur l’Organisation des Laguncula, Nouveaux Mémoires de l’Acad. Roy. de Bruxelles, yol. xviii. ON FRESHWATER POLYZOA. 313 the tentacle. In Cristatella, a minute closed cavity, distinct from the rest of the lobe, may be very distinctly seen in the extremity of each tentacle ; it would also seem to exist in other genera, but is less easily demonstrated in these. In all the freshwater genera, with the exception of Paludicella, the entire plume of tentacula is surrounded at its base by an exceedingly delicate trans- parent membrane in the form of a cup or calyx. This cup is adherent to the back of the tentacula, and its margin is in most instances prolonged more or less upon each tentacle, as a narrow triangular process, so as to present a sort of scalloped or festooned appearance; the festooning of the margin is most marked in F’redericella ; in some species of Plumatella it is scarcely percep- tible. A high power of the microscope, and carefully adjusted illumination, will enable us to detect in the calyciform membrane certain delicate anasto- mosing lines, which I at first suspected to indicate the presence of a vascular net-work ; further examination, however has caused me to prefer viewing them as the lines of contact of delicate cellules of which the membrane is eomposed. The appearance in Cristatedla especially confirms the latter sup- position. The calyciform membrane has not yet been detected in any marine Polyzoon. In the curious marine genus Pedicellina the tentacula are indeed surrounded at their base by a kind of membranous calyx, but this is of an entirely different import from the membrane connecting the bases of the tentacula in the freshwater Polyzoa. The perigastric space and interior of the tentacula and lophophore all freely communicate with one another, and are filled with a clear fluid, in which foat numerous particles of very irregular form and size. In this fluid may be observed a constant rotatory motion, rendered apparent by the fleat- ing corpuscles as they are whirled away under the influence of the currents. That the fluid thus contained in the perigastric space, and thence admitted into the tentacula, consists really of water which had obtained entrance from without, there can, I think, be little doubt, and yet I have in vain sought for any opening through which the external fluid can obtain ad- mittance to the interior. I have allowed the transparent genera Cristatella and Zophopus to remain many hours in carmine without being able to detect a single particle of this pigment in the perigastric space, though I have seen this space rapidly empty itself on the removal of the animal from the water, and again fill on restoring it to its natural element. Van Beneden* believed that he had detected in Alcyonella apertures, which he names “bouches aquiféres,” at the base of the fentacula; but this distinguished naturalist is certainly here in error: I shall presently point out the source of his mistake. Meyen asserts the existence of an aperture in the vicinity of the anus, through which, he tells us, he bas witnessed the escape of an egg in Aleyonellat ; and Siebold admits the correctness of this statement, end considers the aperture described by Meyen to be that through which the external water gains admittance to the interior{. I have, however, fully convinced myself that no such aperture exists, and the phenomenon de- scribed by Meyen must certainly be due to an accidental rupture of the tissues, though the high authority of Van Beneden describes the passage of the eggs through an aperture similarly placed in the marine genus Lagun- cula§. It is possible that certain apertures may exist in some of the tissnes of the animal so minute as to defy our attempts at detection, and yet capable * Quelques Observations sur les Polypes d’eau douce, Bull. de l’Acad. Roy. de Bruxelles, 839 { Meyen, Naturgeschichte der Polypen, Iris, 1828. t Loc. cit. § 41. § Recherches sur l’Org. des Laguncula, Joe. cit. 314 ‘ REPORT—1850. of permitting a transudation of fluid. Rapp detected numerous minute apertures in the external walls of Actinia, keeping up a communication be- tween the interior of the animal and the surrounding water; the discovery of Rapp I have fully confirmed, and yet the apertures are so small as to render it certain that they would have remained undiscovered were it not that their presence is betrayed by a minute stream which escapes from them during the contraction of the animal, which occurs immediately on its being removed from the water. May not similar apertures exist in the Polyzoa? and if so, I should feel inclined to seek them in the walls of the alimentary canal, perhaps of the rectum. The fluid which circulates in the perigastric space is not perfectly homogeneous, and numerous corpuscles of very various and irregular shape may be observed to float through it and be carried about by its current. Some of these corpuscles are perhaps sperma- tozoa; others are of no definite shape, and look like minute portions of the tissues separated by laceration. May they not be some of the products of digestion which have transuded through the walls of the alimentary canal, being thus conveyed into the only representative of a true circulation with which these animals present us? The true signification of the perigastric fluid is a point whose determina- tion must be of great importance in the physiology of the Polyzoa. If it be admitted, as I think it must be, that it consists mainly of water which has obtained entrance from without, it then corresponds to a true aquiferous system subservient to a respiratory function. But, as we have already seen, it is probable that it receives certain products of digestion which had trans- uded through the walls of the alimentary canal; it thus connects itself with the digestive system. It is moreover the only representative in these animals of a sanguiferous circulation, for in the Polyzoa there is certainly no trace of a heart, nor can anything referable to a true vascular system be detected. ‘The perigastric circulation therefore unites in itself the triple function of a chyliferous, sanguiferous and respiratory system. The next point of interest to determine, with regard to the perigastric fluid, is the cause of the peculiar currents observed in it. These currents, which ex- tend into the tentacular crown, were long ago observed by Trembley* in Lopho- pus erystallinus ; but this author contented himself with simply recording their existence, and made no attempt to explain them. Nordmann‘, who observed them in both freshwater and marine genera, not being able to detect any trace of cilia or other moving power, compared them to the currents in the cells of Chara. That they are” produced by the action of vibratile cilia, there can, however, now be no doubt. Van Benedenf, tells us that he has seen these cilia, not only on the walls of the perigastric space, but on the ex- ternal surface of the alimentary canal. I cannet, however, confirm their existence in the latter situation; indeed, my own observations are entirely opposed to their presence on the alimentary canal; and I cannot help thinking that this statement of Van Beneden is connected with some error of observation. I have, however, most distinctly seen them on the upper part of the tentacular sheath in Plwmatella during the exserted state of the polypide; on other parts of the endocyst I have not succeeded in detecting them by direct observation; but the peculiar acceleration which the motion of the circulating corpuscles experiences when these approach the walls of the perigastric space, plainly indicate the presence of vibratile cilia in this situation. ι D. Muscular System.—The muscular system is highly developed; we * Loc. cit. + Micrographische Beitrage, Βα, ii. p. 75. + Quelques Observations sur les Polypes d’eau douce, loc. cit, + 3 ; ON FRESHWATER POLYZOA. 315 Shall first consider it in those species with bilateral lophophores, and after- wards attend to its disposition in Paludicella. 1, Species with bilateral Lophophore—tIn all these the disposition of the muscles is exceedingly similar; seven distinct sets may be considered as de- monstrated. (1.) Retractor Muscles of the Polypide.—These, which are the largest and most powerful muscles of the animal, consist of two fasciculi which arise far down from the inner surface of the endocyst, and thence pass upwards, one along each side of the alimentary tract, to be inserted into the upper part and sides of the esophagus. A few accessory fasciculi may also be generally seen arising near the origin of the former, and inserted into the sides of the stomach. The use of the retractor muscles is very obvious ; acting towards the bottom of the comparatively fixed tube, they retract the whole alimentary canal with the tentacular crown, so as to place them in a state of security in the interior of the cceneecium. _ (2.) The Rotatory Muscles of the Crown.—These also consist of two fasci- euli, which arise along with the set just described, and passing up in company with these, separate from them at some distance below the crown, and thence pass outwards to the right and left to be inserted each into its own side of the lophophore. ἔζβε : to rotate the tentacular crown and depress the lobes. (3.) The Tentacular Museles—The muscular apparatus of the tentacula consists of a set of delicate parallel bands, which may be observed running from below upwards upon the margin of the lophophore; these bands are con- tinuous with one another below, and when they arrive at the intervals between the roots of the tentacula, each divides into two others, which run along the opposite sides of two neighbouring tentacula, The margin of the lophophore in the interval of the bands presents an oval transparent space, which looks almost exactly like an aperture, and it would seem to be these spaces which M. Van Beneden has taken for aquiferous mouths; after very careful ex- amination, however, I have convinced myself that no aperture exists here, ~ the apparent mouths being merely transparent spaces in the lophophore. (4.) The Elevator Muscle of the Valve.—This is a small, but very evident fasciculus, occupying the interior of the oral appendage, and visible through its transparent posterior walls; it arises from the lophophore near the base of the valve, and-passing forwards and upwards, is inserted into the posterior surface of the anterior wall of the valve. Use: to elevate the valve and draw it backwards from the mouth. _ (5.) Superior Parieto-vaginal Muscles.—These consist of numerous short bands, which arise all round froni the inner surface of the endocyst, com- mencing close to the line of invagination, and extending for some distance downwards., From this origin they pass transversely inwards, and are inserted into the opposed surface of the invaginated endocyst ard tentacular sheath. Use: to dilate the invaginated endocyst and sheath, and assist in keeping the peieineted endocyst and upper portion of the sheath permanently in- verted. (6.) Inferior Parieto-vaginal Muscles.—These consist of several radiating bands longer and stronger than the last, below which they arise from the inner surface of the endocyst in a single plane perpendicular to the axis of the cell, and thence passing upwards and inwards, are inserted into the sheath in a plane parallel to that of their origin, and just below the termination of the superior parieto-vaginal muscles. Use: to steady the sheath and regulate its position during the protrusion of the polypide, and to form a fixed plane on which it may roll outwards with the polypide in the act of protrusion. 316 REPORT—1850. (7.) Vaginal Sphincter.—The vaginal sphincter is a circular band surround- ing the termination of the invaginated endocyst at the point where the latter passes into the tentacular sheath. Though a contraction of the endocyst at this spot, as if occasioned by the action of a powerful sphincter, may be always observed when the polypide is completely retracted, yet the demon- stration of an actual muscle is by no means easy. I have however convinced myself of the existence of a distinct structure at the place where the con- traction occurs, and, though I have not observed any evident fibres, I have no hesitation in viewing this structure as a sphincter muscle on which the contraction in question is dependent. The wse of the sphincter is to close the sheath after the recession of the viscera, and thus protect the latter from all annoyance from without. Besides the seven sets of muscles now described, a high magnifying power and properly adjusted illumination will enable us to detect in the walls of the endocyst, towards its anterior extremity, numerous delicate fibres which run transversely round the cell. They are doubtlessly muscular, and by their action constrict the endocyst in a transverse direction, and thus aid in the protrusion of the viscera. I have not succeeded in determining how far down the cell they extend, as the structure soon becomes concealed under the increasing opacity of the superjacent tissues. Circular muscular fibres are also very evident in the walls of the stomach; these have already been described in connection with the histology of the digestive system. 2. Muscles of Paludicella—The muscular system of Paludicella differs in some important points from that of the species with bilateral lophophores. The muscles may here be divided into five sets :— (1.) The Retractor Muscle of the Polypide—This resembles in attachments and use the corresponding muscle in the other species, but is not divided like the latter into two distinct fasciculi. (2.) The Superior Parieto-vaginal Muscles.—These constitute four strong fasciculi, which, arising from the sides of the cell near the top, are inserted into the opposed surface of the invaginated endocyst. The fibres of each fasciculus are inserted one after another in a straight line, commencing near the line of invagination, and extending for some distance down the invagi- nated tunic. ‘These four lines of insertion are placed at nearly equal di- stances from one another, and thus cause the orifice and invaginated tube to assume a regular quadrilateral figure. The corneous ribs already described correspond to the centre of the intervals between the insertion of the muscles. Mr. Hancock* enumerates, under the name of Superior Tube Retractors, two small additional fasciculi, which he describes as originating below those just mentioned, and as inserted also below them into the invaginated tube, their insertion becoming of course superior to them when the tube is evagi- nated during the exserted state of the polypide. The marine Polyzoa cer- tainly afford an analogy for the existence of these muscles; but, though I have carefully sought for them in Paludicella, I have not succeeded in detecting them here as distinct fasciculi, and I prefer viewing them as some of the inferior fibres of the superior parieto-vaginal muscles. The use of the supe- rior parieto-vaginal muscles is to assist in the invagination of the tube, and dilate it when completely retracted, thus acting as antagonistic to the vaginal sphincter, while the inferior fibres will check the complete evagination during exsertion. : (3.) The Inferior Parieto-vaginal Muscles——These are about four strong fibres, first pointed out by Mr. Hancock ; they arise from the inner surface * Loc. cit. > 4 ON FRESHWATER POLYZOA. 317 of the endocyst near the top of the cell, two in front and two behind the polypide, and are inserted into the opposed surface of the tentacular sheath. Their wse is to check the complete evagination of the sheath in the way we shall presently see. (4.) Vaginal Sphincter.—This was also pointed out for the first time by Mr. Hancock. It consists of a set of fibres which run transversely round the invaginated tunic. I have not succeeded in dividing it into an inferior and superior set, as described by Mr. Hancock. Its wse is to close the inva- ginated endocyst after the retraction of the polypide. (5.) The Parietal Muscles—'Vhese are numerous, short but strong, and very evident fibres, which run transversely in the endocyst in small groups of two or three fibres each, embracing about a third or fourth of the cireum- ference of the cell. Their use is to compress the endocyst, and by thus di- minishing the cavity of the cell, effect the exsertion of the polypide. The description now given of the muscular system in the freshwater Po- lyzoa, will enable us to understand the mechanism by which the protrusion and retraction of the polypide are effected. The grand agency to which we must assign the protrusive act, is without doubt the contraction of the endocyst effected in Paludicella by the well-de-. veloped parietal muscles, and in the other freshwater genera by the action of the corresponding delicate fibres already alluded to, or by the general con- tractility of the tunic itself; and indeed it does not seem possible to refer the act of protrusion to any other cause than the consequent pressure of the perigastric fluid against the body of the polypide, and the necessary compul- sion of the latter to move in the direction of least resistance, or through the orifice of the cell; for the mere straightening of the cesophagus, to which Dr. A. Farre* attributes so large a share in the production of this act among the marine Polyzoa, can at most raise the lophophore and tentacula a very short distance, and can exercise no exsertile influence on the inferior portion of the polypide, which, indeed, it must rather tend to repel into the bottom of the cell; while in all the freshwater genera, with the exception of Paludi- cella, the cesophagus, in the retracted state of the polypide, is scarcely at all bent, so that here its agency in exsertion is at once out of the question. Let us now suppose the polypide withdrawn into the recesses of the cell, and that hunger or some other stimulus impresses on it a desire of protru- sion. The endocyst now contracts on the perigastric fluid, which, pressing on the polypide, forces it onwards towards the aperture; at the same time the vaginal sphincter relaxing, affords to the cone of tentacula a free passage through the tube of the inverted endocyst. The succeeding steps in the process take place somewhat differently in the two great groups. In Plumatella and the other species with bilateral lophophores, as the polypide continues to advance from the cell, the invagi- nated endoeyst is gradually carried out with it by a process of evagination, which proceeds up to a certain point, where it is stopped by the action of the inferior parieto-vaginal muscles, which, by straining upon the invaginated membrane, had already afforded a fixed line, on which it rolled outwards du- ring eversion. This line constitutes the extreme limit of eversioa, and that portion of the invaginated endocyst which lies between it.and the mouth of the cell remains permanently invaginated. In Paludicella tne process is some- what more complicated ; here the relaxation of the upper fibres of the supe- rior parieto-vaginal muscles permits the eversion of the endocyst, but only * Observations on the Minute Structure of some of the higher forms of Polypi. Philo- sophical Transactions, 1837. 318 REPORT—1850. to a certain extent, for the inferior fibres of these muscles soon check its further progress. The remainder of the invaginated membrane, which in the retracted state constitutes the tentacular sheath, continues to be carried out- wards by the advancing polypide, the inferior parieto-vaginal muscles slowly relaxing to admit of it. These muscles, however, after a certain time refuse to suffer further relaxation, and thus afford a second check to the evagina- tion of the membrane. Thus we have two small permanent. invaginations existing after the completion of the protrusive act. One of these is placed within the other, and gives rise to the membranous cup which projects from the lips of the orifice in the exserted state of the polypide. This cup, there- fore, which may plainly be seen under a proper illumination to consist of a membrane doubled into itself, is nothing else than the imperfectly evaginated tentacular sheath. It may be seen during the act of protrusion in Pluma- tella and other genera; but in these it is.a mere temporary condition, being obliterated on the completion of the act. Mr. Hancock therefore appears to me to mistake the true import of this cup, when he maintains its homology with the crown of sete in Bowerbankia*. The true homologue of these sete is to be found, as has been already stated, in the cornecus ribs of the endocyst. When the protrusion of the polypide is complete, the last act in all the species is the display of the tentacula, which nad previously been all drawn together into a close cone or cylinder; and scarcely any more pleasing sight can be presented to the microscopic observer than the spreading out of the beautiful crown and the excitement of the vortices ‘in the surrounding fluid, by the countless cilia which instantly commence their untiring vibration on the sides of the tentacula. The mechanism of retraction is easily understood. Here the perigastrie fluid being no longer pressed upon by the contraction of the endocyst, the great retractor muscles act directly on the polypide and withdraw it into the cell, the superior and inferior parieto-vaginal muscles in Paludieella drawing after it as it descends that portion of the endocyst which had been carried out during protrusion ; in the other genera, however, the superior muscles would seem to take no part in this act. When the retraction is complete the sphincter closes the tentacular sheath, and the polypide rests secure in the recesses of the cell. The muscles of these animals are especially interesting in a physiological point of view, for they seem to present us with an example of true muscular tissue reduced to its simplest and essential form. A muscle may indeed here be viewed as a beautiful dissection far surpassing the most refined pre- paration of the dissecting knife, for it is composed of a bundle of elementary fibres totally separate from one another through their entire course. These fibres are distinctly marked with transverse strie, a condition, however, which is not at all times equally perceptible ; and some of our best observers have denied to the Polyzoa the existence of striated fibre. I have however, by repeated observations, satisfied myself of the striated condition of the fibre in the great retractor muscle in all the freshwater genera. In Paludicella, 1 have seen this state beautifully marked through the pellucid cell in the ἡ whole extent of the retractor muscle while the fibres were on the stretch in the exserted condition of the polypide; and in all the other genera it has, under favourable circumstances of observation, been more or less visible. In order to witness. it in perfection the fibre must be on the stretch, for when this is torn from its attachments or lies relaxed on the bottom of the cell, the striz become very obscure. When the broken extremity of a fibre is * Loc. cit. —— νος δ“. J ON FRESHWATER POLYZOA. 319 examined, the fracture will be found to have occurred in a plane perpendi- cular to the axis of the fibre, never presenting an uneven or lacerated ap- pearance; and a marked tendency to separate into discs may be recognised in the detached and broken fibre. When the fibre is in an uncontracted state, it would seem to be perfectly cylindrical, and the normal act of con- traction is so momentary that its condition during this act cannot be wit- nessed. When, however, the living polypide is torn from its cell, the rup- tured fibres which continue attached to its body are thrown into a state of spasmodic contraction, and then it will be seen that they lose their cylindri- city and become irregularly swollen at intervals, while the whole fibre has much increased in thickness: in this state we may also observe it obscurely striated. The swellings here visible in the contracted fibre are quite differ- ent from the peculiar knots described by Dr. A. Farre in the muscles of the marine Polyzoa. Such knots do not exist in the freshwater species, at least 1 have never seen them, with the exception perhaps of certain little swellings, which may be occasionally witnessed in the parietal muscles of Paludicella and in the superior parieto-vaginal muscles of Plumatella. In Pa- ludicella 1 have witnessed a curious phenomenon presented by the muscular fibre. In this polyzoon the fibres of the great retractor muscle, while lying relaxed in the bottom of the cell after the retraction of the polypide, may frequently be seen to present a singular motion, impressing you with the idea of a cluster of writhing worms. The existence of striated fibre in the Polyzoa was first noticed by Dr. M. Edwards, who detected it in Bschara*; and Mr. George Busk has since described and figured the same form of tissue in Anguinaria spatulata and Notamia bursariat. E. Organs of the Life of Relation—I have succeeded in making out a distinct nervous system in all the genera with the exception of Paludicella, in which I have not as yet been able to effect any satisfactory demonstration of its existence. Jn all the species with bilateral lophophores, there may be seen attached to the external surface of the c:sophagus, on its rectal aspect just below the mouth, an oval body of a yellowish colour. Careful examina- tion shows that this body is furnished with a cavity or ventricle in its inte- rior ; that it is a nervous subcesophagean ganglion there cannot be any doubt, and I have succeeded in distinctly tracing nervous filaments’in connection with it. In Cristatella, Lophopus, and other genera with crescentic lopho- phores, the ganglion may be seen giving off from each side a rather thick chord, which takes a course backwards, and immediately enters the tubular arms of the lophophore, and then running along the roof of this cavity, gives off at regular intervals a filament to each tentacle upon the outer margin of the arm. When it arrives at the extremity of the arm it turns on itself, and in its retrograde course gives off similar filaments to the tentacula placed upon the inner margin. I have thus traced it back to the base of the arms, but have here failed in my attempts to follow it further; it is however highly proba- ble that it passes across the lophophoreto unite with the corresponding filament. of the opposite side. The ganglion also sends off filaments upwards towards the mouth; and a filament may be observed passing downwards along the ᾿ esophagus, and soon losing itself on the walls of this tube. I have made out this last filament very distinctly in Cristatella. From each side a delicate filament would seem to pass forwards on the cesophagus, but I have not sue- . * Milne-Edwards, Recherches Anatomiques, Physiologiques et Zoologiques sur les Eschares, _ Ann. des Sci. Nat., 2de Serie, t. vi. + Busk in Transactions of the Microscopical Society of London, vol. ii. 920 REPORT—1850. ceeded in detecting anything like a complete collar surrounding the tube at this place. There is no other ganglion than the one just deseribed, and nothing which can with any real probability be referred to an organ of special sense has as yet presented itself. To M. Dumortier is due the credit of having first demonstrated the exist- ence of a nervous system in the Polyzoa. He saw in Lophopus erystallinus* the subcesophagean ganglion, though he speaks doubtingly of it as referable to the nervous system, while he assures us of a distinct ganglion placed at the base of each arm of the lophophore. This last is certainly an erroneous observation, and it is probable that the learned Belgian naturalist mistook for a ganglion the optical expression of the cavity of the arm when seen in transverse section. 11. Organs for the Preservation of the Species.—Embryology. In the Polyzoa, both marine and freshwater, three distinct modes of re- production may be witnessed, namely, by buds or gemme, by true ova, and by free, locomotive embryos. 1. Reproduction by Gemme.—The gemme always originate in the endo- eyst. In Lophopus, Alcyonella, Flumatella and Fredericella, they occur with- out any very regular order near the mouth of the cell. They at first appear ‘as a small tubercle projecting into the perigastric space, but may soon be seen to take a development in an outward direction. The bud now presents the appearance of a vesicle projecting from the exterior of the parent cell, closed: at its external or free extremity, but having its cavity in communica- tion with the perigastric space. The polypide is gradually developed in the interior of the gemma, which soon opens at its free extremity so as to admit of the exsertion and retraction of the young polypide. ‘The gemma is now a complete cell with its contained polypide, and in the branched species soon grows into a new branch springing from the side of the old one. In Crista- tella the gemme are produced very regularly from the external side of the last-formed series of cells, and constitute a marginal series extending round the entire cclony. Finally, in Paludicella the gemme are also exceedingly regular, always originating at a fixed point a little below and at each side of the orifice. From this position of the gemmz, two opposite branches spring from the thick end of each cell; and though these branches are by no means necessarily developed on every cell, yet the fixed points on which they ori- ginate, and the constant angle at which they are given off from the parent cell, give to the whole colony a very regular and elegant appearance. It is difficult, on account of the nature of the intervening structures, to follow the process of development of the polypide in the gemmz of any of the species with the exception of Paludicella ; in this, however, I have been able to trace its gradual formation from a very early stage to its complete development. The gemma in the earliest condition in which I have been able to observe it, appears here as a minute tubercle projecting from the external walls of the cell, and filled with a granular parenchyma. We next find it hollowed out into a cavity which communicates with the interior of the parent cell. The tubercle with its cavity increase in size, and the gemma is now found to consist of an external envelope continuous with the ectocyst of the parent cell, and of a thick fleshy lining continuous with the endocyst; this internal tunic has numerous large round nucleated cells distributed through its sub- * Dumortier, loc. cit. Καν λλ νὰ ON FRESHWATER POLYZOA. 321 stance, and internally it presents a rough uneven surface. The two tunics of the gemma are to become the ectocyst and endocyst of the future cell. By this time the gemma has become considerably elongated and has acquired a clavate form, and its cavity begins to be cut off from that of the parent cell by the formation of a septum. We next perceive that a rounded mass has formed in the substance of the lining tunic, near the wide extremity of the gemma, and projects into the interior of the latter. In this mass we soon perceive a cavity, which, when viewed in front, appears sur- rounded by a slightly waved oval ring which is afterwards to become the tentacular crown of the polypide. The ring is at first quite simple, re- sembling a mere fold of thickish membrane, but in a short time it presents all round a series of minute tubercles, the rudiments of the future tenta- cula. Delicate fibres may now be distinctly seen passing from the little mass in which these appearances have been presenting themselves to the walls of the cavity of the gemma; these fibres are the rudimental retrac- tors of the polypide. Circular fibres may also be now seen in the lining membrane of the gemma; these are chiefly collected near its proximal end, and are to become the parietal muscles of the adult. The tentacular sheath may about the same time be distinctly seen extending from the base of the rudimental tentacula to the walls of the cavity in which the young polypide is suspended, and fibres which are to become the superior parieto-vaginal muscles may be observed in connection with it. The rudimental polypide has now become somewhat enlarged below the tentacular ring, and here presents in its interior a cavity. This cavity is at first simple and continuous, but as the inferior extremity of the polypide continues to elongate, we soon find it divided into three distinct regions, which are the first indication of cesophagus, stomach and intestine. By the elongation of the tentacles, the tentacular crown has now acquired nearly its full development. Up to this period the young polypide has been entirely shut off from all communication with the external water, and its nutrition must have been effected through the general nutrition of the colony ; now, however, an opening occurs in the gemma just over the tentacular crown, and the last stage of de- . velopment is entered on. The tentacular crown rapidly acquires its complete form, the inferior extremity of the alimentary canal becomes elongated into the great cul-de-sac of the stomach, the muscles are by this time all formed, and the polypide is capable of exsertion and retraction. It is now no longer dependent for its growth on the general nutrition of the colony, but has be- come an independent being, obtaining its food from without, and submitting it to the action of its own digestive system. κ᾿ From the description here given of the development of the gemma in Pa- Iudicella, we must be at once struck with its remarkable similarity to that of the gemma in Zaguncula, as elaborately described and figured by Van Be- neden*; a glance indeed at, the figures in Van Beneden’s memoir is sufficient to convince us how closely the freshwater genus resembles that of the sea in the interesting process whose details we have been just following. 2. Reproduction by Ova.—All the freshwater Polyzoa produce true ova, which are formed in a definite organ or ovary. From the existence of a true ovary and ova, we are at once led to expect the co-existence of a male organ. That a testis is present in all the species of freshwater Polyzoa, there can I think now be little doubt. In most of the genera I have met with an organ which I have little hesitation in viewing as a testis, though, with the exception of Paludicella, the demonstration of such an organ is somewhat obscure. In this genus, however, I have had the most satisfactory demonstration of both * Loe, cit, 1850. : ε 899 REPORT—1850. testicle and ovary, the one loaded with spermatozoa, the other with ova in various stages of development. The ovary and testis in Paludicella are both found in the same cell. The former is an irregularly-shaped body, adherent to the inner surface of the endocyst towards the upper part of the cell. About the end of June, when I discovered this organ, it was loaded with ova of various sizes, some so small as to require for their detection a high power of the micro- scope, while others were almost visible to the naked eye, and seemed ready to burst the restraining membrane of the ovary and escape into the cavity of the endocyst. Attached by one extremity to the external surface of the stomach near the commencement of the intestine, and by the other, appa- rently in connection with the ovary, is a cylindrical, flexible chord, which obeys all the motions of the stomach. Of the nature of this appendage which thus brings the ovary into connection with the stomach, 1 have been unable to arrive at any satisfactory conclusion. It can scarcely be an oviduct com- municating with the cavity of the stomach, and thus affording, through the latter organ, a way of egress to the ova; for even though it be tubular,—a con- dition not by any means apparent,—it is evidently too narrow to receive the mature ova, even though it undergo as much dilation as would seem possible with such an organ. The testicle is an irregularly-lobed mass attached like the ovary to the inner surface of the endocyst. It occupies a position near the bottom of the cell, and is thus separated by a wide interval from the ovary; like the latter organ it is connected with the stomach by a cylindrical chord, precisely similar to that already described as belonging to the ovary : this chord, which is connected with the testicle by one extremity, is attached by the other to the fundus of the stomach, and its office is just as obscure as that of the cor- responding chord connected with the ovary. The testicle was observed at the same time as the ovary, and was then loaded with spermatozoa, multitudes of which projected from its surface in the form of a dense villosity, each minute filament of which exhibited a perpetually undulating motion. Many of the spermatozoa had escaped from the testicle and were carried about by the currents of the perigastric fluid, and thus brought in contact with the ovary, round which several were observed clustering. The spermatozoa in Paludicella are simple vibrioid bodies without any terminal enlargement, and exhibit a constant sinuous or undulatory motion. The ova, on arriving at a certain stage of development and while still in the ovary, present distinctly the germinal vesicle and. germinal spot; these, however, soon disappear. When the ovum escapes from the ovary it is a lenti- cular body surrounded by an annulus, in which a somewhat obscurely cellular structure is apparent. A coloured and very eccentric spot may be observed at this stage in the contents of the ovum. I have not been fortunate enough to observe the ova of Paludicella more than once, and have thus had no op- portunity of making further observations on these bodies. In those freshwater Polyzoa whose lophophore is bilateral, we find the ovary occupying a very different position from that which it holds in Palu- dicella. In these, attached by one extremity to the fundus of the stomach, and by the other to the inner surface of the endocyst near the bottom of the cell, may.be observed a chord-like organ quite similar to what has already been described as passing from the stomach to the testicle in Paludicella. This chord is surrounded by the ovary, in which the ova may be observed in various stages of progress, becoming gradually more developed as they ap- proach the gastric extremity of the ovary. The ova are for the most part few in number, and lie along the chord which connects them in a sort of ON FRESHWATER POLYZOA. 823 moniliform manner. As they increase in size the membrane of the ovary becomes strained over them, and they finally rupture it and escape into the perigastric space, where they lie loose in the surrounding fluid. Just before the chord-like organ becomes attached to the walls of the cell, it presents in many cases an enlargement which seems due to a peculiar in- vestment acquired at this spot, and which is quite distinct from the ovary: this structure I believe myself justified in viewing as a testicle. M. Van Beneden believes in the existence of a testicle occupying in certain polypides of Alcyonella fungosa, the position of the ovary in others, and is thus led to maintain the existence of distinct male and female individuals in the same colony*. I confess however that my own observations do not tend to con- firm the view of the distinguished professor of Louvain. The ova, on esca- ping from the ovary, are in most species, perhaps in all, still enclosed in a delicate transparent membranous investment, which however is soon lost. The general formation of all these ova, when they have arrived at maturity, is that which results from the apposition by the concave surfaces, of two concavo-convex horny discs united in all cases, except in redericella, by an annulus of a different structure which runs round the entire margin over- lapping each disc. The ova in the different species vary from a lenticular shape to an elongated oval, and in F’redericella the marginal ring is obsolete. In all, one surface would seem to be a little more convex than the other. In Cristatella the mature ovum is furnished with hooked spines, which spring alternately from the two sides just within the annulus, and thence passing outwards over the latter project in short rays beyond the margin. — The disc in all the species is of a deep brown colour, and would seem to be composed of a single layer of hexagonal cellules, whose external walls in most cases slightly project beyond the surface of the disc, and thus give to the latter an elegantly mammillated condition. In some cases however the cellular condition of one or both discs is very obscure. The annulus is also _ composed of cellules, which here, however, occur in several layers; these cellules are also for the most part larger than those of the disc and of a dif- ferent colour; they are filled with air, and give to the annulus a light spongy texture. ; In Cristatella I have succeeded in tracing certain stages in the progress of the ovum towards the mature condition, in which it is ready to escape from the body of the parent. In an early stage it may be observed as a whitish semitransparent compressible vesicle enclosing a fluid loaded with granules or minute cellules. In this state its surface is perfectly smooth, but we find it before long acquiring two additional investments, which however possess but a temporary existence and are destined to disappear as the ovum advances to maturity. The internal of these is a thick layer of a gelatinous con- sistence, which immediately invests the ovum; the external is a delicate transparent membrane which retains the internal gelatinous investment in its place, and is thickly covered on its outer surface with minute vibratile cilia. The action of these cilia seems to be confined to the production of currents in the surrounding fluid, and is thus probably subservient to the function of aération, for they are evidently tou weak to act as organs of _ locomotion, at least I never witnessed the ovum carried about by their aid through the surrounding water. ‘his interesting condition of the ovum must be carefully distinguished from a ciliate locomotive embryo, exam- ples of which will be presently adduced. Within the gelatinous envelope the ovum acquires its horny shell and annulus, and has now attained to its full size, still invested by the gelatinous and ciliated envelopes, but as yet no * Quelques Observations sur les Polypes d’eau douce, loc. cit. x¥2 894 REPORT—1850. trace of the spines is visible. These however shortly after show themselves growing out from the two faces of the ovum; they penetrate the gelatinous envelope, and soon impinge on the external membrane, which by this time has lost its cilia, and which now gives way, torn by the grapple-like extremi- ties of the spines. The two temporary investments of the ovum now rapidly disappear, and the latter presents itself as the elegant little spiny lenticular body so characteristic of the genus Cristatella. I have observed in the freshwater Polyzoa the curious fact of the very same individual producing two different kinds of ova. This occurs in Plu- matella emarginata and in Aleyonella Benedeni. In both these, the cells may be observed towards the end of summer loaded with ova which lie loose within them. These are of an elongated oval figure, with a largely developed annulus which overlaps a considerable portion of the disc. But besides these bodies, others may also be observed invariably attached to the internal sur- face of the walls of the cell, to which they adhere by means of a peculiar cement, in which no trace of structure can be detected. These differ also from the unattached ova in shape, being much shorter in proportion to their width, while the annulus is exceedingly narrow, and presents but slight traces of that highly developed cellular structure so remarkable in the others. After the decay of the ccencecium, many of these attached ova may be seen adherent to the stone or other body on which the specimen had developed itself, and to which they are now connected in lines through the medium of a portion of the old cell in which they had been produced. I am unable to state whether the development in these last-described bodies is similar to what occurs in the others, as I have not succeeded in witnessing the escape from them of the young. In Alcyonella fungosa and Lophopus erystallinus, [have alsowitnessed bodies which differed from the ordinary ova of these Polyzoa in the possession of a regular elliptical aperture in the centre of their more convex face. They were always empty, and of their nature I have not been able to form any conclusion of value. ‘The nearly opake horny investment of the ova of all these species renders it impossible to trace those stages of the development of the embryo which occur previously to the hatching of the egg; and on rupturing the latter under the microscope, nothing can be witnessed but the escape of a fluid helding in suspension innumerable corpuscles which spread themselves over the field and exhibit but obscure traces of definite aggregation. When however the development has goue on to a certain extent within the ovum, the latter opens by the separation from one another of the two faces, and the young polyzoon gradually emerges and floats away freely through the water, but the surface of its investing tunic is altogether destitute of cilia or other active organs of locomotion; and its motions through the surrounding fluid seem to be quite passive, except so far as they may be possibly influenced by the ciliary action of the tentacula. It now possesses all the essential organs of the adult, the retractor muscles are well-developed, and the polypide is capable of regular exsertion and retraction ; but the ectocyst is colourless and transparent, and free from the earthy particles which in the greater number of species are afterwards found in it, and the little animal is still simple. It loses however no time in developing gemme, which soon change it to the perfect compound form of the adult. In many cases the two separated faces of the original ovum continue for some time to adhere to the lower end of the little animal like the valves of a bivalve shell. I have sought in vain, in all the freshwater Polyzoa, for some orifice through which the ova may escape from the cells; and yet, from the large size and ON FRESHWATER POLYZOA. 325 incompressible nature of these ova, such an orifice, were it present, could hardly escape detection. Meyen%, it is true, states that he has witnessed in Alcyo- nella fungosa the escape of an egg through an opening in the vicinity of the anus; but, notwithstanding a similar observation already noticed as made by Van Beneden on the marine Laguncula repens, this I feel certain has been an imperfect observation of Meyen, and that the escape of the egg was the result of some accidental laceration of the tissues in this spot. There is then no natural aperture through which the ova can escape, and their liberation _ Iam convinced can only take place after the destruction of the soft parts of a Polyzoon has afforded to them a mode of egress through the mouth of the cell. 3. Reproduction by free Embryos.—While engaged in the examination of a specimen of Plumatella fruticosa, I observed in the water which contained it, a small egg-shaped body of a white colour. On placing this under the microscope, I distinctly saw through the transparent external skin that it enclosed a young polyzoon, and on now rupturing this skin with the point of a needle, the little polyzoon was set at liberty. ‘This consisted of a solitary well-developed polypide enclosed in a completely formed cell, frem which it every now and then protruded the upper part of its body by a process of evagination, just as in the adult animal. The cell appeared to consist of the endocyst alone, and the whole of its external surface to the line of invagina- tion was densely clothed with long vibratile cilia. The little animal would sometimes remain stationary with the upper part of the polypide protruded from the cell, but most constantly the entire polypide was retracted and the mouth of the cell closed, and then the little embryo would present the ap- pearance of a minute sphere covered with long cilia, by whose action it was” carried about through the water with rapid and elegant motion. Some time after discovering the free embryo of Plumatella fruticosa, I observed similar locomotive bodies in the water in which I had been keeping a specimen of Alcyonella fungosa. These, in the retracted state, were of a more elongated form than the little embryos already described, from which they moreover differed in invariably containing two polypides in a single cell. They were exceedingly active in their motions, moving always with the eul-de-sac of the cell foremost, and at the same time revolving on their axis in an exceedingly elegant manner; they frequently assumed a pear- shaped figure, with the narrow end corresponding to the orifice of the cell. __ In both the embryos now described the general structure is quite similar. A soft, transparent and eminently contractile sac, partly clothed with cilia, has the unciliated portion invaginated into the ciliated, down which it extends for some distance, and then turning back upon itself is reflected upwards, when it experiences another invagination before becoming attached beneath the tentacular crown of the polypide. The first invagination is rendered _ permanent in this stage of the embryo by numerous bands, so closely re- sembling the superior and inferior parieto-vaginal muscles of the adult as to lead at first to the belief that they are these very muscles visible in the em- bryo. Such however is not the case. Neither these bands, nor the invagi- nation with which they are connected, have any existence in the adult; and it is the second invagination just mentioned which the latter alone retains. The great retractor muscle of the polypide is well developed in the embryo. The subsequent development of the embryo I have not been able exactly to follow ; it seems however probable that it consists in the obliteration of the inferior invagination, and the disappearance of the cilia from the surface of the sac, with the formation of an ectocyst, the embryo at the same time * Loc. cit. 326 REPORT—1850. becoming complicated by the development of gemme ; indeed the commence- ment of gemmation may be observed before any other change is apparent. Meyen* was the first to record the presence of locomotive embryos in the freshwater Polyzoa. He observed them in Aleyonella fungosa, but his descrip- tion differs in some points from that here given, and he mistakes the ciliated sac for the external membrane of an egg containing two embryos. This egg, he tells us, becomes ruptured at its anterior extremity and allows the embryos gradually to escape. The bodies however here described are of a nature totally different from eggs; they are in reality embryos complicated by a previous development of gemme, and thus containing a double system of digestive and respiratory organs, and destined to undergo an ulterior development in all their parts. The little animals originally described by Miiller+ as infusorial animalcules, under the name of Leucophra heteroclyta, are shown by Meyen to be identical with the locomotive embryos of Aleyo- nella fungosa, a fact which corroborates a previously expressed notion of Raspail as to the identity of Leucophra heteroclyta and Aleyonella fungosa f. . I have now described the three distinct modes of reproduction which may. be observed in the freshwater Polyzoa. The colony extends itself by the production of gemme, which, after development, remain permanently adhe- rent; it establishes new colonies by eggs and free embryos. In Cristatella and Lephopus I have also observed the multiplication of a colony by a process of self-division. In Cristatella this commences by a constriction which takes place generally towards the middle of the colony, and which gradually deepens, till at last it divides the entire mass into two separate por- tions, which move off in opposite directions. In Lophopus the process is very similar; large specimens of this Polyzoon have the endocyst constricted at intervals, so as to give to the colony the appearance of a variously-lobed body enveloped in the gelatinous-looking ectocyst ; it is at the point of these " constrictions that the self-division takes place, separating the entire colony into two or more smaller ones. It may perhaps be thought that I ought to have enumerated this multipli- cation of colonies by a self-division as a fourth form of reproduction ; but as in all these cases the division is wholly confined to the ccencecium, the poly- pides themselves invariably remaining entire, it is truly referable to the first of the modes just enumerated, being really a reproduction by gemme with separation of the gemmz in masses. It is analogous to the gemmiparous generation in Hydra, and is totally distinct from the true fissiparous genera- tion of the lower forms of simple animals. ZOOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. Diagnosis of Genera and Species, and Synonomy. Genus 1. CristaTeLia, Cuvier (1798). Gen. Char.—Ceenecium sacciform, hyaline, with a common flattened dise adapted for locomotion. Orifices placed on the surface opposite to the dise, and arranged in several concentric marginal series. Lophophore crescentic. Ova lenticular, with an annulus and marginal spines. Species unica. Cristatella mucedo, Cuvier. Characters the same as those of the genus. Synonyms. 1755. Der Kleinere Federbusch-Polyp. R6sel, Insect. Belustig. Supp. p. 559. tab. 91. (Original figure.) * Loe. cit. + O. F. Miller, Animalcula Infusoria, p. 158. t Raspail, loc. cit. ON FRESHWATER POLYZOA. 327 1766. La seconde sorte de Polypes a Bouquets. Ledermuller, Amusm. Mice. Qde cing. p. 94. pl. 87. (The figures are imperfect copies from Résel.) - 1798. Cristatella mucedo. : Cuvier, Tab. Elém. p. 656. 1816. Cristatella vagans. Lamk. An. sans Vert. Ist edit. vol. ii. p. 97. 1817. Cristatella mucedo. Cuv. Régne An. Ist edit. vol. iv. p. 68. 1820. Cristatella vagans. Schweigger, Handbuch der Naturg. p. 423. 1824. Cristatella vagans. Lamouroux, Enc. Méth. Zooph. 1824. p. 226. pl. 472. (Figures copied from Résel.) 1824. Cristatella vagans. Goldfuss, Naturhistorisch. Atlas, (Fig. copied from Résel.) 1828. Aleyonella, secundus evolutionis gradus. Raspail, Hist. Nat. de _ TAleyon. fluv., Mém. de la Soc. d’Hist. Nat. de Paris, vol. iv.p.129. 1830. Oristatella mucedo. Cuvier, Rég. An. 2nd edit. vol. iii. p. 296. 1834. Cristatella mirabilis. Dalyel, Rep. Brit. Assoc. an. 1834. p. 604. and Edin. New Phil. Journ. vol. xvii. p. 414. 1834. Cristatella vagans. De Blainville, Man. d’Act. p. 489. pl. 85. fig. 7. (Fig. copied from Rosel.) 1834. Cristatella vagans. De Blainville, Dict. Sc. Nat. Art. Cristatelle, fig. 7. (Fig. copied from Rosel.) 1836. Cristatella vagans. Lamarck, An. sans Vert. 2nd edit. vol. ii. p. 110. 1837. Cristatella mucedo. Turpin, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2nd series, tom. vii. p. 65. pl. 2,3. (Original figures. ) : 1837. Cristatella mucedo. Gervais, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2nd series, tom. vii. p. 77. pl. 4. (Original figures. ) 1838. Cristatella mucedo. Johnston, Brit. Zooph. 1st edit. p. 308. pl. 43. (Figures copied from Turpin.) ; 1839. Cristatelia mucedo. Gervais, Aun. Franc. et Etrang. d’Anat. tom. iii. - 133. 1840. Cristatelle moisissure. Gervais, Dict. Sc. Nat. Suppl. Art. Al- cyonelle, Planches Supplémentaires, Pol. fluviatiles. (Original figures. ) 1843. Cristatella mucedo. Thompson, Rep. Brit. Assoc. an. 1843. p. 285. 1844. Cristatella mucedo. Allman, Ann. of Nat. Hist. vol. xiii. p. 330. 1846. Oristatella mucedo. Allman, Rep. Brit. Assoc. an. 1846. Trans. of Sect. p. 88. 1847. Cristatella mucedo. Johnston, Brit. Zooph. 2nd edit. p. 387. pl. 73. (Fig. copied from Turpin.) ~ 1848. Cristatella mucedo. Van Beneden, Bryoz. Fluv. de Belg. p. 16, Mém. de l’Acad. Roy. de Belgique, 1848. 1849. Cristatella mirabilis. Dalyell, Rare and Remarkable Animals of Scotland, vol. ii. (Original figures.) The original figures are those of Rosel, Turpin, Gervais, Ann. Se. Nat., Gervais, Dict. Sc. Nat. Suppl., and Dalyell. Distribution—Germany, France, Belgium, England, Scotland, Ireland. Genus 2. Lopnorus, Dumortier (1835). Gen. Char.—Ceeneecium sacciform, hyaline, with a dise which serves for attachment but not for locomotion; orifices scattered. Lophophore cres- eentic. Ova elliptical, with an annulus, but without marginal spines. Species unica*. Lophopus crystallinus, Pallas. _ Spec. Char.—Same as that of the genus. * T have not been able to find sufficient grounds for viewing the L. Bakeri, Van Beneden, as a distinct species. 828 REPORT—1850. SYNONYMS. 1744. Polype a Panache. Trembley, Mém. sur les Pol. d’eau douce, p. 210. tab. 10. fig. 8, 9. (Original figures.) 1746. Polype ἃ Panache. Beck, Acta Suecica, 1746. p. 198. tab. 6. fig. 3, 4. (Figures copied from Trembley.) 1753. Bell-flower Animal. Baker, Employment for the Microscope, p. 306. pl. 12. fig. 15-22. (Original figures.) 1766. Tubularia erystallina. Pallas, Elenchus Zooph. p, 88. 1767. Tubularia campanulata. Linneus, Syst..Nat. Edit. xii. 1789. Tubularia reptans. Linn. Syst. Nat. Cura Gmelin, p. 3835. 1789. Campanulated Tubularia. Shaw, Nat. Miscel. tab. 354. (Original figure.) 1806. Tubularia campanulata. Turton, Linn. Syst. Nat. vol. iv. p. 668. 1816. Plumatella cristata. Lamarck, Hist. des An. sans Vert. 1st edit. vol. ii. p- 107. 1820. Plumatella cristata. Schweigger, Handbuch der Naturg. p. 424. 1821. Naisa reptans. Lamouroux, Exp. Méth. p. 16. tab. 68. figs. 3, 4. (Figures copied from Trembley.) 1824. Naisa reptans. Deslongchamps, Encye. Méth. Zooph. 1824. p. 561. 1826. Plumatella cristata. Blainville, Dict. Sci. Nat. tom. xlii. Art. Plu- matella, 1828. Alcyonella, tertius evolutionis gradus. Raspail, Hist. Nat. de lAle. Fluv., Mém. de la Soc. d’Hist. Nat. de Paris, vol. iv. p. 129. 1834. Plumatella cristata. Blainville, Man. d’ Actin. p. 490. 1835. Lophopus erystallinus. Dumortier, Bull. de ’ Acad. de Brux. 1835. p- 424. pl. 5,6. (Original figures.) 1836. Plumatella cristata. Lamarck, An. sans Vert. 2nd edit. vol. ii. p. 122. 1837. Plumatella campanulata. Gervais, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2nd ser. tom. vii. p. 78. 1838. Alcyonella stagnorum. Johnston, Brit. Zooph. Ist edit. p. 311. fig. 48. p- 314. (Figure copied from Trembley.) —_, 1839. Plumatella erystallina. Gervais, Ann. Franc. et Etrang. d’Anat. tom. iii. p. 134. 1844. Alcyonella stagnorum. Allman, Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. xii. p. 330. 1847. Alcyonella stagnorum. Johnston, Brit. Zooph. 2nd edit. p. 391. fig. 73.p. 395. (Fig. copied from Trembley.) 1848. Lophopus ecristallinus. Van Beneden, sur les Bryoz. fluy.de Belg. p. 23, Mém. de l’Acad. Roy. de Belg. 1848. 1848. Lophopus Bakeri. Van Beneden, sur les Bryoz. fluv. de Belg. p. 24. pl. 2, Mém. de l’Acad. Roy. de Belg. (Original figure.) 1849. Lophopus crystallinus. Allman, Rep. Brit. Assoc. an. 1849. Trans. of Sect. p. 72. The original figures are those of Trembley, Baker, Shaw, Dumortier, and Van Beneden. Distribution.—France, Belgium, England, Ireland. Genus 3. ArcyonELLa, Lamarck (1816). Gen. Char.—Ccenecium composed of membrano-corneous branched tubes, which adhere to one another by their sides ; orifices terminal. Lophophore crescentic. Ova elliptical, with an annulus, but without marginal spines. Number of known species, 3. i 1. Aleyonella fungosa, Pallas. Spec. Char.—Ceeneecium fungoid, formed of numerous branched vertical ‘ tubes, destitute of a furrow. Ova broad. 1168. 1782. 1786. 1789. 1802. 1816. 1816. 1820. 1821. 1824. 1828. 1828. 1831. 1834. 1835. 1836. 1836. 1837. 1837. 1838. 1839. 1899. 1840. 1847. 1848. 1848. 1849. 1849. 1850. ON FRESHWATER POLYZOA. 329 SYNONYMS. Tubularia fungosa. Pallas, Descript. Tub. Fung. Nov. Comment. Acad. Sci. Imp. Petropol. tom. xii. p. 565. tab. 14. (Original figures.) Spongia lacustris. Schmiedel, Icones Plantarum et Anal. Partium. Leucophra hetercclita. Miiller, Animal. Infusor. p. 158. tab. 22. fig. 27-34. (Locomotive embryo, original figures.) Aleyonium fluviatile. Bruguiére, Encye. Méth. 1789. p. 24. pl. 472. fig. 8. (Original figure, bad.) Alcyonium fluviatile. Bosc. Vers. vol. ili. p. 132. Aleyonium fluviatile. Lamouroux, Pol. flex. p. 354. Alcyonella stagnorum. Lamarck, An. sans Vert. Ist edit.vol. i. p. 102. Alcyonella stagnorum. Schweigger, Handbuch der Naturg. p. 423. Alcyonella stagnorum. Lamouroux, Exposit. Méth. p. 71. tab. 76. fig. 5-8. (Figures copied from Bruguiére.) Alcyonella stagnorum. WLamouroux, Enc. Méth. 1824. Zooph. p. 38. Alcyonella fluviatilis vel A. ultimus evolutionis gradus. Raspail, Hist. Nat. de l’Alcyonelle fluv., Mém. de la Soc. d’Hist. Nat. de Paris, tom. iv. p. 130. pl. 12-16. (Original figures.) Alcyonella stagnorum. Meyen, Isis, tom. xxi. p. 1225. pl. 14. (Ori- ginal figures.) Aleyonella stagnorum. Ehrenberg, Symbole Physice Evert. Dec. 1. Pol. fol. a. Aleyonella stagnorum. Blainville, Man. d’ Actin. p. 491. pl. 85. fig. 8. (Figure copied from Raspail.) Alcyonella stagnorum. Carus, Tabule Illustrantes, pars 3. tom. 1. (Figure, locomotive-embryo, copied from Meyen.) Aleyonella stagnorum. Dumortier, Mém. sur les Pol. comp. d’eau douce, p. 24. Aleyonella stagnorum. Lamarck, An. sans Vert. 2nd edit. vol. ii. p. 116. Alcyonella stagnorum. ‘Teale, Trans. Phil. and Liter. Soc. of Leeds, vol. i. part 1. p. 116. pl. 12. (Original figure.) Plumatella campanulata var. B. dumetosa. Gervais, Ann. Se. Nat. 1837. p. 78. Alcyonella stagnorum. Johnston, Hist. Brit. Zooph. Ist edit. p. 311. pl. 45. (Figures partly original and partly copied from Raspail.) Aleyonella fluviatilis. Gervais, Ann. Franc. et Etrang. d’Act. tom. iil. p- 135. Alcyonella. Van Beneden, Bull. de l’Acad. de Brux. tom. vi. part 2. p- 276. figs. 3, 3’. (Original figures.) Aleyonella fluviatilis. Gervais, Dict. Sci. Nat. Suppl. Art. Aleyonelle. (Original figures.) Alcyonella stagnorum. Johnston, Brit. Zooph. 2nd edit. p. 391. pl. 74. (Figures partly original, partly copied from Raspail-) Alcyonella stagnorum. Siebold, Lehrbuch der Vergleich. Anat. § 38, note 1; § 40, note 2; § 43, note 4. Alcyonella fungosa. Van Beneden, Recherch. sur les Bryoz. fluv. de Belg. p. 18, Mém. de I’ Acad. Roy. de Belg. 1848. Aleyonella anceps. Dalyell, Rare and Remark. Anim. of Scotland, vol. ii. (Original figures.) Alcyonella gelatinosa. Dalyell, Rare and Remark. Anim. of Scotland, vol. ii. (Original figures.) Alcyonella fungosa. Allman, Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. vol. iv. p. 470. 330 REPORT—1850. The original figures are those of Pallas, Muller (embryo), Bruguiére, Schmiedel, Raspail, Meyen, Teale, Johnston, Van Beneden, and Dalyell. Distribution —Russia, Prussia, Germany, Denmark, France, Belgium, England, Scotland. 2. Species nova. Alcyonella Benedeni, Allman. Spec. Char.—Ccencecium fungoid, formed of numerous vertical furrowed tubes. Ova narrow. Distribution.—England. 3. Aleyonella flabellum, Van Beneden. Spec. Char.—Ceenecium flabelliform, composed of prostrate furrowed tubes. Ova broad. SYNONYMS. 1848. Alcyonella flabellum. Van Beneden, Recherches sur les Bryoz. fluy. de Belg. p. 19, Mém. de |’Acad. Roy. de Belg. 1848. (Original figures. ) 1850. Alcyonella flabellum. Allman, Proc. Royal Irish Acad. vol. iv. p. 470. Distribution.— Belgium, England. Genus 4. PLuMATELLA, Lamarck (1816). Gen. Char.—Cceneecium confervoid, branched, composed of a series of - membrano-corneous tubular cells, each of which is continued into a short ramulus with a terminal orifice. Branches distinct from one another. Lophophore crescentic. Ova elliptical, with an annulus, but without marginal spines. Number of known species 10, of whieh 9 are British. 1. Plumatella repens, Linnzus. Spee. Char.—Cceneecium irregularly branched, cells sub-claviform, desti- tute of furrow and keel. Tentacula about 60; margin of calyciform membrane distinctly festooned. Ova broad. Variation a.—Ccencecium closely adherent, creeping along the surface of various submerged bodies, to which the branches are attached in their entire length. Variation §.—Ccencecium attached only towards the origin, branches soon becoming free. SYNONYMS. It is scarcely possible to conceive of a species burdened with a more discordant and perplexing synonomy than that which encumbers the history of P. repens. In order to reduce this chaos to some sort of order, the first step is of course the determination of the exact animal which the original founder of the name had in view in his description. . In the tenth edition of the ‘Systema Nature,’ published in 1758, we find Linneus introducing an animal under the name of Tubipora repens, and placing it among his Lithophyta with the following diagnosis :— “ 'T. corallio repente filiformi dichotomo : tubis flexilibus cylindricis distan- tibus erectis. “ Habitat in aque dulcis plantis in Nymphea, &c. minuta.” The figures here referred to are Trembley’s “ Polype a Panache,” as copied by Beck in ‘ Acta Suecica,’ Rosel’s figures of his “ Federbusch-Polyp,” and Schaffer's figures of his “Corallenartiger Kamm-Polyp,” a reference so discordant as to render it very difficult to determine the animal Linnzus had in view in his Zubipora repens. Linneus’s short description, however, plainly excludes the “Polype ἃ Panache;” and that the original of the Tubipora repens was really Schaffer’s animal seems confirmed by the ‘ Fauna Steg, ON FRESHWATER POLYZOA. 331 Suecica, published in 1761, where Zubipora repens is also given, but with _ Schaffer’s animal quoted as the only synonym. In the twelfth edition of the ‘ Systema Nature,’ published in 1767, Tudbi- pora repens is altogether omitted ; but in this edition a new species is intro- duced under the name of Tubularia campanulaia, with the following short diagnosis :— “ T. reptans tubis campanulatis.” The animal thus defined is without any doubt the “ Polype 4 Panache” of Trembley, though to the real synonyms of the “ Polype ἃ Panache” there is added Schiffer, tab. 1. fig. 2. The Tubularia campanulata is intended to replace the Hydra campanulata of the tenth edition, which however, as there described, is certainly an imaginary species, founded on the fifth and sixth figures of Beck’s plate in the ‘ Acta Sueeica,’ which are evidently drawn from some animal very imperfectly observed, though most probably intended for the “ Polype a Panache.” In 1773 we find O. F. Miiller giving the name of Tubularia repens to a polyzoon which he found in the fresh waters in Denmark, and which he viewed as identical with Schiffer’s “‘Kamm-polyp.” If Miiller be correct in this view—and there is certainly every reason to think he is,—the true synonyms of the Tubularia repens of Miller will be Tubipora repens, Lin- neus, and “ Corallenartiger Kamm-polyp,” Schaffer. It is evident that Linnzus had a very imperfect idea of his Tubipora re- pens, but we are now happily no longer left in doubt as to the nature of the animal in question; for though both Schaffer’s and Linnzeus’s descriptions are very meagre, Miiller’s,.on the contrary, is full and perspicuous, though unfortunately not accompanied by an original figure; so that we are com- pelled to have recourse to the figures of Schaffer, to which Miller refers us, and which, though very imperfect, would seem sufficient for the purposes of identification : one represents a small portion of the ccencecium of the natural size creeping spirally round the stem of some aquatic plant; the other is a portion magnified, with three polypides in different states of exsertion. From this time we find writers relying almost exclusively on the descrip- tion of Miiller, and after some notices of minor importance, we find the name given by Miiller introduced into the ‘Systema Nature’ by Gmelin, who in his edition of this great work, published in 1789, makes mention of the Zu- . bularia repens with Miiller’s diagnosis. - In 1804 a new element of confusion was introduced into the synonymy of this species by Vaucher, who mentions its occurrence, and adds incidentally, that its ova are elongated: this naturalist accompanies his notice with a figure, which, however, in no respect agrees with Miiller’s description ; and _ LT have no hesitation in considering the animal which Vaucher, under the belief that it was the same as that described by Miiller, calls Tubularia re- pens, to be quite distinct from this species; it comes nearer to Plumatella emarginata of the present Report ; and indeed, were it possible from Vaucher’s data to form any opinion of value on this subject, I should not be disinclined - to view it as identical with the latter, though the description and figures of Vaucher are so very imperfect, as to render it impossible to decide with satisfaction on his species. The 7. lucifuga of Vaucher, on the other hand, comes much nearer to the true Tubularia repens, and is probably identical with it, for the number of tentacula which he ascribes to the species is evi- dently the result of having observed the polypide in a very partially exserted state, and therefore goes for nothing in the description. _ We next find Miiller's Tubularia repens enumerated by Turton in his edition of the ‘Systema Nature,’ 1806. In 1816 we have Lamarck substi- 982 REPORT—1850. tuting the generic name of Plumatella for that of Tubularia, as applied to the freshwater Polyzoa. and describing, under the name of Plumatella re- pens, an animal for which he adduces Schaffer’s figure, but which he cha- racterizes from the erroneous description and figures of Vaucher; the P. repens of Lamarck, therefore, while it must be viewed as synonymous with Vaucher’s Tubularia repens, can find no place in the synonymy of the true Tubularia repens of Miller. V.amouroux, first in 1816 (Pol. Flex.), and afterwards in 1821 (Exp. Méth.), substitutes the name of Matsa repens for Tubularia repens, employing Miiller’s diagnosis, though referring to Vaucher, and in the latter work reproducing his figure. De Blainville, in 1834, enumerates without any diagnosis Plumatella repens, quoting as synonyms the Tubularia repens both of Gmelin (Syst. Nat.) and Vaucher. Gervais, in Ann.'Frane. et Etrang. d’Anat., 1839, enumerates also without description the Plumatella repens, quoting among his synonyms not only Schaffer and Miiller, but also Vaucher. The ‘Plwmatella repens of Johnston (Brit. Zooph. edit. 1 and 2, 1898 and 1847) is the true animal of Schaffer and Miiller. Lastly, Van Beneden (Recherches sur les Bryozoaires fluviatiles, 1848) de- scribes, under the name of Plumatella repens, a Polyzoon which I cannot safely refer to the original Zubularia repens; Miller's character, “ Tubuli basi angustati apice crassiores,” does not at all agree with it, while the elon- gated ova approach it to Vaucher’s Tubularia repens, and to the Plumatella emarginata of this Report and of my Synopsis, published in the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History,’ 1844, from which however it is separated by the absence of a furrow. The Plumatella campanulata, on the contrary, of Van Beneden is doubtless identical with the true Tubularia repens of the Danish naturalist, and with the animal here described under the name of Plumatella repens var. ἃ. : While the “Corallenartiger Kammi-polyp” of Schaffer thus formed the basis of the various synonyms now enumerated, the animal described by Roésel (Insecten Belustigung, 1755) under the name of “ Federbusch-polyp,” was made the basis of another series of synonyms. This polyzoon was first systematically named by Pallas, who described it in his ‘ Elenchus,’ published in 1766, giving to it the name of Tubularia gelatinosa. We afterwards find Blumenbach (Handbuch der Naturg. 1777) describing it under the name of Tubularia campanulata, with the following diagnosis, which is evidently formed from the incorrect account given by Rosel :— «Τ᾿, crista lunata orificiis vagine annulatis corpore intra vaginam abscon- dito.” Next comes Gmelin (Syst. Nat. 1789), who also describes it, employing both the name and diagnosis of Blumenbach. We have already seen that the Tubularia campanulata of the ‘Systema Nature,’ 1767, was a totally different animal, namely the “ Polype ἃ Panache” of Trembley. Rosel’s animal is next described in Dr. Turton’s edition of the ‘ Systema Nature,’ 1806, under the name of ZYubularia reptans, the Tubularia campanulata of this edition being the same as that of the edition of 1767. From this time forwards, the specific name campanulata continued to be employed by the greater number of naturalists for Rdsel’s Federbusch-polyp, and we find ac- cordingly this little animal so designated by Lamarck, De Blainville, Du- mortier, and Gervais. The next question of importance is the determination of the exact relation which the two series of synonyms just enumerated hold to one another. In order to form an accurate opinion on this point, it will be necessary to bear in mind the fact, that P. repens presents two distinct variations. In the first of these (Var. @), which must be viewed as the normal and typical condi- ON FRESHWATER POLYZOA. 333 tion, the animal may be seen attaching itself to flat surfaces, as the under side of stones, and of the floating leaves of the water-lily and other aquatic plants. In this condition it is closely adherent throughout its entire length to the surface on which it is developed, and forms elegant dendritic or con- fervoid growths, radiating from a common centre. In the second (Var. (3) it will be found fixed to surfaces of small extent, as thin, submerged stems, straws, &c., and as it continues to increase in size, the branches having no extensive surface of attachment, soon become free, and a more or less entan- gled bushy mass will be produced. Now, I believe the “Corallenartiger Kamm-polyp” of Schaffer to correspond to the P. repens var. ὦ of this Re- port, while the “ Federbusch-polyp” of Résel corresponds to the variation β, and if so, the two animals must be viewed as identical in species. Miller believed them to be distinct, but he founded this opinion on certain charac- ters in the figures and description of Rosel, some of which were obviously erroneous, while others afforded no grounds for specific distinction at all. The distinction, therefore, drawn by Miiller is nugatory, and the specific name campanulata, originally applied by Blumenbach to Résel’s animal, and adopted by subsequent writers, is applicable to no distinct species, and must therefore be expunged. If the above criticism be admitted—and it is what I have arrived at after a very laborious examination—the synonyms of P. repens will stand thus :— Variation a. 1754. Corallenartiger Kamm-polyp. Schaffer, Armpolypen, tab. 1. figs. 1,2. (Original figures.) 1758. Tubipora repens. Linnzeus, Syst. Nat. Edit. x. 1761. Tubipora repens. Linneus, Fauna Suecica, 2219. 1773. Tubularia repens. Miller, Verm. ter. et fluy. vol. i. pars 2. p. 16. 1776. Tubularia repens. Miller, Zool. Dan. Prod. 3064. 1781. Der Polyp mit dem Feder-busch. Eichhorn, Naturg. der kleinst. Wasserthiere, tab. 4. (Original figure.) 1789. Tubularia repens. Gmelin, Linn. Syst. Nat. p. 3835. 1804. Tubularia lucifuga?. Vaucher, Bull. de la Soc. Philomat. ann. xii. No. 81. pl. 19. f. 4, δ, 6, 7,8 *. (Original figures, bad.) 1806. Tubularia repens. Turton, Linn. Syst. Nat. vol. iv. p. 668. 1816. Plumatella lucifuga?. Lamarck, An. sans Vert. Ist edit. vol. ii. p. 108. 1816. Naisa repens. Lamouroux, Pol. flex. p. 223. } 1821. Naisa repens. Lamouroux, Expos. Méth. p. 16. (Not the figure tab. 68. f.2, which is a copy of Vaucher’s Tubularia repens. 1824. Naisa lucifuga?. Deslongchamps, Encye. Méth. Zoophytes, 1824. p: 562. 1826. Plumatella lucifuga?. Biainville, Dict. Se. Nat. tom. xlii. p. 12. 1826. Plumatella calearia?. Carus, Tabulz Illustrantes. (Original figure.) 1828. Alcyonella, tertius evolutionis gradus. Raspail, Mém. de la Soc. d’Hist. Nat. de Paris, vol. iv. p. 130. 1831. Alcyonella stagnorum. Ehrenberg, Symb. Phys. Evert. Dec. 1. Pol. fol. a. 1834. Plumatella repens. di, : 5 1834. Plunatella a ifuga. \ Biainville, Actinologie, p. 490. 1836. Plumatella lucifuga?. Lamarck, An. sans Vert. 2nd edit. vol. ii. p. 124. 1836. Plumatella repens. Dumortier, Mém. sur les Pol. comp. d’eau douce, p- 21. * Figs. 9 and 10 evidently belong to 7. repens on the same Plate, and are transposed by an error of the engraver, while figs. 4 and 5 belong to 7. lucifuga, though by a similar error they are placed with 7’. repens.. 884 REPORT—1850. 1838. Plumatella repens. Johnston, Brit. Zooph. Ist edit. p. 322. fig. 51. p- 332. (Original figure.) ; 1839. Plumatella repens. Gervais, Ann. France. et Etrang. d’Anat. tom. iii, p> 134. ; 1842. Plumatella. repens. Allman, Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. ann. 1842. No. 38. 1843. Plumatella repens, first variation. Allman, Rep. Brit. Assoc. ann. 1843. Trans. of Sections, p. 74. 1843. Plumatella repens. Thompson, Rep. Brit. Assoc. ann. 1843. p. 285. 1844. Plumatella repens. Allman, Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. xii. p. 330. 1847. Plumatella repens. Johnston, Brit. Zooph. 2nd edit. p. 402. fig. 76. p- 403. (Original figure.) 1848. Plumatella campanulaia. Van Beneden, Recherches sur les Bryoz. fluv. p. 20. pl. 1. f. 5, 6, 7, Mém. de ’Acad. Roy. de Belg. 1848. (Original figures. ) 1849. Plumatella repens. Dalyell, Rare and Remark. Anim. of Scotland, vol. ii. (Original figures.) The original figures are those of Schiffer, Eichhorn, Vaucher, Raspail, Carus, Johnston, Brit. Zooph. 1st edit., Johnston, Brit. Zooph. 2nd edit., Van Beneden and Dalyell. Variation B. 1755. Federbusch-polyp. Résel, Insect. Belustig. Supp. p. 447. tab. 73, 74, 75. (Original figures. ) 1766. La premiere sorte de Polypes ἃ Bouquet. Ledermuller, Amus. Micros. 2° cing. p- 94. tab. 87. (Figures imperfect copies from Résel.) 1766. Tubularia gelatinosa. Pallas, Elenchus Zooph. p. 85. 1777. Tubularia campanulata. Blumenbach, Handbuch der Naturge- schichte. 1789. Tubularia campenulata. Gmelin, Linn. Syst. Nat. 3834. 1806. Tubularia reptans. Turton, Linn. Syst. Nat. vol. iv. p. 669. 1816. Plumatella campanulata. Lamarck, Ann. sans Vert. Ist edit. vol. ii. p- 108. ; 1816. Naisa campanulata. Lamouroux, Hist. des Pol. flex. p. 224. 1820. Plumatella campanulata. Schweigger, Handbuch der Naturg. ὃ 76. 1824. Naisa campanulata. Deslongchamps, Encye. Méth. 1824. Zooph. p- 562. 1826. Plumatella campanulata. Blainville, Dict. Sc. Nat. vol. xlii. Ὁ. 12. 1826. Plumatella campanulata. Risso, Hist. Nat. de Europe Méridion. : vol. v. p. 508. 1834. Plumatella campanulata. Blainville, Actinologie, p. 490. pl. 85. fig.6. (Figure copied from Rosel.) 1835. Lophopus eampanulatus?. Dumortier, Bull. Ac. Brux. 1835. p. 424. 1836. Plumatella campanulata. Lamarck, Ann. sans Vert. 2nd edit. vol. ii. Ρ. 123. 1837. Plumatella campanulata. Gervais, Ann. Se. Nat. 2nd series, tom. vii. Ρ. 78. ; 1839. Plumatella campanulata. Gervais, Ann. Frane. et. Etrang. d’ Anat. tom. iii. p. 134. 1848. Plumatella repens, second variation. Aliman, Rep. Brit. Assoc. ann. 1843. Trans. of Sect. p. 74. The only original figure of this variation is that of Rosel. Distribution of the Species —Germany, Prussia, Sweden, Denmark, Russia, France, Belgium, Italy, England, Scotland, Ireland. —— ON FRESHWATER POLYZOA. 335 2. Plumatella stricta *, Allman. Spec. Char.—Ccencecium adherent, creeping. Cells cylindrical, narrow, not furrowed or carinated. Ova narrow. SyNonyM. 1848. Plumatella repens. Van Beneden, Recherches sur les Bryoz. Fluv. de Belg. p. 21. pl. 1. fig. 1-4, Mém. de l’Acad. Roy. de Belg. 1848. (Original figure.) Distribution.—Belgium. 3. Plumatella punctata, Hancock. Spec. Char.—Ccencecium adherent, creeping, irregularly branched ; branches composed of a series of large conical cells tapering towards the orifice, destitute of a furrow, the upper portion of the cell almost colourless, and freckled with minute opake white spots. Tentacula about 60, calyciform membrane distinctly festooned. Ova broad. SyNonyM. 1850. Plwmatella punctata. Hancock, Ann. Nat. Hist. 2nd series, vol. v. p- 200. pl. 5. f. 6, 7, and pl. 3. f.. 1. Distribution.— England. 4. Plumatella fruticosa, Allman. , Spec. Char.—Cceneecium irregularly branched, attached only at its origin; cells cylindrical, destitute of furrow, but obscurely keeled. Ova narrow. Synonyms. 1844. Plumatella fruticosa. Allman, Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. xii. p. 330. 1846. Plumatella fruticosa. Allman, Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. ann. 1846. 1847. Plumatella fruticosa. Johnston, Brit. Zooph. 2nd edit. p. 404. Distribution.—Ireland- 5. Nova species. Plumatella coralloides, Allman. Spec. Char—Cceneecium attached only at its origin, and forming dense erect tufts of dichotomously branched tubes, destitute of furrow and keel. Tentacula about 60. Ova broad. Distribution — England. 6. Plumatella emarginata, Allman. Spee. Char.—Ceeneecium adherent, creeping ; cells cylindrical, with a very distinct furrow, which gives an emarginated appearance to the orifices, and becomes continuous below with a prominent keel. Tentacula about 40. Ova narrow. - SYNONYMS. 1804. Tubularia repens?. Vaucher, Bull. de la Soc. Philom. ann. xii, No. 81. pl. 19. F. 1, 2, 3, 9, 101. 1816. Plumatella repens?. WLamarck, An. sans Vert. Ist edit. vol. ii. p. 108. 1324. Naisa repens Ὁ. Deslongchamps, Encyc. Méth. 1824. Zooph. p. 561. 1836. Plumatella repens Ὁ. Lamarck, An. sans Vert. 2nd edit. vol. ii. p. 123. 1844. Plumatella emarginata. Allman, Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. xii. p. 330. 1847. Plumatella emarginata. Johnston, Brit. Zooph. 2nd edit. p. 464. Distribution. —France ἢ, Ireland. * This species, the only freshwater Polyzoon not hitherto found in Britain, has been formed for the P. repens of Van Beneden, which, as has already been said, does not cor- respond with the true Twdularia repens of Miiller. + See page 332. 386 REPORT—1850. 7. Plumatella Allmani, Hancock. Spec. Char.—Ceenecium adherent, creeping ; cells claviform, keeled. Ten- tacula 42. Calyciform membrane distinctly festooned. Ova narrow. SYNONYMS. 1850. Plumatella Allmani. Wancock, Ann. Nat. Hist. 2nd series, vol. v. p- 200. pl. δ. f. 3-5. (Original figures.) Distribution.—England. 8. Nova species. Plumatella elegans, Allman. Spec. Char.-—Ceeneecium adherent, creeping ; cells of uniform diameter, fur- rowed and carinated. Calyciform membrane but slightly festooned. Ova broad. Distribution.—Treland. 9. Nova species. Plumatella Dumortieri, Allman. Spec. Char.—Ccenecium adherent, irregularly branched ; cells somewhat di- lated towards the orifices, furrowed, carinated. Tentacula about 50, festooning of calyciform membrane deep and distinct. Ova broad. Distribution.—England. 10. Nova Species. Plumatella jugalis, Allman. Spec. Char.—Cceucecium adherent, consisting of two series of branches con- ᾿ nected by a common tube and extending in opposite divections; cells of uniform diameter, with a furrow which passes below into a keel. Ten- taculaabout 40, calyciform membrane with shallow festoons. Ova not known. Distribution.— England. Genus 5, FREDERICELLA, Gervais (1838). Gen. Char.—Ccenecium confervoid, composed of a membrano-corneous branched tube, with the branches distinct from one another and terminated by the orifices. Lophophore nearly circular, tentacular crown campanu- late. Ova bean-shaped, destitute of annulus and spines. Species unica*. J’redericella sultana, Blumenbach. Spec. Char.—The same as that of the genus. SYNONYMS. 1777. Tubularia sultana. Blumenbach, Handbuch der Naturgeschichte. (Original figure), 1789. Tubularia sultana, Gmelin, Linn. Syst. Nat. p. 3835. 1806. Tubularia sultana. ‘Turton, Liun. Syst. Nat. vol. iv. p. 669. 1816. Naisa sultana. Lamouroux, Pol. flex. p. 224. 1828. Plumatella gelatinosa. Fleming, Brit. Anim. 1830. Difflugia proteiformis. Meyen, Isis, 1830, p. 187. 1834, sae proteiformis. Meyen, Nov. Act. Acad. Czs. Leop. vol, xvi. uppl. 1836. Plumatella sultana, Dumortier, Mém. sur les Pol. comp. fluy. p. 22. 1838. Plumatella sultana. Johnston, Brit. Zooph. 1st edit. p. 323. 1838. Fredericella sultana. Gervais, Bull. Soc. Philomat. 1838. 1839. Fredericella. Van Beneden, Bull. Ac. Brux. tom. vi. 2de partie, p: 277. fig. 2. (Original figure.) * In my ‘ Synopsis of Freshwater Zoophytes,’ published in the Annals of Natural History, 1844, I have described as a distinct species with the specific name dilatata, a Fredericella in which the branches become dilated towards the extremities; subsequent investigations, however, have led me to look upon the F. dilatata of that publication as a merely accidental variation of Κ΄, sul¢ana, and I haye accordingly suppressed the species in the present Report. ON FRESHWATER POLYZOA. 337 1839. Fredericella sultana. Gervais, Ann. Franc. et Etrang. d’ Anat. tom. iii. p. 136. 1840. Fredericella sultana. Gervais, Dict. Sci. Nat. Suppl. vol. i. Pl. Suppl. Pol. Fluv. (Original figures). 1843. alien sultana. Thompson, Rep. Brit. Assoc. ann. 1843. p. 285. 1844. Fredericella sultana. ‘ ἐς 1544. Fredericella αἰϊαία at Allman, Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. xiii. p. 331. 1844. Fredericella sultana. Ailman, Proc. R. I. Acad. 1844. No. 44. 1847. Fredericella sultana. Johnston, Brit. Zooph. 2nd edit. p. 405. 1848. Fredericella sultana. Van Beneden, Recherches sur les Bryoz. fluv. de Belg. p. 25, Mém. de l’Acad. Roy. de Belg. 1848. 1850. Fredericella sultana. Hancock, Ann. Nat. Hist. 2nd series, vol. v. p- 173. pl. 2. f. 1. 4 ἃ 6. and pl. 3. f. 1. (Original figures.) The original figures are those of Blumenbach, Van Beneden, Gervais and Hancock. There is also an eriginal figure apparently referable to this species, though unaccompanied by a name, illustrating a paper by Mr. Varley in the Lond. Phys. Journal, No. 2, 1844. Distribution—Germany, France, Belgium, England, Scotland, Ireland. Genus 6. PatupicELLa, Gervais (1836). Gen. Char.—Cceneecium membrano-corneous, branched, branches composed of a series of claviform cells placed end to end and separated from one another by complete septa; orifices tubular, lateral placed near the wide extremity of each cell. Lophophore orbicular ; no oral valve or calyciform membrane. Ova lenticular with a narrow annulus. Species unica. Paludicella Ehrenbergi, Van Beneden. Spec. Char.—Same as that of the genus. : SyNonyMs. 1831. Alcyonella articulata. Ehrenberg, Symb. Phys. Evert. Dec. 1. Pol. fol. a. 1832. Alcyonella diaphana. Nordmann, Mikrograph. Beitrage, vol. ii. p. 75. 1836. Paludicella articulata. Gervais, Comptes Rend. 1836. 1837. Paludicella. Gervais, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2nd series, tom. vii. p. 80. 1839. Paludicella articulata. Gervais, Ann. Franc. et Etrang. d’ Anat. tom. iii. p. 75. 1839. Paludicella. Van Beneden, Bull. Ac. Brux. tom. vi. 2nd part. p. 278. fig. 1. (Original figure.) 1840. Paludicelle articulée. Gervais, Dict. Sc. Nat. Suppl. vol. i. pl. 1. Pol. Fluv. fig. 6. (Original figure.) 1842. Paludicella articulata. Allman, On the Muscular Syst. of Palud. &c. Roy. Irish Acad. 1842. No. 38. with a plate. (Original figure.) 1843. Paludicella articulata. Thompson, Rep. Brit. Assoc. ann. 1843. p. 285. 1844. Paludicella articulata. Allman, Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. xiii. p. 331. 1847. Paludicella articulata. Johnston, Brit. Zooph. 2nd edit. p. 405. fig. 77. p. 406. (Original figure.) ~ 1848. Paludicella Ehrenbergi. Van Beneden, Recherches sur les Bryoz. fluv. de Belg. p. 27, Mém. de l’Acad. Roy. de Belg. 1848. 1850. Paludicella procumbens. Hancock, Ann. Nat. Hist. 2nd series, vol. v. p- 201. pl. 5. fig. 1, 2. and pl. 4. (Original figures.) The original figures are those of Van Beneden, Gervais, Allman, John- ston, and Hancock. Distribution.—Prussia, France, Belgium, England, Ireland. 1850. Ζ 338 REPORT—1850. Registration of the Periodical Phenomena of Plants and Animals. Tue following tables are the first fruits of the labours of the Committee ap- pointed by the Association for the purpose of preparing tables and obtaining results on the periodical phenomena of plants and animals. The Committee could have wished that a larger number of the tables which they have circulated had been returned, and they hope the publica- tion of the following papers will induce others to. forward to them the result of their observations. On account of the deficiencies under many of the heads, it has been thought advisable to omit some of the columns which are given in the cir- culated tables. Where, however, any of the omitted columns contained in- formation of importance, it has been added in the form of “ remarks,” as in pages 348, 349. For the convenience of reference, the Committee have thought it better to republish the list of plants and animals with the numbers attached. They have allowed observations on other plants and animals to be printed at length in the columns, although the confining the observations to the published list spares much space in the printing. They wonld call the attention of obser- vers to the importance of making observations on the same plants and ani- mals for the purposes of comparison. Two observations on the same plant _ or animal in different years are of more value than a large series of single observations in attaining the objects of this registration. The Committee request that observers wishing for a fresh supply of tables will apply to Professor Phillips, York, and that they will inclose to him any observations they may have made at least a week before the Annual Meeting of the Association, in order that they may be laid before the Section of the Association in which the Committee has originated. For general directions for observing, the Committee must refer to their Report, published at page 321 of the volume of the Transactions for 1845. LIST OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS, WITH THE NUMBERS REFERRED TO IN THE FOLLOWING TABLES. LIST OF VEGETABLE KINGDOM. , List of Plants to be observed for the periods of Foliation and Defoliation. 1. Acer campestre, L. 15. Bignonia catalpa, L. 30. Crateegus oxyacantha, Z. 2; psendo-platanus, Z. 16. radicans, £. 31. Cytisus laburnum, Z. 3. —— saccharinum, ZL. 17. Carpinus americana, Mich. 32. sessilifolius, Z. 4. tataricum, L. 18. —— betulus, L. 33. Euonymus europzus, ZL. 5. Aisculus hippocastanum, Z. 19. orientalis, Z. 34, —— latifolius, M777. 6. lutea, Pers. 20. —— Celtis cordata, Desf. 35. verrucosus, Scop. 7. —— pavia, L. Ὡς orientalis, Z. 36. Fagus castanea, L. 8. —— macrostachys, Mich. 22. Cercis siliquastrum, L. 37. sylvatica, L. 9. Amygdalus communis, Z. 429. Chionanthus virginica, Z. 38. Fraxinus excelsior, Z. 10. —— persica, L. (β. Made- 24. Corchorus japonicus, L. 39. juglandifolia, Lam. leine). 25. Corylus avellana, L. 40. ornus, LZ. 11. Aristolochia sipho, ἢ. 26. colurna, L. 41. Ginkgo biloba. 12. Betula alba, Z. 27: tubulosa, Willd. 42. Gleditschia inermis, LZ. 13. alnus, ὦ). 28. Cratzgus coccinea, L. 43. —— horrida, Wild. 14. Berberis vulgaris, Z. 29. monogyna, Jacg. 44, —— triacanthos, L. ON PERIODICAL ΡΗΞΝΟΜΕΝΑ. 45. Gymnocladus canadensis, Lam. 46. Halesia tetraptera, Z. 47. Hippophaé rhamnoides, ἢ. 48. Hydrangea arborescens, L. 49. Juglans regia, L. 50. —— nigra, L. 51. -Lonicera periclymenum, ZL. 52. —— symphoricarpos, L. 53. —— tatarica, L. 54. xylosteum, Z. 55. Lyriodendron tulipifera, Z. 56. Magnolia tripetala, L. 57. yulan, Desf. 58. Mespilus germanica, L. 59. Morus nigra, L. 60. Philadelphus coronarius, Z. 61, —— latifolius, Schrad. 62. Platanus acerifolia, Willd. 63. —— occidentalis, L. 64. Populus alba, L. 65. —— balsamifera, LZ. 66. tremula, Z. 67. Prunus armeniaca, 1. (β. abricotier). [noir). 68. cerasus, 1. (β. δίψαν. 69. Prunus domest. (β. gr. dam. viol.). 70. —— padus, L. 71. Ptelia trifoliata, L. 72. Pyrus communis (8. berga- mot). —— japonica, L. —— malus (8. calvill. d’été). —— spectabilis, it. Quercus pedunculata, Willd. sessiliflora, Smith. Rhamnus catharticus, LZ. frangula, Z. Rhus coriaria, Z. cotinus, Z. - —— typhina, ὦ. Ribes alpinum, L. . —— grossularia, L. . —— nigrum, L. . —— rubrun, L. - Robinia pseudo-acacia, L. viscosa, Vent. - Rosa centifolia, L. gallica, L. . Rubus idzus. odoratus, ὦ). 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 93. 339 Salix alba, L. 94. Sambucus ebulus, LZ. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. nigra, L. —-— racemosa. Sorbus aucuparia, L. domestica, L. Spirza bella, Sims. hypericifolia, Z. —— levigata, L. Staphylea pennata, L. trifolia, L. Syringa persica, L. —— rothomagensis, Hort. —— vulgaris, L. Tilia americana, L. parvifolia, Hoffin. . —— platyphylla, Vent. . Ulmus campestris, Z. . Vaccinium myrtillus, Z. . Viburnum lantana, LZ. opulus, L. ff. stmpl. , L. fi. plen. . Vitex agnus-castus, Z. incisa, Lam. , Vitis vinifera (β. chas.dore). List of Plants to be observed for the periods of Flowering and Ripening of the 201. Acanthis mollis, ἢ. 202. Acer campestre, L. 203. —— pseudo-platanus, L. 204. saccharinum, L. 205. —— tataricum, L. Achillea biserrato, Borst. millefolium, L. Aconitum napellus, Z. Aisculus hippocastanum, L. —— lutea, Pers. —— macrostachys, Mich. pavia, L. Ajuga reptans, Z. Alcea rosea, L. Allium ursinum, Z. Alisma plantago, ZL. Althea officinalis, Z. Amygdalus communis, L. persica, L. (3. Made- leine). Anchusa sempervirens, L. Andromeda polifolia, L. 206. 207. 208. 9209. 210. 211. 212. 218. 214. 215. 216. 217. 218, 219. 220. 221. 222. acuminata, “4112. 223. —— racemosa, L. 224. Anemone nemorosa, Z. 225. hepatica, L. 226. —— ranunculoides, LZ. 227. Angelica archangelica, L. Antirrhinum majus, Z. ‘Apocynum androszemifo- ha lium, LZ. 230. Arabis caucasica, Willd. 231. Arbutus uva-ursi, Z. 232. Aristolochia clematites, L. 299. —— sipho, 1. Fruit. Arum maculatum, ἢ. Asarum europeum, L. Asclepias tuberosa, L. —— incarnata, L. syriaca, L. 239. vincetoxicum, L. 240. Asperula odorata, L. . —— taurina, LZ. . Aster dumosus, ZL. nove anglie, L. . —— paniculatus, Willd. . Astragalus onobrichis, Z. . Astrantia major, Z£. . Atropa belladonna, Z. . Avena sativa, L. . Bellis perennis, Z. - Berberis vulgaris, Z. . Betula alba, Z. alnus, Z. . Bignonia catalpa, L. . —— radicans, L. . Bryonia alba, L. . —— dioica, Jacg. . Buphthalmum cordifolium, 234, 235. 236. 237 238. . Buxus sempervirens, L. Campanula persicifolia, Z. . Carduus marianus, L. . Carpinus americana, Mich. - — betulus, 1. orientalis, Z. . Cassia marylandica, L. . Ceanothus americanus, L. Celtis cordata, Desf. - —— orientalis, Z. 268. 269. 270. 271. 272. 273. 274, 275. 276. 277. 278. 279. 280. 281. 282, 288. 284. 285. 286. 287. 288. 289. 290. 129], 292. 293. 294. 290. 296. 297. 298. 299. 300. Cercis siliquastrum, LZ. Chrysanthemum leucanthe- mum, ZL. Chelidonium majus, LZ. Chenopodium bonus Hen- ricus, LZ. Chionanthus virginica, ἢ. Chrysocoma linosyris, L. Clethra alnifolia, Z. Colchicum autumnale, Z, Colutea arboresceas, L. Convallaria bifolia, L. majalis, Z. Convolvulus arvensis, LZ. sepium, L. Corchorus japonicus, LZ, Coreopsis tinctoria, Nutt. tripteris, Z. Cornus mascula, ἢ. —— sanguinea, ZL. Coronilla emerus, L. Corydalis digitata, Pers. Corylus avellana, LZ. colurna, L. tubulosa, Willd. Cratzegus coccinea, L. oxyacantha, ZL. monogyna, Jacq. Crocus mesiacus, Curt. —— sativus, Sm. vernus, Sw. Cyclamen europeum, L, —~— hederefolium, Ait. Cynara scolymus, L. Cytisus laburnum, Z, Fee, 340 301. 302. 303. 304. 305. 306. 307. 308. 309. 310. 511. 312. 313. 314, 315. 316. 317. 318. 319. 320. 321. 322. 323. 324. 325. 326. 327. 328. “Ses 330. 591. 392. 333. 334. 335. 336. 337. 338. 339. 340. 341. 342. 343. 344, 345. 346. 347. 348. 349. 350. 351. 352. 353. 354. 355. 356. 357. 358. 909, Cytisus sessilifolius, L. Daphne laureola, L. —— mezereum, L. Dianthus caryop., L. (v. grenad.). Dictamnus albus, L. — ——, fl. purpureo. Digitalis purpurea, L. Echinops spherocephalus, L Epilobium spicatum, Zam. Erica tetralix, ZL. —— vulgaris, L. Erythrina crista-galli, ἢ. Escholtzia californica, Chmss. Enonymus europeus, L. latifolius, Mill. yerrucosus, Scop. Fagus castanea, L. sylvatica, L. Fragaria vesca, L. (β. hor- tensis). Fraxinus excelsior, L. —— juglandifolia, Lam. ornus, Z. ἡ Fritillaria imperialis, Z. Galanthus nivalis, Z. Gentiana asclepiadea, L. cruciata, L. Geranium pratense, L. Gladiolus communis, L. Glechoma hederaceum, L. Gleditschia horrida, Willd. —— inermis, L. triacanthos, ZL. Gymnocladus canadensis, Lam, Hallesia tetraptera, L. Hedera helix, L. Hedysarum onobrychis, L. Helenium autumnale, Z. Helleborus feetidus, L. hiemalis, Z. niger, L. viridis, LZ. Helianthus tuberosus, L. Hemerocallis czrulea, Andrs. flava, L. fulva, Z. Hieracium aurantiacum, ZL. Hippophaé rhamnoides, L. Hordeum hexastichum, Z. - vulgare, L. Hibiscus syriacus, ἤν. Hydrangea arborescens, L. hortensis, Sm. Hydrocharis morsus-ranz, ἋΣ Hypericum perforatum, L. Iberis sempervirens, L. Iris florentina, Z. germanica, L. Juglans nigra, L. — regia, L. 360. 361. 362. 363. 364. 365. 366. 367. 368. 369. 370. 371. 372. 373. 374. 375. 376. 377. 378. 379. 380. 381. 382. 383. 384. 385. 386. 387. 388. 389. 390. 391. 392. 393. 394. 395. 396. 397. 398. 399. 400. 401. 402. 403. 404. 405. 406. 407. 408. 409. 410. REPORT—1850. Kalmia latifolia, Z. Koelreuteria paniculata, L. Lamium album, LZ. Leucojum estivum, LZ. vernum, ZL. Ligustrum vulgare, L. Lilium candidum, Z. flavum, Z. Linum perenne, L. Liriodendron tulipifera, L. Lonicera periclymenum, L. symphoricarpos, L. —— tatarica, L. —— xylosteum, L. Lupinus polyphyllus, Dougl. Lychnis chalcedonica, L. Lysimachia nemorum, Z. Lythrum salicaria, Z. Magnolia tripetala, Z. yulan, LZ. Malope trifida, L. Malva sylvestris, L. Melissa officinalis, L. Mellitis melissophyllum, Z. Menispermum canadense,L. Mentha piperita, L. Mespilus germanica, Z. Mitella grandiflora, Pursch. Morus nigra, L. Narcissus pseudo-narcissus, 1. Nepeta cataria, L. Nympheea alba, L. lutea, Z. Orchis latifolia, L. Orobus vernus, L. Oxalis acetocella, LZ. stricta, Z. Papaver bracteatum, L. orientale, Z. Paris quadrifolia, L. Philadelphus coronarius, 1. latifolius, Schrad. Phlox divaricata, Z. —— setacea, L. Physalis alkekengi, L. Plantago major, L. Platanus acerifolia, Wild. occidentalis, L. Polemonium ceruleum, L. Polygonum bistorta, Z. Populus alba, L. 411. —— balsamifera, L. 412, tremula, Z. 413. Primula elatior, Z. 414, 415. Prunus armeniaca, L. (β. abricotin). cerasus (8. digarr. noir). 416. domest. (β. gr. dam. viol.). 417. —— padus, L. 418. Ptelia trifoliata, Z. 419. Pulmonaria officinalis, Z. 420. —— virginica, L. . Rubia tinctorum, LZ. . Rubus ideus, L. . Ruta graveolens, L. . Salix alba, LZ. . Sagittaria sagittifolia, L. . Satureja montana, L. . Scabiosa arvensis, L. . Secale cereale, L. . Sorbus aucuparia, Z. . Spartium scoparium, DZ. — . —— filipendula, L. —— hypericifolia, Z. : . —— levigate, L. E Staphylea pinnata, Z. Ὁ — trifolia, L. ᾿ Statice armeria, L. 421. Pyrus communis (derga- motte). 422. —— cydonia, L. 423. —— japonica, L. 424, ——malus(calvilled’hiver). Ὁ 425. spectabilis, dit. 426. Quercus pedunculata, Willd. 427. sessiliflora, Smith. 428. Ranunculus acris, L. (7. plen.). 429. —— ficaria, L. 430. —— lingua, Z. 431. Rhamnus catharticus, D. 432. —— frangula, L. 433. Rheum undolatum, L. 434, Rhododendron ferrugi- neum, L. 435. ponticum, ZL. 436. Rhus coriaria, L. 437. cotinus, L. 438, —— typhina, L. ἢ .439, Ribes alpinum, LZ. | 440, grossularia, L. (fra virid.). | 441. —— (f. rubent.). | 442, —— nigrum, 1. 443, ——— rubrum, L. 444, —— Sruct. alb. 445, Robinia pseudo-acacia, L. 446. viscosa, Vent. 447. Rosa centifolia, L. 448. —— gallica, L. ] 449, Rosmarinus officinalis, L. odoratus, L. Salvia officinalis, L. ͵ Sambucus ebulus, ἢ. ' nigra, L. racemosa. j Sanguinaria canadensis, LZ. d Saxifraga crassifolia, L. succisa, L. Scrophularia nodosa, ἤν Sedum acre, LZ. album, Z. telephium, LZ. Solanum dulcamara, £. domestica, ZL. — — hybrida, 1. Spirea bella, Sims. —— limonium, L. ON PERIODICAL PHA NOMENA. 483, Symphytum officinale, L. 484, Syringa persica, LZ. 485. rothomagensis, Hort. 486. —— vulgaris, L. 487. Taxus baccata, L. 488. Thymus serpyllum, Z. 489. —— vulgaris, L. 490. Tiarella cordifolia, L. 491. Tilia americana, L. 492. —— microphylla, Vent. 493. —— platyphylla, Vent. 494, Tradescantia virginica, L. 8541 495. Trifolium pratense, L. 506. Veronica spicata, Z. 496. sativum, LZ. 507. Viburnum lantana, Z. 497. Triticum sativum, L. a. @s- 508. opulus, 72. simpl. tivum. 509. » fi. plen 498. , B. hybern. 510. Vinca minor, L. 499. Tussilago fragrans, L. 511. Viola odorata, L. 500. —— petasites, L. 512. Vitex agnus-castus, ἢ. 501. Ulmus campestris, LZ. 513. incisa, Lam. 502. Vaccinium myrtillus, L. 503. Veratrum album, L. 504. Verbena officinalis, L. 505. Veronica gentinoides, L. 514. Vitis vinifera, Z. (3. chas- selas doré. 515. Waldsteinia geoides, Kit. List of Plants to be observed at the Vernal and Autumnal Equinoxes and Summer Solstice, for the hours of opening and closing their Flowers. 601. Anagallis arvensis, L. 602. Arenaria purpurea, Pers. 603. Calendula officinalis. 604. arvensis, L. 605. Campanula speculum, L. 606. Cichorium endivia, Z. 607. Convolvulus tricolor, Z. 608. Crepis rubra, L. 609. Datura stramonium, LZ. 610. ceratocaula, Jacq. 611. Dianthus prolifer, Z. 612. 613. 614. 615. 616. 617. 618. 619. 620. 621. Lactuca sativa, L. Malva sylvestris, Z. stallinum, ἢ). jalapa, L. Nymphea alba, Z. Hemerocallis fulva, Z. 623. Leontodon taraxacum, Z. Mesembryanthemum cry- 625. coccineum, Haw. pomeridianum, Z. Mirabilis longiflora, L. 622. Cnothera biennis, ἢ. Ornithogalum bellatum, Z. Picridium _ tingitanum, Desf. Portulaca oleracea sativa, L. Sonchus oleraceus, LZ. Trapa natans, L. Tigridia pavonia, L. Tradescantia virginica, L. Tragopogon pratensis, L. porrifolius, Z. 624, 626. 627. 628. 629. 630. 631. LISTS FOR THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. MAMMALS. 701. Meles taxus (Badger), appearance and retreat. 702. 703. Mustela erminea (Stoat), periods of moult. halle Myoxus avellanarius (Doormouse), commencement and termination of winter sleep. 704. Vespertilio pipistrellus (Bat), first appearance and disappearance. BIRDS. Regular Summer migrants, of which the first appearance is to be observed. 705. Anthus arboreus (Tree Pipit). 706. Caprimulgus europeus (Goat-sucker). 707. Columba turtur (Zurtle-dove). 708. Coturnix dactylisonans (Quail). 709. Crex pratensis (Land-rail). 710. Cuculus canorus (Cuckoo). 711. Cypselus apus (Swift). 712. Hirundo riparia (Bank Martin). 719. rustica (Swallow). 714, —— urbica (House Martin). 715. Lanius collurio (Red-backed Shrike). 716. Motacilla yarrellii (Pied Wagtait). 717. Muscicapa grisola (Spotted Flycatcher). 718. Perdix coturnix (Quait). 719. Saxicola cenanthe (Wheatear). Parte ἐνὶ 720. 721. 722. 723. 724. 720. 726. 727. 728. 729. 730. 731. 732. 733. 734, Saxicola rubeta (Whinchat). Sylvia atricapilla (Blackcap Warbler). cinerea (Whitethroat), — curruca (Lesser Whitethroat). — hortensis (Garden Ifarbler). — locustella (Grasshopper Warbler). — luscinia (Nightingale). —— arundinacea (Reed Warbler). —— phragmitis (Sedge Warbler). —— pheenicurus (Redstart). rufa (Chif-chaf). — sylvicola (Wood IVren). trochilus (Willow Warbler). Turdus torquatus (Ring Ouzel). Yunx torquilla (’ryneck). 90 ΒΕΡΟΚΊ--- 850. Rare, or only occasional, Summer ΒΡ ἢ 8. 735. Emberiza hortulana (Ortolan Bunting). 738. Muscicapa’ luctuosa, Zemm. (Pied Fly- 736. Lanius rufus ( Woodchat Shrike). catcher). 737. Motacilla flava, Temm. (Gray-headed Wag- 739. Oriolus galbula (Golden Oriole). tail). 740. Sylvia tethys (Black Redslart). 741. Upupa epops (Hoopoc). Regular Winter migrants. 742. Anser segetum (Bean Goose). 746. Fringilla spinus (Siskin). 743. Corvus cornix (Hooded Crow). - 747. Scolopax rusticola (Woodcock). 744. Cygnus ferus (Hooper or Wild Swan). 748. Turdus pilaris (Fieldfare). 745. Fringilla montifringilla (Mountain Finch). 749. iliacus (Redwing). , Occasional Winter migrants. 750. Bombycilla garrula (Bohemian Waawing). 751. Coccothraustes vulgaris (Grosbeak). 752. Loxia curvirostra (Crossill). Of accidental occurrence. 753. Procellaria leachii (Fork-tailed Petrel). 754, Procellaria pelagica (Stormy Petrel). Species to be observed for the periods of departure. 755. Cypselus apus (Swift). 757. Hirundo rustica (Swallow). 756, Hirundo riparia (Bank Martin). 758. urbica (House Martin). Species to be observed for the periods of collecting into flocks and pairing off in the Spring. i 759. Fringilla cannabina (Common Linnet). 760. Sturnus vulgaris (S¢arling). Species to be observed for the periods of commencing song or note. 761. Columba palumbus (Ring-dove).. 766. Parus major (Great Titmouse). 762. Emberiza citrinella ( Yeliow-hammer). 767. Turdus merula (Blackbird). 763. Fringilla cannabina (Linnet). 768. musicus (7rush). 764. chloris (Greenfinch). 769. viscivorus (Missel-thrush). 765. —— celebs (Chaffinch). Species to be observed for the periods of building. 770. Corvus frugilegus (Rook). 771. Corvus pica (Magpie). 772. Fringilla domestica (House Sparrow). REPTILES. 773. Natrix torquata (Common Sna‘e). 774. Zootoca vivipara (Common Lizard). 4 775. Bufo vulgaris (Common Toad). P ᾿ 710. Rana temporaria (Common: Frog). > Ditto; also period of spawning. 777. Triton palustris (Warty Eft). A } First appearance. FISH. 778. Acipenser sturio (Sturgeon). Ἢ 779. Cupea alosa (Allis). 780. finta (Shad). Period of ascending rivers. ‘ 781. Salmo salar (Common Saimon). ν 782. —— trutta (Salmon Tryout). ? 783. Clupea harengus (Common fferring). πὶ ea 784. Scomher vulgaris (Common Mackerel). } First arrival on the coast. ON PERIODICAL PHA NOMENA. 343° MOLLUSKS. 785. Helix aspersa ; 786. nemoralis } First appearance. INSECTS. First appearance of the following species. ( Coleoptera.) 787. Geotrupes stercorarius. 788. Lytta vesicatoria. 789. Meloé proscarabeus. 790. Melolontha vulgaris. 791. ——- solstitialis. _ 792. Poecilus cupreus. 793. Telephorus rusticus. 794. Timarcha tenebricosa. (Orthoptera.) 795. Acrida viridissima. 796. Locusta. (Neuroptera.) 797. ASschna maculatissima. 798. Calepteryx virgo. 799. Ephemera vulgata. 800. Libellula depressa. 801. Panorpa communis. 802. Sialis lutarius. ( Hymenoptera.) 803. Anthrophora retusa. 804. Apis mellifica. 805. Bombus. 806. Formica. 807. Vespa vulgaris. (Lepidoptera.) 808. Catocala nupta. 809. Gonepteryx rhamni. 810. Hipparchia janira. 811. Plusia gamma. 812. Polyommatus alexis. 813. Pontia brassicae. 814. —— cardainines. 815. Pontia napi. 816. rape. 817. Vanessa io. 818. polychloros. 819. —— urtice. (Diptera.) 820. Bibio hortulanus. 821. marci. 822. Bombylius medius. 823, Culex pipiens. 824. Hristalis tenax. 825. Heematopota pluvialis. 826. Mesembrina meridiana. 827. Rhyphus fenestralis. 828. Stomoxys calcitrans. 829. Tipula oleracea. 830. Trichocera hiemalis. 831. Xylota pipiens. ὌΠΠΟΘΧΘΙΌ, WOPOjWoI'T/"spOOYs Fg ῬπΌ ‘ATID 4ou 66 "OG o ὝΠΏΠΟΣ -1y1soddo uintuapdsoséiqg, ΠΤ etter oneesateseseseeese "TZ 4 ΠΠΘΟΙΧΘΒΟΤΟΥ͂ ὈΠΠΙΡΤΑΌΙΟΣΙ, νου υ σον PTET TTT Lr err ὋΖ “ *pajoyduroo “mANASBIIeS 4591: svt] ysniyy Psst ΠΤ eet ewe se teeete ener nee *“pareadde 8Π1951910 euaipuy “Bly ΠῚ. 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General Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Edinburgh, August 7, 1850. : Resolved,— That a Committee, consisting of Sir John Herschel, the Astronomer Royal, Professor Forbes, and Professor Powell, with power to add to their number, be empowered to commu- nicate with the astronomers of Pulkowa on the observations to be made at the next approaching Total Eclipse of the Sun, July 28, 1851; and to draw up Suggestions for the guidance of observers generally. [The following Suggestions have been drawn up by the Com- mittee above-named, with the assistance of M. Otto Struve of Pulkowa. | ᾿ : SUGGESTIONS TO ASTRONOMERS FOR THE OBSERVATION OF THE TOTAL ECLIPSE OF THE SUN, ON JULY 28, 1851. 1. Tue principal observations for which a total eclipse of the sun presents peculiarly favourable opportunities may be classed under the following heads :— Observations applying specially to the physical structure of the sun and moon, as those of the corona, and of the rose- coloured prominences (seen so markedly in the eclipse of 1842). Photometric, thermometric, and actino-chemical observa- - tions, illustrating the difference in the nature and amount of radiation from different parts of the sun’s disc. Optical observations, particularly on the state of polariza- tion of the light in different phases of the eclipse, and on the phenomena of irradiation, and of distortion of a dark limb by the formation of beads or threads. The phenomena of the first class have never been seen except in a total eclipse of the sun ; and they appear so deserving of attention (especially the red prominences, which, if belonging to the sun, indi- cate physical peculiarities of structure on a most stupendous scale, and perhaps of corresponding importance), that it seems highly desi- rable that the arrangements for observation should be planned with “especial reference to them. For the observation of the phenomena of the other classes, the opportunities (though absolutely rare) are 362 REPORT—1850. much more frequent; they will, however, be most effectually se- cured by the same arrangements which secure those of the first class. 2. It is ἃ priort probable, that the phenomena (especially those depending on prominences from the body of the sun) will not be the same when viewed from stations on different sides of the cen- tral line of the shadow’s path; and such differences appear, in fact, to have been observed in the eclipse of 1842. This considera- tion at once suggests the propriety of placing some observers at no great distance from the southern boundary of the total obscuration, and others at no great distance from the northern boundary. Near the centre of the shadow’s path, the picturesque effect of the eclipse is the greatest, the phenomena are most symmetrical, and the longer duration permits observers to watch the phenomena with greater coolness; and here also it seems desirable that competent persons should be planted. It appears not improbable that some of the phenomena may change with a change of absolute time ; and for this reason, as well as for eliminating the chances of weather, and for obtaining varia- tions of appearance due to differences of climate and of hours of the day, it is desirable that observations be made at different points along the line of the shadow’s path. 3. In examining upon a map the course of the shadow in this eclipse, it will be seen that Stavanger, Christiansand, Copenhagen, Lund, Ystad, Coslin, Thorn, Lowicz, Zamosc, Tarnopol, Kaminiez, Odessa, Eupatoria, Gumri, Erivan, are south of the southern boun- dary, but probably not so far as to prevent their being used as con- venient head-quarters from which an excursion for observation may be made: that Bergen, Grimstadt, Arendal, Helsingborg, Cimbri- shamn, Bornholm, Kulm, Plock, Warsaw, Lublin, Vladimir, Brody, Nikolaiew, Kherson, Perekop, Feodosia, Redut-Kale, Achalzich, Schuscha, are within the southern boundary: that Friederichsvarn, Goteborg, Carlskrona, Kalmar, Danzig, Ostrolenka, Lomja, Bialy- stock, Brest-Litowsk, Jitomir, Machnowka, Lipowez, Uman, Ba- brinez, Jenikale, Tiflis, Schemacha, are nearly on the central line: that Christiania, Friederichstadt, Ko6nigsberg, Gumbinnen, Augus- towo, Grodno, Slonin, Pinsk, Radomist, Kiev, Jelisawetgrad, Ber- diansk, Stavropol, Gheorgiewsk, Wladikawkas, are within the northern boundary: and that Carlstad, Memel, Tilsit, Krement- schug, Ekaterinoslav, Mariupol, Mosdok, Derbent, are at a small distance beyond the northern boundary. 4. Now it appears extremely desirable that, if possible, observers should arrange themselves in confederations, each confederation con- sisting of three directing-astronomers, who should by concert station themselves at three places respectively near the northern boundary, near the centre, and near the southern boundary ; these places being not very widely separated in the longitudinal direction of the —— νν-- SUGGESTIONS TO ASTRONOMERS. . 363 shadow’s movement. Thus Arendal, Friederichsvarn, Christiania ; Kulm, Danzig, Konigsberg; Warsaw, Ostrolenka or Lomja, Au- gustowo; Brody, Brest-Litowsk, Grodno ; Nikolaiew, Babrinez, Je- lisawetgrad ; &c., would be favourable combinations. Two or three such confederations should be formed at different parts of the shadow’s path. 5. It is desirable that, at each station, there should be three or four observers. One should be furnished with a telescope magni- fying about twenty times, with a pretty large aperture ; and this will probably be found the most important. A second should have a telescope magnifying 100 times. Hach of these telescopes should have in its field, but not crossing the centre, two wires of an inter- val of 1’, or some other convenient distance, for giving an approxi- nate measure of any small object which may be observed. It is de- arable that by the position of these wires, or in some other way, he observer should be able rapidly to refer the positions of objects een in the telescope to vertical and horizontal directions. A third person should have a watch or chronometer (if the error of the chronometer is known, the astronomical value of the observations will be increased, but their physical value will be equally great without it) and writing materials, and should be prepared at any signal first to note the time, and secondly, to write down the phe- nomenon. A fourth should observe the general appearances, as seen with the naked eye. If the party were more numerous, a good sextant, or other double-image instrument, might be found useful in the hands of one person. 6. It is important that the dark glasses used for observing the sun up to the moment of total obscuration be so mounted that they ean be slipped off in an instant. And it is desirable that each tele- scope should be furnished with several dark glasses, some showing the sun with a red disc, some with a white or greenish disc. These may be mounted, in a form which admits of rapid change, in a slidmg or a turning frame ; or their cells may be fitted loosely with bayonet-notch. If the observer is satisfied with the use of one co- lour or combination for the dark glasses, no arrangement is more convenient than that of wedges of the coloured glass, achromatized (as to dispersion) by wedges of colourless glass; the intensity is then changed gradually by merely sliding the combination of glasses. It may also be desirable to possess the power of altering the aperture of the telescope rapidly: this perhaps may be done by attaching by hinges to the object-glass cell one or more flat rings, which can be turned off or on the object-glass by pulling a string at the eye end. 7. It is desirable also that the observers should be provided with some instrument for the measure of radiant heat, as a thermomul- tiplier (of a coarse kind) with galvanometer, an actinometer, or a simple thermometer with rough black bulb (whose indications will be more accurate if the bulb be inclosed in a glass sphere from 364 REPORT—1850. which the air is exhausted). In the selection of the instrument, it must be borne in mind that im Western Europe the sun will be high, and that the season of the year is (generally speaking) favour- able to energetic radiation; and also that it is desirable that the observation with the selected imstrument occupy as short time as possible. For meteorological observations, a dry thermometer and a thermometer with wet bulb (or other hygrometer) will probably suffice. 8. It would be most desirable also to be furnished with some apparatus for measure of the intensity of light, but we are unable at present to particularize any which can be considered unobjection- able. The appearance of a lighted candle will give some very rude information. The flame of a candle may also be used for giving a good idea of the intensity of light, by viewing the object, whose brightness is to be ascertained, through the flame (thus, in ordimary sunlight, the light of the sky near the sun is seen through the flame without apparent diminution; but the light of a full moon cannot be seen through it at all). For the observation of shadows, a gra- duated scale, several feet long, with a disc of white paper to be slid upon it, with its plane perpendicular to the scale, may be useful. 9. Some instrument should also be provided for ascertaining the state of polarization of the light. In the limited duration of a total eclipse, time is wanting for the use of instruments giving an accu- rate measure of the degree of polarization; for the rough estima- tion of the position of the plane of polarization, and of its general magnitude, perhaps a Nicol’s prism, furnished with plates of quartz cut in Savart’s manner, or a Savart’s polariscope, may be found convenient and sufficiently accurate. For the observation of the sun’s disc before the total darkness, a dark glass of some kind should be used with the Nicol’s prism. A common glass prism should be provided for examination of the chromatic composition of the light. 10. At any fixed observatory within the path of the shadow, which is furnished with a telescope mounted equatorially, and moved by very good clock-work (adapted in its rate to the diurnal movement of the sun), it is extremely desirable that arrangements should be made for Daguerreotyping or Talbotyping the image of the sun, or of the light surrounding the moon when the sun is hidden. It is necessary to observe that materials of very different degrees of sensibility will be required in different stages of the eclipse ; the light of the uneclipsed sun being intensely bright, and that of the corona surrounding the moon, or even that of the red flames projecting into the corona, being exceedingly feeble. If the plate or paper be so sensitive to photogenic action that an image can be formed in a fraction of a second of time, no equa- toreal movement will be required. If an image can be formed in one or two seconds, a rude equatoreal motion, such as may be given to a temporary stand, will probably suffice. If this motion is given SUGGESTIONS TO ASTRONOMERS. 365 by hand, it must be done by turning a winch in accordance with the beats of a chronometer or the vibrations of a pendulum. 11. The observers at each station should be prepared with accu- rate computations of the local times of beginning and ending of the general eclipse, and of beginning and ending of total darkness, with particular attention to the accuracy of computation of the duration of total darkness. It will be remarked that the compu- tation of duration admits of great exactness for places near the central line of shadow, but that it is liable to considerable errors for places near the north or south boundary. They should also have accurate computations of the position, with respect to the vertical, of the points of the sun’s limb at which the general eclipse begins and ends, and of the points of the moon’s limb at which the sun disappears and reappears: the latter will be liable to sensible error. Every observer should be furnished with one or more cards, upon each of which a circle is described: upon one of these the poimts of beginning and ending of the general eclipse and of the totality are to be marked; the others are to be used for hasty records of the places of any remarkable phenomena during the eclipse. 12. The observations to be made, and the mode of proceeding, should be arranged some days before the eclipse, and should be fully described in written instructions, with which each observer should be so perfectly acquainted as to have little need to refer to them at the time. Two cautions, however, must be borne in mind. The phznomena about the time of total obscuration are so striking that the most perfect discipline will then probably fail, and it will be almost useless to prescribe any observations which will prevent the observers from looking about them for a few moments to see the wonderful spectacle. And the whole time is so short, that. it will be very desirable that each observer’s attention be confined to very few phenomena. No party, probably, will be able. to make all the observations mentioned below; it will be desirable, there- fore, carefully to select those which can be made with the greatest - probability of success, and to give the utmost attention to those only. 13. A quarter of an hour before the first contact of the sun and moon, the observations of radiation with the actinometer, &c. should be begun. [These should be continued through all stages of the eclipse.] The commencement of an eclipse is a very indistinct phe:- - nomenon, and perhaps for the principal part of the time before the total obscuration little can be done except to make, from time to time, observations of radiation and meteorological observations. “But when the limb of the moon crosses that of the sun at right angles, and afterwards, the observers will be well able to estimate (as far as can be done by the eye) the difference in the intensity of light on different parts of the sun’s disc. From this time also it will be proper to examine whether the entire circumference of the 366 REPORT—1850. moon, or any portion of it external to its intersection with the sun’s limb, can be seen. It may be necessary for this purpose to use a telescope with a small number of lenses, all the surfaces of which are well polished and perfectly clean. 14, When the lune becomes narrow, occupying about a quadrant ‘of the sun’s circumference, the state of polarization of the sun’s light in different parts of that quadrant may be examined. In these and subsequent observations of the same kind, it must be borne in mind that the diffused light reflected from air will pro- bably give traces of polarization, and it may be well in all cases to remark whether the brightest parts of the light under inspection are as evidently polarized as the faintest. Attempts should now be commenced for discerning whether a comparison can be instituted between the darkness of the shadows of a small object (as a pencil, or a small rod) formed by the sun and by the lighted candle; and whether the distance of the paper disc, when their shadows are equally black, can be ascertained. [If this is found practicable, this observation should be continued to and through the total obscura- tion.] The light should be analysed, in regard to its chromatic composition, by the use of a prism, and special record made as to whether any of the colours are unusually vivid or deficient. The general state of the sky and atmosphere should be carefully ob- served and fully recorded. 15. As the totality approaches, the sextant observer may mea- sure the interval between the cusps; and the telescope observers should examine carefully the state of the moon’s limb as to rough- ness, particularly in the central part (which will be the last to touch the sun’s limb), and should carefully remark whether the moon’s limb can be seen beyond the sun’s limb. These observa- tions should be made with rapid changes of the dark glasses. At the very time of completion of the obscuration, Baily’s beads should be looked for, and if possible with change of the dark glasses, and with change of the aperture of the object-glass, and perhaps by putting the telescope, for a moment, out of focus. (See Appendix No. I.) It will probably be best, for the relief of the eye, that the observers should now and then quit the telescope for an ‘instant. The time of total obscuration is to be communicated to the chronometer-bearer by a single syllable. It is to be remarked that, even though the error of the chronometer be not known, the accurate observation of the duration of the totality will give valu- able information as to the diameters of the sun and moon, and as to the moon’s latitude. 16. The naked-eye observer, in the mean time, is to look at the sun with a dark glass, occasionally changing the glass, occa-~° sionally trying the polarization, occasionally relieving his eye. He may also specially remark whether the colour of objects ap- pears to change, and whether the light in different parts of the sky is differently coloured. But when the totality is near, he is SUGGESTIONS TO ASTRONOMERS. 367 simply to observe, with the weakest of the dark glasses or (if possible) with the eye uncovered, and to note the way in which the light is distributed, as to intensity, in different directions round the sun; whether there are beams of light, and in what direction ; whether there are the rudiments of a ring round the moon; whether there is any light on the side opposite the bright lune. It is recommended that he do not quit this observation for any other; but if a trustworthy person of good general obser- vation were near, it would be desirable that he should remark whether there appears to be any fluctuation or trembling of the light which falls upon the-ground and upon walls, and whether the shadow appears, as to sense, to sweep over the earth. 17. The important use of the photographic apparatus will com- mence shortly before the total obscuration. It will be desirable to take photographic images of the cusps, but it will be particularly desirable that they should be varied by causing the pencil of light to pass through a prism, so as to produce prismatic dispersion in the direction transverse to the cusp, and thus to exhibit on the plate or paper an actino-chemical analysis of the light which has passed at the highest degree of obliquity through the sun’s atmo- sphere. When the sun is totally hidden, simple images should be taken, at several repetitions, if possible, during the obscuration. 18. On the instant of total obscuration the corona will be formed. It is important that the observer with the low-power telescope and the observer with the naked eye should be prepared to remark whether any part of the corona is visible before the sun is com- pletely obscured, and in what order the complete ring is formed, whether all at once or by progress from one or more points. Also, whether the ring is equally broad in different parts, and what is ‘the proportion of its breadth to the moon’s breadth; whether it is double, or divided as a succession of annuli; whether it is divided by radial lines; whether its texture appears fibrous, and what is the position of the fibres; whether it is sensibly coloured; and, if possible, whether its light is polarized. The light should be ex- amined by the dispersive prism, and the excess or deficiency of any particular colour recorded. 19. As soon as possible, and also as late as is prudent during the obscuration, an attempt should be made to judge whether the corona is concentric with the moon, or with the sun. 20. The moment that the sun’s bright edge is eclipsed, the ob- server with the most powerful telescope should watch for the ap- pearance of red prominences in the direction of the moon’s advance. From this time tg the end of the totality each of the observers should repeatedly examine the whole circumference of the moon, to discover whether there are any of these prominences visible. The observer with the most powerful telescope should devote himself entirely to this subject. If any are seen, it is of the utmost im- 368 REPORT—1850. portance to note whether they undergo any change ; whether new ones appear, and in what part of the circumference ; whether they inerease on one side and diminish on the other, &c. For details on this very important observation, see Appendix No. II. The times of any striking phenomena should be recorded, no description be- yond reference by a single word being attempted at the time; and their places should be noted on the card-circle. 21. The telescope-observers should endeavour to judge whether the dise of the moon is sensibly illuminated. Little confidence can be placed in the appearance of light, unless some of the larger spots can be seen. The sextant-observer should measure the moon’s diameter. If there is leisure, one actinometer-observation should be made. 22. An attempt should be made (as has already been mentioned under article 14) to ascertain whether the light of the corona is sufficient to cast a distinguishable shadow, and whether a distance can be found for the candle at which the intensities of the shadows are sensibly equal. But it is certain that the light of the corona is extremely feeble, and the observer must therefore be prepared to remove the candle to a considerable distance. Some estimate may be formed of the iutensity of light by remarking the distance at which the letters and figures of a book can with difficulty be distin- guished. All observers, as far as possible, should use the same page : for instance, the title-page of the Nautical Almanac for 1851, or the title-page of these “Suggestions,” in which the same type is used. To give this observation its greatest value, each observer should as soonas possible examine at what distance he can distinguish the same letters in full sunshine, and at what stage of twilight and in what position he finds the difficulty nearly the same as during the eclipse. 23. Should any stars or planets be seen, their places should be noted (mentally) sufficiently to enable the observer to identify them afterwards upon a celestial globe. In particular, the observer should note the place of the smallest star which he can see. The apparent colours of the stars should be noted; and the observers should also record what they judge to be the colours of the same stars when seen in a dark night. 24. Among the coarser kinds of observation to be made with the naked eye during the totality may be mentioned the following. Whether bushes of light radiate from the corona, in what number, and in what directions. Whether there are beams in the direction of the ecliptic, like pyramids with their bases united at the sun, in the manner of the zodiacal light. Whether there is a red band of light near the horizon, or in any part of it. Whether the outlines of hills can be seen. Whether the smoke of chimneys can be seen. Whether any plants (as the sensitive plant, the convolvulus, or the silk-tree acacia) close their leaves or petals. Whether animals appear frightened. SUGGESTIONS TO ASTRONOMERS. 369 25. As the duration of the totality will be, m most places, ap- proximately known, the chronometer-bearer should be prepared to give about ten seconds’ notice to the observers of the re-appearance of light. At places near the north or south boundary this may be scarcely sufficient. Each observer should then remark,—first, whe- ther there is anything peculiar in the circumference of the moon ; secondly, whether the reappearance of the sun is heralded by any- thing like a twilight on the moon’s limb; thirdly, whether the co- rona disappears in separate parts ; fourthly, whether beads or strings are seen ; fifthly, whether the moon’s circumference is visible be- yond the sun’s visible limb; sixthly, whether the brilliancy of the sun’s limb is equal to or less than that of the portions of the disc immediately within it. The first appearance of white light should be noted by signal, as before. 26. It would now be interesting for the naked-eye observer to remark, if possible, whether the light of the sun appears to sweep over the country ; whether there is any fluctuation of light on the ground, or on walls, &c.; and also whether dew or fog is formed. 27. Any observations for intensity, polarization, &c. which were omitted. before the total obscuration, can now be made in a leisurely manner : and some measures of the interval between the cusps may be made with the sextant. 28. During the remainder of the eclipse there will be little of interest to be done, except to repeat the observations of radiation, and to make any observations applying to the meteorological state of the atmosphere. The instant of termination of the eclipse (a phzenomenon which admits of accurate observation) should be noted. The actinometer-observations should be continued to a quarter of an hour after the last contact. Aprrnpix No. I. The following suggestions, applying specially to the observation of the beads or strings sometimes seen, are principally extracted from the “ Suggestions for the observation of the Annular Eclipse, Oct. 9, 1847,” in the Report of the Seventeenth Meeting of the British Association, Transactions of the Sections, p. 16. Whether the pomts of the cusps are rounded ? Whether in the neighbourhood of the cusp the limb either of the sun or moon appears distorted? Whether the beads appear steady or waying, disappearing and reappearmg? Whether they present any peculiar changes when viewed through differently- 28 370 REPORT— 1850. coloured glasses, the observer alternating the colours, which should be as dissimilar as possible, such as red and green? Whether they are seen when the telescope is out of focus? Whether they are seen when the eclipse is projected on a screen? The drawing out of the beads into threads when very near junc- tion ; and whether they waver and change, and the number of them. Whether before and after the formation of the threads the moon’s dark disc is elongated towards the point of contact ? The beads are ascribed by some to lunar mountains. What mountains exist at that part of the limb? The exact interval of time between the first formation of beads and the first complete contact, and that between the last complete contact and the last disappearance of beads (or other irregularities in or about the cusps), should be determined. ; The remarkable fact of a recurrence of cusps, and the possible explanation of it, should be attentively considered. In reference to the phenomena of the corona, and their possible explanation, the observer is referred to Professor Powell’s papers in the Memoirs of the Astronomical Society, vol. xvi. p. 301, “On Luminous Rings round Shadows,” and vol. xviii. p. 69, “ On Ivra- diation.” Aprrnpi1x No. II. It is recommended to observers who may devote themselves especially to the phenomena of the rose-coloured prominences :—- 1. Immediately before the total obscuration, to watch for the ap- pearance of the prominences on all parts of the sun’s limb, but par- ticularly at the part just about to be eclipsed by the moon’s limb ; and, the moment that the sun’s bright edge is eclipsed, to watch in the direction of the moon’s advance for any such prominence ; to note mentally its form, and particularly the proportion of its height to its breadth at the base, which may be afterwards recorded in a sketch ; and ¢o make quite sure whether or not the moon gradually eclipses it. 2. In like manner, and with the same view, to direct the second scrutiny (immediately after the previous one) to the diametrically- opposite portion of the moon’s limb, watching for the summits of any prominences, and whether they enlarge as the total eclipse proceeds. . 8. In the third place, the observer having satisfied himself on the two previous points, will carefully examine the moon’s limb all round, and may now record, on the previously prepared circular diagram, the positions of any such prominences round the moon’s limb. Let this be done in the first instance without regard to their form or size, but only with regard to their distribution round SUGGESTIONS TO ASTRONOMERS 371 the circle ; and let this be carefully verified once at*least. Let him note whether any kind of arch of light connects two or more of the -prominences. 4. Let the dimensions and forms of the prominences be studied. For the former purpose reference should be made to the two parallel threads in the eye-piece of the telescope. For the latter, observe— Whether the prominences have hard and permanent, or waving and ill-defined outlines. Whether they are imvariably broadest at the base, and have on the whole a tapering shape. Whether they seem to stand erect, or whether any or all of them are aslant, like teeth on the edge of a circular saw. Whether any of them taper mwards next the dark limb of the moon: whether they appear isolated ; and, if so, how the space between the red patch and the moon’s limb is occupied. Whether the prominences vary in outline during the scrutiny. Whether any appear to grow up or to diminish ; and, if so, whether such change is what the moon’s motion ‘would . naturally account for. 5. Let the zl/umination of the prominences be studied. First, as to general colour ; by inspecting them with the undefended eye, both with and without a telescope (without any dark glass). Next, as to distribution of colour, select a well-defined promimence and examine it all over repeatedly with a considerable magnifying power, and observe if it appears absolutely uniform in colour and brightness, or whether it shows any marks of structure or shadow or variation of tint. It seems very difficult to suggest any com- parative experiment for recording the brightness of the illumina- tion of the prominences. 6. As the total phase goes off, let the eye be fixed on one or more of the prominences, and see whether they instantly and totally vanish, or for how many seconds they can be kept in view. ᾿ It may be well to refer to M. Arago’s narrative of what was seen in 1842 and on former occasions, in the Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes for 1846, and to a Beet by M. Faye in the eae Rendus de P Académie, 1850, Nov. 4 Apprenpix No. III. Allusion having been made to instruments for determining the plane of polarization, it may be proper to give the following infor- mation :— Nicol’s prism is described in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. xx. p. 83, and in the Philosophical Magazine, vol. iv. p. 289 ; and instruments on this construction are sold by Soleil in Paris ᾿ς and Watkins and Hill in London. Savart’s polariscope is described in Peclet’s Traité de Physique, and is sold by the same artists. 372 REPORT—1850. The accompanying Map (Plate V.) has been constructed principally from computations furnished to the Committee by Lieut. W. 8. Stratford, R.N., Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac, verified in some parts by duplicate computations made under the direction of the Astronomer Royal. The elements employed for computation of the geocentric places of the sun and moon are those of the Nautical Almanac. The sun’s semidiameter, as given in the Nautical Almanac, is increased by xdon part, the moon’s parallax by τοῖσυ, part, and the moon’s semi- diameter by 4,5 part, in conformity with the results of extensive investigations by the Astronomer Royal. It is to be: remarked that the semidiameter thus found for the moon is that corresponding to an illuminated moon seen on a dark sky: if the apparent semi- diameter when the dark moon is seen on the sun’s bright dise be sensibly smaller, the breadth of the shadow and the duration of total darkness will be less than those given in the map. The numbers in the Ist, 2nd, 3rd, 7th, and 8th columns are computed for the points opposite to them in the central line of shadow, but they will apply with sufficient accuracy for other neigh- bouring points within the shadow. The numbers in the 4th, 5th, and 6th columns are also computed for the points opposite to them in the central line of shadow; but they require large corrections to make them applicable to other points within the path of the shadow but not on its central lime. These corrections are given by the numbers at the top and bottom of the map, corresponding to the various lines drawn longitudinally through the shadow’s path. An example will best illustrate the mode of finding these corrections. It is required to find the duration of total darkness and the angles from the upper point of the sun’s disc for disappearance and reap- pearance, at Vladimir. Opposite Vladimir, the duration of total darkness on the central line is 189°. The longitudinal line passing through Vladimir, if traced to the bottom of the map, is found to correspond to the factor 0°7. Hence the duration of total darkness at Vladimir will be 189s x 0°7 = 182s. Opposite Vladimir, the angles from the sun’s upper point at dis- appearance and reappearance are respectively 64° and 116°. The longitudinal line passing through Vladimir, if traced to the top of the map, is found to correspond to the correction 46° towards S. Hence the angles from the sun’s upper point for disappearance and reappearance at Vladimir will be 64° + 46° = 110° and 116° + 46° = 162°. ee ee er ᾧῳ ~ ae NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF COMMUNICATIONS "ἃ BRT δ a ASSOCIATION ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, π τττοἱἹ MEETING, JULY AND AUGUST 1850. ADVERTISEMENT. Tue Epitors of the following Notices consider themselves responsible _ only for the fidelity with which the views of the Authors are abstracted. Ψ CONTENTS. NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. MatTHEMATICS. Tue AsTRONOMER RoyAL on a Question of Probabilities which occurs in the use of a fixed Collimator for the Verification of the Constancy of Position of PP σι PATS ἢ OAT CICI: act sFasatdd daaseonsa¢cscass cancesantnnaasdisyapcicieveren ae «isos Sele Sir W. R. Hamriron on Polyzones inscribed on a Surface of the Second Order Mr. W. J. Macquorn ΒΑΝΚΙΝΕ on the Laws of the Elasticity of Solids ...... . Lieut, Heat, Evectrricity, MaGnertism. Mr. Samuex Beswick on a Method for computing Magnetic Charts of Decli- οὐ τοι Sede: op ὙΦ ΤΈΡΕ ὙὙΓΤ cs sees aaees tenon «panne ads Memes oaeahs th axabeinay nei ce Sir Davip BrewsrTEr’s Notice on the Artificial Magnets made by M. Logeman, Optician at.Haerlem, by the process of M. Elias............cssssesseeeececeenenees ----------------- on a New Membrane investing the Crystalline Lens of on the Optical Properties of the Cyanurets of Platinum and Magnesia, and of Barytes and Platinum ............... macs ods Bat a eee on the Polarizing Structure of the Hye ...........seseeeeeee on some new Phenomena in the Polarization of the FRAP UV aumacidese'ecscesoanah ste da dua οὐ 50.» stteeeeeecseeeeens seteereeeenees steeteseneaanene Mr. J. A. Broun on the Effect of Height on the Diurnal Variation of the Horizontal Complement of the Magnetic Force............scesssceceeeececeececeees ———_———_ on the Variation with Season of the Differences of the Mean on the Effect of Height in the Atmosphere on the Diurnal Variation of Magnetic Declination ........-.0...scsescsccssssusccccesecncecscscscscees —— on the Mechanical Compensation of the Bifilar ani Balance Magnets for Variations of the Magnetic Moment with Temperature........... on the Construction of Silk Suspension Threads for the Werraitan, Mar netometer’ ss wasadeaene ἐν τ ccas Mey τ — ’s Account of the Edinburgh Observatory...... ta eeececsenecscecenes METEOROLOGY. Mr. J. A. Broun on the Attempts to resolve the Pressure of the Atmosphere into two parts, that of Vapour and Dry Air............0..+ ν ἐδὼ οὐ σὲ sascneeven patel Mr. Perer Crare on some extraordinary Electrical Appearances observed at Manchester:on:the:16th of July 1850.12.00 c.cdevececestsecovceccososccencossecs ape Mr. Ricnarp Epmonps, Jun., on Remarkable τ τ ΝΞ πο at or near the Moon’s First Quarter during the twelve years 1839-1850......... tae Mr. Tuomas Hopkins on the Causes of the Rise of the Isothermal Lines (as represented on Professor Dove’s ms in the Winters of the Northern Hemisphere............- Gitactievemiteese coe inact’ Pepe τος ρου κτίριον, πε ας ενουθενε on the n means of computing the Quantities of ‘Aqueous Vapour in the Atmosphere at various places and heights ..........2+..0++ *Coten on the Daily Formation of Clouds at Makerstoun — Dr. Joun Lez on Meteorological*Observations made at Kaafjord, near Alten, in Western Finmark, and at Christiania in Norway ..........ssecssseseseceecneees on the British Meteorological Society ...... sicrweceasass eos veceddseds Rev. C. F. Lyon on some Phenomena of Mirage on the East Coast of Forfar- ἘΠ ΓΘ ac ices t νος ἤνοϑ ταν cuddedenanddsitsapet vee. eosecwereettnccs eve σον ΡΤ sees nb ade τσ Rev.T. RANKIN on Meteorological Phzenomena at Huggate, Yorkshire, for 1849 Mr. R. Russet on the Passage of Storms across the British Islands............ Lieut. Stracury on Hourly Meteorological Observations made in Thibet at an elevation of 18,400 feet............+ ΣΡ ΡΣ ΤΟΝ Lieut.-Col. ὅΥ ΚῈΒ on Indian Hail-Storms............0ssseeeeeeseeeees caves Sevoanhtanas Mr. Τ᾿ Spencer WELLS’ Observations on the Climate of the eee of the Nile Dr. C. Martins on the Six Climates of France.....-.cscssseceeesseceeessseeees CHEMISTRY. Dr. T. ANDERSON on the Action of Oxidizing Agents on certain Organic Bases ----------------- on a Compound of Iodine and Codeine ..... Στ τ τς. Professor Buckman’s Remarks on some Chemical Facts connected with the Tessellated Pavements discovered at Cirencester.............. Gevubavanbbe cuevebers Mr. DucaLp CampseE tt on the Action of the Soap-test upon Water containing a Salt of Magnesia only, and likewise upon Water eaegy 2 a Salt of Mag- nesia and a Salt of Lime.......-+......0068 ΕΗ ἘΣ οι Ὁ. υδο νον νοι δι ἐσόρ δδτάον Professor CHapMAN’s Remarks on the Isomorphous | Relations of Silica and Alumina Owe © oO Os Θ sar | ken 65 Bel ἃ Ξ ΕΞ iene) 8 5 & + So As Ξ ee | 4a ὦ Ξ ῳ Ὁ τε ὦ Ξ 2 wea a ° ewe Ss > 2 os 5 = =F Oo ΕΞ: a Bo ἃ | = o ἘΞ Ω: ES 3 338 - Ξ Ξ ἢ » > a ὩΣ i=) “χῆθία ΟῚ 1} 19] τι 5} -oopurp-a1y09 ΟΡ | 38} ‘vue -viqe'q| -uadog | -nsiyg |-unj0y] ταν}. Η Ξ ΄- ἘΞ : Ὁ 3 ΕΞ -» 5 ei od δ. |e fs na. 15 “ a Ἔς- Ἢ » er) 3. ae ἘΣ Sas [ἢ ὦ "ὦ ΞΦ Ξ Ne es cae Spe wh ἘΞ es <3 bs sn o | oI s 3 ro) aQ - s 3 a [5] 2 Ἐ 3 Ξ Ω a = 3 =) 2 - ci μ᾿ Th cad ῳ ss 5 2 6 oy oO ο o 4 ia oo fi .Ξ na a = A "Τα 190 -ΟΟΡΌΤΗ -91Π100 κ΄ oo ue as omo ΘΠ ὦ 2. wis 2 Big & gsc Φ Qh Bon “woe borg ae Bo 5 ow Boo “oa Ee Qa Ἢ ω - =| Ss i ra ° "923 “1915910 De la Menstruation (Prize Essay), Brierre de Bois- 1835. mont. Archives Gén. de Méd., Oct. and Dr. Marc d’ Es- Nov. 1835. pine. ‘uopuo7 | ‘uopuoy | ‘siieg | *sieg These. Paris, 25th August 1835. in 25 vols. (2nd edition.) Art. Menstruation, 19th vol. of Dic., Petrequin. Bouchacourt. ‘D1UBUIIa)-OURUIOY -Ooputy-9]99 *uO[NO J, *suodr | ‘SAlltes Α ἐς Ξ ἘΞ] c= Ξ Ξ Ξ 3 r= | > Ξ Ἢ 8 oe a Be = 3 a Ω a Θ S Qa ; ΓΙ > Ξ x Ξ : ΘΝ aise s&s =n oO Ὁ ‘Ss mee Ἐν = = 8 a τ wm OF6 es Ex eaeae a OF ons Ω [a ‘o1ueUE [Ὅταθαι -1ag) | τθὴ | ‘ouSaN -oopuryy | oopurH “BALapeyA{ | ‘NYtOD | ‘vorewese -1e Ω͂ aS Ἔ [Ξ [πὴ ~ So. : 2 > =, ok "ἢ sm i 3 3 3 38 8 Ξ - 2 | = τ oO 2 ὡς ΤΗ͂ Ξ = a5 Ξ Q ᾿Ξ ΤΟ, es = o 2 © ia] I = as og Ξ e's = Sao te Sa amo a ΕΞ a hy oso co ῳ ΜΞ Θ ὁ Q Θ eae os. ΚΒ νος .σ 5Ξ 5 = Reels < Ω “URI "ones me “ey "ἜΘΟΒΗ 1 -oopulfyy *(Aeq τος) (6894) Axynnog uevyvoq | 2INIBD ——_—. ——$—— eS ee ππ- το --- ν 138 REPORT—1850. In proof of the influence of a town habitation in advancing slightly the period of first menstruation, Dr. Tilt quotes the results of M. Brierre de Boismont’s careful in- vestigation of the question, results which have since been confirmed by the statistical information obtained in Denmark by Dr. Rawn, as well as by Dr, Tilt’s more recent investigations in London, The author maintains that the influence of civilization stands second only to that of climate, and he founds this belief on his own unpublished observations, and on those already made public by M. Brierre de Boismont and Dr. Rawn, proving that luxurious living and habits render menstruation precocious, while this function is retarded by out-door labour and less sophisticated habits. Thus far the tendency of Dr. Tilt’s observations has been dogmatical; but in dis- cussing what he calls the intrinsic causes which have been supposed to influence menstruation, his observations are rather of a suggestive character, for he considers such causes highly problematical and requiring further investigation. Remarks on the Laws regulating the Development of Monstrosities, with illustrative Specimens. By AuexanverR Woop, M.D., F.R.C.P. The paper first pointed out the importance of the study of teratology, in reference to philosophical anatomy, embryology, and natural history. It next adverted to the unity of type which exists throughout the whole of organized nature, and showed the use that had been made of that fact in laying down the laws of monstrous development. _ The first law adverted to was that of anomalies from excess, of which examples in supernumerary fingers and toes were shown. The hereditary nature of these-redun- dancies was adverted to, and it was argued from that, that there must be some original difference either in the spermatozoa or ovum, and that all the varieties of monstrosity could not be referred to changes taking place in the womb subsequent to impregnation. As examples of the second class, or those in which development was arrested, a case was shown in which the fingers were entirely deficient; also another specimen, where arrest of the development of the left inferior extremity was accompanied with eventration. From the concurrence of these two monstrous states, it was argued that in this case the arrest of development must have taken place about the com- mencement of the third month of uterine life. Another specimen of escape of the viscera from their cavities was shown in a cast of an encephalocele. The last specimen exhibited was one of thlipsencephalus. The posterior bones of the skull were deficient, the brain existed in the most rudimentary state, its place being supplied by a vascular humour protruding externally, composed of hypertrophied pia mater, a congeries of blood-vessels, and a little watery fluid. The paper concluded by arguing at some length against the tendency which at present existed to carry the theory of unity of type to an undue length. It eontended against there being any real resemblance between the nervous system of the Articulata and that of anencephalous monsters. A General View of the Morphology of the Muscular System. By M. Zaeuas. Comparative myology having already been sufficiently treated in the way of ap- proaching the ultimate forms of the muscular masses of animals to one another, for finding their analogies in the same animal, as well as in the whole department of ver- tebrata, so as to allow almost no hope of thus coming to an insight of the connexions of this system extending to remote classes, recourse has been had to comparative osteo- logy, and myology has been based on the osteogenesis. This way of treating myo- logy, Prof. John Miiller first indicated in his classical elaboration of the monography on myvinoids, Still comparative myology remains in a very unsatisfactory state. While occupying myself with dissections and thinking on the matter, I became strongly impressed by the idea that muscles must have, as well as other systems, their own morphological truths, and there must be a series of modifications in the muscular masses themselves, presented by the first appearances of a simple or elementary muscle, pro- vided a generality of plan in their arrangement be existing. Such a series of modi- fications, connecting the simplest element with the most complicated, has been pre- sumed to be probably the fittest means; if not the only, of reducing into one conception TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. - 189 the almost simply diffused muscular masses of fishes and those of mammalia, so variously complicated in appearance, through intermediate terms safely appreciated, With these presumptions for a guide, and using the necessary impartiality in viewing facts, and patience suited to the intricacies which this system so often presents, the investigations have been pursued, and the results already obtained appear both satis- factory and promising. Such of them as would appear sufficient to indicate a thread of connexions between the two extremes in the disposition of muscles in vertebrata, and afford a general view of it, were intended for communication to the Section, and could be briefly summed up in the following statements. A repetition of parallel membranes stretched between skin and skeleton, and cor- responding in number with the segments of the latter, are met with in fishes and lower reptiles, where muscular portions, which fill their intervals with fibres parallel to the axis of the body, are called myocomata. The membranes descend from the back to the abdomen in waving or zigzag ribbons, having their concave and conyex surfaces alternately turned forwards and backwards. The character of ribbons becomes soon lost by the membranes being found to protrude alternately on one side, and forwards or backwards according to the convexities of the angles; thus pouches being formed more or less long and funnel-shaped, The pouches, which are insinuated in one another, are met with gradually elongating, so as to stretch over several vertebra, and in proportion as they do so, they become more and more obliterated at the bottom, which is effected through accretion of the side walls to a lamina, this lamina being then found to extend gradually as a crest on the upper wall of the pouch, In the pean the whole pouch has become a lamina, receiving the muscular fibres on its - anks. _ Before proceeding further, the divisions of the lateral masses of fishes in longitudinal direction must be taken notice of. Some fishes present no division on the mesial line of the side; others do, having thus a dorsal and an abdominal portion separated ; in others the portions or longitudinal stripes are three, four, &c., according to the species. The number of the stripes does not correspond to that of the angles; but the distinction not only exists virtually, as it appears from real divisions in other fishes, but also if an angle be not comprehended between two divisions, another angle is formed, The greatest number of angles or series of pouches with real longitudinal separation from one another met with, is exhibited by gymmetrus, the amount being to above thirty-five. Thus the myocomata are divided in several collateral elements, recombining in their longitudinal succession to collateral series; and in proportion as the longitudinal series become independent, the myocomatical character of the masses disappears. These elements being anatomically so well defined and of great im- portance in the operations of nature to attain a higher development of the muscular masses, a term becomes necessary to designate them, as well as the longitudinal series; for the element, the term myisk has been proposed and made use of, and for a longitudinal series of myisks, that of myostichia. If several myisks of higher ani- mals be ascertained to belong to one transverse set, the myocomata of fishes would evidently reappear. We must now come back to the Skates, Their myisks begin from the bottom of a myostichial channel, and accosting the walls of the latter, they ascend to the surface of the myostichia, to be prolongated in a membranous expansion, bearing a mesial tendon, the prolongation of the lamina. The myisks of the Skate, as well as their tendons, being superposed upon one another, it has been made probable that this is effected by the lower walls of the pouches accreting to the bottom of the channel. The myisks stretchiug over several vertebree, every corresponding segment of the channel will appear sending off fasciculi to several of them. In serpents and lizards, the fasciculi coming from one segment for the first time, appear depending on tendons, at first on one side only, then on both. ‘The next step is found in myostichias of the same animals, and consists in the modification, that only one side of the channel gives off fibres to the myisks, while on the other side the corresponding walls of the pouches present mere membranes more or less blended with the channel wall, and help to con- stitute the vagina for the myostichia and its tendons. Birds and mammalia present ho more essential modifications of the myisk, and the differences are reduced to atrophic, or aponeurotic appearance of the mentioned fascias or prolongation of the pouches. -An illustration for the mammalia has been made on the sacro-lumbalis. of the rabbit. The origins of the muscle from the ribs would correspond to the several 140 REPORT—1850. fasciculi sent off from a segment to the several accosting myisks ; with every innermost fasciculus of these organs a myisk begins, to end at the seventh rib anterior, at the outer side of the muscle, crossing the ribs in an oblique line, and receiving a fasci- culus from every one. ETHNOLOGY. On the Language and Mode of Writing of the Ancient Assyrians. By the Rev. Dr. Epwarp Hincks. Mucu interesting ethnological information has been already obtained from the Assyrian inscriptions that have been brought to light ; and more may be confidently expected, as these inscriptions shall be more perfectly deciphered, and as new in- scriptions shall be discovered. Apart, however, from all such information, the lan- guage and the mode of writing of the Assyrians are themselves two important ethno- logical facts. The language of the Assyrio-Babylonian inscriptions is generally admitted to be of the family called Semitic. It is in many respects strikingly like the Hebrew; but has some peculiarities, which were mentioned, in common with the Egyptian, the relationship of which to the Semitic languages has been already recognized. The mode of writing of the Assyrians differed from that of the Hebrew and all other Semitic languages, and agreed with the Egyptian, in that it was partly ideographic. Some words consisted entirely of ideographs ; others were written in part phonetically, but had ideographs united with the phonetic part. As to the part of the writing which consisted of phonographs, Dr. Hincks maintained, in opposition to all other writers, that the characters had all definite syllabic values ; there being no consonants, and consequently no necessity or liberty of supplying vowels. In proof that the characters had definite syllabic values, he handed about copies of a litho- graphed plate*, in which examples of various forms of words analogous to those ex- isting in Hebrew were collected together. This use of characters representing sylla- bles he considered to be an indication that, though the language of the Assyrians was Semitic, their mode of writing was not so. A second proof of the same position he derived from the absence of distinct syllables to represent combinations of the peculiar Semitic consonants Koph and Ain. From these facts he inferred that the Assyrio-Babylonian mode of writing was adopted from some Indo-European nation, which had probably conquered Assyria; and he thought it likely that this nation had intercourse with the Egyptians, and had, in part at least, derived its mode of writing from that most ancient people. On the Sicilian and Sardinian Languages. By Joun Hoce, M.A., F.RS., Hon. Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society. The author, during a tour in Sicily, collected many words as spoken by the com- mon people, and compared them with the corresponding Italian ones. Some of these he inserted in the present paper with specimens of Sicilian poetry. The proxi- mity of Sicily and Sardinia, and their having been under the successive dominion of the like ruling powers, led the author, when in Sicily, to conclude that much re- semblance existed between the languages of those islands: but he had not at that time any data of sufficient consequence to establish such a conclusion. Mr. John Hogg considered that the ‘“ modern Sicilian’’ dialect, which some au- thors suppose to be the nearest to the Neapolitan and Calabrian dialects of the Italian, is in reality very dissimilar from them, and he then pointed out the chief differences. The three principal dialects of the Sicilian were classed under these periods :— The first, from the eighth to the eleventh centuryt of the Christian xra, wherein * See copy of this in Plate IV. + The times specified in these divisions are to be taken as nearly fixing the respective periods; but they will be found sufficiently exact for general purposes, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 141 Latin, but little corrupted, mixed with much Arabic, and some Greek, prevailed ; the second, from the eleventh to the fourteenth century, in which the language agrees very well with the modern true Italian; and the third, between the fourteenth and seventeenth, or eighteenth centuries, when the ‘‘ modern Sicilian,” as now generally used, became corrupted or modified. Sicily had the honour of giving birth to Italian poetry, as Petrarch distinctly as- serted, and the great Dante made “ Siciliana Favella” synonymous with modern poetical language. The first important poet of that island, since the revival of letters, Ciwllo d’ Alcamo, composed his verses, in the twelfth century, in the earlier dialect of the second period, which is similar to and in fact was the parent of pure Tuscan. Mr. John Hogg entered into a more detailed and critical notice of the Linguaggiu Sicilianu, or ‘‘modern”’ dialect of the last period; and he introduced many exam- ples of words in the latter idiom compared with the Italian. Having remarked on the paucity of prose works in ‘‘ modern”? Sicilian, he gave several interesting speci- ee τ poetry as written at this day; and added to each a literal translation in nglish. The author afterwards brought forward in an historical sketch the different nations, which had chiefly effected by their respective languages the changes and alterations in the dialects of Sicily: he observed that Sicilian, as now spoken, reminded him of the style and pronunciation of Doric Greek, and suggested that it might perhaps be termed a Doric dialect of the Italian. Next, Mr. J. Hogg separated, as Adelung had done, Sardinian into—I. the ancient native language, and 11. the foreign language. Having pointed out the distinctions existing between the two chief dialects, the southern and the northern idioms of the native Sardinian, he stated the existence of a Spanish dialect, the Catalonian or Catalan, in Alghieri and its vicinity ; and a variety of the Zuscan in Sassari, and some other places, both being introduced or foreign languages. According to Mr. Tyndale, the Sarde native language, or Sardic, especially that of the northern district, is the nearest of existing languages to pure Latin. Mr. John Hogg then gave some notices concerning the material differences of the Sardinian idioms, and peculiarities of their grammatical structure, from that author’s instructive work on Sardinia. . Having added some general examples of Sardinian as compared with Italian, the author inserted many sentences, and some specimens of poetry in the former tongue, together with English versions, in order to afford ample illustrations. And, as he had in the first part of this essay given éwo versions of the Lord’s Prayer in dialects of the Sicilian, he followed out the same plan in appending four copies of that prayer re different dialects of the Sardinian, so that the former might be compared with the atter. In both islands Italian is likewise spoken by the higher classes, whilst the lower only use the common Sicilian (dialetto volgare) and Sardic dialects. The author said in this communication he had considered Sicilian and Sardinian, for the sake of convenience, as “‘ languages,’’ and not mere dialects of the Italian, because they will be found to branch out into several dialects. On the Original Distribution of the Germanic, Lithuanic and Slavonic Populations. By R.G. Latuam, MD., F.RS. At the beginning of the proper historical period, 7. e. when the parts in question were first known otherwise than from hearsay evidence, there were few or no Ger- mans east of the Elbe; on the contrary, the whole population was Slavonic. This is generally considered to have been of recent origin, the previous population being German. The current reasons for this opinion lie in the fact of the parts between the Elbe and Niemen being parts of Tacitus’ Germania. The evidence of this, as well as of other classical works, is not sufficient to counter ' balance the very opposite state of things in the ninth and tenth centuries; since to reconcile the undoubted Slavonic character of the populations at that time with the common interpretation of Tacitus, is to assume an unparalleled amount of 149 REPORT—1850. migrations and displacements, and that on no evidence; but simply for the sake of the supposed fact they would account for. } The same applies to Bohemia, which was never more German than it is at present.’ Reasons for believing that the ante-Germanic population of Jutland and Gothland were the Guddons of Prussia, and Lithuanians rather than either Celts or Finns, were also given. Remarks on the Soukaneeah Dialect of the Berber. By Yrofessor F. W. NEwMAN. The vocabulary sent home by Mr. Richardson contains near 150 single words, besides a few short sentences. Setting aside those which are mere Arabic (which are not many), the rest, with few exceptions, are found in recognized dialects of the Berber, and in fact are generally discernible in the Kabail or Algiers Berber. The words totally new to me (F. W. N.) seem to me under twenty in number; so there can be no question that the Soukaneeah is a genuine Berber dialect. Its personal pronouns are nearest to those of the Ghadamsi, which is perhaps the same as the dialect which Hodgson calls Tuaryk; but in the plural there seems to be a clipping of the pronunciation, and the word for They (Emdin, if I rightly read the MS.) is quite peculiar. In the Ghadamsi of Hemso di Graberg there is equally great divergency from the standard Berber as to this pronoun. The interrogative and demonstrative pronouns in general appear to approach closest to those of the Ghadamsi; so also do certain common verbs and words in which these dialects deviate more or less from the Kabail and from the Shilha. In the numerals there is this peculiarity (unless the reporter has been misled), that for Five, they say Fusa (a hand), and for Ten, [fasen (hands) ; which further leads to saying for Six, Fusa li dad (hand to finger) ; Eight, [fasen ghair sen (hands without two) ; Nine, [fasen ghair egin (hands without one). στη. one, is Ghadamsi. Inquiry into the Evidence of the Existence of Primitive Races in Scotland , prior to the Celte. By DanieEL WILSON. Dr. Prichard remarks in his Observations on the Indo-European Nations, intro- duced into his ‘ Natural History of Man,’ “ It would be an interesting question if there were any data likely to facilitate its discussion, whether the Arian nations found on their arrival in Europe the different countries already occupied by previous inhabitants, or vacant, and affording them a peaceful and undisputed admission ”” (Ρ- 184). Ethnologists are now familiar with the labours of several zealous men of science on the continent, and especially of Professors Nllson and Retzius, to supply a distinct answer to this important inquiry. It is to be regretted that this branch of physical archzology has heretofore been so little esteemed in this country in com- parison of the contributions afforded by philological researches to ethnology. Many points still remain in doubt which it alone can answer; and while the philologicab evidence affords valuable and precise information in regard to the diffusion of the Arian nations over Europe, it 15 ἃ matter of very great importance, even in its bear= ing on this branch of the inquiry, to know whether the nomade Celtz peopled for the first time the unoccupied wastes and forests of Europe, or superseded elder aborigi- nal races. Still greater is its value in relation to the other questions which demand a reply from the ethnologist, as to the origin of the human family from one or more stocks, and the migration from a common centre, or cradle-land, which, in so far as relates to the historic races, appears distinctly to coincide with the Mosaic history of the human race. - Philological research has not, as yet, thrown light on the Allophylian nations of Europe, nor is there much probability that it can do so; and from the general mis- apprehension by men of science in England, of the value of archzeological investiga= tions, they have been rendered nearly valueless as a means for the ascertainment of truths relating to primitive ethnology. On the continent, and especially in Sweden and Denmark, much has already been done in this department of inquiry, and not without valuable results. The conclusions arrived at by Professor Nillson of Lund, in regard to the primitive inhabitants of Scandinavia, have already been laid before TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 143 the British Association. It is extremely desirable, however, that these should be compared with similar investigations carried on in other countries, both to test their general application, and to ascertain what evidence is recoverable in regard to the movements of the earliest nomade tribes of Europe. Professor Nillson’s conclusions may be thus briefly stated :—At a period prior to the latest geological changes in Sweden, while the Bos primigenius and other of the long extinct herbivorous animals existed in the country, it was possessed by a human population in a very low state of civilization, ignorant of the metallurgic arts, constructing their weapons and implements of horn and stone, and living chiefly by fishing and hunting. The skeletons of this aboriginal race still exist in the ear- liest class of Barrows. Their skulls are described by Professor Nillson as short (the brachy-cephalic of Retzius), with prominent parietal tubers, and broad and flat- tened occiput. This was succeeded by a superior race, with a cranium of a more lengthened oval form, and prominent and narrow occiput. The third race, which Professor Nillson considers as of Celtic origin, appears to have introduced bronze, the earliest working metal, into the country ; and the Celtic population is not supposed by him to have been displaced by the true Swea, or mo- dern Scandinavians, till some time in the sixth century. With relation to the primitive inhabitants of Britain, we know that a Celtic people appear to have existed here at the earliest period in which we have any authentic historical information respecting them. But history carries us back only a very short way, and its whole indications seem to point to the Celtz as intruders within a comparatively recent historic era; while the tumuli and primitive relics abound- ing in Britain and the whole north of Europe, furnish unmistakeable evidence of the presence of a human population at a much more remote period. Pursuing the mode of inquiry into the primitive races of Scotland which has already been successfully employed by continental ethnologists, the following Table of Cranial Measurements supplies data derived from an examination of thirty-nine skulls, a number too few to admit of the assumption of dogmatic conclusions, but sufficient at least for an ini- tiatory step in this interesting inquiry in relation to the British aborigines. The system of measurement employed is chiefly that adopted by Dr. Morton in his *Crania Americana’ (Anatomical Measurements, p. 249). Four additional mea- surements are added, marked (*), as in some cases preferable, or supplying more cer= tain data in the imperfect and decayed state of the skulls. The proportions of two Mexican skulls, described by Dr. Morton as superior specimens of the ancient race, are also inserted for the sake of comparison. » Of the crania in the annexed Table, it may suffice in this very brief abstract to state, that the direct archeological evidence, derived from the presence of rude stone weapons, the form of cists, the presence or absence of metallic weapons or implements, pottery, &c., seem to justify the order of classification. The conclusions which these data appear to suggest are, that the earliest primitive Scottish race differed entirely from the earliest Scandinavian race as described by Professor Nillson, being rather Dolicho-cephalic, or perhaps more correctly Cymbo- cephalic,—to adopt a term which I venture to suggest as most appropriate to the pe- culiar boat-like shape of the crania. These are long and equally narrow in the fore= head and occiput; while the whole head, when seen in situ, is small in proportion to the skeleton. The second race decidedly corresponds with the Brachy-cephalic of Retzius, though in the few examples I have been able to obtain the cerebral development ap- pears considerably greater than in the primitive race of Scandinavia. Nearly all ethnologists are agreed in assigning to the true Celtic type of cranium an interme- diate form, shorter than the true Dolicho-cephalic, and longer than the Brachy- cephalic. This conclusion is confirmed by the examples adopted in the Table of Measurements, with the exception of No. 27, a so-called typical Celtic skull, in the Edinburgh Phrenological Museum, introduced here for the sake of comparison. Even after obtaining the proper crania it is difficult to determine the most trust worthy elements of comparative proportion. The relative proportions of the parietal diameter ; and of the inter-mastoid line, measured from the upper root of the zygo- 144 ‘ REPORT—1850. matic process, when compared with the longitudinal diameter, will be found to afford some of the most striking elements of comparison and classification. Another in- teresting basis of comparison appears to consist in the relative proportions of the ‘parietal and vertical diameters. ‘The following laws would seem to be indicated :— In the elongated Dolicho-cephalic, or Cymbo-cephalic type, the parietal diameter is remarkably small, being frequently exceeded by the vertical diameter. In the second, or Brachy-cephalic class, the parietal diameter is the greatest. In the Celtic crania they are nearly equal; and in the Medieval or true Dolicho-cephalic crania the parittal diameter is again found in excess. Not the least interesting of the indications which this course of investigation seems to establish in relation to the primitive races of Scotland, are the evidences of the existence of primitive British races prior to the Celte ; and also the probability of these races having succeeded each other in a different order from the primitive colonists of the north of Europe. Meanwhile, however, these data, and the con- clusions derived from them, are produced chiefly with a view to induce more extended research. A much greater accumulation of evidence is requisite to establish any absolute or certain conclusions ; and this can only be obtained by a general interest in the inquiry leading to the observation of such where the researches of the archeo- logist, or the chance operations of the agriculturist afford the desired means. One or two other indications, however, bearing on the same subject, may here be adverted to, as well meriting further attention. One characteristic feature in the skulls of various tumuli is the state of the teeth. It is rare to find among them any symptoms of irregularity or decay. Ina tumular cemetery at North Berwick, how- ever, the teeth of the skulls, though sound, were worn in most cases completely flat, like those of a ruminating animal. Dr. Thurnam remarks the same to have been the case with the teeth in those found in the Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Lamelhill ; and it is also observable in an under-jaw found along with other remains of a human skull, an iron hatchet, and several large boars’ tusks, in a deep excavation on the south bank of the Castle Hill of Edinburgh. This peculiarity in the teeth of certain classes of ancient crania is of very general application. The inferences to be drawn from such a comparison are of considerable value, in the indications they afford of the domestic habits and social life of a race, the last survivor of which has mouldered underneath his green tumulus perchance for centuries before the era of our earliest authentic chronicles. As a means of comparison, this characteristic appearance of the teeth manifestly furnishes one means of discriminating between an early and a still earlier, if not primeval period ; and though not in itself conclusive, it may be found of considerable value when taken in connection with the other and still more obvious peculiarities of the crania of the earliest barrows. We perceive from it at least that a very decided change took place in the common food of the country, from the period when the native Briton of the primeval period pursued the chase with the flint, lance and arrow, and the spear of deer’s horn, to that comparatively recent period when the Saxon marauders began to effect settlements and build houses on the scenes where they had ravaged the villages of the older British natives. But the social state in the British Isles was a progressive one. Whether by the gradual improvement of the aboriginal race, or by the incursion of foreign tribes, who were already familiar with the fruits of agricultural labour, the wild pastoral or hunter life of the first settlers was exchanged for one more suited to call forth the social virtues ; the increase of the population, either by the ingress of new tribes, or by the numerical progression of the first settlers, would of itself put an end to the pos- sibility of finding subsistence by means of the chase. Thus, it might be from the inventive industry which privations force into activity that new wants were first discovered, and new tastes were created, and satisfied by the annual harvests of golden grain. The ploughshare and the pruning-hook divided attention with the sword and the spear, which they could not supplant, and the ingenious agriculturist devised his oaken querne, his stone-rubbers, and at length his simple yet effective hand-mill, which resisted, during many centuries of change and progress, all attempts to supersede it by more complicated machinery. There is only one other point to which I would wish to advert, in reference to the archzological evidence which we possess referable to the British Allophylian races, and to which I venture to hope ethnologists will be induced to devote more attention TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 145 than they have hitherto done. The term Archaic very fitly applies to the period in relation to its arts. The ornamentation employed in the pottery found in barrows consists almost, without exception, only of improvements on the accidents of manu- facture. The same indefinite and archaic character prevails throughout our primi- tive ornamented relics, which are by no means rare. In the pottery, for example, the incised decorations are characterized by great variety, and an obvious progress is traceable; but in no single instance is any attempt made at the imitation of a leaf, or flower ; of animals, or of any other of the most simple natural objects. The same is the case with the most beautiful gold and silver ornaments, and the decorated bronze weapons. It is curious and noteworthy to observe this entire absence of all imitation in primitive British arts, because it is by no means a universal or even very general ‘characteristic of the arts of Allophylian nations. The relics recovered from the se- pulchral mounds of the great valley of the Mississippi, as well as in the regions of Mexico and Yucatan, display, along with the weapons and implements of stone, silex, and obsidian, numerous rude indications of imitative skill. The same is the case with the modern Polynesians. What I would specially note in connection with this is, that both in the ancient and modern examples, the presence of imitative arts ac- companies the existence of idols, and the abundant evidences of an idolatrous worship. So far as we yet know the converse holds true in relation to the primitive British races; and as Dr. Prichard has already attached so marked an importance to the contrasting creeds and modes of worship and polity of the Allophylian and Arian nations, I venture to throw out this suggestion as not unworthy of further con- sideration. Another peculiarity in which all the earlier races appear to differ from those of Teu- tonic origin is of a purely physical nature. In the tumuli we find the weapons and implements buried with the deceased, and wherever these have been obtained suffi- ciently perfect to admit of positive conclusions being drawn, they show that the hands of the earlier British races must have been extremely small, when compared with those of very moderate stature in our own day. This however is also, though in a less degree, a characteristic of the pure Celt, in contrast to the Saxon, or other later colonists of the British Isles. It is curious that we possess the most in- disputable evidence of the same characteristic having pertained to the primitive temple-builders of the new world. Mr. Stephens remarks, in describing the well-known symbol of the red hand, first seen by him at Uxmal, ‘ Over a cavity in the mortar were two conspicuous marks which afterwards stared us in the face in all the ruined buildings of the country. They were the prints of a red hand, with the thumb and fingers extended, not drawn or painted, but stamped by the diving hand, the pressure of the palm upon the stone. There was one striking fea- ture about those hands; they were exceedingly small. Either of our own spread over and completely hid them.” This also I think is worthy of note, I have examined primitive British swords and daggers, the handles of which would be straitened for the grasp of many a delicate lady’s hand. 1850. ; L | 09% 0 08 74 0 62 £0 08 REPORT—1850. 0 08 0 82 0 08 ‘Jan πε -------..... 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AD πρῶ Ὁ ΡΟ ὦ 8 A OD 8 'ῷ ῷ 'ῷ 'ῷ ἰῷ ἴῶ 'ῷ 'ῷ 'ῷ 1h Hh Hh HHH Hh HHH - Θ᾽), σι ἢ οὺ - ξΘὼ ats ὍΣ Ξ = “Tore *19JoUL “Iayeul 193901 -ep | -ep | -ep παθγα] | [POA | TeIMON | TeRoUIVT “‘mUD4D Ysinoogy {0 sjuamaunsnayy fo 21907, "πὸ 2 - oot - fan MOO MO -Ὁ oo + SON SAMO I AIO ID Θ᾽» τι = TCOOCNNARN σι το τὸ RARER τι τὸ τὸ τὸ το το το τ ROOONN “ΦῸὄὧ ὁ ὦ δοὺ - | τῳ -ΦΡΌ τσ Γι Γν τς zou Ξξ goo *10} 0 -EIp [A -nyiZu0'T sreee* {2100 “991Ίς MONNIYsSUOD “qsmquipa (8. 5011) “3S PIO τ᾿ yainquipa ‘s.8911 “38 PIO ** qamquipa SD 4S PIO + ysmquipg ‘s,89[15 “IS PIO verses qdumqurp a SID “4S PLO ‘ci τ᾽ y8inquipg ‘8,s9[15 5 PIO τ τ αι ϑαθ στρ ‘Te wepporT ἜΜΕΝ, ag: Στ α Ππ τς ** 0}: 'N ‘ qemu, y, **HptAlag ἽΝ OSE Say **youmag ‘ny ‘Arajoutap repp un, a RECOM? = AS ay τ) 96Χ1, Ὁ1190 “ress pueply TY quinyop qouy se τ Στ στ ssouyqeEy ‘ladueysyoouy tioreeeereseeeets sontiqay ὍΠΟΙ sepliqeayH ‘vuoy sapuqey ὍΠΟΙ sopuqay “ΠΟΙ sapuqay “euoy AOD TES SEN ODODE yy Rely =, “Kerae yy Siieseie sie oa a ‘Q10YS8-89S τλκλτ κε εν ses gahqusy 41aqae,y, * aIlysysinqxoy “yeys Se **(aBIyIOTT 389M) MOSYIITUNT “510 sees {(ὉΌὈΠΠ707} ys9AA) OYIEY “STO ais eislsin'wiviere.sie,s UowUT ‘ssoyty ea uojUury *SSOJAT else pepe ieee \ | 2) 9) 3) 2) 4 [10] 7} 7 |8 [10] 8 [10] 9] 2] 8] 9}13)..|15).. (15 71916 SEAC cece eee we cece eeeeee III. Tubercular diseases..........--|4|-»|4| 115] 2) 4/8 /8 IV. Diseases of the spinal ee 4103] 3.4] 6. γχ|7}8 nerves, and senseS ....-+++ _ VI, Diseases of the lungs and of the other organs of respira- >| 2) 83) 8) 4|10| 6|7 |6 7\12|.. 13) 7|..|.-| 8... 812] 414] 7/17) 2192 "- {LL} 211] 2111}11}192}11}15}}11} 817 10 910} 312] 4{15] 817}10} 9) 1 and other organs of respira- 9}5] 8] 718 tion : VII. Diseases of the stomach, i} elas tion .....-..+ ὁ δδε δας... oes 158 REPORT—1850. constantly above the average. On referring to the details of group ITII., it will be found that these peculiar results are due wholly to the deaths from phthisis, and there= fore the preceding observations are strictly applicable to that disease only. Group IV. contains the diseases of the nervous system, and it will be seen that the results do not differ widely from those for all catises; and the same remark applies to the deaths from apoplexy, which form a large proportion of this section. On referring to group VI., which represents the other diseases of the lungs and the organs of respiration, it will be seen that, with the exception of the decennial term of life, 55-64, the deaths take place in a shorter time after the date of assuring than in the ayerage of the deaths from all causes, and in the aggregate of all the ages the difference is six months. These restilts are due chiefly to the deaths from pneumonia, which constitute 229 out of the 251 deaths of this group. And it will further be seen, that the deaths from asthma have taken place at a prolonged period beyond the average. : In Fepard to the diseases enumerated in group VIJ., it will be found that, on the average, they agree in their results with the deaths from all causes; and that in the different quinquennial terms of life the results are in some instances above, and in others below the average. If attention be now directed to the rate of mortality from the various specified causes given in Table VI., it will be found that, for all ages taken collectively, the greatest mortality has resulted from zymotic diseases, or those forming group I.; and next, tubercular diseases, or group {Π1., which are here separated from the other diseases of the lungs and organs of respiration, which form a distinct class in group VI. The rate of mortality from the zymotic diseases does not differ widely between ages 31-50, but from that age upwards a rapid and uniform rate of increase takes place: in group II., including dropsy, cancer, &., there is a uniform rate of in- crease from the younger to the older ages. In the class of tubercular diséases, there is not much difference in the rate of mortality from between ages 31-50; but in the next three quinquennial terms of life there is a gradual increase. In group IV. there will be observed a very great difference between the rate of mortality at the younger and more advanced ages; of the 375 deaths in this group, 274 consist of deaths from apoplexy. ‘The results of group VI. resemble in their relation those in connexion with group III. Group VIL., it will be observed, resembles the results of group IV. in having a very low rate of mortality at the earlier ages, and increasing rapidly at the more advanced terms of life. The preceding remarks have been made on six only of the principal groups of dis- eases, and the following condensed abstract of the results may be interesting. The Roman numerals represent the diseases as grouped in the preceding table. Diseases arranged according to the Order of their Intensity at the following Ages. 31—35. 36—40. 41—45. 46—50. 51—55. 56—60. 61—65. 66—70. 70—80. --- - --.-..-.----- -----.--.--.- Ι, Ι. ΠῚ, I. II, 1. } Il. WE II. Il. } Il. 16 Ill. 1. II. IV. Il. IV. if VI. Il. 1 ΙΝ, LY. 1. I. I. VI. Vr IV. IV. Il. Ill. III. VI. VI. IV. II =VI. Nis VI. VII. Vil. VII. VIL. Vil. Vil. VIL. Vil. Vil. vi. VI. 1Π. ΠῚ. Τὴ the above, it will be seen that, at the earlier ages, the intensity of the zymotic diseases, and also tubercular disease, is greatest ; but at the more advanced, a gradual falling off will be observable in the class of tubercular disease. In the term of life 56-65, tubercular disease stands fourth in the order of intensity, and in the term 66-890, last in order. Again, with respect to Class 1V., which consists, to a great ex- tent, of deaths from apoplexy, it will be observed that, in the period of life 36-50, it stands fourth in the order of intensity ; but that in each of the three succeeding quin- quennial terms of life it gradually advances one step in the order of intensity, until, at the term 66-70, it is highest in intensity. This assimilates strictly with preceding results, however, with regard to the class pulmonary diseases, or diseases of the respiratory organs; that not only, in the abstracts just referred to, and in the earlier reports of the Registrar-General, included in group III., but also group IV.; and if the results be viewed in accordance with this arrangement, the diseases of the re- το ΒΟ TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 159 spiratory organs will be found to take precedence of all others between ages 31-70, -and in the term of life 70-80 they will stand fourth in order. With the view to show the relative intensity of the various groups of disease at different terms of life amongst different populations, the following abstract is given from results deduced from facts presented in the reports of the Registrar-General :— Mortality per cent.—Ages 41—50—for the different classes of disease in the Group of dis- |— Ser eases classified. Gotha Life Of ce igs airs East Metropolis. a eabwasccucsate "279 66 ᾿ 119 259 3 Oe eer eee "186 190 270 "242 IIl.+VI. ... “419 *520 "962 989 EV τ δ εξετοις "159 -*299 237 177 WTS coo. aus 095 109 118 143 Statistics of Criminal and Civil Justice under the Bombay Government for the Years 1844, 1845, 1846 and 1847. By Colonel Syxes, F.R.S. The author, from official tables, showed the working of the several courts in the respective years in the administration of criminal and civil justice. It will suffice to give a general view of the work done, the condensed nature of tlie reports of the pro- ceedings of the Section not permitting details. Criminal Justice. 1844.| 1845. | 1846.| 1847. | Total of : 4 Years. Persons under trial ......« εν νννν νον εν εννννενον 60,504 [63,025 [07,568 |72,495 | 263,587 Convictéd and punished by magistrates and ᾿ assistant magistrates ........0....sseseeeeees 4,678 | 4,824 | 5,325] 6,719] 21,546 Ditto by district and village police officers|23,763 |26,278 28,645 |28,867 | 107,553 Oo SE αν eet en 26,414 26,068 |27,887 |22,068 | 112,432 Discharged on S@CUTItY .:.... Ὑοννννννννονννννον 1,235 | 1,335) 1,732) 1,159] 5,461 Imprisoned in default ............seesseeecees 136 94 95 59 384 Banished zillah or district............. ὩΣ. 58 44 45 89 236 Committed to the sessions court............ 3,022} 8,308 2,730) 2,485] 11,545 Deaths and escapes .....s.sssesseesesess ἘΣ 32} 1,035 60 33{ 1,160 Depending ἐς έεινννι οἐςνν οι κοονοοινιοςς ae 1,166 44] 1.044] 1,016} 3,270 Totals........ 60,504 [68,025 [67,568 |72,495 | 263,587 1850. REPORT 160 Statement of Original Suits on the File of the Adawlut Courts, Bombay. σι Ee ae eS ee Fa a Ss a | ee On the File, January 1st, 1844. 1844. 9,319 1845.} 9,076 1846.| 12,384* 1847. 17,188 “αι τειν eae Total] 48,417 Decided on the Decided by Decided by Native x merits. European Agents. Agents. © Ξ a Ἔ ; Ε a = : o - ῳ z On Trial. + a ΕΝ ῷ Ξ = Ξ 2 o wo a] oO eo = om Ἡ =] oS 4 Gt oe τ΄ ao Ξ Ξ 9 2 ons @ Ὁ ag! Ὁ 3. ῷ na A of se = cs a 2 5] 5 Ma Ξ Μ .- sis a ® jo kro] 5 =| ΜῚ 5 τι a 32 5 O43 Ξ Slie®sel ἢ [|π Ὁ <4 o ΠῚ = £2 Ξ ae : 8 218 toe] ἃ | So] τὶ Se 18) 2 δῷ 3 - ES πὸ a] : B lewd) 2 5.5 ῷ ee ics | [2 2 go ee Oo | Be) eke eS ee (eal silica cre) Bole 3 Ξ 3B Ὁ a $ 2 ᾿ξ ὦ [Ἑ Ξ Θ Ξ Ξ ῷ So Behe ΕΞ abe le” ΘΕῈ cpt aii Ie {πτ||Ξ} Ξ a ° ΕΞ Bz] os PD |b b> | bb > p> |b Θ Ξ 80 =) A A A =< A ja Oo} A 23 ΡΩ Ξ is) = - | | | | | Rupees. 80,984 | 51,245] 5,652] 3,874 | 22,120) 15 | 888 | 68 6,494 | 14,649] 03,118 48) 85,340|12,832) 4,243,187 0 0 316,767 |190,994 10,848 |15,433 | 84,970) 48 | 3447 1609 |20,185 | 54,502 235,569 |253/314,173| ... {15,703,050 11 0 * 919 suits were brought on the list from the Colaba State, not included in the preceding year. Number of cases on the File for one year and under. wee = | From one to two years. 74,863| 45,338 | 3,870| 4,298 20,229) 13 | 933 | 44 | 4,518] 13,406) 56,143} 49) 75,106] 9,076] 3,503,394 4 11) 8,904) 142 77,062| 46,245 | 3,522| 3,665, 20,151 10 | 771 | 36 | 4,399] 12,692| 56,229) 86) 74,223 111,915) 3,954,619 14 3)11,668 | 192 83,958 | 48,166 | 3,804| 3,666| 22,470] 10 | 855 | 21 4,774 13,755] 60,019) 70) 79,504 |17,188) 4,001,849 8 1)16,735) 373 wee | Beyond two years. 30 55 80 ---- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 161 From the table it would appear that in four years 3664 original suits were deter- mined by European agency, and 310,509 original suits by native agency; the former giving a per-centage of 1-17, and the latter 98°83 per cent. There were 1664 appeals from the European agency, or 45-4 per cent. of the original suits decided, but only 25 per cent. of them were reversed. The appeals from the decisions of the native judges were 12,790, or 4.1 per cent. ; the reversals were 4309, or 83:8 percent. ‘The Euro- pean judges only [with the exception of the principal Sudder Ameens] deal with ap- peal cases, and the greater number of appeals against their decisions in original suits is probably owing to the greater amount at stake upon which they decide, than in the suits before the native judges. During the four years there were only three farmers in jail at the instance of government for arrears of land-tax, On the Prevalence and Mortality of Cholera in the Indian Armies. By Curusert Fincu, MOD. RELCS. Dr. Finch prefaced his paper by remarking that there exists in this country very exaggerated opinions as to the frequency and fatality of spasmodic cholera in India. The scope of his paper was to show that the disease was neither so frequent nor so fatal in the East as is generally believed in this part of the world. With this view Dr. Finch had prepared tabular statements of the absolute number of sick and deaths from cholera and per-centages of sick and casualties from this dire disease to strength, and to sick from all other diseases, and to deaths from all other causes in the Madras and Bombay armies for the year 1847, drawn from the latest returns received in this sunhy, The returns for 1847 from Bengal have not yet been received at the India ouse. - From these tabular statements, it appeared that in the Madras Presidency in 1847— Of European troops the strength was . .- « + » + + + + 11,429 Cases of sickness from all other diseases . . + τ + + « 18,585 Cases of sickness from cholera . . + «+ + + + © © @ + 31 Deaths from all other diseases . . - - + + + + + + + 828 Deaths from cholera . . . + - + + sj atberestht aise Per-centage of cases of cholera to strength . . . τ τ + + 21 Per-centage of deaths tostrength . . . «τυ + 192 Per-centage of cholera to all other diseases ΣΑΤΟ ἢ ᾿ Per-centage of deaths from cholera to deaths from all other causes 6°81 Of native troops the strength was . . . . ἢ τ + + + + 67,950 Cases of sickness from all other diseases . . . . . + + + 51,728 Cases of sickness from cholera . . . - τὸν τ ee e227 Deaths from all other diseases . - .- - τ - «© «© + + + ~ 805 Deaths from cholera . . . Per-centage of cases of cholera to strength pie We wise Juratoneaae Per-centage of deaths from cholera to strength , . . - . . 14 Per-centage of cases of cholera to all other diseases. . 4188 Per-centage of deaths from cholera todeaths from all other diseases 9.689 In the Bombay Presidency, during the year 1847— é Of European troops the strength was . . . . τ «. - - » 8,786 Cases of sickness from all other diseases . . . . . . ~~ . 18,509 Cases of sickness from cholera . . . - - «+ «© © + «+ 45 Deaths from all other diseases . . . τ τ - « = + «= = 285 Weaths from -eholeracg tow ase ys ye ss ἐν πον eel ws 24. Per-centage of cases of choleratostrength . . . . . . . ‘O15 Per-centage of deathstostrength . . . . . . .... ‘274 Per-centage of cases to all other diseases. . . . . . + - 249 Per-centage of deaths to deaths from all other diseases . . . 9°199 Of native troops the strength was . . . . . . . . - ~ 49,900 Cases of sickness from all other diseases . . . . . - τ. 49,910 Cases of sickness from cholera. ἡ. . . 1. τῳ τὸν κι e208 Deaths from all other causes. . 2. 2 1 1 ew we 369 Deaths‘from cholera ©.» δεν 90% δο ας πὶ ς 0 τς Per-centage of sick of cholera to strength. . . . . . « + 0 1850. M 162 REPORT— 1850. Per-centage of deaths from cholera to strength . . . . . . ‘227 Per-centage of cases of cholera to sick of all other diseases . . “587 Per-centage of deaths from cholera to deaths from all other diseases 27-1 A summary of these per-centages show, that of the European force, 11,429 strong, stationed in the Madras Presidency during the year 1847, there were attacked by cho- lera only “271 per cent., little more than one man in 400; and of whom died "192 per cent., less than one man in 500. Of the European troops, 8736 strong, serving in the Bombay Presidency in 1847, there were sufferers from cholera 515 per cent., or one man in 200; of whom died 274 per cent., or about one man in 400. Of the Madras native army, consisting of 67,950 men, the sick of cholera to strength was ‘334 per cent., or about one man in 300; of whom died only ‘114 per cent., or one man in 900. Of the Bombay native army, comprising 43,930 sepoys, the ratio of sick to strength was ‘575 per cent., or little more than one man in 200; but the loss occasioned by the disease did not exceed “227 per cent., not amounting to one man in 400. These results demonstrate, that though epidemic cholera is still a frequent and fatal disease in the Indian armies, it is neither so prevalent nor so mortal as it is generally believed to be; and show, that military service in India does not necessarily entail so great a risk of life from this disease as is generally supposed in this part of the globe. On the Progress of Glasgow, in Population, Wealth, Manufactures, §c. By Joun Strane, LL.D. The steady progress and growing importance of almost all the manufacturing and commercial cities of Great Britain, since the conclusion of the last war, may be con- sidered as admitted facts, and have no doubt tended much to alter and improve the whole social condition of the country. In the rapidity of its progress, perhaps no city has rivalled, far less surpassed Glasgow, the commercial metropolis of Scotland. This has chiefly arisen from this city being, if I may use the expression, cosmopolitan in its commerce and manufactures. Glasgow unites within itself a portion of the cotton- spinning and weaving manufactures of Manchester, the printed calicoes of Lancashire, the stuffs of Norwich, the shawls and mouselines of France, the silk-throwing of Mac- clesfield, the flax-spinning of Ireland, the carpets of Kidderminster, the iron and en- gineering works of Wolverhampton and Birmingham, the pottery and glass-making of Staffordshire and Newcastle, the ship-building of London, the coal trade of the Tyne and Wear, and all the handicrafts connected with or dependent on the full development of these. Glasgow also has its distilleries, breweries, chemical works, tan-works, dye- works, bleachfields, and paper manufactories, besides a vast number of staple and fancy hand-loom fabrics, which may be strictly said to belong to that locality. Glasgow also, in its commercial relations, trades with every quarter of the globe, and its merchants deal in the various products of every country. It hence appears, that one branch of manufacture or trade may be dull while another may be prosperous ; and, accordingly, Glasgow does not feel any of those universal depressions which so frequently occur in places limited to one or two branches of manufacture or commerce. Although Glasgow may be justly said to be one of the most ancient cities in Scot- land, it is at the same time one of the most modern of the towns of Great Britain. It was a place of some consideration at the commencement of the twelfth century, when the foundation of its cathedral was laid; and yet, at the commencement of the nine- teenth century, it had given proofs only of progress equal to those of many other towns in the empire. From that time, however, its rise has been most striking, and in order to bring this more palpably into view, the following statistical comparisons have been prepared, which will at once prove the rapid and steady advance of this growing com- munity. cel Popullittig ἃς a first and great proof of the city’s progress, let us advert to the statement of its increasing population ; and here we find it to be as follows :— In 1801 the population was . . . ᾽. .΄. τ... «Ὁ, {7,985 1811 e ee ee eee ee 1821 ‘7 Re eS ee eee 1831 3 APRN ΕΘΥΘΗΝΟ ΝΟ aE ΤΣ 1841 ? . 282,134 1850 a estimated at. . . . . . 867,800 TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 163 From these figures it appears that the population has nearly quintupled in 50 years, and doubled itself in 20 years. In fact, the annual increase of the city has been found to be as nearly as possible at the rate of 32 per cent., or at present about 12,000 per annum. This great increase, it need scarcely be stated, arises almost entirely from immigra- tion. In illustration of this let us look to the following facts. The mortality during 1849 (including the cholera) was 12,883; and the rate of mortality to the estimated population of that year was (exclusive of still-born) 1 in 28°5. With respect to the number of births during the same period it is impossible to speak with accuracy ; but a pretty close approximation of these may be arrived at from the fact, that by the census of 1841 the children found living at that time under one year old amounted to 2°96 per cent. of the whole population; and assuming that Glasgow was in similar circumstances in 1849 to what it was in 1841, the annual births ought to have amounted (including those who died from 1 day to 12 months) to at least 12,000, or 1000 less than the deaths. The evident conclusion to be drawn from this, then, is— that the great increase of the population of Glasgow, even during periods of less mor- tality than 1848 or 1849, depends almost entirely on immigration. While the population has thus increased, it may reasonably be supposed that the means of accommodating that population has increased along with it, and this plainly appears to be the case when the following comparative table is considered :— Gross number of Dwelling-Houses, Shops, Warehouses, and other possessions, within the parliamentary boundary of Glasgow, in 1845 and 1850. . Under ‘|At€4and under] At 10 Rent Gross number of Years. | 4 Rent..| £10 Rent. . | and upwards. [distinct Possessions.| . GTss Rental. 1845. 16,399 29,849 18,780 65,028 £866,150 1850. ao ae on 76,034 £1,017,362 It thus appears that even daring the last five years the distinct possessions have in- creased 11,006, and the rental £151,212! Streets and Sewerage.—But perhaps the best illustration of the extension of Glassow may be drawn from the two following facts :—1st, that in 1800 there were within the district now embraced by the parliamentary city only 30 miles of streets and roads, whereas at present the formed and paved streets alone extend ‘to 96 miles; and 2ndly, that while in 1800 there was little or no sewerage in the city, there are at present 42 miles of main sewers, 21 miles of which have been formed during the last six years— the cost of making these sewers averaging £1200 per mile. River and Harbour.—The question next occurs, what have been the chief stimuli to this great population being concentrated at this peculiar spot? To which it may be answered, that in addition to the circumstance of Glasgow being placed in the centre of one of the richest mineral districts in the kingdom, she possesses a river and harbour which art and capital have, within a very few years, made perfectly safe and navigable. In fact, this city possesses an inland navigation and a stream harbour unequaled, perhaps, in Europe. Let us see within how short a period this has been accomplished. | We find that about the beginning of the present century the depth of the river Clyde was scarcely 5 feet, and there were few or no vessels to be found at its port, and these consisted of craft drawing merely a few feet of water, none certainly ex- ceeding 30 or 40 tons burthen. In 1820, the average available depth of the Clyde, at high water during neap tides, was 9 feet, which admitted vessels drawing 83 feet. In 1840 the depth was increased to 14 feet; and in 1850 the average available depth at high water of neap tides is 16 feet. At spring tides there is an additional depth of about 2 or 3 feet; which renders the greatest depth attainable, irrespective of the increased depth created by land floods or strong westerly winds, 19 feet. The river has also been, during the past ten or twelve years, gradually increased in breadth; and, for more than a mile below Glasgow Bridge, the water-way is now three times its former width. With respect to the harbour, the change has been equally marked during the last fifty years. In 1800, the whole quay was restricted to a space not ex- ceeding a few hundred feet, and occasionally exhibited no vessel larger than a coal barge or a herring wherry. At present the quayage extends to about 10,000 lineal feet, while hundreds of the largest-sized ships belonging to the mercantile marine of M 2 164 REPORT—1850. this and foreign countries are seen ranged three and four deep along its breast. At present, loaded vessels of 1000 tons register come up easily to the harbour of Glasgow, and are abreast of the quays in one tide; while steam-ships of 2000 tons have been built on the banks of the river, near to the city, and their machinery fitted up within the harbour. ὶ The following are the numbers of the sailing and steam-vessels which arrived at the | harbour of Glasgow, with their registered tonnage, during the years ending July 1828, 1840 and 1850. Tonnage during the years ending July 1828, 1840 and 1850. Under| 40 60 80 100 | 150 | 200 | 250 | 300 | 350 | 400 | 450 | 500 | 600 | 700 Year.| 40 to to to to to to to to to to to to to & Tons. 60. 80. 100. | 150.) 200.| 250.} 300.| 350.| 400.} 450.| 500.) 600.| 700. Up. 1828, 2117 | 2847 | 4605 | 1399 | 213) 20) 14 1 ON Ose Oil 0 | cen Oil ee 1840.| 3256 | 4286 | 3945 | 2975 | 922| 326/171) 284] 81] 78] 63] 18] 69] 3] 0 1850.) 4319 | 2245 | 2894 | 3204 | 733 | 517 | 321 | 128 | 213} 145|110} 34151 15 The whole tonnage arriving at the harbour of Glasgow during the same period was as follows :-— Sailing Vessels. Steam Vessels. Tons. Tons. 159... ystee a ealis τς ONO Vet care ΣΡ ΕΠ 1810 ΡΥ ρα ew niic ΩΣ re k haa toveisds Π 50 ΠΥ ca etal oe 2 steB92088 ἢν -eiryin, Lee From this statement it appears, that while there is a slight falling off in the steam trade in 1850—which is easily accounted for from the railways seriously interfering with the coasting trade—the increase of the tonnage of sailing vessels arriving at the port, and amounting to nearly one-half more in ten years, illustrates in ἃ striking de- gree the steady progress of Glasgow. But if further evidence were wanting from this source, it is only necessary to glance at the following abstract of the amount of dues collected at the harbour during the following four different periods; and when doing so, it must not be forgotten that during the last ten years the dues were considerably reduced on certain articles, both of export and import. EPPA! In 1800 the Revenue of the Clyde Trust was. . . 3,319 16 1 1820 < 3 a a Roe Geel 1830 “i 50 . . « 20,296 18 6 1840 τς leach metal = OL (HELE ἘΠΟΒ ΟΣ ὉΠ on 0 fs etna wie ct fe 2 sq. in. SS SS ee a a a a ges . The intensity of all the single fluid batteries is variable, except that of lead, which is remarkably constant though low (18°). That of Smee’s is very variable, from 55° to 25° or lower, the cause of which the author explained to the Association. These data have been found very useful in determining the best proportions and qualities of batteries for practical purposes. On the Dynamie Equivalent of Current Electricity, and on a fixed Scale for Electromotive Force in Galvanometry. By Wit11AM Pettis. The dynamic value of a current of voltaic electricity is represented by the product of the rate at which electro-chemical action is taking place at any cross section of 186 REPORT—1850. the current (in other words, the guantity of the current), and the electromotive force with which the current is sustained, which may be briefly termed its energy or inten- sity (provided the idea of quantity be kept distinct from this). The first object was to secure such units of comparison-for both these elements as should be at all times recoverable. This is given in respect of quantity by the rate of chemical action and the atomic weights. In respect of intensity of the current, we have no such fixed data, and the intensity of most voltaic arrangements cannot be relied upon as constants for comparison. But the elements of Daniell’s battery, and those of nitric acid batteries with negative surface of platinum, carbon, or cast iron, give an electromotive force or intensity that can be recovered with considerable ex- actitude, if uniformity of circumstances, materials, &c. be tolerably attended to. These, therefore, may be used to give a fixed and recoverable point ina galvano- metric scale of intensity. ; Now itso happens that if we assume the degrees of the scale to be of such a size that the intensity of Daniell’s (standard) elements shall be 60 of the degrees (tem- perature being 70° Fahr.) (60 being the most convenient number, by the way, for submultiples), that that of nitric acid batteries will be from 100° to 112° of the same degrees. The author therefore has always used this scale, to which all other voltaic arrangements can be referred (as shown in a table hereafter), which scale, he would suggest, would be most conveniently used in assigning the electromotive power of electric currents from any source. The mean results of careful experiments, tried directly and conversely, is that a voltaic current of one unit in quantity (or that from one grain of zinc electro-oxidized per minute) and of 100° intensity, represents a dynamic force of 3023 lbs. raised one foot high per minute. This datum is of great interest as a scientific truth in con- nection with the other correlative agents of nature (heat, electricity, light, and che- mical affinities, neuralgic power, &c.), most of which we may hope soon to see re- duced to a mutually comparable relation to each other, in terms of the great centre and medium of comparison, mechanical force. On Improvements in propelling and navigating Steam Vessels. By M. W. Rutuven. The principle of propulsion adopted ‘is the pressure or force obtained in the op- posite direction to the discharge of a fluid. Water is admitted through apertures in the bottom of the vessel, into a covered canal or pipe; at the termination of the canal or pipe is placed a water-tight case enclosing a horizontal wheel with floats, or blades forming compartments. The wheel and case are under the water-line of the vessel; the wheel is thus always im- mersed in the water supplied by the canal. From the water-tight case a pipe is taken to each side of the vessel, and on the outside end of each is attached a bent pipe, or nozle, moveable in a socket joint at, near, or above the usual water-line. On the power being applied to make the wheel in the case revolve, the water sup- plied by the canal is pressed out and discharged by the nozles, with a force corre- sponding to the velocity of the wheel ; the pressure to move the vessel depending on the area of the apertures where the water leaves the nozles. Each nozle is turned by a wheel on the deck, and without making any change of the power applied by the engine. When the vessel is going ahead with all the power, the nozles are placed in a horizontal line, discharging the water towards the stern. To make the vessel go slow, the nozles are pointed at an angle downwards, according as the speed is wished to be reduced ; and if required to remain stationary, they are pointed to discharge the water in a vertical direction. By pointing the nozles to the bows, the vessel goes astern; with a rate according to the angle of direction of the nozle. Toturn the vessel round to either side, one nozle is pointed to the bows, and the other to the stern. All these movements are made on the deck, without any change on the engine, or any communication with those in attend- ance on the engine; the vessel is also independent of the rudder, as it can be navigated without it, by moving the nozles as required, and turned by them when the rudder could not effect it. ; τ ΤΕΣ ΩΣ ἐν} ; TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 187 The author concludes his paper by enumerating many advantages which he con- ceives his invention to possess over the ordinary paddle-wheel motion. On the Rubble Bridge of Ashiesteel. By Joun Smitu. (L£xtract from a Letter to Sir David Brewster.) “Τὴ this bridge the object of my brother and myself was to dispense with every- thing costly that was not of essential service to the work, and with this view we used no materials but what could easily be managed without machinery ; there was not one stone in a hundred beyond what one man could easily lift. «« Whinstone has many properties to recommend it, particularly in bridge building. - No stone takes a firmer hold of lime or cement of any kind; it is a complete non-ab- sorbent, is harder and more durable than granite, and plentiful and easily procured in many localities. “This bridge, with the exception of the cornice and the coping- stones of the parapet walls, is entirely constructed of whinstone rubble, which was found in the immediate neighbourhood. «« My brother and I contracted with Gen. Sir James Russell of Ashiesteel to erect it opposite his house, as a private bridge. It was afterwards taken up by the road trustees, and the site fixed a little further down the river. “« Oar estimate was £1200 for the whole, Sir James furnishing the rough timber for the centre ; and had it not been for the centre giving way before the arch was balauced, the sum would have been sufficient. «The timber being mostly of spruce fir quite green, rather deceived us as to its strength. “To have done a bridge of the same dimensions in the same place, would have cost between three and four times the money. «The arch is not aregular semi-ellipse, but is formed of three curves, the two side ones being drawn to a radius of 24, and the centre one to 110 feet. “The breadth of the arch at the abutments is 19 feet, and it converges by curved lines towards the crown to 16 feet. “The thickness of the solid part of the arch is 23 feet, and is backed by ribs 24x 24 feet; these ribs terminate at the distance of about 22 feet from the crown of the arch, and that part of it is built solid at the depth of about 4 feet. “The spandril walls rest upon the back of the ribs above-mentioned, and are so managed as to thickness and form as to be an exact counterpoise to the crown of the arch. “1 am not aware that anyarch of this extent was ever executed of Whinstone rubble, or that any stone arch of any description of the same span and radius, was ever built in Scotland.” On a new form of Equatorial Mounting now making for the Edinburgh Observatory. By Prof. Piazzi SmytTu. After briefly describing the two prevailing forms of equatorials, viz. the English with its long polar axis and two piers, and the German with its short polar axis and single pier, and pointing out their several defects and excellencies, the author then exhibited a model of a new construction, which appeared to combine the advantages of both the others, without their principal defects. The observatory having been already built, there was a necessity for the instrument being adapted to one central pier, as with the German ; but the violent wiads of the Calton hill rendered a much firmer stand necessary, especially in the power of the declination axis and frame to resist torsion. These requirements were obtained by making the polar axis in the form of a short cylindrical shell of cast iron; the axis of motion passing transversely through the middle of it, and being defined by small pivots at either end. i The declination axis, which is a cone of great breadth, passes through the cylinder in the direction of its axis, and one of its faces becomes the declination circle, and gives most powerful means for the firmest clamping in that direction. The tele- scope fixed at one end of the declination axis is certainly outside the cylinder, but is midway between the bearings of the polar axis diameter. 188 REPORT—1850. The motion in right ascension is given by a screw working in a portion of a circle, or rather large flange, stretching round the cylinder, except on the telescope and de- clination face, in a plane at right angles to the polar axis. For setting the instrument in right ascension, there is a small but complete circle turning on, and concentrically with, the upper pivot, but independent of it, and constantly kept in motion by clock-work. On a Mode of Cooling the Air of Rooms in Tropical Climates. By Prof. Prazzi Smyru. The author proposed to himself some plan by which to effect in a warm country, the reverse of what is effected in a cold country, by the simple operation of lighting a fire. The case is shown to be a signally important one by the sufferings and early deaths of our countrymen in India, and no methods at all touching the real question at issue have yet been invented ; and certainly all such partial and incomplete plans would fail, if tried in the following circumstances,—in a country where the tem- perature by day and by night, and by summer and winter is never under 90°, where the water and earth are as hot as the air, and where the atmosphere is saturated with moisture. ‘ But however untoward these conditions may appear, it was shown that by the following method the air might be cooled down to any desired degree. Compress the air in a closed vessel, the air will rise in temperature, say from 90° to 120°; keep it in the compressed state until the heat of compression shall have been dissipated by radiation and conduction, and then allow it to escape, when it will sink as much below its original temperature as it rose above it on compression, or will issue at 60. The above is hardly anything more than merely a statement of an old fact long known, and particularly illustrated in the ancient Schemnitz machine; the author only claimed the merit of applying this property of air to so useful a sanitary pur- pose, of determining the quantity of compression required to produce a given altera- tion of temperature, and of contriving a convenient form of machine for practical purposes. The principle is said to have been applied last year in America to making ice ; and in the beginning of this year Sir J. Herschel sent a reclamation of priority to the Athenzum in favour of a suggestion of his own to the same effect, but neither have given any determination of the exact amount of the thermotic effect of com- pression on which the practicability of the plan for the ordinary purposes of life must rest; while the author of this paper can go back as far as 1844 for the date of an apparatus which he had constructed to test the point, and to the beginning of 1849 for the first publication on the subject. Towards the end of last year he had an unusually good opportunity afforded him of testing the subject experimentally on a very large scale by the kindness of Mr. Wilson of the Thinniel iron-works. From these experiments, it appeared that a compression of one-quarter of an atmosphere produces an elevation of 29° to 30° F. in the temperature of air at 60°. The determination is likewise borne out theoreti- cally by Carnot’s. theory of heat, and by that of Mr. Macquorn Rankine, produced last winter; avd he has further computed that one horse power working one hour will cool 9000 cubic feet of air 20° F., without allowing anything for friction and mechanical imperfections. ᾿ Making all due allowances for these drawbacks, Prof. Smyth had estimated from his experiments that a pair of bullocks (the most convenient and available source of mechanical power in India) should furnish 70 cubic feet of air per minute, cooled 20° below the surrounding atmosphere ; and that the expense of thus cooling a house in a warm country would not be more than that of warming a house in a cold one, and might be managed as efficiently and completely. Y On the Application of Telescope Sights to Rifles. By Prof. Ptazzi Suyrn. The ordinary plain sights of rifles are attended with four inconveniences :— Ist. There are three objects to be brought in a line, the sight at the breech, that TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 189 at the muzzle, and the object aimed at; and these three being at very unequal di- stances from the eye, cannot be seen all equally distinct at the same time. 2nd. Unless the barrel is of inordinate length, there is not sufficient radial length between the sights to give the opportunity of pointing accurately. 3rd. As only one of the breech-vanes can be raised at a time, there are no means of making allowance for distances intermediate between those for which the vanes are calculated. 4th. In sunshine there is a phase of the muzzle-sight which is very prejudicial to correct aiming. All these difficulties may, however, be got over, by applying to the barrel a small telescope with cross wires, for— Ist. There are only ¢wo objects to deal with, the cross wires and the image of the object aimed at, and these are both at precisely the same distance from the eye. 2nd. The accuracy of pointing depending on the magnifying power of the tele- scope, the shortest barrel may be made equal to the longest. 3rd. The whole system of wires being in view at once, afford a very convenient scale for the intermediate distances. 4th. The wires being in the tube of the telescope, can be affected by no phase from sunshine. A convenient size of telescope is about 1 foot long, including a direct eyepiece ; the aperture of the object-glass being 3 inch. The author exhibited a small rifle to which he had applied the telescope sights six years ago; but stated that he had lately found that he had been preceded by Capt. D. Davidson, Bombay Army, at present in Scotland, who had moreover carried the subject much further, and had had several telescopes made and applied to various rifles by Mr. Adie, optician, and Mr. Dickson, gunmaker of this city. The author likewise took this opportunity of mentioning that the introduction of the sugar-loaf ball was due to Capt. D. Davidson, as it seemed to be another in- stance of the propriety of taking into account the resistance of the air; a matter, the neglect of which, in the simple motion of projectiles, had so utterly confounded all the results of theory, that until Robins at last took it into account, we cannot say that anything was known of gunnery. But Robins computed, and many others have done 50 since his day, that if a ball be made long and heavier at one end than the other, the heavier end will always go foremost; accordingly egg-shaped and sugar-loafed and conical balls were fired out of rifles and smooth bores with the expectation of their going much straighter than spherical ones; but they went far worse, and tumbled over and over, instead of having the thicker end always first. At length Capt. Davidson tried one of them with the point foremost, and it went perfectly straight, with the point first at all distances; and sugar-loafed balls fired point first are now not only used extensively in this country, but are coming into use on the continent also. The reason of theory being apparently at fault here, seems to be that the greater resistance of the air to the larger end of the ball overbalances the advantage due merely to its superior weight. Observations on the Force of the Waves. By Tuomas Srevenson, F.R.S.E., Civil Engineer. The author, after some introductory remarks, described the action of the marine dynamometer, the self-registering instrument with which the observations were made, and one of the instruments was exhibited. He stated that a theoretical ob- jection might perhaps be started to referring the action of the sea to a statical value; but contended that in designing sea-works the attempt of the engineer is to oppose the dynamical action of the sea by the dead weight or inertia of the masonry, so that the indications of the marine dynamometer furnish exactly the kind of information which the engineer requires. The greatest result registered in the Atlantic Ocean was at Skerryvore during the westerly gale of the 29th of March, 1845, when the force was 6083 105., or 3 tons per square foot. The greatest result registered in the German Ocean was 3013 lbs., or about 14 ton per square foot. It further appeared, from taking an average result for five of the summer months during the years 1843 190 ΐ REPORT—1850. and 1844, that the force in the Atlantic Ocean was 611 105. per square foot, while the corresponding average for six of the winter months was 2086 lbs., or three times as great as in summer. These observations he had communicated in 1845 to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and they were printed in the twelfth volume of the Transactions of that body. The author then stated that the greatness of those results has excited surprise in almost all to whom they have been communicated, and positive doubts have been expressed by many as to the correctness of the indications. Three classes of facts essentially different from each other may be appealed to as proving that if the indi- cations of the dynamometer are incorrect, the error must be in defect and not in excess. The first fact to which reference was made, was the elevation of spray caused by waves meeting with an obstruction to their onward motion. Most per- “sons are familiar with the frontispiece representations of the Eddystone and Bell Rock Lighthouses during storms, which are attached to the descriptive accounts of the erection of those works ; and although some deduction may be allowed for the fancy of the artists, still there can be no doubt that they are in the main faithful representations of a natural phenomenon. On the 20th of November, 1827, ina heavy ground swell after a storm, solid water rose at the Bell Rock 106 feet above the level of the sea, irrespective of the depth of the trough of the wave. Such an elevation is due to a head of water of the same height. The force then which urges the lower courses of the Bell Rock must have been nearly 3 tons per square foot, while the highest indication of the marine dynamometer at the same place, since the observations were commenced, hardly equalled 14 ton. The second class of facts to which the author alluded was the fracture of materials of known strength. The instance adduced was a small harbour in Argyllshire, where, in order to preserve the tranquillity of the tide-basin, a contrivance called booms, well known in harbour architecture, had been resotred to. The booms are logs of timber, which are placed across the entrance to a harbour and fit into checks or grooves which are made in the masonry on either side. The booms, therefore, act as a temporary wall or barrier against the waves. The set of booms referred to have been in use for about five years, and in that time the waves have broken no less than four Memel logs, measuring each 1 foot square in the middle, and spanning an entrance of 20 feet. From the known strength of the material, it will be found that on these four occa- sions a force must have been exerted equivalent to the uniform distribution of a dead weight of 30 tons, or at the rate of 14 ton per square foot ; while the highest result that had been recorded at the same place during the short period that observations were made was about 14 fon per square foot*. The last class of effects to which the author alluded was the movement of heavy blocks of stone. The information derived from such observations was not so certain or satisfactory as from the other instances. The only record he could adduce was the movement of a block of stone weighing about 14 ton, to which a marine dynamo- meter had been bolted. The stone was turned upside down, and the dynamometer indicated a pressure of little more than one ton. The author then referred to the overturning of the Carr Rock Beacon by the sea in 1817 during a heavy gale, but stated that, as we do not know the manner in which waves act when encountering obstacles, it was impossible to calculate what force had in this instance been exerted. The part of the column which was overturned was 36 feet in height and 17 feet diameter at the base, the rock being so small as to preclude a greater diameter. The author then concluded by stating the following desiderata which he thought important :— lst. Continued observations so as to ascertain constants for the Atlantic and Ger- man Oceans and the Irish Sea. 2nd. Relative forces of the same wave, both above high water and below low water levels. 3rd. Relative forces of the same wave against vertical and sloping surfaces. * Since the above was written three other booms have been broken.—March 13, 1851. ψν͵ TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 19] On the Limits to the Velocity of Revolving Lighthouse Apparatus caused by the time required for the production of Luminous Impressions on the Eye. By Wit.1aM Sway, F.R.S.E. The object of this communication was to ascertain the greatest velocity that can be communicated to a revolving lighthouse apparatus, without impairing the bright- ness of its flashes. The author referred to a proposal, by the late Captain Basil Hall, to combine the superior brightness of a revolving, with the constancy of a fixed light, by causing the flashes to succeed each other so rapidly as to produce a continuous impression on the eye. The efficiency of this plan was tested by Mr. Alan Stevenson, who has described his experiments in his Account of the Skerryvore Lighthouse, p. 313. He found that as the velocity of rotation increased, the appa- rent brightness of the flashes diminished ; and he explained this result, by supposing that the light had not had time to produce its full effect on the eye. The correctness of this explanation is satisfactorily shown by the author’s recent researches on the gradual action of light on the eye, published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh for 1849 ; which also afford the means of calcu- lating the greatest velocity that can be communicated to a revolving light without diminishing its apparent brightness. His experiments prove that lights of every degree of apparent brightness require nearly one-tenth of a second to produce their full effect on the eye ; from which it fol- lows, that the velocity of a revolving light must be regulated so that the duration of its flashes may exceed one-tenth of a second. This velocity is easily calculated, by first ascertaining the minimum divergence of the rays from the expression ptt in a which « is the divergence of the rays, ἐ the duration of a single flash, and ¢ the time of a complete revolution. The author stated that for the great lens of Fresnel’s dioptric apparatus of the first order, the velocity of rotation could not be made to exceed one revolution in eight seconds, without necessarily impairing the brightness of the light. On a Gas Stove. By Witt1am Syxes Warp, Leeds. The novelty of this consists in constructing the stove in a vertical position so as to expose considerable surfaces for the absorption of heat from gas burners, and for the radiation of the heat ; and from that. flatness of construction the apparatus oc- cupies little space, not projecting into the room more than 2 or 3 inches, being thus productive of little inconvenience when out of use. A plate of thin sheet-iron is fitted into an ordinary fireplace in the manner of a fireboard, about 2 inches within the projection of the mantelpiece; about 3 inches in front of the back plate a similar plate of sheet-iron is secured by bolts; a third, somewhat smaller, plate of iron is about 1 inch from the second plate, and enclosed at the top, bottom and sides, so as to form a chamber of about 2 to 3 feet square and 1 inch in thickness. Towards the bottom of the last plate a long aperture is cut, closed by a sliding plate, acting as a door for lighting the gas jets and admitting a small quantity of air. A little below the aperture a pipe is introduced, in which are fixed three or more gas jets, either the ordinary small batwing burners or tips with two or three boles, so that the flames may extend laterally, not coming into imme- diate contact with the air. From the top of the enclosed chamber a pipe of 12 inch in diameter proceeds through the second and first plates into the chimney of the apartment. The author found that his apparatus was sufficient to raise the temperature of a moderate-sized room from 5 to 10 degrees Fahr., with a consumption of about 3 feet of gas per hour, costing about twopence for ten hours, and that it was particularly useful in warming a bedroom where only a slight elevation of temperature was re- quired, and perfectly free from the production of dirt or the slightest smell. None of the products of combustion entered into the room, and the ventilation was improved rather than impeded. ha deity κὸν ΣΕ 4 A Collection of the Bones and Teeth of rina and Fishes, parts of Crustacea, Ὁ and other Organic Remains containing Phosphate of Lime, found in the Craig of Suffolk, was presented ὦ Mr. ΝΥ: ΝοοΟΡρΡ. Ἦ * sane tit eu <4 ea 5 ἡ (bey sus Ae shag 6 ae by aes Marre a. κ 733° νὰ 8 bs "ἢ ( 2-4 INDEX 1. TO REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. OBJECTSandrulesof the Association, v. Places and times of meetings, with offi- cers, from commencement, viii. Members who have served on Council in former years, x. Treasurer’s account, xii. Officers and Council, xiv. Officers of Sectional Committees, xv. Corresponding members, xvi. Report of Council to the General Com- mittee at Edinburgh, xvi. Memorial to Lord John Russell on the establishment of a powerful reflecting telescope for reviewing the nebule of the Southern Hemisphere, xvii. Report of the Kew Committee, xx. Recommendations adopted by the Gene- ral Committee at the Edinburgh meet- ing in August 1850, xxi; involving application to Government or public institutions, ἐδ. ; involving grants of money, xxii. Synopsis of grants of money appropriated to scientific objects, xxiv. General statement of sums paid on ac- count of grants for scientific purposes, XxXv. Extracts from resolutions of the General Committee, xxix. Arrangement of general evening meetings, XXX. Address by Sir David Brewster, xxxi. Aboriginal tribes of India, on the, 169. Aérolite, account of a remarkable, which fell at Maniegaon, 122. Airy (Professor), suggestions for the ob- servation of the total eclipse of the sun on July 28, 1851, 361. Alcyonella, 328 ; new species, 330. Allman (Professor) on the present state 1850. of our knowledge of the freshwater polyzoa, 305. Amorphozoa, 246. Animals, on the registration of the peri- odical phenomena of, 338. Annelida, 244; on the structure and history of the British, 133. Barbary, on the distribution and range in depth of mollusca and other marine animals observed on the coast of, 264. Briggs (Maj.-Gen. John) on the aborigi- nal tribes of India, 169. Chemical action of the solar radiations, on the present state of our knowledge of the, 137. Cirripedes, 244. Cristatella, 326. Crustacea, 243. Daubeny (Dr.) on the influence of car- bonic acid gas on the health of plants, 159; tenth report on the growth and vitality of seeds, 160. Dredge, on the investigation of British marine zoology by means of the, 192; mollusca taken by the, 200, 220; echi- nodermata, 211. Dredging papers, analyses of, drawn up on the coasts of England and Scotland, 196, 212. Earthquake phenomena, first report on the facts of, 1. Earthquake waves, on the instrumental admeasurement of, 88. Echinodermata taken by the dredge, 211, 239. Eclipse of the sun on July 28, 1851, sug- gestions for the observation of the, 361. Clare γ᾽ 86. 194 England, analysis of dredging papers drawn up on the S. and W. coasts of, 196 ; enumeration of the depths, &c. at which species of testaceous Mollusca and Echinodermata were taken by the dredge on the coasts of, 200, 211. Ferns, on the influence of carbonic acid gas on the growth of, 159. Forbes (Prof. Edward) on the investiga- tion of British marine zoology by means of the dredge. Part I. The infra-lit- toral distribution of marine inverte- brata on the southern, western and northern coasts of Great Britain, 192. Forbes (Prof.J.D.), account of a remark- able meteor, seen Dec. 19, 1849, 109; suggestions for the observation of the total eclipse of the sun on July 28,1851. 361. Fossil remains taken by the dredge, 247. Fredericella, 336. Gas, carbonic acid, influence of, on the health of plants, 159. Great Britain, infra-littoral distribution of marine invertebrata on the southern, western and northern coasts of, 192. Hardy (James), registration of periodic phenomena kept by, at Penmanshiel, 344. Henslow (Rev. Prof.), tenth report on the growth and vitality of seeds, 160. Herschel (Sir John), suggestions for the observation of the total eclipse of the sun on July 28, 1851, 361. Hunt (Robert) on the present state of our knowledge of the chemical action of the solar radiations, 137. Hunt (T. C.), results of meteorological observations taken at St. Michael’s from Jan. 1, 1840 to Dec. 31, 1849, 133. India, on the aboriginal tribes of, 169. Invertebrata, infra-littoral distribution of marine, on the southern, western and northern coasts of Great Britain, 192. Italy, Southern, on the distribution and range in depth of Mollusca and other marine animals observed on the coast of, 264. Kew Observatory, report concerning the, 176. Light on organic bodies, list of memoirs, &c. embracing influences of, 153, INDEX I. Lindley (Prof.),tenthreporton the growth and vitality of seeds, 160. Lophopus, 327. MacAndrew (Robert) on the distribu- tion and range in depth of mollusca and other marine animals observed on the coasts of Spain, Portugal, Bar- bary, Malta and Southern Italyin 1849, 264, Magnetism, list of authors of papers on, induced by solar rays, 153. Mallet (Robert), first report on the facts of earthquake phenomena, 1; on the instrumental admeasurement of earth- quake waves, 88. Meteoric iron, or stones having a large proportion of it, 125; blowpipe exami- nation of, 7d. Meteoric stone, account of a, from India, 118; Agra, 120, 121; Asseer, 122; Khaundes, ib.; chemical examination of specimens of, 124. Meteorolites in the collection of the Asia- tic Society, Jan. 1, 1845, list of, 125. Meteorological observations taken at St. Michael’s from Jan. 1, 1840 to Dec. 31, 1849, results of, 133. Meteors, on observations of luminous, 89; list of a few, prior to the date of the commencement of Catalogue for 1849-50, ib.; catalogue of luminous, continued from Report of 1849, 92; appendix, containing details from ori- ginal records of observations on, com- municated to Professor Powell, 104. Meteors, observations of luminous, prior to August 1849, extracted from Dr. D. P. Thomson’s “ Introduction to Me- teorology,”’ 90. Meteors :—list of some, seen from 1815 to 1849, 91; on Feb. 11], 1850, 99; at Wrottesley Observatory, 104; Ches- terfield, 7b.; M. Coulvier Gravier on, ib. ; at Gwysanau, near Holywell, 105 ; Swansea, ib. ; seen by Mr. Lowe, 106, 115; at Bombay, 107 ; Mazagon, 2b.; Asseerghur, ib.; Durham, 107, 108; at Edinburgh, Dec. 19, 1849, 109 ; near Southgate House, 113; from Kenning- ton Lane, Lambeth, 114; at Hulme, ib.; Holloway, 115; Oxford, 116; Surat, 117; Havre, ib.; Calcutta, 120, 121; Delhi and Meerut, ἐδ. ; Bulram- pore and Agra, 121; Madras, ἐὖ.; Charka, ib. ; at Poona, 126, 127; Pore- bunder, 126; Shorapore, ἰδ. ; seen on March 19, 1849, in India, 127; at Delhi, 129; Ahmednuggur, ἐδ. ; seen on April 13, 1849, 130; Kurrachee, INDEX I. ib.; remark on periodic, from Prof. Sil- liman’s Journal, 131. Moggeridge (Matthew), registration of pe- riodic phenomena kept by, at Swansea, 350. ‘ Mollusca nudibranchiata, 241; cepha- lopoda, ἐδ. ; ascidia, 2b. ; bryozoa, 242. Mollusca obtained by dredging :—species of testaceous, 200, 220; in Vigo Bay, 264; Cascales Bay, 269; Cape St. Mary’s, ib. ; Cadiz and Cape Trafalgar, 272, 273; Gibraltar, 275; Malaga, 280; Carthagena, 282; Bay of Al- giers, 284; Golotta, near Tunis, 287 ; Tunis Bay, 288 ; island of Zembretta, 2b. ; island of Pantellaria, 291 ; Malta, 293, 294; Syracuse and Catania, 296 ; Port of Messina, 298; Bay of Naples, ib.; Gulf of Cagliari, 299; Mahon, 301; Conijera, near Cabrera, 303. Ninfield, registration of periodical phx- nomena at, 356. Paludicella, -337 ; muscular system of, 316. Penmanshiel, registration of periodical phenomena at, 344. Phenomena, periodical, on the registra- tion of, 338. Plants, on the influence of carbonic acid gas on the health of, 159; taken by the dredge, 246; on the registration of the periodical phenomena. of, 338 ; list to be observed for the periods of folia- tion and defoliation, 2b. ; for the flower- ing and ripening of the fruit, 339; at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes and summer solstice, for the hours of open- ing and closing their flowers, 341. Plumatella, 330; new species, 335, 336. Polyzoa, on the present state of our knowledge of the freshwater, 305 ; de- finition of terms in the anatomy of, 307 ; dermal system, ἐδ. ; organs of digestion, 309; species with bilateral and orbicular lophophore, 309, 311, 315; histology of alimentary canal, 310; organs of respiration and circu- lation, 312; muscular system, 314; organs of the life of relation, 319 ; em- bryology of, 320. Portugal, on the distribution and range in depth of mollusca and other marine animals observed on the coast of, 264. Powell (Professor), suggestions for the observation of the total eclipse of the sun on July 28, 1851, 361; on obser- 195 vations of luminous meteors, 89; ap- pendix, 104. Ronalds (Francis), report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, Sept. 12, 1849, to July 31, 1850, 176. Scotland, analysis of dredging papers drawn up on the W. and N. coasts of, 212. Seeds, experiments on the growth and vitality of, 160; general summary of, from 1841 to 1850 inclusive, 162. Seismometer, on the completion of a self- registering, 88. Sladen (Edward H. M.), registration of periodic phenomena kept by, at Nin- field, 356. Solar radiation, on the present state of our knowledge of the chemical action of the, 137 ; list of bodies susceptible of chemical change under the influence of the, 150; list of authors of papers on magnetism induced by, 153. Spain, on the distribution and range in depth of mollusca and other marine animals observed on the coast of, 264. Stars, shooting, M. Coulvier Gravier on, 104 ; seen at Kew Observatory, 106. St. Michael’s, results of meteorological observations taken at, from Jan. 1, 1840 to Dec. 31, 1849, 133. Strickland (H. E.), tenth report on the growth and vitality of seeds, 160. Struve (M. Otto), suggestions for the ob- servation of the total eclipse of the sun on July 28, 1851, 361. Sun, suggestions for the observation of the total eclipse of the, on July 28, 1851, 361. Swansea, registration of periodical phe- nomena at, 350. Vegetable juices, remarkable action of the spectrum on, 149. Vertebrata and land animals, traces of, taken by the dredge, 247. Waves, on the instrumental admeasure- ment of earthquake, 88. Williams (Dr. Thomas) on the structure and history of the British annelida, 133. Zoology, on the investigation of British marine, by means of the dredge, 192. Zoophyta, 245. Ge 196 INDEX II. TO MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. ACARUS that attacks grasses, on an, 124. Acid, sulphurous, on the employment of, asa purifying agent on the sugar from the south of Spain, 60; on a direct method of separating arsenious, from arsenic, and on its application to the estimation of nitric acid, 62; on the proportion of phosphoric, in some na- tural waters, 63. Atherification, results of a research on, 65. _Air, on a mode of cooling the, of tropical climates, 188. Airy (G. B., Astronomer Royal) on a question of probabilities which occurs in the use of a fixed collimator for the verification of the constancy of position of an azimuth circle, 1. Alison (Dr.) on the system of Croft hus- bandry and the reclamation of waste lands, chiefly by spade-culture, adopt- ed at Gairlochin, Rosshire, since 1846, and its results as illustrating the con- diticns under which the labour of pau- pers and criminals may safely be made productive, 147. Alumina, on the isomorphous relations of silica and, 50. Amalgams, on some, 55. Anacharis Alsinastrum, on, 112. Anderson (Dr.) on the action of oxidizing agents on certain organic bases, 47 ; on a compound of iodine and codeine, 48; on the fossil fishes and yellow sandstone of Dura Den, 70. Anemometer, on registers from Mr. Fol- lett Osler’s new integrating, 46. Animals in the Crustacean tribes, on the change of the integuments of, 120. Anomoura, on the uses of the fifth pair of legs in the, 117. Appold (J. G.) on a register hygrometer for regulating the atmospheric moisture of houses, 170. Aqueous vapour in the atmosphere at various places and heights, on the means of computing the quantities of, 36. Architecture, on the geometrical basis of beauty in general, as applied to, 131. Argyll (the Duke of) on a fossiliferous deposit underlying basalt in the island of Mull, 70. Ashiesteel, on the rubble bridge of, 187. Assyrians, on the language and mode of writing of the ancient, 140. Astronomy, 23. Atmosphere, on some new phenomena in the polarization of the, 6; on the effect of height in the, on the diurnal variation of magnetic declination, 7 ; on the attempts to resolve the pressure of the, into two parts, 31; on the means of computing the quantities of aqueous vapour in the, at various places and heights, 36. Atmospheres, on the growth of plants in abnormal, 54. Austen (Robert) on recent changes of sea-level, 71. Azimuth-circle, on a question of proba- - bilities which occurs in the use of a fixed collimator for the verification of the constancy of position of an, 1. Babington (C. C.) on Anacharis Alsinas- trum, 112. Barrande (M.), Sir R. I. Maurchison’s view of the labours of, in preparing his work, ‘“ The Silurian System of Bohe- mia,” 97. Barytes and platinum, on the optical - properties of the cyanurets of, 5. Basalt in the island of Mull, on a fos- siliferous deposit underlying, 70. Bate (C. Spence) on Crustacea, 115. Beattie (George) on an improved door spring, 170. Beauty, on the geometrical basis of, as INDEX II. xpplied to architecture and the human form, 131. Becker (Dr. Ludwig) on the constant in- crease of elevation of the beds of river's, 72; remarks as to the earlier existence of the Binnen or inland lake, 73. BenCruachan, onthe dispersion of granite blocks from, 88. Berber, on the Soukaneeah dialect of the, 142. Beswick (Samuel) on a method for com- puting magnetic charts of declination, 3 Binnen or inland lake, remarks as to the earlier existence of the, 73. Birds of the Faroé island, on the, 127. Black (the late Dr.), a few unpublished particulars concerning, 69. Blood, on the presence of carbonates in, - 57; of fluorine in, 67. Blood-corpuscle in the adult, on the sup- posed relation of the spleen to the ori- ~ gin of the coloured, 134. Bombay government, statistics of criminal and civil justice under the, for the years 1844 to 1847, 159." Botany, 112. . Brachyura, on the use of the false feet in male, 116. Bread, observations on ropy, 60. Brewster (Sir D.) on anew membrane in- vesting the crystalline lens of the ox, 4; on the artificial magnets made by M. Logeman, by the process of M. Elias, 7b.; on the polarizing structure of the eye, 5; on the optical properties of the cyanurets of platinum and mag- nesia, and of barytes and platinum, 7b. ; on the recent improvements in photo- graphy, 6; on some new phenomena ἐξ the polarization of the atmosphere, ib. Bridge, on the priority of the invention of the tubular, 170. Bridge of Ashiesteel, on the rubble, 187. British islands, on the passage of storms across the, 42. Brodie (Rev. P. B.) on the Stonesfield slate at Collyweston, and the great oolite, inferior oolite and lias, in the neighbourhood of Grantham, 74. Broun (J. A.) on electrical figures of dust on plate glass,7; on the effect of height in the atmosphere on the diurnal varia- tion of magnetic declination, ib.; onthe effect of height on the diurnal variation of the horizontal complement of the magnetic force, ἐδ. ; on the variation with season of the differences of the mean pressure at Greenwich and Ma- 197 kerstoun, ἐδ. ; on the mechanical com- pensation of the bifilar and balance magnets for variations of the magnetic moment with temperature, 9; on the construction of silk suspension threads for the declination magnetometer, 10; on the attempts to resolve the pressure of the atmosphere into two parts, that of vapour and dry air, 31. Brushes, on Haidinger’s, 20. Bryce (James, jun.) on striated and po- lished rocks and “ Roches Mouton- nées’’ in the lake district of West- moreland, 76; postscript, 112; onthe Lesmahagow and Douglas coal-field in Lanarkshire, 77. Buchanan (George) on some proposed improvements in valves, stopcocks or stoppers for regulating the passage of fluids, by the use of flexible sub- stances, 171. Buckman (Prof.) on some chemical facts connected with the tessellated pave- ments discovered at Cirencester, 48. Budd (J. Palmer) on the advantageous use made of the gaseous escape from the blast furnaces at Ystalyfera, 172. Bunter sandstone of Dumfries-shire, on the position of the footsteps in the, 83. Busk (George), list of Sertularian zoo- phytes aud Polyzoa from Port Natal, Algoa Bay, and Table Bay in South Africa; with remarks on their geogra- phical distribution, and observations on the genera Plumularia and Cateni- cella, 118. Caithness, on chalk flints and oolitic fos- sils from the boulder clay in, 93. Calcium, on the extent to which fluoride of, is soluble in water at 60° F., 68. Callitriche, on the epidermal appendages of the genus, 113. Campbell - (Dugald) on the action of the soap-test upon water containing a salt of magnesia only, and likewise upon water containing a salt of magnesia and a salt of lime, 49. Cantyre, Argyleshire, on the geology of the southern extremity of, 100. Cape de Verd islands, on the use of the Bofareira as a means adopted by the patives of the, to excite lactation, 132. Carbon, on the tetramorphism of, 62. Carbonates in blood, on the presence of, 57. Carboniferous deposits of France and Germany, on lines of dislocation be- tween the lower and upper, 96. 198 Catenicella, observations on the genus, 118. Caterpillars, on a tissue spun by, 123. Cell-development, on pathological, 131. Celtz, on the evidence of the existence of primitive races in Scotland prior to the, 142. Chalk flints and oolitic fossils from the boulder clay in Caithness, on, 93. Chambers (Robert) on the glacial phe- nomena of the neighbourhood of Edin- burgh, with some remarks on the gene- ral subject, 78. Chapman (Prof.) on the isomorphous relations of silica and alumina, 50. Chat Moss, in Lancashire, on the gra- dual subsidence of a portion of the sur- face of, by drainage, 101. Chemistry, 47. Chevallier (Prof.) on a sidereal clock for showing the arc of right ascension di- rectly, 23. Cholera in the Indian armies, on the pre- valence and mortality of, 161. Chu Ma, grass cloth of India, on the, 112. Cirencester, on some chemical facts con- nected with the tessellated pavements discovered at, 48. Clare (Peter) on some extraordinary elec- trical appearances observed at Man- chester on the 16th July, 1850, 31. Claudet (M.) on a newinstrument called the dynactinometer, for comparing the power of object-glasses, and for mea- suring the intensity of the photogenic light, 12. Clay, boulder, on scratched pebbles and fossil specimens from the, and on chalk flints and oolitic fossils from the, in Caithness, 93. Cleghorn (Dr. H.) on the grass cloth (Chu Ma) of India, 112 ; on the hedge plants of India, and the conditions which adapt them for special purposes and particular localities, 113. Climate of the valley of the Nile, on the, 45., Climates, on the six, of France, 46; on a mode of cooling the air of tropical, 188. Clock, sidereal, for showing the arc of right ascension directly, 23. Cloth of India, on the grass, 112. Clouds at Makerstoun, on the daily for- mation of, 36. ‘Coal-field in Lanarkshire, on the Les- mahagow and Douglas, 77. Coal formation, on the chemical compo- sition of the rocks of the, 63. Codeine, on a compound of, 48. INDEX 1, Coldstream (Dr. John) on the expedi- ency of ascertaining the extent to which infantile idiocy prevails in the United Kingdom generally, and of inquiring into the causes of its prevalence in cer- tain districts, with a view to the adop- tion of some means of deliverance from it, 128. Collimator, on a question of probabilities which occurs in the use of a fixed, for the verification of the constancy of po- sition of an azimuth circle, 1 Colours, on the influence of sunlight over the action of the dry gases on organic, 65. Conglomerate near N. Berwick, on the manner in which trap or igneous rocks intrude into the sandstone and, 101. Connecticut River, and its tributaries in New England, on terraces and ancient sea beaches on the, 87. Cox (Homersham) on the hyperbolic law of elasticity of cast iron, 172. Crabs, on the number of broods from one female in one season, 117. Crane, on a wrought iron tubular, 177. Crania, table of measurement of Scottish, 146. Crystals, on the magneto-optical proper- ties of, 23. Crystalline substances, on the theory of magnetic induction in, 23. Crustacea, notes on, 115. Crustacean tribes, on the change of the integumeats of animals in the, 120. Cullen (Dr.) on the gold mines of the isthmus of Darien, emigration to New Granada, and canalization of the isth- mus of Darien, 79. Dalyell (Sir John Graham, Bart.) on ex- uviation, or the change of the integu- ments of animals in the crustacean tribes, 120. Dalziel (Dr. J.) on hysteria, hydropho- bia, and other convulsive affections, embracing an analysis of the pheno- mena of water-dread, 129. Darien, isthmus of, on the gold mines of the, and on the canalization of the, 79. Davy (Dr.) on the incrustation which forms in the boilers of steam-engines, 51. Declination, on a method for computing magnetic charts of, 3. Dennistoun (James) on a tissue spun by caterpillars, 123. Diamond, on a peculiar form produced in a, when under the influence of the voltaic arc, 53. INDEX II. Disease, on the geographical distribution of, as indicating the connexion between natural phenomena and health and longevity, 150. Dome for observatories, on a folding, 180. Donaldson (Professor) on the water si- rene, 174. Door spring, on an improved, 170. Doris, on the anatomy of, 124. Dorsetshire purbecks, on the succession of strata and distribution of organic remains in the, 79. Dracena Draco, on the treatment and flowering of a plant of, 114. Drainage, on the gradual subsidence of a portion of the surface of Chat Moss, in Lancashire, by, 101. Drosera, on the epidermal appendages of the genus, 113. Dumfries-shire, on the position of the footsteps in the Bunter sandstone of, 83 ; on the representatives of the moun- tain limestone as they occur-in, 84. Dura Den, on the fossil fishes and yellow sandstone of, 70. . Dynactinometer, on a new instrument called the, for comparing the power of object-glasses, and for measuring the intensity of the photogenic light, 12. Earth, on the structure of the lunar sur- face, and its relation to that of the, 25; on the conductibility of the, 56. Earth’s surface, on the erosions of the, 85. Earthquakes in 5. America from 1844-47, on, 82. Echinus, on the European species of, and the peculiarities of their distribution, 123. Edinburgh, on the effects produced by lightning on a tree near, 13; account of the observatory at, 31; on the gla- cial phenomena of the neighbourhood of, 78. Edmonds (Richard, jun. ), remarkable thermometrical maxima at or near the muon’s first quarter during the twelve years 1839-50, 32. . Electrical appearances observed at Man- chester on July 16, 1850, 31. Electricity, 3; onthe application of, and heat as moving powers, 183; on the dynamic equivalent of current, 185. Embleton (Dr.) on the anatomy of Do- Tis, 124. Equatorial mounting for the. Edinburgh j Furnaces, blast, at Ystalyfera, on the ad- observatory, on a new form of, 187. 199 Estates, statistics respecting the sale of encumbered, in Ireland, 148. Ethnology, 140. Exuvie of crustacea, on shedding the, 115. Eye, on the polarizing structure of the, 5. Eye-piece, on a new solid, 15. Fairbairn (William) on a wrought iron tubular crane, designed by, 177. Faroé islands, on the birds of the, 127. Finch (Dr. Cuthbert) on the prevalence and mortality of cholera in the Indian armies, 161. Fishes, fossil, of Dura Den, on the, 70; presentation by Mr. Whincopp of a collection of the bones and teethof, 192. Flints, chalk, from the boulder clay in Caithness, 93. Fluids, on some proposed improvements in valves, stopcocks or stoppers for regulating the passage of, by the use of flexible substances, 171. Fluorine, on the presence of, in blood and milk, 67. Food, on the per-centage of nitrogen as an index to the nutritive value of, 64. Forbes (James D.) on the alleged evidence for a physical connexion between stars forming binary or multiple groups, deduced from the doctrine of chances, 23. Forbes (Prof. Edward) on the succession of strata and distribution of organic re- mains in the Dorsetshire purbecks, 79; on the European species of Echinus, and the peculiarities of their distribu- tion, 123. Forces, on the reciprocal relation of the vital and physical, 133. Forfarshire, on some phenomena of mi- rage on the east coast of, 42. Fossiliferous deposit underlying basalt in the island of Mull, on the, 70. Fossil specimens from the boulder clay, on, 93. Fossils, oolitic, from the boulder clay in Caithness, 93; palozoic, in the cry- stalline chain of the Forez in France, 96. Fowler (Dr. R.) on the influences of man’s instinct on his intellectual and moral powers, 130. France, on the six climates of, 46. France and Germany, on lines of disloca- tion between the lower and upper car- boniferous deposits of, 96. Fringes of interference, on a fictitious dis- ‘placement of, 20. 200 vantageous use made of the gaseous escape from the, 172. Gairdner (Dr. W. T.) on pathological cell-development, 131. Gairloch, on the system of Croft husban- dry and the reclamation of waste lands, chiefly by spade culture, adopted at, 147. Galvanic arrangements, table of the rela- tive and absolute powers of, 185. Galvanometry, on a fixed scale for elec- tromotive force in, 185. Ganoids, on certain extraordinary pecu- liarities of structure in the moreancient, 91. Gas stove, on ἃ, 191. Gaseous escape, advantageous use made of the, from the blast furnaces at Ysta- lyfera, 172. Gases, on the influence of sunlight over the action of the dry, onorganic colours, Gassiot (J. P.) on a peculiar form pro- duced in a diamond when under the influence of the voltaic arc, 53. Gastaldi (B.), parallel between the super- ficial deposits of the basin of Switzer- land and those of the valley of the Po in Piedmont, 90. Geography, physical, 69. Geology, 69; of the southern extremity of Cantyre, Argyleshire, 100. Germanic population, on the original dis- tribution of the, 141. Glacial phenomena of the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, on the, 78. Glaciers, on traces of ancient, in Glen- ™Messan, 90. Gladstone (Dr. J. H. and Mr. G.) on the growth of plants in abnormal atmo- spheres, 54. Glasgow, on the progress of, in popu- lation, wealth, manufactures, &c., 162. Glass, on electrical figures of dust on plate, 7. . GJenmessan, on traces of ancient glaciers in, 90. Globe, on the central heat and density of the, 88. Gold mines of the isthmus of Darien, on the, 79. Granitic blocks, on the dispersion of, from Ben Cruachan, 88. Grantham, on the great oolite, inferior oolite and lias, in the neighbourhood of, 74. 5 Graphite, on the recent discovery of, in the island of Mull, 102. INDEX II. Grasses, on an Acarus and a Vibrio that attack, 124. Gregory (Dr.) on the sulphite of lead, 55. Gum-dragon tree, on the treatment and flowering of a plant of, 114. Guyot (Dr. Jules) on the priority of the invention of the tubular bridge, 170. Haidinger’s brushes, on, 20. Hail-storms, on Indian, 43. Hamilton (Dr. Mathie) on earthquakes in S. America in 1844-47, 82. Hamilton (Sir W. R.) on polyzones in- scribed on a surface of the second order, 2. 1 Hancock (Albany) on*the anatomy of Doris, 124. Hancock (Prof.), statistics respecting the sale of encumbered estates in Ireland, 148; on the causes of distress at Skull and Skibbereen during the famine in Ireland, 149; on the cost of obtaining patents in different countries, ib. Hardy (James) on an Acarus and a Vibrio that attack grasses, 124. Harkness (Robert) on the position of the footsteps in the Bunter sandstone of Dumfries-shire, 83; on the represen- tatives of the mountain limestone as they occur in Dumfries-shire, 84. Hay (Dr. R.) on the geometrical basis of beauty in general, and more particu- larly as applied to architecture and the human form, 131. Heat, 3; on the expansion of solids by, 16; on the application of electricity and, as moving powers, 183. Height, on the effect of, on the diurnal variation of the horizontal complement of the magnetic force, 7 ; on the effect of, in the atmosphere, on the diurnal variation of magnetic declination, δ. ; on the means of computing the quan- tities of aqueous vapour in the atmo- sphere at various places and heights,36. Hennessy (Henry) on the distribution of shooting stars, in the interplanetary spaces, 24. Hincks (Rev. Dr. E.) on the language and mode of writing of the ancient As- syrians, 140. Hippuris, on the epidermal appendages of the genus, 113. Hitchcock (Rev. Edward) on the erosions of the earth’s surface, especially by rivers, 85; on terraces and ancient sea- beaches, especially those on the Con- . necticut river, and its tributaries in New England, 87. Hoeven (Prof. Van der) on the genus Pe- INDEX II. rodicticus of Bennett, and its relation to Stenops, 125. Hogg (John) on the Sicilian and Sardi- nian languages, 140. Hopkins (Thomas) on the causes of the rise of the isothermal lines (as repre- sented on Prof. Dove’s maps) in the winters of the northern hemisphere, 34; on the daily formation of clouds at Makerstoun, 36. Hopkins (William) on the dispersion of granite blocks from Ben Cruachan, 88. Houses, on a register hygrometer for re- gulating the atmospheric moisture of, 170. Huggate, on meteorological phenomena at, 42. Human form, on the geometrical basis of beauty in general, as applied to, 131. Hydrophobia, observations on, 129. Hygrometer for regulating the atmosphe- ric moisture of houses, on a register, 170. Hysteria, observations on, 129. Idiocy, infantile, on the expediency of as- certaining the extent to which it pre- vails in the United Kingdom, 128. Iguanodon, on the upper jaw of the, 125. India, on the grass cloth of, 112; onthe hedge plants of, and the conditions which adapt them for special purposes and particular localities, 113. Indian hail-storms, on, 43. Indian armies, on the prevalence and mor- tality of cholera in the, 161. Indices, refractive, of several substances, 14, Instinct, on the influences of man’s, on his intellectual and moral powers, 130. Iodine, on a compound of, 48. Ireland, statistics respecting sale of en- cumbered estates in, 148; on the causes of distress at Skull and Skibbereen during the famine in, 149. Tron, on a new and ready process for the quantitative determination of, 58; on the hyperbolic law of elasticity of cast, 172. Iron tubular crane, on a wrought, 177. Isoclinal magnetic lines in Yorkshire, on, 14. Isothermal lines, on the causes of the rises of the, in the winters of the northern hemisphere, 34. Jacob (W. 5.) on a folding dome for ob- servatories, 180. Johnston (A. Keith) on the geographical distribution of disease, as indicating the 201 connexion between natural phenomena and health and longevity, 150. Joule (J. P.) on some amalgams, 55. Lactation, on the use of the Bofareira as a means adopted by the natives of the Cape de Verd Islands to excite, 132. Lanarkshire, on the Lesmahagow and Douglas coal-field in, 77. Languages, on the Sicilian and Sardinian, 140; of the ancient Assyrians, 16. Lankester (Dr. Edwin) on the epidermal appendages of the genera Callitriche, Hippuris, Pinguicula, and Drosera, 113. Lassell (William) on a method of sup- porting a large speculum, free from sensible flexure, in all positions, 180. Latham (Dr. R. G.) on the original dis- tribution of the Germanic, Lithuanic and Slavonic populations, 141. Lead, on the sulphite of, 55; acetate of, on the employment of, as a purifying agent, on the sugar from the south of Spain, 60. Lee (Dr. John) on meteorological obser- vations made at Kaafjord, near Alten, in Western Finmark, and at Christi- ania in Norway, 36; on the British Meteorological Society, 42. Lens of the ox, on a new membrane in- vesting the crystalline, 4. Lias in the neighbourhood of Grantham, on the, 74. Light, 3; on a new instrument called the dynactinometer for measuring the in- tensity of the photogenic, 12. Lighthouse apparatus, on the limits to the velocity of, 191. Lightning, on the effects produced by, on a tree near Edinburgh, 13. Lime, on the action of the soap-test upon water containing a salt of magnesia and a salt of, 49. Limestone, on the representatives of the mountain, as they occur in Dumfries- shire, 84. Lithuanic population, on the original distribution of the, 141. Lunar surface, on the structure of the, and its relation to that of the earth, 25. Lyon (Rev. C. F.) on some phenomena of mirage on the east coast of Forfar- shire, 42. Macadam (Stevenson) on the central heat and density of the globe, as also the causes of volcanic phenomena, 88. Mackay (J.T.) on the treatment and flow- ering of a plant of Draczna Draco, or 202: gum-dragon tree, in the Botanic Gar- den, Trinity College, Dublin, 114. Maclaren (C.) on traces of ancient gla- ciers in Glenmessan, 90. Magnesia, on the optical properties of the cyanurets of platinum and, 5; on the action of the soap-test upon water cortaining a salt of, 49. Magnetic charts of declination, on a me- thod for computing, 3. Magnetic declination, on the effect of height in the atmosphere on the diur- nal variation of, 7. Magnetic force, on the effect of height on ’ the diurnal variation of the horizontal complement of the, 7. Magnetic induction in crystalline sub- stances, on the theory of, 23. Magnetic lines in Yorkshire, isoclinal, 14. Magnetism, 3. Magnetometer, on the construction of silk suspension threads for the declina- tion, 10. Magneto-optical properties of crystals, on the, 23. Magnets, on the artificial, made by M. Logeman, 4 ; on the mechanical com- pensation of the bifilar and balance, for variations of the magnetic moment with temperature, 9. Makerstoun, on the daily formation of clouds at, 36. Malaga, on the present condition of the city and neighbourhood of, 151. Mammalia, presentation by Mr. Whin- copp of a collection of the bones and teeth of, 192. Manchester, on some extraordinary elec trical appearances observed at, on July 16, 1850, 31. Mantell (Dr. G. A.) on the upper jaw of the Iguanodon, 125. Martins (Dr. C.) on the six climates of France, 46; parallel between the su- perficial deposits of the basin of Swit- zerland and those of the valley of the Po in Piedmont, 90. Mathematics, 1. Matteucci (Prof.) on the conductibility of the earth, 56. M‘Coy (Prof.), list of organic remains in the frontier chain of Scotland, 107. M‘William (Dr. J. O.) on the use of the Bofareira as a means adopted by the natives of the Cape de Verd islands to excite lactation, 132. Mean pressureat Greenwich and Makers- toun, on the variation with season of the differences of the, 7. Mechanical science, 169. INDEX II. Menai Straits, &c., on the geological po- sition of the black slates of, 102. Menstruation in woman, on the causes whichadvanceor retard the appearance of the first, 135. Meteorology, 31. Meteorological observations madeat Kaaf- jord, near Alten, in Western Finmark, and at Christiania in Norway, 36; on hourly, made in Thibet at an elevation of 18,400 feet, 43. Meteorological phenomena at Huggate for 1849, 42. Meteorological Society, on the British, 42. Meteors, 23. Microscope, on the application of photo- graphy to the compound, 126. Milk, on the presence of fluorine in, 67. Miller (Hugh) on certain extraordinary peculiarities of structurein the more an- cient ganoids, 91; on peculiarscratched pebbles and fossil specimens from the boulder clay, and on chalk flints and oolitic fossils from the boulder clay in Caithness, 93. Milward (A.) on the present condition of the city and neighbourhood of Malaga, and on the preparation of raisins, 151. Minerals, on the condensation of volume in highly hydrated, 60. Mirage, on some phenomena of, on the east coast of Forfarshire, 42. y Mollusca, on the dentition of the Britis pulmoniferous, 126. Monstrosities, on the laws regulating the development of, 138. Moon’s first quarter during 1839-50, re- markable thermometrical maxima at or near the, 32. Morphology of the muscular system, 138. Motion, on a physiological mode of re- solving the metaphysical difficulties as ‘to the origin of the notion of, 135. Mulder (Prof. G. I.) on the presence of carbonates in blood, 57. ᾿ Mull, island of, on a fossiliferous deposit underlying basalt in the, 70; on the recent discovery of plumbago or gra- phite in the island of, 102. Murchison (Sir Roderick Impey) on the discovery of palzozoic fossils in the crystalline chain of the Forez in France, and on lines of dislocation between the lower and upper carboniferous deposits of France and Germany, 96; review of the labours of M. Barrande in pre- paring his work “ The Silurian System of Bohemia,” 97. : ΜΝ μεν... lh INDEX II. Muscular system, on the morphology of the, 138. Nasmyth (James) on the structure of the lunar surface and its relation to that of the earth, 25. Neison (F. G. P.), mortality of the pro- vident classes in this country and on the continent, 151. ~ New England, on terraces and ancient sea-beaches, especially those on the Connecticutriver, and its tributaries in, 87. New Granada, on emigration to, 79. Newman (Prof. F. W.) on the Souka- neeah dialect of the Berber, 142. Newport (George) on the reciprocal re- lation of the vital and physical forces, 133. Newton’s rings, on the mode of disap- pearance of, in passing the angle of total internal reflexion, 19. Nicol (James) on the geology of the southern extremity of Cantyre, Ar- gyleshire, 100. Nile, on the climate of the valley of the, 45. Nitrogen, on the per-centage of, as an index to the nutritive value of food, 64. North Berwick, on the manner in which trap or igneous rocks intrude into the sandstone and conglomerate near, 101. Observatories, on a folding dome for, 180. Observatory, on a new form of equatorial . mounting now making for the Edin- burgh, 187. Oolite, on the great and inferior, in the neighbourhood of Grantham, 74. Organic bases, on the action of oxidizing agents on certain, 47. Organic remains, on the distribution of, in the Dorsetshire purbecks, 79; list of, in the frontier chain of Scotland, 107. Ormerod (G. W.) on the gradual subsi- dence of a portion of the surface of Chat Moss in Lancashire, by drainage, 101. ᾿ Osler. (Follett), registers from his new integrating anemometer, 46. Ox, on a new membrane investing the crystalline lens of the, 4. Palzozoic fossils in the crystalline chain of the Forez in France, on the, 96. Patents, on the cost of obtaining, in dif- _ ferent countries, 149. Peach (C. W.), list of zoophytes found in the vicinity of Peterhead, with 203 a notice of some new to the British list, 126. Peninsula, notice on the geological struc- ture of Spain, to explain an outline general map of the, 108. Penny (Dr. Frederick) on a new and ready process for the quantitative determina- tion of iron, 58. Perodicticus of Bennett, on the genus, and its relation to Stenops, 125. Peterhead, on zoophytes found in the vi- cinity of, 126. Petrie (William) on the phosphorescence of potassium, 59; on the application of electricity and heat asmoving powers, 183; on the powers of minute vision, ib.; on the relative and absolute powers of galvanic arrangements, 185; on the dynamic equivalent of current elec- tricity, and on a fixed scale for elec- tromotive force in galvanometry, ib. Phillips (Professor) on the effects pro- duced by lightning on a tree near Edin- burgh, 13; on isoclinal magnetic lines in Yorkshire, 14. Photogenic light, on a new instrument calledthedynactinometer for measuring the intensity of the, 12. Photography, on the recent improvements in, 6,12; on the application of, to the compound microscope, 126. Physics, 1; cometary, 31. Physiology, 128. Pinguicula, on the epidermal appendages of the genera, 113. Plants, on the growth of, in abnormal atmospheres, 54; on the hedge, of In- dia, and the conditions which adapt them for special purposes and particu- lar localities, 113. Platinum and magnesia, on the optical properties of the cyanurets of, 5; on the optical properties of the cyanurets of barytes and, 5. Playfair (Dr. Lyon) on the condensation of volume in highly hydrated minerals, 60. Plumbago, on the recent discovery of, in the island of Mull, 102. Plumularia, observations on the genus, 118. ? Po in Piedmont, parallel between the su- perficial deposits of the basin of, and those of the valley of the, 90. Polyzoa from Port Natal, Algoa Bay and Table Bay, 118. Polyzones inscribed ona surface of the second order, on, 2. Portlock (Lieut.-Col.), notice of the man- ner in which trap or igneous rocks in- ’ 204 trude into the sandstone and conglo- merate near N. Berwick, 101. Potassium, phosphorescence of, 59. Powell (Rev. Prof.) on the refractive m- dices of several substances, 14. Provident classes, mortality of the, in this country and on the continent, 151. Purbecks, on the succession of strata and distribution of organic remains in the Dorsetshire, 79. Raisins, on the preparation of, 151. Ramsay (Prof.) on the geological position of the black slates of Menai Straits, &c., 102. Rankin (Rev. T.) on meteorological phz- nomena at Huggate, for 1849, 42. Rankine (W. J. Macquorn) on the laws of the elasticity of solids, 2 Read (George) on ropy bread, 60. Reade (Rev. J. B.) on a new solid eye- piece, 15. Reflexion, on metallic, 19; on the mode of disappearance of Newton’ s rings in passing the angle of total internal, Ricinus communis, on, 132. Rifles, on the application of telescope sights to, 188. Right ascension, on a sidereal clock for showing the arc of, 23. Rivers, on the constant increase of eleva- tion of beds of, 72; on the erosions of the earth’s surface, especially by, 85. River terraces, on, 87. Roberts (Richard) on the expansion of solids by heat, 16. ‘‘Roches Moutonnées” in the lake di- strict of Westmoreland, on, 76; post- script, 112. Rocks, on the chemical composition of the, of the coal formation, 63; on striated and polished, in the lake di- strict of Westmoreland, 76; on the manner in which trap or igneous, in- trude into the sandstone and conglo- merate near N. Berwick, 101. Rose (Alexander) on the recent discovery of plumbago or graphite in the island of Mull, Hebrides, 102. Russell (R.) on the passage of storms across the British Islands, 42. Ruthven (M. W.) on improvements in propelling and navigating steam ves- sels, 186. Salt, on the effects of, on vegetation, 114. Sanderson (John S.) on the supposed re- lation of the spleen to the origin of the INDEX II. coloured blood-corpuscle in the adult, 134. Sandstone-and conglomerate near N. Berwick, on the manner in which trap or igneous rocks intrude into the, 101. Sandstone of Dura Den, on the yellow, 70. Scoffern (Dr.) on the sugar produce of the south of Spain, chiefly in connexion with the employment of acetate of lead τὰ sulphurousacid as purifyingagents, 0. Scoresby (W.) on Atlantic waves, their magnitude, velocity and phznomena, 26. Scotland, on the geological structure and relations of the frontier chain of, 103 ; list of organic remains in, 107; on the evidence of the existence of primitive races in, prior to the Celt, 142. Sea-beaches, on terraces and, 87. Sea-level, on recent changes of, 71. Sectors; on the occasional distinct vision of rapidly revolving coloured, 21. Sedgwick (Rev. Prof.) on the geological structure and relations of the frontier chain of Scotland, 103. Seller (Dr. William) on a physiological mode of resolving the metaphysical difficulties as to the origin of the no- tion of space, of motion, of the exter- nal, of substance, &c., 135. Shooting stars in the interplanetary spaces, on the distribution of, 24. Sicilian and Sardinian languages, on the, 140. Silica and alumina, on the isomorphous relations of, 50. Silk suspension threads for the declina- tion magnetometer, on the construction of, 10. “Silurian System of Bohemia,” Sir R. I. Murchison’s review of the labours of M. Barrande in preparing this work, 97. Slate at Collyweston, near Stamford, on the Stonesfield, 74. Slates of Menai Straits, &c., on the geo- logical position of the black, 102. Slavonic population, on the original dis- tribution of the, 141. Smith (John) on the rubble bridge of Ashiesteel, 187. Smyth (Prof.) on cometary physics, 31 ; account of the Edinburgh Observatory, ib.; on a new form of equatorial mounting now making for the Edin- burgh Observatory, 187; on a mode of cooling the air of rooms in tropical INDEX IIs 905 climates, 188; on the application of telescope sights to rifles, 188. Soap-test, on the action of the, upon water containing a salt of magnesia only, and likewise upon water contain- ' ing a salt of magnesia and a salt of lime, 49. Solids, on the laws of the elasticity of, 2;.on the expansion of, by heat, 16. Sorby (Henry Clifton) on the tetramor- phism of carbon, 62. Soukaneeah dialect of the Berber, 142. South America, on earthquakes in, from 1844-47, 82. Space, on a physiological mode of resol- ving the metaphysical difficulties as to the origin of the notion of, 135. Spain, notice on the geological structure of, to explain an outline general map of the Peninsula, 108. Speculum, on a method of supporting a large, free from. sensible flexure, in all positions, 180. Spleen, on the supposed relation of the, to the origin of the coloured blood-cor- puscle in the adult, 134. Stars forming binary or multiple groups, on the alleged evidence for a physical connexion between, 23. Statistics, 147. Steam-engines, on the incrustation which forms in the boilers of, 51. Steam vessels, on improvements in pro- pelling and navigating, 186. Stein (James) ona direct method of sepa- rating arsenious from arsenic acid, and On its application to the estimation of nitric acid, 62. Stenops, on the genus Perodicticus of Bennett, and its relation to, 125. Stevelly (Prof.) on the occasional distinct vision of rapidly revolving coloured sectors, 21. Stevenson (Thomas) on the force of the “waves, 189. Stokes (Prof.) on the mode of disappear- ance of Newton’s rings-in passing the angle of total internal reflexion, 19; on metallic reflexion, ἐδ. ; on Haidinger’s brushes, 20; on a fictitious displace- ment of fringes of interference, ib. Storms, on the passage of, across the British Islands, 42. Stove, gas, 191. Strachey (Lieut.) on hourly meteorologi- - cal observations made in Thibet at an elevation of 18,400 feet, 43. Strang (John) on the progress of Glas- gow, in population, wealth, manufac- tures, &c., 162. Strata, on the succession of, in the Dor- setshire purbecks, 79. Strickland (H. E.) on a peculiar structure in the submedial pair of rectrices of Vidua paradisea, 126. Substance, on a physiological mode of resolving the metaphysical difficulties as to the origin of the notion of, 135. Sugar produce of the south of Spain, on the, 60. Sunlight, on the influence of, over the action of the dry gases on organic co- lours, 65. Swan (William) on the limits to the ve- locity of revolving lighthouse appara- tus caused by the time required for the production of luminous impressions on the eye, 191. Switzerland, parallel between the super- ficial deposits of the basin of, and those of the valley of the Po in Piedmont, 90. Sykes (Lieut.-Col.) on Indian hail-storms, 43; statistics of criminal and civil jus- tice under the Bombay Government for the years 1844-47, 159. Taylor (Henry) on the chemical composi- tion of the rocks of the coal formation, 63. Tessellated pavements discovered at Ci- rencester, on some chemical facts con- nected with the, 48. Thermometrical maxima at or near the moon’s first quarter during the years 1839-50, 32. Thibet at an elevation of 18,400 feet, on hourly meteorological observations made in, 43. Thomson (Prof. W.) on the theory of magnetic induction in crystalline sub- stances, 23. Thomson (W.) on the dentition of the British pulmoniferous mollusca, 126. Thomson (Wyville T. C.) on the applica- tion of photography to the compound microscope, 126. Tilt (Dr. E. J.) on the causes which ad- vance or retard the appearance of first menstruation in woman, with a synop- tical table showing the mean age of first menstruation in 10,422 women in hot, temperate, and cold climates, 135. Tyndall (John) on the magneto-optical properties of crystals, 23. United Kingdom, on the expediency of ascertaining the extent to which idiocy prevails in the, 128. Valves, improvements in, for regulating 206 the passage of fluids, by the use of flexible substances, 171. Vegetation, on the effects of salt on, 114. Verneuil (M. E. de) on the geological structure of Spain, to explain an out- line general map of the Peninsula, 108. Vibrio that attacks grasses, on a, 124. Vidua' paradisea, on a peculiar structure in the submedial pair of rectrices of, 126. Vision, on the powers of minute, 183. Voelcker (Dr. A.) on the proportion of phosphoric acid in some natural waters, 63; on the per-centage of nitrogen as an index to the nutritive value of food, 64; on the effects of salt on vegetation, 114, Volcanic phzenomena, on the causes of, 88. Voltaic arc, on a peculiar form produced in a diamond when under the influence of the, 53. Ward (W. Sykes) on a gas stove, 191. Water, on the action of the soap-test upon, containing a salt of magnesia - only, and likewise upon water contain- ing a salt of magnesia and a salt of lime, 49 ; on the proportion of phos- phoric acid in some natural, 63 ; on the extent to which fluoride of calcium is soluble in, at 60° F., 68. Water-dread, analysis of the phenomena of, 129. Water sirene, on the, 174. Waves, 23; magnitude, velocity and phe- nomena of the Atlantic, 26; on the force of the, 189. INDEX II. Wells (T. Spencer) on the climate of the } valley of the Nile, 45. Westmoreland, on striated and polished rocksand “ Roches Moutonnées” inthe lake district of, 76. Whincopp (Mr.),a collection of bones and teeth of mammalia and fishes, &c., pre- sented by, 192. Williamson (Prof. A. W.), results of a research on ztherification, 65. Wilson (Daniel) on the evidence of the existence of primitive races in Scotland prior to the Celta, 142. Wilson (Dr. George) on the influence of sunlight over the action of the dry gases cn organic colours, 65; on the presence of fluorine in blood and milk, 67 ; on the extent to which fluoride of calcium is soluble in water at 60° F., 68 ; afew unpublished particulars con- cerning the late Dr. Black, 69. Wolley (J.) on the birds of the Faroé is- lands, 127. Woman, on the causes which advance or retard the appearance of the first men- struation in, 135. Wood (Dr. A.) on the laws regulating the development of monstrosities, with illustrative specimens, 138. Yorkshire, on isoclinal magnetic lines in, 14. Ystalyfera, on the advantageous use made of the gaseous escape from the blast furnaces at, 172. Zaglas (M.) on the morphology of the muscular system, 138. THE END. LONDON: PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. FLAMMAM. , List of those Members of the British Association for the Advancement of Science to whom Copies of this Volume [for 1850] are supplied gratuitously, in conformity with the Regulations adopted by the General Committee. [See pp. v. & vi.] HONORARY MEMBER. HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS, PRINCE ALBERT OF SAXE-COBURG AND GOTHA, 4 LIFE MEMBERS. Astett, Joseph, Llanbedr Hall, Ruthin, Denbighshire. Adair, Alexander Shafto, M.P., 7 Audley Square, London. Adam, Walter, M.D., 39 George Square, Edinburgh. Adams, John Couch, M.A., Pres.R.A.S., F.R.S., St. John’s College, Cambridge. Ainsworth, Thomas, The Flosh, Egre- mont, Cumberland. Aldam, William, jun., Warmsworth near Doncaster. Alexander, William Maxwell, Southbarr, Paisley. Allecock, Samuel, Arlington Place, Man-- chester. Allis, Thomas, Osbaldwick, York. Ambler, Henry, Watkinson Hall, Oven- den near Halifax. _ Amery, John, F.S.A., Park House, Stour- bridge. Anderson, David, Driffield, Yorkshire. Andrews, Thomas, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.1.A., Professor of Chemistry, and Vice-President of Queen’s College, Belfast. Ansted, David Thomas, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Geology in King’s College, London; 17 Manchester Street, Man- chester Square, London. Appold, John George, 23 Wilson Street, Finsbury Square, London. Armistead, John, Springfield Mount near Leeds. Ashton, Thomas, M.D., 71 Mosley Street, Manchester. ; Ashworth, Edmund, Egerton Hall, Turton near Bolton. Atkinson, Joseph B., Cotham, Bristol. Auldjo, John, F.R.S., Noel House, Ken- sington. Babbage, Charles, M.A., F.R.S., 1 Dorset _ _ Street, Manchester Square, London. _ Babington, Charles Cardale, M.A., _ FLS., (Local Treasurer), St. John’s College, Cambridge. Backhouse, John Church, Blackwell, Dar- lington. Baddeley, Capt. Fred. H., R.E., Ceylon. Bain, Richard, Gwennap near ‘Truro. Bainbridge, Robert Walton, Middleton House near Barnard Castle, Durham. Baker, William, Edgbaston, Birmingham. Balfour, John Hutton, M.D., Professor of Botany in the University of Edin- burgh, F.R.S.E., F.L.S.; Edinburgh. Ball, John, M.R.I.A., 85 Stephen’s Green, Dublin. : Ball, William, Rydall, Ambleside, West- moreland. Barbour, Robert, Portland St., Manchester. Barker, Richard, M.D., M.R.D.S., 6 Gardiner’s Row, Dublin. Barnes, Thomas, M.D., F.R.S.E., Carlisle. Barnett, Richard, Stourport, Worcester- shire. Barton, John, 48 Mary Street, Dublin. Bashforth, Francis, M.A., St. Jolin’s College, Cambridge, Bateman, Joseph, LL.D., F.R.A.S., Ex- cise Office, Broad Street, London. Bayldon, John, Lendal, York. Beamish, Richard, F.R.S. Beatson, William, Rotherham. Beaufoy, Henry, F.R.S., South Lambeth, London. Belcher, Captain Sir Edward, R.N., F.R.A.S., 22 Thurloe Square, Bromp- ton, London. Belcombe, Henry Minster Yard, York. Bergin, Thomas Francis, M.R.I.A., 49 Westland Row, Dublin. Berryman, William Richard, 6 Tamar Terrace, Stoke, Devonport. Bickerdike, Rev. John, M.A,, Leeds. Binyon, Alfred, Mayfield, Manchester. Binyon, Thomas, St. Ann’s Square, Man- chester. Bird, William, 5 Old Church Yard, Liverpool. Birks, Rev. Thomas Rawson, Kelshall Rectory, Royston. Stephens, M.D., _ [It is requested that any inaccuracy in the names and residences of the Members may be communicated to 1 Mr. Richard Taylor, Printer, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street, London.) 206 the passage of fluids, by the use of flexible substances, 171. Vegetation, on the effects of salt on, 114. Verneuil (M. E. de) on the geological structure of Spain, to explain an out- line general map of the Peninsula, 108. Vibrio that attacks grasses, on a, 124. Vidua' paradisea, on a peculiar structure in the submedial pair of rectrices of, 126. Vision, on the powers of minute, 183. Voelcker (Dr. A.) on the proportion of phosphoric acid in some natural waters, 63; on the per-centage of nitrogen as an index to the nutritive value of food, 64; on the effects of salt on vegetation, 114. Volcanic phenomena, on the causes of, 88. Voltaic arc, on a peculiar form produced in a diamond when under the influence of the, 53. Ward (W. Sykes) on a gas stove, 191. Water, on the action of the soap-test upon, containing a salt of magnesia - only, and likewise upon water contain- ing a salt of magnesia and a salt of lime, 49 ; on the proportion of phos- phoric acid in some natural, 63 ; on the extent to which fluoride of calcium is soluble in, at 60° F., 68. Water-dread, analysis of the phenomena of, 129. Water sirene, on the, 174. Waves, 23; magnitude, velocity and phe- nomena of the Atlantic, 26; on the force of the, 189. INDEX II. Wells (T. Spencer) on the climate of the : valley of the Nile, 45. Westmoreland, on striated and polished rocksand “ Roches Moutonnées” inthe lake district of, 76. Whincopp (Mr.),a collection of bones and teeth of mammalia and fishes, &c., pre- sented by, 192. Williamson (Prof. A. W.), results of a research on ztherification, 65. Wilson (Daniel) on the evidence of the existence of primitive races in Scotland prior to the Celtz, 142. Wilson (Dr. George) on the influence of sunlight over the action of the dry gases cn organic colours, 65; on the presence of fluorine in blood and milk, 67 ; on the extent to which fluoride of calcium is soluble in water at 60° F., 68; afew unpublished particulars con- cerning the late Dr. Black, 69. Wolley (J.) on the birds of the Faroé is- lands, 127. Woman, on the causes which advance or retard the appearance of the first men- struation in, 135. Wood (Dr. A.) on the laws regulating the development of monstrosities, with illustrative specimens, 138. Yorkshire, on isoclinal magnetic lines in, 14. Ystalyfera, on the advantageous use made of the gaseous escape from the blast furnaces at, 172. Zaglas (M.) on the morphology of the muscular system, 138. THE END. LONDON: PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. * List of those Members of the British Association for the Advancement of Science to whom Copies of this Volume [for 1850] are supplied gratuitously, in conformity with the Regulations adopted by the General Committee. [See pp. v. δι vi.] HONORARY MEMBER. HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS, PRINCE ALBERT OF SAXE-COBURG AND GOTHA, 4 LIFE MEMBERS. Astett, Joseph, Llanbedr Hall, Ruthin, Denbighshire. Adair, Alexander Shafto, M.P., 7 Audley Square, London. Adam, Walter, M.D.,39 George Square, Edinburgh. Adams, John Couch, M.A., Pres.R.A.S., F.R.S., St. John’s College, Cambridge. Ainsworth, Thomas, The Flosh, Egre- mont, Cumberland. Aldam, William, jun., Warmsworth near Doncaster. Alexander, William Maxwell, Southbarr, Paisley. Allecock, Samuel, Arlington Place, Man-: chester. Allis, Thomas, Osbaldwick, York. Ambler, Henry, Watkinson Hall, Oven- den near Halifax. _ Amery, John, F.S.A., Park House, Stour- bridge. Anderson, David, Driffield, Yorkshire. Andrews, Thomas, M.D.,_ F.R.S., M.R.1.A,, Professor of Chemistry, and Vice-President of Queen’s College, Belfast. Ansted, David Thomas, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Geology in King’s College, London; 17 Manchester Street, Man- chester Square, London. Appold, John George, 23 Wilson Street, Finsbury Square, London. Armistead, John, Springfield Mount near Leeds. Ashton, Thomas, M.D., 71 Mosley Street, Manchester. ( Ashworth, Edmund, Egerton Hall, Turton near Bolton. Atkinson, Joseph B., Cotham, Bristol. Auldjo, John, F.R.S., Noel House, Ken- sington. _ Babbage, Charles, M.A., F.R.S., 1 Dorset _ _ Street, Manchester Square, London. : Babington, Charles Cardale, M.A., _ FLAS., (Local Treasurer), St. John’s College, Cambridge. Backhouse, John Church, Blackwell, Dar- lington. Baddeley, Capt. Fred. H., R.E., Ceylon, Bain, Richard, Gwennap near ‘Truro. Bainbridge, Robert Walton, Middleton House near Barnard Castle, Durham. Baker, William, Edgbaston, Birmingham. Balfour, John Hutton, M.D., Professor of Botany in the University of Edin- burgh, F.R.S.E., F.L.S.; Edinburgh. Ball, John, M.R.1.A., 85 Stephen’s Green, Dublin. ; Ball, William, Rydall, Ambleside, West- moreland. Barbour, Robert, Portland St., Manchester. Barker, Richard, M.D., M.R.D.S., 6 Gardiner’s Row, Dublin. Barnes, Thomas, M.D., F.R.S.E., Carlisle. Barnett, Richard, Stourport, Worcester- shire. ‘ Barton, John, 48 Mary Street, Dublin. Bashforth, Francis, M.A., St. Jolin’s College, Cambridge, Bateman, Joseph, LU.D., F.R.A.S., Ex- cise Office, Broad Street, London. Bayldon, John, Lendal, York. Beamish, Richard, F.R.S. Beatson, William, Rotherham. Beaufoy, Henry, F.R.S., South Lambeth, London. Belcher, Captain Sir Edward, R.N., F.R.A.S., 22 Thurloe Square, Bromp- ton, London. Belcombe, Henry M.D., Minster Yard, York. Bergin, Thomas Francis, M.R.I.A., 49 Westland Row, Dublin. Berryman, William Richard, 6 ‘Tamar Terrace, Stoke, Devonport. Bickerdike, Rev. John, M.A,, Leeds. Binyon, Alfred, Mayfield, Manchester. Binyon, Thomas, St. Ann’s Square, Man- chester. Bird, William, 5 Old Church Yard, Liverpool. Birks, Rev. Thomas Rawson, Kelshall Rectory, Royston. Stephens, _ [It is requested that any inaceuracy in the names and residences of the Members may be communicated to Mr. Richard Taylor, Printer, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street, London.] 2 MEMBERS Birley, Richard, Upper Brook Street, Manchester. Birt, W. R., 11 Wellington Street, Vic- toria Park, London, ᾿ Blackwall, John, F.L.S., Llanrwst, Denbighshire. Blackwell, Thomas Evans, F.G.S., 65 Pulteney Street, Bath. Blake, Henry Wollaston, F.R.S., 62 Port- land Place, London. Blake, William, Bishop’s Hull, Taunton. Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S., St. Leonard’s-on-Sea, Bland, Rev. Miles, D.D., F.R.S., Lilley Rectory near Luton, Bedfordshire. Blood, Bindon, M.R.1.A., Cranaher, Ennis, Co. Clare, Ireland. Boddington, Benjamin, Burcher, Kington, Herefordshire. Bodley, Thomas, F.G.S., Anlaby House, Pittville, Cheltenham. Boileau, Sir John Peter, Bart., F.R.S., 20 Upper Brook Street, London. Bond, Walter M., The Argory, Moy, Ireland. Boughton, Sir William Edward Rouse, Bart., F.R.S., Downton Hall near Ludlow, Shropshire. Bowerbank, James Scott, F.R.S.,3 High- bury Grove, London. Brady, Antonio, Maryland Point, Strat- ford, Essex. Brakenridge, John, Bretton Lodge, Wake- field. Brammall, Jonathan, Sheffield. Briggs, Major-General John, E.I.C.S., F.R.S., 104 Gloucester Terrace, Hyde Park, London. Brisbane, General Sir Thomas Mak- dougall, Bart., K.C.B.,G.C.H., D.C.L., President of the Royal Society of Edin- burgh, F.R.S.; Makerstoun, Kelso, Roxburghshire. Brogden, John, jun., 29 Gloucester Ter- race, Hyde Park, London. Brooke, Charles, B.A., F.R.S., 20 Keppel Street, Russell Square, London. Brooks, Samuel, Market Street, Man- chester. Brooks, Thomas, (Messrs. Butterworth and Brooks,) Manchester. Broun, JobnA.,35 Moray Place, Edinburgh. Brown, Thomas, Ebbw Vale Iron Works, Abergavenny. , Brown, William, Docks, Sunderland. Bruce, Alexander John, Kilmarnock. Bruce, Haliday, M.R.1.A.. 37 Dame Street, Dublin. Brunel, Isambart Kingdom, F.R.S., 18 Dake Street, Westminster. Buck, George Watson, Ramsay, Isleof Man. Oakland, TO WHOM Buckland, Very Rev. William, D.D., Dean of Westminster, Reader in Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Oxford, Trust. Brit. Mus., F.R.S.; The Deanery, Westminster. Buckman, James, F.G.S., Professor of Botany, Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. Budd, James Palmer, Ystalyfera Iron Works, Swansea. : Buller, Sir Antony, Pound near Tavi- stock, Devon. Bulman, John, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Burd, John, jun., Mount Sion, Radcliffe, Manchester. Burlington, William, Farl of, M.A., LL.D., Chancellor of the University of London, F.R.S.; 10 Belgrave Square, London. Campbell, Sir James, Glasgow. Campbell, William, 34 Candlerigg Street, Glasgow. Carew, William H. Pole, M.P., Antony House near Devonport. Carne, Joseph, F.R.S., Penzance. Carpenter, Rey. Philip Pearsall, B.A., Academy Place, Warrington. Carr, William, Blackheath. Cartmell, Rev. James, B.D., F.G.S., Christ’s College, Cambridge. Cassels, Rev. Andrew, M.A., Batley Vicarage near Leeds. Catheart, Lieut.-General Charles Murray, Earl of, K.C.B., F.R.S.E., Weaste House, Manchester. Cayley, Sir George, Bart., 20 Hertford Street, May Fair, London. Chadwick, Hugo Mavesyn, F.R.G.S., Mem. Egypt. Lit. Soc., Mavesyn- Ridware, Rugeley. Challis, Rev. James, M.A., F.R.S.; Plu- mian Professor of Astronomy in the University of Cambridge; Observatory, Cambridge. Chambers, Robert, F.R.S.E., Edinburgh. Champney, Henry Nelson, The Mount, York. Chanter, John, 2 Arnold Terrace, Bow Road, Bromley. Chatterton, Sir William, Bart., F.R.G.S., Castlemahon, Cork. Cheetham, David, Staleybridge, Man- chester, Chevallier, Rev. Temple, B.D., F-R.A.S., Professor of Mathematics and Astro- — nomy in the University of Durham; — Durham. Chichester, Ashhurst Turner Gilbert, D.D., Lord Bishop of, 43 Queen Ann ~ Street, Cavendish Square, London. BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 3 _ Chiswell, Thomas, 150 Waterloo Place, Manchester. Christie, Samuel Hunter, M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, Sec.R.S.; The Common, Woolwich. Clark, Rev. Charles, M.A., Queen’s Col- lege, Cambridge. Clark, Francis, Hazelwood near Birming- ham. Clark, Henry, M.D., 74 Marland Place, Southampton. Clay, J. Travis, F.G.S., Rastrick near Huddersfield. Coathupe, Charles Thornton, Clifton, Bristol. , _ Cocker, Jonathan, Higher Broughton, Manchester. Compton, Lord Alwyne, Castle Ashby, Northamptonshire. Compton, Lord William, 145 Piccadilly, London. Consterdine, James, New Cannon Street, Manchester. Conway, Charles, Pontnwydd Works, Newport, Monmouthshire. Conybeare, Very Rev. William Daniel, Dean of Llandaff, M.A., F.R.S.; The Deanery, Llandaff. Cooke, William Fothergill, Kidbrooke near Blackheath. Corbet, Richard, Adderley, Market Dray- ton, Shropshire. Cork, Cloyne and Ross, James Wilson, D.D., Lord Bishop of, M.R.I.A. Cottam, Samuel E., F.R.A.S., 28 Brazen- nose Street, Manchester. Cotton, Alexander, Landwade, Cambridge- shire. Cotton, Rev. William Charles, M.A., New Zealand. Courtney, Henry, M.R.I.A., 24 Fitz- william Place, Dublin. Cox, Joseph, F.G.S., Wisbeach, Cam- bridgeshire. Crampton, The Honourable Justice, LL.D., M.R.I.A., 3. Kildare Place, Dublin. Crewdson, Thomas D., Dacca Mills, Man- chester. Crichton, William, Glasgow. Crompton, Rev. Joseph, Norwich. Crooke, G. W., Liverpool. _ Currer, Rev. Danson Richardson, Clifton House, York. Curtis, John Wright, Alton, Hants. ' Dalby, Rev. William, M.A., Rector of Compton Basset near Calne, Wilts. Dalton, Rey. James Edward, B.D., Queen’s College, Cambridge. Danson, Joseph, 6 Shaw Street, Liver- pool. Darbishire, Samuel D., Manchester. Daubeny, Charles Giles Bridle, M.D., F.R.S., Regius Professor of Botany, and Aldrich’s Professor of Chemistry, in the University of Oxford; Ox- ford. Dawes, Rev. William Rutter, F.R.A.S., Wateringbury near Maidstone, Kent. Dawson, Christopher H., Low Moor, Bradford, Yorkshire. Dawson, Henry, 14 St. James’s Road, Liverpool. Deane, Sir Thomas, Dundanion Castle, Cork. Dent, Joseph, Ribston Hall, Wetherby, York. Dickinson, John, 66 Stephen’s Green, Dublin. Dikes, William, Hey, F.G.S., Wakefield. Dilke, C. Wentworth, 76 Sloane Street, London. Dobbin, Leonard, jun., M.R.I.A., 27 Gardiner’s Place, Dublin. Dodsworth, Benjamin, Great Blake St., York. Dodsworth, George, Fulford near York. Donkin,. Thomas, F.R.A.S,, Westow, Whitwell near York. Dowden, Richard, Sunday’s Well, Cork. Downie, Alexander, Crossbasket. near Glasgow. Drury, William, M.D., Garn Gad Hill, Glasgow. Duncan, James, M.D., Farnham House, Finglass, Co. Dublin. Dunraven, Edwin, Earl of, F.R.S., 8 Halkin Street West, London. Earnshaw, Rev. Samuel, M.A., Sheffield. Ebrington, Hugh, Viscount, M.P., 17 Grosvenor Square, London. —__ Edmonston, Rev. James, 7 Trafalgar Square, Twickenham. . Egerton, Sir Philip de Malpas Grey, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., Oulton Park, Cheshire. Ellis, Rev. Robert, A.M., Grimstone House near Malton, Yorkshire. Ellis, Thomas Flower, M.A., F.R.S., Attorney-General of the Duchy of Lan- caster; 15 Bedford Place, London. Enys, John Samuel, F.G.S., Enys, Corn- wall, ᾿ Erle, Rev. Christopher, M.A., F.G.S., Hardwick Rectory near Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire. Eyans, George Fabian, M.D., Waterloo Street, Birmingham. Exley, Rev. Thomas, M.A., Cotham, Bristol. 4, MEMBERS TO WHOM Eyre, George Edward, F.G.S., Warrens near Lyndhurst, Hants, Fairbairn, William, C.E., F.R.S., Man- chester. Faraday, Michael, D.C.L., F.R.S., Ful- Jerian Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution of Great Britain; 21 Albemarle Street, London. Fellows, Sir Charles, F.R.G.S., 4 Mon- tagu Place, Russell Square, London. Fisher, Rev. J. M., M.A., Lower Grove, Brompton, London. Fisher, Rev. Thomas, M.A., Luccombe near Minehead, Somerset. Fitzwilliam, Charles William, Earl, F.R.S., President of the Yorkshire Philosophi- cal Society; Mortimer House, Halkin Street, Grosvenor Place, London. Fleming, Colonel James, Kinlochlaich, Appin, Argyleshire. Fleming, William M., Barochan, Ren- frewshire. Fleming, William, M.D., Manchester. Fletcher, Samuel, Ardwick Place, Man- chester. . Forbes, James David, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edin- burgh, Sec. R.S.E., F.R.S.; Edinburgh. Forbes, John, M.D., F.R.S., 12 Old Bur- lington Street, London. Forrest, William Hutton, Stirling. Forster, Robert, B.A., Springfield, Dun- gannon, Ireland. Forster, Thomas Emerson, 7 Ellison Place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Forster, William, Ballynure, Clones, Ire- land. Foster, Charles Finch, Mill Lane, Cam- bridge. Foster, H. S., Brooklands, Cambridge. Foster, John, M.A., Clapham, London. Fowler, Robert, 23 Rutland Square, Dub- lin. Fox, Benjamin Middleton, Tottenham. -Fox, Charles, Perran Arworthal near Truro. Fox, Joseph Hayland, Wellington, So- . merset. Fox, Robert Barclay, Falmouth, Fox, Samuel Lindoe, Tottenham. Frankland, Rev. Marmaduke Charles, Malton, Yorkshire. Freeland, Humphry William, B3 Albany, London. Fullarton, Allan, Greenock. Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A., Leigh House, Lower Tooting, Surrey. Gaskell, Samuel, 19 New Street, Spring Gardens, London. Gibson, George Stacey, Saffron Walden. Gilbart, James William, F.R.S., London and Westminster Bank, Lothbury, London. Gilbert, John Davies, M.A., F.R.S., Eastbourne, Sussex. Gladstone, George, Stockwell Lodge, Stockwell, London. Gladstone, John Hall, Ph.D., Stockwell Lodge, Stockwell, London. Goodman, John, Salford, Lancashire. Goodsir, John, F.R.S. L. ἃ E., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Edin- burgh; 55 George Square, Edinburgh. Gordon, James, 46 Park Street, Bristol. Gordon, Rev. James Crawford, M.A., Delamont, Downpatrick, Downshire. Gotch, Rev. Frederick William, B.A., 1 Cave Street, Bristol. Gotch, Thomas Henry, Kettering. Greme, James, Garvoch, Perth. Graham, Thomas, M.A., F.R.S., Profes- sor of Chemistry in University College, London; 4 Gordon Square, London. Grahame, Captain Dunean, Irvine, Scot- land. Grattan, Joseph, 94 Shoreditch, London. Graves, Rev. Charles, M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Dub- lin, M.R.I.A., 2 Trinity College, Dub- lin. Graves, Rev. Richard Hastings, D.D., Bri- gown Glebe, Michelstown, Co. Cork. Gray, Rev. David, M.A., F.R.S.E., Pro- fessor of Natural Philosophy in the Ma- rischal College and University, Aber- ' deen. Gray, John, Greenock. Gray, John Edward, F.R.S., British Mu- seum, Gray, William, F.G.S.,(Zocal Treasurer), Minster Yard, York. Greenaway, Edward, 9 River Terrace, City Road, London. Greswell, Rev. Richard, B.D., F.R.S., Beaumont Street, Oxford. Griffin, John Joseph, Glasgow. Griffith, Richard, M.R.I.A., F.G.S., Fitz- william Place, Dublin. Griffiths, 5. Y., Cheltenham. Grooby, Rev. James, M.A., F.R.A.S., Swindon, Wilts. Guinness, Rev. William Smyth, M.A., Rathdrum, Co. Wicklow. Gutch, John James, 88 Micklegate, York. Habershon, Joseph, jun., The Holmes, Rotherham, Yorkshire. Hailstone, Samuel, F.L.S., Horton Hall near Bradford, Yorkshire. Hall, T. B., Coggeshall, Essex. BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 5 Hallam, Henry, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Trust. Brit. Mus., 24 Wilton Crescent, Knightsbridge, London. Hamilton, Mathie, M.D., Warwick Street, Glasgow. 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Allman, George J., M.D., M.R.I.A., Professor of Botany in the University ᾿ of Dublin; Trinity College, Dublin. Anderson, Charles, M.D., 40 Quality Street, Leith. Anderson, Charles W., South Shields. Anderson, John, D.D., Newburgh, Fife- shire, Anderson, John, 31 St. Bernard’s Cres- cent, Edinburgh. Anderson, Thomas, M.D., 40 Quality Street, Leith. Anderson, Rev. W., M.A., 1 Blacket Place, Edinburgh, Arbuthnot, Sir Robert Keith, Bart., 16 Charlotte Square, Edinburgh. Ashby, S., 87 Northumberland Street, Edinburgh. Atkinson, John, Daisy Bank, Victoria Park, Manchester. Bastard, Thomas H., Charleton, Blandford. Begbie, James, M.D., Edinburgh. Beke, C. T., Ph.D., F.R.G.S., 6 St. Mil- dred’s Court, Poultry, London, Bell, Charles, M.D., 3 St. Colme Street, Edinburgh. Benham, E., 18 Essex Street, Strand, London. Bennett, J. H., M.D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine or Physiology in the University of Edinburgh. Benson, Starling, Gloucester Swansea. Bentley, J. Flowers, Stamford, Lincoln- shire. Berrington, Arthur V. D., Woodlands Castle, near Swansea. Blyth, John, M.D., Professor of Che- mistry in Queen’s College, Cork. Place, ‘Bolton, Thomas, Stourbridge. Bossey, Francis, M.D., Woolwich. Bouch, ‘Thomas, C.E., 1 South Hanover Street, Edinburgh. Brand, William, (Local Treasurer), 5 Nor- thumberland Street, Edinburgh. Brewster, Sir David, K.H., D.C.L., _F.R.S., V.P.R.S.E., Principal of the United College of St. Salvator and St. Leonard, St. Andrews. Brown, James Linden, Auchtermairnie, Fife. Brown, Samuel, M.D., 14 Bath Street, Portobello, Edinburgh. Brown, William, F.R.S.E., 25 Dublin Street, Edinburgh. Bryson, Alexander, Edinburgh. Buchanan, George, F.R.S.E., 14 Duke Street, Edinburgh. Busk, George, I'.R.S., Croom Hill, Greenwich. Button, Charles, 146 Holborn Bars London. Caddell, W. A., F.R.S. L.&E., 26 Elder Street, Edinburgh. Carpenter, W. B., M.D., F.R.S., Pro- fessor of Medical Jurisprudence in University College, London; 6 Regent’s Park Terrace, London. Carter, G. B., Lord Street, Liverpool. Chapman, Εἰ, J., Professor of Mineralogy in University College, Londen. Churchill, Alfred, Lord, Blenheim, Wood- stock. Claudet, A., 18 King William Street, Strand, London. Cleghorn, Hugh, M.D., Madras Esta- blishment; 12 Duke Street, Edin- burgh, Clerke, RightHon. SirGeorge, Bart.,M.P., 8 Park Street, Westminster. Coldstream, John, M.D., 51 York Place, Edinburgh. Colfox, William, jun., B.A., Bridport, Dorset. Cooke, John William, Liverpool. Cooper, Henry, M.D., Hull. : Cox, John, Gorgie Mills, Edinburgh. Cubitt, Thomas, Thames Bank, Pimlico, London. Cumming, Rev. J. G., M.A., King Wil- liam College, Isle of Man. Cunningham, James, 50 Queen Street, Edinburgh. Ὁ Cunningham, Rev. W., D.D., 17 Salis- bury Road, Edinburgh. Cunningham, Rev. W. B., Prestonpans, Scotland. Dale, John A., M.A., 11 Holywell Street, Oxford. Dalmahoy, Patrick, 69 Queen Street, Edinburgh. Dalyell, Sir John Graham, Bart., Great King Street, Edinburgh. 12 Da Silva, Johnson, Highbury Park South, London. Denny, Henry, A.L.S., Philosophical Society, Leeds. Dennis, J. C., 122 Bishopsgate Street, London, Dick, Professor William, Veterinary Col- lege, Edinburgh. Dickson, Peter, 24 Chester Terrace, Re- gent’s Park, London. Donaldson, John, Professor of the Theory of Music, Edinburgh. Dunlop, William Henry, Arman Hill, Kilmarnock. Edmonston, Rev. John, Selkirk. Evans, G. F. D., M.D., St. Mary’s Street, Bedford. Everest, Lt.-Colonel George, Bengal Ar- tillery, F.R.S., Lovel Hill, Windsor. Eyton, T. C., F.L.S., F.G.S., The Vine- yard near Wellington, Shropshire. Farren, Edwin 72 Cornhill, London. Field, Charles, Nottingham Place, London. Fleming, Alex., M.D., Professor of Ma- teria Medica in Queen’s College, Cork. Fleming, Rev. John, D.D., Professor of Natural Science in New College, Edin- burgh ; 22 Walker Street, Edinburgh. Foster, John N., St. Andrew’s, Biggles- wade. Fowler, Richard, M.D., F.R.S., Salisbury. James, Gairdner, W. T., M.D., 18 Hill Street, Edinburgh, : Gibson, Thomas F., 31 Westbourne Ter- race, Hyde Park, London. Gillespie, Alexander, M.D., Edinburgh. Gough, The Hon. Frederick, Perry Hall, Birmingham. Graham, John B., Vere Lodge, Old Brompton, London. Grainger, Thomas, Edinburgh. Greenwood, William, Todmorden, Lan- cashire. Gregory, William, M.D., Professor of Chemistry, Edinburgh. Grey, Rev. H., D.D., Edinburgh. Hall, Sir John, Bart., Dunglass, Had- dington. Hamilton, Robert, 42 Queen Street, Edinburgh. Hancock, John, Largan, Armagh. Hancock, William Neilson, LL.D., Pro- fessor of Political Economy in the Uni- versity of Dublin; Dublin. Harcourt, Rev. L. V., West Dean House, Chichester. ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. Harvey, Alexander, 4 South Wellington Place, Glasgow. Harvey, William Henry, M.D., 40 Trinity College, Dublin. Hawkes, William, Calthorpe Street, Bir- mingham. Henfrey, Arthur, F.L.S., Lecturer on Bo- tany at St. George’s Hospital ; 17 Man- chesterStreet,Gray’s-InnRoad, London. Hill, William, F.R.A.S., Worcester. Hincks, Rev. Edward, LL.D., Killyleagh, Ireland. Hodgkinson, Rev. G. C., M.A., Training Institution, York. Hopkins, Thomas, 5 Broughton Lane, Manchester. Hudson, Robert, F.R.S., Clapham Com- mon near London. Hunt, Robert, Keeper of Mining Records, Museum, Jermyn Street, London. Hunter, J. D., M.D., Edinburgh. Huxtable, Rev. Anthony, Sutton Wal- dron near Blandford. Irwin, Thomas, Somerset House, London. Ivory, Holmes, 2 South Street, David Street, Edinburgh. Jameson, Robert, F.R.S. L.&E., Professor of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh; 21 Royal Cireus, Edin- burgh. Jardine, Alex., Jardine Hall, Lockerby. Jerdan, William, 300 Strand, London. Jones, William, M.D., 4 Orchard Street, London. Johnston, A. Keith, 8 Lauriston Lane, Edinburgh. Kay, Alexander, Manchester. Kelland, Rev. Philip, M.A., F.R.S.L.&E., Professor of Mathematics in the Uni- versity of Edinburgh. Kentish, Rev. John, Park Vale, Edg- baston near Birmingham. Kirkwood, Anderson, 1 Mansfield Place, Glasgow. Laing, David, F.S.A. Seot., Edinburgh. Lankester, Edwin, M.D., F.R.S., 22 Old Burlington Street, London. Latham, R. G., M.D., F.R.S., Upper Southwick Street, Edgware Road, London. Lawson, Henry, F.R.S., 7 Lansdown Crescent, Bath. Lee, Very Rev. John, D.D., V.P.R.S.E., Principal of the University of Edin- burgh. Lees, George, LL.D., Rillbank, Edin- burgh. ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 13 Lloyd, Rev. David, Principal of the Pro- testant Dissenters’ College, Carmarthen. Lloyd, William, M.D., Army and Navy Club, London. Low, David, Professor of Agriculture in the University of Edinburgh. Lowe, W. H., M.D., F.R.S.E., Balgreen, Edinburgh. ᾿ MacLaren, Charles, 15 Northumberland Street, Edinburgh. Macdonald, Alexander, Edinburgh. Macfarlane, John F., 12 Duncan Street, Newington, Edinburgh. M.Gregor, Robert, M.D., Glasgow. Mackenzie, J. W., 16 Royal Circus, Edin- burgh. Macknicht, Alexander, 12 London Street, ‘Edinburgh. Maclagan, Douglas, M.D., Edinburgh. Malcolm, R. B., M.D., 76 George Street, Edinburgh. Maxwell, Sir John, Bart., Pollock, Ren- frewshire. Millar, James S., 9 Roxburgh Street, Edinburgh. 2 Miller, Hugh, Edinburgh. Moir, John, M.D., Edinburgh. Monteith, Alex. E., Inverleith House, τ Edinburgh. Morrieston, Robert, F.R.S.E., 6 Heriot Row, Edinburgh. Mowbray, J. T., 27 Dundas Street, Edinburgh. Murray, Andrew, 15 Edinburgh. Myrtle, J. Y., M.D., 113 Princes Street, Edinburgh. Nachot, H. W., Ph.D., 113 Princes Street, Edinburgh. Nash, Richard West, Cecil Street, Strand, London. Neale, Edward V., 34 Charles Street, Berkeley Square, London. Necker, Theodore, Geneva. Neil, Patrick, LL.D., Cannonmills, Edin- burgh. Neild, William, Mayfield, Manchester. Newport, George, F.R.S., 49 Cambridge Street, Hyde Park Square, London. Nicol, J., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in Queen’s College, Cork. Nelson Street, Oldham, Thomas, F.R.S., M.R.I.A., East Indies. Pagan,S.A., M.D., F.R.S.E., Edinburgh. Peach, C. W., Peterhead, Scotland. Pentland, J. B., 5 Ryder Street, St. James’s, London. Percy, John, M.D., F.R.S., Birmingham. Petrie, William, 3 Upper Woodland Place, Charlton near Woolwich. Phillip, George, Liverpool. Pillans, James, Salisbury Road, Edinburgh. Porter, John, 22 Lincoln’s-Inn-Fields, London. Price, Rev. Bartholomew, M.A., Pem- broke College, Oxford. Ramsay, Andrew C., F.R.S., Director of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and Professor of Geology in University College, London; Museum, Jermyn Street, London. Randall, William B., 146 High Street, - Southampton. Rankin, Rev. Thomas, Huggate, York- shire. Rankine, W. J. M., 57 West Nile Street, Glasgow. Rawlinson, Major H. C., F.R.S., 39 St. James’s Street, London. Reid, William, M.D., Cruivie, Cupar, Fife. Rhind, William, 121 Princes Street, Edinburgh. Ricardo, M., Brighton. Robinson, C. B., The Shrubbery, Lei- cester. Ἢ Ronalds, Francis, F.R.S., Chiswick. Round, Daniel G., Hange Colliery near Tipton. Russell, J. R.,75 Queen Street, Edinburgh. Saull, W. D., F.G.S., 15 Aldersgate Street, London. Scarth, Pillans, Leith. Seller, William, M.D., 23 Nelson Street, Edinburgh. Simpson, James, 33° N orthumberland Street, Edinburgh. Sinclair, Rev. William, Leeds. Skae, David, M.D., Royal Asylum, Edinburgh. Skane, William Forbes. Sloper, George Elgar, Devizes. Sloper, Samuel W., Devizes. Smith, John, M.D., Edinburgh. Smith, Robert Angus, Cavendish Street, Manchester. Smyttan, George, M.D., Edinburgh, Spence, William, F.R.S., 18 Lower Sey- mour Street, Portman Square, London. Spence, W. B., 18 Lower Seymour Street, Portman Square, London. Spence, R. H., 18 Lower Seymour Street, Portman Square, London. - Spittal, R., M.D., 3 London Street, Edinburgh. Stark, James, M.D., F.R.S.E.,Edinburgh. Statham, Henry J., 27 Mortimer Street, Cavendish Square, London. 14 ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. Stevelly, John, LL.D., Professor of Na- | Traill, T.5., M.D., Professor of Legal tural Philosophy in Queen’s College, Belfast. Stevenson, David, 8 Forth Street, Edin- burgh. Stock, T. S., Bourn Brook Hall, Bir- mingham. Strang, John, LL.D., Glasgow. Syme, James, Professor of Clinical Sur- gery in the University of Edinburgh. Talbot, William Hawkshead, Wrighting- ton near Wigan. Teschemacher, E. F., 4 Park Terrace, Highbury, London. Thompson, James, Kirkhouse Brampton, Cumberland. Thomson, Alexander, Banchory House, Kincardineshire. Thomson, Allen, M.D., F.R.S. L.&E., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Glasgow. near Thomson, Rev. James, 10 Earl Street, Blackfriars, London. Thomson, James, Kendal. Thomson, William Hamilton, Street, Edinburgh. Thomson, Wyville T. C., 8 Athol Place, Edinburgh. Tod, James, Sec. Soc. of Arts, F.R.S.E., Edinburgh. Tooke, Thomas, F.R.S., 31 Spring Gar- | dens, London. | 28 Pitt Medicine in the University of Edin- burgh. Tudor, Edward Scripps, Bromley, Mid- dlesex. Twining, Richard, F.R.S., 13 Bedford Place, Russell Square, London. Walker, Charles V., Electric Tele- graph, South Eastern Railway, Tun- bridge. Warington, Robert, Apochecaries’ Hall, London. Watts, John King, St. Ives, Huntingdon- shire. Welsh, John, 152 Cumberland Street, Edinburgh. Wemyss, Alexander Watson, M.D., St. Andrew’s. Wemyss, William, 6 Salisbury Road, Edinburgh. Wilson, Daniel, 17 Archibald Place, Edinburgh. Wilson, George, M.D., Edinburgh. Wise, Robert Stanton, M.D., Ban- bury. Wood, Alex., F.R.C.P., Edinburgh. Wood, Collingwood L., Hetton Hall, Fencehouses, Durham. Wood, Rev. Walter, Elie, Fife. Wornell, George, 8 North Parade, St. Giles’s, Oxford. - BRITISH ASSOCIATION: FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. The Published Reports of Proceedings ai the Meetings of the Association may be obtained by Members on application to the under-mentioned Local Treasurers, or Agents appointed by them, at the following prices, viz—Re- ports for 1849 and 1850 at two-thirds of the Publication Price; and for the purpose of completing their sets, any of the earlier volumes, of which more than 100 copies remain, at one-third of the Publication Price. TREASURER. DEPOT FOR THE REPORTS. LONDON ...............e.J0hn Taylor, Esq. Mr. R. Taylor’s Printing Office, Red 6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames Street. Lion Court, Fleet Street. LOCAL TREASURERS. DEPOTS. YORK ..........45 seoeeeeee William Gray, Esq. ........s0+ Yorkshire Museum. CAMBRIDGE ..,,........C. C. Babington, Esq. ....... -» House of the Philosophical Society. EDINBURGH ............William Brand, Esq. ....... -.Union Bank of Scotland. DUBLIN ..ccceccesssseceee DF. OFpes .eeeeessereseeessreeeta SOUtH Frederick Street. BRISTOL ....... CSE-RES .... William Sanders, Esq..........Philosophical Institution, Park Street. BIRMINGHAM .......0e...dames Russell, Esq. ...seeerses Philosophical Institution. GLASGOW .....-.........Professor Ramsay........... .... Lhe College. Mr. James Orme, Lit. and Phil. Society MANCHESTER «......00005 G. W. Ormerod, Esq. ...... Chapel Yard, 9 Cheapside, King St. SouUTHAMPTON .....,...John Sadleir Moody, Esq. SWANSEA _ ...,e.ese0e-e-d0hn Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq. Associates for the Meeting in 1850 may obtain the Volume for the Year at the same price as Members. « PROCEEDINGS orf rue FIRST anp SECOND MEETINGS, at York and Oxford, 1831 and 1832, Published at 13s. 6d. ConTEnTs :—Prof. Airy, on the Progress of Astronomy ;—J. W. Lubbock, on the Tides; —Prof. Forbes, on the Present State of Meteorology ;—Prof. Powell, on the Present State of the Science of Radiant Heat ;—Prof. Cumming, on Thermo-Electricity ;—Sir D. Brewster, on the Progress of Optics;—Rev. W. Whewell, on the Present State of Mineralogy ;—Rev. W. Ὁ. Conybeare, on the Recent Progress and Present State of Geology ;—Dr, Prichard’s Review of Philological and Physical Researches. Together with Papers on Mathematics, Optics, Acoustics, Magnetism, Electricity, Chemistry, Meteorology, Geography, Geology, Zoology, Anatomy, Physiology, Botany, and the Arts; and an Exposition of the Objects and Plan of the Association, &c. PROCEEDINGS or tHe THIRD MEETING at Cambridge, 1833, Published at 12s. ConTENTs :—Proceedings of the Meeting;—John Taylor, on Mineral Veins ;—Dr. Lindley, on the Philosophy of Botany ;—Dr. Henry, on the Physiology of the Nervous Sy- stem ;—P. Barlow, on the Strength of Materials ;—S. H. Christie, on the Magnetism of the Earth ;—Rev. J. Challis, on the Analytical Theory of Hydrostatics and Hydrodynamics ;— G. Rennie, on Hydraulics asa Branch of Engineering, Part I. ;—Rev. G. Peacock, on certain Branches of Analysis. Together with papers on Mathematics and Physics, Philosophical Instruments and Mecha~ nical Arts, Natural History, Anatomy, Physiology, and History of Science. PROCEEDINGS or tHe FOURTH MEETING, at Edinburgh, 1834, Published at 15s. Contents :—H, D. Rogers, on the Geology of North America;—Dr. C. Henry, on the Laws of Contagion ;—Prof. Clark, on Animal Physiology ;—Rev. L. Jenyns, on Zoology ;— Rey. J. Challis, on Capillary Attraction ;—Prof. Lloyd, on Physical Optics ;—G. Rennie, on Hydraulics, Part II. Aly Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the Association ‘and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or rHE FIFTH MEETING, at Dublin, 1835, Pub- lished at 13s. 6d. Contents :—Rev. W. Whewell, on the Recent Progress and present Condition of the Mathematical Theories of Electricity, Magnetism, and Heat ;—A. Quetelet, Apergu de l’Etat actuel des Sciences Mathématiques chez les Belges;—Capt. E. Sabine, on the Phe- nomena of Terrestrial Magnetism. ; Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Sir W. Hamilton’s Address, and Re- commendations of the Association and its Committees. : PROCEEDINGS or toe SIXTH MEETING, at Bristol, 1836, Pub- lished at 12s. ConTENTs :—Prof. Daubeny, on the Present State of our Knowledge with respect to Mine- ral and Thermal Waters ;—Major E. Sabine, on the Direction and Intensity of the Terrestrial Magnetic Force in Scotland ;—J. Richardson, on North American Zoology ;—Rev. J. Challis, on the Mathematical Theory of Fluids ;—J. T. Mackay, a Comparative View of the more remarkable Plants which characterize the neighbourhood of Dublin and Edinburgh, and the South-west of Scotland, &c. ;—J. T. Mackay, Comparative Geographical Notices of the more remarkable Plants which characterize Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of the London Sub- Committee of the Medical Section on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;—Second Report of the Dublin Sub-Committee on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;—Report of the Dublin Committee on the Pathology of the Brain and Nervous System;—J. W. Lubbock, Account of the Recent Discussions of Observations of the Tides ;—Rev. B. Powell, on determining the Refractive Indices for the Standard Raysof the Solar Spectrum in various media;——-Dr. Hodgkin, on the Communication between the Arteries and Absorbents;—Prof. Phillips, Report of Experi~ ments on Subterranean Temperature ;—Prof. Hamilton, on the Validity ofa Method recently pro- posed by G. B. Jerrard, for Transforming and Resolving Equations of Elevated Degrees. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Daubeny’s Address, and Recommen- dations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or tue SEVENTH MEETING, at Liverpool, 1837, Published at 16s. 6d. ConTENTS :—Major E. Sabine, on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at dif- ferent points of the Earth’s Surface ;—Rev. W. Taylor, on the various modes of Printing for the use of the blind ;—J. W. Lubbock, on the Discussions of Observations of the Tides ;— Prof. T. Thomson, on the Difference between the Composition of Cast Iron produced by the Cold and Hot Blast ;—Rev. T. R. Robinson, on the Determination of the Constant of Nutation by the Greenwich Observations ;—R. W. Fox, Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic Veins, and the Temperature of Mines ;—Provisional Report of the Committee of the: Medical Section of the British Association, appointed to investigate the Composition of Secretions, and the organs producing them ;—Dr. G. O. Rees, Report from the Committee for inquiring into the Analysis of the Glands, &c. of the Human Body ;—Second Report of the London Sub-Com- mittee of the British Association Medical Section, on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;— Prof. Johnston, on the Present State of our knowledge in regard to Dimorphous Bodies ;—Lt.- Col. Sykes, on the Statistics of the Four Collectorates of Dukhun, under the British Govern- ment ;—E. Hodgkinson, on the relative Strength and other Mechanical Properties of Iron ob- tained from the Hot and Cold Blast ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Strength and other Properties of Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast ;—Sir J. Robison, and J. S. Russell, Report of the Committee on Waves ;—Note by Major Sabine, being an Appendix to his Report on the Vari- ations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at different Points of the Earth’s Surface ;—J. Yates, on the Growth of Plants under glass, and without any free communication with the outward Air, on the Plan of Mr. N. J. Ward, of London. ν Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Traill’s Address, and Recommenda- tions of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or tue EIGHTH MEETING, at Newcastle, 1838, Published at 15s. ConTENTS :—Rey. W. Whewell, Account of a Level Line, measured from the Bristol Chan- nel to the English Channel, by Mr. Bunt;—Report on the Discussions of Tides, prepared under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell;—W. S. Harris, Account of the Progress and State of the Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Major E. Sabine, on the Magnetic Isoclinal and Isodynamic Lines in the British Islands;—D. Lardner, LL.D., on the Determi- nation of the Mean Numerical Values of Railway Constants ;—R. Mallet, First Report upon Experiments upon the Action of Sea and River Water upon Cast and Wrought Iron ;—K. Mallet, on the Action of a Heat of 212° Fahr., when long continued, on Inorganic and Or- ganic Substances. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison’s Address, and Recommen- dations of the Association and its Committees. - PROCEEDINGS or true NINTH MEETING, at Birmingham, 1839, Published at 13s. 6d. Contents :—Rev. B. Powell, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Refractive Indices, for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in different media ;—Report on the Ap- plication of the Sum assigned for Tide Calculations to Rev. W. Whewell, in a Letter from T. G. Bunt, Esq.;—H. L. Pattinson, on some galvanic Experiments to determine the Existence or Non-Existence of Electrical Currents among Stratified Rocks, particularly those of the Moun- tain Limestone formation, constituting the Lead Measures of Alston Moor ;—Sir D. Brewster, Reports respecting the two series of Hourly Meteorological Observations kept in Scotland ;— Report on the subject of a series of Resolutions adopted by the British Association at their Meeting in August 1838, at Newcastle ;—R. Owen, Report on British Fossil Reptiles ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Distribution of pulmoniferous Mollusca in the British Isles;—W. S. Harris, Third Report on the Progress of the Hourly Meteorological Register at the Plymouth Dockyard. Monether with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt’s Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or toe TENTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 1840, Published at 15s. ConTENTS :—Rev. B. Powell, Report on the recent Progress of discovery relative to Radiant Heat, supplementary to a former Report on the same subject inserted in the first volume of the Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of Science ;—J. D. Forbes, Supple- mentary Report on Meteorology ;—W. 5. Harris, Report on Prof. Whewell’s Anemometer, now in operation at Plymouth ;—Report on “ The Motions and’Sounds of the Heart,” by the London Committee of the British Association, for 1839-40 ;—Prof. Schénbein, an Account of Researches in Electro-Chemistry ;—R. Mallet, Second Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at various temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and Steel;—R. W. Fox, Report on some Observations on Subterranean Tem- perature ;—A. F. Osler, Report on the Observations recorded during the years 1837, 1838, 1839 and 1840, by the Self-registering Anemometer erected at the Philosophical Institution, Bir- mingham ;—Sir D. Brewster, Report respecting the two Series of Hourly Meteorological Ob- servations kept at Inverness and Kingussie, from Nov. Ist, 1838 to Nov. Ist, 1839 ;—W. Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Vertebrata;—C. J. B. Williams, M.D., Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs and Air-Tubes ;—Rev. J. 5. Henslow, Report of the Committee on the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison and Major E. Sabine’s Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or τὴ ELEVENTH MEETING, at Plymouth, 1841, Published at 13s. 6d. ConTENTS :—Rev. P. Kelland, on the Present State of our Theoretical and Experimental Knowledge of the Laws of Conduction of Heat ;—G. L. Roupell, M.D., Report on Poisons ;— T.G. Bunt, Report on Discussions of Bristol Tides, under the-direction of the Rev. W. Whewell ; —D. Ross, Report on the Discussions of Leith Tide Observations, under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell ;—W. 5. Harris, upon the working of Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth during the past year;—Report of a Committee appointed for the purpose of superintend- ing the scientific co-operation of the British Association in the system of Simultaneous Obser- vations in Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology ;—Reports of Committees appointed to pro- vide Meteorological Instruments for the use of M. Agassiz and Mr. M‘Cord ;—Report of a Committee to superintend the reduction of Meteorological Observations ;—Report of a Com- mittee for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Report of a Committee for obtaining In- struments and Registers to record Shocks of Earthquakes in Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of a Committee on the Preservation of Vegetative Powers in Seeds ;—Dr. Hodgkin, on Inquiries into the Races of Man ;—Report of the Committee appointed to report how far the Desiderata in our knowledge of the Condition of the Upper Strata of the Atmosphere may be supplied by means of Ascents in Balloons or otherwise, to ascertain the probable expense of such Experi- ments, and to draw up Directions for Observers in such circumstances ;—R. Owen, Report on British Fossil Reptiles ;—Reports on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway Constants ;—D. Lardner, LL.D., Second and concluding Report on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway Constants;—E. Woods, Report on Railway Constants ;—Report of a Committee on the Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-Engines. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Whewell’s Address, and Recommen- dations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWELFTH MEETING, at Manchester, 1842, Published at 10s. 6d. ' ConTEnTs :—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;— J. Richardson, M.D., Report on the present State of the Ichthyology of New Zealand ;— W. S. Harris, Report on the Progress of Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Second Report of a Committee appointed to make Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds; —C. Vignoles, Report of the Committee on Railway Sections ;—Report of the Committee for the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances ;—Lyon Playfair, M.D., Abstract of Prof. Liebig’s Report on “Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pathology ;”— R. Owen, Report on the British Fossil Mammalia, Part I. ;-R. Hunt, Researchés on the Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—L. Agassiz, Report on the Fossil Fishes of the Devonian System or Old Red Sandstone ;--W. Fairbairn, Ap- pendix.to a Report on the Strength and other Properties of Cast Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast ;—D. Milne, Report of the Committee for registering Shocks of Earthquakes in Great Britain ;—Report of a Committee on the Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam- Engines, and for the determination of the Velocity of the Piston of the Self-acting Engine at different periods of the Stroke;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Committee on the form of Ships ; —Report of a Committee appointed “to consider of the rules by which the Nomenclature of Zoology may be established on a uniform and permanent basis ;’”——Report of a Committee on the Vital Statistics of large Towns in Scotland ;~—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Francis Egerton’s Address, and Re- commendations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or tHe THIRTEENTH MEETING, at Cork, 1843, Published at 12s. ConTEentTs:—Robert Mallet, Third Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, and of Various Temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought Iron and Steel ;—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the British As- sociation in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Sir J. Ε΄ W. Herschel, Bart., Report of the Committee appointed for the Reduction of Meteoro- logical Observations ;—Report of the Committee appointed for Experiments on Steam- Engines ;—Report of the Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Series of Observations on the Tides of the Frith of Forth and the East Coast of Scotland ;—J. 5. Russell, Notice of a Report of the Committee on the Form of Ships ;—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines ;—Report of the Committee on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report of the Committee for Registering the Shocks of Earthquakes, and making such Meteorological Observations as may appear to them desirable ;—Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Captive Balloons ; —Prof. Wheatstone, Appendix to the Report ;—Report of the Committee for the Translation and Publication of Foreign Scientific Memoirs ;—C. W. Peach, on the Habits of the Marine Testacea ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Zgean Sea, and on their distribu:ion, considered as bearing on Geology ;—L. Agassiz, Synoptical Table of British Fossil Fishes, arranged in the order of the Geological Formations ;—R. Owen, Report on the British Fossil Mammalia, Part II.;—E. W. Binney, Report on the excavation made at the junction of the Lower New Red Sandstone with the Coal Measures at Collyhurst ;—W. Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Invertebrata ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Earl of Rosse’s Address, and Recommen- dations of the Association and its Committees. ὶ PROCEEDINGS oF THE FOURTEENTH MEETING, at York, 1844, Published at £1. _ ConTENT's :—W. B. Carpenter, on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;——-J. Alder and A. Hancock, Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca ;—R. Hunt, Researches on the Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;——Report of a Committee appointed by the British Association in 1840, for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on the Meteorology of Toronto in Canada ;—J. Blackwall, Report on some recent researches into the Structure, Functions and CEconomy of the Araneidea made in Great Britain;—Earl of Rosse, on the Construction of large Reflecting Telescopes; —Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on ἃ Gas Furnace for Experiments on Vitrifaction and other Applications of High Heat in the Laboratory;—Report of the Committee for Registering Earthquake Shocks in Scotland ;—Report of a Committee for Experiments on Steam-Engines ; —Report of the Committee to investigate the Varieties of the Human Race;—Fourth Report of a Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds;=-W. Fair- bairn, on the Consumption of Fuel and the prevention of Smoke ;—F. Ronalds, Report con- cerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew ;—Sixth Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the Co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simulta- neous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Prof. Forchhammer ‘on the influence of Fucoidal Plants upon the Formations of the Earth, on Metamorphism in general, and par- ticularly the Metamorphosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate ;~-H. E. Strickland, Report on thé recent Progress and present State of Ornithology ;—T. Oldham, Report of Committee appointed to conduct Observations on Subterranean Temperature in Ireland ;—Prof. Owen, Report on the Extinct Mammals of Australia, with descriptions of certain Fossils indicative of the former existence in that Continent of large Marsupial Representatives of the Order Pachydermata ;—W. 5. Harris; Report on the working of Whewell and Qsler’s Anemometers at Plymouth, for the years 1841, 1842, 1843;—W. R. Birt, Report on Atmospheric Waves ; —L. Agassiz, Report sur les Poissons Fossiles de l’Argile de Londres, with translation ;—J. S. Russell, Report on Waves ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Re- searches entrusted to Committees and Individuals. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dean of Ely’s Address, and Recommenda- tions of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or τὴ FIFTEENTH MEETING, at Cambridge, 1845, Published at 195. CoNTENTS :—Seventh Report of a Committee appointed to conduct the Co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observa- tions ;— Lt.-Col. Sabine, on some points in the Meteorology of Bombay ;—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines ;—Dr. Von Boguslawski, on the Comet of 1843; —R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—Preft Schénbein, on Ozone ;—Prof. Erman, on the Influence of Friction upon Thermo-Electricity ;—Baron Senftenberg, on the Self- Registering Meteorological Instruments employed in-the Observatory at Senftenberg ;— W. R. Birt, Second Report on Atmospheric Waves;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress and Pre- sent Extent of Savings’ Banks in the United Kingdom;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr. Playfair, Report on the Gases evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the Theory of Smelting of Iron ;—Dr. Richardson, Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan ;— Report of the Committee on the Registration of Periodical Phenomena of Animals and Vege- tables ;—-Fifth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Appendix, &c. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir J, F. W. Herschel’s Address, and Re- commendations of thé Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or rue SIXTEENTH MEETING, at Southampton, 1846, Published at 15s. _ConTENTs :—G. G. Stokes, Report on Recent Researches in Hydrodynamics ;~-Sixth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. Schunck, ‘on the Colouring Matters of Madder ;—J. Blake, on the’ Physiological Action of Medicines ;—R. Hunt, Report on the Ac- tinograph ;—R. Hunt, Notices on the Influence of Light on the Growth of Plants;—R. L. Ellis, on the Recent Progress of Analysis ;—Prof. Forchhammer, of Comparative Analytical Researches on Sea Water ;—A. Erman, on the Calculation of the Gaussian Constants for - 1829 ;—G. R. Porter, on thé Progress, present Amount, and probable future Condition of the Iron Manufacture in Great Britain;—W. R. Birt, Third Report on Atmospheric Waves ;— Prof. Owen, Report on the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton ;— J. Phillips, on Anemometry ;—J. Percy, M:D., Report on the Crystalline Slags ;—Addenda to Mr. Birt’s Report on Atmospheric Waves. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir R. I. Murchison’s Address, and Re- commendations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or toe SEVENTEENTH MEETING, at Oxford, 1847, Published at 18s. ConTeNrTs :—Prof. Langberg, on the Specific Gravity of Salphuric Acid at different de- grees of dilution, and on the relation which exists between the Development of Heat and ‘the coincident contraction of Volume in Sulphuric Acid when mixed with Water;—R. Hunt, Researches on the Influence of the Solar Rays on the Growth of Plants ;—R. Mallet, on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Prof. Nilsson, on the Primitive Inhabitants of Scan- dinavia ;—-W. Hopkins, Report on the Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes; —Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Report on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—Rev. W. Whewell and Sir James C. Ross, Report upon the Recommendation of an Expedition for the purpose of completing our knowledge of the Tides ;—Dr. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—Seventh Re- port of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. Glynn, on the Turbine or Horizental Water-Wheel of France and Germany ;—Dr. R. G. Latham, on the present state and recent progress of Ethnographical Philology ;—Dr. J. C. Prichard, on the various methods of Research which contribute to the Advancement of Ethnology, and of the relations of that Science to other branches of Knowledge ;—Dr. C. C. J. Bunsen, on the results of the recent Egyptian researches in reference to Asiatic and African Ethnology, and the Classification of Languages ; —Dr. C. Meyer, on the Importance of the Study of the Celtic Language as exhibited by the Modern Celtic Dialects still extant;—Dr. Max Miller, on the Relation of the Bengali to the Arian and Aboriginal Languages of India;—W. R. Birt, Fourth Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—Prof. W. H. Dove, Temperature Tables; with Introductory Remarks by Lieut.-Col. E. Sabine ;—A. Erman and H. Petersen, Third Report on the Calculation of the Gaussian Con- stants for 1829. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Robert Harry Inglis’s Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or tue EIGHTEENTH MEETING, at Swansea, 1848, Published at 9s. ContENTS:—Rev. B. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors;—J. Glynn, on Water-pressure Engines ;—R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns ;—Eighth Report of a Committee on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—W. R. Birt, Fifth Report on Atmo- spheric Waves ;—E. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—J. P. Budd, on the advantageous use made of the gaseous escape from the Blast Furnaces at the Ystalyfera Iron Works ;—R. Hunt, Report of progress in the investigation of the Action of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of ~ Plants allied to those of the Coal Formations ;—Prof. H. W. Dove, Supplement to the Tem- perature Tables printed in the Report of the British Association for 1847 ; Remarks by Prof. Dove on his recently constructed Maps of the Monthly Isothermal Lines of the Globe, and on some of the principal Conclusions in regard to Cliniatology deducible from them; with an in- troductory Notice by Lt.-Col. E. Sabine ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the Progress of the investigation on the Influence of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Ferns ;—J. Phillips, Notice of further progress in Anemometrical Researches ;—Mr. Mallet’s Letter to the Assistant-General Secre- tary ;—A. Erman, Second Report on the Gaussian Constants ;—Report of a Committee relative to the expediency of recommending the continuance of the Toronto Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory until December 1850. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Marquis of Northampton’s Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or tHe NINETEENTH MEETING, at Birmingham, 1849, Published at 10s. ConTENTs :—Rev. B. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Earl of Rosse, Notice of Nebulz lately observed in the Six-feet Reflector ;—Prof. Daubeny, on the Influence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants, especially of those allied to the Fossil Remains fonnd in the Coal Formation;—Thomas Andrews, M.D., Report on the Heat of Combination ;—Report of the Committee on the Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants and Animals ;—Ninth Report of a Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds‘—Francis Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from Aug. 9, 1848 to Sept. 12, 1849;—Robert Mallet, Report on the Experimental Inquiry conducted at the request of the British Association, on Railway Bar Corrosion ;—William Radcliff Birt, Report on the Discussion of the Electrical Observations at Kew. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. T. R. Robinson’s Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. DOVE’S MONTHLY ISOTHERMAL MAPS OF THE GLOBE, with the accompanying Memoir, Price 5s. LITHOGRAPHED SIGNATURES of the MEMBERS who met at Cambridge in 1838, with the Proceedings of the Public Meetings, 4to. Price 4s. (To Members, 3s.) ; EN Nhe wt ee Pee στε os ys Teg Be | ΤΑ id i Ϊ } i | | ee 2 Peay ΖΩ A ae —— | Ks) Report of the Brit™ Assoc "Plate lV p. 10, Sect. t and Third Persons of verbs. ΖΕ ἔμ ῥα qa.var LI our do Ay] yee. Ge rw they - .,»-»- Py al ag. eu. mee te preserve εἶν the ao ao VIG. Ch. γα: he- Meme ao 447 VAG. Ca. TU they -- ayy >} Pr as. ru.vap 272 > YY burn do ao yas. ru. vap he 2% ἘΕΞ as. tac. can 7 β pyre appour > Y: Ζ tobe] : tac. ca.nu they — nf- av. nw L oH $ asstgrn γῶν. nw. va ET YF es. ew gs » Lay : y. Akh. ra they! eee found before ΤΥ » .Ὧῇ pdx A (he termination of the teminine plural ) [ BST ΕΥ̓͂ ἘΠῚ FF ΕΞ ΜΠ cerry ry Vo Oy oF «Ὁ A ΕΑΣΙ͂ ote] @ in the last row terminate in a Corsonant, tive and Noun ditterentiy inflected. ERT ὁ PEE oT pa. vt. bla Pa. δ΄ uw shy FEN i} la. s a Edw. Hincks, Hiltyleagh. 29. July 1650. J.Basire, Lith. Prhel Participles Shaphel Participles (1200) -- τι ἘΠῚ OH ἘΣ ΤῈ ἜΝ ΞΕ ant Ξε: ἘΠ ἘΠ . ἘΞ ant a ὅπ a ERqy ma :: ac δ᾽ “r yar ao de de a Ba tere (Sead BE ay ta ἘΞΑ ao BEV) κά «ὲ ἴα a W BIA ERY TT ὉΠ 8 de eal EE 3 < burn > 1A do do yas ru. vap he ef fae re as. tac can if >< »- 4 2 rs »-- Ἷ Δ Ρ ἘΠῚ ΠΝ tac. ca.nu they = ΚΑ Ἢ ΤΣ OP 7 ζω ΓΙ γαν. na. va ley seh ἃ ΠῚ Shire, aie L 5 bE gH AL i >> wy akh ru they | This participle, like that of Pthel, vs regularly | composed of five characters | The first: vs Ε Ἑ or tts hamophine™ va, (ma) | Ψ Y = the second ts or tts homophone Erx sa the third ws of the form al | he fourth of the form Ca er Ct; and ts ur the rhasculine singular of the form yal; the forms ἐξ, Ca and Ca replacing tas i Prhel some torms are abbreviated, as BYE teh) oY I Ξ 3 ξ Xe 5 > \ a eee |: | & Ϊ ἊΣ Ee cal | 7 τ Ler Zz = 2 3 71 70 2 Fe : 99 9 Ξ = \ 3 5 eo i \ ae ἕ » 3 γι wea ἢ ἢ 99 Ξε 9 2’ a "9 5 Bi | ἈΠ] Le ὃ & = - ..-- τ - = I ἕξ δὴ εἶ ΓΖ 96° E [2 δὲ 9 ΟΣ SF & 5 ἃ | or Ν] ἢ εἜ bd © Ξ Lat | ΒΕ ἀ : |} ἘΠ | w-z Ζ6Γ ws ἢ ᾿-ν ae 81 9 CAE ECB Ϊ 5 | se τ Ϊ ikea Ξ τε \ δ Ϊ , ἜΝΙ =} a iw ex - Ξ ye 09. OF 9 | TEE SY Ζ i ANS oy (a2 £67 ΟΞ | | ov | | | OF ΑΞ Ξ ΞΘ ἢ | & 719 “Ὁ ὍΣ | ee || se —s SS ; | δ a og 9. 9 Go. os | | Avon yyy | | ἐν ν, | . ᾿ a | | | 9e Gnpenoveny) bas Ue | | Ὰ Pune es AN Pe» [ΞΞΞ Se | χοὸς eal . ῳ - 79 δ 59 a OFT IIe a R 5 vi 79 BF aa | be°+# | at” Ἔ Ϊ 3) ce NIP ΣΙ IN \s EN μη rope τ᾿ ᾿ σα ΤΑ “7 Sod - IS = i = pe Hz ae Ξογμιδν»,} Ἰξ1 - eg ST 9 “πὶ f° 8 lel ye =| ΚΙ , Εἰ 99 ors Lr art | | ΙΕ ok SHIPS ΕΙΣ ΜΞ Ξ Ϊ | Ε or i ἐμ poug. 8 | 8) oz fs ; ea! 2 2 WPL Ἔ καὶ 69 Tre oT OT ® ἢ ἢ ANS Nf esomeoe |S 49 Baw, or ae | S panos | Spe | | oper | ix »“ phen a Ἢ 4 | as Dd : 2.) ||" | Ἂς ἯΙ: iil Ῥ = — = = Nh ν, ne 99 Bb ol στε] P| remnant sili aan 29 ork oir ob Ef 55] Demag 7 ES eet ag OS ΜΞ ὦ Beh 7 Abst Horccour 29 96°F em ae Pa ap eae if 2K] || ear Dim kaa cree ῥθ΄ς 2 ἘΠ΄. ON Ρ | EN SS is ΕΒ NASB bl Rad 29 25 Ὁ a ὍΣ ΤΟ, al lees Za wa fp 69 21 Ὁ ool 72 ¢ oF “ SCNT kee Se Ε = ee eS | pst 5 Nat Ν S é = ΒΕΞῈ Ξ 39 ars oor Lae Ε S i oF ἵ τ TL bok Lov ae » “ΔΒ dapat Al X AA g ἢ OL ΕΣ Lor ΔΡΊΒΕΣ || [στ τσ hi gpa) ἢ Senne) ll waar vor | 99°72 | ὩΣ Ὁ sv Ye is TREES INY Νὰ aa δὲ- τε] [et i ἡ : aL Orr 200 ee € y CAP OLLF. OL SETS SOT CEG | Tow pysunnty oT ica Sx) — — = τ Me » ε τὸ: 1.4 pul | > = ι- el 26 Ὁ VOT $68 ν x 92 Bans oT Card a S ὃ ica) ςς = =——_ or}. Ζ ΒΟ ΔῈ aN . tl 26 | Or | ae SA ἜΣ πα τῶ ΠΤ 6 | punsurys.my, Ν δ, -- πολ 8 ° τὰ > a Ξ ΞΞΞ τὶ ae 1813) ς τς fea Ὁ “ΞΘ Ὁ φυχο γώ» 7 mopoysjo ny) mopoys Ὁ 245 δι φρρυραυ ἀρ πο a GE ἢ pune SIN «σφ τος πρτοη UROL a AE Ge Me |) Te γυιρά | pry — prunvvdidras) rerun | © ze) See 5: prtenened tes sore aod | dieunndra pana es ody | yy Ho mopoys my so speod eyo rm purod eddn suns τομήν iy iy | add | yo ppupmornnod, sfryany|) wor sxyoun σὴ Ie of “Mops 10 σά χραχθο oy SPHOMOD με | c . TIS | PM add suns) Tew) 0 wo vruntwaddoar pu axunivedidosip yo pod wddn |seddn sung, 28 sung | ouery πάσα noup, PROT ua 2dup) uonwing suns mou seu np ον pando aq oj Wows eee abu) το | mauepouyt Joo [oe Ζ t ΓῚ Ϊ = [ CTS ΞΕ Ὶ aC | aa ρας we 42,0 yosp uns, ap Jo eslipyy POLE] ¥ 3% Sire τῇ I ΜΝ Vile ke let ῥα ΠΝ we on ΗΝ ΩΝ Ἧ ve areata ΕΝ, ἡ «᾽ς 4 ¢ ered ee Fe ἕῳ ἤς ἐφ it ΣΙ ὙΘΣΉ ΤΗΝ + 4 ; + + . ἐν ον"