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See

7 ae ¥ Mes ome
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ed

REPORT

OF THE

TWENTY-EIGHTH MEETING

i

i Z BAN - . \
ld an ln Gy NR? Sa MJ

Wesel Vals S/

X&, yee Beard

— of
N H STOR

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE:

HELD AT LEEDS IN SEPTEMBER 1858,

LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1859.

PRINTED BY
RICHARD TAYLOR AND WILLIAM FRANCIS,

RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET,

CONTENTS.

ON Fy

Page
Oxssects and Rules of the Association ........ssseseeseerseeeseeeeeeeenss XVil
Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement .........ss+++++e+ XX

NEMS ECCODNE S55.50sen conspoceved ager ads cas (rasta snspegcoanss conqes XSL
Table of Council from commencement ............ssseeeeseseeseecseeeeree XXIV
RE ULC OURCIL oc ccacdincs 194 d9nccavpac onde xns'pcqGeha¥s ae 7H) dayenesdeane, REVE
Officers of Sectional Committees ..........ccccsvescceseeeeeceeteccseeseee XEVIl
Corresponding Members............+. Mis adinpaaseanysahsankanade aR TELE
Report of the Council to ies Hear Coninitieg . Senaennt}s aqyhe<tys, 7M
Report of the Kew Committee ....... cssssccseseseeteceereesectseseestees XXRIi
Report of the Parliamentary Committee ......s..seeseeeeeeeecer trent ete XXXvi
Recommendations for Additional Reports and Reasaialia in Science xxxix
Pemmmreis of Money Grants oso, nay ie chanad var or snudan beg ot%iqe xed pasbe toys. SHR
General Statement of Sums paid for Scientific Purposes .............. xliv
Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee ..........000+4. xlvil
Arrangement of the General Meetings ......scessseecseeesececeeeessereees Slviil
Address of the President ..... bbadsaandevadvadsds advseg serdidaccecbetbbworesteds | RUIX

REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE.

Fourth Report upon the Facts and late of Fee Phenomena.
By Roemer MALiereississ sou sis ddesdtectvived.cadabsadsetees tae dabeccvats A

_ Report on Observations of Luminous talker, 1857-58. By the Rev.
Bapewn Powe tt, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S., Savilian Professor
of Geometry in the University of Oxford .......ccccesee eee ceeeseesseeeeee 137

On some Points in the Anatomy of the Araneidea, or true Spiders, espe-
cially on the internal structure of their Spinning Organs. By R. H.
MRR FRB sth ois ci ds otcti Vavediabels Wliesdddirissbeicteieesiveiasy BSF

The Patent Laws.—Report of the Committee of the British Association.
Presented by W. FAIRBAIRN, F.R.S. .........ssseseccssccarssccsccccceeesse 16%

iv CONTENTS.
Page
On the Lead Mining Districts of Yorkshire. ks SrerHEN Eppy,
Carlton, Skipton) 2. °.elecssosscausasesdeheswasigasaneeGeeenarayemess: LO

On the re of Glass Globes and Cylinders By W. FarrpBatrn,

fenott on the Marine Fauna of the = South and West Cate of *Treland.
By E. Percevat Wricut, M.B., A.B., F.L.S., M.R.LA., Director
of the Museum, and Lecturer on uoliaey: University of Dublin; and
J. Reay Greene, A.B., M.R.I.A., Professor of Natural History,
Queen's College; Cork: \ Part 12°(1858) .i.....-. 2. .cerscs-scaseassosvedeeee LID

On Experiments on the Measurement of Water by Triangular Notches
in Weir Boards. By James Tuomson, A.M., C.E., Professor of
Civil Engineering, Queen’s College, Belfast . A iehbakgpatanetens Lem

Report of the Committee on the me Biot of Great Britain.
By Major-General SABINE . ete ICT sev sien oan aes ave nnsiavgptanieaane LOR

Report on Animal, Vegetable, a and Mineral Substances imported from
Foreign Countries into the Clyde (including the Ports of Glasgow,
Greenock, and Port Glasgow) in the years 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856,
1857. se MicHAEL Connal, sie and Witt1aM Keppig, Esq.,
Glasgow... Lider ete hy SEAMEN DRG oA cB et sab ates See wes, cdssapeteacs LOO

Report of the Committee on Slifpping Statistics. Presented to the
British. Association, September 1858. .........0.scccseccccssccsccsecscsecee DOD

Notice of the Instruments employed in the Magnetic Survey of Ireland,
with some of the Results. By the Rev. H. Luoyp, D.D., M.R.LA... 260

Report of Dublin Dredging Committee, aay 1857-58. at Pro-
fessor J. R. Kivanan, M.D., M.R.LA.. penees desede bouieditess \ sites
Report on Crustacea of Dublin District. By ded anus une
M.D., M.R.1.A., Professor of Zoology in the Department of Science
and Art.—Part I. Decapoda Podophthalmata ............cssseeceeeeeees 262
On River Steamers, their Form, Construction, and Fittings, with refer-
ence to the necessity for improving the present means of Shallow
Water Navigation on the Rivers of British India. By ANDREW
Henpenrson, A.l.C. Bas WiSehig Bel Matis aacesasicecssncos svsscsasstennan 20D
Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee. By Grorcz C. HynpMan 282
Appendix to Mr. Vignoles’ paper.‘ On the Adaptation of Suspension
Bridges to sustain the passage of ee Trains” (Rept. Brit. Assoc.
Report of the Joe. Committee of the Royal Sauls aad ‘the British
Association, for procuring a continuance of the Magnetic and
Meteorological Observatories ........ssssescenesecssenecscoserssconsessegesee, DOD
Description of a Self-recording Siecdaueiet By R. Beil, sate
ant at the Kew Observatory of the British Association ............«.. 306

CONTENTS. Vv
NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS
OF
MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.
MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
MATHEMATICS.
: Page
Address by the Rev. W. WueweE tt, President of the Section ..csscocsesseseeveese =
Rev. J. Boorn on a General Method of deriving the Properties of umbilical sur-
faces of the second order, having three unequal axes, from the properties of
the Sphere ...cecccecocssesccsrscecsecerscceressasstees ecedoeeee wevtpecs savawaeeeh sn ote er
Rev. J. Boors on the Mutual Relations of Inverse Curves and Inverse Curved
Surfaces......... Beaunes¥seeesness siete eadeoeaee Pecsieqese seer Peo deeget ave Ribdeuywb ces cow =) eb
Mr. A. Cavey on the Notion of Distance in Analytical Geometry....s..+ese++0 3
Mr. J. Pore Hennessy on Dr. Whewell’s Views respecting the Nature and
Value of Mathematical Definitions .......... sepensbuaneeses Fupdvabte samescceroves'se ieee
on some Properties of a Series of the Powers of the
same Number .osscsccsssessccceeersaseececeseeeeceasssscnaseenssceeeseses sees Meee ores 4
Dr. F. A. SizsestR6M on the Conditions of Equilibrium in a Rotating Spheroid 5
Mr. G. TuurneEtt on a Mode of constructing the Rectangular Hyperbola by
POints....c.ccccccccscssesceressseceoes Sndueesesssatecshecttess eechtoeensace potetatedanencetet 5
Mr. C. M. Wixtrcu on a Mode of constructing Tables of Squares and Cubes. 6
Lieut, Heart.
Miss Rosina ZorNuIN on Heat, and on the Indestructibility of Elementary
Bodies. (Communicated by W. S. AyRTon.)..... Lagperct seovwongavecesseseccerose 6
Sir Davip Brewster on the Duration of Luminous Impressions on certain
Points of the Retina........scsccocesssceneereeces De Biaweaaesb de eacddbven os ens ds veece 6
on Vision through the Foramen Centrale of the Retina. 7
on certain Abnormal Structures in the Crystalline Lenses
_of Animals, and in the Human Crystalline ......... orcieert Radenteesaneets Spates 7
——— on the Crystalline Lens of the Cuttle-fish.........0++. 10
—-— on the Use of Amethyst Plates in Experiments on the
Polarization of Light ......... Siete petoccsccaaseaveabeeesececsceons Mevoosueseseveseavce™ IS
Professor Perzvai’s New Combination Lens............++- sidbici lideteserevetvessevelty 1S
Mr. Henry Dircxs on an Apparatus for exhibiting Optical Illusions of Spec-
tral Phenomena ssovassenssvasecesvsenereosbsercescnccsensennconcsvehvessnacsserenseceneeee 1d
Rev. J. Dinexe on a New Case of Binocular Vision......sssresssseersesseeesreree Ud

vi CONTENTS,

Dr. Grapstoner and Rey. T. P. Dare on some Optical Properties of Phos-
PDOTUS ......2eeceseeeeessncenececerceeereceeenes eonewammsieeseefspsmscensans Seed esteee aeeere

Mr. F. Garton a Hand Heliostat, for the purpose of flashing Sun Signals,
from on board Ship or on Land, in Sunny Climates .s dccessecesscaecaeeeeeeeees

Dr. J. H. Guapstone on the Fixed Lines of the Solar Spectrum .....s..++s...+++
Rev. W. R. Grove on the Infiuence of Light on Polarized Electrodes............

Mr. W. M‘Craw on a New, Cheap, and Permanent Process in Photography.
(Communicated by Sir Davip BREWSTER.) ...+++++er eee Ppeeaocococn i cohactaes

Sir G. RoBINSON On Moon Blindness ...cccscsecesssceresccecccnescssecensesssecenssnces

Mr. SamveEt, an early form of the Lenticular Stereoscope constructed for
the use of Schools, exhibited by .......sseesecsseereeeee Sse sce cu usetey eae euse sane eee

Mr. Norman Pogson on the Ocular Crystal Micrometer, with observations of
twelve double stars, as evidence of its extraordinary power in measuring
small angular distances. (Communicated by Dr. JoHN LEE.),........+0+00 ae

Dr. F. A. S1nsestTROM on the Distribution of Heat in the Interior of the Earth

Mr. B. Srewart’s Account of some Experiments on Radiant Heat, involving
an Extension of Prevost’s Theory of Exchanges .............ss0+8 veccsesecvescccces

Execrricity, MAGNETISM.

Mr. J. Drummonp on the Intensity of the Terrestrial Magnetic Force........ a

—— on the Development of a Physical Theory of Terrestrial
Magnetism, an outline of which was submitted to the Dublin Mecting........

Mr. C. L. Draper’s Memoir on Electro-Magnetism............ qanneaaancennextewery
Mr. WitpMan WHITEHOUSE’s contributions on the Submarine Telegraph.....
Mr. J. P. Gassior on Induced Electrical Discharges taken in Aqueous Vapour

—— on the Phosphorescent Appearance of Electrical Discharges
in a Vacuum made in Flint and Potash Glass

Mr. Georcs Gorr’s exhibiton of Apparatus showing the Correlation of Forces,
and Exhibition of Heating Effects, by Mechanical Operations, on a peculiar
Form of Antimony .......... aqceccacks sous se onassce as aeeteemaee sescescerereeeecoen

Mr. W. Lapp on an Improved Induction Coil...,....

Dr. F, A. StnsestROM on the Magnetic Dip at Stockholm,........cescesessccenseee

ASTRONOMY.

Mr. Epwarp JosHua Cooper on the Perihelia and Ascending Nodes of the
Planets ......+...++- Bisse bheie=seeatcs gs guesearen ba sadooedsrengepesbiocsseasens tidelepscagaxgpe

Donati’s Comet.—Extracts from Letters received by Mr. E. J. Coopzr, from
Mr. A. GraHAm...... mastoseasiaanns as

Peete ee ses ccessseesses BOOP eee tere see eeeseeeseres

Dr. Jonn Lee on the Results of the Measures of Gamma Virginis for the Epoch
1858, as determined by Admiral Smyrn ...... sgobt even seae vege sesessedeesncsteneeee

Mr. N. Pocson on a New Variable Star (R. Sagittarii), discovered with the

5-foot Smythian Telescope of the Hartwell House Observatory. (Commu-
nicated by Dr. JoHN LEE.) ........c.ccceeceee seen cbcecaitonco kboeone Oe ee

Dr. F. A. StrsestR6M on the Constitution of Comets ..... egcdanieanerades soca 4

Page

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30

Colonel SyKes on the successful establishment, by Astronomer Brown, of a '

Meteorological and Magnetical Observatory at Travancore, at 6200 feet above
the Level of the Sea; with Results of Magnetical Observations at Trevan-
drum, as communicated in a Letter from Mr. Broun to General Sir Toomas
BSHISBANE, .cccuccescesberrsersees asaages® spsvaseaduatoes '

Pater erenee teenee Pee ceretserareeere

CONTENTS:

Sounp.

Rev. S. EARNSHAW on the Mathematical Theory of Sound ......,..++ mes ase taupes

METEOROLOGY.

Mr. W. R. BowpirTcu on the Formation of Hail, as illustrated by Local Storms

Mr. J. Park HArrrson, further Evidence of Lunar Influence on Temperature
Professor Hennessy on the Decrease of Temperature over Elevated Ground..
on the Heating of the Atmosphere by Contact with the

Barth’s Surface .....scseresesceseesereneeeesereteensenenerens eee SepP earn ester :
Colonel Jamus’s Note on Refraction sesssscseceeseerssncesseenseteenessenens cececeresees
Dr. Lex on the Daily Comparison of an Aneroid Barometer with a Board of

Trade Barometer by Captains of Ships at Sea........ agieene Ser ercarererer na eer rer
Mr. F. Osxer on the Construction of a Portable Self-registering Anemometer

for recording the direction and amount of Horizontal Motion of the Air.....,
Rev. T. Ranxin’s Meteorological Observations at Huggate for 1857 .......+++ a
Dr. F. A. SrnzEstROm’s Note on Observations of Temperature...,......... Rr 5
Colonel Syxes on the Desirableness of renewing Balloon Ascents in England

for Meteorological Objects......ss.sssseseereeesesenenees Ficteniasananacacden adseapatieidse ;
Mr. G. J. Symons on a New Construction of Standard Portable Mountain
Barometers ....+.+sseseeseeee SERRA ReR rence teen skeie aenveaiae Pern etry

Professor TyNDALL’s Particulars of an Ascent of Mont Blanc....ccssssseseeeevees

Mr. J. Wouey on a fresh Form of Grgalallization which ke plac in the
Particles of Fallen Snow under Intense Cold .........4.

INSTRUMENTS.

Mr. Warranp Caruizez on Dials which give the Latitude, the line <i North

and South, and Chronometer Time.......... aban dence cg evdadentea! aartien
CHEMISTRY.
Address by Sir J. F. W. Herscue , President of the Section......cssseserersees
Mr. J. Beprorp on Colorific Lichens ..c..cseecesseseoeees eadasetaadda) he cetazece sebeas

Dr. C. W. Brnexzy on the peculiar action of Mud and Water on Glass, as
more especially illustrated by some Specimens of Glass found in the Lake at
Walton Hail, near Wakefield, the residence of Cuartes WaTERTON, Esq...

Mr. F. Crace Catvert on the Expansion of Metals, Alloys, and Salts......
Dr. J. Baker Epwarps’s Note on Nitro-glycerine and other Xyloids.....
Mr. R. J. Fowxer on a Process for the Estimation of Actinism .....-.s.ssssesees

Mr. Atpuonse Gaczs on a Method of Observation applied to the study of

some Metamorphic Rocks; and on some Molecular Changes exhibited by the
action of Acids upon them...........se000 sani es ata ets Pah cas aah baute uncer saceesin rs

—————_—_—— on a new variety of Pyro-electric Wavellite.............+++
Mr. J. P. Gassior on Electrical Discharges as observed in highly rarefied Car-

bonic Acid in contact with Potash.......scssssssecseeeeeers Foe RPS tee te
Dr. J. H. Grapstone on reciprocal Decomposition between Salts and their
IN EIA SOWNGRES. candy ea run asth ua shite “EQUIids pAvinanoaac dens Seatas seat aad had 5s Y= adck Pea ra

Mr. Grorce Guapstone on a remarkable Deposit of Carbonate of Lime about
_ Fossils in the Lower Lias of Dorsetshire.....cocssssecseeesers jjecdavecdevevQlelase

41

51

vill CONTENTS.

Mr. W. Huceon on the Alkaline Waters of Leeds ...ese.ssecescssssctecrssoeecceese

Dr. H. Bencrt Jones, Some Account of Profersor Schonbein’s latest Experi-
ments on the Allotropic Conditions of Oxygen .......scsecseceeenreecseeneeeneesees

Dr. Epwin Lanxester on an Instrument for Measuring the Constant Intensity
OP OZORE ves ese see ce neces Mencle Haldeiniea setnneied slay a tiereciratte lectaatengreis ss..00. 0a se amelie
Mr. J. B. Lawes and Dr. J. H. Givaert on the Annual Yield of Nitrogen per
Acre in different Crops......+.. Sannin dp): spies stale vcaniiestewsiens askinae Pence asadeens
Dr. W. Lauper Linpsay on the Action of Hard Waters upon Lead.........4..
On an improved Electric Lamp invented and manufactured by Mr. W1LL1AmM
Harr. (Communicated by Dr. STEVENSON MACADAM.) ...csscsseseeeeeeee ies
Dr. Stevenson Macapam on M. de Luca’s Claim to be the Discoverer of the
Non- Presence of Iodine in the Atmospheric Air, Rain- Water, and Snow.....
os ’s Note on the Production of a Frosted Surface on
Articles made of Aluminium ........sssseeeseeeees wash nesioe ceed gush os sean seat t een

Dr. J. A. Marruressen on the Combustibility and other Properties of the
Rarer Metals ...ecccssseseoscessseseceeens cudeadcenresesens webestensdneens ten dasdas viene whe

Mr. Joun Mercer on Chromatic Photographs.......... iecedeawiede eoeacedst aeeapee

——___————— on the Relation of the Atomic Weights of the Families of
GHC AML MICLES peu nn waveveiensspevencavic-osep ves vewsasucesssencarenssenn seston enesttanetanes

Dr. W. Opurne on the Atom of Tin.......... Se cwavaciettialaee Ge actenMeeegeae tux oaeekee
Mr. W. H. Perxin on the Purple Dye obtained from Coal-Tar .......cssss00e eee

Mr. Joun Mercer an the Atomic Weights of the Elements of Six Chemical
Families ......... Baectuisavisaniione Peet inssnstetectel matt alee Redieahie ahs ssavauu de ecch dewey sunaeee :

Dr. Puex on a new Method for the Quantitative Estimation of Nitric Acid....
Rev. J. B. Reape on Animal Ammonia, its Formation, Evolution, and Office..
Mr. R. Reynotps on the Practical Application of Aluminium............. sounten

Mr. W. L. Surru on the Choice of Subject in Photography, and the Adapta-
tion of different Processes ......seesseeeeeeeeene auvevasenbtcvsccsvedersesbeetals eaveceeee

Dr. E. Smirx on a new Method of Determining the Quantity of Carbonic Aci
CONLAMMCH INVENT WAIT aeerersteccsecessrcndemersNistwan eoxcivcavhesccerstoeresee vouswasetie

Mr. W. K. SuLiivan on some Double Salts formed with Bichromate of Potash

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Professor VOELCKER on the Constitution of the Mineral Portion of Bones, and .

the Analysis of Common Bone-ash, Animal Charcoal, &C. ......ssseesscseeseeees

Dr. W. Wattace on the Carbonates of Alumina, Chromic Oxide, and Ferric
Oxide ....... Guevdcbwagepacsae sith Souece teavarthaeccastecitevtowaresesehe cance nt eEeee a

on Chloro-Arsenious Acid, and some of its Compounds......
Mr. W. S. Warp’s Observations on Dry Collodion Processes ........sssesseeerees
Mr. R. Warinerton on the Source of Ammonia in Volcanic Emanation.........

Mr. Jonn WaTeEruouseE on an Instrument for maintaining a Water-Bath at
constant Temperatures crrececcescsscceesveres nsvieGsetvedastodeed etecs usec vena ms as

GEOLOGY.

Address by Mr. Witt1am Hopkins, President of the Section ......... ry ts
Rev. Dr. ANDERSON on the Fossil Fishes and Yellow Sandstone.....sceccoceceece

Mr. T. W. Arxrnson on the Volcanoes of Central Asia, commencing with the
Baikal, in Oriental Siberia, and extending into Mongolia and Chinese Tartary,
illustrated by a beautiful series of drawings of the principal volcanic scenes

BMTPOCA ess cate scaccpcoreresavedievveveesvadccecscevs sadvessestebegce te a

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CONTENTS.

Mr. W. H. Batty on the Fructification of Cyclopteris Hibernica (Forbes), from
the Upper Devonian or Lower Carboniferous Strata at Kiltorkan Hill,
County Kilkenny ............ SasadebahaesenssGawinerrtccenndosnacssrorevasenraararetsccee

on two new species of Crustacea (Bellinurus, Konig) from
the Coal Measures in Queen’s County, Ireland; and some Remarks on forms
AUEMIMLOMELICTINGI. cece aceerceevevcdvecse<tecesctes Sie cecsera tar sueswotrdveesaeretcrapencs
Mr. W. Barnes on the Yorkshire Flagstones and their Fossils .........40. 5eBEOS
Mr. L. Barrett on the Atlas and Axis of the Plesiosaurus ......sssesesesseeeeseee
Dr. G. P. Bevan on the Marine Shell Bed of the South Wales Coal Basin, showing
the presence of Vegetable Remains in the Upper Coal Measures of the District,
and of Shells and Fish in the Lower Coal Measures, and illustrating the con-
tinuity of forms of life in different stratifications.........++. cede Dennies vee teaamelsiene
Professor Dawson on the Vegetable Structure visible in the Coal of Nova Scotia
Mr. Joun S. Enys’s Photographs of Quarries near Penrhyn, showing the struc-
ture of Granite ..........sceseeeeescenenes Be Be E UNOS COCUORRODL pbncsconouodcbe Bac Oenonotes
Mr. Arpany Hancock’s Remarks on certain Vermiform Fossils found in the
Mountain Limestone Districts of the North of England...... Reashaee Rate datienle ss
Professor Harkness on the Distortion of Fossils ......sccccceeeeseeee rant reeceh oan
on the Origin of the Breccias of the Southern Portion of
the Valley of the Nith, Scotland .............ses0eee SSE Baek Bp oCoggROUaDouCODO Oe
Professor Tuomas H. Huxtry’s Observations on the Genus Pteraspis .........
Professor WiLL1am Kine on the Jointed Structure of Rocks, particularly as de-
veloped in several places in Ireland ............sscescesceccevensessceeenees Sor sleesaes
Mr. J. G. Marsuatt on the Geology of the Lake District, in reference especially
to the Metamorphic and Igneous Rocks...... Seat S Sce Osean cea snare ede ie ne
Mr. Witi1am Maruews’s Photographs of the Quarry of Rowley Rag at Ponk
Hill, Walsall........... for é gh nSee aocnobert dee bosuane = pean seieseh soars sssenas ardent
Mr. C. Moore on Triassic Beds near Frome, and their Organic Remains.......
Sir R. I. Murcuison on some Results of recent Researches among the Older
Rocks of the Highlands of Scotland............0..00 maatriaa sep eystanieiaatlaitea ale sion
Professor James Nico on the Age and Relations of the Guciss Rocks in the
North of Scotland .....c...sscccsssseseseseesees Rahiniats ieletiengia.: ts ise siabisitniaa sissies ses
Rev. T. W. Norwoop on the Comparative Geology of Hotham, near South Cave,
Yorkshire..,........ Engh oanperenoneperooe sgpbbhnoncnshs cbt “gpPsdeednascer shocotetoacate S
Professor OwEN on a New Genus (Dimorphodon) of Pterodactyle, with remarks
on the Geological Distribution of Flying Reptiles ..........sseseseeessssenreeeenes

————_———— on Remains of New and Gigantic Species of Pterodactyle
(Pter. Fittoni and Pter, Sedgwickii) from the Upper Greensand, near Cam-
TACO). ovina a aeowdasagsanynete A ECO ae Pavmesaeaces aes Sep eawses add clea daeeons if sts ors

Mr. D. Pace on the Skeleton of a Seal from the Pleistocene Clays of Stratheden,
in Fifeshire...... maepancdpecavasss cancunsigks ar aciinam oan emciicas Rupa Renin adaaaepsvees - seahs

’s Farther Contributions to the Paleontology of the Tilestones or
Silurio-Devonian Strata of Scotland .........ssceeveseeseees Serdeaual Cetarie ocak sweets
on the Relations of the Metamorphic and Older Paleozoic Rocks
in Scotland .........eseeeeeees Nanas Tak dRaat eae este SIP KRIA Sida Etsececaat act ana

Mr. W. PenGELLY on arecently-discovered Ossiferous Cavern at Brixham, near
FEOLQUAY ‘s.sn><aerhsrsoes apaeee cen B. aseices Shah saeagiaioade set ve nig catens cpaepeee anette

Professor Puiiures’s Notice of some Phenomena at the Junction of the Granite
and Schistose Rocks in West Cumberland .......ccscescscecessessevesessnsenseeeess

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x CONTENTS.

Professor Pu1tiips and Mr. R. Barker, Jun., on the Hematite Ores of North
Lancashire and West Cumberland .....c...ccccsccccceeccsscteteccncecseeegsecacoveses

Mr. H.C. Sorsy on a New Method of determining the Temperature and Pres-
sure at which various Rocks and Minerals were formed ....s:ssseseseeeerereerens

—_ on some Peculiarities in the Arrangement of the Minerals in
Tgneous ROcks......scssssccerssovececsseecsceenereasensueresosasvereseetaes er ee eae

on the Currents present during the Deposition of the Car-
boniferous and Permian Strata in South Yorkshire and North Derbyshire...

Rev. Francis F. Staruam on the Geology of the Scilly Isles .s....ssseeeenees tee

Mr. Tuomas P. Tuave on the Superficial Deposits of the Valley of the Aire at
Leedss.ssiess. yerietan sre tesaees padesgosntksdese!tvcoepayohences cuss sas¥ie(gaucainn Wa ¥as ts

Rev. Epwarp Trotuops on the Fens and Submarine Forests of Lincolnshire
and other Localities ....c4...sscssessccscsesnserssaeearscceranseeesarseeees aueguadlt oan gee

BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY, tnctuping PHYSIOLOGY.

Borany.

Dr. Carrineton on the Geological Distribution of Plants in some Districts of
WOrkshire ys<. ccsssssncsostusen pede hassorscat ns one seghaesings «inavcdat apace te tee

Mr. W.E. C, Nourse’s Researches on the Colours of Leaves and Petals .......
Mr. N. B. Warp on Suburban Gardens
on some Practical Results derivable from the Study of Botany
Mr, Turren West on the Epidermal Cells of the Petals of Plants .....s...sese0

ZooLoey.

Professor ALLMAN on the Reproductive Organs of Sertularia tamarisca .......
Mr. Curnsert Cottinewoop’s Remarks on the Migration of Birds
Dr. J. Davy’s Observations on the Fishes of the Lake District

Mr. R. L. Exuis on the Cause of the Instinctive Tendency of Bees to form
Hexagonal Cells

COOP Rm eee re reneerereeresaceres ser eT OE eee edesneesseeeseeseceseeseesseesesese

COOP C ewe m rere ee eee eee a testa essere res tet ese seresesesess

Mr. Ropert Garner on the Anatomy of the Brain in some small Quadrupeds

The Rev. H. H. Hieerns on the Death of the Common Hive Bee,

3 supposed to
be occasioned by a Parasitic Fungus

eee eee eee eee eee eee er eee ere ree er

The Rev. T. Hincxs on a New Species of Laomedea; with Remarks on the
Genera Campanularia and Laomedea

Mr. Josuua Atper on three New Species of Sertularian Zoophytes. (Commu-
nicated by the Rev. Tuomas Hicks) .......... DeebcededWebhsBans caseedeohncttag Seeges

Mr. G.M. Humpury on the Homology of the Skeleton

The Rev. H. H. Hreerns on the Liabilit
of a Fungus...

Bee eenens Pere memes eee renee e een een eee eseteesstcee

Peer eee teeter tree eianee eeeeee

y of Shells to Injury from the Growth

Ce ee
SOS SCA SACL ULL HCOR EER eRe US eee bese sey cbse eRe AN.68'b.a6'5 ould @ eine ulead cle ataalaaanena

Rev. T. Hincks on some new and interesting Forms of British Zoophytes wee.

Page

106

107

108
108

111

113

115
115

- 117

118
119

128

128

CONTENTS. xi

Page
Mr. .W. Psacu on some Peculiar Forms of Spines found on two Species of
the Spinigrade Starfishes ....cccccccsescssccecoccscccacsvcescnssescessnecnees sesrssevese, 128

Mr. Henry Pecxirt’s Notice of a number of Earth-worms and Larve of an
undescribed Species found in draining a field upon his Estate.,..... geabdigoevens 129

Dr. J. A. Powrer’s Notes on Myrmecophilous Coleoptera ............ ditt stiveve” 129

Rey. F. F. StarHam on the Occurrence of Bombyx mori in a wild state in this
IOS aby annodakedaceiessciienaaSeusssesssarsedevdsnabesedavs sodarasstayedqssses¥sareuses 130

Mr, A. StricKLanp on the British Wild Geese .........cccesecessseccssececceesesence 131
Mr. W. B. TecrerTMeler on the Formation of the Cells of Bees ..........sseseeeee 132
Mir WET WVARD OD AGUATIAL..Jodeccsccddceccdddcecedsdde sdsdtecsdeosecses Mian etosasetas 133
Mr. R. Wartneton on the Multiplication of Actiniz in Aquaria ..........+4.. +6 139

PHysIOLoey.

Dr. Acu1tin Foutte on some Observations connected with the Anatomy and
Functions of the third, sixth, and seventh pairs of Nerves and the Medulla
MME Pade ncteeaeceadsde cn ceslcdtydecetatsuecscasedotesecewelrececetasinnsmusaere suns catpespate, Lat

Dr. RrcHarp Fow ter on the Sensational, Emotional, Intellectual, and Instinc-
tive Capacities of the Lower Animals compared with those of Man,......s0.. 134

Dr. G. Harxey’s Notes of Experiments on Digestion ..........scseeeseceeeeees vee 135
Mr. G. H. Lewes, the Spinal Chord a Sensational and Volitional Centre......... 135

Mr. Joun Mivuiean on the Pressure of the Atmosphere, and its Power in
modifying and determining Hemorrhagic Disease ......... AWeadexaltieetaehe scent 138

Mr. W. R, Mixner on the Influence of various Circumstances in causing Loss
or Gain in the Weight of the Prisoners in Wakefield Convict Prison ...... ees 139

Mr, T. Nunnexey on the Form of the Eyeball, and the relative position of the
Entrance of the Optic Nerve into it in different Animals ...........++4.. weeyass) LaQ

on the Structure of the Retina at the Punctum Centrale, or
Foramen of Scemmering .........+4. PRE RAHCABRLIESBAS “BU SRe edd neaennesipensstadeeit ene rom ae

on the Structure of the Choroid Coat of the Eye, and more
particularly on the Character and Arrangement of the Pigmentary Matter... 141

Dr. E, Smirx on the Results obtained from an Extended Inquiry into the
Quantity of Carbonic Acid evolved from the Lungs under the Influence of
RTS NE CULE See crcaity coup nar nsseencss sil Ottecem rene aagas sSeaapenratacss Fal giana 142

on the Methods hitherto adopted for the Determination of the
Carbonic Acid contained in the Expired Air, with a Description of a new
Method .......... eainevecsrrydescattenoresnssaet ase gle dose ueawueuienincwicesvtddsaefsnnestelct » 142

MicroscopicaAL APPARATUS.

Mr. C. Brooxe’s improved Portable Microscope and Case ...s..sssreecsseeeeeveee 143
Mr. Lapp’s Microscope with improved Magnetic Stage .......s+.ccesecseeneeere - 143
Mr. Warinerton’s Additions to his Portable Microscope..........sss.ceeeeeseeeees 143

GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

Address by Sir Ropertck Murcuison, President of the Section.............00008 143
Mr. T. W. Atxinson’s Notes on a Journey through parts of the Alatou, in
PPMMCOOUTAECAE WP MAL Moise tueksdesees estes dasa ss4.dbeccwantetoteusig opeedgrencsee sovvees L44

Dr. W.G. Buack1e’s Notes on the Russo-Chinese Frontier and the Amoor River 147

Ca

xii CONTENTS.

Astronomer Broun’s Notice of the Kanikars, a Hill-Side Tribe in the Kingdom
of Travancore........++ darddesesasads SQ UEORE KIC POppConigouCUcacboocinc ice daeeauttestece “5
Major-General Cursney on the Extension of Communications to Distant
Places by means of Electric Wires .......sscessesseeeesensensconenes vaddeadeuettenttees
Mr. Ricuarp Cuxt on Dr. Prichard’s Identification of the Russians with the
FUOMOMAM Ue aacecis owoo isan esnaesiec genius sace sas cicesncnoeetmpceitenna helene eminem saaGciereetp

Mr. H. Conypeare on the Physical Geography of the Neighbourhood of
Bombay, as affecting the Design of the Works recently erected for the Water

Supply of that City.....cecsscscsssececeeeeessneeeeesnsceneees sovisence ss seveoouecenesecees
Mr. J. Crawrurp on the Effects of Commixture, Locality, Climate, and Food
On the Races of Man.......sescscsssesccectececccsccs ahachscquetaenmeretene ck See 4
Dr. J. Davy’s Observations on the Lake District...... Pee csost 3 iioeleh Sesiele a eeeee car
Consul Donouor on Pacific Railway Schemes, as communicated by the Earl
of Malmesbury to the President of the Royal Geographical Society.........+...
Rev. J. Dineve on the Configuration of the Surface of the Earth..,.......+. Sagcce
Rev. G. C. Getpart, Language no Test of Race ......scsssessesecsenee dearer stsass
Mr. H. M. Greennow’s Short Notice of the People of Oude, and of their
leading Characteristics......+sseseeore ceaneaslere seme ectenve ecschiets weolescesedauapeeee ye
Colonel H. Jamxs on the Geometrical Projection of two-thirds of the Surface
of the Sphere........0+« Henoassece ecaetueemers mbaiarecssCcaussaeai etaple <i eeecesees Ranees

Dr. R. G. Laruam on the General Distribution of the Varieties of Language and
Physical Conformation, with remarks upon the Nature of Ethnological Groups

Mr. Witi1am Locxuart on the Yang-tse-Keang and the Hwang-ho, or Yellow
River. (Communicated by Dr. NORTON SHAW) «scssceeseceereeneces serexaeed igses

Extracts from a Letter by Mr. Win11am RusseExt to the President......... sennes

Mr. C. R. Marxuam on the Navigation of the Ucayali, an Affluent of the
Amazons ..... cuecceeceusssenosscvscsessecsesencscccsseeusssecscsroccasssans ceencescccccesees

Dr. S. MuLuER’s Geognostic Sketch of the Western Position of Timor..

Capt. J. Panyiser and Dr. Hecror’s Reports to Her Majesty’s aces

on the Physical Geography of the Country examined by the E aoe ex-
ploring the South-Western Regions of British North America ......s001+++0

Dr. Nortow Suaw on the Geography of British North America, more ee:
larly British Columbia, Frazer River, &C. ....sscssesecsecsesserenscevoecssenes Sete

Sir R. Scuomsurex’s Letter to Sir R. I. Murchison on the Project of a Canal
across the Isthmus of Kraw, which divides the Gulf of Bengal from that of

SAM weeeeseceseoeee einanjee bide sens a Uhre Women seeneecentesccceccesssevesseses erases oumsateie se
M. I. Josep S1npERMANN on a Method for the Spherical Printing of Globes.
M. Troyon on the Lacustrine Homes of the Ancient Swiss.......++. sasasemesebess
Mr. A. Wuitney on the Formation of a Railway from the Atlantic to the

Pacific Ocean, through the British Possessions of North America .........++
Mr. J. S. Witson’s Notes on the Physical Geography of North-Western

PAMSITAN Aco ce etasesecneegcecscasswestes usec er sethneaee wa cleaiside sied edaeiese.cleosies sieeeatne eam

Mr. J. Sporswoop Wiuson on the General and Gradual Desiccation of the
Earth and Atmosphere ............. san oh nee eae

Mr. Tuomas Wrieut’s Notice of the Opening of a Sepulchral Tumulus in
East Yorkshire...... Veseceseessouennes ons ce aeecres cee 5 ve casea'enn'nie wes

STATISTICAL SCIENCE.

Address by the President, Mr. Epwarp Barnzs, on opening the Section......++«

a

Page

148

148

148

149

149
149

149

153

157

CONTENTS.

Mr. Epwarp Barnes on the Woollen Manufacture of England, with special
reference to the Leeds Clothing District ...........s++. Beasasnsnaecae sapeaeedeee aaihe

Dr. Josep Bareman on the Rate of Mortality in the Metropolitan Improved
Dwellings for the Industrial Classes ............ Moabidddeepeahies savasis eNdsinacsanavacua

Mr. R. Baxer on the Sanitary and Industrial Economy of the Borough of
Leeds......++- Meese tatineanas pasphntanaines seat benaencaress dandepeess?iaeoeisanene vedecsbesegs

Dr. JosepH Bateman on the Degree of Education of Persons tried at the Mid-
dlesex Sessions..... Ruseworaseses Saaeensaaes Scunevcsvonsiecauess hae ayn pugst sie eee ane

on the Investments of the Industrial Classes.........s0.0s

Mr. T. Baziey, Trade and Commerce the Auxiliaries of Civilization and Com-
SEE daipaels o0.c0 60 ceateue Was Rane tices dcsauameabeu eoteesvs Wuslobie cvignedacnAanseaavatewan toate

Mr. Cuaries H. Bracrsrineer’s Notes on Self-supporting Dispensaries,
with some Statistics of the Coventry Provident Dispensary.......+++++ seanonean

Mr. Samvet Brown on the Financial Prospects of British Railways.......ss0+++

Professor Carrnes on the Laws according to which a Depreciation of the
Precious Metals consequent upon an Increase of Supply takes place, con-
sidered in connexion with the Recent Gold Discoveries..........ssssssecsseneeeens

Mr. Epwin Cuapwick on the Progress of the Principle of Open Competitive
Examinations.........+ snc ctectese Dedeeewer arse cassie! Anbdciodacuee sinleaiessis veevnwesincies eld

Mr. J. E. Drsz on the Registry of Deeds in the West Riding.......... Sp eattek act

Mr. James Heywoop on Public Service, Academic, and Teachers’ Examina-
MONS aceccosscsscsee Mnevapencarvetevacsteviascasertorces aualdeas aban Hes caaeduscnseseshes aseveas

Mrs. Wm. Fison on the Importance of a Colonial Penny Postage, viewed in
relation to the advancement of Science and Christian Civilization

Mr. J. Pope Hennessy on the Causes of the Fall in Price of Manufactured
MUOLGHTIS Stored Cessede EG TROL HOCe Giagerene ean cee : Fre veseneantes wenddcenesueacceuses

on some of the Results of the Society of Arts’ Exami-

MAIO sdecctbescavedcaddereucdeisasedteoceesesdoacswed Tecnetes APR Raconseceracent

Mr. Rosert Hunt’s Mineral Produce of Yorkshire in 1857 ......eseceseeees mates
Mr. Joun James on the Worsted Manufactures of Yorkshire...secs.sscssesesseees
Mr. James Kitson, Jun. on the Iron Trade of Leeds ......csecceseeseesees ehecsaiie
M. Corranaper Ma#ren on Free Trade in Belgium .............0+ Sacpchetore tees

Mr. J. G. Marswauu’s Sketch of the History of Flax Spinning in England,
especially as developed in the Town of Leedse........ssseerssecensees seasons see

Mr. F. G. P. Nerson on Phthisis in the Army............ Gnsranskeeasterusdsrededtnke
Mr, Wiit1am Newmarcu on the History of Prices of 1857 and 1858 ..s.see0
on the recent History of the Crédit Mobilier .......
Rey. T. W. Norwoop on the Race and Language of the Gipsies .........seecssese

Mr. J. H. Sapier’s Notes on Indian Fibres, illustrated by prepared Specimens.
(Communicated by Colonel Syxzs) ......... eodnclenedaasesecneMaeada sae eseceneneniae’

Mr. Hamer SransFEtp’s Essay on Distinctions between Money and Capital,
Interest and Discount, Currency and Circulating Medium, essential to be
observed in the Reform of our Monetary Laws......... Esasstentoasete aecreeanencne

Dr. Joun Strane on the Sewing Machine in Glasgow, and its Effects on Pro-
duction, Prices, and Wages ...... A Sacneartrns ac apRECHEcenceccrae Sasitsvareeretsade

—__—_————-- on Water Supply to Great Towns—its Extent, Cost, Uses,
RNG CADUSES)ncacaveesaseccrmslryt a nispipats dadoside 4 ch abttaninalt OX we bairensios See bacetehweheLeeeed

Mr. W. M. Tarrt on subjects connected with Crime and Punishment............
Mr. R. Vapy’s Brief Review of the Operations in the Bank of England in 1857

198

198
199
201

Xiv CONTENTS.

Page
Mr. H. Waxxer on the Results of Free Trade ...sccsssscsesecsevsccesscceseveneeveoee 201
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

President’s Address, on the Progress of Mechanical Science............... vevecess, ZO]
Mr. W. Bripvezs Adams on a new Method of Constructing the Permanent

Way and Wheels of Railways ..........cssseeseeseeeeesenees HOURC ESET bantoonaccricd abn’ 203
Mr. W. J. AnmiTace on a few Facts connected with the Manufacture of Pig

Iron in the neighbourhood of Leeds ..... eiseees taseeaedescanaeded sesestecessececceeeene 204
Mr. W. H. BartHoLomew on Steam Tugs employed on the Aire and Calder

Navigation ..0...sscscesesseseeneenesseteceasseseeecases wadeaioas daeednseccessedade seveeeees 205

Mr. G. Bayuzy’s Description of a Floating Dry Dock ............cccseeseceessevees 206

Rev. Dr. J. Booru on an Instrument for describing Spirals ............ Sedseecceas 207

Mr. C. Broprick on the Roof of the New Town Hall of Leeds ..........++020... 207 :

Mr. J. Bucxton’s Notice of some of the Articles shown in the Mechanical
Section of the Leeds Exhibition of Local Industry .......ssssesesssessesenses soseae 208

Mr. W. E. Carrett on some modern Appliances for Raising Water ..........2. 208

Mr. Rosert Coxz’s Account of Lewis Paul and his Invention of the Machine
for Spinning Cotton and Wool by Rollers, and his claim to such inven-
tion, to the exclusion of John Wyatt ......c..ccccescscvcncevsnenscvesseensesencs seers» 209

Mr. H. ConysEare on an Apparatus for laying down Submarine Telegraphic
Cables ....... evecck Ueedtdcvcdtestetnored be vdedeeedact’é iilosdoedesbesedese ciatattesane, LOO

Mr. Coombe on Expanding Pulleys....... aareeats SAS -Banacechcneenee Gaueewan eens seeeess 209
Mr. Aurrep CrosskILu on Reaping Machinery .......csecaccessecseeeeeses seceseeses 209
Mr. J. Exper on Double Cylinder Expansion Marine Engines...... sno abecnemenea ie
Mr. F. Gatton’s Description of a Hand Heliostat..cccccscsscscscecscsesceseecstceees 211
Mr, JosepH Giynn on the Economy of Water Power .......cccssssesesescetesseeee 212

Mr. J. HopKinson on the Cause of Steam-boiler Explosions, and Means of
Prevention ...... Seseenecneencsoece soo qcuueerarctemmcrcss Gesveacaceesanm@scasvessactbeaenapscf Gam

_ Mr. E. Jonzs on the Drainage of the Metropolis ........scssecsseersceccetaresecseoes 213
Mr. D. Joy on the Application of Mechanical Power to the Bellows of Organs 213

Mr. Joun Macxintosu on the Application of Combustible Compounds to be
MISE UD VV ATi coccccescasaassencecessasenen seeaes cena apeee bere Pacdincn naahan soccegecencens 214

—— on Constructing and Laying Telegraph Cables... ..... 214
Mr, J. Macxean on the Submersion of Electric Cables............s0cescseceseeenees 215

Vice-Admiral Moorsom on the Performance of Steam Vessels, the Functions
of the Screw, and the Relations of its Diameter and Pitch to the form of the
Vessel ...ccccsscscces aevege yeieatunaisead acts bebeddtaavdendd hs deus Hrsosa deeb vaneeoehes ae 215

Mr. Josepx Joun Murpuy on a proposed Floating Lighthouse......... vessasese, 21S
Mr. Wriu1am Naytor on a newDouble-acting Steam Hammer .....s00..e0s0008 218
Mr, J. O’Nerut on a plan for giving Alarms in Passenger Trains ..,..+s.cseesess 219

Mr. JamEs OupHAm on the Gresham Buoy, for recording the Loss of Missing
Ships at Sea .........06 Reaeoce evocnscetcaccseter dohentingacac sesenedledowas oapandests canebauel9

Mr. G. Rewnin on the Construction of Floating and Fixed Batteries ...s.sss166s 220
Mr. T. J. StnseRMAN on a Universal Printing Press ssscccsssecceseesceeneeeee coves 220

on a Universal Cock......... deed RiTe teas dennagene sedtanwretes SOE
Mr. R, Smite on a Wreck Intelligencer.......csscsseccsectcsssscsvecesessereteeessevsee 221

CONTENTS.
Mr. S. Smirn’s Remarks on the Bursting of Guns and Cannon....... POR EOICOCL
Hon. J. WEATHERED on Combined Steam ........scecssseseseccecececerees Raecneuncine
Mr. C. F. Wurrworrn on Recent Improvements in Railway Signals.......... “45
Mr. R. P. Witu1ams on an Instrument for setting out Curve Lines...........00
APPENDIX.
GroLoey.

Mr. E. CuarLeswortuH on some remarkable Yorkshire Fossils, including the
unique Plesiosawri in the Museum at York, with pictorial restorations by
Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins.......... sevesats Seecsresaees vor GERCRCGBCER ERIC OREACR EAE ees

Mr. W. Peneetty on an Ichthyolite found in the Devonian Slates of East
BRERA IVMEGeain s <ceuniGeh so chasidatinssnesceeeractsecnssronssrneatdevercscunssoseceqa¥ecees esl

— on the Trilobite found at the Knoll Hill, Newton Abbott...

Professor Rogers on the discovery of Strata of supposed Permian age in the
interior of North America, by Mr. Meek and other American Geologists ...

Mr. J. Wouey’s observations on the Arrangement of Small Stones on certain

bare Levels in Northern Localities ............ Peek eeade ct Recnccciscassasessneestrdss
Botany.

Mr. J. H. Davis on the Plants of the Oolitic Moorlands .........cseesescsoesesees :

PEAS cs ceessininss: voces sees Avaus snceneneune Feu saklcstcaececunets eeabe naan srapeveuascas Mgccuviseea
ERRATA.

Page 85, line 21, for south, read north.

Page 85, line 33, for contracted, read contorted.

Page 90, line 30, for illustrated, read more fully given.
Page 92, line 13, omit and.

Page 92, line 14, for rudimentary, read sedimentary.

XV
Page
221
222
223
223

223

223
224

224

224

224

225

isd OF PLATES,

PLATES I. to XV.

Illustrative of Mr. Robert Mallet’s Report on the facts and theory of Earth-
quake Phenomena.

PLATES XVI. and XVII.

Illustrative of Mr. R. H. Meade’s paper on some Points in the Anatomy of
the Araneidea, or true Spiders, especially on the Internal Structure of
their Spinning Organs, 157.

PLATE XVIII.

Illustrative of Mr. Stephen Eddy’s paper on the Lead Mining Districts of
Yorkshire.

PLATES XIX. and XX.

Illustrative of Mr. R. Beckley’s description of a Self-recording Anemometer.

OBJECTS AND RULES

THE ASSOCIATION.
OBJECTS.

Tur Assocration contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by
other Institutions. Its objects are,—To give a stronger impulse and a more
systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those
who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an-
other, and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general attention to
the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind
which impede its progress.

RULES.
ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES.

All Persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be-
come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to con-
form to its Rules.

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So-
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All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Council
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Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General
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Meeting.

COMPOSITIONS, SUBSCRIPTIONS, AND PRIVILEGES.

Lire Mempers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be pub-
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Annvat Sunscriprrs shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive
gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
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Associates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be

eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.
1858. b

XVill RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

The Asscciation consists of the following classes :—

1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.

2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on ad-
mission ‘I’en Pounds as a composition.

3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to the
payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership after in-
termission of Annual Payment. ]

4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the pay-
ment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each following
year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of Annual Pay-
ment.

5. et for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.

6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.

And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’) price,
according to the following specification, viz. :—

1. Gratis.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845, a
further sum of Five Pounds.

New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a com-
position.

Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.

2. At reduced or Members’ Prices, viz. two-thirds of the Publication
Price.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a
composition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a
Book Subscription.

Annual Members, who have intermitted their Annual Subscrip-
tion.

Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only. ]

3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the first seventeen volumes of Transactions of the Associa-
tion, and of which more than 100 copies remain, at one-third of
the Publication Price. Application to be made (by letter) to
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Subscriptions shal] be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.

MEETINGS.

The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place
of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee at the pre-
vious Meeting ; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Offi-
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GENERAL COMMITTEE.

The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—

1. Presidents and Officers for the present and preceding years, with
authors of Reports in the Transactions of the Association. .

2. Members who have communicated any Paper to a Philosophical Society,
which has beenprinted in its Transactions, and which relates to such subjects
as are taken into consideration at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. —

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. xix

3. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, altogether, not exceed-
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, SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.

The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Committees, con-
sisting severally of the Members most conversant with the several branches
of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof.

The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation they would
particularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and
brought under consideration at the next Meeting.

The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of
particular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons,
for the information of the Annual Meetings.

COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS.

The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which
shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees,
and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise
to be adopted for the advancement of Science.

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects, shall be submitted to the Com-
mittee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General
Committee, unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recom-
mendations.

LOCAL COMMITTEES.

Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to
assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those
Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.

OFFICERS.
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a
Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.

COUNCIL.
In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be
managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council
may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the
Meeting.
PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS.
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve
his right of property therein.
ACCOUNTS.
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the Meeting. ‘6

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Barker, George, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased).

Bell, Professor Thomas, Pres. L.S., F.R.S8.

Beechey, Rear-Admiral, F.R.S. (deceased).

Bengough, George, Esq.

Bentham, George, Esq., F.L.S.

Biddell, George Arthur, Esq.

Bigge, Charles, Esq.

Blakiston, Peyton, ete D., F.B.S.

Boileau, Sir John P., Bart., E.R.S.

Boyle, Rt.Hon. D., Lord Justice-Gen!. (dec*).

Brady, The Rt. Hon: Maziere, M.R.1.A., Lord
Chancellor of Ireland.

Brand, William, Esq.

Breadalbane, John, Marquis of, K.T., F.R.S.

Brewster, Sir David, K.H., D.C.L., LL.D.,
E.R.S., Principal of the United College of
St.Salvator and St.Leonard, St.Andrews.

Brisbane, General Sir Thomas M., Bart.,
K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L., FRS.

Brooke, Charles, B.A., F.R.S. -

Brown, Robert, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased).

Brunel, Sir M. I., F.R.S. (deceased).

Buckland, Very Rev. William, D.D., F.RB.S.,
Dean of Westminster (deceased).

Bute, John, Marquis of, K.T. (deceased).

Carlisle, George Will. Fred., Earl of, F.R.S.

Carson, Rey. Joseph, F.T.C.D.

Cathcart, Lt.-Gen., Earl of, K.C.B., F.R.S.H.
(deceased).

Chalmers, Rey. T., D.D. (deceased).

Chance, James, Esq.

Chester, John Graham, D.D., Lord Bishop of.

Christie, Professor 8. H., M.A., F.R.S.

Clare, Peter, Esq., F.R. AS. (deceased).

Clark, Rey. Prof., M.D., F.R.S. (Cambridge.)

Clark, Henry, M.D.

Clark, G. T., Esq.

Clear, William, Esq. (deceased).

Clerke, Major 8., K.H., R.E., F.R.S. (dec*).

Clift, William, Esq., FRS. (deceased).

Close, Very Rev. F., M.A., Dean of Carlisle.

Cobbold, John Chevalier, Esq., M.P.

Colquhoun, J. C., Esq., M.P. (deceased).

Conybeare, Very Rev. W. D., Dean of Llan-
daff (deceased).

Cooper, Sir Henry, M.D.

Corrie, John, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased).

Crum, Walter, Esq. » ERS

Currie, William Wallace, Esq. (deceased).

Dalton, John, D.C.L., F. RS. (deceased).

Daniell, Professor J. F,, F-.R.S. (deceased).

Dartmouth, William, Earl of, D.C.L., F.BS,

Darwin, Charles, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.

Daubeny, Prof. Charles G. B., M.D., F.BS.

DelaBeche, Sir H. T., C.B., F. R. 8, Director:
Gen. Geol. Surv. United "Kingdom
(deceased).

Devonshire, William, Duke of, M.A., F.R.S.

Dickinson, Joseph, M.D., F. RS

Dillwyn, Lewis W., Esq., ERS. "(deoeased).

Drinkwater, J. E., "Esq. (deceased),

Ducie, The Earl, ERS

Dunraven, The Farl of, ERS.

Egerton,Sir P.deM. Grey, Bart.,M.P.,F.R.S,

Eliot, Lord, M.P.

Ellesmere, Francis, Earl of, F.G.S. (dec*).

Fnniskillen, William, Ear! of, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Estcourt, T, G. B., DCL. (deceased).

Faraday, Professor, D.C.L., F.RB.S.

Fitzwilliam, The Earl, DCL. , E.R.S. (dec*).

Fleming, W.. M.D.

Fletcher, Bell, M.D.

Foote, Lundy E., Esq.

Forbes, Charles, Esq. (deceased).

Forbes, Prof. Tawa FES (deceased).

Forbes, Prof. J. D., FRS., Sec. R.S.E.

Fox, Robert Were, Esq., FRS.

Frost, Charles, F'.S.A.

Gassiot, John P., Esq., F.R.S.

Gilbert, Davies, D.C. L., E.R. S. (deceased).

Gourlie, William, Esq.

Graham, T., M.A., F.R.S., Master ofthe Mint.

Gray, John E., Esq., PhD. F.RB.S.

Gray, J onathan, Esq. (deceased),

Gray, William, Esq., F .» L.G.S.

Green, Prof. Joseph Henry, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Greenough, G. B., Esq., F.R.S. (deceased).

Griffith, Sir R. Griffith, Bt., LL.D., M.R.1.A.

Grove, W. R., Esq., M.A., F.R.S.

Hallam, Henry, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. (dec*).

Hamilton, W. J., Esq., F.R.S., For. Sec. G.S.

Hamilton, Sir Wm. R., LL.D., Astronomer

Royal of Ireland, M.R.LA., F.R.AS.

Hancock, W. Neilson, LL.D.

Harcourt, Rev. Wm. Vernon, M.A., F.R.S.

Hardwicke, Charles Philip, Earl of, F.R.S.

Harford, J. 8., D.C.L., F.R.S,

Harris, Sir W. Snow, F.R.S.

Harrowby, The Earl of, F.R.S.

Hatfeild, William, Hsq., F.G.S. (deceased).

Henry, W. C., MD., F RS. [Col., Belfast.

Henry, Rev. P. 8., D. D., President of Queen’s

Henslow, Rey. Professor, M.A., F.LS

ee Hon. and Very Rey. Wnm., Liaw
FL. 8., Dean of Manchester (dec?).

Herschel, SirJohn F. W., Bart.,D.C.L., F.R.S.

Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., ERS.

Heywood, James, Esq., F.R.S.

Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S,

Hinceks, Rev. Edward, D.D., M.R.1.A.

Hinds, §., D.D., late Lord Bishop of Norwich.

Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D.

Hodgkinson, Pr ofessor Eaton, F.R.S.

Hodgson, Joseph, Esq., F.R.S8.

Hooker, Sir William J., LL.D., F.R.S.

Hope, Rev. F. W., M.A ERS.

Hopkins, William, Esq., M. A., F.R.S.

Horner, Leonard, Esq., FERS, F.G.S.

Hovenden, V. F., Esq., M.A.

Hutton, Robert, Esq., F.G.S.

Hutton, William, Esq., F'.G.S.

Ibbetson,Capt.L.L. Boscawen, K.R.E.,F.G.S,

Inglis, Sir R. H., Bart., D.C. Ly M.P. (dec’),

Inman, Thomas, M. D.

Jacobs, Bethel, Esq.

Jameson, Professor R., F.R.S. (deceased).

Jardine, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.E.

Jeffreys, John Gwyn, Esq., F.R.S.

Jellett, Rev. Prof.

Jenyns, Rev. Leonard, F.L.S.

Jerrard, H. B., Esq.

Johnston, Right Hon. William, late Lord

-_ Provost of Edinburgh.

‘Johnston, Prof. J. F. W., M.A., F.R.S. (dec*).

Keleher, William, Esq. ’ (deceased).

Kelland, Rev. Professor P., M.A.

Kildare, The Marquis of.

Lankester, Edwin, M.D., F.R.S.
Lansdowne, Hen., Marquisof, D.C.L.,F.R.S8,
Larcom, Lt.-Colonel, R.E., LL.D., F.R.8.
Lardner, Rey. Dr. (deceased).

Lassell, William, Esq., F.R.S, L. & E.
Latham, R. G., M.D., ERS.

Lee, Very Rev. John, 'D. D., F.RB.S.E., Prin-

cipal of the University of Edinburgh.

(deceased).

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Lee, Robert, M.D., F.R.S8.

Lefevre, Right Hon. Charles Shaw, late
Speaker of the House of Commons.

Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., F.R.S.

Liddell, Andrew, Esq. (deceased).

Lindley, Professor J ohn, Ph.D., F.R.S.

Listowel, The Earl of. [Dublin (dec*),

Lloyd, Rev. B., D.D., Provost of Trin. Coll.,

Lloyd, Rey, H., D.D., D.C.L., F.B.S. L.&E.

Londesborough, Lord, FRS.

Lubbock, Sir John W., Bart., M.A., F.R.S.

Luby, Rev. Thomas.

Lyell, Sir Charles, M.A., F.R.S.

MacCullagh, Prof., D.C. L., MBIA. (dec*).

MacDonnell, Rev. R., D. D., M.R.LA., Pro-
vost of Trinity College, Dublin.

Macfarlane, The Very Rev. Principal. (dec*).

MacGee, William, M.D.

MacLeay, William Sharp, Esq., F.L.S.

MacNeill, Professor Sir John, F.R.S.

Malahide, The Lord Talbot de.

Malcolm, Vice-Ad. Sir Charles, K.C.B. (dec*).

Maltby, Edward, D.D., F.R.S., late Lord
Bishop of Durham (deceased).

Manchester, J. P. Lee, D.D., Lord Bishop of.

May, Charles, Esq., F. R.A. 8.

Meynell, Thomas, Esq., F.L.S.

Middleton, Sir William F. F., Bart.

Miller, Professor W. A., M.D., F.R.S.

Miller, Professor W. H., M.A., F.R.S.

Moillet, J. D., Esq. (deceased).

Milnes, R. Monckton, Esq., D.C.L., M.P.

Moggridge, Matthew, Esq.

Moody, J. Sadleir, Esq.

Moody, T. H. C., Esq.

Moody, T. F., Esq.

Morley, The Earl of.

Moseley, Rey. Henry, M.A., F.R.S.

Mount-Edgecumbe, ErnestAugustus, Karl of.

Murchison, Sir Roderick I.,G.C. St.8., F.B.S8.

Neill, Patrick, M.D., F.R.S.E.

Nicol, D., M.D.

Nicol, Rey. J. P., LL.D.

Northampton, Spencer Joshua Alwyne, Mar-

quis of, V.P.R.S. (deceased).

Northumberland, Hugh, Duke of, K.G.,M.A.,
F.R.S. (deceased).

Ormerod, G. W., Esq., M.A., F.G.S.

Orpen, Thomas Herbert, M.D. (deceased).

Orpen, John H., LL.D.

Osler, Follett, Esq., E.R.S.

Owen, Professor Richd.,M.D., D.C.L.,F.R.S.

Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce, D.D., Lord
Bishop of, F.R.S., F.G.S8.

Palmerston, Viscount, G.C.B., M.P.

Peacock, Very Rey. G., D.D., Dean of Ely,
F.R.S. (deceased).

Peel,Rt.Hon.Sir R.,Bart.,M.P.,D.C.L.(dec").

Pendarves, E., W. Hsq., F.R.S. (deceased).

Phillips, Professor John, M.A., LL.D.,F.R.S.

Pigott, The Rt. Hon. D. R., M.R.L.A., Lord
Chief Baron of the Exchequer in Ireland.

Porter, G. R., Esq. See a!

Powell, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.R.S.

Prichard, J. C., M.D., ERS. (deceased).

Ramsay, "Professor William, M.A,

Ransome, George, Esq., ELS.

Reid, Maj.-Gen. Sir W., K.C.B., R.E., F.R.S.
(deceased).

Rendlesham, Rt. Hon. Lord, M.P.

Rennie, George, Esq., F.R.S.

Rennie, Sir John, F.R.S.

Richardson, Sir John, M.D., C.B., F.R.S,

Ritchie, Rey. Prof., LL.D., F.B.8. (dec*).

Robinson, Rev. J., D.D

Robinson, Rey. T. R., D. D., F.R.AS.

Robison, Sir John, Sec.R.S.Edin. (deceased).

Roche, J ames, Esq.

Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., F.RS.

Ronalds, Francis, F.R.S.

Rosebery, The Earl of, K.T., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Ross, Rear-Ad. Sir J.C., R.N., D.C.L., F.R.S

Rosse, Wnm., Earl of, M.A, FRS., MR.LA.

Royle, Prof. John F., M. Bs. FRS. (dec*).

Russell, James, Esq. ‘(deceased).

Russell, J. Scott, Esq., F.R.S. [V.P.R.S.

Sabine, Maj.-Gen., R.A., D.C.L., Treas. &

Sanders, William, Esq., F.G.S.

Scoresby, Rey. Ww; D.D., F.R.S. (deceased).

Sedgwick, Rev. Prof. ‘Adam, M.A, F.R.S.

Selby, Prideaux J obn, Esq., F.R. SE.

Sharpey, Professor, M.D., Sec.R.8.

Sims, Dillwyn, Esq.

Smith, Lieut.-Colonel C. Hamilton, F.R.8.

Smith, James, F.R.S. L. & E.

Spence, William, Esq., F.R.S.

Stanley, Edwar d, D.D., F.R.S., late Lord
Bishop of Norwich (deceased).

Staunton, Sir G. T., Bt., M.P., D.C.L., F.B.S.

St. David’s, C. Thirlwall, D.D. ‘Lor Bishop of.

Stevelly, Professor Ji ohn, LL.D.

Stokes, Professor G. 2) Sec.R.8.

Strang, John, Esq. -

Strickland, Hach h, Ta, F.R.S. (deceased).

Sykes, Colonel W. H., M.P., F.R.S.

Symonds, B. P., D. D., Vice-Chancellor of
the Univer sity of Oxford.

Talbot, W. H. Fox, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.

Tayler, Rev. John James, B

Taylor, John, Hsq., F.R. S.

Taylor, Richar d, Esq., F.G.S.

Thompson, William, Hsq., F.L.S. (deceased).

Thomson, Professor William, M.A, F.R.S.

Tindal, Captain, RN.

Tite, William, Esq., M.P., F.R.S.

Tod, James, Esq., F.R.S.E.

Tooke, Thomas, F.R.S. (deceased).

Traill, J. S., M.D. (deceased).

Turner, Edward, M.D., F.R.S. (deceased).

Turner, Samuel, Esq., FRS, F.G.S. (dec*).

Turner, Rey. W.

Tyndall, Professor, F'.R.S.

Vigors, N. A., D.C.L., F.L.S. (deceased).

Vivian, J. H., MP., FRS. (deceased).

Walker, James, Esq., E.R.S.

Walker, Joseph N., Esq., F.G:S.

Walker, Rev. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S.

Warburton, Henry, Esq.,M. 7 FRS. (dec*).

Washington, Captain, R.N., F.R.S.

Webster, Thomas, M.A., F. Rs S.

West, William, Esq., ERS. (deceased),

Western, Thomas Burch, Esq.

Wharncliffe, John Stuart, Lord, F.R.S.(dec*).

Wheatstone, Professor Charles, F.R.S.

Whewell, Rey. William, D.D., F.R.S., Master
of Trinity College, Cambridge.

Williams, Prof. Charles J.B., M.D., F.B.S8.

Willis, Rev. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S-

Wills, William, Esq., F.G.8.

Wilson, Prof. W. P.

Winchester, John, Marquis of.

Woollcombe, Henry, Esq., F.S.A. (deceased)

Wrottesley, John, Lord, M.A., Pres.R.S.

Yarborough, The Farl of, D.C. ois

Yarrell, William, Esq.. “ee ae

Yates, James, Esq., M.A

Yates, J. B., Hsq., BSA, TRGS, (dec)

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1858-59.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
Sin Roperick I. Murcuison,G.C.St.S.,F.R.S. Major-General Epwarp Sasine, R.A,,
Joun Taytor, Esq., F.R.S. D.C.L., Treas. & V.P.R.S.
PRESIDENT.
RICHARD OWEN, M.D., D.C.L., V.P.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
Superintendent of the Natural History Departments of the British Museum.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.

The Lorp MonTEActeE, F.R.S. The Rev. WitL1AM WHEWELL, D.D., F.R.S.,

The Earu or Ripon, F.R.G.S. Hon. M.R.1.A., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Master of

The Rt. Hon. M. T. Barnes, M.A., M.P. Trinity College, Cambridge.

Sir Pamtie pe M. Grey Ecerton, Bart., James GArtH MarsHAt.t, Esq.,M.A.,F.G.S.
M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S. R. Moncxton MILnes, Esq., D.C.L., M.P.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS THE PRINCE CONSORT.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
The Duke or RicuMonp, K.G.,F.R.S., Pre- Sir R. I. Murcuison,G.C.St.S.,D.C.L.,F.R.S.,

sident of the Royal Agricultural Society. and Director-General of the Geological Sur-
The Eart or ABERDEEN, LL.D., K.G., vey of the United Kingdom.
K.T., F.R.S. The Rey. W. V. Harcourt, M.A., F.R.S.

The Lorp Provost of the City of Aberdeen. The Rev. T. R. Ropryson, D.D., F.R.S., Di-
Sir Joun F. W. Herscuet, Bart., D.C.L., rector of the Armagh Observatory, Armagh.
M.A., F.R.S. A. THomson, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., Convener
Sir Daviv Brewster, K.H., D.C.L., F.R.S., of the County of Aberdeen.
Principal of the United College of St. Sal-
vator and St. Leonard, St. Andrews.
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT ABERDEEN.
James Nicot, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of Natural History in Marischal College and
University of Aberdeen.
Freperick Fuuurr, M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University and King’s College of
Aberdeen.
Joun F. Wuirte, Esq., King Street.
LOCAL TREASURERS FOR THE MEETING AT ABERDEEN.
Joun Aneus, Esq. NEWELL BurnerT, Esq.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
Bazincton, C. C., M.A., Latsam, R. G., M.D.,F.R.S. Suarpry,Professor, Sec. R.S.

F.R.S. Lye 1, Sir C., D.C.L., F.R.S. Syxes, Colonel W. H., M.P.,
Bett, Prof., Pres.L.S.,F.R.S. Murtzer, Prof. W. A., M.D., F.R.S.
FAIRBAIRN, WILLIAM,E.R.S. F.R.S. Tire, Witu1AM, M.P., F.R.S.
FrrzRoy,RearAdmiral,F.R.S. Porrtocx, Major-General, Waker, Rev. Prof., F.R.S,
GassioT, Joun P., F.R.S. R.E., F.R.S. Wesster, Tuomas, F.R.S.
Grove, Wiit1am R., F.R.S. Price, Rey. Prof., F.R.S. Wrottestey, Lord, F.R.S.
Horner, Leonarp, F.R.S. Rennie, Georce, F.R.S. Yates, James, M.A,, F.R.S.
Hurron, Rosert, F.G.S. RussELL, J. S8., F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

The President and President Elect, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-Presidents Elect, the Ge-
neral and Assistant-General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presi-
dents of former years, viz. Rev. Professor Sedgwick. Sir Thomas M. Brisbane. The Marquis
of Lansdowne. The Duke of Devonshire. Rev. W. V. Harcourt. The Marquis of Bread-
albane. Rev. W. Whewell, D.D. The Earl of Rosse. Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. Sir
Roderick I. Murchison. The Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Sir David Brewster. G. B. Airy, Esq.,
the Astronomer Royal. General Sabine. William Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S. The Earl of
Harrowby. The Duke of Argyll. Professor Daubeny, M.D. The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D.

GENERAL SECRETARY.
Masor-GEnERAL Epwarp SasinE, R.A., D.C.L., Treas. & V.P.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
13 Ashley Place, Westminster.
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
Joun Puriuirs, Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres.G.S., Reader in Geology in the University
of Oxford; University Museum, Oxford.
GENERAL TREASURER.
Joun Taytor, Esq., F.R.S., 6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames Street, London.
LOCAL TREASURERS.

William Gray, Esq., F.G.S., York. Robert P. Greg, Esq., F.G.S., Manchester.
C.C. Babington, Esq., M.A.,F.R.S.,Cambridge. John Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq., F.R.S., Swansea.
William Brand, Esq., Edinburgh. J. B. Alexander, Esq., Jpswich.

John H. Orpen, LL.D., Dudlin. Robert Patterson, Esq., M.R.1.A., Belfast.
William Sanders, Esq., F.G.S., Bristol. Edmund Smith, Esq., Hull.

Robert M‘Andrew, Esq., F.R.S., Liverpool. Richard Beamish, Esq., F.R.S., Cheléenham.
W. R. Wills, Esq., Birmingham. John Metcalfe Smith, Esq., Leeds.

Professor Ramsay, M.A., Glasgow.
AUDITORS.
James Yates, Esq. Dr. Norton Shaw. Robert Hutton, Esq:

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. XXVIi

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
LEEDS MEETING.

SECTION A.—-MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS,

President.—Rev. W. Whewell, D.D., V.P.R.S. &c.

Vice-Presidents.—G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L., Astronomer Royal ; Rev. A. Barry,
M.A.; Sir D. Brewster, K.H., LL.D., F.R.S.; Rev. Dr. Lloyd, F.R.S.; Rev. Pro-
fessor Walker, M.A., F.R.S.; Lord Wrottesley, V.P.R.S.

Secretaries.—Rev. S. Earnshaw, B.A.; H.J.S. Smyth, M.A. ; Professor Stevelly,
LL.D. ; Professor Tyndall, F.R.S. ; John Pope Hennessy, Esq.

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS
TO AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS.

President. —Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., D.C.L., M.A., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, M.A., F.R.S.; Professor
Faraday, D.C.L., F.R.S.; J. P. Gassiot, V.P.R.S.

Secretaries.—J. H. Gladstone, Ph.D., F.R.S. ; W. Odling, M.B., F.C.S. ; Richard
Reynolds, F.C.S.

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.

President.—Wm. Hopkins, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Major-General Portlock, LL.D., F.R.S.; Earl of Enniskillen,
F.R.S.; Sir P. de M. Grey Egerton, Bart., F.R.S.; Professor Ramsay, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Professor J. Nicol, F.G.S.; H. C. Sorby, F.R.S.; E., W. Shaw,
Esq. :

SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.
President.—C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E.; Sir John Richardson, M.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Secretaries.—E. Lankester, M.D., F.R.S.; Henry Denny, A.L.S.; Dr. Heaton ;
Dr. E. Percival Wright, M.R.I.A.

SUB-SECTION D.—PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCE.
President.—Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart., D.C.L., Pres.R.S.
Vice-Presidents—Thomas P. Teale, F.L.S.; Dr. Hodgkin; Dr. Chadwick ;
Samuel Smith, Esq.
Secretary.—C. G. Wheelhouse, Esq.

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

President.—Sir Roderick Murchison, G.C.St.S., D.C.L., F.R.S., President of the
Royal Geographical Society, &c.

Vice-Presidents,—Major-General Chesney, D.C.L., F.R.S.; John Crawfurd,F.R.S.;
Rear-Admiral FitzRoy, F.R.S.; Rev. W. F. Hook, D.D.; Sir H. C. Rawlinson,
K.C.B., F.R.S.; Sir John Richardson, C.B., M.D., LL.D.

Secretaries.—Dr. Norton Shaw; Thomas Wright, F.S.A.; Francis Galton, Esq. ;
P. O’Callaghan, Esq.; Richard Cull, Esq.

SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
President.—Edward Baines, Esq.
Vice-Presidents.—Colonel W. H. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S.; James Heywood, F.R.S, ;
W.Scrope Ayrton, F.S.A.; Darnton Lupton; Sir James Kay Shuttleworth, Bart.
Secretaries.—William Newmarch, Esq. ; John Strang, LL.D. ; Professor Cairnes ;
Captain Fishbourne ; Thos. B. Baines, B.A.; Samuel Brown, F.S.S.

SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

President.— William Fairbairn, F.R.S.

Vice- Presidents.—J. G. Appold, F.R.S.; Sir P. Fairbairn, Mayor of Leeds; J.
Glynn, F.R.S.; J. Kitson, C.E.; Professor Rankine, LL.D., F.R.S., Pres. Inst.
Eng. Scot.; G. Rennie, F.R.S.; J. Scott Russell, F.R.S.; T. Webster, M.A.,
F.R.S. ; General Wilson.

Secretaries.—J. C. Dennis, F.R.A.S.; I. Dixon, Esq.; H. Wright, Esq.

XXVIli

REPORT—1858.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Professor Agassiz, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts.

M. Babinet, Paris.

Dr. A. D. Bache, Washington.

Professor Bolzani, Kazan.

Barth, Dr.

Mr. P. G. Bond, Cambridge, U.S.

M. Boutigny (d’Evreux).

Professor Braschmann, Moscow.

Chevalier Bunsen, Heidelberg.

Dr. Ferdinand Cohn, Breslav.

M. Antoine d’Abbadie.

M. De la Rive, Geneva.

Professor Dove, Berlin.

Professor Dumas, Puris.

Dr. J. Milne-Edwards, Paris.

Professor Ehrenberg, Berlin.

Dr. Ejisenlohr, Carlsruhe.

Professor Encke, Berlin.

Dr. A. Erman, Berlin.

Professor Esmark, Christiania.

Professor G. Forchhammer, Copenhagen.

M. Léon Foucault, Paris.

Prof. E. Fremy, Paris.

M. Frisiani, Milan.

Professor Asa Gray, Cambridge, U.S.

Professor Henry, Washington, U.S.

M. Jacobi, St. Petersburg.

Prof. A. Kolliker, Wurzburg.

Prof. De Koninck, Licge.

Professor Kreil, Vienna.

Dr. A. Kupffer, St. Petersburg.

Dr. Lamont, Munich.

Prof. F. Lanza, Spoleto.

M. Le Verrier, Paris.

Baron von Liebig, Munich.

Professor Loomis, New York.

Professor Gustav Magnus, Berlin.

Professor Matteucci, Pisa.

Professor von Middendorff, St. Petersburg.

M. l’Abbé Moigno, Paris.

Professor Nilsson, Sweden.

Dr. N, Nordensciold, Fin/and.

M. E. Peligot, Paris.

Viscenza Pisani, Florence.

Gustave Plaar, Strasburg.

Chevalier Plana, Turin.

Professor Pliicker, Bonn.

M. Constant Prévost, Paris.

M. Quetelet, Brussels.

Prof. Retzius, Stockholm.

Professor C. Ritter, Berlin.

Professor H. D. Rogers, Boston, U.S.

Professor W. B. Rogers, Boston, U.S.

Professor H. Rose, Berlin.

Herman Schlagintweit, Berlin.

Robert Schlagintweit, Berlin.

Dr. Siljestrom, Stockholin.

M. Struvé, Pulkowa.

Dr. Svanberg, Stockholm.

M. Pierre Tchihatchef.

Dr. Van der Hoeven, Leyden.

Baron Sartorius von Waltershausen,
Gétlingen.

| Professor Wartmann, Geneva.

Report or Tur Council or THE BritisH ASSOCIATION AS PRESENTED
TO THE GENERAL CoMMITTEE AT LEEDS, SEPTEMBER 22np, 1858.

1. With reference to the subjects referred to the Council by the General
Committee at Dublin, the Council have to report as follows :—

a. The General Committee passed the follewing resolution, viz.:—

“ That it is of great importance to the progress of Science that the Mag-
netic Observations which have already added so much to our knowledge of
terrestrial magnetism, should be continued. That the influence of the Asso-
ciation will be well employed in attaining this object, and that it is desirable
to obtain the cooperation of the Royal Society. That a Committee be ap-
pointed, consisting of the President, the Rev. Dr. Robinson, and Major-General
Sabine, to request, on the part of the British Association, the cooperation of
the President and Council of the Royal Society, and to take in conjunction
with them such steps as may appear necessary, including, if it be thought
desirable, an application to Government.”

- A copy of this resolution was transmitted soon after the Dublin Meeting
by the President, Dr. Lloyd, to Lord Wrottesley, President of the Royal
Society, accompanied by the following letter :—

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. Xx1X

“ Nov. 6, 1857.

“ My Lorp,—At the Meeting of the British Association which was held
at Dublin in August last, a Resolution was adopted proposing the continuance
of the system of Magnetical Observations which was commenced under the
auspices of the Royal Society and of the British Association in 1840; and a
Committee, consisting of the President of the Association, Rev. Dr. Robinson,
and General Sabine, was appointed, to request the cooperation of the Presi-
dent and Council of the Royal Society in the endeavour to attain this object,
and to take in conjunction with them such steps as may appear desirable for
that end. If this proposal should commend itself to your Lordship’s judg-
ment, and that of the Council of the Royal Society, I have to request, on the
part of the gentlemen above named, that you will be pleased to nominate a
Committee of the Royal Society to confer with them, and to take such further
steps in conjunction with them as may seem expedient.

“T have the honour to be, My Lord,
“Your most obedient Servant,
(Signed) “ H. Lioyp.”
“ To the Right Hon. the Lord Wrottesley, P.R.S.”

In consequence of this letter, the President and Council of the Royal
Society appointed a Committee, consisting of Sir John Herschel, Bart., the
Rev. Dr. Whewell, the Rev. The Dean of Ely, and the Astronomer Royal
(who had been members of the Committee of Physics, by whom the former
Report on terrestrial magnetism in 1839-40 had been drawn up) to consider
the progress and present state of Magnetical Investigation; and to take, in
conjunction with the Committee appointed by the British Association, such
steps as should appear advisable for its further prosecution ; including, if it
should be deemed desirable, an application to Government.

The mode of proceeding pursued by the two Committees has been hitherto
that of independent deliberation, with occasional intereommunication by
correspondence. The conclusions which have been arrived at by the two
Committes being, it is understood, substantially the same, a united Meeting
has been appointed to take place at Leeds, in the present week, at which a
joint report may be drawn up, and may be presented to the General Com-
mittee at its meeting on Monday next, when such further steps may be
taken in reference to the subject as may appear desirable.

b. The General Committee assembled at Dublin dirécted that “an appli-
cation should be made to Her Majesty’s Government to send a vessel to
examine and survey the entrance to the Zambesi River in South Africa, and
to ascend the river as far as may be found practicable for navigation.”

The President, and the Committee to whom the charge of this application
was entrusted, having placed themselves in communication with Dr. Living-
stone, presented the following Memorial to the Earl of Clarendon, Her Ma-
jesty’s Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs :—

«Dr. Livingstone’s successful travels in Africa, and the account which he
has given of them at public meetings in the metropolis and in several of the
principal provincial towns of the United Kingdom, have excited throughout
the country a strong desire to obtain more full particulars regarding the
productions, capabilities, and accessibility of that portion of the globe.

“The Zambesi River appears by Dr. Livingstone’s account to furnish means
of communication with the interior of Southern Africa similar to those which
the Quorra and Binue have been found to afford in Central Africa. The
object of the present application is to bring under the consideration of Her
Majesty's Government the expediency of availing themselves of the oppor-

XXX REPORT—1858.

tunity of Dr. Livingstone’s return to Africa, to employ a suitable vessel in the
ensuing season to obtain, with his assistance, a more correct knowledge than
we now possess, of the facilities which the Zambesi would afford for com-
merce, and of the extent to which its waters may be navigable; and also to
procure a more exact knowledge of the natural productions of the country,
and of the availability of the supplies of coal and other mineral substances
which are stated to exist in the vicinity of the river.”

Early in November the Committee, accompanied by Dr. Livingstone, were
favoured with a personal interview by Lord Clarendon, who was pleased to
express a warm interest in the proposed Expedition, and promised that it
should receive the favourable consideration of Her Majesty’s Government.
The expectation thus raised has been fully realized; a vote of money was
moved by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and sanctioned by the House of
Commons; and the Expedition has since sailed, having had the advantage of
receiving from the Royal Society, on Lord Clarendon’s invitation, suggestions
as to the scientific objects which the Expedition may be made to subserve,
without interference with its primary and immediate purpose, and having
been furnished at the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, with
scientific instruments, and with personal instruction in their use.

ce. The General Committee, at Dublin, directed that application should be
made to Her Majesty’s Government “ to send a vessel to the vicinity of the
Mackenzie River, for the purpose of making a series of Magnetic Observations
with special reference to the determination of the laws now known to rule
the magnetic storms.” The General Committee entrusted this application to
the President, assisted by aCommittee named in the Resolution. A Memorial,
setting forth the grounds and object of the application, having been prepared
by the Committee, was presented to Lord Palmerston on the 31st of October,
with a request from the Committee to be favoured with an interview.

The Memorial was as follows :—

“ Among the most important results of scientific research during the last
twenty years, is the addition which has been made to our knowledge of Ter-
restrial Magnetism. The variation of its direction and intensity dependent on
the observer's position on the globe, have been ascertained with a precision
which already affords material assistance to the seaman ; and those variations
which are connected with the hour of the day, or season of the year, have
been also carefully investigated. But, as always happens in real progress,
the advance which has been made has shown new ground which ought to be
explored. Without referring to the magnetic influence, which we have now
reason to believe is exerted on our planet both by the sun and moon, a still
more interesting fact has recently been established. It has long been known
that the earth’s magnetism is affected by sudden disturbances, occasionally
so great as even to interfere with its practical applications; but it has been
very recently discovered that these magnetic storms (as they have been called)
are themselves subject to periodic laws. Their study is evidently of the
highest importance towards the discovery of the physical causes which are
engaged in producing magnetic phenomena, and a fortunate circumstance
has pointed out one method of pursuing it. During the years in which Her
Majesty’s Ship ‘Plover’ was stationed at Point Barrow, as a part of the
squadron which was searching for the traces of Sir J. Franklin, and his noble.
companions, her officers, under the superintendence of their gifted com-
mander R. Maguire, made a valuable series of magnetic observations, the more
precious from their peculiar position, and the great care with which they were
conducted. On reducing these and comparing their results with those ob-
tained at Toronto, the most famous of the British Magnetie Observatories,

——=—

ee

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. XXxi

some very remarkable facts were elicited respecting the magnetic storms.
At both stations they occur simnltaneously ; but with the significant differ-
ence that their directions are opposite. This indicates so clearly the relation
of these disturbances to a point somewhere between Point Barrow and
Toronto, that it appeared to the Physical Section of the British Association,
when discussing at its late Meeting these observations, of high importance
to have them continued and extended. For this purpose a location in or
near Mackenzie River appears the most suitable, as very well situated with
respect to the other two, and as easily accessible without any extraordinary
risk, or chance of long detention. The same instruments are available; and
as there are many officers in Her Majesty’s Navy perfectly competent to use
them, it is confidently expected that the result would be alike beneficial to
this department of Physical Science, and honourable to our country.”

No reply having been received to this communication, the following letter
was addressed, on the 4th of January, by the President, to G. C. Barrington,
Esq., private Secretary to Lord Palmerston :—

“ January 4, 1858.

“ Sir,—On the 31st of October I communicated to Lord Palmerston a
resolution adopted by the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
making application to Her Majesty’s Government to send a vessel to the
vicinity of the Mackenzie River, for the purpose of obtaining in that region
certain observations, which recent discoveries in Terrestrial Magnetism had
proved to be of high importance to science ; and I enclosed at the same time
a Memorial, setting forth in detail the grounds of the application.

** As the time for making the necessary preparations for such an expedition
has now fully arrived, I trust I shall not be deemed unreasonable in recalling,
through you, his Lordship’s consideration to the subject.

“Tn reference to this part of the question, I beg to enclose a letter from
Captain Maguire, who commanded H.M.S. ‘ Plover’ in the same seas in 1852,
1853, 1854, and who is probably the best authority on the subject. It will
be seen from it, that there is still sufficient time to equip a vessel for the
forthcoming season. As respects the kind of vessel required, and the nature
of the equipment, the same officer writes as follows, in a letter dated the 5th
of November last, addressed to General Sabine :—

_ “One of the despatch gun-vessels will answer very well. There are also
many sailing-sloops now lying idle—such as the ‘ Frolic’ and ‘ Espiégle,’ or
many others, that might be made available at a trifling expense. The strength-
ening need not be much; and a very small auxiliary steam-power, sufficient
to propel the vessel two or three knots in a calm, would suffice to carry her
through the land-water of the north coast from Point Barrow. The shores
from thence to the Mackenzie afford, in every part, an ample supply of drift-
wood fit for steaming purposes.’

“ As I believe that one of the chief objections, on the part of Her Majesty’s
Government, to further expeditions to the Arctic Seas, is the danger to the
lives of the seamen employed in the service, I think it right to add, that an
expedition to this locality will be attended with xo unusual risk,—and that,
on the other hand, it may afford important support to the gallant crew who
are now engaged in the final search for the traces of the Franklin Expedition,
if the commander should be induced by circumstances, which are not im-
probable, to push his vessel westward.

“T have the honour to be, Sir,
“Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) “ H. Lroyp.”
“To G. C. Barrington, Esq.”

XXxHl REPORT— 1858. ©

To this letter the following reply was received :—

“‘ Downing Street, Jan. 22, 1858.

“ Str,—In reply to your letter of the 4th instant, Iam desired by Lord
Palmerston to acquaint you that Her Majesty's Government do not think it
advisable to take the steps recommended by you.

“JT am, Sir,
“ Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) «GERALD PONSONBY.”
“ Rev. Dr. Lloyd.”

2. The General Committee at Dublin having placed £500 at the disposal
of the Council, to be employed in maintaining the establishment, and pro-
viding for the continuance of special researches at the Kew Observatory, the
Report of the Committee to whom the Council have confided the superin-
tendence of the Kew Observatory is herewith annexed, testifying to the great
and still increasing public utility of that establishment. The General Com-
mittee will recognize with pleasure, in the contribution of £150 received from
the Royal Society, for the purchase of improved tools for the workshop of the
Observatory, a fresh evidence of the readiness of the President and Council
of that body to aid the objects of the Kew Observatory, by special grants
from time to time for particular purposes.

3. Since the communication made by the President and Council of the Royal
Society to the General Committee in Dublin, relative to the formation of a
‘Catalogue of the Philosophical papers contained in the various scientific
Transactions and Journals of all Countries” (printed copies of which com-
munication were distributed amongst the members of the General Committee
in Dublin), this important work has been commenced under the auspices and
at the expense of the Royal Society. It is purposed that it should include the
titles (in the original languages) of all Memoirs published in such works, in
the Mathematical, Physical, and Natural Sciences, from the foundation of the
Royal Society to the present time: the titles to be so arranged as to form
ultimately three catalogues,—one chronological, or in the order of the me-
moirs in the several series,—one alphabetical, according to authors’ names,—
and, lastly, a third, classified according to subjects. ‘The superintendence of
this work has been undertaken by the officers of the Royal Society, assisted
by a Select Committee of the Fellows.

4. The Council have added to the list of Corresponding Members of the
Association the names of the following foreign gentlemen, who were present
at the Dublin Meeting, and made communications to the Sections, viz.:—

Dr. Barth. Viscenza Pisani, Florence.
Professor Bolzani, Kazan. Gustave Plaar, Strasburg.
Antoine d’Abbadie, Paris. Herman Schlagintweit, Berlin.
Professor Loomis, New York. Robert Schlagintweit, Berlin.

5. The General Secretary has informed the Council that he communicated
to His Royal Highness The Prince Consort the resolution of the General
Committee at Dublin, viz. :— !

“ That application be made to His Royal Highness The Prince Censort for
permission to elect him President of the British Association for the year 1859,”
and that he had received in reply the following letter :—

‘“‘ Balmoral, Sept. 17, 1857.
‘‘ Srr,—I have communicated to His Royal Highness The Prince Consort
your letter of the 12th inst., expressing, on the part of the Committee of the
British Association, the wish that His Royal Highness would allow himself’

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXXiil

to be nominated as President of the Meeting which it is proposed to hold at
Aberdeen in 1859.

“ His Royal Highness cannot but feel gratified at the wish thus expressed
by the Committee, though he is sensible that his own proficiency in scientific
subjects is scarcely such as to entitle him to such a distinction. If, therefore,
he expresses his readiness to comply with the wishes of the Committee, he
begs that it may be considered merely as an expression of the deep interest
which he takes in the advancement of science in this country, and as a mark
of the high sense which he entertains of the importance and usefulness of the
Association.

“His acceptance of the Presidency must also be considered, to a certain
degree, conditional—depending upon his being in Scotland at the time pro-
posed for the Meeting.

“ His Royal Highness’s time is not his own, and it is impossible for him,
at this distance of time, to say whether the call of other duties may not be
such as to prevent his attendance.

“TI have the honour to be, Sir,
“ Your most obedient Servant,
“C. Grey.”
“ To Major-General Sabine.”

6. The Report of the Parliamentary Committee of the British Association
for the Advancement of Science has been received by the Council, and is
herewith presented.

Report of the Kew Committee of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, for 1857-58.

Since the last Meeting of the Association, a set of Magnetical Instruments
have been prepared, at the request of the Council of the Royal Society, and
the constants determined for the Expedition of Dr. Livingstone to South
Africa. Capt. Bedingfield, R.N. and Messrs. Livingstone and Baines, who
accompany Dr. Livingstone in this Expedition, received instructions at the
Observatory in the use of the instruments.

At the request of Capt. Washington, R.N., Hydrographer of the Admiralty,
similar instruments were prepared for the Oregon Boundary Commission,
and instructions in their use were given at the Observatory to Capt. Haig,
R.A., and Lieut. Darrah, R.E.

Detailed written instructions for both Expeditions, supplementary to those
contained in the Admiralty Manual, were furnished by Mr. Welsh. Such
instructions necessarily occupied the time and attention of Mr. Welsh and
his assistants; but as, in the opinion of the Committee, instructions for the
correctly manipulating with instruments with which gentlemen appointed to
a particular service are not often previously acquainted, is an essential fea-
ture in the practical working of a physical observatory, the Committee have
considered it desirable that such assistance should be afforded ; and it will
be in the recollection of the Council that, in their last Report, the Committee
stated that several gentlemen, some of whom were connected with foreign
Governments, had received similar instruction.

An application having been received from M. Secchi of the Collegio Ro-
mano, on the part of the Roman Government, for Magnetical Instruments,
these instruments have been prepared at the Observatory and forwarded to
Rome. ‘They consist of an Observatory Bifilar Magnetometer and Balance

1858. c

XXXiv REPORT—1858.

Magnetometer, similar to those employed in the British Colonial Observato-
ries, a Unifilar Magnetometer, and a Dip Circle.

Application has also been received from the Rev. Alfred Weld for Mag-
netical and Electrical apparatus for the Stonyhurst College; these are in
course of preparation, and Mr. Weld has received instructions in the use of
the magnetical instruments.

Two Dip Circles by Barrow, furnished with Dr. Lloyd’s apparatus for the
total force, which were sent to the Observatory preparatory to their being
forwarded to the Austrian and Russian Governments, were carefully examined
and adjusted.

An extensive series of observations made with various dipping-needles and
circles, have confirmed the results previously obtained at the Observatory as
to the value of the Magnetic dip.

The Self-recording Magnetometers have been in regular action since the
Ist of January, and have performed satisfactorily; some difficulty arose in
the manipulation of the Balance-magnet, but this has been surmounted, and
this instrument now performs with as much accuracy and delicacy in its
action as either the Declinometer or Bifilar Magnet.

The Photoheliograph erected in the dome of the Observatory was fully
described in the last Annual Report; it has been repeatedly at work since the
beginning of last March, and excellent photographic pictures of the solar
spots and facule were obtained. Certain alterations have been made by
Mr. Welsh in order to regulate the time of exposure of the collodion plate
to the sun’s action; with these alterations the instrument gives very good
results, but certain improvements in the arrangements of the secondary mag-
nifying lens are under consideration, with the view of avoiding the depiction
on the collodion negative of the inequalities in the glasses which compose it.

The Committee recommend that arrangements should be made for the
appointment of a competent Assistant, who will undertake the taking of the
photographs and the preparing of a certain number of copies for distribution
to some of the principal British and Foreign observatories.

George Whipple has been engaged to assist in the general work of the
Observatory at a weekly pay of ten shillings.

Mr. Beckley’s arrangement of the Anemometer described at the Cheltenham
Meeting of the Association has been adopted and carried out in an apparatus
made by Mr. Adie for the East India Company. This anemometer having
been mounted at the Observatory, remained for some time, and was found to
perform satisfactorily ; it was shown to many persons, and examined by
Admiral FitzRoy, General Sabine, and Mr. Osler, members of the Anemo-
meter Committee. Certain modifications since suggested by Mr. Beckley,
have been adopted in two instruments constructed by Mr. Adie for Admiral
FitzRoy’s department in the Board of Trade.

The verification of Meteorological Instruments has been continued on the
same plan as in previous years. The following have been verified since the
last meeting of the Association to the Ist of July :—

Baro- Thermo- Hydro-
meters. meters. meters.

For the Admiralty .......... of. dara © 75

For the Board of Trade ........ ye ie 60 126

For Opticians and others................ 86 142 150
Total 22) 268 150

Among the latter are included 50 barometers and 150 hydrometers for

————Se ee

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXXV

the United States, and 6 barometers and 6 thermometers for the Portuguese
Government.

Mr. Welsh is at present completing the Magnetic Survey of Scotland, for
the expense of which £200 has been received by the Committee from the
Admiralty.

The Committee finding it desirable that the workshop of the Observatory
should be furnished with a superior lathe and planing machine, authorized
their Chairman to apply to the Council of the Royal Society for the sum of
£150; this amount was immediately awarded from the Donation Fund, and
a very superior lathe, by Whitworth, and a planing machine have been pur-
chased at a cost of £149 7s.

The present as well as the former Annual Reports of the Committee, show
the practical scientific objects for which the Observatory has for so many
years been used, and at no former period was it in so effective a state as at
present ; the valuable tools that have (by the liberality of the Royal Society )
been placed in the workshop, enable Mr. Beckley to repair and make appa-
ratus and instruments of the most complex and delicate construction; much
of this work would otherwise have been sent to different workshops in the
Metropolis, entailing not only great loss of time, but often a want of accu-
racy in the construction: the value of such arrangements in the Observatory
can be easily appreciated by scientific observers.

On the 24th of last April, the Committee presented an estimate of the
expenditure for the present year, a copy of which had been previously for-
warded by the Chairman to the President, whose reply, addressed to General
Sabine, the Committee now present as a part of their Annual Report.

“ Trinity College, Dublin, December 7, 1857.

“Dear Sapine,—I have received from Mr. Gassiot the Financial Report
of the Kew Committee, which I hope may soon be laid before the Council.
It appears from it that the expenditure of the Observatory is likely to increase
with the increased activity of the establishment, while part of the income—
that, namely, derived from the verification of meteorological instruments—
will probably diminish in future years.

*T am not sufficiently acquainted with the working of the Observatory to
say, from my own knowledge, how far an augmentation of the existing staff
is necessary. But if the Council should judge that it is—as stated in the
Report of the Committee—they will have to consider from what external
source provision may be made for the increased expenditure; for I presume
that it will not be thought prudent, that the Association, with its fluctuating
and uncertain income, should augment its grant beyond the present amount.

“Upon this point I may remark, that the President and Council of the
Royal Society have already evinced their sense of the value of the Observatory,
by making a liberal grant to it for a special object ; and that it is therefore not
improbable that they may be willing to contribute permanently to its support.
Its objects are at least as clearly allied to those of the Royal Society, as to those
of the British Association; and if it should be deemed that those objects
have been in great measure attained, and that the establishment has proved
itself deserving of permanent maintenance, it would seem expedient to place
it on a more fixed basis than the present.

“J will only add, that believing, as I do, that the Observatory has already
done much, and is capable of doing more, for the advancement of physical
science, I should deplore the restriction of its efficiency, by insufficient pecu-
niary means, as a loss to science.
' “Believe me, sincerely yours,

“ To General Sabine, R.A., Se.” “H. Luoyp.”
c2

XXXVl REPORT—1858.

The following is a Statement showing the expense of the last two years ;
an additional Assistant is now indispensable as a Photographer ; and as the
work of the Observatory increases, and its capabilities for the purposes of
science become further developed, the probable future expenditure cannot
be fairly estimated at less than £300 per annum.

STATEMENT.
1857. 1858.

G8.) 1d fis ee ad:
Salaries....... Pen ciate oak tee 3" Sor tae O 471 8 O
Apparatus :—
Materials; Tools, &@.2 2 32.'¢ 22 LS 25" TOM ee 59 6 4
Ironmonger, &¢....4...20066- af TG Oe Meg Sere TOMES NS
Stationery, &¢.......0.2------ 24 °9 8 20 11 O
Coals and Gas. ....0...2+.5. ste BOE OR EU a oD gee
House Expenses......... Saeates SPP SLO 2 2e 20 11 8
Porterage and Petty Expenses... 519 3 .... 612 4
Rent of Land...... Be iy te AY OO ee en ea ae

E80 454 TL STIS

The above is the actual expenditure, but the real annual increase in salaries
is about £61 : the difference in the above statement arises from the termination
of the financial year being one month later than last year. In the detailed
statement of receipts and expenditure, it will be observed that the amount
received for verification of meteorological instruments has decreased, arising
from the circumstance that the Meteorological department of the Govern-
ment is now well provided with a store of instruments for its use.

As the financial position of the Observatory will probably be brought
forward by the Council at the General Meeting of the Association at Leeds,
the Committee suggest that the time has now arrived when strenuous efforts
should be made to obtain such an amount of pecuniary aid as would ensure
the permanent efficient working of this practical physical Observatory ; for
although the establishment is conducted with the strictest economy, the
necessary work connected with the Observatory unavoidably creates a cor-
responding increase in the amount of the annual expenditure.

Joun P. Gassiot, Chairman.
Kew Observatory,
10th September, 1858.

Report of the Parliamentary Committee to the Meeting of the British
Association at Leeds, in September 1858.

The Parliamentary Committee have the honour to report as follows :—

That on their representation the late President of the Board of Trade had
so far acceded to the suggestions of the President and Council of the Royal
Society, supported by the British Association, as to consent to the construc-
tion of one Anemometer with Dr. Robinson’s Revolving Cups, which would
be erected at Bermuda. We believe, however, that another instrument of
the same description will be erected at Halifax, at the cost of the Board of
Admiralty. These Anemometers are to be constructed on a principle devised
by Mr. Welsh of the Kew Observatory, and they will cost about £50 each.

We are happy to be enabled to add, that the late President of the Board of
Trade, on a representation made to him by us of the insufficiency of the

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XXXVIli REPORT—1858.

accommodations and Staff at the Meteorological Department of the Board
of Trade, consented to the appointment of two additional clerks and of a
working optician, to be permanently attached to that Department ; and, more-
over, supplied more enlarged accommodations; so that, upon the whole,
Admiral FitzRoy, who so ably presides over this Meteorological Depart-
ment, expresses himself as satisfied with the present arrangements, and hope-
ful as to the future success of an institution which cannot fail to be pro-
ductive of vast benefit to science.

We regret extremely that the application to the Government to send the
Expedition to the Mackenzie River was unsuccessful ; but we anticipate an
important accession to our scientific knowledge from the Expedition to the
Zambesi River, which was sanctioned, and sent out under the able conduct
of the enterprising and distinguished Livingstone, for this Expedition was
well supplied with the necessary instruments properly tested at Kew, and
comprises those who are fully competent to use them.

We have been again in correspondence with Mr. Patterson, of Belfast, in
reference to the cost of appointments of new Trustees to Museums and
other Scientific Institutions. It appears that a clause in the Literary and
Scientific Societies’ Act, extends the facilities given by the 13 and 14 Vict.
c. 28, or the Religious Societies’ Act, to Scientific Societies; but that
the clause giving such facilities applies to real estate only. There may be
some technical difficulties in the way of including personalty, but the subject
will not be lost sight of.

The appointment of the Right Hon. Joseph Napier to the office of Lord
Chancellor of Ireland, has unhappily caused another vacancy in our body.
There are now therefore two vacancies, one of which we recommend should
be supplied by the election of the Right Hon. Sir John Pakington, M.P. for
Droitwich.

A Memorial having been presented to the Government on the subject of
the proposed severance from the British Museum of its Natural History Col-
lections, signed by 114 persons comprising the most eminent promoters and
cultivators of science, the same was moved for in the House of Commons by
Sir Philip Grey Egerton and produced. We know of no measure which
might be adopted by the Government or Legislature, which would inflict a
deeper injury on science, than the removal of these Collections, if unhappily
carried into effect.

We remain of the same opinion which we expressed in our last Report,
that no convenient opportunity has yet occurred to submit to the consider-
ation of the Legislature the twelve Resolutions of the Council of the Royal
Society; but we consider that it is difficult to over-estimate the importance
of having ascertained and embodied in these Resolutions the opinions of the
most distinguished living cultivators of science on its desiderata. They con-
stitute a perpetual record to which reference may always be made by any
Member of the Government or Legislature, who is sincerely desirous to pro-
mote all such measures as tend to encourage scientific research, and by so
doing to advance the most important interests of his country.

WrotresLey, Chairman.
September 13, 1858.

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. XXXiX

RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE
Leeps MEETING in SEPTEMBER 1858.

{When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the Secretary of
the Committee, except there be a specific nomination. ]

Involving Grants of Money.

That the Parliamentary Committee, now consisting of

The Lord Wrottesley Sir Philip Egerton, Bart.
The Earl of Rosse Right Hon. J, Napier
The Duke of Argyll Lord Stanley

The Duke of Devonshire E. J. Cooper, Esq.

The Earl of Enniskillen Viscount Goderich

The Earl of Harrowby Sir John Pakington, Bart.,

have authority to expend a sum not exceeding £50 in promoting an Act of
Parliament to facilitate the appointment of New Trustees of the Property
of Scientific Institutions.

That the sum of £500 be placed at the disposal of the Council for main-
taining the Establishment at Kew Observatory.

That a sum of £200 be placed at the disposal of Professor Wilson of the
Melbourne University, in aid of his proposed scheme for establishing a Re-
flecting Telescope, with a speculum of 4 feet diameter, for the Observation
of the Southern Nebule; on the understanding that the Local Government
of Melbourne, Victoria, and other sources, will defray all the remaining cost
of carrying the proposal into effect.

That Colonel Sykes, Lord Wrottesley, Professor Faraday, Professor Wheat-
stone, Dr. Lee, and Professor Tyndall, be appointed a Committee to confer
with the Kew Committee as to the expediency of arranging further Balloon
Ascents, and (if it should be judged expedient) to carry them into effect ;
and that a sum of £200 be placed at their disposal, if it should be required
for this purpose.

That a Committee, consisting of Professor Maskelyne, Mr. Hardwich,
Mr. Llewellyn, and Mr. Hadow, be requested to continue their Researches
on the Chemical Nature of the Image formed in Photographic Processes ;
and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Professor Voeleker be requested to continue his Field Experiments
and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to
Cultivated Crops; and that the sum of £25 be placed at his disposal for the

urpose.
j That Professor Sullivan be requested to furnish a Report on the Solubi-
lity of Salts at Temperatures above that of Boiling Water, and on the mutual
Action of Salts in Solution; and that the sum of £30 be placed at his dis-
posal for the purpose.

That Mr. Alphonse Gages be requested to continue his Experiments on
the Chemico-Mechanical Analysis of Minerals; and that the sum of £10 be
placed at his disposal for the purpose.

That a Committee, consisting of Sir R. I. Murchison, Mr. Page, and Pro-
fessor A. C. Ramsay, be requested to direct Mr. Robert Slimmon to pursue
his Researches in Developing the Fossil Contents of the Upper Silurian
Rocks of Lanarkshire; and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal
for the purpose.

(The specimens collected to be given in the first place to the Public
Museum in Edinburgh ; the duplicates to be then presented to the Public

xl REPORT—1858.

Museum in Jermyn Street, London, and to the Public Museum in Dublin,
in connexion with the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. ]

That Mr. Robert Mallet be requested to continue his Experiments on
Earthquake Waves at Holyhead; and that the balance of last year’s grant
of £50 (being a sum of £25) be placed at his disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. Hopkins, Mr. Sorby, Professor A. C. Ramsay, and Mr. Robert
Mallet, be requested to conduct a series of Experiments on the Expansion
and Contraction of various Rocks by changes of temperature in relation to
Physical Geology; and that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for
the purpose.

That a Committee, consisting of Mr. Robert Patterson, Professor Dickie,
Professor Wyville Thomson, Mr. G. C. Hyndman, and Mr. E. Weller, be
requested to finish their Report on Dredging in the North and North-east
Coasts of Ireland; and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for
the purpose.

That Dr. Kinahan, Dr. Carte, Professor J. R. Greene, and Dr. E. P.
Wright, be requested to continue their Report on “ Dublin Bay Dredging ;”
and that the sum of £15 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Professor J. R. Greene and Dr, E. P. Wright be requested to finish
Professor Greene’s Report on British Discoid Meduside; and that the sum
of £5 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Dr. E. P. Wright and Professor J. R. Greene be requested to draw
up a Report on the Irish Tunicata; and that the sum of £5 be placed at
their disposal for the purpose.

That Dr. E. P. Wright, Professor J. R. Greene, Dr. Kinahan, and Dr.
Carte, be requested to draw up the second part of their Report on the Marine
Fauna of the South and West Coasts of [reland; and that the sum of £10
be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That a Committee, consisting of Thomas Allis, Sir W. Jardine, Bart.,
and Mr. T. C. Eyton, be requested to investigate the Osteology and Com-
parative Anatomy of Birds; and that the sum of £50 be placed at their
disposal for the purpose.

That a Committee, consisting of Mr. R. M‘Andrew (London), Mr. G. C.
Hyndman (Belfast), Dr. Dickie (Belfast), Mr. C. L. Stewart (London),
Dr. Collingwood (Liverpool), Dr. Kinahan (Dublin), Mr. J. G. Jeffreys
(London), Dr. E. P. Wright (Dublin), Mr. L. Barrett (Cambridge), and
Mr. L. Worthy (Bristol), be requested to act as a General Dredging
Committee; and that the sum of £5 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.

That a Committee, consisting of Dr. Daubeny and_Dr. Lankester, be re-
quested to assist Dr. Voelecker and Professor Buckman in their Researches
on the Growth of Plants; and that the sum of £10 be placed at their dis-
posal for the purpose.

That Professor J. Thomson be requested to continue his Experiments on
the Measurements of the Discharge of Water through V-shaped Orifices ;
and that the sum of £10 be placed at his disposal for the purpose.

That the attention of Proprietors of Steam-vessels be called to the great
importance of adopting a general and uniform system of recording facts of
performances of steam-vessels at sea under all circumstances, and that the
following Noblemen and Gentlemen be requested to act as a Committee to
carry this object into effect, with £15 at their disposal for the purpose, and
to report to the Association at its next Meeting :—Admiral Moorsom; the
Marquis of Stafford, M.P.; the Earl of Caithness; Lord Dufferin; Sir James
Graham, M.P.; William Fairbairn, F.R.S.; J. S. Russell, F.R.S.; J. Kitson,

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. xli

C.E.; W. Smith, C.E.; J. E. M‘Connell, C.E.; C. Atherton, C.E.; Professor
Rankine, LL.D.; J. R. Napier, C.E.; Henry Wright (Secretary).

Involving Applications to Government or Public Institutions.

Resolved,—That application be made to the Sardinian Authorities for
obtaining additional facilities to scientific men for pursuing their researches
on the summits of the Alps.

That the Right Hon. M. T. Baines, M.P., Viscount Goderich, M.P.,
Mr. Wm. Fairbairn, Mr. James Heywood, General Sabine, and Mr. T. Web-
ster, be appointed a Committee for the purpose of taking such steps as may
be necessary to render the Patent System of this country, and the funds
derived from inventors, more efficient and available for the reward of meri-
torious inventors and the advancement of Science.

That a Committee, consisting of Mr. W. Hopkins, Mr. R. Mallet, and
General Portlock, be requested to represent to the Meteorological Depart-
ment of the Board of Trade the desirableness of connecting with its arrange-
ments a system for the observation and record of Oceanic and Littoral
Earthquakes and of the occasional occurrence upon the coasts of Great Sea
Waves, and, if practicable, of bringing such into immediate operation.

That it is highly desirable that a series of Magnetical and Meteoro-
logical Observations on the same plan as those which have been already
carried on in the Colonial Observatories for that purpose under the direction
of Her Majesty’s Board of Ordnance, be obtained, to extend over a period of
not more than five years, at the following stations :—

1. Vancouver Island.

2. Newfoundland.

3. The Falkland Isles.

4. Pekin, or some near adjacent station.

That an application be made to Her Majesty’s Government to obtain
the establishment of Observatories at these stations for the above-mentioned
term, on a personal and material footing, and under the same superin-
tendence as in the Observatories (now discontinued) at Toronto, St. Helena,
and Van Diemen’s Land.

That the observations at the Observatories now recommended, should be
comparable with, and in continuation of, those made at the last-named Ob-
servatories, including four days of term observations annually.

That provision be also requested at the hands of Her Majesty’s Govern-
ment for the execution within the period embraced by the observations of
magnetic surveys in the districts immediately adjacent to those stations,
viz. of the whole of Vancouver Island and the shores of the Strait sepa-
rating it from the main land,—of the Falkland Isles,—and of the immediate
neighbourhood of the Chinese Observatory (if practicable), wherever
situated,—on the plan of the surveys already executed in the British posses-
sions in North America and in the Indian Archipelago.

That a sum of £350 per annum, during the continuance of the ob-
servations, be recommended to be placed by Government at the disposal of
the General Superintendent, for the purpose of procuring a special and
scientific verification and exact correspondence of the magnetical and me-
teorological instruments, both of those which shall be furnished to the
several Observatories, and of those which, during the continuance of the
observations for the period in question, shall be brought into comparison
with them, either at Foreign or Colonial Stations.

xlii REPORT—1858.

That the printing of the Observations tz extenso be discontinued, but
that provision be made for their printing in abstract, with discussion, but that
the Term Observations, and those to be made on the occurrence of Magnetic
Storms, be still printed iz extenso ; and that the registry of the observations
be made in triplicate, one copy to be preserved in the office of the General
Superintendent, one to be presented to the Royal Society, and one to the
Royal Observatory at Greenwich, for conservation and future reference.

That measures be adopted for taking advantage of whatever disposition
may exist on the part of our Colonial Governments to establish Observa-
tories of the same kind, or otherwise to cooperate with the proposed system
of observation.

That in placing these Resolutions and the Report of the Committee
before the President and Council of the Royal Society, the continued co-
operation of that Society be requested in whatever ulterior measures may be
requisite.

That the President of the British Association be requested to act in
conjunction with the President of the Royal Society, and with the Members
of the two Committees, in any steps which appear necessary for the accom-
plishment of the objects above stated.

That an early communication be made of this procedure to His Royal
Highness the Prince Consort, the President elect of the British Association
for the ensuing year.

That the attention of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty be
requested to the importance of authorizing further researches on the
depth, temperature, and specific gravity of the Sea, more especially in rela-
tion to the communications between distant shores by means of Electric
Telegraph Cables.

Applications for Reports and Researches.

That Mr. A. Cayley, F.R.S., be requested, in continuation of his Report
on the Recent Progress of Theoretical Dynamics, to make a Report on the
History of certain special Problems of Dynamics.

That Mr. H. I. S. Smith, M.A., of Balliol College (Oxon), be requested
to draw up a Report on the Theory of Numbers.

That Mr. Welsh be requested to draw up an account of the Self-
recording Magnetical Instruments at the Kew Observatory, and to present
it to the next Meeting of the Association.

That Professor Owen be requested to prepare a Report upon the Crania
of the Native Tribes of the Nepal Hills, in his possession, forwarded to him
by Mr. Bryan Hodgson.

That Mr. Foster be associated with Dr. Odling to carry out a reeommenda-
tion of the Dublin Meeting for a Report on Organic Chemistry.

That Dr. Lankester be requested to bring under the notice of the Kew
Committee his new Ozonometer.

That the consideration of the Kew Committee be requested to the best
means of removing the difficulty which is now experienced by Officers pro-
ceeding on Government Expeditions and by other Scientific travellers, in
procuring instruments for determinations of Geographical Position, of the most
approved portable construction, and properly verified. That the interest of
Geographical Science would be materially advanced by similar measures
being taken by the Kew Committee in respect to such Instruments, to those
which have proved so beneficial in the case of Magnetical and Meteorological
Instruments.

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. xliii

Communications to be printed entire among the Reports.

That a Communication by R. H. Meade on the Anatomy of the Spinning
Organs of the Araneide or true Spiders, be printed in full, and illustrated in
the Reports of the British Association.

That a Communication by Mr. Eddy, regarding the Lead Mines of York-
shire, be printed entire among the Reports.

Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Objects by the
General Committee at the Leeds Meeting in September 1858, with
the name of the Member, who alone, or as the First of a Committee,
is entitled to draw for the Money.

£8. od,
Parliamentary Committee.

The Lorp Wrorttestey.—For promoting an Act of Parlia-

ment to facilitate the appointment of New Trustees of the
property of Scientific-Institutions ........-+ee ee eee ee 50'0-.0

Kew Observatory.
At the disposal of the Council for defraying expenses ...... 500 0 O
Mathematical and Physical Science.

Witson, Prof.—Telescope at Melbourne .........- raat 200 0 0
Syxes, Colonel.—Balloon Ascents ........6....000e00508 200 0 O
Chemical Science.

Masxketyne, Prof.—Chemistry of Photography .......... 10 0 0
Vortcker, Prof.—On Constituents of Manures............ 25 0 O
Sutiivan, Prof.—Solubility of Salts ...... ALS asevenian 30 0 O
Gaces, Mr. A.—Chemico-Mechanical Analysis of Minerals... 10 0 O
Geology.

Murcuison, Sir R. I.—Fossils in Upper Silurian Rocks .... 20 0 O
Matxet, R., C.E.—Earthquake Waves ........--eess-5 0s 25 0 O
Hopkins, William.—Effect of Temperature on Rocks ...... 50 0 O
Zoology and Botany.

Patrerson, R.—Dredging Coast of Ireland .............- 20 0 0
Krnanan, Dr.—Dredging in Dublin Bay .......... 0.5... i6 0 0
GREENE, Prof.—Report on British Meduside..............- 5 0 0
Wricart, Dr. E. P.—Report on Irish Tunicata............ a
Wricut, Dr. E. P.—Report on Marine Fauna of Ireland.... 10 0 O
Aris, Thomas.—Osteology of Birds ............... nga Lamas = | Poa a
M‘Anprew, Robert.—General Dredging ..............4-- 5 0 0
Davseny, Prof=—Growth of Plants ...........00.0 6.08. 10 0 O

Mechanical Science.
Tuomson, James, C.E.—Discharge of Water ..........-- 10
Moorsom, Admiral.~—Performance of Steam Vessels ...... 15

Total:... £1265 O O

oo
oo

xliv

REPORT—1858.

General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants for
Scientifie Purposes.

£ s d.
1834.
Tide Discussions ..sccccserssseeees 20 0 0
1835.
Tide Discussions ......s0sssssssers 62 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology .....- 105 0 O
£167 0 0
18386.
Tide Discussions ......scseeeeeeees 163 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ...... 105 0 0
Thermometric Observations, &c. 50 0 0
Experiments on long-continued
Heat s.cede ae aeanea ce mebaetn ede eile
Rain Gauges o..sec.sc.sscsecesereece 913 0
Refraction Experiments .......+ oS OMe
Lunar Nutation,...........csseeeses 60 0 0
Thermometers .....sse0e00e teeeeeee 15 6 0
£434 14.0
1837.
Tide Discussions ...cccccsceseeess . 284 1 =0
Chemical Constants ......... esneee 2418616
Lunar Nutation,.......sserssscesee i Seo
Observations on Waves.........++ - 100 12 O
Tides at Bristol........... Beonceensy 150 0 0
Meteorology and Subterranean
Temperature .....+ eeeeeeesceeees 89 5 3
Vitrification Experiments......... 150 0 0
Heart Experiments ........0+8. “ 8 4 6
Barometric Observations ......... 30 0 0
Barometers cesescscccsevesceecscoes 11 18 6
£918 14 6
nd
1838.
Tide Discussions ws... 29 0 0
British Fossil Fishes ............ 100 0 0
Meteorological Observations and
Anemometer (construction)... 100 0 0
Cast Iron (Strength of) ....... «+ 60 0 0
Animaland Vegetable Substances
(Preservation Of) ......ssceeeeee 19 1 10
Railway Constants ..........0e008 41 12 10
Bristol Tides .os..ccsseeesecesee avece 50! (0-0
Growth of Plants ...... EG osiee 15 ©0710
Mud in Rivers ......... eas eneccine 3.6 6
Education Committee ...... soree 50 0 O
Heart Experiments .............0. 5 3 0
Land and Sea Level............00. 267 8 7
Subterranean Temperature ..,... 8 6 O
Steam-vessels......, Foes sacccevesee 100. 0. .0
Meteorological Committee ...... 31 9 5
Thermometers .....scccseceeserseee 16 4 0
£956 12 2
SS a
1839.
Fossil Ichthyology........... soovee 110 0 0
Meteorological Observations at
Plymouth ...ccesseeeeees scocsseeee 63:10 0
Mechanism of Waves ............ 144 2 0
Bristol Tides eneveereceevecccteceeeens OD 18. 6

£ os. d.

Meteorology and Subterranean
Temperature ......+ Setssseesesens 21 11. 0
Vitrification Experiments....... Ben iar: Sa
Cast Iron Experiments............ 100 0 0
Railway Constants ...scserssseee “287 32
Land and Sea Level......... sates etek A
Steam-vessels’ Engines...... teeeee 100 0 0
Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... ». 331 18 6
Stars in Lacaille ..... SSenaiepscaae oth 0.10
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue......... 616 6
Animal Secretions......e0esssee « 1010 0
Steam-engines in Cornwall...... 50 0 0
Atmospheric Air ...sscsssseseesens 16 1 0
Cast and Wrought Iron........+... 40 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ....... »- 38 0.0
Gases on Solar Spectrum......... 22 0 0

Hourly Meteorological Observa-
tions, Inverness and Kingussie 49 7 8
Fossil Reptiles ....... seb dood pea 118) 2 9
Mining Statistics ...... aeeeeniecletts 50 0 0
£1595 11 0

1840.

BxiStOl Tides .60.ccvesleoncscasnes state 100 0 0
Subterranean Temperature ...... 13 13 6
Heart Experiments ....0.......04 18 19 0
Lungs Experiments ......+0+.... ~ 813 0
Tide Discussions ......... seseereee 50 0 0
Land and Sea Level ...........00. whet Oi Midi. ah
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ......... 242 10 0
Stars (Lacaille) ......... sions ones ses 4 15>.0
Stars (Catalogue) ........00. ty 264 0 0
Atmospheric Air ...csecsccesseeeee 1515 0
Water on Iron .,..sseeeeeeeerseeeee 10 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 200i tah. O
Meteorological Observations...... 5217 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs .,.... 112 1 6
Working Population ....6+....0..6 100 0 0
School Statistics......ccccceeeee 50 0 O
Forms of Vessels ...s+.+e.se0e0008 184 7 0

Chemical and Electrical Pheeno-
MENA vessecsseccscceserecsecesseves 40 0 0

Meteorological Observations at
Plymouth .....+...+6. sessecsereee 80 0 O
Magnetical Observations ....,.... 185 13 9
“£1546 16 4
Seaeiaienitiommmmeeedeedaeed

1841,

Observations on Waves............ 30 0 0

Meteorology and Subterranean
Temperature .......5s0c00s00es.00,-. 181 18140
ActinometerS......-ssssesereeeeeere 10 0 O
Earthquake Shocks ..,........... 17 7 O
Acrid Poisons,........ teesseevreeee 6 0 0
Veins and Absorbents ........... - 8 0 0
Mud in Rivers ...ecccsscesrorere 5 0 0
Marine Zoology...ssecvcesessseenee 15 12 8
Skeleton Maps ...sscccsecssereeeee 20 0 O
Mountain Barometers .......... 618 6
Stars (Histoire Céleste).....s00000+ 185 0 0

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£ 3s. d.
Stars (Lacaille) ...s.ccsccsseereere 79 5 0
Stars (Nomenclature of) ......... 17 19 6
Stars (Catalogue Of) ......ss00000 40 0 0
Water on Iron ..........0000 sede ool) 0
Meteorological Observations at

Trverness ....seceseeesevees Maree 2040" sO
Meteorological Observations (re-

Auction Of) sseseccesseceeecers . 25 0 0
Fossil Reptiles ... lieWednesetlee 50 0 0
Foreign Memoirs . Nawissenasns 62 0 0
Railway Sections ......... isehtess a8 Cle 6
Forms of Vessels ......e0+..0200.62 193 12 0
Meteorological Observations at

Plymouth ......sec.ceeee readacaes ena hey ©.O
Magnetical Observations ......... 61 18 8
Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone 100 0 0
Tides at Leith ..... feeqtnstac keene OOS OC HU
Anemometer at Edinburgh ...... 69 1 10
Tabulating Observations ......... 9 6 3
Races of Men’ © <i... cssccccsosecsesse 899 0 0
Radiate Animals «...s0eeeeee 2 0 0

£1235 10 11

1842.

Dynamometric Instruments ...... 113 11 2
Anoplura Britanniz ..... Ressevency )O2mlay O
Tides at Bristol..........+. Resa enasiR ROO) aac
Gases on Light 30 14 7
Chronometers 2617 6
Marine Zoology 1 5 0
British Fossil Mammalia ......... 100 0 0
Statistics of Education ............ 20 0 0
Marine Steam-vessels’ Engines... 28 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste)............ 59 0 0
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of) ...... 110 0 0
Railway Sections ......... eaxsecse LOL 10°50
British Belemnites......c00....s000. 50 0 0
Fossil Reptiles (publication of

Report) .......0005 Fosde Sneapscen . 210 0 0
Forms of Vessels ..s..s.sseeeeee0e. 180 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on Rocks 5 8 6
Meteorological Experiments at

Plymouth ............ aeeetdeas.ce) 007 0 10
Constant Indicator and Dynamo-

metric Instruments ............ 90 0 0
Force of Wind .........sseeeeeeeee 10 0 0
Light on Growth of Seeds ...... 8 0 0
Vital Statistics ...,..csccsecreseeree 50 0 0
Vegetative Power of Seeds ...... 8 1 11
Questions on Human Race ...... 7 9 0

£1449 17. 8
1843.
Revision of the Nomenclature of

RESTS} 2. . vn cscnchttueuthescuess 2 0 0
Reduction of Stars, British ‘Asso-

ciation Catalogue ....c..s.esee .- 2 0 0
Anomalous Tides, Frith of Forth 120 0 0
Hourly Meteorological Observa-

tionsat KingussieandInverness 77 12 8
Meteorological Observations at

Plymouth sescssiscevscssccesoacs »- 55 °0 0
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane-

mometer at Plymouth ,,....... 10 0 0

et ae
Meteorological Observations, Os-
ler’s Anemometer at Plymouth 20 0 0
Reduction of Meteorological Ob-
SETVALIONS ...se0e aneceteees vesstan® | 60.90, .0
Meteorological Instruments and
Gratuities ....06...0 dente voeree 39 G6 O
Construction of Anemometer at
INVErMeSS ...eeeseecesresncesetees 56 12 2
Magnetic Co-operation ......++++++ 10 8 10
Meteorological Recorder for Kew
Observatory .se.sseessesvere con. OL LO ae
Action of Gases on Light....... als 18-165 “1
Establishment at Kew Observa-
tory, Wages, Repairs, Furni-
ture and Sundries ....,...0... 183 4 7
Experiments by Captive Balloons 81 8 0
Oxidation of the Rails of Railways 20 0 0
Publication of Report on Fossil
Reptiles ......se0.00. Epasesitana ww. 40 0 0
Coloured Drawings of Railway
SEcttONs ...deccsessceseneserrse sas 147 18 3
Registration of Earthquake
SHOCKS -vgiseesecsecssoececccoeres » 380 0
Report on Zoological Nomencla-
CULE Jeet. tenes pacckontorsrssdadeeen MLLOMs OlfSO
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester ........ 4 4.6
Vegetative Power of Seeds ...... 5 3 8
Marine Testacea (Habits of) ... 10 0 0
Marine Zoology....s..sss00s Shds cteriglOy207 0
Marine Zoology...ecccsseeseesreees 2 14 11
Preparation of Report on British
Fossil Mammalia .........00.... 100 0 0
Physiological Operations of Me-
dicinal Agents ......secccseee 20 0 0
Vital Statistics ...sscecscssvereeeere 36 5 8
Additional Experiments on the
Forms of Vessels ...scesssse00ee. 70 0 0
Additional Experiments on the
Forms of Vessels ........000.+. 100 0 0
Reduction of Experiments on the
Forms of Vessels ......+++ weer 100 0 0
Morin’s Instrument and Constant
Indicator. wath .20.2tt.tecesseepee 69 14 10
Experiments on the Strength of :
Materials ....cccossccsvscqseseeees 60.0 10
£1565 10 2
—
1844,
Meteorological Observations at
Kingussie and Inverness ...... 12 0 0
Completing Observations at Ply-
mouth ...... edecesecepedne farssse oO 0 0
Magnetic and Meteorological Co-
OPELAUONY Weweccevataucteenasct ces 25 8 4
Publication of ‘the British ‘Assp-
ciation Catalogue of Stars...... 35 0 0
Observations on Tides on the
East coast of Scotland ......... 100 0 0
Revision of the Nomenclature of
DidkS ear edacteensasetacesasvsl Ota) a 9) O
Maintaining the Establishment in
Kew Observatory ..secsesceeee 117 17 3
Instruments for Kew Observatory 56 7 3

xlvi REPORT—1858.

rad. £ os. d.
Influence of Light on Plants,..... 10 0 0 Fossil Fishes of the London Clay 100 0 0
Subterraneous Temperature in Computation of the Gaussian

Treland: <itecd.cactipecterssstvees) 15 0-00 Constants for 1839,,,....00+... 50 0 0
Coloured Drawings of Railway Maintaining the Establishment at

Sections .svaifecsisveaissicsesonse 20) 27 Kew Observatory s.sssssecserene 146 16 7
Investigation of Fossil Fishes of Strength of Materials,,,,.,...+..... 60 0. 0

the Lower Tertiary Strata ... 100 0 0] Researches in Asphyxia........... 616 2
Registering the Shocks of Earth- Examination of Fossil Shells,,.... 10 0 0

Quakes ...sssssecsevseseeeeel842 23 11 10 Vitality of Seeds ssesseeseee-1844 2 15 10
Structure of Fossil Shells ........ . 20 0 0} Vitality of Seeds ......+0.. ,.1845 7.12.4
Radiata and Mollusca of the Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0

ABgean and Red Seas.....1842 100 0 0 | Marine Zoology of Britain ..... 10 0 0
Geographical Distributions of Exotic Anoplura ....0.......1844 25 0 0

Marine Zoology......seae0» 1842 010 0| Expensesattending Anemometers 11 7 6
Marine Zoology of Devon and Anemometers’ Repairs... 2 38 6

Cornwall ...... sesecsesssesseeeee, 10 0 0 | Atmospheric Waves ......0.0... 38 3 8
Marine Zoology of Corfu ......... 10 0 0 | Captive Balloons .,.,,.......1844 819 3
Experiments on the Vitality of Varieties of the Human Race

Seeds... ceasse seks, MOMMIES 1844 7 6 38
Experiments on the Vitality of Statistics of Sickness and Mor-

Gaba ek oscacivingvestheevaeDSAe., MUBIEWAI CO tality/in York! .isssssssessstoees 120
Exotic Anoplura aOR Es on aes oe St “£685 16 0
Strength of Materials .........«. 100 0 0 aS
Completing Experiments on the

Forms of Ships sseserseeeeee 100 0 0] ie 1847,

Inquiries into Asphyxia ......... 10 0 0 a hg of the Gaussian
Investigations on the Internal H age te for 1839 Benen es we 50 0 0
Constitution of Metals at ii iaaall abits of Marine Animals ...... 10 0 0
ane esas Se 2 Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0

Constant Indicator and Morin’s Ysioneg

TAktrWhent, 1842 deve 2.8 Marine Zoology of Cornwall ... 10 0 0
5081 128 Atmospheric Waves ...cccrssereee 6 9 8B
Vitality of Seeds .....e..sssee0ee Bes ic Ss A |

1845. Maintaining the Establishment at
Publication of the British Associa- Kew Observatory .+..ss02-++ 107 8 6

tion Catalogue of Stars ......... 851 14 6 “2206 5 4
Meteorological Observations at rs RTS

TMVeErneSs ee cies bs susreevawg sen 30 18 11 1848.

Magnetic and Meteorological Co- Maintaining the Establishment at

operation CVs ones obuttiohWues soe, GTS GB Kew Observatory ssrssreeereeeee 171 15 11
Meteorological Instruments at Atmospheric Waves ....0+.s.0 3 10 9

Edinburgh .....ssseeeessesees 18 11 9 | Vitality of Seeds sssescrere 9 15 0
Reduction of Anemometrical Ob- Completion of Catalogues of Stars 70 0 0

servations at Plymouth ........ 25 © ©] On Colouring Matters 1... 5 0 0
Electrical Experiments at Kew On Growth of Plants......0000 15 0 0

Observatory ssecsocesscssseseseee 43 17 8 “£275,128
Maintaining the Establishment in —$$<—=

Kew Observatory ......... vevese LADS 20
For Kreil’s Barometrograph.,.... 25 0 0 1849.

Gases from Iron Furnaces ...... 50 0 0 | Electrical Observations at Kew
The Actinograph a 2 ET Pere hier) 0 Observatory savocssagascsecrscess 50 0 0
Microscopic Structure of Shells... 20 0 0 | Maintaining Establishment at
Exotic Anoplura ...........1843 10 0 0 GIEEO “s Srsstvescccescsnsonrcsevens «Mie ie tS,
Vitality of Seeds......s0004...1843 2 0 7| Vitality of Seeds wc 5 8 1
Vitality of Seeds ............1844 7 0 0 On Growth of Plants..........0008 5 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall..... . 10 0 © | Registration of Periodical Phe
Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0 NOMENA wooeeeeee ssevveevevcevevens) L010" 0
Statistics of Sickness and Mor- Bill on account of ‘Anemometeieal

tality, In YOUWC cscarerseyrorernss 20 0 0 Observations eesecccsserveeeeee 18 9 0
Earthquake Shocks .........1843 15 14 8 £159 19 6

£830 9 9 mae Se

1846,
British Association Catalogue of

Stars PasrgnrecnreqsseerneeedOFe 21115 0

1850.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory ssessscccceeene 255 18 0
Transit of Earthquake Waves... 50 0 0

ao

ES —

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£ 3s. d.
Periodical Pheanomena............ 15 0 0
Meteorological Instrument,
PRAGIEN! Gteietevertecsieetectecties 2080 6@
£345 18 0
1851.
Maintaining the Establishment at

Kew Observatory (includes part

Of grant in 1849) s...c0eeeee 809 2 2
Theory of Heat ........0ccccceee 20 1 1
Periodical Phenomena of Animals

and Plants ...... aoSderscech secrete on Oy 70
itality OF Peeds:) seein (5) 6) 4
Influence of Solar Radiation..,... 30 0 0
Ethnological Inquiries ............ i 0.0
Researches on Annelida .......+ oy O08

: £391 9 7
1852.
Maintaining the Establishment at

Kew Observatory (including

balance of grant for 1850) ... 233 17 8
Experiments on the Conduction

of Heat ....... ase scoes oes Dae! oe
Influence of Solar Radiations ... 20 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland ...... 15 0 0
Researches on the British Anne-

MMe eenddupescasecccctesseeescsse) 0. O10)
Vitality of Seeds ......... Reasentae LO, 2
Strength of Boiler Plates ..,...... 10 0 0

£304 6 7
1853.
Maintaining the Establishment at

Kew Observatory ............... 165 0 0
Experiments on the Influence of

Solar Radiation..........00088. 15 0 0
Researches on the British Anne-

Sacer tppeharceesscspes GhO, 0 7-0
Dredging on the East Coast of

BCOUaHA sic.i.cc.cvevecssinscsenr 10 0 0
Ethnological Queries ............ 5 0 0

£205 0 0
1854.
Maintaining the Establishment at

Kew Observatory (including

balance of former grant) ...... 830 15 4
Investigations on Flax , Reron) LMAO a0
Effects of ‘Temperature on

Wrought Iron ............ee re aD OD
Registration of Periodical Phe-

MOMENA wvissswsesepeoes Po eie ves «- 10 0.90
British Annelida Suaeaupanse ss Srece) tO) UL
ivatality, of Seeds cverasvevswseccese 5) 2 8
Conduction of Heat ...........0.. 4 2 0

£380 19 7

1855.
Maintaining the Establishment at

Kew Observatory ......sse0000 425 0 0

Earthquake Movements ....:.005

10 0 0

xlvii
£5. d.
Physical Aspect of the Moon...... 11 8 5
Vitality of Seeds ....se..seseee MON LL
Map of the World .....,....000.00088 15 0 0
Ethnological Queries .....00.0. 5 0 0
Dredging near Belfast ............ 4 0 0
£480 16 4
1856.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory :—
1854..,...£ 75 0 0
1855.....£500 0 ot PRO
Strickland’s Ornithological Syno-
nymMs ...... Sab vecredncdevgsecceveen 100 0 O
Dredging and Dredging Forms... 913 9
Chemical Action of Light ........ - 20 0 0
Strength of Iron Plates ........... 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical Pheeno-
WEN2: secceresecoecccsyecssesesscns» 10° 0 QO
Propagation of Salmon . anebecsesner = 2 Un WO
£734 13 9
1857.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory .......,..6. 850 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experiments 40 0 0
Dredging near Belfast ...... cas 10 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast of
Scotland....... staeesdasenseccsesessy ) LO. 0. 0
Investigations into the Mollusca
Of California .......cc0ere. 10 0 0
Experiments on Flax ............ 5 0 O
Natural History of Madagascar.. 20 0 0
Researches on British Annelida 25 0 0
Report on Natural Products im-
ported into Liverpool ......... 10 0 0
Artificial Propagation of Salmon 10 0 0
Temperature of Mines.,.......... 7 8 0
Thermometers for Subterranean
Observations ..secvscvreee 5 F 4
Life-Boats ..0.5...sc0sssessccsveecnsn. 0, 0. 0
£507 15 4
1858,
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory ......s00+0008. 500 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experiments. 25 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast of
Scotland) sevice. csessoaeeeeeees AO SOU
Dredging near Dublin ........... 5 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ......... See oe. O
Dredging near Belfast ............ 18 13 2
Report on the British Annelida... 25 0 0
Experiments on the production
of Heat by Motion in Fluids... 20 0 0
Report on the Natural Products
imported into Scotland.,....... 10 0 0
£618 18 2

xlviii REPORT—1858.

Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee.

Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money for scientific pur-
poses have been entrusted, are required to present to each following meeting
of the Association a Report of the progress which has been made; with a
statement of the sums which have been expended, and the balance which re-
mains disposable on each grant.

Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific purposes from the funds of the Asso-
ciation expire at the ensuing meeting, unless it shall appear by a Report that
the Recommendations have been acted on, or a continuation of them be
ordered by ‘the General Committee.

In each Committee, the Member first named is the person entitled to call
on the Treasurer, John Taylor, Esq., 6 Queen Strect Place, Upper Thames
Street, London, for such portion of the sum granted as may from time to
time be required.

In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate
the payment of personal expenses to the Members.

In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua-
tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named shall be
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, the specified balance which may
remain unpaid on the former grant for the same object.

General Meetings.

On Wednesday, Sept. 22, at 85 p.M., in the Town Hall, The Rev. Humphrey
Lloyd, D.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. L. & E., V.P.R.L.A., resigned the office of Presi-
dent to Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. of France,
who took the Chair and delivered an Address, for which see page xlix.

Mee Thursday Evening, Sept. 23, a Conversazione took place in the Town
Hall.

On Friday Evening, Sept. 24, at 83 p.m., in the Town Hall, John Phillips,
M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres. Geol. Soc. of London, delivered a Discourse on
the Ironstones of Yorkshire.

On Monday Evening, Sept. 27, at 84 p.m., The President of the Meeting,
Professor Owen, delivered a Discourse on the Fossil Mammalia of Australia.

On Tuesday Evening, Sept. 28, at 84 p.m., a Conversazione took place in
the Town Hall.

On Wednesday, Sept. 29, at 3 p.m., the concluding General Meeting took
place in the Town Hall, when the Proceedings of the General Committee,

and the Grants of Money for scientific purposes, were explained to the
Members.

The Meeting was then adjourned to Aberdeen*.

* The Meeting is appointed to take place on Wednesday, the 14th of September, 1859. -

ADDRESS

BY

RICHARD OWEN, M.D., V.P.R.S., D.C.L., F.L.S. Erc.,

SurrrmntenDENT OF THE NATURAL History Departments, Britisn Musrum.

. GENTLEMEN OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

We are here met, in this our 28th annual assembly, having accepted, for
the present year, the invitation of the flourishing town and firm seat of

British manufacturing energy, Leeds, to continue the aim of the Associa-

tion, which is the promotion of Science, or the Knowledge of the Laws of
Nature; whereby we acquire a dominion over Nature, and are able so to
apply her powers as to advance the well-being of society and exalt the con-
dition of mankind. It is no light matter, therefore, the work that we are
here assembled to do.

God has given to man a capacity to discover and comprehend the laws by
which His universe is governed; and man is impelled by a healthy and
natural impulse to exercise the faculties by which that knowledge can be

acquired. Agreeably with the relations which have been instituted between

our finite faculties and the phenomena that affect them, we thus arrive at
demonstrations and convictions which are the most certain that our present
state of being can have or act upon.

Nor let any one, against whose prepossessions a scientific truth may jar,
confound such demonstrations with the speculative philosophies condemned

by the Apostle; or ascribe to arrogant intellect soaring to regions of
forbidden mysteries the acquisition of such truths as have been or may

be established by patient and inductive research. For the most part, the
discoverer has been so placed by circumstances, rather than by pre-

determined selection, as to have his work of investigation allotted to

him as his daily duty; in the fulfilment of which he is brought face to
face with phenomena into which he must inquire, and the result of that

inquiry he must faithfully impart. The course of natural as of moral
truth is progressive: but it has pleased the Author of all truth to vary the

fashion of the imparting of such parcels thereof as He has allotted from time

to time, for the behoof and guidance of mankind.

Those who are privileged with the faculties of discovery are, therefore, to
1858. d

1 REPORT—1858.

be regarded as preordained instruments in making known the power of God,
without a knowledge of which, as well as of Scripture, we are told that we
shall err.

Great and marvellous have been the manifestations of this power imparted
to us of late times, not only in respect of the shape, motions, and solar
relations of the earth, but also of its age and inhabitants.

In regard to the period during which the globe allotted to man has revolved
in its orbit, present evidence strains the mind to grasp such sum of past time
with an effort like that by which it tries to realize the space dividing that
orbit from the fixed stars and remoter nebulez. Yet, during all those eras
that have passed since the Cambrian rocks were deposited which bear the
impressed record of Creative power, as it was then manifested, we know,
through the interpreters of these ‘ writings on stone,’ that the earth was
vivified by the sun’s light and heat, was fertilized by refreshing showers, and
washed by tidal waves.

No stagnation has been permitted to air or ocean. The vast body
of waters not only moved, as a whole, in orderly oscillations, regulated, as
now, by sun and moon; but were rippled and agitated by winds and storms.
The atmosphere was healthily influenced by its horizontal currents; and by
ever-varying clouds and vapours, rising, condensing, dissolving, and falling
in endless vertical circulation. With these conditions of life, we know that
life itself has been enjoyed throughout the same countless thousands of years ;
and that with life, from the beginning, there has been death.

The earliest testimony of the living thing, whether shell, crust, or coral in
the oldest fossiliferous rock, is at the same time proof that it died.

At no period has the gift of life been monopolized by a few contemporary
individuals through a stagnant sameness of untold time; but it has been
handed over from generation to generation, and successively enjoyed by the
myriads that constitute the species. And, herein, we discern the greater
beneficence and wisdom; that, through death, whether sudden or preceded
by a brief decay, the individual enjoys the varying phases of life,—healthy
assimilative growth, active youth, and vigorous maturity, with the procreative
faculties and instincts to boot. And as life rises in the scale, even to the
present highest form, foreknowing of his end, death is still the condition on
which are enjoyed man’s purest pleasures,—the reverential love of parents—
the holy affections of wedlock—the fond yearning towards offspring.

It has further been given us to know, that not only the individual but
the species perishes ; that as death is balanced by generation, so extinction
has been concomitant with creative power, which has continued to provide a
succession of species; and furthermore, that, as regards the varying forms
of life which this planet has witnessed, there has been “an advance and
progress in the main.”

Geology demonstrates that the Creative foree has not deserted this earth '
during any of her epochs of time; and that in respect to no one class of

EEE ===

ADDRESS. li

animals has the manifestation of that force been limited to one epoch. Not
a species of fish that now lives, but has come into being during a compara-
tively recent period: the existing species were preceded by other species, and
these again by others still more different from the present. No existing genus
of fishes can be traced back beyond a moiety of known creative time. Two
entire orders have come into being, and have almost superseded two
other orders since the newest of the secondary formations of the earth’s
crust.

The axiom of the continuous operation of Creative power, or of the
ordained becoming of living things, is here illustrated by the class of fishes,
because that class is exempt from the application of some exterminating
causes affecting terrestrial and air-breathing animals.

But the creation of every class of such animals, whether Reptiles, Birds, or
Beasts, has been successive and continuous, from the earliest times at whichwe
have evidence of their existence. The reptiles of the coal measures, the great
birds that impressed the Connecticut sandstones, and the marsupial mam-
mals of the Stonesfield and Purbeck Oolites, came into being long before
the Cycloid fishes were created and anterior to the apparition of any
known existing species of aquatic animal. Species after species of land
animals, order after order of air-breathing reptiles, have succeeded each
other; creation ever compensating for extinction. The successive passing
away of air-breathing species may have been as little due to exceptional
violence, and as much to natural law, as in the case of marine plants and
animals. It is true, indeed, that every part of the earth’s surface has been
submerged; but successively, and for long periods. Of the present dry
land different natural continents have different faune and flor; and the
fossil remains of the plants and animals of these continents respectively
show that they possessed the same peculiar characters, or characteristic
facies, during periods extending far beyond the utmost limits of human
history.

Such, gentlemen, is a brief summary of facts most nearly interesting us,
which have been demonstratively made known respecting our earth and its
inhabitants. And when we reflect at how late and in how brief a period of
historical time the acquisition of such knowledge has been permitted, we
must feel that, vast as it seems, it may be but a very small part of the
patrimony of truth destined for the possession of future generations.

The certain knowledge of the very shape of the earth dates not so far back
by some centuries as that epoch marked by the revelation, amongst other
divine truths, of the responsibility of man for the use of the talent entrusted
to him; and we may well believe that it has been mainly under the sense of
this responsibility that men have submitted themselves to that patient endu-
rance of the labour of investigation, experiment, comparison, invention, and
the pondering on results, often to the utmost reach of mental tension, by
which the present knowledge of the Divine power has been oe

hi REPORT—1858.

In reviewing the nature and results of our proceedings during the last
twenty-seven years, and the aims and objects of our Association, it seems
as if we are realizing the grand Philosophical Dream or Prefigurative Vision
of Francis Bacon, which he has recounted in his ‘ New Atlantis.’

In this noble Parable the Father of Modern Science imagines an Institu-
tion which he calls “Solomon's House,” and informs us, by the mouth of
one of its members, that “the end of its Foundation is the Knowledge of
Causes and Seerct Motions of Things; and the enlarging of the bounds of
Human Empire to the effecting of all things possible.”

Amongst the means and instruments to this great end, Bacon imagines
laboratories situated at the greatest attainable distances, vertically, in regard
to the atmosphere ;—some sunk 600 fathoms deeper than the deepest natural
cave; others placed on towers set upon high mountains, “so that the van-
tage of the hill with the tower is in the highest of them three miles at least.”
In the depths he conceives might be carried on the producing of new arti-
ficial metals* by compositions and materials left at work for many years, in
imitation of natural mines; also observations on the formation of figured
fossils ; and he speculates upon the influence of these cold depths in the curing
of certain diseases and the prolonging of human life, as it seems by a super-
induced torpidity. In the higher regions of the air are to be carried on
observations of the heavens, and of divers meteors—wind, rain, hail, and
falling stars.

“We have also,” he writes, “spacious houses where we imitate and demon-
strate meteors, as thunders, lightnings, snow, hail, and rain. We have, also,
instruments which generate heat only by motion.”

Next come arrangements for the appliance of water-power and of winds
to set a-going divers motions :—“ engine-houses, where are prepared engines
and instruments for all sorts of motions, some swifter than any known to the
rest of the world, and other various motions for equality, fineness and subtilty :
—a mathematical house, where are represented all instruments, as well of
geometry as astromomy, exquisitely made. We have also sound-houses, where
we practise and demonstrate all sounds and their generation, as by divers in-
struments of music; and those that imitate all articulate sounds and letters,
and the voices and notes of beasts and birds. We have also the means to convey
sounds in trenches and pipes in strange lines and distances.” Then come the
perspective-houses, “‘ where we make demonstrations of all light and radiations
and of all colours; and out of things uncoloured and transparent we can
represent unto you several colours, both as rainbows and as single. We make
artificial rainbows, halos and circles about light, and represent all manner
of reflexions, refractions, and multiplication of visual beams of objects. These
multiplications of light we carry to great distances, and make so sharp as to
discern small points and lines. We procure means of seeing objects afar off,
as in the heaven and remote places, representing things afar off as near. We

* Davy, Herschel, Aluminium,

ADDBESS. liii

have also glasses and means to see minute bodies perfectly and distinctly,
as the shapes and colours of small flies and worms, which cannot otherwise be
seen ;” also “ observations on blood and sap not otherwise to be seen.”

In regard to natural history, Bacon imagines huge Aquaria, of both salt
and fresh water, for the use and observation and generation of fish and fowl,
“‘ where we make trials upon fishes. We have also parks and enclosures of
all sorts of beasts and birds, which we use not only for view and rareness, but
likewise for dissections and trials ; that thereby we may take light what may
be wrought upon the body of man,

“* We have also large and various orchards and gardens, wherein we do not
so much respect beauty as variety of ground and soil: in these are practised
all conclusions of grafting and inoculating; and we make, by art, trees and
flowers to come up earlier or later than their seasons ; we also make them
by art much greater than their nature, and their fruit greater and sweeter,
and of different taste, smell, and colour.”

Lastly, as one important means of effecting the great aims of the “six days-
college,” certain of its members were deputed, as “ merchants of light,” to
make “ circuits or visits of divers principal cities of the kingdom.”

This latter feature of the Baconian organisation is the chief characteristic
of the “ British Association ;” but we have striven to carry out other aims
of the ‘New Atlantis,’ such as the systematic summaries of the results of
different branches of science, of which our published volumes of ¢ Reports’
are evidence ; and we have likewise realized, in some measure, the idea of
the ‘ Mathematical House’ in our establishment at Kew.

The national and private Observatories, the Royal and other Scientific
Societies, the British Museum, the Zoological, Botanical, and Horticultural
Gardens combine in our day to realize that which Bacon foresaw in distant
perspective. Great beyond all anticipation have been the results of this organi-
sation, and of the application of the inductive methods of interrogating Nature.

The universal law of gravitation, the circulation of the blood, the analo-
gous course of the magnetic influence, which may be said to vivify the earth,
permitting no atom of its most solid constituents to stagnate in total rest ;
the development and progress of Chemistry, Geology, Palontology; the
inventions and practical applications of gas, the steam-engine, photography,
telegraphy :—such, in the few centuries since Bacon wrote, have been the
rewards of the faithful followers of his rules of research.

We can hardly appreciate the swift of progress of human knowledge unless
we go back, for an instant, to the period whice I have chosen as the starting-
point in this survey.

Bacon’s treatment of the Copernican theory shows the importance of pure
observation in the establishment of natural truth, and places in a strong light
the incompetency of the highest intellectual power, of itself, to reason up to
truth, even when it is so plain as it now appears to us in reference to the
true nature of the apparent movements of the sun in respect to the earth.

The well-known passages from the ‘ Thema Celi,’ and the essay ‘On the

liv REPORT—1858.

Cause of the Tides,’ together with the fling “at those few carmen which
drive the earth about*,” are strongly indicative of the state of Bacon’s mind
—the philosophical mind of his time—on the great question then agitating
it, as to the movements of the heavenly bodies.

A mass of observations of their apparent movements had been accumula-
ting from the periods of Hipparchus and Ptolemy to that of Copernicus.
The nature and cause of those observed movements had to be explained.
The Alexandrian astronomer had given an explanation in harmony with the
apparent motions. Copernicus suggested another, contradictory of the ap-
parent motions, but more in harmony, through certain reasons assigned, with
what he believed to be their real nature.

These reasons wanted proofs from observation; but the proofs after-
wards came, and were the fruit of the more commonly. possessed inventive
faculty rather than of the rarer power of abstract thought. Great, truly, is
the gift to mankind when the two faculties coexist in a commanding intellect!

Galileo invented a perspective glass by which he discovered the four small
bodies which revolve about Jupiter in different periods of time. The analogy
which this visible system of Jupiter bore to the solar system, as conceived by
Copernicus, gave what Herschel calls the ‘“ holding turn” to the opinions
of mankind respecting the heliocentric system. Galileo’s next discovery
more decidedly confirmed the truth of that system. He observed that Venus
in the course of her revolution assumed the same succession of phases which
our moon exhibits in her monthly circuit. The opponents of Copernicus had
objected that Venus did not appear four times as large as she should do when,
according to his system, she is four times as near us; but Galileo furnished
the true reason: the dark side of Venus is toward the earth when she is
nearest it. But with all this, Bacon’s acceptance of the Copernican system
never went further than as respected the movements of Venus and Mercury
about the Sun.

My motive in here referring to such trite facts in the History of Astro-
nomy is to impress upon all who sympathize with scientific progress, or
merely wish us ‘ good speed,’ the importance of direct observation of Nature.
The two results of Galileo’s direction of his telescope to heavenly bodies
were of more value than the subtlest of the objections of Bacon or of the
excuses of Bruno.

In 1631 Kepler witnessed the transit of Mercury across the sun’s disk: in
1639 Horrox saw the like transit of Venus: and these observations were of
a higher kind than Galileo’s. His might be called a chance trial of the phe-
nomena of the skies; the English astronomer planted his telescope at the very
hour, when, according to the Copernican hypothesis, he had calculated that
Venus in her orbit would pass between the sun and the earth. Kepler’s
observation of the elliptical form of the orbit of Mars definitely cast out the
eccentrics and epicycles of Ptolemy, and made the Copernican explanation
easier than it had seemed to Copernicus himself.

* Discourse ‘In Praise of Knowledge.’

ADDRESS. lv

The motions of the heavenly bodies being thus determined, there remained
their cause, or their laws. Kepler’s successive approximations to an accurate
determination of the orbits of the planets, and to the ratios of their mean
distances from the sun to the times of their revolutions, which mathemati-
cians now express by saying that “the squares of the periodic times are in
the same proportion as the cubes of the distance,” became an important
prelude to Newton’s discovery of the law of the sun’s attractive force.

Without stopping to trace the concurrent progress of the science of mo-
tion, of which the true foundations were laid, in Bacon’s time, by Galileo, it
will serve here to state that the foundations were laid and the materials
gathered for the establishment, by a master-mind, supreme in vigour of
thought and mathematical resource, of the grandest generalization ever pro-
mulgated by science-—that of the universal gravitation of matter according to
the law of the inverse square of the distance.

The same century in which the ‘ Thema Ceeli’ of Lord Verulam and the
‘ Nuncius Sidereus’ of Galileo saw the light, was glorified by the publication
of the ‘ Philosophie Naturalis Principia Mathematica’ of Newton.

Has time, it may be asked, in any way affected the great result of that
masterpiece of human intellect? There are signs that even Newton's axiom,
or the terms in which it was enunciated, may not be exempt from the restless
law of progress.

The mode of expressing the law of gravitation as being “in the inverse
proportion of the square of the distances,” involves the idea that the force
emanating from or exercised by the sun must become more feeble in pro-
portion to the increased spherical surface over which it is diffused. So, in-
deed, it was expressly understood by Halley.

The ablest historian of Natural Science has remarked that “future dis-
coveries may make gravitation a case of some wider law, and may disclose
something of the mode in which it operates*.” The difficulty, indeed, of
conceiving a force acting through nothing from body to body has of late
made itself felt; and more especially since Meyer of Heilbron first clearly
expressed the principle of the ‘conservation of force. Newton, though
apprehending the necessity of a medium by which the force of gravitation
should be conveyed from one body to another}, yet appears not to have
possessed such an idea of the indestructibility of force as that which, now
possessed by minds of the highest order, seems to some of them to be in-
compatible with the terms in which Newton enunciated his great law; viz.
of matter attracting matter with a force which varies inversely as the square
of the distance.

Faraday has offered the following comment on this received expression
of the idea of gravity :—‘ Assume two particles of matter, A and B,
in free space, and a force in each or in both by which they gravitate

* Whewell, History of the Inductive Sciences.
+ See Newton’s Third Letter to Bentley.

lvi REPORT—1858.

towards each other, the force being unalterable for an unchanging dis-
tance, but varying inversely as the square of the distance, when the
latter varies. Then, at the distance of 10 the force may be estimated
as 1; whilst at the distance of 1, 2. e. one-tenth of the former, the
force will be 100: and if we suppose an elastic spring to be introduced
between the two as a measure of the attractive force, the power com-
pressing it will be a hundred times as much in the latter case as in the
former. But from whence can this enormous increase of the power come ?
If we say that it is the character of this force, and content ourselves with
that as a sufficient answer, then, it appears to me, we admit a creation
of power, and that to an enormous amount; yet by a change of condition,
so small and simple as to fail in leading the least-instructed mind to think
that it can be a sufficient cause, we should admit a result which would
equal the highest act our minds can appreciate of the working of infinite
power upon matter; we should let loose the highest law in physical science
which our faculties permit us to perceive, namely, the conservation of force.
Suppose the two particles A and B removed back to the greater distance of
10, then the force of attraction would be only a hundredth part of that they
previously possessed ; this, according to the statement that the force varies
inversely as the square of the distance, would double the strangeness of the
above results; it would be an annihilation of force: an effect equal in its
affinity and its consequences with ereation, and only within the power of Him
who has created.”

If we suppose the different modes of force, which we call ‘light,’ ‘heat,’
‘ gravity,’ to act in all directions, as emanations from a centre, with a force
which is the same in every part of the line, throughout space, the law of the
‘inverse squares ’ would be a necessary consequence of the fact that, at double
the distance, only one-fourth the number of such ‘lines of force’ would im-
pinge or act upon the ‘ illuminated,’ ‘ heated ’ or ‘attracted’ body *.

This may be understood by the subjoined diagram :—

* Westminster Review, No. XXVII.

ADDRESS. lvii

So much in illustration of the present phase of scientific thought in refer-
ence to the Newtonian axiom.

The progress of knowledge of the form of all-pervading force, which
we call, from its most notable effect on one of the senses, ‘light,’ has not
been less remarkable than that of gravitation.

Galileo’s discovery of Jupiter's satellites supplied Rémer with the pheno-
mena whence he was able to measure, in 1676, the velocity of light. Des-
cartes, in his theory of the Rainbow, referred the different colours to the
different amount of refraction, and made a near approximation to Newton’s
capital discovery of the different colours entering into the composition of the
luminous ray, and of their different refrangibility. Hook and Huyghens,
about the same period had entered upon explanations of the phenomena of
light conceived as due to the undulations of an ether, propagated from the
luminous point spherically, like those of sound. Newton, whilst admitting
that such undulations or vibrations of an ether would explain certain phe-
nomena, adopted the hypothesis of emission as most convenient for the
mathematical propositions relative to light. The discoveries of achromatism,
of the laws of double refraction, of polarization circular and elliptical, and
of depolarization, rapidly followed, realizing more than Bacon conceived
might flow from the labours of the ‘perspective house,’ and, with later ad-
vances in optics, have made renowned the names of Dollond, Young, Malus,
Fresnel, Arago, Biot, Brewster, Stokes, and Jamin.

Some of the natural sciences, as we now comprehend them, had not ger-
minated in Bacon’s time. Chemistry was then Alchemy: Geology and Pa-
leontology were undreamt of: but Magnetism and Electricity had begun to
be observed, and their phenomena compared and defined by a contem-
‘porary of Bacon, in a way that claims to be regarded as the first step toward a
scientific knowledge of those powers. It is true that, before Gilbert*, the
magnet was known to attract iron, and the great practical application of
magnetized iron—the mariner’s compass—had been invented, and for many
years before Bacon's time had guided the barks of navigators through track-
less seas. S

Gilbert, to whom the name ‘electricity’ is due, observed that that force
attracted light bodies, whereas the magnetic force attracted iron only.
About a century later the phenomena of repulsion as well as of
attraction of light bodies by electric substances were noticed; and Dufay,
in 1733, enunciated the principle that “electric bodies attract all those that
‘are not so, and repel them as soon as they are become electric by the
vicinity of the electric body.”

The conduction of electric force, and the different behaviour of bodies in
contact with the electric, leading to their division, by Desaguliers, into con-
ductors and non-conductors, next followed. The two kinds of electricity, at
first by Dufay, their definer, called ¢ vitreous ’ and ‘resinous,’ afterwards, by

* De Magnete (1600).

vii REPORT—1858.

Franklin, ‘ positive ’ and ‘negative,’ formed an important step, which led to a
brilliant series of experiments and discoveries, with inventions, such as the
Leyden jar, for intensifying the electric shock. But whilst the majority of the
applications of these degrees of mastery over the electric force was calculated
to amuse or surprise, the instantaneous transmission of electricity through an
extent of 6000 feet, demonstrated by Sir W. Watson, together with Franklin’s
discovery of the electric state of the clouds, and of the power of drawing
off such electricity by pointed bodies, was a brilliant beginning of the appli-
cation of this subtle science to the discovery of the well-being and needs of
mankind. Superstitious ignorance might well shrink from playing, as the
American philosopher with his electric kites seemed to be doing, with light-
ning,—might gaze with alarm at the Russian Professor * collecting on his elec-
trical rod the awful charge of the black thunder-cloud,—might deem the
globe of fire which leapt from the rod upon the head of the experimenter
and struck him dead as a judgment for tampering with a force that man’s
instinct, in all ages, has referred to a direct expression of the power and
will of Deity. But the cultivator of God's intellectual gifts sees rather,
in the application of the lightning-conductors which now guide harmless to
the earth the dangerous electricity of the clouds, the predestined fruit and
reward of the laborious and dauntless application of those gifts, agreeably
with the rule of right reason, to the unfolding of natural phenomena.

To hide from the lightning and tremble at the thunder, as the immediate
manifestation of offended Deity, is the superstition of the savage: to recog-
nize that both phenomena are under the control of a law, and operating to
beneficial ends, is the privilege of the sage. ‘This it is which begets a true
and worthy feeling of reverence for the Lawgiver.

When the knowledge of the law gives the mode of diverting from the
well-manned ship and the crowded hall the destructive influence of the
electric bolt, we then worthily adore the beneficence that has imparted so
much of the power-interpreting talent as brings that reward for its enjoined
use. The philosopher, in the course of his hazardous experimental
researches, may incur a fatal result ; but he becomes then, not the sacrifice
for presumptuous espial into divine and forbidden mysteries, but the true
‘martyr of science.’ His death has contributed to save the lives of thousands
of his fellow-creatures and to allay the distressing fears of millions.

Magnetism has been studied with two aims,—the one to note the numerical
relations of its activity to time and space, both in respect of its direction and
intensity, the other to penetrate the mystery of the nature of the magnetic
force.

In reference to the first aim, my estimable predecessor adverted, last year,
to the fact that it was in the Committee-rooms of the British Association
that the first step was taken towards that great magnetic organization which
has since borne so much fruit. Thereby it has been determined that there

* Richmann.

od

ADDRESS. lix

are periodical changes of the magnetic elements depending on the hour of
the day, the season of the year, and on what seemed strange intervals of
about eleven years. Also, that besides these regular changes there were
others of a more abrupt and seemingly irregular character—Humboldt’s
‘magnetic storms’—which occur simultaneously at distant parts of the
earth’s surface. Major-General Sabine, than whom no individual has done
more in this field of research since Halley first attempted “ to explain the
change in the variation of the magnetic needle,” has proved that the magnetic
storms observe diurnal, annual, and decennial periods. But with
what phase or phenomenon of earthly or heavenly bodies, it may be asked,
has the maguetic period of ten years to do? The coincidence which
points to, if it does not give, the answer, is one of the most remarkable, un-
expected, and encouraging to patient observers.

For thirty years a German astronomer, Schwabe, had set himself the task
of daily observing and recording the appearance of the sun’s disk ; in which
time he found that the spots passed through periodic phases of inerease and
decrease, the length of the period being about ten years. A comparison
of the independent evidence of the astronomer and magnetic observer has
shown that the decennial magnetic period coincides both in its duration
and in its epochs of maximum and minimum with the same period observed
in the solar spots.

A few weeks ago, during a visit of inspection to our establishment at Kew,
I observed the successful operation of the photoheliographic apparatus in
depicting the solar spots as they then appeared. The continued regular
record of the macular state of the sun’s surface, with the concurrent magnetic
observations now established over many distant points of the earth’s surface,
will ere long establish the full significance and value of the remarkable, and,
in reference to the observers, undesigned, coincidence above mentioned.

Not to trespass on your patience by tracing the progress of magnetism
from Gilbert to Oersted, I cannot but advert to the time, 1807, when the
latter tried to discover whether electricity in its most latent state had any
effect on the magnet, and to his great result, in 1820, that the conducting-
wire of a voltaic circuit acts upon a magnetic needle, so that the latter tends
to place itself at right angles to the wire.

The ablest physicists in Europe, and Ampére especially, devoted them-
selves, immediately on the promulgation of this capital discovery, to the
analysis of its conditions. Ampére, moreover, succeeded, by means of a
delicate apparatus, in demonstrating that the voltaic wire was affected by the
action of the earth itself as a magnet. In short, the generalization was esta-
blished, that magnetism and electricity are but different effects of one common
cause. This has proved the first step to still grander abstractions—to that
which conceives the reduction of all the species of imponderable fluids of
the chemistry of our student days, together with gravitation, chemicity*,
‘ * ‘ Blective’ or ‘ molecular attraction.’

Ix REPORT—1858.

and neuricity*, to interchangeable modes of action of one and the same
all-pervading life-essence.

Galvani arranged the parts of a recently-mutilated frog so as to bring a
nerve in contact with the external surface of a muscle, when a contraction
of the muscle ensued. In this suggestive experiment the Italian philosopher,
who thereby initiated the inductive inquiry into the relation of nerve force
to electric force, concluded that the contraction was a necessary conse-
quence of the passage of electricity from one surface to the other by means
of the nerve. He supposed that the electricity was secreted by the brain,
and transmitted by the nerves to different parts of the body, the muscles
serving as reservoirs of the electricity. Volta made a further step, by show-
ing that, under the conditions or arrangements of Galvani’s experiments, the
muscle would contract, whether the electric current had its origin in the
animal body, or from a source external to that body. Galvani erred in
too exclusive a reference of the electric force producing the contraction
to the brain of the animal: Volta in excluding the origin of the electric foree
from the animal body altogether. The determination of ‘ the true’ and ‘the
constant’ in these recondite phznomena has been mainly helped on by the
persevering and ingenious experimental researches of Matteucci and Du
Bois Reymond. The latter has shown that any point of the surface of a
muscle is positive in relation to any point of the divided or transverse section
of the same muscle; and that any point of the surface of a nerve is positive
in relation to any point of the divided or transverse section of the same nerve.
Mr. Baxter, in still more recent researches, has deduced important conclu-
sions on the origin of the muscular and nerve currents, as being due to the
polarized condition of the nerve or muscular fibre, and the relation of that
condition to changes which occur during nutrition. From the present state
of neuro-electricity it may be concluded that nerve force is not identical with
electric force, but that it may be another mode of motion of the same com-
mon force: it is certainly a polar force, and perhaps the highest form of

polar force :—
“ A motion which may change, but cannot die ;
An image of some bright eternity.”

The present tendency of the higher generalizations of chemistry seems to
be toward a reduction of the number of those bodies which are called
‘elementary ;’ it begins to be suspected that certain groups of so-called
chemical elements are but modified forms of one another.

An important step in the elimination of the chlorine and bromine group
from the category of simple bodies or elements has very recently been made
by Prof. Schénbein. He, at least, adduces strong reasons, from analogy,
for regarding those substances as ‘oxy-compounds,’ or what the Professor
terms ‘ Ozonides;’ chlorine being, according to this view, the peroxide of
murium=MuO+0. The researches on which this conclusion is founded
have recalled to my mind the cautious terms in which my venerable Teacher

* Force ascribed to a nervous fluid.

ADDRESS. lxi

of Chemistry, Hors, always introduced Davy’s then new hypothesis; and
I now better appreciate the celebrated Edinburgh Professor's disinclination
to abandon the old doctrine of the compound nature of chlorine, &c.

Organic chemistry becomes simplified as it expands; aud its growth has,
of late, proceeded, through the labours of Hoffmann, Berthelot, and others,
with unexampled rapidity. The results of the recent experiments of M. Ber-
thelot have more especially tended to reduce the various and numerous
ternary oxygenated organic substances into a small number of fundamental
groups. The important power of synthesis has grown with this growth.
Since Wohler, in 1828, succeeded in artificially producing ‘urea,’ Kolbe
has similarly, by the combinations of inorganic elements, produced acetic
acid and the new organic radical ‘methyl.’ Berthelot has formed glycerine,
the basis of animal and vegatable oils and fats, and has also formed grape-
sugar. It is true, that in the latter synthesis the contact of putrefying animal
matter is requisite ; although such matter contributes none of its constituents
to the new compound, nor undergoes any appreciable change in the process.
Berthelot has very recently shown that cholesterine is a true alcohol, analo-
gous to éthal; and that, treated by acids, it is transformed into corresponding
ethers, similar to other éthilic ethers.

A substance resembling camphor has been this year made by the action of
acids, e.g., the chorhydric, upon essential oil of turpentine. By treating this
substance with strong alkali it is changed into a liquid carburet of hydrogen ;
but, if feeble alkalis are employed or slightly alkaline salts, a solid carburet
is obtained identical with camphor. By oxidizing the artificial camphor,
ordinary camphor is obtained; by adding hydrgoen to such ordinary cam-
phor, the camphor of Borneo is obtained. M. Berthelot has thus realized
the synthetic preparation of camphors.

An important series of alcohols and their derivatives, from amylic aleohol
downwards; as extensive a series of ethers, including those which give their
peculiar flavour to our choicest fruits; the formic, butyric, succinic, lactic,
and other acids, together with other important organic bodies, are now
capable of artificial formation from their elements, and the old barrier divi-
ding organic from inorganic bodies is broken down. To the power which
mankind may ultimately exercise through the light of synthesis, who may
presume to set limits! Already natural processes can be more economically
replaced by artificial ones in the formation of a few organic compounds, the
‘valerianic acid,’ for example. It is impossible to foresee the extent to
which Chemistry may not ultimately, in the production of things needful,
supersede the present vital agencies of nature “‘ by laying under contribution
the accumulated forces of past ages, which would thus enable us to obtain in
a small manufactory, and in a few days, effects which can be realized from
present natural agencies, only when they are exerted upon vast areas of
land, and through considerable periods of time *.”

* Frankland, Lecture, Royal Institution, May 28, 1858.

Ixii REPORT—1858.

Since Niépce, Herschel, Fox Talbot, and Daguerre laid the foundations
of Photography, year by year some improvement is made, some advance
achieved, in this most subtle application and combination of discoveries in
Photicity, Electricity, Chemistry, and Magnetism.

Last year M. Poiteven’s production of plates in relief, for the purpose dof
engraving by the action of light alone, was cited as the latest marvel of
photography. This year has witnessed photographie printing in carbon.
M. Pretschi’s method is as follows :—

“« A photograph or engraving is placed on the prepared plate, and a nega-
tive taken in sun-light. The glass is then placed in water with a little
alcohol, and the darkened parts are rendered soluble, while the other parts
are insoluble, so that in a few minutes we have a picture represented not
only by light and shadow, but by the unequal thickness of the gelatine on
the glass. When the plate is dry, soft gutta-percha is pressed upon the
picture till it hardens. The gutta-percha has consequently an image the
reverse of the first. After rubbing it over with bronze powder or black-
lead, it is placed in a solution of sulphate of copper, and an electrotype plate
taken from it, in the usual way, with a voltaic battery. From this plate
others can be readily taken, and, as in ordinary copperplate printing, thou-
sands of copies can be thrown off. ‘By this process,’ says Mr. Hunt, ‘pic-
tures, in which the most delicate details are very faithfully preserved, and
the nice gradations in light and shadow maintained in all their beauty, are
now printed from the electrotype plate, obtained from the photograph. The
process of photo-galvanography is evidently destined to take a very high
position as a means of preserving the beauties of nature and art.’ ”

M. Niépce de St. Victor has succeeded in reproducing the colour of the
original on metallic plates; though he cannot fix it. Unfortunately these
lovely ‘heliochromes’ vanish like the breath from the mirror.

M. Delarue has obtained photographs of the moon in which the details of
its illuminated surface are well defined—the cone in ‘ Tycho,’ the double
cone in ‘ Copernicus,’ and even the ridge of ‘ Aristarchus.’ A photograph
of the planet Jupiter has been obtained in which the belts are very well
marked and the satellites distinct.

The portrait of a 13-inch shell has been secured while in full flight, a few
feet after it left the mortar; and, in effecting this, Mr. Scaife has obtained
a representation of phenomena in the development of the smoke too trans-
itory for the eye to ascertain when they occur. The photographic eye is, in
fact, more sensitive than the living one: it can receive and register impres-
sions too fine for human vision, until made visible by increased light and
developing agents. Hence, photography may superadd a new defining fune-
tion to the highest attainable telescopic power.

Photography is now a constant and indispensable servant in certain im-
portant meteorological records. Applied periodically to living plants, photo-
graphy supplies the botanist with the easiest and best data for judging of

ADDRESS. Ixiii
their rate of growth. It gives to the zoologist accurate representations of
the most complex of his subjects, and of their organization, even to micro-
scopic details.

The engineer at home can ascertain by photographs transmitted by suc-
cessive mails the weekly progress, brick by brick, board by board, nail by
nail, of the most complex works on the Indian or other remote rail-roads.
The physician can register every physiognomic phase accompanying the
access, height, decrease, and passing away of imental disease.

The humblest emigrant may carry with him miniatures, such as Dow could
not have equalled in the perfection of their finish, of scenes and persons
which will recall and revive the dearest affections of the home he has left.

In its lowest application photography becomes an instrument of the
criminal police.

The first practical application of the electro-magnetic discovery was, as it
should be, to the direct service of the philosophic inquirer: it was such an
application of a delicate compass-needle as would show, by its deflection,
the strength of the voltaic current. The possession of Schweigger’s ‘ gal-
vanometer ’ enabled the -philosopher henceforth to detect and measure the
_ minutest electro-dynamic actions. It led to the discovery by Seebeck
of the conversion of heat into that kind of action; in short, of thermo-
electricity.

On Faraday’s demonstration—the converse of Oersted’s—that magnetism
could produce electricity, and on the brilliant series of discoveries of that
most exemplary investigator of natural laws, I need not dwell, in the pre-
sence of so many who are better qualified than myself to comprehend and
illustrate them.

Remote as such profound conceptions and subtle trains of thought seem
to be from the needs of every-day life, the most astounding of the practical
augmentations of man’s power has sprung out of them. Nothing might
seem less promising of profit than Oersted’s painfully-pursued experiments,
with his little magnets, voltaic pile, and bits of copper-wire. Yet out of
these has come the electric telegraph! Ocersted himself saw such an appli-
cation of his convertibility of electricity into magnetism; and Schilling suc-
cessfully applied the principle to the instantaneous communication of signs
through distances of a few miles. The unrivalled resources of Wheat-
stone’s inventive genius have made it practicable for all distances, as we
have lately seen in the submergence and working of the electro-magnetic
cord connecting the Old with the New World.

Whoever has been engaged in the delicate physical and chemical expe-
riments required in the present state of natural philosophy, will know how
small is the expectation of success on the first trial of a new experiment in
the laboratory. Only the experienced manipulator realizes how hard it is to
foresee every condition requisite for success: but it is he who bears the
bravest heart under failures, well assured that through them are acquired

Ixiv REPORT—1858.

the conditions of success, and that every cause of failure, well ascertained,
is an encouragement to the repetition of the trial. Every practieal phy-
sicist, therefore, was prepared to expect a certain number of instructive
failures in the attempt to carry out the grandest philosophical experiment
on record—the most stupendous which mortal mind ever ventured to pro-
pose to itself. Our surprise is, that the failures were so few,—the success
so speedy. But the persevering and determined men who achieved this
success, temporary as it has been, were animated by the spirit in which Lord
Bacon tells us experimental philosophy should be entered upon:—“ For
there is no comparison,” he writes, “between that which we may lose by
not trying and by not succeeding; since by not trying we throw away the
chance of an immense good, by not succeeding we only incur the loss of a
little human labour.”

On the 6th of August, 1858, the laying down of upwards of 2000 nautical
miles of the telegraphic cord, connecting Newfoundland and Ireland, was
successfully completed ; and shortly after, a message of thirty-one words was
transmitted in thirty-five minutes along the sinuosities of the submerged hills
and valleys forming the bed of the great Atlantic. This first message
ended by expressing—“ GLory To Gop IN THE HIGHEST: ON EARTH
Peace, GoopwiLt TowARDS Men.” Never since the foundations of the
world were laid could it be more truly said, ‘“ The depths of the sea praise
Him!”

More remains to be done before the far-stretching, thought-bearing engine
can be got into full working order; but the capital fact, viz., the practica-
bility of bringing America into electrical communication with Europe has
been demonstrated ; consequently a like power of instantaneous interchange
of thought between the civilized inhabitants of every part of the globe
becomes only a question of time. The powers and benefits thence to ensue
for the human race can be but dimly and inadequately foreseen. Some
results stand out more prominently than others.

The investigator of natural laws manifests his success by the degree in
which he elicits and substitutes latent natural force for manual labour in effect-
ing his purpose. Sennacherib, as we see on the slabs from Nineveh, added the
lever to traction in the transport of the colossal symbolic statues of his majesty ;
but the power by which he worked both mechanical adjustments was slaves
stimulated by the stick. Hundreds of human beings were sacrificed in the
operation. Warr achieved an equal effect by the scientifie eduction and
direction of the latent foree contained in a few pounds of coal.

If this test be applied to the present state of the science of governing
peoples, it would seem to show but little progress therein. The conscription
committee of France for 1858 proposed a levy of 100,000 men, because
less would not suffice to keep up the requisite army of 500,000 men;
Europe being at peace. Even the United States of America have pro-
gressively increased their standing army to a present total of 17,000 men.

Ss errr SS

ADDRESS. Ixv

The probability of a further augmentation of the military force of the
Federal Government, in reference to a possible rupture with the Mother-
country, must be greatly diminished by an ocean telegraph. And we may
confidently hope that this and other applications of pure science will tend to
abolish wars over the whole earth; so that men may come to look back
upon the trial of battle between misunderstanding nations, as a sign of a
past state of comparative barbarism ; just as we look back from our present
phase of civilization in England upon the old border-warfare.

Bacon, commenting on the History of the Works of Nature, as it presented
itself to him, describes it as a chaos “of fables, antiquities, quotations,
frivolous disputes, philology, ornaments, and table-talk.” Since his day the
chief steps, by which Natural History has advanced to the dignity of a
science, are associated with the names of Ray, Linnzeus, Jussieu, Buffon, and
Cuvier.

By the two former the phenomena were digested and classified, according
to artificial but conveniently applicable methods ; of necessity the precursors
of systems more expressive of the natural affinities of plants and animals.

To perfect the natural system of plants has been the great aim of botanists
since Jussieu. To obtain the same true insight into the relations of animals
has stimulated the labours of zoologists since the writings of Cuvier. To
that great man appertains the merit of having systematically pursued and
applied anatomical researches to the discovery of the true system of distri-
bution of the animal kingdom: nor, until the Cuvierian amount of zootomical
seience had been gained, could the value and importance of Aristotle’s
‘History of Animals’ be appreciated. ‘The Greek philosopher, in this de-
partment of science, had advanced far beyond his systematic depreciator,
Bacon, who could not, in fact, in the then state of natural knowledge, com-
prehend his discoveries. Such was the low state of Zoology in the in-
terval between Aristotle and Cuvier, that there is no similar instance, in
the history of science, of the well-lit torch gradually growing dimmer and
smouldering through so many generations and centuries before it was again
fanned into brightness, and a clear view regained, both of the extent of
ancient discovery, and of the true course to be pursued by modern research.

Rapid and right has been the progress of Zoology since that resumption.

Not only has the structure of the animal been investigated, even to the
minute characteristics of each tissue, but the mode of formation of such
constituents of organs, and of the organs themselves, has been pursued from
the germ, bud, or egg, onward to the maturity and decay of the individual.

To the observation of outward characters is now added that of inward
organization and developmental change, and Zootomy, Histology, and Em-
bryology combine their results in forming an adequate and lasting basis for
the higher axioms and generalizations of Zoology properly so called.

Three principles, of the common ground of which we may ultimately
obtain a clearer insight, are now recognized to have governed the construc-

1858. e

xvi REPORT—1858.

tion of animals :—unity of plan, vegetative repetition, and fitness for purpose.
The last, alone, has of late been questioned: but, in reference to such struc-
tures as are exemplified by the flood-gates of the heart and the lens of the
eye, I find my own powers of conception and expression such as to leave me
no other mode of understanding myself, or of being intelligible to others,
than by using the terms ‘aim,’ ‘ end,’ ‘ purpose,’ or ‘ design,’ in regard to the
relation of the first instanced structure to the course of the blood in the
circulatory system; and of the second to the convergence of light in the act
of vision.

The independent series of researches by which students of the Articulate
animals have seen, in the organs performing the functions of jaws and limbs
of varied powers, the same or homotypal elements of a series of like seg-
ments constituting the entire body, and by which students of the Vertebrate
animals have been led to the conclusion that the maxillary, mandibular,
nyoid, scapular, costal and pelvic arches, and their appendages sometimes
forming limbs of varied powers, are also modified elements of a series of.
essentially similar vertebral segments,—mutually corroborate their respective
conclusions. It is not probable that a principle which is true for Articulata
should be false for Vertebrata: the less probable, since the determination of
homologous parts becomes the more possible and sure in the ratio of the
perfection of the organization.

The last proposition may be tested by a study of any single set of organs
with a view to determine their homologies.

Take, for instance, the teeth, or the organs properly so called, whieh are
peculiar to the vertebrate animals. One cannot trace any particular tooth,
as one may a bone, from Fish to Fish: they are too numerous and too uni-
form. In Reptiles we may point to the maxillary poison-tooth of a Rattle-
snake as answering to that in a Cobra; the homological relations of the
teeth being only predicable in a general way, as premaxillary, maxillary,
mandibular, palatine, in the rest of that class. But when we come to the
Mammalia, we find, save in a few inferior groups resembling fishes (e. g.
Cetacea) or resembling reptiles (Bruta), that the teeth have such deter-
minate characters, from relative position and development, as to enable the
anatomist to trace each individual tooth from species to species, and indicate
it, throughout that large proportion of the class which has been called
‘diphyodont,’ by a determinate name and symbol.

And here I would repeat, what I have elsewhere expressed, that each year’s
experience strengthens the conviction that the right and quick progress of the
knowledge of animal structures, and of the axioms deducible therefrom, will
be mainly influenced by the determination of homologies and by the conco-
mitant power of condensing the propositions relating to homologized parts,
by means of definite single substantive names, and their equivalent signs or
symbols.

In my work on the ‘Archetype of the Skeleton,’ I have denoted most of the

ADDRESS: Ixvii

bones by numerals, which, when adopted, may take the place of names ; for
then all propositions respecting the centrum of the occipital vertebra might
be predicated of ‘1’ as intelligibly as of ‘ basioccipital.’ The name appears
to be now generally accepted, and why not the symbol? The symbols of
the teeth are as definite as those of the bones; and, in the absence of single
names, more useful, since they render unnecessary the repetition of the com-
pound definitions ; they harmonize conflicting synonyins, serve as a universal
language, and express the writer’s meaning in the fewest and clearest terms.
_ The entomologist has realized the advantage of signs, such as 6, ?, &c. for
male, female, neuter, and the like; and the time is come when the anatomist
may avail himself of this powerful instrament of thought, instruction, and
discovery, from which the chemist, the astronomer, and tle mathematician
have obtained such important results.

To William Sharp Macleay, author of the ‘ Hore Entomologice,’ belongs
the merit of first clearly defining and exemplifying, in regard to the similarities
observable between different animals, the distinction between those that in-
dicate ‘affinity’ and those that indicate ‘analogy’ or representation. This
distinction has been well illustrated by Vigors in the class of Birds, and has
been ably discussed by Swainson in reference to other classes of animals.

‘ Affinity,’ as first defined by Macleay in contradistinction from ‘ analogy,’
signifies the relationship which one animal bears to another in its struc-
ture, and is the closer as the similarity of structure is greater. Swainson
illustrates this idea by comparing a goatsucker with a swallow and witha
bat: with the one its relation is iné¢mate, with the other remote: the goat-
sucker has affinity with the swallow, analogy to the bat.

But the idea of the foregoing intimate relation of entire animals, called
‘affinity,’ is different from the idea of the answerable relation of parts of
animals called ‘ homology.’ Animals, however intimately ‘aftined,’ are never
the same in the sense in which homologous parts are so esteemed: they
could never be called by the same name, in the way or sense in which a bone,
for example, of the fore-limb, is called ‘ humerus’ in the goatsucker, swallow,
and bat.

There is, indeed, a sameness in the idea of ‘analogy,’ as applied by the
Zoologist to animals, and by the Anatomist to their parts. The goatsucker is
related by analogy toa bat, because, as Mr. Swainson remarks, “ it flies at the
same hour of the day, and feeds in the same manner; ” and the membranous
wing of the bat isanalogousto the membranous parachute of the dragon, because
it serves to sustain the body in the air. That is to say, ‘ function ’—a similar
relationship to a tertium quid—in the above instance air,—is the groundwork
for predicating analogies in regard to parts as well as wholes; more espe-
cially when, as in the case of the wings of the dragon and bat, they are not
homologous parts.

The study of homologous parts in a single system of organs—the bones

—has mainly led to the recognition of the plan or archetype of the highest
e2

Ixvili | REPORT—1858.

primary group of animals, the Vertebrata. The next step of importance will
be to determine the homologous parts of the nervous system, of the muscular
system, of the respiratory and vascular system, and of the digestive, secre-
tory, and generative organs in the same primary group or province. I think
it of more importance to settle the homologies of the parts of a group of
animals constructed on the same general plan, than to speculate on such re-
lations of parts in animals constructed on demonstratively distinct plans of
organization. What has been effected and recommended, in regard to homo-
logous parts in the Vertebrata, should be followed out in the Articulata and
Mollusca.

In regard to the constituents of the crust or outer skeleton and its append-
ages in the Aréiculata, homological relations have been studied and deter-
mined to a praiseworthy extent, throughout that province.

The same study is making progress in the Mollusca ; but the grounds for
determining special homologies are less sure in this subkingdom. The
vegetative functions here predominate ; and just as the organs of these func-
tions are less satisfactory subjects of homological determination than those of
the animal functions in the Vertebrate province, so the Molluscous province
is a less favourable field for homological demonstrations than either the
Articulate or Vertebrate provinces, in which the animal functions predomi-
nate over the vegetative.

So far as homologies can be determined, within the limits in which such
determination can be most satisfactorily carried out, the foundation will be
securely laid for a superstructure of higher generalizations in regard to parts
homological or answerable throughout the animal kingdom generally.

The present state of homology in regard to the Articulata has sufficed
to demonstrate that the segment of the crust is not a hollow expanded homo-
logue of the segment of the endoskeleton of a vertebrate. There is as little
homology between the parts and appendages of the segments of the Verte-
brate and Articulate skeletons respectively. The parts called mandibles,
maxilla, arms, legs, wings, fins, in Insects and Crustaceans, are only ¢ analo-
gous’ to the parts so called in Vertebrates.

To express finitely the clear deideas now possessed of their essential di-
stinction, will require a distinct nomenclature. The same remark is appli-
cable to other systems of organs. The so-called ‘lungs’ of the spider are
analogous to, not homologous with, our ‘lungs :’ the trachez of insects are
not homologous with the bird’s trachea and its ramifications: the gills of
the lobster are not the homologous parts of the gills of fishes. No compara-
tive anatomist now supposes that the heart of the lobster is homologous with
that of a fish: or either of these organs with the heart of a snail. ‘The name
in each group is simply expressive of similarity of function, and of connexions
limited by and solely related to such function, as of the heart with a vein
and an artery. A most extensive field of reform is becoming open to the
homologist in that which is essential to the exactitude of his science—a no-

ee t—

ADDRESS. lxix

menclature equivalent to express his convictions of the different relations of
similitude. Most difficult and recondite are the questions in face of which
the march of homology is now irresistibly conducting the philosophic observer.
Such, for instance, as the following :—Are the nervous, muscular, digestive,
circulating and generative systems of organs more than functionally similar
in any two primary provinces of the animal kingdom? Are the homelogies
of entire systems to be judged of by their functional and structural con-
nexions, rather than by the plan and course of their formation in the
embryo?

In the development of animals the vitellus is observed to have different
relations to the embryo. But such difference is not always or absolutely
associated with a difference of plan of structure: the Cephalopods show a
higher development of the same fundamental plan of structure as that of the
Gasteropods, but the vitelline phenomena of their development resemble
those of Vertebrata, not those of Gasteropoda.

Even in the last-named restricted molluscous group there are striking
differences in the vitelline relations of the embryo. In most the embryo
early encloses the vitelline mass; in some,.as in Limaaz, much later: and
there is what may be termed a temporary vitelline sac.

The yolk undergoes a complete segmentation in placental Mammals, the
embryo of which is formed out of the whole vitelline mass, as it is in the
whelk, the oyster and the star-fish. The bird, the crocodile and the cuttle-
fish resemble each other in the embryo rising out of the yolk, assimilating
only a portion, and leaving the rest as an appendage until the period of birth,
or for a short time after.

It may be doubted, therefore, if embryology alone is decisive of the
question whether homology can be predicated of the alimentary canal in
animals of different primary groups or provinces. The armadillo (Dasypus)
and the woodlouse ( Oniscus) are good subjects for illustrating this question.
In both, the alimentary canal begins at the fore part and terminates at the
hind part of the body: in both, an cesophagus precedes a stomach, as this
precedes the part of the canal receiving the biliary secretion ; in both, the in-
testine follows to terminate at the vent.

Besides the sameness of function, the homologist, confiding in the
characters of connexion and relative position, would retain the names ¢ ali-
mentary canal,’ ‘ mouth,’ ‘gullet,’ ‘stomach,’ ‘ gut,’ to express his ideas of
the veritable answerable character of the parts compared in Oniscus and
Dasypus: but he who believes embryology alone capable of affording a solid
basis for determining homologies*, will infer that the different relations of
the yolk and the intestine in the embryos of the vertebrate and articulate

* “Bmbryology affords further a test for homologies in contradistinction to analo-
gies. It shows that true homologies are limited respectively within the natural boundaries
of the great branches of the animal kingdom.”—Agassiz, Nat. Hist. of the United States,
Ato, 1857, vol. i. p. 86.

lxx REPORT-~1858.

animals*, establish that the so-called alimentary canal is an essentially differ-
ent part in the mammal and the insect.

The almost annular ossified segments of the skin of the armadillo, arranged
so as to overlap and allow the body to be contracted into a ball, are, on the
basis of connexions and relative position, homologous with the almost annu-
lar chitinous segments of the skin of the wood-louse, which present the same
arrangement for permitting that insect to roll itself into a ball. But, aceord-
ing to the embryological basis, there can be no true homology between the
parts compared ; this relation being limited respectively within the natural
boundaries of the great branches of the animal kingdom.

The zoologist may learn from the above instances the phase at which the
philosophical study and comparison of animal structures has now arrived,
and [ shall not pursue the disquisition further on the present occasion.

It is significant, however, of the lower value of embryological characters, to
note that the great leading divisions of the animal kingdom, based by Cuvier
on comparative anatomy, have merely been confirmed by Von Baer’s later
developmental researches. And so, likewise, with regard to some of the
minor modifications of Cuvier’s provinces, the true position of the Cirripedia
was discerned by Straus Durkheim and Macleay, by the light of anatomy,
before the discovery of their metamorphoses by Thomson.

If, however, embryology has been over-valued as a test of homology, the
study of the development of animals has brought to light most singular and
interesting facts, and I now allude more especially to those that have been
summed up under the term ‘ Alternate-generation,’ ‘ Parthenogenesis,’
‘ Metagenesis,’ &c.

Joun Hunter first enunciated the general proposition (many of the facts
being known long before his time), that “ the propagation of plants depended.
on two principles, the one that every part of a vegetable is ‘ a whole,’ so that:
it is capable of being multiplied as far as it can be divided into distinct
parts ; the other, that certain of those parts become reproductive organs, and
produce fertile seeds.” Hunter also remarked that “the first principle ope.
rated in many animals which propagate their species by buds or cuttings ; ”
but that, whilst in animals, it prevailed only in “the more imperfect orders,”
it operated in vegetables “ of every degree of perfection.”” He suggestively
remarks, however, that “those degrees are few in comparison with the.
‘animal,’ and that the least perfect ‘animal’ is probably on a par with the
most perfect ‘ vegetable+.’” Subsequent progress has shown that what
seemed ‘probable’ when Hunter wrote is not exactly true. The special
conditions of organisms or living things, which we call ‘vegetable’ and
‘animal,’ rise by degrees and diverge from a general organic character or

-* “ The alimentary canal is formed in a very different way in the embryos of the two
types ; and it would be as unnatural to identify them, as it would be still to consider gills
and lungs as homologous among Vertebrata.” —Agassiz, op. cit., p. 86.

T Physiol. Catal., p. 5.

ADDRESS. xxi

basis: and the degree of progress at which ‘animality’ can be predicated,
is ‘on a par’ with that at which ‘ vegetality’ can be predicated. Then follow
other steps of complexity, by which plants and animals diverge from each
other as they rise in the scale of perfection.

The experiments of Trembley on the freshwater polype, those of Spal-
lanzani on the Naiads, and those of Bonnet on the Aphides, had brought to
light the phenomena of propagation by fission, and by gemmation or buds,
external and internal, in animals, to which Hunter refers. Subsequent research
has shown the unexpected extent to which Hunter's first principle of pro-
pagation in organic beings prevails in the animal division. But the earliest
formal supersession of Harvey’s axiom, ‘omne vivum ab ovo, appears to be
Hunter's proposition of the dual principle above quoted. Bacon readily
accepted, as, indeed, it was congenial with his physiological philosophy, the
doctrine current in his day of the spontaneous origin of worms, insects, eels,
and other ‘creeping things.’ But this doctrine receives no countenance from
the modification of the Harveian dictum introduced by the great English
physiologist of the last century.

The experiments of Redi, Malpighi, and others, had progressively con-
tracted the field to which the ‘ generatio eequivoca’ could with any plausibility
be applied. The stronghold of the remaining advocates of that old Egyptian
doctrine was the fact of the development of parasitic animals in the flesh,
brain and glands of higher animals. But the hypothesis never obtained
currency in this country ; it was publicly opposed in my ‘Hunterian Lec-
tures,’ by the fact of the prodigious preparation of fertile eggs in many of
the supposed spontaneously developed species; and in then suggesting that
the ‘ Trichina spiralis’ of the human muscular tissue might be the embryo
of a larger worm in course of migration, I urged that a particular investiga-
tion was needed for each particular species*. Among the most brilliant of
recent acquisitions to this part of physiology have been the discoveries which
have resulted from such special investigations. Kuchenmeister and Von .
Siebold have been the chief labourers in this field. I may instance a few
of their results.

The ‘thread-worms’ (Filarie) of certain insects, which present no trace
of sexual organs, were supposed to be spontaneously developed in those in-
sects. The little worms were, however, by special and due research, seen to
wind their way out of the caterpillars they infested. Von Siebold placed
these free Filarie in damp earth, into which they soon bored: in a few
weeks he found that the sexual organs were developed in them, and that
they laid hundreds of eggs. Early in spring the young worms were hatched

and began to creep about. Von Siebold took some young caterpillars of
the moth ( Yponomeuta euonymella), in which were no parasites: he placed
them in the soft earth in which the young Filarie had been hatched; and
in twenty-four hours most of the caterpillars were infested by the young

~ * Hunterian Lectures, reported in ‘ Medical Times.’

Ixxii REPORT—1858.

thread-worms, which had bored their way tirough the soft skin into their
interior. ,

The long hair-worm of fresh-waters (Gordius aquaticus), vulgarly con-
ceived to be the result of a metamorphosis of the hair of a horse’s tail, passes
its early life as a parasite in the body of an insect.

But many entozoa acquire their full or sexual development, not as free
worms, but within the body of another animal, and of a species distinct from
that in which they had passed the early or larval stage of their existence.

The trematode parasite of a water-fowl produces eggs, from each of which
is hatched a ciliated infusorial-like young. These young escape into the
water, and there swim about by their vibratile cilia, like Jnfusoria ; some of
them enter the body of a water-snail; but they are merely the locomotive
envelope of a differently-shaped smooth-skinned organism, resembling in its
simple uniform granular structure a Gregarina; and the function of that
ciliated envelope was to introduce the Gregarina into the body of the water-
snail. So introduced, the growth of the gregariniform parasite proceeds, and a
progeny is seen to arise in its interior, by the development of several of the
contained germ-cells into embryos: it proves, indeed, to be a mere cyst for
such, as the infusorial larva had been a cyst for it. The embryos gradually
acquire the form of a Cercaria. These escape from the cyst, bore their way
out of the snail, and disperse themselves as free swimming tadpole-like
animalcules in the water. No sexual organs exist in these ‘ Cercarie,’ any
more than in their animated ‘coat’ the Gregarina, or in their ciliated
‘great-coat’ the infusorial embryo. After the larval Cercarte have passed
some time in the water, first creeping and then swimming about with great
restlessness, they either enter directly the body of a water-fowl, or bore
their way into some aquatic insect, or they may fail in both these instinctive
efforts and remain in the water. In any case they undergo a metamorphosis.
The Cercaria gathers itself up into a ball and exudes a mucous secretion
from its surface, which soon hardens; and, since the worm, inside this mucous
mass, turns round without stopping, it invests itself with a kind of egg-shell :
during this process the tail is cast off.

Should this process take place within the body of an insect, the encysted
Cercaria might be introduced into the body of an insectivorous bird or beast.
In the act of digestion by the engulpher the body of the insect is destroyed,
together with the capsule of the cerearian pupa; but this by virtue of its
vitality remains unharmed, and is thus transplanted into a sphere fitted for its
further change into a sexual entozoon of the Trematode or ‘ fluke-worm’ order.

Then again commences the strange and complex genetic cycle from the
Harveian point—the impregnated ovum.

Three different species of animal may contribute—two are essential—to
the successful progress of the ordinary and parthenogenetic processes of pro-
pagation manifested by the three distinct forms of Infusory, Gregarina and
Cercaria, intervening between the egg and the perfect parasitic fluke-worm.

a. =

overe we

ADDRESS, Ixxili

This instance (a knowledge of which is due chiefly to the researches of
Von Siebold) I have thought it requisite to quote, in order to convey some
idea to my non-physiological auditors of the singular complexity of powers
and arrangements tending to the ultimate right lodgement and well-being of
a seemingly insignificant noxious little parasite.

The sum of the recent researches on the generation of the Entozoa teaches
that to the success in life of the majority of these internal parasites, two
different species of much higher organized animals are subservient ; and that
these two species stand in the relation of prey and devourer.

The habits of the prey favour the accidental introduction (as when a slug
crawls over the droppings of a thrush) of the eggs of the birds’ intestinal
parasite. These are hatched in the slug. The slug in its turn is devoured
by the thrush; but the parasitic passengers are not digested—only the coach
is dissolved, and the larvez, thus set free, find in the warm intestines of the
bird the appropriate conditions for their metamorphosis and full develop-
ment.

In like manner, the Rhynchobothria of a cuttle-fish are the larve ‘of the
Tetrarhynchus or four-tentacled tape-worm of a dog-fish. The encysted
sexless Zrienophorus of the liver of the char becomes the free and perfect
Trienophorus of the gut of the pike. The Ligula of a herring becomes a
Tenia only when introduced into the interior of a cormorant. The bladder-
worm (Cysticercus fasciolaris) of the mouse’s liver becomes the tape-worm
(Tenia crassicollis) of the cat. The Cysticercus pisiformis of the liver of
the hare becomes the Tenia serrata of the dog and fox.

Dr. Kiichenmeister of Zittau first proved, experimentally, by feeding
animals with Cysticerci (Hydatids of the flesh and glands of herbivorous
animals), that they became Zenie (intestinal tape-worms) in carnivorous
animals. The results of these instructive experiments were published in
1851*. They have been successfully repeated, amplified, and scientifically
explained, in regard to every particular and step of the progress, by the
indefatigable and accurate Von Siebold+. The part which Parthenogenesis
plays in the changing scenes of entozoal life is acutely discerned and clearly
explained in this work.

Since the time when it was first discovered that plants and animals
could propagate in two ways, and that the individual developed from
the bud might produce a seed or egg, from which also an individual
might spring capable of again budding,—since this alternating mode of
generation was observed, as by Chamisso and Sars, in cases where the
budding individual differed much in form from the egg-laying one—the
subject has been systematized{, generalized, with an attempt to explain its

* Gunsburg’s Zeitschrift fiir Klinische Vortrige, 1851, p. 240.

+ Ueber die Band- und Blasenwirmer, &c. 8vo. Leipzig, 1854.

} Steenstrup (J.), “‘ Ueber den Generationswechsel oder die Fortpflanzung durch abwech-
selnde Generation,” Kopenh. 1842. 8vo.

lxxiv REPORT—1858.

principle*, and greatly advanced +, especially, and in a highly interesting
manner, in Von Siebold’s late treatise, entitled “ Wahre Parthenogenesis bei
Schmetterlingen und Bienen,” in which the virgin-production of the male or
drone-bee is demonstrated. i

Von Siebold, having subjected to the closest microscopic scrutiny and
experiment the conclusion to which the practical Bee-master Dzierson had
arrived, relative to the cause of Queen-bees with crippled wings producing
a swarm exclusively of drones, has demonstrated that the male-bee is pro-
duced from an egg which has been subjected to no influence save that of the
maternal parent ; whilst such egg, if impregnated, would have produced a
female or worker-bee.

Von Siebold has established the same most interesting phase of partheno-
genesis in certain Lepidoptera, e.g. Solenobia lichenella, S. clathrella, Psyche
helix ; and he calls this phase emphatically ‘ true parthenogenesis.’

Bonnet’s famous experiments on the parthenogenetic Aphides have been
repeated and confirmed by myself{ and others. Hartig§ has shown the
same property in the genera Cynips and Apophyllus, which explains the fact
of the appearance of Cynips lignicola in vast numbers in the south-west of
England during the present and preceding summers, but all of the female sex.
The little crustaceans of the genus Daphne have long been known to produce
agamic eggs. A newly-hatched female isolated in a tumbler will produce a
brood of the same sex, whence a second brood will issue, to perhaps the sixth
generation. Mr. John Lubbock, in an admirable paper in the ‘ Philosophical
Transactions’ for 1857, has repeated the experiments of Jurine, and added
many valuable facts. He has pointed out the precise relations between the
agamic and ephippial eggs. The young from any one brood of agamic eggs
are all of one sex, which usually is female: but in one instance Mr. Lubbock
observed that they were all males. His memoir will well repay a careful study.
Thad previously stated the grounds for concluding that there was no essential
distinction between buds and eggs, and for anticipating that every gradation
would be found between them: and many steps in that series have been since
supplied by Lubbock, Leidy, and Von Siebold. '

Gertner has given an abridged account of experiments, showing that

* Owen, “ On Parthenogenesis, or the Successive Production of Procreating Individuals
from a single Ovum,” 8vo. London, 1849.

Jb. “On Metamorphosis and Metagenesis,” 8yo. 1857.

Prosch (V), “ Om Parthenogenesis og Generationsvexel,” Kidbenhayn, 1851.

tT Lubbock (J.), “An Account of Two Methods of Reproduction in Daphnia,” &c., Phil.
Trans. 1857, p. 79.

Carus (J. Victor), “ Zur niheren Kenntniss des Generationswechsels,” 8vo. Leipzig, 1849.

Leuckart (K.), “Ueber Metamorphose ungeschlechtliche Vermehrung, Generations-
wechsel,”’ Zeitschrift fiir Wissensch. Zoologie, vol. iii, 1851.

Gegenbaur (U.), “ Zur Lehre vom Generationswechsel und der Fortpflanzung bei Medusen
und Polypen,” 8vo. Wiirzburg, 1854,

i Parthenogenesis. § Germar’s Zeitschrift, vol. ii. p. 178.

ADDRESS. ‘ixxv

some plants have the power of producing ‘ agamic’ or fertile but unpollenized
seeds: e.g. Zea Mays, Cannabis sativa, Spinacia oleracea, Mercurialis
annua; and if doubt may yet attend the results of the experiments on these
and other plants which Gertner cites, none, I believe, is now entertained by
botanists of the germinative power of the seeds, independently of any action
of pollen, of the Caclobogyne ilicifolia. This plant, a native of Moreton Bay,
Australia, is dicecious like the rest of the order (Huphorbiacee) to which it
belongs. A female plant was sent to the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew
some years ago, where it may now be seen in full vigour; but year after year
this pistil-bearing individual has formed its flowers and fertile seeds as per-
fectly reproductive as if its staminiferous mate was blooming in the next
parterre. No male plant has yet, in fact, been introduced.

M. Lehoegq has recorded in the ‘ Comptes Rendus de l’Acad. des Sciences,’
Dee. 1856, the same phenomena in Trinia vulgaris,Mercurialis annua, and
some other plants.

The now well-investigated phenomena of parthenogenesis in Hydrozoa
have resulted in showing, as in the analogous case of E’ntozoa, that animals
differing so much in form as to have constituted two distinct orders or classes,
are really but two terms. of a cycle of metagenetic transformations—the
acalephan Medusa being the sexual locomotive form of the agamic rooted
budding polype, just as the cestoid Tzenia is of the cystic Hydatid.

In Hydrozoa (Hydroid Polypes or Sertularians) the young are propagated,
as in plants, by ‘buds, and also, as in most plants, by ‘germs’ or ‘seeds:’
these latter are contained in ‘ germ-sacs’ projecting from the outer surface,
which is another analogy to the flowering parts of plants. The germ-sac
contains either bare-eyed meduse, or medusoid germs in small closed ‘ sporo-
sacs. Both meduse and medusoids contain either the eggs or the pollen-
like zoosperms. The germ-sac may be ‘simple’ or ‘compound,’ the latter
containing a special organ or process of the ‘ cznosare,’ from whose sides
bud out the sporosacs or meduse.

The first acquaintance with these marvels excited the hope that we were
about to penetrate the mystery of the origin of different species of animals;
_ but as far as observation has yet extended, the cycle of changes is definitely
closed. And, since one essential step in the series is the fertilized seed or egg,
the Harveian axiom, ‘omne vivum ab ovo,’ if metagenetic phases be ascribed
to one individual, may be still predicated of all organisms which bear the
unmistakeable characters of Plants or of Animals.

The closest observations of the subjects of these two kingdoms most
- favourable to clear insight into the nature of their beginning, accumulate
evidence in proof of the essential first step being due to the protoplasmic
matter of a germ-cell and sperm-cell; the former pre-existing in the form of
f a nucleus or protoplast, the latter as a granulose fluid. In flowering plants
_ itis conveyed by the pollen-tube, in animals and many flowerless ican by

_ locomotive spermatozoids.

Ixxvi REPORT—1858.

In regard to lower living things, analogy is but hazardous ground for con-
clusions. The single-celled organisms, such as many of the so-called ani-
malcules of infusions, which are at a stage of organization too low for a definite
transfer to either the vegetable or animal kingdoms, offer a field of obser-
vation and experiment which may yet issue in giving us a clearer insight
into the development of the organic living cell.

Whether an independent free-moving and assimilating organism, of a
grade of structure similar to, and scarcely higher than the ‘ germ-cell,’ may
not arise by a collocation of particles, through the operation of a force ana-
logous to that which originally formed the germ-cell in the ovarian stroma,
is a question which cannot be answered until every possible care and pains
have been applied to its solution.

The changes of form which the representative of a species undergoes in
successive agamically propagating individuals are termed the ‘ metagenesis’
of such species. The changes of form which the representative of a species
undergoes in a single individual is called the ‘metamorphosis.’ But this
term has practically been restricted to the instances in which the individual,
during certain phases of the change, is free and active, as in the grub of the
chaffer, or the tadpole of the frog, for example.

In reference to some supposed essential differences in the metamorphoses
of insects, it had been suggested that stages answering to those represented
by the apodal and acephalous maggot of the Diptera, by the hexapod larva
of the Carabi, and by the hexapod antenniferous larvee of the Meloe were
really passed through by the orthopterous insect, before it quitted the egg*.

Mr. Andrew Murray ¢ has recently made known some facts in confirma-
tion of this view. He had received a wooden idol from Africa, behind the
ears of which a Blatta had fixed its egg-cases, after which the whole figure
had been rudely painted by the natives, and these egg-cases were covered by
the paint. No insect could have emerged without breaking through the case
and the paint; but both were uninjured. In the egg-cases were discovered,—
1st, a grub-like larva in the egg; 2nd, a cocoon in the egg containing the
unwinged, imperfectly-developed insect; 3rd, the unwinged, imperfectly-
developed insect in the egg, free from the cocoon, and ready to emerge.

Such observations tending to remove supposed exceptions and anomalies,
and to illustrate and establish the common law to which they can be reduced,
are of the highest value in Natural History.

Microscope.—The microscope is an indispensable instrument in embryolo-
gical and histological researches, as also in reference to that vast swarm of
animalcules which are too minute for ordinary vision. I can here do little
more than allude to the systematic direction now given to the application of

* Owen, “ On Metamorphosis and Metagenesis,” 1851, and “ Lectures on Invertebrata,”
vo, 1855, p. 424.

+ “On the Metamorphosis of Orthopterous and Hemipterous Insects,” Edinb. Phil.
Journal, 1858.

ADDRESS. Ixxvii

the microscope to particular tissues and particular classes, chiefly due, in
this country, to the counsels and example of the Microscopical Society of
London.

A very interesting application of the microscope has been inade to the
particles of matter suspended in the atmosphere ; and a systematic continuation
of such observations by means of glass slides prepared to catch and retain
atmospheric atoms, promises to be productive of important results.

We now know that the so-called red-snow of Arctic and Alpine regions is a
microscopic single-celled organism which vegetates on the surface of snow.

Cloudy or misty extents of dust-like matter pervading the atmosphere,
such as have attracted the attention of travellers in the vast coniferous
forests of North America, and have been borne out to sea, have been found
to consist of the ‘pollen’ or fertilizing particles of plants, and have been
called ‘ pollen showers.’

M. Daneste*, submitting to microscopic examination similar dust which
fell from a cloud at Shanghai, found that it consisted of spores of a confervoid
plant, probably the Trichodesmium erythreum, which vegetates in, and im-
parts its peculiar colour to, the Chinese Sea.

Decks of ships, near the Cape de Verd Islands, have been covered by such
so-called ‘showers’ of impalpable dust, which, by the microscope of Ehrenberg,
has been shown to consist of minute organisms, chiefly ‘ Diatomacez.’ One
sample collected on a ship’s deck 500 miles off the coast of Africa, exhibited
numerous species of freshwater and marine diatoms bearing a close resem-
blance to South American forms of those organisms. Ehrenberg has recorded
numerous other instances in his paper printed in the ‘ Berlin Transactions ;’

but here, as in other exemplary series of observations of the indefatigable
- microscopist, the conclusions are perhaps not so satisfactory as the well-
observed data.

He speculates upon the self-developing power of organisms in the atmo-
sphere, affirms that dust-showers are not to be traced to mineral material
from the earth’s surface, nor to revolving masses of dust material in space,
nor to atmospheric currents simply ; but to some general law connected with
the atmosphere of our planet, according to which there is a ‘ self-development’
within it of living organisms, which organisms he suspects may have some
relation to the periodical meteorolites or aérolites. The advocates of pro-
gressive development may see and hail in this the first step in the series of
ascending transmutations. The unbiassed observer will be stimulated by the
startling hypothesis of the celebrated Berlin Professor to more frequent and
regular examinations of atmospheric organisms. Some late examinations
of dust-showers clearly show them to have a source which Ehrenberg has
denied. Some of my hearers may remember the graphic description by
Her Majesty’s Envoy to Persia, the Hon. C. A. Murray, of the cloud of
impalpable red dust which darkened the air of Bagdad, and filled the city

* Annales des Sciences Naturelles, sér. 4. Botanique, t. i. p. 81.

xxviii REPORT— 1858.

with a panic.. The specimen he collected was examined by my successor
at the Royal College of Surgeons, Prof. Quekett; and that experienced
microscopist could detect only inorganic particles, such as fine quartz sand,
without any trace of Diatomacez or other organic matter. Dr. | awson has
obtained a similar result from the examination of the material of a shower
of moist dust or mud which fell at Corfu in March 1857: it consisted for
the most part of minute angular particles of a quartzose sand.

Here, therefore, is a field of observation for the microscopist, which has
doubtless most interesting results as the reward of persevering research.

Many ‘ dust-showers ’ consist in greater or less proportions of microscopic
organisms, but not all. To determine the source of these organisms is the
legitimate aim of such researches. It must be remembered, also, that the
expression ‘spontaneously developed’ in the atmosphere, may only mean
what is meant when it was formerly applied to the internal parasites of man
and animals, viz. ignorance of the true mode of origin. And since per-
severing observation and experiment, in regard to tape-worms and ascarides,
have thrown such new and unexpected light upon their origin and migrations,
so the like result may reward similar labours applied to the parasitic ‘ dust-
showers ’ of the atmosphere.

Microgeology.—The microscopic organisms hitherto observed in the oldest
fossiliferous deposits, Silurian Greensands, for instance, are spicula of
Spongie, siliceous Polycystinee, and calcareous Foraminifera.

Ehrenberg has discovered that the substance of the greensands in stratified
deposits, from the Silurian to the Tertiary periods inclusive, is composed of
the casts of the interior of the microscopic shells of Polycystinee and Fora-
minifera. The soundings which have been brought up from various parts
of the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico, consist chiefly of similar microscopic
polythalamous shells, mingled with a greensand composed of easts of Fora-
minifera. ‘Thus the mode in which a deposit was made at the bottom of the
deep primeval ocean of the Silurian period, is illustrated by that which the
microscope has demonstrated to take place under similar conditions at the
present day.

The earliest indubitable evidence of diatoms has been obtained from the
Eocene strata; and the forms here determined have been for the most part
identified with existing species. Exotic species are not distinguishable from
the British; difference of climate seems not to affect or relate to specific
difference, and the same exemption from such influence through the minute
size and simple structure of the Diatomacez, seems to have been the chief
condition of their geological longevity as species.

To specify or analyse the labours of the individuals who of late years have
contributed to advance zoology by the comprehensive combination of the
various kinds of research now felt to be essential to its right progress, would
demand a proportion of the present discourse far beyond its proper and
allotted limits.

—_”--~-—-—-—

eS

‘7

ADDRESS. Ixxix

Yet I shall not be deemed invidious if I cite one work as eminently exem-
plary of the spirit and scope of the investigations needed for the elucidation
of any branch of Natural History. That work is the monograph of the
Chelonian Reptiles (Tortoises, Terrapenes and Turtles) of the United States
of America, published last year at Boston, U.S., by Professor Agassiz.

I cite it, not wholly on account of its intrinsic merits, but also because it
affords me the opportunity of expressing, on the part of naturalists, the ad-
miration of, and deep sense of gratitude to, the great and liberal people whose
perception of the intrinsic value and dignity of pure science has enabled the
distinguished author to enrich zoology by a work unparalleled in the
completeness, perfection, and consequent expense of its graphic illustrations.

“‘ We had fixed,” writes Agassiz, “‘ upon five hundred subscribers as the
number necessary to enter upon the publication with safety :—at this moment
it stands at twenty-five hundred,—a support such as was never before offered
to any scientific man for purely scientific ends, without any reference to
government objects or direct practical aims*.”

Geographical Distribution of Plants—Observations of the characters of
plants, the record of such observations by the Linnzan and subsequently
improved artifices of description, the application of this power to comparison,
and deductions from the results of such comparisons,—have led to the
recognition of the natural groups or families of the vegetable kingdom, and
to a clear scientific comprehension of that great department of living Nature.

This phase of botanical science gives the power of further and more pro-
fitable generalizations, such as those teaching the relations between the par-
ticular plants and particular localities.

_ The sum of these relations, forming the Geographical Distribution of
Plants, rests, perhaps at present necessarily, on an assumption, viz. that each
species has been created, or come into being, but once in time and space;
and that its present diffusion is the result of its own law of reproduction,
under the diffusive or restrictive influence of external circumstances. These
circumstances are chiefly temperature and moisture, dependent on the distance
from the source of heat and the obliquity of the sun’s rays, modified by alti-
tude above the sea-level, or the degree of rarefaction of the atmosphere, and
of the power of the surface to radiate heat. Both latitude and altitude
are further modified by currents of air and ocean, which influence
the distribution of the heat they have absorbed. Thus large tracts of dry
land produce dry and extreme climates, while large expanses of sea produce
humid and equable climates. Botany, in short, at this phase becomes inti-
mately related to climatology; and the traveller, the meteorologist, and the
naturalist reciprocally aid each other in the acquisition of a knowledge of
fruitful general laws. Agriculture affects the geographical distribution of
plants, both direetly and indirectly. It diffuses plants over a wider area of

_ * Agassiz, “Monograph on North American Testudinata,” 4to, Boston, 1857, Preface,
P- Vill. vol. i. Of the 2500 Subscribers only 20 are Extra-american.

Ixxx REPORT—1858.

equal climate, augments their productiveness, and enlarges the limits of their
capacity to support different climatal conditions. Agriculture also effects
local modifications of climate. The clearance of forests, by diminishing the
cooling influence of evaporation from leaves, increases the temperature.
When, by the spread of thorough drainage over Britain, the surface-water is
at once carried off, instead of remaining on the surface until slowly dispersed
by evaporation and atmospheric currents, such prompt removal of the raw
material of mist and cloud may be reasonably expected to be attended with
a greater average annual amount of solar light and heat.

Certain species of plants require more special physical conditions for
health ; others more general conditions; and their extent of diffusion varies
accordingly. Thus the plants of temperate climates are more widely diffused
over the surface of the globe, because they are suited to elevated tracts in
tropical latitudes.

There is, however, another law which relates to the original appearance, or
creation, of plants, and which has produced different species flourishing under
similar physical conditions, in different regions of the globe. ‘Thus the plants
of the mountains of South America are of distinct species, and for the most
part of distinct genera, from those of Asia. The plants of the temperate
latitudes of North America are of distinct species, and some of distinct
genera, from those of Europe. The Cactee of the hot regions of Mexico are
represented by the Huphorbiacee in parts of Africa having a similar climate.

The modes of generalizing the observations on the geographical distribution
of indigenous plants are various.

One is by dividing the horizontal range of vegetation into zones, bounded
by annual isothermal lines, as, 1, the equatorial ; 2, tropical; 3, subtropical ;
4, warmer temperate; 5, cooler temperate; 6, subarctic; 7, arctie;
8, polar zones: with temperatures progressively falling from an annual
isotherm of 79°3 Fahr. to one of 365 for the month of July.

Another mode is the classification of plants according to the regions of
altitude; as into those of,—1, Palms; 2, Tree-ferns; 3, Myrtles; 4, Ever-
greens ; 5, Deciduous trees; 6, Conifers; 7, Alpine shrubs; 8, Alpine herbs.
But the corresponding altitudes in different countries have frequently dif-

_ferent, though analogous or representative, species. The presence or other-
wise of snow on the mountain-tops also influences the character of the plants
at corresponding altitudes. Thus, forests of tall Conifers flourish in the
Himalayas at regions of altitude where only stunted specimens of tropical
plants are found in the mountains of Sumatra.

A third, and perhaps more truly natural mode of expressing the geogra-
phical distribution of plants, is by regions defined by the proportion of plant-
species peculiar to them. When one half, at least, of the known species are
peculiar to a certain space, it constitutes a ‘ phytogeographie’ region, accord-
ing to Schouw. In it, also, a fourth part of the genera must be either pecu-
liar, or so predominating as to be comparatively rare in other regions; and

ADDRESS. lxxxi

the individual families of plants must be either peculiar to, or decidedly pre-
dominate in, such region.

So defined, the surface of the earth has been divided into twenty-five re-
gions, of which I may cite as examples that of New Zealand, in which Ferns
predominate, together with generic forms, half of which are European, and
the rest approximating to Australian, South African, and Antarctic forme :
and that of Australia, characterized by its Euculypti and Epacrides, chietiy
known to us by the researches of the great botanist, Robert Brown, the
founder of the ‘Geography of Plants.’

Of the heaths, or heath-like shrubs, some genera, Hrica, or true heath, for
example, characterize the Cape of Good Hope and Europe; other genera
the Cape and New Holland; others again, as Epacris, Lissanthe, and Leuco-
pogon, are characteristic of Australia.

The vegetable kingdom has been classified into many such physiogno-
mical groups. The latest botanical statistics make 213,280 species ; but the
best informed botanists believe that we are still acquainted only with a small
proportion of existing plants.

Geographical Distribution of Animais—Organic Life, in its animal form,
is much more developed, and more variously, in the sea, than in its vegetable
form.

Observations of marine animals and their localities have led to attempts
at generalizing the results; and the modes of enunciating these generaliza-
tions or laws of geographical distribution are very analogous to those
which have been applied to the vegetable kingdom, which is as di-
versely developed on land as is the animal kingdom in the sea. Certain
horizontal areas, or provinces, have been characterized by the entire assem-
blage of animals and plants constituting their population, of which a consider-
able proportion is peculiar to each province, and the majority of the species
_ have their areas of maximum development within it.

Of such provinces of Marine Life, that much-lamented, far-seeing, and
genial philosopher, Edward Forbes, has provisionally defined 25.

The same physical conditions are associated with a certain similarity be-
tween the animals of different provinces. Where those provinces are proxi-
_ mate, such likeness is due to the identity or close affinity of the species ; but
where the provinces are remote, the resemblance is one of analogy, and spe-
cies of different genera or families represent each other.

A second mode of expressing the ascertained facts of the geographical
_ distribution of marine animals is by tracts called ‘ Homoiozoic Belts,’ bounded
_ by climatal lines, which are not, however, parallel with lines of latitude, but
undulate in subordination to climatal influences of warm or cold oceanic
4 currents, relations of land to water, &c. Of these belts, Professor E. Forbes
has defined nine : one equatorial, with four to the north and four to the south,
which are mutually representative.
~— But the most interesting form of expression of the distribution of marine

1858. I

Ixxxii REPORT—1858.

life is that which parallels the perpendicular distribution of plants. Edward
Forbes, availing himself of the valuable results of a systematic use of the
dredge, first showed that marine animals and plants varied according to the
depth at which they lived, in a manner very analogous to the changes in the
forms and species of vegetation observed in the ascent of a tropical moun-
tain. He has expressed these facts by defining five bathymetrical zones, or
belts of depth, which he calls,—1, Littoral; 2, Circumlittoral; 3, Median;
4, Infra-median ; 5, Abyssal.

The life-forms of these zones vary, of course, according to the nature of
the sea-bottom; and are modified by those primitive or creative laws that
have caused representative species in distant localities under like physical ©
conditions,—species related by analogy.

Very much remains to be observed and studied by Naturalists in different
parts of the globe, under the guidance of the generalizations thus sketched
out, to the completion of a perfect theory. But in the progress to this, the
results cannot fail to be practically most valuable. A shell or a sea-weed,
whose relations to depth are thus understood, may afford important in-
formation or warning to the navigator. To the geologist the distribution of
marine life according to the zones of depth has given the clue to the deter-
mination of the depth of the seas in which certain formations have been
deposited.

By the light of these laws of geographical distribution we view with quite
a new interest the shells, corals, and sea-weeds of our own shores. We trace
the regions whence they have been invaded by races not aboriginally be-
longing to our seas; we obtain indications of irruptions of sea-currents of
dates anterior to the present arrangements of land and water. Thus, part of
our marine fauna has been traced back to the older pliocene period, part to
the somewhat newer period of the red-crag, part to the still more recent
glacial period—all these being anterior to the constitution of the ‘ Celtic
Province,’ as it is now displayed.

With regard to the class of Fishes, some families, the Sharks (Squaloids),
Herrings (Halecoids), and Mackerel-kind (Scomberoids), are cosmopolitan.
The Labyrinthodonts are limited to the Indian Ocean; the Goniodonts to
the rivers of South America; the Lepidostei to those of North America ; the
Polypieri to those of Africa. The fish called Chaca is restricted to the Lake
Baikal, and the blind ‘ Amblyopsis’ to the Mammoth cave : just as the Pro-
teus amongst amphibious reptiles is confined to the caverns of Carinthia.

The class of animals to which the restrictive laws of geographical distri-
bution might seem least applicable is that of Birds: their peculiar powers of
locomotion, associated in numerous species with migratory habits, might seem
to render them independent of every influence save those of climate and of
food, which directly affect the conditions of their existence. Yet the
long-winged Albatros is never met with north of the equator; nor does
the Condor soar above other mountains than the Andes. The geogra-

ADDRESS. lxxxiii

phical range of its European representative, the strong-winged Lammer-
geyer, is similarly restricted. ‘The Asiatic Phasianide and Pavonide are
represented by Turkeys (Meleagris) in America ; by the Guinea-fowl (Nu-
mida, Agelastus, Phasidus) in Africa; and by the Megapodide, or Mound-
birds, in Australia. Several genera of Finches are peculiar to the Galapagos
Islands ; the richly and fantastically ornate Birds of Paradise are restricted
to New Guinea and some neighbouring isles. Mr. Sclater, who has contri-
buted the latest summary of facts on the distribution of Birds, reckons 17
families as peculiar to America, and 16 families as peculiar to Europe, Asia,
and Africa. Some species have a singularly restricted locality, as, the Red-
grouse (Tetrao scoticus) to the British Isles ; the Owl-parrot (Nestor pro-
ductus) to Philip Island, a small spot near New Zealand.

When birds have wings too short for flight, we marvel less at their re-
stricted range; and particular genera of brevipennate birds have their pecu-
liar continents or islands. The long- and strong-limbed Ostrich courses over
the whole continent of Africa and conterminous Arabia. The genus of
three-toed Ostriches (Rhea) is similarly restricted to South America. The
Emeu (Dromaius) has Australia assigned to it. The continent of the Casso-
wary (Casuarius) has been broken up into islands including and extending
from the south-eastern peninsula of Asia to New Guinea and New Britain.
The singular nocturnal wingless Kivi (Apéeryz) is peculiar to the islands of
New Zealand.

Other species and genera, which seem to be, like the Apterya, as it were
mocked with feathers and rudiments of wings, have wholly ceased to exist
within the memory of man in the islands to which they also were respectively
restricted. The-Dodo (Didus ineptus) of the Mauritius, and the Solitaire
(Pezophaps solitaria) are instances.

In New Zealand also there existed, within the memory of the Maori ances-
try, huge birds having their nearest affinities to the still existing Apteryx of
that island, but generically distinct from that and all other known birds. I
have proposed the name of Dinornis for this now extinct genus, of which
more than a dozen well-defined species have come to my knowledge, all pecu-
liar to New Zealand and the last-discovered the strangest, by reason of the
elephantine proportions of its feet.

A tridactyle wingless bird of another genus, 4pyornis, second only to the
gigantic Dinornis in size, appears to have also recently become extinct—if
it be extinct—in the Island of Madagascar. The egg of this bird, which
may have suggested to the Arabian voyagers attaining Madagasear from the

‘Red Sea the idea of the Roc of their romances, would hold the contents of
6 eggs of the Ostrich, 16 eggs of the Cassowary, and 148 eggs of the common

Fowl.

The laws of geographical distribution, as affecting mammalian life, have
been reduced to great exactness by observations continued since the time of
Buffon, who first began to generalize, just a century ago, in that way, noting the

2 f2

lxxxiv REPORT—1858.

peculiarities of the species of South American animals *. The most import-
aut extension of this branch of zoology has been due to recent researches
and discoveries of extinct species of the class Mammalia; and it is chiefly
in relation to the modifications of zoological ideas produced by paleontology
that a few brief remarks will here be made.

The Quadrumana, or order of Apes, Monkeys, and Lemurs, consist of
three chief divisions—Catarhines, Platyrhines, and Strepsirhines. The first
family is peculiar to the ‘ Old World ;’ the second to South America ; the
third has the majority of its species, and its chief genus (Lemur), exclusively
in Madagascar. Out of 26 known species of Lemuride, only 6 are Asiatic
and 3 are African.

The Catarhine monkeys include the Macaques, most of which are Asiatic,
a few are African, and one European ; the Cercopitheques, most of which are
African, and a few Asiatic; and other genera which characterize one or
other continent exclusively. Thus the true Baboons (Papio) are African,
as are the thumbless Monkeys (Colobus) and the Chimpanzees ( Z’roglo-
dytes). The Semnopitheques, Gibbons, and Orangs are peculiarly Asiatic.
Paleontology has shown that a Macaque, a Gibbon, and an Orang existed
during the older tertiary times in Europe ; and that a Semnopithecus existed
in miocene times in India. But all the fossil remains of Quadrumana in the
Old World belong to the family Catarhina, which is still exclusively confined
to that great division of dry land. The tail-less Macaque (Inwus silvanus)
of Gibraltar may have existed in that part of the Old World before Europe
was separated by the Straits of Gibraltar from Africa. Fossil remains
of Quadrumana have been discovered in South America; they. indicate
Platyrhine forms: a species, for example, allied to the Howlers (Mycetes), but
larger than any now known to exist, has left its remains in Brazil.

Whilst adverting to the geographical distribution of Quadrumana, I would.
contrast the peculiarly limited range of the Orangs and Chimpanzees with
the cosmopolitan powers of mankind. The two species of Orang (Pithecus)
are confined to Borneo and Sumatra ; the two species of Chimpanzee ( 77o-
glodytes) are limited to an intertropical tract of the western part of Africa.
They appear to be inexorably bound by climatal influences regulating the
assemblage of certain trees and the production of certain fruits. With all
our care, in regard to choice of food, clothing, and contrivances for artifi-
cially maintaining the chief physical conditions of their existence, the
healthiest specimens of Orang or Chimpanzee, brought over in the vigour of
youth, perish within a period never exceeding three years, and usually much
shorter, in our climate. By what metamorphoses, we may ask, has the

* The first enunciation of the principle of Geographical Distribution merits reproduction.
Buffon was treating of the carnivorous animal which travellers in South America had called
the ‘ Lion’ :—Le puma n’est point un lion, tirant son origine des lions de l’ancien conti-

nent; c’est un animal particulier 4 Amérique, comme le sont aussi la plupart des. animaux
de ce nouveau continent.”—Tom. ix. p. 13, 1758.

& _ Sn hl cl pia

ADDRESS. Ixxxv

alleged humanized Chimpanzee or Orang been brought to endure all
climates? The advocates of ‘transmutation’ have failed to explain them.
Certain it is that those physical differences in cerebral, dental, and osteolo-
gical structure, which place, in my estimate of them, the genus Homo ina
distinct group of the mammalian class, zoologically of higher value than the
‘ order,’ are associated with equally contrasted powers of endurance of dif-
ferent climates, whereby Man has become a denizen of every part of the
globe from the torrid to the arctic zones.

Climate rigidly limits the range of the Quadrumana latitudinally: crea-
tional and geographical causes limit their range in longitude. Distinct genera
represent each other in the same latitudes of the New and Old Worlds; and
also, in a great degree, in Africa and Asia. But the development of an
Orang out of a Chimpanzee, or reciprocally, is physiologically inconceivable,

The order Ruminantia is principally represented by Old World spe-
cies, of which 162 have been defined; whilst only 24 species have been
discovered in the New World, and none in Australia, New Guinea, New
Zealand, or the Polynesian Isles.

The Camelopard is now peculiar to Africa; the Musk-deer to Africa and
Asia: out of about 50 defined species of Antelope, only one is known in
America, and none in the central and southern divisions of the New World.
The Bison of North America is distinct from the Bison of Europe. The
Musk-ox alone, peculiar for its limitation to high northern latitudes, roams
over the arctic coasts of both Asia and America. The Deer-tribe are more
widely distributed. The Camels and Dromedaries of the Old World are
represented by the Llamas and Vicugnas of the New. As, in regard to a
former (tertiary) zoological period, the fossil Camelide of Asia are of the
genus Camelus, so those of America are of the genus Auchenia. This geo-
graphical restriction ruled prior to any evidence of man’s existence.

Paleontology has expanded our knowledge of the range of the Giraffe:
during miocene or old pliocene periods, species of Camelopardalis roamed in
Asia and Europe. Passing to the non-ruminant Artiodactyles, geology has
also taught us that the Hippopotamus was not always confined, as now, to
African rivers, but bathed, during pliocene times, in those of Asia and
Europe. But no evidence has yet been had that the Giraffe or Hippo-
potamus were ever other than Old World forms of Ungulata.

. With respect to the Hog-tribe, we find that the true Swine (Sus) of the
Old World are represented by Peccaries (Dicotyles) in the New; and geo-

logy has recently shown that tertiary species of Dicotyles existed in North as

well as South America. But no true Sus has been found fossil in either
division of the New World, nor has a Dicotyles been found fossil in the
Old World of the geographer. Phacocherus (Wart-hogs) is a genus of the
Hog-tribe at present peculiar to Africa,

The Rhinoceros is a genus now represented only in Asia and Africa ; the
species being distinct in the two continents. The islands of Java and of

lxxxvi REPORT—1858.

Sumatra have each their peculiar species; that of the latter being two-
horned, as all the African Rhinoceroses are. Three or more species of
two-horned Rhinoceros formerly inhabited Europe—one of them warmly
clad, for a cold climate; but no fossil remains of the genus have been met
with save in the Old World of the geographer. One of the earliest forms
of European Rhinoceros was devoid of the nasal weapon.

Geology gives a wider range to the Horse and Elephant kinds than was
cognizant to the student of living species only. The existing Bguéde and
Elephantide properly belong to the Old World; and the Elephants are
limited to Asia and Africa, the species of the two continents being quite
distinct. The horse, as Buffon remarked, carried terror to the eye of the
indigenous Americans, viewing the animal for the first time, as it proudly
bore their Spanish conqueror. But a species of Hguus coexisted with the
Megatherium and Megalonyx in both South and North America, and perished
apparently with them, before the human period.

Elephants are dependent chiefly upon trees for food. One species now
finds conditions of existence in the rich forests of tropical Asia; and a second
species in those of tropical Africa. Why, we may ask, should not a third be
living at the expense of the still more luxuriant vegetation watered by the
Oronooko, the Essequibo, the Amazon, and the La Plata, in tropical
America? Geology tells us that at least two kinds of Elephant (Mastodon
Andium and Mast. Humboldtii) formerly did derive their subsistence, along
with the great Megatherioid beasts, from that abundant source. Nay more; at
least two other kinds of Elephant (Mastodon ohioticus and Elephas texianus)
existed in the warm and temperate latitudes of North America. Twice as
many species of Mastodon and Elephant, distinct from all the others, roamed
in pliocene times in the same latitudes of Europe. At a later or pleistocene
period, a huge elephant, clothed with wool and hair, obtained its food from
hardy trees, such as now grow in the 65th degree of north latitude; and
abundant remains of this Blephas primigenius (as it has been prematurely
called, since it was the last of our British elephants) have been found in
temperate and high northern latitudes in Europe, Asia, and America. This,
like other Arctic animals, was peculiar in its family for its longitudinal
range. The Musk Buffalo was its contemporary in England and Europe,
and still lingers in the northernmost parts of America.

I have received evidences of Elephantine species from China and Australia,
proving the proboscidian pachyderms to have been the most cosmopolitan of
hoofed herbivorous quadrupeds.

We may infer that the general growth of large forests, and the absence of
deadly enemies, were the main conditions of the former existence of Ele-
phantine animals over every part of the globe. We have the most pregnant
proof of the importance of Palzontology in rectifying and expanding ideas
deduced from recent Zoology of the geographical limits of particular forms of
animals, by the results of its application to the proboscidian or Elephantine

ADDRESS. Ixxxvii

family. But such retrospective views of life in remote periods in many im-
portant instances confirm the zoologist’s deductions of the originally re-
stricted range of particular forms of mammalian life. This is the case with
respect to that singular group of quadrupeds forming the Order Bruta, Linn.,
or Epentata, Cuv. If a zoological province be defined by the proportion
of genera and species peculiar to it, South America must be assigned as such
province for the Bruta; three out of five of the genera, and a much larger
proportion of the species, being peculiar to that continent. The Sloths
(Bradypus), the Anteaters (Myrmecophaga), and the Armadillos (Dasypus),
are the South American genera, or rather families, of Bruéa referred to. The
scaly Anteaters or Pangolins (Manis) are represented by long-tailed species
in Africa, and shorter-tailed ones in Asia. The Orycteropus is represented
by a single species in South Africa.

Fossil remains of the order Bruta have been discovered in tertiary beds in
Europe and in America. ‘The European fossil was a large Pangolin, and the
discovery shows the natural extent of that province, now imperfectly divided
jnto Europe, Asia, and Africa, to which the Manis-form of Bruta is and has
been peculiar.

Geology also extends the geographical range of the Sloths and Armadillos
from South to North America; but the deductions from recent rich discoveries
of huge terrestrial forms of Sloth, of gigantic Armadillos, and large Anteaters,
go to establish the fact that these peculiar families of the order Bruta have
ever been, as they are now, peculiar to America; that several genera, in-
cluding the largest species, have perished; and that the range of their still
existing diminutive representatives has been reduced to the southern division
of the ‘ New World.’

In no other region of the globe than America—that to which the Sloths,
Anteaters, and Armadillos are now peculiar—has any fossil relic of an animal
of those families been found: and if it be objected to this evidence of the
primeval limitation of those families to America, that it is chiefly ‘ negative,’ I
would remark, that bones of the Megatherium are as likely to catch the eye
as those of the Elephant; and would ask, if Megatherioids had co-existed with
Elephants in other continents, as Elephants did with them in America, why
have not their remains been found elsewhere? The positive and abundant
evidence, however, of the remains of gigantic Sloths and Armadillos in South
America is most conclusive of the original location of these unmigratory
beasts in the New World.

Australia, which in extent of dry land merits to be regarded as a fifth con-
tinent, has a more restricted and peculiar character of aboriginal mammalian
population than South America. It is emphatically the ‘ province’ of those
quadrupeds the females of which are provided with a pouch for the trans-
port and protection of their prematurely born young.

One genus of Marsupialia (Didelphys or Opossums, properly so called) is
peculiar to America, and is there the sole representative of the order. A

Ixxxviil REPORT—1858.

small Kangaroo, and a few Phalangers, exist in islands that link the
Malayan Archipelago with the Australian world. All the other marsupial
genera, indeed every known genus save Didelphys, are found in Australasia,
comprising New Guinea, Australia, and Tasmania.

The Kangaroos, Potoroos, Wombats, Koalas, Phalangers, Petaurists, Dasy-
ures, and marsupial quadrupeds of insectivorous and carnivorous habits,
distinguished only by scientific names, here perform the parts assigned to non-
marsupial Mammalia in the Old World. No existing marsupial quadruped
has been found native in continental Asia, in Africa, or in Europe.

Of the Australasian marsupials the species of New Guinea are distinct, and
some of them subgenerically, from those of Australia proper.

Certain genera, as Zarsipes, Cheropus, Phascolarctus, are peculiar to
Australia; other genera, as Thylacinus and Sarcophilus, the largest and
most destructive of carnivorous marsupials, are peculiar to Tasmania.

No marsupial fossil has been found in the pliocene or pleistocene deposits
of Europe, Asia, or Africa. In America, only representatives occur of the
peculiarly American genus Didelphys. In the formations of these recent
tertiary periods, and in the limestone caverns, of Australia, abundance of
mammalian fossils have been found, and, with the exception of a single tooth
of a Mastodon, every one of them has proved to be a marsupial species.
Many belong to the genus of Kangaroos (Macropus), some to that of Poto-
roos (Hypsiprymnus) ; a few to the Wombats ( Phascolomys), Dasyures (Da-
syurus), and other existing genera. Some of these fossils have shown that the
Thylacinus and Sarcophilus formerly inhabited Australia as well as Tasmania.
Others exhibit the carnivorous or Dasyurine modification of the marsupial
type in species equalling the Leopard and the Lion in size; and the latter
with modifications of the carnassial teeth of generic value. We now know
that there once existed in Australia species of Wombat equalling the Tapir
in stature ; and species most nearly allied to Macropus, but with characters of
Phascolomys and Phascolarctus combined, which rivalled the Ox and Rhi-
noceros in bulk. The skull of the Mototherium presents the strangest pro-
portions and features hitherto seen in the mammalian class: that of the
Diprotodon is 3 feet in length, and combines the scalpriform incisors of the
Wombat with the double-ridged molars of the Kangaroo.

The sum of all the evidence from the fossil world in Australia proves its
mammalian population to have been essentially the same in pleistocene, if not
pliocene times, as now; only represented, as the Edentate mammals in South

_ America were then represented, by more numerous genera, and much more
gigantic species, than now exist.

But geology has revealed more important and unexpected facts relative to
the marsupial type of quadrupeds.

In the miocene and eocene tertiary deposits, marsupial fossils of the
American genus Didelphys have been found, both in France and England ;
and they are associated with Tapirs like that of America. In amore ancient

ADDRESS. Ixxxix

geological period, remains of marsupials, some insectivorous, as Spalaco-
therium and Triconodon, others with teeth like the peculiar premolars in
the Australian genus Hypsiprymnus, have been found in the upper oolite of
the Isle of Purbeck*. In the lower oolite at Stonesfield, Oxfordshire, mar-
supial remains have been found having their nearest living representatives in
the Australian genera Myrmecobius and Dasyurus.

Thus, it would seem, that the deeper we penetrate the earth, or, in other
words, the further we recede in time, the more completely are we absolved
from the present laws of geographical distribution. In comparing the mam-
malian fossils found in British pleistocene and pliocene beds, we have often
to travel to Asia or Africa for their homologues. In the miocene and eocene
strata some fossils occur which compel us to go to America for the nearest
representatives. To match the mammalian remains from the English oolitic
formations, we must bring species from the Antipodes.

These are truly most suggestive facts, unrecognized until science looked
abroad upon the world. If the present laws of geographical distribution
depend, in an important degree, upon the present configuration and position
of continents and islands, what a total change in the geographical character
of the earth’s surface must have taken place since the ‘ Stonesfield slate’ was
deposited in what now forms the county of Oxfordshire !

These and the like considerations from the modifications of geographical
distribution of particular forms or groups of animals warn us how inadequate
must be the phenomena connected with the present distribution of land and
sea to guide to the determination of the primary ontological divisions of the
earth’s surface. Some of the latest contributions to this most interesting
branch of Natural History have been the result of endeavours to determine
whether, and how many, distinct creations of plants and animals have taken
place. But, I would submit, that the discovery of two portions of the
globe, of which the respective Faunz and Flore are different, by no means
affords the requisite basis for concluding as to distinct acts of creation.

Such conclusion is associated, perhaps unconsciously, with the idea of the
historical date of creative acts: it presupposes that the portion of the globe
so investigated by the botanist and zoologist has been a separate and primitive
creation,—that its geographical limits and features are still in the main what
they were when the creative fiat went forth.

But Geology has demonstrated that such is by no means the case with
respect to the portions of dry land now termed continenis and islands. The
incalculable vistas of time past into which the same science has thrown
light are also shown to have been periods during which the relative positions
of land and sea have been ever changing.

Already the directions, and to a certain extent the forms of the submerged
tracts that once joined what now are islands to continents, and which once
united now separate or nearly disjoined continents by broad tracts of conti-

* These fossils are due to the researches of Messrs. Brodie and Beckles.

xe REPORT—1858.

nuity, begin to be laid down in geological maps, addressing to the eye such
successive and gradually progressive alterations of the earth’s surface.

These phenomena shake our confidence in the conclusion that the Apteryx
of New Zealand and the Red-grouse of England were distinct creations in
and for those islands respectively. Always, also, it may be well to bear in
mind that by the word ‘creation,’ the zoologist means ‘a process he knows
not what.’ Science has not yet ascertained the secondary causes that ope-
rated when “ the earth brought forth grass and herb yielding seed after its
kind,” and when “ the waters brought forth abundantly the moving creature
that hath life.’ And supposing both the fact and the whole process of the
so-called ‘spontaneous generation’ of a fruit-bearing tree, or of a fish, were
scientifically demonstrated, we should still retain as strongly the idea, which
is the chief of the ‘mode’ or ‘ group of ideas’ we call ‘creation,’ viz. that
the process was ordained by and had originated from an all-wise and power-
ful First Cause of all things.

When, therefore, the present peculiar relation of the Red-grouse ( Tetrao
scoticus) to Britian and Ireland—and I cite it as one of a large class of in-
stances in Geographical Zoology—is enumerated by the zoologist as evidence
of a distinct creation of the bird in and for such islands, he chiefly expresses
that he knows not how the Red-grouse came to be there, and there exclu-
sively ; signifying also, by this mode of expressing such ignorance, his belief
that both the bird and the islands owed their origin to a great first Creative
Cause.

And this analysis of the real meaning of the phrase ‘ distinct creation’ has
led me to suggest whether, in aiming to define the primary zoological pro-
vinces of the globe, we may not be trenching upon a province of knowledge
beyond our present capacities ; at least in the judgment of Lord Bacon, com-
menting upon man’s efforts to pierce into the ‘ dead beginnings of things.’

This at least is certain, that, being aware of former operations requiring
to be well understood before we can draw conclusions as to other facts
related to the unknown operations, one writes to no purpose in affirming
conclusions without such preliminary knowledge.

Thus, the changing level of the land part of the earth’s crust, throughout
geological time, leads to the recognition of the present shape and size of con- _
tinents and islands as being recent and temporary.

We feel that there have been phenomena attending, for example, the actual
flow of continuous ocean between Ireland and Newfoundland, the nature
and succession of which should be known in order to enable us to compre-
hend the causes or conditions of the present differences between the Flora
and Fauna of those islands respectively : and so of every other part of dry
land now circumscribed by sea.

All affirmations as to the time, place, and kind of origin of the organisms
of a so circumscribed land, in the absence of a knowledge of the causes and ~
conditions of such circumscription, must be guess-work,

ADDRESS. xci

It is a part of sound knowledge to be able to recognize the subjects re-
garding which we have not, at present, the basis of true assertion.

On the few occasions in which I have been led to offer observations on
the probable cause of the extinction of species, the chief weight has been
given to those gradual changes in the conditions of a country affecting the
due supply in sustenance to animals in a state of nature, I have also pointed
out the characters in the animals themselves calculated to render them most
obnoxious to such extirpating influences; and on one occasion* I have ap-
plied the remarks to the explanation of so many of the larger species of par-
ticular groups of animals having become extinct, whilst smaller species of
equal antiquity have remained.

In proportion to its bulk is the dificulty of the contest which, as a living
organized whole, the individual of such species has to maintain against the
surrounding agencies that are ever tending to dissolve the vital bond and
subjugate the living matter to the ordindry chemical and physical forces.
Any changes, therefore, in such external agencies as a species may have
been originally adapted to exist in will militate against that existence in a
degree proportionate, perhaps in a geometrical ratio, to the bulk of the
species. If a dry season be gradually prolonged, the large mammal will
suffer from the drought sooner than the small one; if such alteration of
climate affect the quantity of vegetable food, the bulky Herbivore will first
feel the effects of stinted nourishment; if new enemies are introduced, the
large and conspicuous quadruped or bird will fall a prey, whilst the smaller
species conceal themselves and escape. Smaller animals are usually, also,
more prolific than larger ones.

“‘ The actual presence, therefore, of small species of animals in countries
where larger species of the same natural families formerly exisied, is not the
consequence of any gradual diminution of the size of such species, but is the
result of circumstances, which may be illustrated by the fable of the ‘ Oak
and the Reed ;’ the smaller and feebler animals have bent and accommodated
themselves to changes which have destroyed the larger species.”

Accepting this explanation of the extirpation of species as true, Mr.
Wallace+ has recently applied it to the extirpation of varieties; and, assu-
ming, as is probable, that varieties do arise in a wild species, he shows how
such deviations from type may either tend to the destruction of a variety, or
to adapt a variety to some changes in surrounding conditions, under which
it is better calculated to exist, than the type-form from which it deviated.

No doubt the type-form of any species is that which is best adapted to
the conditions under which such species at the time exists; and as long as
those conditions remain unchanged, so long will the type remain; all
varieties departing therefrom being in the same ratio less adapted to the
environing conditions of existence. But, if those conditions change, then

* On the Genus Dinornis (part iv.), Zool. Trans. vol. iv. p. 15 (February 1859),
T Proceedings of the Linnean Society, August 1858, p. 57.

xcli REPORT—1858.

the variety of the species at an antecedent date and state of things will
become the type-form of the species at a later date, and in an altered state
of things.

Mr. Charles Darwin had previously to Mr. Wallace illustrated this prin-
ciple by ingenious suppositions, of which I select the following :—“ To give
an imaginary example from changes in progress on an island:—let the
organization of a canine animal which preyed chiefly on rabbits, but some-
times on hares, become slightly plastic ; let these same changes cause the
number of rabbits very slowly to decrease, and the number of hares to in-
crease ; the effect of this would be that the fox or dog would be driven to
try to catch more hares: his organization, however, being slightly plastic,
those individuals with the lightest forms, longest limbs, and best eyesight,
let the difference be ever so small, would be slightly favoured, and would
tend to live longer, and to survive during that time of the year when food
was scarcest; they would also rear more young, which would tend to
inherit these slight peculiarities. The less fleet ones would be rigidly
destroyed. I can see no more reason to doubt that these causes in a thou-
sand generations would produce a marked effect, and adapt the form of the
fox or dog to the catching of hares instead of rabbits, than that greyhounds
can be improved by selection and careful breeding *.”

Observation of animals in a state of nature is required to show their
degree of plasticity, or the extent to which varieties do arise: whereby
grounds may be had for judging of the probability of the elastic ligaments
and joint-structures of a feline foot, for example, being superinduced upon
the more simple structure of the toe with the non-retractile claw, according
to the principle of a succession of varieties in time.

Observation of fossil remains is also still needed to make known the ante-
types, in which varieties, analogous to the observed ones in existing species,
might have occurred, so as to give rise ultimately to such extreme forms as
the Giraffe for examplet.

This application of paleontology has always been felt by myself to be so
important that I have never omitted a proper opportunity for impressing the
results of observations showing the “ more generalized structures ” of extinct
as compared with recent forms of mammalia.

But, in pointing out how local changes might affect large quadrupeds, I

* Proceedings of the Linnean Society, August 1858, p. 49.

t “ The powerful retractile talons of the falcon- and the cat-tribes have not been produced
or increased by the volition of those animals; but among the different varieties which oc-
curred in the earlier and less organized forms of these groups, those always survived longest
which had the greatest facilities for seizing their prey.’’—Wallace, p. 61.

t “Neither did the giraffe acquire its long neck by desiring to reach the foliage of the
more lofty shrubs, and constantly stretching its neck for the purpose ; but because any va-
rieties which occurred among its antetypes with a longer neck than usual at once secured a
Fresh range of pasture over the same ground as their shorter-necked companions, and on the
first scarcity of food were thereby enabled to outlive them?’—Ib. p. 61.

ADDRESS. XClil

have refrained from speculating on dwarf-varieties surviving such influences
as being the origin of existing representatives of extinct giants. A small
sloth coexisted with the Megatherium, a small armadillo with the Glyp-
todon, the Apteryx with the Dinornis.

The aboriginal laws of geographical distribution of plants and animals
have been modified from of old by geological and the concomitant climatal
changes ; but they have been much more disturbed by man since his intro-
duction upon the globe.

The serviceable plants and animals which he has carried with him in his
migrations have flourished and multiplied in lands the most remote from the
habitats of the aboriginal species. Man has, also, been the most potent and
intelligible cause of the extirpation of species within historic times.

He alone, with one of the beasts which he has domesticated—the dog—is
truly cosmopolitan. The human species is represented by a few well-marked
varieties; and there is a certain amount of correspondence between their
localities and general zoological provinces: thus the Australian variety of
man is as well-marked and circumscribed as the Australian. fauna generally ;
the Papuans of New Guinea present the same difference from, with degree
of affinity to, the Australians, as we find in comparing the respective faunz
of Papua and Australia. But, with regard to the alleged conformity between
the geographical distribution of man and animals, which has of late been
systematically enunciated, and made the basis of deductions as to the origin
and distinction of the human varieties, I would submit the following remarks
as affecting the system referred to*,

Using Blumenbach’s term in the sense of the later terms ‘ Indo-Enropean’
and ‘ Aryan,’ we find the ‘Caucasian’ race extended from Iceland to the
mouth of the Ganges. There is no corresponding distinction in the animals
and plants of the Europeo-Asiatic continent, which is bisected by the ob-
lique line dividing the Mongolian from the Caucasian varieties of mankind.
The Persian fauna extends into Tartary ; the Himalayan into Thibet.

As two primary varieties of mankind exist in one great zoological province
in the Old World, so a third great variety extends over at least two zoolo-
gical provinces in the New World. All authors divide the North American
or ‘ Nearctic’ from the South American or ‘ Neotropic’ region, whatever
class of organic life they may treat of geographically; but the red or
copper-coloured American is the same, physically and linguistically, to the
extent of the characteristics of a primary race, from the 60th degree of
north latitude to the 53rd degree of south latitude.

The Lapps of Arctic Europe differ linguistically and physically, as a race,
from the Norwegians and Swedes: the zoological province is essentially one.
As such it extends over the same parallels of latitude in America, where the
Mongolian Esquimaux and the American Chippawas inhabit.

* Agassiz, in Gliddon and Nott’s ‘Types of Mankind,’ 1854; and ‘ Indigenous Races of the
Earth,’ 1857.

xciv REPORT—1858.

The Hottentots and Caffres are more distinct, linguistically and physically,
than the former are from equatorial Negroes, or the latter from the Nubians ;
yet they both inhabit one well-marked zoological province, South Africa.

Two varieties of mankind—the Papuan and Malayan—inhabit Borneo
and other islands at the eastern part of the Indian Archipelago; these
islands forming one and the same zoological and botanical province.

Not less than twenty colours have been found requisite to indicate in a
map of the British Islands the different varieties and sub-varieties of the
human race that have contributed to its miscellaneous population.

Other facts of the same kind might be cited, affecting the conformity of
the distribution of man with that of the lower animals and plants, as abso-
lutely enunciated in some recent works. Nor can we be surprised to find
that the migratory instincts of the human species, with the peculiar endow-
ment of adaptiveness to all climates, should have produced modifications
in geographical distribution to which the lower forms of living nature have
not been subject. It is only since man began to exercise his privilege and
power, that the geographical laws in regard to the lower animals of existing
species have begun to be blotted out.

Ethnology is a wide and fertile subject, and I should be led far beyond
the limits of an inaugural discourse were I to indulge in an historical sketch
of its progress. But I may advert to the uniform testimony of different
witnesses—to the concurrence of distinct species of evidence—as to the
much higher antiquity of the human race, than has been assigned it in
historical and genealogical records.

Mr. Leonard Horner sagaciously discerned the value of the phenomena of
the annual sedimentary deposits of the Nile in Egypt as a test of the lapse
of time during which that most recent and still operating geological dynamic
had been in progress. In two memoirs communicated to the Royal Society
in 1855 and 1858, the results of ninety-five vertical borings through the
alluvium thus formed are recorded.

The Nile sediment at the lowest depth reached is very similar in composi-
tion to that of the present day. In the lowest part of the boring of the sedi-
ment at the colossal statue in Memphis, at a depth of 39 feet from the sur-
face of the ground, the boring-instrument is reported to have brought up a
piece of pottery. This Mr. Horner infers to be a record of the existence
of man 13,371 years before a.p. 1854; “‘of man, moreover, ina state of
civilization, so far, at least, as to be able to fashion clay into vessels, and to
know how to harden them by the action of a strong heat*.”

Prof. Max Miiller+ has opened out a similar vista into the remote past
of the history of the human race by the perception and application of
analogies in the formation of modern and ancient, of living and dead lan-
guages.

* Proceedings of the Royal Society, Feb. 11, 1858, vol. ix. p. 128-134.
+ ‘Oxford Essays,’ 1857,

——=—-_ =~

Th Be

ADDRESS. XCV

From the relations traceable between the six Romance dialects, Italian,
Wallachian, Rheetian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French, an antecedent com-
mon ‘ mother-tongue ’ might be inferred, and consequently the existence of
a race anterior to the modern Italians, Spanish, French, &e., with conclusions
as to the lapse of time requisite for such divisions and migrations of the pri-
mitive stock, and for the modifications which the mother-language had
undergone. History and preserved writings show that such common
mother-race and language have existed in the Roman people and the Latin
tongue.

But Latin, like the equally ‘dead’ language Greek, with Sanscrit, Lithu-
anian, Zend, and the Gothic, Slavonic, and Celtic tongues, can be similarly
shown to be modifications of one antecedent common language; whence is to
be inferred an antecedent race of men, and a lapse of time sufficient for their
migration over a track extending from Iceland in the north-west to India in
the south-east, and for all the above-named modifications to have been esta-
blished in the common mother ‘ Arian’ tongue.

The study of the animal kingdom has its practical results of national im-
portance in relation to sources of food and beasts of traction and burden.
Acts of Parliament relating to Fisheries, in order to realize their aims, must
be based on physiological and zoological data. Animal physiology, the most
important ground of successful medicine and surgery, is closely bound up
with the right progress of zoology, of which, indeed, with zootomy, it is a
branch. The great instrument of zoological science, as Lord Bacon points
out, is a Museum of Natural History.

Every civilized state in Europe possesses such a Museum. That of Eng-
land has been progressively developed to the extent which the restrictive
cireumstances under which it originated have allowed. The public is now
fully aware, by the reports that have been published by Parliament, by re-
presentations to Government, and by articles in Reviews and other Periodi-
cals, of the present condition of the National Museum of Natural History
and of its most pressing requirements.

Of them the most pressing, and the one essential to rendering the collee-
tions worthy of this great empire, is ‘space. Our colonies include parts of
the earth where the forms of plants and animals are the most strange. No
empire in the world had ever so wide a range for the collection of the various
forms of animal life as Great Britain. Never was there so much energy and
intelligence displayed in the capture and transmission of exotic animals by the
enterprising traveller in unknown lands and by the hardy settler in remote
colonies, as by those who start from their native shores of Britain. Foreign
Naturalists consequently visit England anticipating to find in her capital and
in her National Museum the richest and most varied materials for their com-
parisons and deductions. And they ought to be in a state pre-eminently
conducive to the advancement of a philosophical zoology, and on a scale

xevi REPORT—1858.

commensurate with the greatness of the nation and the peculiar national
facilities for such perfection. :

But, in order to receive and to display zoological specimens, space must be
had ; and not merely space for display, but for orderly display : the galleries
should bear relation in size and form with the nature of the classes respect-
ively occupying them. They should be such ‘‘as to enable the student or
intelligent visitor to discern the extent of the class, and to trace the kind and
order of the variations which have been superinduced upon its common or
fundamental characters.” In the British Museum one gallery permits this to
be done in regard to the class of Birds.‘ To show how the mammalian type
is progressively modified and raised from the form of the fish or lizard
to that of man; to illustrate the gradations by which one order merges
into another; to impart to the visitor, by the arts of arrangement and juxta-
position, a knowledge of his own class akin to that which he derives
from the collection of birds, would require a corresponding Mammalian
Gallery*.” -

The same is to be said of the classes of Reptiles and Fiskes, and of the
Molluscous, Articulate, and Radiate Provinces.

An osteological collection is as indispensable to the illustration of the Ver-
tebrata as a conchological one is to that of the Mollusca. Nor should the
size of any of the skeletons be a bar to the obtainment of adequate space for
the Osteological Collection in the National Museum of Natural History.
The very fact of the Whales being the largest animals that now exist, or
have at any period lived upon the earth, is that which makes it more
imperative to illustrate the fact and gratify the natural interest of the public
by the adequate and convenient exhibition of their skeletons.

In like manner, in the Paleontological collections or galleries of Fossil
remains, the restoration of every extinct species, however bulky, should be
carried out where practicable.

The locality of such adequately-sized Museum concerns the administrator
and the public convenience. Reasons for its association with Ethnological
Antiquities and the National Library have been assigned in a memorial to
H. M. Government, and by the Deputation of cultivators of Science to the
Chancellor of the Exchequer, and these reasons have been commented on in
a late Number of the ‘Quarterly Review.’

Iam most concerned in advocating the pressing necessity of adequate space
for the National Museum of Natural History, wherever administrative wisdom
may see fit to locate it. And, wherever that Museum may ultimately stand,
it is the duty of the Representative of Associated British Science here to
urge that the Curator of each class of animals should have assigned to him
the charge of delivering a public course of lectures on the characters, prin-
ciples of classification, habits, instincts, and economical uses of such class.

* “ Report to the Trustees of the British Museum from the Superintendent of the Natural
History Departments, 7th January, 1857,” Parliamentary printed P aper, 379, p. 23 (1858),

ADDRESS. Xevii

The most elaborate and beautiful of created things—those manifesting
life—have much to teach—much that comes home to the business of man,
and also to the highest elements of his moral nature. The nation that
gathers together thousands of corals, shells, insects, fishes, birds, and beasts,
and votes the requisite funds for preparing, preserving, housing and arran-
ging them, derives the smallest possible return for the outlay by merely gazing
and wondering at the manifold variety and strangeness of such specimens of
Natural History.

The simplest coral and the meanest insect may have something in its
history worth knowing, and in some way profitable. Every organism is a
character in which Divine wisdom is written, and which ought to be
expounded. Our present system of opening the book of Nature to the
masses, as in the Galleries of the British Museum, without any provision for
expounding her language, is akin to that which keeps the book of God sealed
to the multitude in a dead tongue.

Finally, in reference to a National Museum of Natural History, I would
respectfully solicit the attention of the Administrator to the successful
working and unprecedented progress of the National Botanical Esta-
blishment at Kew, of the Museum of Practical Geology in Jermyn Street,
and of the Museum of Practical Art at South Kensington, in reference to
the relations of the eminent Directors of those establishments to Govern-
ment. For this opens the question, whether in the event of acquiring, in
whatever locality, the element essential to a National Museum of Natural
History—space—any intermediate organization, unknown in the public esta-
blishments above cited, be really needed in the case of Natural History, in
order to afford Parliament and the public the requisite guarantee of the
_ good condition of the Collections, and the efficient discharge of the duties

and functions of the National Museum of Natural History.

The sciences promoted by the statistical Section F., although bearing more
immediately than any others on the prosperity of nations and the well-being
of mankind, had no existence in the time of Bacon.

We look in vain for any evidence, for example, of a clear conception of
Sanitary Science, or the doctrines preventive of disease, in the writings of
_ that great philosopher and politician. The only approach to Statistics which
we find in the ‘ Historia Vite et Mortis,’ for example, is a collection of in-
Stances of longevity; and the main aim of that Essay seems to have been the
extreme prolongation of particular or individual life, not the insurance of
average longevity to the species. Some remarks on the advantage of pure
air are congenial with the aims of the modern sanitary philosopher; but he
finds no evidence of Bacon’s conception’ of its importance to the masses,
or of the means of ensuring it to populous cities, for prevention of plague
and pestilence. Sanitary science, as a great power for mankind, in the
Baconian sense, is of very recent growth: and, whether we consider the pre-
Sent evidence of its potency where it has been rightly applied, or the present

1858. g

XcVill REPORT—1858.

evidence of the miserable results of its neglect, we must be stimulated to use
every effort to promote its progress and impress its importance on all who
may aid therein.

Long after Lord Bacon’s day, the plague, the fever of the ‘black assize,’
and the like visitations, which drove Courts and Parliaments and Royal
Societies from town to country, were met only by rude quarantine imprison-
ments of the sick, which greatly aggravated the sum of mortality. Acci-
dents, such as the fire of London, subliming much old and vested filth, and
followed by wider streets and better dwellings, produced results which
opened the eyes of a few thinkers to the relation between certain physical
conditions and the non-return of the plague.

Now, however, these relations have been comprehensively investigated ; the
diseases produced or aggravated by preventible conditions are well known ;
the most efficient and economical modes of prevention have been the subject
of successful and convincing experiment. But men are slow to act where
the profitable result is not direct. Health, we call, with cuckoo-ery, the
greatest blessing ; but practically it is daily sacrificed to ambition, wealth,
pleasure, and a hundred aims in which duty takes no necessary part. That,
however, is an affair of individual free-will with which abstract science has
no business.

But in reference to inevitable aggregates of mankind, the nation is con-
cerned in the science which seeks their especial bodily well-being. Fleets,
armies, manufactories, workshops, the localities in towns where wage-people*
congregate,—such are conditions of citizens in which it behoves the State,
to the utmost constitutional extent of its power, to apply the ascertained
means of preventing disease and death.

Perhaps the most exemplary instances of the value and economy of
sanitary science are afforded by the records of the British Navy, especially
since the period of Capt. Cook, whose name, were I to select one, as a prime
promoter of the science, would be that which I should adduce with highest
veneration. Some of the Arctic Expeditions, also, illustrate in an exemplary
degree the value of preventive measures in maintaining health under difficult
and depressing circumstances.

Our armies have yet to receive the benefit of what is now known in the
prevention of death by disease. To what extent they have to benefit by it
has been made plain by the results of recent investigations, in which

the testimony of FLorence NIGHTINGALE shines forth as the beacon which
lights to better measures.

* J venture to propose this term as free from the objections that have been made to
“ lower orders,” ‘‘ humbler classes,” “‘ poorer classes,’”’ “‘ working classes,” ‘‘ labouring popu-
lation,” &c. The two former are a reflection on those who are so designated; and the two
latter are an implied reflection on all other classes, as if left to a life of vacant inoceupation.
They are injuriously misleading terms. The true specific character of the great class in
question is seen by the Naturalist to be “ payment by wages”; it is the “ wage-class.”

:

ADDRESS. xcix

The results of the labours of the Sanitary Commissioners in the Crimea,
although the application of their preventive science was an after-thought,
and late, must have convinced the most sceptical of military men of its
importance. It became one of the elements of the ultimately superior con-
dition of the English part of the Allied army*.

How large a proportion of loss in the French force was due to the absence
of neglect of preventive measures, we learn from the recent ‘ Relation Medico-
chirurgicale dela Campagne d’Orient’ of M. Scrive, the head of the Medical
Department of the French army during that campaign ; and from the admi-
rable paper on the same subject by Dr. Gavin Milroy, Member of
the Sanitary Commission to the British Army in the East. To cite our
neighbour's case, in which the organization of the land-service has a high
repute, out of a force which averaged during a period of twenty months
104,000, upwards of 193,000 men were sent into hospital, i.e. at the rate of
from 9000 to 10,000 per month. About one-fifth of these admissions were
from wounds and mechanical injuries; the rest were from disease. The
deaths in the hospitals at Constantinople amounted to 28,000; elsewhere,
as in the camp and the field-ambulances, the deaths were 28,400, exclusive
of 7500 slain in action. Of the 28,400 deaths under treatment, about
4000, or a seventh part of the whole, arose from gun-shot wounds and
accidents, the other six-sevenths being the result of disease. The official
returns give a total loss from all causes during the whole Crimean campaign
of 70,000: it is believed to have exceeded that figure by 10,000. 65,000
men, out of 309,268, sent from France and Algeria, were invalided in con-
sequence of disablement from wounds or the effect of disease.

Dr. Scrive points out that, if the buildings at Gallipoli had been inspeeted

* These results cannot be better stated than in the words of Miss Nightingale, in an ap-
peal for the organization of a preventive administration, founded on the sanitary history of
the Crimean campaign.

* Tt is,” she says, “a complete example—history does not afford its equal—of an army,
after a great disaster arising from neglect, having been brought into the highest state of
health and efficiency. It is the whole experiment on a colossal scale. In all other examples,
the last step has been wanting to complete the solution of the problem. We had, in the
first seven months of the Crimean campaign, a mortality among the troops of 60 per cent.
per annum, from disease alone,—a rate of mortality which exceeds that of the great plague
of London, and a higher ratio than the mortality of the cholera to the attacks; that is to
say, there died out of the army in the Crimea an annual rate greater than ordinarily die in
time of pestilence out of the sick. We had, during the /ast siz months of the war, a mor-
tality among our sick not much more than among our healthy Guards at home; and a mor-
tality among our troops, in the last five months, two-thirds only of what it is among our
troops at home. The mortality among the troops of the line at home, when corrected, as it
ought to be, according to the proportion of different ages in the service, has been, on an
ayerage of ten years, 18-7 per 1000 per annum, and among the Guards, 20:4 per 1000 per
annum, Comparing this with the Crimean mortality, for the last six months of our occu-
pation, we find that the deaths to admissions were 24 per 1000 per annum; and during the
last five months, viz. January to May 1856, the mortality among the troops did not exceed

: 115 per 1000 per annum. Is not this the most complete experiment in army hygiene?”

g2

c REPORT—1858.

and made fit for the purpose before they were occupied as an hospital, a
regiment of active young soldiers might have been saved.

At Varna, a Turkish barrack within the walls was prematurely occupied as
an hospital: it had to be abandoned after great loss of life. Fewer men fell
in the unsuccessful attack upon the Malakoff on the 18th of June than suc-
cumbed in the rash attempt to use, as an hospital, a place which had not been
previously fitted for one. And the time and labour required by the Sanitary
Inspector to effect their fitness are as nothing compared with the prelimi-
nary approaches to the Malakoff, and with the delay and impediments caused
by the prostration of a large proportion of effective force by disease.

Without consulting the medical staff, it was determined to move from
Varna to the notoriously malarial region on the south of the Danube,
called the Dobrudscha. On the 20th of July the first division of the army
moved from Varna; on the 26th the cholera broke out. Hundreds of men
were struck down at once, and died within a few hours after being seized:
in one regiment 300 men were attacked within twenty-four hours, and
most of them died on the spot. Appalled by the blow, the commanding
officer retreated, as from before an overwhelming force ; but, ere he could
reach the healthier locality, one-third of the division had perished, and num-
bers reached the coast only to expire on the beach.

No enemy had been encountered save that one, of whose power and pre=
sence sanitary science had in vain forewarned the commander. On the
return of the first division to Varna, a force of 12,000 had been reduced
to 7000; the victims including two general officers and seven medical
officers.

Not to weary by other special instances of the effect of neglecting pre-
ventive preparatory sanitary measures, I may sum up by the statement that
one pestilence, in the marshes of the Danube, within two months, out of an
army 55,000 strong, and before a shot had been fired, had destroyed as many
men as were slain by the enemy in the field during the twelve months from
the landing in the Crimea to the capture of Sebastopol, and when the
army averaged double the above number of men.

That this pestilence, or its fatal effects, might have been, in an important
degree, prevented by practicable applications of sanitary science is the conyic-
tion of the ablest medical officers of the French and English armies ; and
this conviction was substantiated by the results of the Sanitary Com-
mission which operated in the English lines before Sebastopol. These au-
thorities concur in the conclusion that three-fourths of the losses of an army
in the field are not from the enemy or from unavoidable casualties of service,
“but from diseases which are more or less under control.” “ Of these,”
writes Dr. Milroy, “typhus and scurvy are two of the most formidable, and
the most easily preventible. They are the inevitable products of certain
well-ascertained conditions, and they may be generated at will as surely as
any salt or other compound may be formed by the chemist in his laboratory.

ADDRESS. ci

And yet it was these very evils which but two years ago brought the noble
army of a mighty nation, at the close, too, of a glorious campaign, to almost
the verge of destruction.”

I may allude to one other point which sanitary science would suggest to
the administrator in reference to the clearly-ascertained effects of too little
pure air, and too much foul air inspired continuously during a given
period.

The skilled soldier being of a given value when landed healthy and strong
in the Crimea or at Calcutta, query, whether it be more economical to carry
1000 in one ship, landing 500 sick, enfeebled, and prepared to fall into
and engender ‘epidemics, or to carry the 1000 in two such ships, and land
them healthy and fit for action? The same administrative question applies to
barracks and hospitals.

One noble use and adequate application of so vast a triumph of naval
architecture as Mr. Scott Russell’s ‘ Leviathan’ would be its carrying troops
in good condition as regards health, for which its capacity especially fits it.

When authority becomes impressed with a conviction stimulating to action
of the importance of sanitary science, it will insist on the possession, by the
army medical officers, of the elements of that science as well as of the prin-
ciples of practice in the cases of disease and the treatment of wounds. But,
in order that an army may benefit by the doctors’ knowledge of preven-
tive medicine, authority should direct preliminary examinations and reports
of sites for encampment,—of buildings for barracks and hospitals,—of
clothes for extreme climates, and the like, and should command that such
reports be acted upon, where no urgent circumstances or inevitable move-
ments preclude the adoption of the means for the prevention of decimating
fevers and choleras.

Bonaparte’s military science was characterized by the rapid concentration
of his forces upon a given point. A like success and superiority may attend
the commander who keeps the greatest proportion of his men in good work-
ingtrim. The healthier the man the longer and quicker will he march. And
the care which foresees and provides for the efficient fighting order of a
force is quite compatible with the most intrepid handling of that force in the
field of battle.

As to the dense populations in civil life, the number of towns in England
in which the sewage is rapidly, efficiently, and economically carried off by
water-power and hydraulic apparatus, constitute so many experimental
demonstrations of the success attending a proper unintermitting water-supply
and co-adjusted system of tubular drainage. Lancaster, Penrith, Alnwick,
Barnard Castle, Rugby, Croydon, Ely, are instances in which are demon-
strated the diminution of fever and other causes of untimely death,—the
augmentation of the cleanliness and comfort of the wage-classes,—the eco-
nomy in the wear of all washable articles through the supplies of pure water,
—collateral and unexpected economies in regard to fire-insurance, from the

cil REPORT—1858.

power of rapid extinction of conflagration which the unintermitting system
affords,—the purity of the atmosphere in formerly foetid courts and alleys,—
these and other inestimable material advantages have resulted, and will result
with progressively increased benefit as time goes on.

Lord Bacon observes, in his suggestions for an inquiry into the causes of
death,—-“ And this inquiry, we hope, might redound to a general good, if
physicians would but exert themselves and raise their minds above the sordid
considerations of cure; not deriving their honour from the necessities of
mankind, but becoming ministers to the Divine power and goodness both in
prolonging and restoring the life of man; especially as this may be effected
by safe, commodious, and not illiberal means, though hitherto unattempted.
And certainly it would be an earnest of Divine favour, if, whilst we are jour-
neying to the land of promise, our garments, these frail bodies of ours, were
not greatly to wear out in the wilderness of this world.”

Amongst his special topies of inquiry are these :—

‘Inquire into the length and shortness of men’s lives according to the
times, countries, climates, and places in which they were born and lived.”

“Inquire into the length and shortness of men’s lives according to their
food, diet, manner of living, exercise, and the like. With regard to the air
in which they live and dwell, I consider that ought to be inquired into under
the former article concerning their places of abode.”

Now these inquiries have in our times been made chiefly in the form and
by the authority of Sanitary Commissions; in the successful working of
which the name of Epwin Cuapwicx stands foremost.

By these commissions it has been shown, as a general result, that nearly
one-half the prevalent diseases are due to one or other form of atmospheric
impurity ; impurity from decomposing fecal or animal and vegetable matter,
within and without human habitations, and beneath the sites of towns, and
atmospheric impurity from over-crowding.

For the prevention of the diseases arising from these causes, the sanitary
physician must direct his requisitions not to the apothecary, but to the pro-
fessor of new arts, which are only partially created,—the art of the sanitary
architect and the art of the sanitary engineer. The latter has already been
officially shown how he may collect water from natural and artificial springs,
convey it into houses unintermittingly fresh, and without stagnation, and by
its means remove from houses, through self-cleansing drains and self-clean-
sing sewers, constantly and before noxious decomposition can commence, all
feecal and waste animal and vegetable matter.

In model dwellings, where the sanitary conditions have been as yet
applied only in a rudimentary manner, the death-rate has, in fact, been
steadily kept down to thirteen in a thousand, cr much less than one-half
that which prevailed in London when Bacon lived, or little more than
one-half of the death-rate which prevails there now. In fact, it is proved
to be practicable to make those garments—the frail bodies of the popu-

ADDRESS. cili

lation—last full ten years, or probably one-third longer, in the wilderness
of this world.

In our time physicians have ably exerted themselves in aid of the sanitary
engineer and administrator. Their general sentiments have been long ex-
pressed in such terms as those of Dr. Willis of Kelso :— It is impossible to
avoid the conclusion that much more might still be accomplished could we
be induced to profit by a gradually extending knowledge, so as to found
upon it a more wisely directed practice. When man shall be brought to
acknowledge (as truth must finally constrain him to acknowledge) that it is
by his own hand, through his neglect of a few obvious rules, that the seeds
of disease are most lavishly sown within his frame, and diffused over com-
- munities; when he shall have required of medical science to occupy itself
rvather with the prevention of maladies than with their cure; when govern-
ments shall be induced to consider the preservation of a nation’s health an
object as important as the promotion of its commerce or the maintenance of
its conquests, we may hope then to see the approach of those times when,
after a life spent almost without sickness, we shall close the term of an un-
harassed existence by a peaceful euthanasia.”

It is to the landlord,—to the representative landlords and owners of habi-
tations,—in parliament, to whom exhortations are now required to be
addressed, to raise their minds above “the sordid considerations ” of the ex-
penses of cure, that is, of the expenses of those sanitary works of combined
drainage and water-supply, which it is their province to provide.

It is right, however, to state that advances in well-directed practical ap-
plications of sanitary science are advances in economy ; that two houses and
two towns may receive constant supplies of water at the expense formerly
incurred for supplying one on the intermittent system, with its stagnancy and
pollutions in house cisterns and large storage reservoirs. It remains for the
legislature and local administrations to make prevalent that which is proved
to be practicable for the public good, and to ensure that good at the econo-
mical rate at which particular instances afford demonstrations that it is
achievable.

Agriculture has of late years made unusual progress in this country, and
much of that progress is due to the application of scientific principles ; chiefly
of those supplied by chemistry, in a less degree of zoology and physiology :
some minor help in regard to the more effectual abatement of noxious insects
has been had from entomology ; recent discoveries of the metamorphoses,
metagenesis, and the course and modes of transmission of internal parasites,
have afforded a rational explanation of some traditional precautionary rules
of herdsmen, in reference to the ‘ rot’ in sheep, from fluke-worms and hydatids ;
and more direct power of preventing epizootics will doubtless be obtained
from entozoology.

Geology now teaches the precise nature and relations of soils, a knowledge
of great practical importance in guiding the drainer of land in the modifi-

civ REPORT—1858.

cations of his general rules of practice. Palzeontology kas brought to light
unexpected sources of valuable manures, in phosphatic relics of ancient animal
life, accumulated in astounding masses in certain localities of England, as,
for instance, in the red-crag of Suffolk, and the greensands of Cambridge.

But enormous quantities of azotic, ammoniacal, and phosphatic matters
are still suffered to run to waste; and, as if to bring the wastefulness more
home to conviction, these products, so valuable when rightly administered,
become a source of annoyance, unremunerative outlay, and disease, when, as
at present in most towns, imperfectly and irrationally disposed of.

For the most part, thought is taken only how to get rid of these pro-
ducts in the easiest and quickest way. The metropolitan authorities have
hitherto carried the chain of reasoning no further. They have turned them .
into the Thames, the receptacle nearest at hand; but in so doing have failed
in their prime intention. The metropolis is not even rid of its excreta; but
they have returned upon it and accumulated, with increased noxious and
morbific power, on the strands of the valley that bisects it; appealing, as is
notorious, summer after summer, to the very legislature itself, with uninter-
mitting and importunate odours, compelling the attention of the possessors
of lands and houses to this important subject.

Now here I would beg leave to remark that, in the operations of Nature,
there is generally a succession of processes coordinated for a given result :
a peach is not directly developed as such from its elements ; the seed would,
a priori, give no idea of the tree, nor the tree of the flower, nor the fertilized
germ of that flower of the pulpy fruit in which the seed is buried. It is
eminently characteristic of the Creative Wisdom, this far-seeing and prevision —
of an ultimate result, through the successive operations of a coordinate series
of seemingly very different conditions.

The further a man discerns, in a series of conditions, their cordination to
produce a given result, the nearer does his wisdom approach—though the
distance be still immeasurable—to the Divine wisdom.

One philanthropist builds a fever-hospital, another drains a town. One
crime-preventer hangs the man, another trains the boy. One financier
would raise money by augmenting a duty, or by a direct tax, and finds the re-
venue not increased in the expected ratio. Another diminishes a tax, or abo-
lishes a duty, and through foreseen consequences the revenue is improved.

Quarantine exemplifies only the first step in the progress of thought, bearing
on the prevention of a dreaded distemper. It is asystem which might keep
out contraband goods or uncertified strangers, but it is powerless against
the gaseous factors of plague, cholera, or yellow fever. No European
country suffers more from such maladies “than Naples or Portugal, where
quarantine regulations are most stringent.

Agriculture, let me repeat, has made and is making great and encouraging
progress. But much yet remains to be done. Were agriculture adequately
advanced, the great problem of the London sewage would be speedily solved. .

ADDRESS. cv

Can it be supposed, if the rural districts about the metropolis were in a con-
dition to avail themselves of a daily supply of pipe-water not more than
equivalent to that which a heavy shower of rain throws down on 2000 acres
of land, but a supply charged with 30 tons of nitrogenous ammoniacal prin-
ciples, that such supply would not be forthcoming, and made capable of
being distributed when called for within a radius of 100 miles? I believe
that, were the call made as loudly as it undoubtedly would be under the
exigencies of a more advanced stage of agricultural mechanics, the skill of
our engineers, with the constructive powers of our machine-makers, both
earried to a degree of perfection which the world never before saw, would
speedily and successfully meet the call, and leave nothing but the rainfall of
the metropolis to seek its natural receptacle—the Thames.

To send ships for foreign ammoniacal or phosphatic excreta to the coast
of Peru, and to pollute by the waste of similar home products the noble
river bisecting the metropolis, and washing the very walls of our Houses of
Parliament, are flagrant signs of the desert and uncultivated state of a field
where science and practice have still to cooperate for the public benefit.

To promote this cooperation, effectual aid may be given by a recently
established kindred Association, through the advancement of the legislative
and administrative sciences. For it is the present condition of those social
sciences which forms the chief obstacle to the practical application of
Sanitary science. Of this science, it may be confidently averred that, be-
sides providing means for the relief of town-populations from excessive
sickness, it has, in a sufficient number of instances, provided means for the
prevention of the pollution of rivers as well as for applying the manure of
towns to fertilize the land.

The application of those means now rests with the Legislator and Ad-
ministrator, and involves questions which are not within the province of
the British Association*.

Some of our sciences are deeply concerned in one progressive step,—the
uniformity of standard in measure and weight throughout the civilized
world; in urging on which step, energetic and unwearied efforts are now
being made by a Committee of our fellow-labourers of the Royal Society of
Arts, amongst whom the name of the prime promoter of this and kindred
reforms, Mr. James YareEs, deserves especial and honourable mention.

, Chemistry is more concerned in the uniform expression of the results of
her delicate balances amongst her cultivators of differeut countries: Natural
History is no less interested in the use, by all observers, of one and the same
scale for measuring, and of one set of terms for expressing the superficial
dimensions of her subjects. Practically, I may state that I have found the

* Services on three successive Sanitary Commissions, on the First Consolidated Metro-
politan Sewers Commission, and at the Board of Health, have led me to enter at undue
length on Sanitary matters, and are pleaded in excuse.

cvi REPORT—1858.

French métre, and its subdivisions down to the millimétre, adequate to give
all the needful data of this kind for comparison of superficial dimensions in
the varied and extensive range of objects to which my business and pursuits
have led me to pay attention. Of the hindrances to progress and incon-
veniences of the ‘foot,’ the ‘inch,’ and its duodecimal parts or lines,—rarely
the same in any two countries,—I have elsewhere spoken and argued.

The whole subject of a uniform system of weights, measures, and current
coin, will occupy the attention of a section of the Association for the Advance-
ment of Social Science, which will meet at Liverpool shortly after the termi-
uation of the present Meeting. This is by no means the only point at which the
Natural and Social Sciences touch and react on each other with mutual
advantage. The proximity of the periods of the annual assemblage of the
promoters of these respective sciences, together with the occurrence of both,
this year, in the North of England, is favourable to the fruition of such
advantages, by facilitating attendance at both Associations: and in future
years, the conditions of time and place of meeting, making it easy for a
Member of the British Association to attend also the Association for Social
Science, and reciprocally; might, with a view to mutual advantage and
cooperation, be a subject worthy of the consideration of the respective Coun-
cils of those Bodies.

In reference to the relations now subsisting between the State and
Science, my first duty is to express our grateful sense of such measure of
aid, cooperation, and countenance as has been allotted to Scientific Bodies,
Enterprises and Discoveries; more especially to acknowledge how highly we
prize the sentiments of the Sovereign towards our works and aims, mani-
fested by spontaneous tribute to successful scientific research, in honourable
Titles and Royal gifts, and above all, in the gracious expressions accom-
panying them, with which Her Majesty has been pleased to distinguish some
of our Body. Happy are we, under the present benignant Reign, to have,
in the Royal Consort, a Prince endowed with exemplary virtues, and with
such accomplishments in Science and Art as have enabled His Royal High-
ness effectually, and on some memorable occasions, in the most important
degree, to promote the best interests of both. We rejoice, moreover, in the
prospect of being favoured at a future Meeting by the Presidency of the
Prince Consort; and that, ere long, this Association may give the oppor-
tunity for the delivery of another of those ‘ Addresses,’ pregnant with
deep thought, good sense, and right feeling, which have placed the name
of Prince Albert high in the esteem of the Intellectual Classes, and have
engraven it deeply in the hearts of the humblest of Her Majesty’s subjects.

On the part of the State, sums continue to be voted in aid of the means
independently possessed by the British Museum and the Royal Society,
whereby the Natural History Collections in the first are extended, and the
more direct scientific aims of the latter Institution are advanced. The

~ ADDRESS. evii

Botanical Gardens and Museum at Kew, and the Museum of Practical Geo-
logy in Jermyn Street, are examples of the National Policy in regard to
Science, of which we can hardly over-estimate the importance. Most highly
and gratefully also do we appreciate the cooperation of the ‘ Board of Trade’
with our Meteorologists, by the recent formation of the Department for the
collection of meteorological observations made at sea.

But not by words only would, or does, Science make return to Govern-
ments fostering and aiding her endeavours for the public weal. Every prac-
tical application of her discoveries tends to the same end as that which the
enlightened Statesman has in view.

The steam-engine in its manifold applications, the crime-decreasing gas-
lamp, the lightning conductor, the electric telegraph, the law of storms and
rales for the mariner’s guidance in them, the power of rendering surgical
operations painless, the measures for preserving public health and for pre-
venting or mitigating epidemics,—such are amongst the more important
practical results of pure scientific research with which mankind have been
blessed and States enriched. They are evidence unmistakeable of the close
affinity between the aims and tendencies of Science and those of true State
policy. In proportion to the activity, productivity, and prosperity of a com-
munity is its power of responding to the calls of the Finance Minister. By
a far-seeing one, the man of Science will be regarded with a favourable eye,
not less for the unlooked-for streams of wealth that have already flowed, but
for those that may in future arise, out of the applications of the abstract
truths to the discovery of which he devotes himself.

This may, indeed, demand some measure of faith on the part of the prac-
tical Statesman. For who that watched the philosophi¢c Brack experimenting
on the abstract nature of Caloric could have foreseen that his discovery of latent
heat would be the stand-point of Watt’s invention of a practically operative
steam engine! How little could the observer of Orrstxp’s subtle arrange-
ments for converting electric into magnetic force have dreamt of Wheat-
stone’s application of such discovery to the rapid interchange of ideas now

daily practised between individuals in distant cities, countries, and continents !
, Some medical contemporaries of Joun Hunter, when they saw him, as
they thought, wasting as much time in studying the growth of a deer’s horn
as they would have bestowed upon the symptoms of their best patient, com-
passionated, it is said, the singularity of his pursuits. But, by the insight so
gained into the rapid enlargement of arteries, Hunter learnt a property of
those vessels which emboldened him to experiment on a man with aneurism,
and so to introduce a new operation which has rescued from a lingering and
painful death thousanis of his fellow-creatures. Our great inductive physio-
logist, in his dissections and experiments on the lower animals, was “ taking
light what may be wrought upon the body of man.”

The production of chloroform is amongst the more subtle experimental
results of modern chemistry. The blessed effects of its proper exhibition in

evlil REPORT—1858.

the diminution of the sum of human agony are indescribable. But that
divine-like application was not present to the mind of the scientific chemist
who discovered the anesthetic product, any more than was the gas-lit town
to the mind of PriestLey or the condensing-engine to that of BLAck.

These unexpected applications of pure Science, fraught with such incal-
culable influences on the well-being of peoples, ought to weigh with the
Minister to whom may be submitted an enterprise in Science which only a
nation can undertake, or the considerations of a scientific establishment
which none but a nation can support, Much of the improvement in refined
machinery, and the tools for making it, grew out of the requirements and
teaching of Bansace during the construction of his Calculating Machines.
Such collateral result, alone, has made a manifold return for the sum granted
in aid of the realization of that philosopher’s great idea. So rare a combi-
nation of analytic, inventive, and constructive faculties is seldom given to
man ; and the generation witnessing such a mind in operation would be wise
to secure the full result of its peculiarly directed energy.

In proportion to the facilities and rapidity of exchange and transit of
goods, of men, and of thought, trade and commerce expand; and with their
expansion grow the receipts under the heads of Customs and Excise. Every
application of pure mathematics and astronomy to the making voyages safer
and speedier,—every observation by such instruments as the Establishment
of the British Association at Kew perfects for their purpose, giving to the
mariner fore-knowledge of storms, and teaching him their course and lines
of greatest intensity,—becomes an important condition in enabling a country
to bear the burthen of taxation.

The steps in the series of this relation have been so plain that national
encouragement has long been given to Astronomy. As clear a perception
of the same relation and tendency of discoveries in Chemistry, Electricity,
Electro-magnetism, and other sciences, led Herschel, long ago, to ask “ Why
the direct assistance afforded by Governments to the execution of continued
series of observations should be confined to Astronomy?”

Faithfully is the State served by that Science. Most exemplary are
those observations made, and every astronomical duty bearing on the
interests of society, discharged, in the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, the
good repute of which grows and spreads year by year under its present
indefatigable Chief. Year by year, almost, arises the necessity for some addi-
tional instrument to meet the ever-expanding relations and requirements of
Astronomy and Meteorology.

But to make use of fitting instruments is one thing, to make them fit for
use another. To perfect that fitness and extend it to the instruments of all
observatories, to maintain a standard of excellence whereby comparison of
results shall be most productive of truth, are the special functions of our
kindred establishment at Kew. There, as in the mathematical and engine
houses of the ‘ New Atlantis,’ we seek to render our instruments unrivalled

ADDRESS. cix

“for equality, fineness, and subtilty” of operation. No expense, time, or
pains have been spared by this Association to bring the exquisitely con-
structed and ingeniously adjusted mechanisms required to give us cognizance
of the operations of the mysterious influences pervading our earth and atmo-
sphere to their utmost attainable exactitude of performance.

To prepare, to adjust, to test, verify, and rectify those instruments for the
use of voyagers and travellers are labours that have grown out of the im-
portant function of the ‘ Kew Observatory.’

These labours have been cheerfully performed whenever and by whom-
soever required; as, recently, at the request of the Admiralty and Royal
Society in aid of the Commission for determining the Oregon Boundary, and
in the Second Expedition of Livingstone to the Zambesi. Not only have
philosophical instruments been prepared and constants determined, but the
voyagers have received, at Kew, practical instructions in their use.

The reputation of the accuracy of the instruments at our establishment is
now such that requests are received from different Foreign States for a like
application of the resources which it commands. The United States, Russia,
Austria, Portugal, the Papal States for the‘ Collegio Romano,’—all have
testified, by such applications for the preparation and adjustment of philo-
sophical instruments, that the establishment, originated and organized by the
British Association, fulfils a national scientific want. Our ‘Report’ this
year will show that the Admiralty, the Board of Trade, and other Home-
institutions give the same testimony.

With the growth of its reputation and experience of its utility, the labours
carried on at Kew have necessarily multiplied ; and the expense of the esta-
blishment cannot be this year less than £800.

Were the duties of the Kew Observatory superadded to those performed
at Greenwich, such expense would fall, in the ordinary course, upon the State.
Hitherto it has been borne by the British Association, and to that extent
cripples our power of lending the helping hand to other scientific work.

We have to thank the Government for the use of the building at Kew.

Such pecuniary aid as has been added to the sums allotted from our sub-
scriptions has been received from a kindred self-supporting Scientific Asso-
ciation. The Royal Society liberally voted the amount required for the
purchase of the “Whitworth’s Lathe and Planing Machine,” now doing
efficient work at the Observatory.

In the late location, by liberal permission of the Government, of the Royal,
Linnean, and Chemical Societies in contiguous apartments at Burlington
House, we hail the commencement of that organization, recommended by
the British Association at their first meeting, from which the most important
results of combination of present scattered powers, and of a system of intellec-
tual cooperation, may be confidently expected. “The combined advantages,
including at once the most powerful stimulus and the most efficient guidance
of scientific research,” have appeared to an eminent member of our Body
“to be beyond calculation.”

cx REPORT—1858.

No locality in the Metropolis unites so many elements of convenience for
such a concentration as Burlington House. If, to the application of other
Scientific Societies than the three now there located, the reply should be
given “that the State is not called upon to provide room for individuals who
may choose to combine for the enjoyment of a special intellectual pursuit,”
we may rejoin that such Associations seek no selfish profit, but impart the
results of their combined labour freely for the public weal. We might
urge that the small amount of support needed for the enterprises and
establishment of Science,—searce equal to the product of the tax upon
discovery and invention paid under the existing ‘ Patent Laws ’—would be a
good investment on the part of a Nation; and that, viewing such establish-
ments and the prosecution of abstract physical truth in regard only to their
material results, these might assure a Minister disposed to invest in what
might seem to him the Lottery of Science, that the prizes are neither few
nor small,—nay, some are incalculably great.

It now only remains for me to express how deeply I feel the honour con-
ferred on me by the position in which, through your kindness, I am now
placed ; how highly I esteem the opportunity afforded me of addressing so
distinguished and influential an audience in this most noble Hall; and how
sincerely I thank you for the patience and favour with which you have
received this Address.

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‘THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
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REPORTS

ON

THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Tue present, Fourth, and probably last Report on Earthquakes that I shall
have the honour of presenting to the British Association, has for its objects
the discussion of the great catalogue of earthquakes printed in several prece-
ding volumes of its ‘ Transactions,’ the last portion of which only appeared in
type in 1855, and the completion, as far as possible, of the complement of the
other desiderata mentioned at the conclusion of the First Report (1850).
The pressure of other occupations, with some uncontrollable circumstances,
have delayed for nearly three years its appearance: the delay, however,
has not been without advantage; it has enabled me more fully to grasp
additional conditions and difficulties, before unnoticed, of some branches of
the subject, and to derive advantage from the contemporaneous labours of
the few physicists who are engaged in Seismology ; foremost amongst whom
stands M. Perrey of Dijon.

The reader will with advantage refer to the conclusions of the Second
Report (1851), as to the construction of the catalogue which constitutes
the Third (1854), before perusing the present ; as well as to the concluding
note of that Report, in which it is stated that the catalogue commencing at

1606 8.c., and originally proposed to be extended in its tabular form to the

end of 1850 A.p., was concluded at the end of the year 1842, from which
period up to 1850, and indeed later still, the catalogues of Prof. Perrey
supply all that is needful, though it is to be regretted that they are not
tabulated for more convenient reference. But although the British Asso-
ciation Catalogue concludes with 1842, the discussion of facts has been

extended to the end of 1850, the base of induction for the last eight years

being supported by the labours of Perrey.

The whole base of induction therefore for such conclusions as are here
to be attempted,—embracing between 6000 and 7000 separate recorded earth-
quakes over every known part of the globe, both on land and ocean,—the
character of the facts given,—their scantiness as to information of scientific
value,—the methods, or rather the want of all method, in their observation,
and other causes, mentioned in the Second Report,—I think justify me in
stating my conviction, that nearly all that can be drawn from the collection
and discussion of such records has now been done, and that the labour of
collecting and calculating further and future Seismologues will be in a great
degree thrown away, unless the cultivators of science of all countries,—in
conjunction with the scientific bodies and the scientific departments of the
chief civilized governments of the world,—sball unite in agreeing to some
one uniform system of seismic observation, and record and transmit the results

1858. ‘ B

2 REPORT—1858.

periodically to a central bureau for discussion. What has been done for
astronomy and for terrestrial magnetism, is beginning to be done for meteor-
ology, and through the suggestive labours of Maury, Bache, and others,
for maritime discovery, ought to be done now for seismology, whose chief
requirements could be readily added to those already supposed to be system-
atized from Lieut. Maury’s proposals, as well as to those long in course in
the astronomical, magnetic, and meteorological observatories of the world.
The spread of the net of telegraphic wires rapidly over the whole earth offers
facilities for the observation of earthquake phenomena, in which time always
enters as so important an element, never before possessed. We shall revert
to this in treating of seismometry.

Before proceeding to the discussion of the British Association Catalogue,
I propose giving some account, in a connected form, of the discussions by
Professor Perrey, of his own local or partial catalogues, and of the conclusions
he has thence drawn; as well as referring to some minor catalogues, more
or less completely discussed by their authors: amongst the latter, Mr. Milne’s
valuable contributions escaped my notice when preparing my first report.
Perrey’s labours in generalizing (as far, perhaps, as can from the data be
safely done) the facts of several great seismic kingdoms, and announcing
their results, form a valuable prelude to the still larger base of generalization
finally here discussed, and extending to the whole known globe. The dis-
cussed catalogue memoirs of Perrey, to which I have had access, apply to
the following localities :—

In the European Hemisphere—
The Scandinavian Peninsula and Iceland.
The British Islands.
The Spanish Peninsula.
France, Belgium, and Holland.
The Basin of the Rhone,
The Basin of the Rhine.
The Basin of the Danube.
The Italian Peninsula.
Algeria and Northern Africa.
The Turco-Hellenic Peninsula, with Syria.

And in the American Hemisphere—
The Basin of the Atlantic.
Canada and the United States.
Mexico and Central America.
The Antilles.

Chili and La Plata.
Cuba, by M. Poey.

' In addition to which, Perrey has combined and discussed together—
Europe, with the adjacent regions of Africa and of Asia.
The North of Europe and of Asia—
viewing the three continents in the light of two parallel Austral and Boreal
zones,
The general method adopted by Perrey has been, after an introductory
physico-geographical sketch of the region, and the catalogue itself of earth-
quakes, to discuss them numerically and graphically.

By centuries

ine a rg and
~ * ty vears .',

relatively Seasons, months,

days.

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 3°

Occasionally also with reference to lunations.

“With reference to sup-
posed derivative or
mean horizontal diree-
tion of shock.

With reference to direction,
In space 4 .e. horizontal direction, of
shock.

And lastly, as to relative intensity, or dynamic value of the shock in each
direction, which he arrives at on the assumption that this, in any given
rhumb, is proportional to the xember of shocks observed in its direction in a
given period, a supposition which—although perhaps not without some value,
as admitting of one mode of regarding the relations of distant seismic regions
not otherwise possible—admits of the gravest doubt whether it have any
real natural basis.

We shall consider the results in the order above. Near as Norway and
Sweden are topographically to the British Islands, it is not with these, but
with Iceland and the intervening band of the Northern Ocean that the
Scandinavian peninsula is in connexion as a seismic region; very few ex-
amples occur of simultaneous action between the former; but seldom has
there been any marked convulsion in Iceland without commotion in Nor-
way, &c., and vice versd. Scandinavia itself, one of the most remarkable
masses of land in slow process of elevation in the world, also shows its con-
nexion with internal action; and were it not that Iceland is pierced with
numberless vents, broken and shattered in every direction by volcanic
action, that admits of no cessation or consolidation above, there can be no
doubt that the destructive power of earthquakes would be manifested in the
northern peninsula to a far more serious extent and intensity.

- That Greenland, at least the east coast, and the Farde Islands are shaken

’ frequently, is highly probable, though I am not aware of any such record.

:

The following is the result of Perrey’s chronology of this region :—

Tase I.—Harthquakes of Scandinavian Peninsula and Iceland.

With dates of month or day. lor Season.|ycr, Total.

Century a 8 | 5 :

AD. |B) | Slel/Elelele| 4

Sin 5 Alaei/elelealselelifisis g

a/3 BIS)/Elsle| Si Sle} sl se | 3

SIR |SId/SI5/65/4|n2(S|AZ/AlLE la
KML to XVIL| 3) 2 i) a) 2}... |...) 0. fects. | fon ae ie fe 28
|S a 1g o7. 9 5| (jan Nei tee) fea | aba bomen | 98) A | TE ews 3 Ven fe] pete BLE
ee DALE Marti Fr Oe Bh Bl TO TON TT]: Gl 2. ] 113
Wotals-.:3.:5..; 33] 20} 21) 13; 16} 10} 17) 13) 18} 17} 19) 17] 2] 4] 32) 252

Winter |} Spring Summer | Autumn
74 39 48 53

ee ta OPS ge ith tows ovope to Depa eel papn ier 4

“On examining this Table, Perrey remarks the same preponderance of
earthquakes in the winter half of the year, that is evident from many of his
other calculations for various regions. Here, for the six months of winter,
there are 129 shocks, and but 91 for the summer half year.

Perrey is also of opinion, from the general result of his researches, that
there is a preponderance of shocks at the equinoxes and summer solstice,
which he denominates the “Critical Epochs” of the year. It is so for
Scandinavia.

B2

gS . REPORT—1858.
The total number of earthquakes given with dates is 252, representing by

twelve the mean annual number. He tabulates the proportional number for
each month thus :—

TasLe I],—Scandinavia. Relative frequency throughout the year.

September.
November.
December,
Propor-
tional
number.

Wintericocit..... Satin bu re eee
Spring sc. O15 nave Rees CeO te
Simmer. FPO Sr aad 0°90
Abe GO? MOS PISS SOUS eee 0°99
And at the two months of each solstice and equinox—
March and April......... eee ae
dunband Palys. P28, 3 SUES 0°74
September and October ..........0°95
December and January .......... 1°36

As to general direction of the observed or horizontal element of shock—it
has in most instances traversed a line, with more or less divergence, stretch-
ing away from Iceland; and there can be little doubt that this is the real
line of propagation of the original pulses.

Perrey, however, conceives that a mean or chief resultant direction of shock
for each given seismic region may be calculated in the following way. Taking
the mean frequency of shock =1, he finds for the eight principal rhumbs
proportional numbers, as for example in the present case :—

TABLE III.

Rhumb, or direction Relative frequency in
of shock. direction.
We sCOur es Wt aunctaencaceendaces Raicaeuncegashsesaesies 0°73
IN Tree AN ctosintenertaccecvccseasscessesdecsesbactee 1:09
El Biass Nicer aancsemre consis cis ieckvcnies cavecsecnbecse 0°73
Riser spi Ne WV sincwsehins <ctus ones sas, “pete nape ee 1:09

PME EIRE sa weaaiiaressavacaysvediapbacactaencssstae 1-09
Die Wet shaun tab aecndes saeop oe cmarens doc ce dexcncteapebien 1:45
pple [ato duscatenass Wencespcunestadecaacesnaaa® 1:09
ING Weyauos lis tecadedsccrscessearace Diconccasnes Sudsecae 0°73

Then, considering the cause of movement in any given direction to be pro-
portional in intensity to the number of times that it has acted in each ob-
served direction, viz. as proportional to the preceding numbers, he treats
these as the forces themselves given in magnitude and in direction, and
compounds them for a single resultant according to Lambert’s formula.

This process gives for Scandinavia a general resultant direction of pro-
pagation of S. 22°30' W., and with an intensity or force represented by
0°94.

If we study this presumed direction with the Mercator chart before us,
we find that the line is not very wide of that forming the general length of

TT -_s

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 5

the great Scandinavian chain, and is in fact nearly a normal to the actually
observed directions of shock.

It is a fact observed in many other seismic mountain chains, as well as
along the lines of great valleys and river-courses, that the main directions
of propagation of shock are along the lengths of the chains, valleys or river-
courses; and a very obvious explanation why this should freguently be the
ease suggests itself, namely, that the solid materials of the earth are Jess
shattered and discontinuous, and more homogeneous in these directions
than in those transverse to the ranges and valleys, &c.; but how far this is in
any way connected in nature with Perrey’s conclusion admits still of doubt;
and indeed it is manifest that any attempt to calculate a general or mean
resultant, from the horizontal component of shock only, must be at least
incomplete, and, from other reasons that will be given when treating of
seismometric instruments, may be said to be at present impossible. I should
by no means wish, however, altogether to reject this ingenious method of
discussion in the present state of our knowledge.

Perrey’s results are subjoined for—

Taste IV.—Earthquakes of the British Islands and Northern Isles.

Earthquakes with date of month.

. =

a 3 eto |S ss
Sol psa Mate »|a}e1/ 31] 3 |2e] Tota.

= ae | S| o|8)/es/]seisirne

o g 5 o/s a 3 Sod | S) Olas

EIS ISIE EIE/S Pl ES) S18 ES

Pere Slss |S: | lo lols | A ee
NS eg ee lee Bike Pie 8
elte...|) 1 eae 1 1 2 ua 2 4 11
TS Ae og fe ee i a ae elit BiGuth 46
[2 ae i 1 1 aoe 1 4
Ve. oo oe 1 Ve Se 1
XVI. 1 Zales 1 2 1 1 8
XVII. 3 eet ase 1 2 3 1 2 2 14
XVIII.) 5 4 7 5 cy 2 3 5 6 6 8 8 1 63
XIX. 9 9/10 7f 8 6 5} LI | 12 Sie ll ae 2 110
Totals.| 21 | 16 | 19 | 16] 16] 10 ct (et Nl =e sl We fh vi A 234

Poe Spring Summer Autumn
5

The number occurring in spring and summer together is but three-fourths
that of autumn and winter united, the relative number for the four seasons

being—

MNItG ree oes Is k stmINS 8 -- 1°03
Spring ...... dp Wasa Hees O76
Summereege sf! 2.8 Sela hs VIO96

AM ee Sols oak ee Ot

And the two months of the critical epochs—

Wintersolsticegiy. o2scl.c eee ek 1:28
Spring equinox.........0000002020°96
Summer solstice ....... ie eS O58

Autumnal equinox ..........060.1°13

6. REPORT—1858.

The relative numbers as to horizontal direction :—
Ss. to N. Nir RR RR Sih eri U5 to

gs botnets oi iad ene Seber ce Aes ¢ 0-48
1 A hale 1 ie eae rear (era abit» - 1:70
oie uns We VVic sia cic die ecderevannt= ieee 0°73
Ss. “el Fa abet ar an. Bet te,
RV eee Win fae ste we tonne 5, © ere a
5 ec eal tae ke AN Sborte -. 1°46

WoW. 5 gamut eget S87 ob ain

from which, by the preceding method, Perrey computes a mean horizontal

direction of
S. 39° 5! W. to N. 39° 5! E.,

which is about the line of direction of Loch Ness and of the Caledonian
Canal.

This is certainly, however, not the general or mean horizontal direction
of British earthquakes, which appears to be one from south to north, veering
more or less to the east or west, but having on the whole a direction passing
through the probable focus of the Lisbon earthquakes and of the Canary
Islands. I am not aware that any attempt has been made to ascertain
the angle of emergence of the wave of shock for any British station, except
indirectly by myself, in my “ Memoir on the British Earthquake of November
1852” (Trans. Roy. Irish Acad. vol. xxii. part 1) at Dublin, which was from
25° to 30° inclined to the horizon; and assuming the origin to have been
even somewhere between Great Britain and Lisbon, the depth of focus must
have been very great; that earthquake extended over the greater portion
of the British Islands, the maximum disturbance on the surface being about
Shropshire.

Mr. David Milne, in one of a series of very able papers on British earth-
quakes in the ‘Edinburgh Philosophical Journal,’ vols. xxxi.xxxvi., which
I regret not having noticed in my Second Report as prominently as they
deserve, expresses his conviction (as it appears to me, however, from very
insufficient grounds) that all British earthquakes have had an origin of
disturbance immediately beneath Great Britain, and not at some distant
point beyond, his chief reasons being, 1, that with few exceptions they
affected only certain portions of the island; 2, that there was in all the
districts affected some spot where the concussion and attendant noise were
greater than anywhere else, and that they diminished with their distance
from this spot ; 3, that the shock and the noise moved simultaneously from
this spot.

A reference to the Catalogue will show that these are by no means the
general prevailing facts: and if they had been so, they do not prove the
point, for reasons to be gathered from the Second Report. In the absence
of any knowledge of the angle of emergence, it is a very incomplete state-
ment of fact when Milne says, that “out of 110 shocks recorded in England,
31 originated in Wales, 31 along. the south coast of England, 14 on the
borders of Yorkshire and Derbyshire, and 5 or 6 in Cumberland.” “ These
facts,” he adds, “seem to show that the seat of action cannot be very far
down in the earth’s interior.” Locally variable surface-disturbance, and even
none at certain localities, within large areas exposed to seismic action, are
amongst the most common phenomena of observed earthquakes even of the
greatest extent and intensity, and arise, amongst other reasons, from the
heterogeneous and dislocated materials of the earth’s crust perturbing the

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF BARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 7

elastic wave. A considerable number of shocks, recorded in Scotland, have
been stated to have had a horizontal direction more or less from west to east;
and this is by no means incompatible with the general prevalent direction from
south to north already mentioned ; nor has it been unnoticed elsewhere, that
long ranges of hills of hard elastic rocks, with deep intervening valleys, change
the general horizontal course of the wave of shock reaching their fanks into
one mainly felt along the line of the chain. The little shocks for long
periods almost continuously felt in and about Comrie in Scotland, have all
had a general direction from west to east ; but these, like the similar phe-
nomena long carefully observed by Prof. Merian at Basle in Switzerland,
those at East Haddam in Massachusetts and elsewhere, I omit from consi-
deration here, as very doubtfully belonging to the class of earthquakes
proper at all, and perhaps no more than tremors, more or less forcible
at the surface, due to the fracturing of rocky masses below, by the gradual
processes of elevation or depression of the land. Excluding these, our
records, so far as they go, point to the south-to-north general direction
as given.

Milne has discussed, with reference to period of the year, the circumstances
of 139 Scottish and 116 English earthquakes ; and the result squares pretty
closely with Perrey’s.

The following is Milne’s Table :—

TABLE V.
Scotland. England. Total.
JAtitiary-ci.inee.; 14 ages sifeoes, LI
Hebruaty .crccasel PA) issasesdscs 13 +74. Winter months.
March ..... Sucaed f RAS vecdccaet 10
10
4 +44, Spring months.
9
5
9 $58. Summer months.
15
October sssssvvee 14 sesvcessssse J]
November,....... polls cdepteecesst 12+79. Autumn months. .
December.... i: sis AG > caseee ceases
139 1l

He notices also the fact, which we shall find has not escaped Perrey (‘ Me-
moir on France’), that the period of the year at which seismic action appears
to be greatest, is that when both the actual height of the barometric column
is the minimum, and the range of its oscillations the greatest in the year ;
and he has put with clearness the enornious total effect in the increase or
diminution of pressure over large areas, due to such changes in atmospheric
pressure, as a possible (he deems a certainly) connected cause in the produc-
tion of earthquakes.

Proceeding now to the Spabish Peninsula, comprehending all west of the
Pyrenees and the ocean washing the shores of Portugal, the following are
Perrey’s results :—

8 REPORT—1858.

Tasie VI.—Earthquakes of the Spanish Peninsula.

Earthquakes with date of day or month. ot
: oe
> . o a n ss
= . > 2 . i Oo ls
2 Pilsilal. 5 2/8/83!) 8) 2 |e S| Total
S I(2\/8/2\2)/618/8) S12) 8 1 24 8 lem
Bae oer lee Bleiay (Ge ie 3 B
Bl eee et of Bs (cess dF Lind Le ol een eee
Ts eel ees act 3 3
GIs) (ate! A i Leal pceudiies eG Uaeeitihees ahikeds We Uhes 1 4
IND cectotes ®| ied | Teesy lly vow tilltaee! \tyeay Me entllivessaliice pl! gas 1 2 3
PV recall eee [otuads i] See oie Le buaren emo [ener eaiepel Piet a aoret tl ae eS 8
ON\0 bir hae Jl assem pce hese 2 Feria We edu sect 9 deta rt ea er ere tio at | 10
ROVDT |) ives cl ooetllitecears ED Node 2 Ly} 32 1 1 1 10
XVIII} 11 8 7 8 4 6 5 9 2 9/13 8 3 93
UNE, | LO 8 [65 he ae eel LO Soc OTe) ag ean las 85
Tota’.| 25 | 14/16/18] 9] 14/18] 16] 12] 23} 22/14] 19] 220
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
55 41 46 59

Taking the mean monthly frequency =1, the relative monthly frequency,
and that according to season, are as follows :——

: 8 ae
po] BP Seiler) ngy fecal oo
uw os == (S| o g =|
i] =] a z Oo 2
red m 2 red y o a = ~~ [o} o 3
Fees lures limes tbe diate bcs = bon ha ya iba ice
Sle lala lalisalaAlalastos]alsaA

1°49) 0°84] 0°95] 1:07] 0:54) 0°84) 1°07] 0°95] 0°71) 1°37) 1°31) 0°84

Winter Spring Summer Autumn
1:09 0°82 0-91 117

or in‘autumn and winter together, 114 earthquakes against 87 in the spring
and summer.
As respects observed horizontal directions, the ratios were—

Nooo pee eet i dete ... 0°38
WN, Be at Wine ote cen iemileae
| MIE gic a9 hema Biawipen 5
S.E. oo NW et nen cc aan

Meas pis ath = 0 TN ha 1:91
SOW, 0 NoHo aes A inte .. 0°38
OY «ans Ela. ete a eae 0°76
IN W535 oe Bie ee i Oe oo 0:38

which, by the method of calculation already given as adopted by Perrey,
gives for the mean horizontal direction—

E. 31° 56’ S. to W. 31° 56’ N.

This dednetion appears to agree tolerably well with the actually recorded
directions of shocks in Portugal and Spain, whose focus seems to be beneath
the sea, between Lisbon and the Azores, all of which, as well perhaps as the
Canaries, are connected as one seismic region. Perrey states, that in the
Pyrenean chain, taken separately, not only is the preponderance of seismic

i at Se

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 9

action in the winter reversed, so that shocks are more frequent in summer
than in winter, and those in summer and spring together are to those in
autumn and winter as 2 to 3, but the observed horizontal direction is dif-
ferent, being most usual in the main line of the chain.

If this be so, it would either be explicable as a case of deflected wave, like
that already mentioned with regard to the general north and south line in
Great Britain, becoming a south-west and north-east one in Scotland, the angle
of deflection in the present instance being small; or it would indicate that
some of the shocks of the Pyrenees have connexion with the Mediterranean
seismic region.

Spain, including Portugal, in its external configuration, with its vast
table-land of the two Castiles, rising nearly 2000 feet above the sea, is
perhaps the most interesting portion of Europe, not only in this respect,
but as a region of earthquake disturbance, where the energy and destroying
power of this agency have been more than once displayed upon the most
tremendous scale.

It may be worth while to place here the tables of the progression of the
shocks of the two great Lisbon earthquakes of 1755 and 1761, as collected
by Milne (Edinburgh Phil. Journ. vol. xxxi.) from various sources,
although the chief result has been already discussed in the Second Report.
The time given in the Tables is reduced to Lisbon time; the distances in
degrees of seventy miles English each.

Progressive rate of the shock, Lisbon earthquake of Ist November, 1755.

Moment meee Time from
Localities. observed : Font a impulse to |. Observations.
of shock. | Presume arrival.
origin.

Presumed focus, lat. 30°) h m i ahd m 5

PERLE Ws venseitessasanese 9 23 eee At sea.
A ship at sea, in lat. 38°,

Ronee OD Ag Wekecessscesc] 9 .-24 0 30 1 0
PUBTERU ecu scsniessbaeienss see} 9 30 1 30 7 O | Portugal.
MBRDOD ss csicescssevces gbusetraces 9 32 nod OTe G
UE cacce yc <ds<ccenvex cess se 9 38 2 30 i "0
POVAINIONGG, pescercssccoese nancac| fp et he a) 4 0 27 +O | Spain.
MAEM Aiton custicesscaschescsscaces. 9 48 yee okt} 25 0
Tangier and Tetuan ......... 9 46 5 30 23. 0
Madrid...... Geet esccgienen coved 9 43 6 0 20 O
MMMECA cease decsecsssacs esas 9 55 6 0 32) 30
Funchal ..... Enesaaieseswasss 10 #1 8 30 38 0 | Madeira:
IPGCESTNOULE. ps ssurcnccrvecscsers 10 3 12 30 40 0O
BPRVT Ol acct ecccsccccascas Waie'ea sist 10 23 13,7710 60 0
APHID OU cccesecdvebewasveccess: 10 27 13 30 64 0
Yarmouth ......... Buansvccess 10 42 13ye0 79 #O [certain.)
Eyam Edge.......+0... seaccoess 10 30 15 30 67 0 | Derbyshire (not
MUPPET Sess coach eters essissss 9 58 17 «0 35 O | Uncertain.
PIMSECPAAIN .sancdauasssmosscces LOG 1%.0 43 0
BGEMOINGSS) .. veccasdesgubicags bese 10 42 18 0 oa OU
Hamburgh ............ meaerses ll 43 20 0 | 140 O | Uncertain.

Much uncertainty attends many of the statements as to time; and at
several localities there is evidence that the shocks arrived much more
rapidly than at others, in relation to distance.

were felt at 92 33™,

Thus at Cork two shocks

The longitudes are from the meridian of Greenwich.

10. REPORT—1858,

Progressive rate of the shock, Lisbon earthquake of 31st March, 1761.

Moment ee Time from
‘ rom 5 ‘
Locality. observed | | sumed | impulse to} Observations.
of shock. | Presut arrival.
origin.
Presumed focus, lat. 43°, h m Shia a 8
NO a WS tectaasescceses ll 51 dap aes At Sea.
Ship at sea, in lat. 43°, not
many leagues from coast of
DOCU gallo... -sraducaseassel es 11 52 0 30 L. a0
Ship in lat. 44°, and about 80
leagues off coast............ ll 54 1 45 3. 0
COLUhNG L5,.6055.cesssscctaceecs Il 51 2 30 GIG
Ship lat. 44° 8’, and 80
leagues W.N.W. of Cape
HMist€rre, —.c.<<esssa0sseo eee ll 58 3 30 “iy OU
TASDON ciscacsasecetesssscneancee noon 4 30 Cn!)
Madeira ...... hiiihccstdtwasers a rt as 15 0
OGH site nddcen feavl) 1S) #LE 9 30 20 0
11 40 20 O
Loch Ness, between ........- and io and Uncertain.
12 40 49 0
fi 1s (84 0
Amsterdam, between ......... and 15 15 and Uncertain.
1 45 114 0

The great sea-wave of the shock of 1755 appears, from the recorded
periods of arrival, to have travelled from its point of origin to the following
places at the rates given in miles English per minute, according to Milne ;
assuming the transit rate uniform for the whole range of translation, which,
however, is not possible :—

Plymouth...... 4h rete -.+.+. 21 miles per minute.
Kinsale... . 3 ee -e nit Stee TIRE 27 5
Mount’s Bay .....% ee ee on eT 53
COGS as és 3s cpsbee Te seis BO 9»
Funchal A.s4s:ckef¥s Bee obs (B'7, 49
Ayamento’ . 40. .6 553. Den epew airs vO 9
Lisbon ..... eT ey eee 55 ”
Antigua ts 1a. ots de 24 bb. (OO ”

Barbadoes®? ..@% <4 «Wac¥eces de. 9'3

ahd that of the shock of 1761, as follows :—
Scilly Isles and Mount’s Bay.... 20 miles per minute.

Dublin ect: ee ee ae we Bl ”
Kinsaley . 0°..@5 4 see eee nd m
Barpaddes ..\4.06. ees Medes ve 74 3

I place these results of Milne’s discussions of the imperfect materials at
his command, rather for convenience of reference to future investigators, .

than as attaching much value to them beyond rude and provisional ap-
proximations*.

* For the same reasons I transcribe the following notice, which has appeared while these
sheets have been printing :—

“ Direction and velocity of the earthquake in California of the 8th and 9th J anuary 1857,
By Dr. John B. Trask.” Silliman’s Journal, Jan. 1858, vol. xxv. p. 146.

“The precise time of one of the shocks was obtained with tolerable accuracy for five

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. |

We proceed now to France, Belgium, and Holland, the limits of which
Perrey fixes somewhat arbitrarily, as bounded on the south by the Medi-
terranean and by Spain, on the west and north by the Atlantic and Northern
Oceans, as far as the Zuyder Zee, on the east by the Rhine and Alps, but
comprising within it Geneva, in the basin of the Rhone, and Basle, Manheim,
Frankfort-on-the-Main, and some other cities close to the right bank and in
the basin of the Rhine.

Tase VII.—Earthquakes of France, Belgium, and Holland.

Earthquakes with date of Day or Month. With date of |
Season only. |S o
Centur | K elelZalt@e lee
Poel he afelg |S) 28] 28 [E=| to
ai/silaiai. .| 3/3/1818] 8| $2) 2s ss
SIBIEIElEIS|S/Sle18/5/8) 82 | gee"
Slejel(ajel45 |S lapalol|ajal & a
Bete ccvesens|) «+. cosli =06| weve] dole aed eer Cis mary | s ;
ee ae as ey EG (a) a ae ae 1 1
Ser vy sass %- ‘ 1 BUTE. nah ote 1 : 3 6
‘eae Fall sell ae Siva] AWK Afreeale aoe. ses ai |i
ITS a btaee Rat finde Kesh | oe hace fac We obeegs Nl fea) pice
> PY) ae er ee ee sly Bhag dh 4 3 ade 1 a
ret aco. 1 sas oasis pel ene Aa ee ce 1 2
LACE A yf <2) Fy | gs | beg (il il he hl se 2 16
2 31 3 a) | TS | eee) er (a! | ee ses 1 12
>. aera Lig dna By Ug ctlt Mbeve.|caasli ds sag a 2 9
Cee hl todbodl, Lie2h LS 1) sesfyi2l. 1} 2|1 1 1 6 21
a ape 2 vy a Wn a | es Te ae Mel a
2 misono 4, a) al lol, 2) O| Ai glo 3 eee 7 61
OV Els S05 13} 15) 4) 4) 7} 3] 7 3) 8} 4) 6) 11 aod 6] 91
XVIII. ...| 26} 20) 17) 26) 11) 18) 17} 15] 13) 18) 23) 28 1 ‘ 4 | 237
4D. Se 27) 17) 21] 13} 13} 8} 15) 17) 15} 17) 21] 25 1 “ 1} 211
Total. ...| 83) 64) 53) 55] 42} 36) 47] 40| 50) 48) 60] 78 9 2 | 35 | 702
Winter Spring Summer | Autumn
200. 133. 137. 186.

localities eastward of San Francisco, the greatest error in time of the clocks being 3! 4”,
and the least 0’ 22”. The time, being all reduced to that of San Francisco, gives the fol-
lowing results :—

Locality. Lat. Long. | Time of shock. Elapsed |) Velocity
time. per min.
| aU Ns Y hie om a ath. }) Se ‘* miles.

San Francisco ...... 37 «48 192 25 )\'8 ts 30 0 00 0-0
Sacramento ........ 88 32 121 23} 8 20 00 7 30 6-6
BRGCKEON «hae <> alas 37 52 12] 34) 98» 23. 00 9 30 65
TEjJON .... sss dowesp aa 00 118 46 8 45 00 32 30 6:0
San Diego .......+..| 32 42 117 13} 8 50 00 36 30 70

or, for the average of the five observations, 6°2 miles per minute, or 545°6 feet per second.
The author says, this closely approximates to Prof. Bache’s results as to the rate of the
earthquake at Limoda on 23rd December 1854 (Amer. Ass. for Advancement of Science, for
om 7): but he appears here to confound rate of sea-waye with that of earth-wave or
shock.

12 REPORT—1858.

And for the two months at each critical period of the year—

Dec. and Jan., Winter Solstice........... Jo 161
June and July, Summer GIttOe SUR SRS ee 83
March and April, Spring Equinox......... vchies LOS
Sept. and Oct., Autumnal ditto.............. 98
As respects horizontal direction, the relative numbers are,—

N. toS. siahuat ahelfecerereye eis tahs soe IoC

IN SBS Ss es Wisc teri aver te are .- 0-43

Poh AW ies, eteksncteleteions eistetessyovshore 1°88

S: Bey jg NeWilseetcineae cee STrer ie 0°59

PN ee able Serie wie ee LO?

S.W.,, N.E. Se cmsieteus sehow he 0:96

We ®..5) His Setaleisides sna ese (OO

NSWe jy Sabie | Be etic -le a nae baciehen Loo

which, by Perrey’s method of calculation, gives for the mean general hori-
zontal direction,—
N..71° 27' E. to S.'71° 27' W.

To this he not only, in the case of France, confesses that he does not
attach much weight, but also states that each century will not give the same
mean resultant.

The actually observed districts of shock have been mainly along the
lines of the valleys of the Rhine and Rhone, and in an inferior degree along
those of the Loire, Seine, Garonne, and Meuse (the Pyrenees being
viewed as part of the Spanish region), the tendency being to a direction in
length of the valley, others across these. When the physical and geological
features of France and the Rhine basin are recalled, it can scarcely be
doubted that they constitute a natural independent seismic region, with
centres of disturbance connected probably at great depths with the extinct
volcanic countries of central France and of the Rhine. The almost continual
slight disturbances of St. Maurienne, lasting for more than fifteen months at
one time, appear quite analogous to those of Comrie and East Haddam. For
the specialities of these and other questions of the French system, however,
the memoir itself of Perrey must be consulted.

The basin of the Rhone has been consigned to a separate memoir. The
precise limits assigned to the district are not stated; but we must assume
them to extend somewhat vaguely beyond the actual catchment of the
river, The results are given in

Tas_e VIII.—Earthquakes of the Basin cf the Rhone.

Earthquakes with date of Day or Month.

a
Oo we
o =
Century. Pe B x | 2 |S S| Total.
Bg zel2lsh)e]s (ae
Se ee ae a = =
3 Pa ee a 2 3 a a= 2 ° © 5) taal
SISIEIEI SSIS) P/EISI EIS
silelalataleisa jfaslalajlyo|;alsa
PONIES woes es APH Bas 1 2 Dt] Niel tease 2) ine uM 1 10
DOL PAA tt ie} 1 1 3 OT vas 1 6 1 Ql 29
XVIII 7 5 6 6 3 5 7 + 4 8 6 7 3 71
b. D. Earns 12 | 12 8 oiled 2 2 4 6 6 8 | 14 1 81

Total ..., 26 | 20| 16] 10/11])11] 9{ 9{|19] 15) 14) 24] 7 | 191

Winter Spring Summer Autumn
62 32 37 53

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA, 13

presenting considerable similarity to the results for France as a whole.
The following are the proportional numbers for the months :—

. 5 M B
B| B glaleial4
Ss 5 ra fo ° 3 o 2
Alelaldal/szaiAl/Sil4ajlaliaolssza
1°69} 1:31] 1-06) 0°66) 0°71) 0°71) 0°59} 0°59} 1°24) 0-98) 0-92) 1°57

OPO NV CER EEE laces ies | LSO,
oe PEM ts, wick ek bas 2 tes “OOr
3» Summer See erases 0°81
oP GON sore a te Sisigte Spree G

and for the two months each of
Winter Solstice ..........00.... 1°53

Spring Equinox \, ia)...’ i. 08 -. O81
Summer Solstice........ Lapeer ae 061
MAPA ELQUINOX 5 ch s's'o'e t's c'e 0 6 POs

and as to direction, following his usual method, Perrey arrives at a mean
general horizontal resultant,—

S. 9° 44! W. to N. 9° 44’ E.

This is not far from the general line of the course of the Lower Rhone ;
but Perrey remarks that numerous examples occur of shocks whose alleged
horizontal movements were orthogonal to the river-valley, and to the
meridian.

We pass on to the basin of the Rhine, which, in its entire extent, com-
prehends, in fact, a large portion of Switzerland, but whose precise limits
Perrey does not define.

Tasre [X.—Earthquakes of the Basin of the Rhine and Switzerland.

With date of

Earthquakes with date of Day or Month. ee
Season only. ate
Centui y. , 5 a legs gig 185
tee aleleisi ae la 8 |s s| Total
He] e)])e] 2 g\g sc wd | 3
a|/si3s ; 3/3|/2/5/38] r=) ad
=] - Le | mh} 2 SS ~ ° = 2g se
Bi\si|S/BIS|S/2/s/2 18/2/28) 48 | Be
SIBPISIAISlSA [A l[ a] a2lol|a4sa a| ne?
=| ee) 1 1} 1 DIE cal * 19
Dl) ces] owe]! cus] ven] car} oss] «

Ssesccoees| oes) 2) 2) 2) f2) BS] SL} LZ] wee] cee
+ seeeee

| 15] 17} 13] 12] 11] 6| 12] 11] 10] 17| 24] 25} cc. | ce. ot. ] 173

-| 62) 54) 44) 37) 36 30) 35} 30) 36} 36) 58) 71) 2 1 25 | 557

Winter Spring Summer | Autumn
160 103 101 165

Wr ccitpoyn te aa eo RBPORTSIBEBE ry con ENS EE KO

_.The. autumn and-winter together here present a number, having nearly.
the same ratio to that of spring and summer together, as 3: 2,
And at the critical periods of the year, of two months each, we have

Winter Solstice” V..cg sede cab nek . 133
Spring Equinox ....... Sas Bos 81
Sunimer. Solstice |. \e.)eh > Se se oeeas 65

Autumnal Equinox,,, .sssacaessen. U2

while, as respects horizontal direction,

S.,..,to N, AOA Aaa By icon Cah
NG), SEW. caesar sisizesie Ord
SNe Roe Rae 5 On Be ate, oe

S\ Br," We Wa fa eee eae - » e+ O89
e +») N. ee . eee 2:00
Se Wess Dies tot aks ie pees Ill
sala named cies attmeehe elects 0°78

NMRA Saieiecons so. orc epee mia

and, by calculations on before-given principles, a mean general horizontal
direction of

S. 7° 9' E. to N. 7° 9! W.

which corresponds pretty well with the general direction of the river valley.
Observation, however, indicates, in most of the localities upon its banks,
frequent and wide occasional departures from such direction; and, indeed,
in the broken country forming a large portion of its length it is improbable
it should be otherwise.

The basin of the Danube.—This vast tract of country has been left very
ill-defined as to its limits by Perrey, as respects the subject of his research.
His catalogue shows that he does not limit himself precisely to the catch-
ment of this mightiest of European rivers, but, in fact, includes something
like the whole of that vast tract of country between a line on the north,
reaching from Prague to Kherson; and on the south, from Venice to Con-
stantinople, and even occasionally stretching beyond these limits.

TasLEe X.—Earthquakes of the Basin of the Danube.

With date of

Earthquakes with date of Day or Month. Satan ante 3 Es
: ; oS 3 e's
Re 5 Hail Vesa sei) MOREE eae
Century. Belebebs re = 8 a abies E = 3 - 5 Total.
S/eislalelele|/s/8/2]| 8 a/ 25 | 898 SH
E\SIel al Ele (S/ Sl eleisis/82 | ear.
SleleleiSlFiél/alalé6lazlal= n
We to XV...) (1)'s 1) 3 py emia HN BD oe HE ee | +. ll 19
BEV avis Speed test 3} 4) 1; 1 3 Vial 1 16 {| 35
GY Ieee eos | ple ie ia glibc TD] Peo es iat Fas) pie ll} 31
XVIII. UT YO) Ay She 8] C250 Gs 8 eae erga | lag 2 4 88
XIX... 34/15) 9) 8) 12) 8] 16} 11] 11] 16} 10) 12 1 1 1] 145
26] 25 | 18

Summer Autumn
67 6

Perrey remarks, that although the total number of shocks recorded appears

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. ID

great, it is very small in proportion to the enormous area embraced—nearly
ten times that of the basin of the Rhone; and he justly concludes, that,
were it not for the penury of records in those regions, so much of which
is semibarbarous or thinly inhabited, the total number in it would be far
greater than he gives. While the general character of shocks here is not
that of great intensity, instances are to be found of some, of disastrous power.
The relative numbers are for

Winter Solstice «., «. -sseucck ease 2°90
Spring Equinox ............ vex -O'70
Summer: Salstipe is ois oa fae ved 1:05
Automnal Equinox: ......,:..:'6. O91

and as respects horizontal direction, the results are,—

ewe ROU te dase cot atesad @artiaiattve Mito
INBEiis adiSale tic dmciee dete ann ate OOO

Beh Wee hee: sa als't area ain'e gerd
ere NaN ee tery) bee ded 0:50
PRE SASS) Gis aap alae eh 117
NG. ONE ce as at. ek Be
ee eee Ue 1-33
OR ee ee SRR STE

from which Perrey obtains a mean general horizontal direction of
W. 2° 39' N. to E. 2° 39’ S.

This is again very much the line of the Lower Danube itself, which, how-

ever, over so vast an area, and fed by vast rivers poured into it on the
northern side between great flanking ranges passing more or less north and
south, can in reality exercise little or no influence; and too much stress
must not be laid upon any observation as to line of direction, even when the
azimuth surface may be reliable. This applies to every earthquake country ;
uninstructed observers are very liable to mistake the direction of movement,
by confounding the direct effects of the shock with those due to inertia of
bodies moved. In the Danube basin, it must at present remain undecided
whereabouts the centre or centres of disturbance proper to the region are
to be found. On the north, the Carpathians probably are above the centre
for those whose horizontal direction is more or less north and south; but
whether the shocks from east to west, and veering towards the north or
occasionally to the south, have their origin in the Caucasus, or beneath the
eastern extremity of the Euxine, or are also in connexion with the great
seismic energies that so powerfully and frequently display themselves in
Syria and the south-east, indeed all over Asia Minor, yet requires to be
investigated.
- In the region of the Italian Peninsula, Perrey includes the whole of Italy
and the mass of the Alps, exclusive of Savoy (which is included in the
basin of the Rhone), with Sicily, Malta, Sardinia, &c., reaching into the
centre of the Mediterranean Sea; and, on the north, all the localities whose
watersheds are not into the Rhone, Rhine, or Danube. For the con-
ventional limits which Perrey has fixed for himself in deciding upon the
isolation in point of time of each distinct earthquake, often in this region
continuing for many days with little interruption, the memoir itself must be
consulted.

16 REPORT—1858. i ear ee

Taste XI.—Earthquakes of the Italian Peninsula, with Sicily, Sardinia,
and Malta.

With date of

Earthquakes with date of Day or Month. Senscquaniniel aie!
4 : - ro io fae 2's
Century. cas : 8 mr 3 5 abe Eg | &| Total.
P| s $/8/1S\ele] sz | ~8 les
OIE SE || oe ie 2\/8/2/8/8|8F | 88 Sa
EIS|EIE|BlE/5/ 21 B/2/] 8/8) 43 | Ba &
BIS lSslalslSl[Sialajola2ja| & | 2
LCoS C CRESS Reese feeec|? <0. | ead fede Mcrolece : vel |e Ti : 6 6
Wis ecwadetet cal mavelivsss|' sxe] sss] rena] tenn oe 1 . 4 5
A llocispab- ped aca Ital lect Sad] aca] meee een pees 1 1 ere : 1 3
WLU SSseare ses|/ cee] becallices| (pees Wale oleaerl tees “8 . ee 1
\ AIL Bae - EA Wee aha) (too [da juoces ces jackc cae ° 2 2
LEG cas soceey fides cea cae Dl peesteee A eae os 3 6
Xe cece sacl Tane| abu isons |fkowel ise | pote : o] eee] eee ge a0 3 3
>.< (ey oe) Min deme | Pe: Fe 1 are P| Altes = =e 3 7
PRE) aanares 7d ia PS ces od eral OE 2 ak Beit 18
MED, Fe wresel) ak PS ali Beal) Ose : 8 15
MV eos 1 ieect 3]. Fa j ene 6 20
GV ewees Hy eu) ] VAS eo 6 7 18
NOW eevee] 2] sec Q PaMM UL) tL Mi ee nL Siac ae we 1 15 32
2 ae 10} 15} 14] 15} 4) 13) 8! 7| 10) 4) 6| 3 2 1 9 121
XVIII. ...} 45] 41) 43} 29} 38) 46} 21) 31) 24} 44) 31] 30 2 1 12 438
Oo wcieaens 37| 39] 38] 35! 32) 24) 33} 36) 23) 41| 22) 29 505 1 390
Total .,.|101} 99] 98] 84] 80) 86) 63] 77) 63) 92) 64) 77; 7 2 | 92} 1085
Winter Spring Summer | Autumn
298 250 203 233

M. Perrey, having obtained access to the work of Muratori and other
documents, produced a supplement to this memoir, the result of which he
has given in .

SupPLEMENTAL TasLe XII.—lItalian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia, and
Malta.

Earthquakes with date of Day or Month. ane
inal
re
Century. ; 5 gl] |s 5! Total.
B| 2la\/8/3i9 i383
a 3 =| 7) 2 qi 8 ls
a Pao) pe Pichon | he Sin ihc fae Saal fl ae
SiS /a/E/S/EIF| 2 2/2/51 3
S/B&la l(a lela la l/alalo|/alea
WANES aes. set) eae oo diese pl], Sebg| Weed 1 1
I ‘¢ fet eeeeee eee eee eee eee eee ee eee eee eee eee ate
pd Bes DW oeeenl Jeter lfeeecei|iescamili 2:ill tes) || soc ilmceemn mmm 5
2B RR pee 4 1 2 UY iaee Lace 1) sec loca ene 22
PXAETD, 3 2 2. (2 Tee TS 203i) Ae 2G
EME View fu wpa Woe Dp] POM 2. jrAge Daly Babli Goh) 3 |od eG | ar
ee Vicwstses 5 4) 2th Bal Sethe Oni o all | Al pea ee ei
5.4 Bis 1 1 1 DP alitecspal lire sas: ,|ieesia lee e 1 5
PROMI owesce 2 Aa incr iss ips a 1 1 spenlh ice 9
XVIII. AK: A ate Be D2) | SLs) SERN ose 1} 20
DOK srrecpit. 7{ 5/10] 8 8 | 10 8}10; 4]; 4] 41] 10 88
Total ...} 25 | 13 | 23 | 23 | 20 | 21 | 18 | 25 | 19 | 16 | 13 | 22 | 39 | 277

Winter Spring Summer Autumn
61 64 62 51

tit
’

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 17

In the first of these, the winter and spring earthquakes together are to
the summer and autumn together

as6: 5.

Tn the supplemental table taken alone, however, the winter season has lost
its preponderance, and autumn shows the smallest number.

The number in winter and autumn together, however, still slightly ex-
ceeds that for spring and summer, in the ratio of 9: 8.

While this shows the usual doubtfulness of generalizations from partial data,
the result rather tends to awaken increased attention to the very prevalent
excess of seismic action in the winter half-year, shown by so many cata-
logues, and here sustained, though by a supplement, that, taken alone, some-
what departs from the principle.

As regards direction, he finds

INS tor Se Se SR AE CO'8Z
N.E. ” SOW DERG SRE hee 1:08

EE) thy, RR OS ODE IEE Oat
Se PO NVR SS costs mk SOI aie) 1:29
S. ” NE BAG et eee rh oean 1°29
Saws AB e bt ane erm 0 0
eS pg Es ek PEST OE) 189001 0-91
N.W. ” top) op es oe SOC On ee 4s:

and the mean general horizontal direction of resultant

S. 72° 97' E. to N. 72° 27' W.
Observation by no means accords with any such general mean direction. It
has repeatedly indicated movements in Italy and Sicily in every azimuth—
perhaps with some greater prevalence of those from north to south, and the
reverse ; but the fact appears to be that these regions have their centre of dis-
turbance almost directly beneath, and hence, as is the case in South America,
and the Moluccas, Philippines and Sunda Islands, the emergence of the wave
generally makes an extremely large angle with the horizon ; and the horizontal
component is ill-suited to easy observation. The most fearful earthquakes
with which this region has been visited, and whose force has reached
France, Germany, Holland, and England, and into Africa, are said to have
had a point within their immediate cincture where the shock was absolutely
vertical, as in the Riobambe earthquake recorded by Humboldt.

The memoir of Perrey on Algiers and Northern Africa is brief; and he
laments that the want of information, and of access to sources of it not
attainable, prevented his collecting a sufficient number to found any ge-
neralization upon. ‘The following results alone he is able to tabulate :—

Tasre XII.—Earthquakes of Algeria and Northern Africa.

Earthquakes with date of Month. an
a
os
=) £ a | | S38 | Total.

E z sls |x/2l/2ia8
a/s|4|-; z Bolo ae pes
SiS ISLES ele) ale) Ss) ers | er

Sleijalalisels/S /ea;alol/ala

peajeae canna) (a \a9]%ar | ar. | ome" |)°63
Spring Summer Autumn
12 8 13

18 REPORT—1858.

The want of further historic information upon this region is much to be
regretted. It has been, since anything has been recorded of it, known as
subject to earthquakes. Cities, the sites of bishoprics in the ancient Christian

church of Africa, were thus demolished, and now astonish the traveller.

amidst rocky solitudes by acres of hewn stone on the sites of prostrate
edifices that mark the past magnificence of Carthaginian and Roman rule.
And at the present day, earthquakes are frequent and serious, as the many
edifices erected by the French since they have been in possession of Algeria,
and since thrown down, demonstrate.

Whether, as a seismic region, Northern Africa have a centre of dis-
turbance of its own, and if so, whether this exists deep within the little-
known recesses of the Atlas chain, or beneath the southern verge of the Me-
diterranean basin, or whether its disturbances are only derivative, and have
their centre either in the volcanic region of the Canaries or amongst the
towering peaks of Abyssinia, all yet remains to be discovered. No infor-
mation worthy of any confidence has reached me as to the general horizon-
tal direction of shocks in this region. How much to be desired is it, that
the government of the Emperor of the French would systematize seismo-
scopic observations in their African possessions !

The last of Perrey’s European series now comes before us; and in the
following table he has given the results for—

TazsLe XIV. — Earthquakes of the Turco-Hellenic Territory, Syria, the
/Egean Islands, and Levant.

Earthquakes with date of Day or Month. | With date of |
Season only. |6 s
5 ‘ = " so aa
Century. ae Ba hee E B 2 4 Bu is : Total.
&|S/4|. 2/8/2/8/8| 82 | #8 Ss
2SIB/E/E/E/S) Bl mIe/ Sib] s] & Bap
B(SiIS(SIS/ElS/2/ 5/5/2131 “8 | Ba F
Sls lelalelisl[asladjalolala Bla
1 ee (rcloekiar Ueda al i Bok Wy, Lames
V. 1 Aika inde 3 1 eae ts PPR ele
Wlsesessdoe 1st a sce] Pea aii ae oe 103) 27
VIMY Di cosale ASG aN ay <p 6 8
VIII. . Diie Dee Aer, Wits Dlice gl tetas ] 1 3 12
IX... 1 4 ere 2 aah 1 sal 2 7
Dal FOI aac ce 2) 2) J - nae 5
Dsl ete: cusrensts 1, Bea Satie! a a Ui (i a
2 I Si cel errs Me ene Vie Beas a 2 19°} 23
XII. L) slispipiey ‘ 1 9 13
OVS paci|i wales My Li keel) Scala ayel) Be) awe le selee 1 3 8
DROW er cis s/s aja aiard||, wise Wet SL weal ee atl pata teeta an 7 11
VE. sadn telh suds Sh vetle 2h Uiseealueoe all cated whl mea owe 14 22
QU Baeiee 5] fe Os) 9 Ula a a Se - fl2 h Wne igt lbe a aie 17 | 53
XVIII. -.) 9/ 8) 5] 9 10 13) 12) 8/11) 8 9] 8 2 sae 12 | 124
PUN) «ei 22) 20) 116 10) 16 15) 14) 22) 14) 17) 12) 14 2 2 1 | 197
Total ..| 40) 35) 31) 30) 37 35] 35) 40} 40) 34) 33) 33 8 5 {134 | 570
Winter Spring Summer | Autumn
106 102 115 100

This vast region embraces the Turco-Greek peninsula, from Trieste to
Constantinople southward of the Balkan range, the Greek Archipelago and
Asia Minor to Bagdad, with a portion of Syria and the Levant.

Perrey remarks, that the number of facts he has been able to collect are

age gO

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 19

fewer than the known seismic character of the region warrants, and rightly
attributes this to want of record, and to the want of communication in these
parts of the world. He also remarks (what has been pointed out in the Second
Report as applying to Antioch, &c.) that here seismic energy appears to have
been in various localities extremely paroxysmal in its action, with long periods
of intermediate cessation. In the Turco-Greek peninsula, earthquakes have
long been both frequent and formidable.
For the four critical periods of the year he finds

Winter Solstice ...... Se ee 73
SMe LOUUD Ks a io pp05 ead! nine § 61
Summer Solstice 2... i. 005+ saneac. 10
Autumnal Equinox ....,......... 74

Pouqueville (‘ Voyage en Gréce’) has given some very singular facts and
speculations as to the time of year of earthquakes in Epirus, &c., in re-
lation to the rains. They need inquiry and confirmation.

In analysing the horizontal direction of shock, Perrey has deemed it
proper to separate the region under three sub-districts, in consequence of
the broken character of the Greek peninsula, and the very diverse orientation
of the coasts, river-courses, and mountain-ranges throughout all its parts.

iatic. .
Directions. Re sat e4 mate, Constantinople. Smyrna. Total.

2 2 he

W. to E. Med
N.W. to S.E. ...

m
e+
°
Zz

We Repl
—
I

These figures are meagre enough. By the usual method, Perrey calculates
a mean general horizontal direction of shock,

N. 34° 37! W. to S. 34° 37! E,

_ The deduction, however, is plainly in this instance of little value. Many
shocks in this region have been described as approximating to vertical; and
this is to be anticipated from one having a centre of disturbance almost in
its midst with active volcanic action. All its eastern end, Syria, &c., how-
ever, has some separate centre of disturbance, either in connexion with the
eastern chains of Asia Minor, which appear to abound in igneous forma-
tions or with the Southern Arabian centre ; while Constantinople, the Dar-
danelles, and the western and southern shores of the Euxine may also be in
connexion with the Caucasian centre of action.

We have now completed Perrey’s European series. He passes to the
American by the discussion of the basin of the Atlantic, viewed as com-
prehending all from Iceland on the north to ‘Tristan d’Acunha on the south,
and on the east and west everything between the shores of the continents of
the New and Old Worlds.

Within this oceanic expanse no less than five great and probably con-
nected centres of volcanic action exist: Iceland, the Azores, the Canaries,

‘ * Including once for Aleppo. tT Including once for Latakia,
{ Including once for Thassis.
cQ2

20 REPORT—1858.

the Cape de Verds, the West India Islands, and the great submarine volcanic
region first noticed by M. Daussy, besides many other points, as Ascension,
St. Helena, St. Paul’s, &c., at which extinct volcanic phenomena are visible.
The number of observations, however, as yet recorded of earthquake-shocks
within the basin is so very small, that Perrey has been only able to collect from
130 to 140 instances between the years 1430 and 1847, or about three a
year on the average; so that he does not deem the basis large enough to
warrant any numerical discussion. The observations of M. Daussy, “ Sur
l’existence probable d’un volean sousmarin situé par environ 0° 20! de lat.
S. et 22° 0' de lon. ouest,” published in vol. vi. p. 512, ‘Comptes Rendus
de l’Académie’ (1853), have, however, made this one of the most interesting
seismic regions on the globe.

M. Moreau de Jonnés (‘Comptes Rendus,’ vol. vi. p. 302) has given two
recorded observations on board French ships, the ‘Czesar’ and the ¢ Syl-
phide,’ which render the existence of a submarine volcanic tract on the bank
of Bahama highly probable; but M. Daussy has collected and given obser-
vations of shocks received by vessels at sea at various periods, but all within
a given limited area, which renders the existence almost certain of a vast
active volcanic suboceanic area in the basin of the Atlantic, nearly midway
between Cape Palmas on the west coast of Africa, and Cape St. Roque on
the east coast of South America, or in the narrowest part of the ocean between
these continents. This vast disturbed and perhaps partially igneous ocean-
floor can be no less than nine degrees in length from west to east, and from
three to four degrees in breadth from north to south. The following are the
observations given by Daussy; and the relative positions of the several
recording ships are given in the diagram (fig. A.) :—

17th Oct. 174’7.—The ship ‘ Le Prince,’ Bobriant: twoshocks. Lat. 1° 35’ S.;
long. 20° 10’ W.
5th Feb. 1'754.—The ship ‘ Silhouette,’ Pintaul: one shock, with trembling.
Lat. 0° 20’ S.; long. 23° 10! W.
13th April 1758.—The frigate ‘ Fidéle,” Lehoux: several shocks. Lat.
0° 20' S.; long. 23° 10! W.
3rd May 1761.—The ship ‘ Le Vaillant,’ Bouvet: saw an islet of sand above
water, in lat. 0° 23! S. and long. 21° 30’ W.
3rd Oct. 1771.—The frigate ‘Le Pacifique,’ Bonfil: one shock and trem-
bling. Lat. 0° 42'S., and long. by estimation, 22°47 W. An agi-
tated sea, and no bottom found on sounding.
19th May 1806.—M. de Krusenstern (ship’s name not given). Lat. 2° 43' S.,
and long. 22°55! W. Saw columns of smoke twelve or fifteen miles
to the N.N.W., which he and Dr. Horner attributed to voleanic sub-
marine eruption.
18th Dec. 1816.—The ship ‘The Triton,’ Proudfoot: in lat. 0° 23'S., and
long. 20° 6! W., passed over a shoal of about three miles from east to
west, and one mile from north to south. Twenty-six fathoms water,
with bottom of brown sand. ;
12th April 1831.—The ship ‘Eagle,’ J. Taylor: in lat. 0° 22’ S., and long.
23° 27' W., the sea being perfectly calm; one violent shock: the rudder
was powerfully shaken, and a muffled sound was heard from beneath.
Nov. 1832.—The ship ‘La Seine,’ Le Maire: in lat. 0°29! S., and |
Jong. 21° 15'W. Under easy sail; one powerful shock.
9th Feb. 1835.—The barque ‘ The Crown,’ of Liverpool (captain’s name not
given): lat.0°57'S., and long. 25°39! W. When going six knots,
was thought suddenly to have struck on a coral rock and to have

‘SIIB WOIF *A\ “Buoy “4]9y udVq aavY SYOOYS oy) YOU 4v Saor[q
“OUR I} JO uorFat o1ueopoa outrem@ns s,Assneq

"yynOg yey]
of

ob

ol

81 o6L 006 olG 066 0&6 ofS 086 9
*r0yenby

22 REPORT—1858.

grated over it; but on sounding directly after, found 135 fathoms
water.

98th Jan.1836.—The ship ‘Philantrope de Bordeaux,’ Jayer: in lat.0°40'S.,

4 and long. 22° 30! W. Violent shock and trembling for three minutes.

13th & 16th March 1836.—The American ship ‘St. Paul,’ of Salem (captain’s
name not given), being ten miles to the west of the ‘ Philantrope,’
perceived the same shock.

in 1836 Captain Fergusson, of the ship ‘Henry Tanner,’ presented to
the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, through F. L. Huntley, Esq.,
voleanic ashes or cinders, like black pumice, which he had found on
the surface of the sea when much agitated, in lat. 0° 35' S. and long.
18° 10’ W.

In a previous voyage Captain Fergusson, in lat. 1° 35'S. and long.
23° 5' W., was alarmed by a violent shock, accompanied by a great
noise, as if he had struck upon a rock, but could find no bottom on
sounding.

Some other instances are said to be found in the ‘ Sailing Instructions for
the Azores’ by Tofino, translated by M. Urvoi de Portzampare, in the
‘ Annales Maritimes de France,’ which I have not been able to consult. We
possess enough, however, to indicate that a submarine volcanic tract is in
activity beneath the Atlantic, as large in area as Great Britain, and that the
bottom of the ocean there is rendered uneven in the extreme, immense
protrusions taking place in deep water. How desirable would it be that
some British ships were commissioned to examine this tract more perfectly,
especially to obtain accurate soundings and sectional lines of the bottom
from east to west and from north to south, and, if possible, to obtain, by
dredging or otherwise, good specimens of the material of the bottom, and
also observations of the temperature of the sea at various depths !

Our knowledge of the distinguishing marks of suboceanic and subaerial
volcanic ejecta, of the chemical reactions producing mineral species, under
the conditions (so vaguely understood as yet) of high temperature and great
pressure in presence of water, might receive important accessions, if such
specimens from the bottom could be obtained from thence (or from other
similar positions), while our ideas of the extent to which local ocean cur-
rents may be produced and maintained by the local heating of the deep sea
immediately above such volcanic tracts might be enlarged, and other trains
of future research suggested.

Above all, how forcibly does the existence (so far almost unnoticed and
unknown) of this vast volcanic and seismic submarine region indicate the
desirableness of having henceforth a well-arranged system of scientific ob-
servation and mode of daily entry in the log-book made part of the duties
of ships of every civilized maritime nation, and having such entries referred
to a special office (with us, probably, in connexion with the Admiralty or
with a revivified Board of Longitude) for extract, record, and discussion !
That certain classes of observations could not be made on board our ships
at present, although the zeal of our officers of the navy and of some of the
mercantile marine might be counted on, is certain; but it is equally so that
very many of the highest value to cosmical science could be made and re-
corded, if the system were once arranged, the classes of observation deter-
mined on, properly ruled and arranged log-books prepared, and the making
certain observations (to be determined on by the central board beforehand
in each instance) made matter of duty. Navigation and commerce would
gain, eventually, quite as much as, by the small sacrifice of time and labour,

:
:

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA, 23

they thus gave to science. I venture respectfully to commend it to our own,
to the American, and to all European governments.
- In his memoir on the Earthquakes of the United States and Canada,
Perrey may be said to include the whole northern continent of America,
with the exception of Mexico and Central America, to which he has de-
voted another memoir.

The two following tables, XV. and XVI., give the results of his discus-

sion :—

Taste XV.—Earthquakes of the United States and of Canada.

Earthquakes with date of Day or Month. “
@

Century. | | | 8! . | 2 | 8 |S S| Tota.

Ble | Qi e) 3) a) a i3

Bo elas . ; os use Wes: |: 3 3 ©

= = al er | 2 (Sel) ane ie es = 8 a

£|/2 a.|/ a] 8 Bole r= BS oS 2

Ssilelsiqlel/Si4s4l4}/alol2azla
BYiT....,;- rd eticw hk stl ch ioe ch ae Wah oe 4] 10
XVIII Pocono a rea oll Oe On Ol) gata li le oo ps oe
RIK. }:... Ae Ms rea fa ita) a (oro yl es! glee ln oe eb

Total ...| 14] 14/12} 6{ 6| 4); 10] 14] 8/10) 19| 17 | 15] 149
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
40 16 32 46

Here the number of earthquakes in autumn and winter are to those o!
summer and spring as 88 to 49, or nearly as 2 to 1; and for Perrey’s critical
periods :—

SE Ct a i re a a9

ppm POUANOR Ss as ce ns pes. oe oe es 18
Smee SOMES Fn sp cise pepe pieniene LY
Autumnal equinox ....... ssn Seems dG

Perrey wholly disputes the verity of Humboldt’s conclusion (¢ Cosmos,’ t. i.
p- 519, trad. p. M. Fays) that earthquakes are most frequent at the equi-
noxes, and declares that the results of ail his memoirs prove the contrary.
He discusses from his catalogue the relative number of shocks in each
State of the Union; but this is comparatively of less importance to science
than to social life. He has not been able to ascertain the northern limit of
seismic action, but sees ground to believe it has reached Greenland more
than once, but that frequent shocks pass no further north than the Canadas.
The only records with direction of motion given are twelve in number,
viz.,—

PVA TOSS), lS ok POUR Pek ely UG
Wee ROG goog), (IG au +8
ee SW. . oho 4 PS 2
Bias vere 22.12 Liss, ALOT Uel 2 1

and calculating, upon his already known method, the mean direction from
this narrow base, he finds it

; N. 31° 54’ W., to S. 31° 54’ E.;
but he confesses his own opinion, derived from a broad view of all the facts

and the topographic character of the country, to be, that the prevailing
direction is from north to south, or the contrary.

94 REPORT—1858.

The vertical component of motion has only been given in one instance
here ; but there is every reason to presume that the angle of emergence of
the seismic wave all over the northern continent of America is steep.

TasLe XVI.—Earthquakes of Mexico and Central America.

Earthquakes with date of Day or Month. %
@ =
Century. : 5 B |e 3 S| Total.
a@|/s/e]- ; seb es gH] Daal Cae FI 8 iso
Ss = = a o a Pe) [a Q o pe
elelial/R|Si18/S| FP] 2/815] 8 =
ei eee 4S SS srt a | SO Nae ney
GVA Wee oo Pipe oa tate can PCC “Bs ifs |Seeeo|! aly Poem 6
SANE aes he fone Ga ie oa Pre] Wee el tees al fee ear 7
XVIII oe ot eal ee Seley! AE aed nome tae ORO ||| 224
XIX. Bl Bel De DE Gus ee, sie ads NT esis onal eres ta em an aD
Total 3/5} 8B) S48) Fy) Al 2) Ay 4 Salm tebe
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
16 16 10 10

The steep emergence of the wave is most remarkable in Mexico, whiere, at
Acapulco, it is frequently felt as a directly vertical pulse from beneath (as
at Riobamba).

Perrey does not attempt, from his materials, a full discussion of the hori-
zontal component of motion. The prevailing impression in Mexico is that
the direction of shock is parallel to the chain of the Cordilleras. Some, how-
ever, of the most remarkable shocks have apparently moved at right angles
to the preceding.

The truth is, in a wide region situated close to, and no doubt in great part
close above, vast centres of disturbance, whose pulses reach the surface gene-
rally with large angles to the horizon, there must be horizontal components
in every azimuth, and only distinguishable in one more than another, as the
accidents of the originating blows, of the heterogeneous formations through
which they are transmitted, and the opportunities of exactness of obserya-
tion, &c. vary.

Perrey concludes this memoir with a résumé of the labours of Arago, Von
Buch and Berghaus, on the voleanoes of Mexico and the Andes.

In his memoir on the Antilles, Perrey includes Cuba, which has also been
the subject of research to M. Poey, now stationed at the Observatory of
Havanna—with Hispaniola, Jamaica and Porto Rico in the greater, and in
the lesser isles Antigua, Barbadoes, St. Christopher’s, Guadaloupe, Mar-
tinique, Granada, Trinidad, St. Thomas, Santa Cruz, Dominica, St. Vin-
cent, Tobago, and St. Lucia, &c. In discussing the copious materials at his
disposal in this vast region, Perrey has found it necessary to adopt certain
conventional licences with reference to some of the very prolonged earth-
quakes, whose slight but continuous shocks have often (as at Comrie and
East Haddam) lasted for a great length of time, reckoning each month of
such shocks as equivalent to one great earthquake.

In the following table, XVII., he has given the distribution in time :—

a5

|

|

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 25

TasLe XVIJ.—Earthquakes of the Antilles.

Earthquakes with date of Day or Month. With ages se
= only. J oie
Century. | | .- S| |8/8| gs Bx (8 S| Total.
ae : w/Q/]2 8 s ~
Kila] >i (= eal FS te ST a we jas
0) ee) Be a a a -|e/2/8}/a/o]/e8 Ae jee
SISSIES Sel 2/1218 /8| 24 | Ba fF
SIPs l(aisislsiaiaiol4z are n
ONY e) a. S03 Ay vetlareuley
AVI. .3.5'.. aE aU ee Mpa k cl, ot
| XVIII. 6} 7 3 4) 3) 5) 10 7 9
i eaaaae | 9} $} 19) 12} 12] 10) 9 16) 12
Total ...' 15) 16| 23) 17) 16| 16) 20) 28) 22
. Winter Spring Summer | Autumn
54 49 65

Contrary to the result usual for Europe, the number of shocks in summer
here seems to preponderate ; and in the critical periods we have—

WIntersOlsticey - soos, snicteverere 5/0, «0 30
Spring equinox ..........0..-4- 40
Summer solstice ............ SSE Ae
Autumnal equinox .............. 42

or for autumn and winter together 108; spring and summer 114, —a result
equally contrary to what has beeu found so uniformly for Europe, and to
the prevalent belief of the inhabitants of the islands themselves, who deem
the equinoxes the dangerous times.

Representing by unity the mean degree of frequency, and by 12 the
whole number of earthquakes given with date of month, we find for each

month the following proportional number :—

‘ey .
B/E ON Ba
Ge re ee ee ee
eS(E/EISIE(S/E/S/S/2/2
ie) <b ete ts | ee a | Onl e -|_ a
0°81) 0°87} 1:25, 0-92 0-87) 0°87} 1:09} 1:25 Lag 1:09 0:98 0°81
0:96

0:98 0:89 | 1:18

BREEOD VWs catubeeti cee syste ce Sister
S. ” N. ee ewer e cere . eee 5
Netheens. ZA eee ibedtes hteo
W. ” i. Bs e@gervee of O18 OP Ce UD . ee 7}
ONY BistesMUROMN Wiese veal ote iennc! shave sia ke

from which, by his usual method, he deduces a mean horizontal direction—
E. 92° 5! S. to W. 22° 5''N.;

and it is worthy of remark, that Deville gives, as greatly disturbed in 1843,
the zone running parallel to the great circle of W. 35° N. to E. 35° S.,

26 REPORT—1858.

or EF. 35° S. to W. 35° N., which is about parallel also to Perrey’s mean
direction. It must not be forgotten, however, that, in 1812 and in 1843,
shocks were observed at right angles to this, and in some cases, as in 1770,
in all azimuths ; and also that the prevalent opinion of the inhabitants of the
West Indian Islands is, that they have a general north and south horizontal
direction, thus coming within the scope of the general direction of similar
phenomena on the northern and southern continents of America.

M. Poey, of the Observatory, Havanna, has published, in the ‘ Nouvelles
Annales des Voyages’ for 1855, a memoir and supplement upon the earth-
quakes of Cuba, separately, with copies of which he has obligingly fur-
nished me. It would be out of place in this Report to discuss M. Poey’s
views as to the connexion between cyclones, or other storms, and earth-
quakes, or as to the physical causes of the impulse producing shocks. As
regards the first, it may, however, be remarked in passing, that violent and
sudden local change of barometer-pressure must (as I have indicated ina
former report) be viewed as a possible inducer of such reactions beneath the
surface as may possibly result in earthquakes; and that as respects the part
which water, under heat and pressure, may play in its spheroidal state, I
have also indicated fully as much as the present state of our knowledge will
sustain. As respects the statistic results of M. Poey’s labours, they are
embraced in the following table, which combines the facts of both memoir
and supplement :—

TasLe XVIII.—Earthquakes of Cuba.

Earthquakes with date of Day or of Month. a
at
Century. | | | 3 S|) 18 s Total.
Ps | ZI\EBlEl\E\ eS
Ble|eid}|als Sheps) 2 sdee
a a 0 a = = A Ul |
slelealaljeisns {/sSil[alalo};asa
ME Vececte Hi. 4 4
EVIE. 4 a | eh Tiloeell ed
XVIII “ae oe Mess fain, Ie cantatas a aM! 2
OKC eres 4) 3] 2] 3} 8] 4] 5) 2] 6G} 5} 6} 4] 38] 50
Total ..)) 2 Wh PE Bye a es ees 6 te oe Ge
| |
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
13 10 13 15

Cuba, therefore, appears to show 28 earthquakes in the winter and autumn,
and 23 only in the summer and spring.

The surface of this single island is, however, perhaps too small to attach
much importance to its isolated discussion*.

The last of Perrey’s monographie memoirs is that on Chili and La Plata,

* While this Report has been passing through the press, I have received from M. Poey a
copy of his later and more elaborate ‘‘ Chronological Catalogue of Earthquakes in the West
Indies, from 1530 to 1857, extracted from ‘l’Annuaire de la Société Météorologique de France,’
tom. v. p. 75, Séance du 25 Mai, 1857,” and regret that the limits of a foot-note preclude
the possibility of analysis of his valuable memoir.

Of a total of 690 earthquakes, he finds that 142 occurred in winter, 156 in spring, 187
in summer, and 154 in autumn,—thus so far corroborating Perrey’s result deduced from
a smaller base.

A very complete Seismic Bibliography for the Antilles concludes M. Poey’s memoir,

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 27

or the region lying between the western slope of the Andes and the sea,
from the 25° to the 45° south latitude, between the Desert of Atacama on
the north, and the Archipelago of Chonos on the south.

The following table contains his numerical results for a region, however,
in which shocks of greater or less intensity are almost of daily oc-
currence :—

Tasie X1X.—Earthquakes of Chili and the basin of La Plata.

Earthquakes with date of Day or Month.
o 2
Century. | | |; 8 wig ls é Total.
| my ‘ as Re |/ Oo] 8
eet ey eal] Slee ee ale Bs
SeI(SI\SIEBIE| S13) P/B/8)5/3-4
silelal@alals In jalalo|4aia
YT. .s..-; | fie 2a <j is 1 ays
BEVEL cane. Tae 1 si ae 6 9
Vie) Lb} 1) 1 LP le Dee Mon! ae a ey LO
XIX. 4|10,14) 8/19) 11] 16/15/16) 9) 27) 8| 38] 170
Total .... 15 | 12} 16} 8] 21 | 12) 16) 16| 16) 10) 27} 9 | 16! 194
Winter Spring | Summer Autumn
43 41 48 46

From this table he has omitted several earthquakes, whose period has
been prolonged to several weeks or even months, by a convention like that
adopted here with regard to the memoir of Comrie, &c.

A table of earthquakes noticed as occurring in Peru from a.p. 1810 to
1835, by M. Castelnau, was presented to the Academy of Sciences in
1847, by Arago (‘ Comptes Rendus,’ 2 Nov. 1847) ; but the catalogue itself is
not given, and I am not aware that it has appeared elsewhere.

M. Lambert, mining engineer of Chili, in a memoir on the causes of
earthquakes in Chili and Peru (‘Ann. de Chim. et de Phys.,’ t. xlii,
pp- 392-405), published in 1829, mentions that the Chilians vulgarly
divide their year into three seasons or ‘‘temporadas,” and that one of these,
the first, composed of January, February, March, and April, is called “tem-
porada de los tremblores,” or earthquake season; on comparing the facts of
his catalogue, with the popular belief however, Perrey finds the facts pal-
pably contradict it.

As to the prevalent horizontal direction here, Perrey makes no attempt
to discuss it, contenting himself. with the remark, that the popular belief
is universal in the region, that it follows the chain of the Cordiilera. Ina
country, however, having so little of its observed surface (for the great
sandy deserts are nearly unknown as respects our inquiry) of a level cha-
racter, with a general seaward -slope from the great central axis, and with
the origin of disturbance so closely beneath, that many of the most for-
midable earthquakes have emerged almost vertically over considerable
tracts, the attempt to fix a prevailing horizontal direction would be
nugatory.

Finally, we come to the two last of Perrey’s memoirs which have been
referred to—those in which he has brought under one view many of the
facts of his monographs, and graphically discussed the results in tables
for all Europe, with the adjacent parts of Africa and of Asia, and for the
north of Europe with the north of Asia, viewed as one great boreal band.
The results of the former are given in the following Table :—

28° oe REPORT—1858.

Taste XX.—Résumé of the Earthquakes of Europe, and of the adjacent
parts of Asia and of Africa, from A.D. 306 to 1843.

With date of

Earthquakes with date of Day or Month. Sainoniaaades 3 af
E e's
Century. : & B18 ee S = § |S °| Total.
B/E 3 3 B/2/2| 2.8 | od las
mu 3 na r= oF 2 oO
S\s (Sia) e)¢ 2\/s|8|/28/8| 88) 28 ex
SIRE S| el Ssle| Pi ai2/e13| 82 | be
SIS/Sl|eliS/lsiBslseila;rel/e/2z <q an
Sis isl(flSlSl[S5i4]alol4 lal =e n
ae | ee | a | mn | ee re | | a | ee ||
INP aeons weal etesliecna| hea eae eee 1 Ee ee | Mets aleat| a ns Lae 21
We nbeco 1 asc ala 2) 1 Dhl peel vane laa’ atolls 25
(Vlas ate Peters RP 2g N16 MRSS 11 2 2) ais ea | 11 31
VDE eae. os Le Pea eae ie i fon ke 2 I soa Soe 6 10
YUL Fe apap pi Yi eb 8 |r bol oe lien Si lsoa 3 11
ID Su seradecis Ale eB re eel ie aan es 1 ha be) a 1 | 10 36
ereae sees Dy gsish ny eae lige S| ee Dealer oe (es feed pe eI hea 8 17
SEES 1} 4 5) 1) 2] 1 2 2) 4) 38) 3} 8} 1 19 51
S11 Rae co] PIPE VRE 2 | PR a ee aa 34 68
PORED, ic asees Jie? Pt Vac Vee fc ee Ie | 2) 5) 4 27 55
20 I gu eee bf ier fu Me Fé a UUs a 2 | 22 58
SG Goes seh eT al RA MA sai Dh se a a Sg ae Leah a 41
CVLeiine. ces 10) 5) 6 8 10) 4) 2} 3) 9; 3} 6 10 38 31} 110
OVI ecese 21| 16) 15] 13} 6} 9) 10) 3) 14; 3/10, 17; 1 1 | 41] 180
XVIII. ...| 77) 58] 45] 52] 36] 49) 49) 49| 32) 62) 55| 62) 14 4 | 21) 660
BN anice 99 100| 90) 59} 55] 55) 74) 78) 72| 92) 60 78 6 1 6| 925
Total .../228/189/172)147)126)131/148)147|147/176|148 202) 48 ll 279 | 2299
Winter Spring Summer | Autumn
589 404 442 526

Autumn and winter still preponderate thus for entire Europe. As regards
the “ critical periods” of the year, the results are—

For XIX. Century. For the whole period.

Winter solstice ...... rhe wots e 253
Spring equinox .....26.-000006s 151 170
Summer solstiees.!j2. 0, goss ds. 129 150
Autumnal equinox ........... - 164 159

and for the half year, and XIX. century only—
Autumn and Winter............ 527

Spring and Summer ............ 394
and for the whole period of nearly 154 centuries—

Autumn and Winter...... «dasiee ls A 165

Spring and Summer ...... imawass 190

or about as 1 : 0°75.

The mean annual number of earthquakes in Europe, &c., deduced from
the data of the ten years between 1833-1842, while it was everywhere at
peace, and intelligence well conveyed, Perrey finds to be nearly 33 per
annum. He considers that one-fifth more may probably have occurred
that have not come to his knowledge, so that the mean annual number
would be 40, or between 4 and 5 per month.

The remainder of this memoir is uccupied with remarks upon very nu-
merous and interesting secondary phenomena, recorded of the earthquakes
referred to in the catalogue discussed,

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 29

In the last memoir—that in which Perrey discusses the earthquakes of
northern Europe and northern Asia together—he expresses with some
caution his own belief that the preponderance of seismic phenomena in the
winter half-year above the summer half, in the ratio above given, is worthy
of acceptance as an empiric law for Europe at least, but doubts whether it
may be extended to the other hemisphere.

The geographical limits of this seismic region are somewhat arbitrary,
reaching from the Elbe on the west to the extremity of Kamtschatka on
the east; bounded on the north, in Europe, by the Baltic and White Seas,
but in Asia reaching to the Arctic shores; and on the south, in Europe, by
a great circle passing north of the Carpathian Mountains to the Euxine, the
Caucasus and the Caspian, and thence by the Desert of Gobi to the Sea of
Okhotsk—a vast tract, containing many important mountain-chains, though
principally distinguished, as Perrey remarks, by its immense plains and low
table-lands.

The eight following tables give not only his numerical results for this
region, but a general comparative view of the numerical results of nearly
the whole of his memoirs, for which I have somewhat extended some of the
tables, and changed their order slightly.

TasLe XXI.—Earthquakes of the Northern Zone of Europe.

Earthquakes with date of Day or Month. Season only. |
——$— | » Pe
a} lglelZel| ze (83
Century Poe | Seu! 8 3 : Z 5 § S Total.
a\|s|/4]_- 2i/8)S8)\/8\8!| se) Pe iss
pantera, (bot |) ps] © S/S\o6|/2|/s| 28 | 28 lea
elQ}s/e|/ a) s/ el Plals!e1s =F ae S
Slflelalsleizlalaiolazlale ia
WiLtoXVI., 2) 1) 1} 1) 3) 2 1] 3} 1)... I) fase : 2 8} 25
BEVEL. ...... Amo trhealhy vid! castoscele Mile Urcky She 2|wes AE 4| 19
POVILE. 25... 10) 7 4) 4) 4 1] 2 5) 4) 4) 3 5} (2 oa . | 54
Nara. 25s 12) 5| 4) 5) 6 3) 2) 4) 2) 9 7 6... 5 eT
Total ...| 27) 18} 9) 11 13 6| 5| 12} 8| 13/13, 13, 1 | 2 | 12] 163
Winter Spring Summer | Autumn
54 30 25 39

Taste XXII.—Earthquakes of the Northern Zone of Asia.

Earthquakes with date of Day or Month. With Season |,
| only. ea
ons
: SiMe eter er yards. Talee
Century. " A s 8 8 a2 Be oe Total
Bla|<|_. .|.|3/E/S/2/8| 82) PE eS
See reaeamiaes es | res | Er es | ou Ss 1G ce cess | ee ee
SISISISBIiSlslsls| FRlSlo] ol ea | Ba
SlelalajselSislalnlolazlale n
VENT... oO .G)-2) Beek (ed) 2) 22) Ps 1 7 32
5) a 4/6/)6/4/4/3/5/7)6)3)4)5 57
Total ...|7 |12|8|5|5|3|6|9]}8}5}5/8| 1 7 | 89
Winter Spring Summer. | Autumn
27 13 23 18

30

REPORT—1858.

TasLe XXIIJ.—Earthquakes of the Northern Zone of Europe and of
Asia together.

Earthquakes with date of Day or Month, _ | With Season),

f

only. oy
[ : 2's
Century. - & BI = $ 5 5 |. °| Total
|B . ey el fe en bee te bea Me =I She eS
ela Sil ctl eae L a/8\/S8)e\s|ss Pa les
SIE/E(E S/S /S/S/8/8/ 2/8 /s8 (ea en
Sle lsltl/s/s/Sl/4/alélzlales|a
WAlVsto: RVA 6 62] Mes Lis distal PLM ee eee at 2] 8 25
VOUIUESERE Ee a) eee eet ime he Uy Ly seofiy< Bip a2 hui) ape en 20
1A ere 13} 13} 6} 5) 5) 1 38 6) 6] 4) 8| 2 7 86
BADRG sees sess 16) 11] 10; 9) 10, 6 7 T1) 8) 12) 11) 1)... ry RL
Total ...| 34] 30) 17) 16 19} 9) 11) 21) 16) 18) 18) 21) 2 2/19 | 2538
|
Winter Spring Summer | Autumn
81 44 48 57

TasLe XXIV.—General Result as to Mensual Relative Frequency of

Earthquakes.
5 ui u
= y “ 4 Ss ots | ae o
Regions. o S/a]. : oe a ee r=
So} Weeder atl | Sl) ok Le tee th cee ane
aie iSielflBilselaiFisieys
Rt ae nl el he a eta ei la rea =
Europe (the whole)...| 1°35) 1:11, 1-07) 0:95 0-85, 0°81) 0°87) 0-95| 0°89} 1-02) 0:93) 1-2
France and Belgium...) 1°52) 1°17) 0-97| 1:01) 0:77; 0°66, 0-86) 0-73 0-91) 0°88) 1-09) 1-4.
Italy and Savoy ...... 1-16) 1-13) 1-27) 1-05) 0:96 0-96) 0:94! 0-94) 0-76) 1:13) 0-76) 0-9
Basin of the Rhone...| 1°69} 1-31) 1:06) 0:66) 0°71) 0:71) 0:59 0-59} 1-24) 0-98) 0°92) 1-5
Basin of the Danube..| 1°38) 1-38) 0°62) 0-71 1-11 0°84) 1-16) 1-11| 0-71) 1:02 0°80) 1-1
Scandinavia ............ 1:85) 1-12) 1:18) 0°75) 0-90, 0:56) 0-95 0-73) 1-01) 0-95) 1-06) 0-9.
Europe, Northern Zone} 2°19} 1-46) 0-73) 0-89) 1:05) 0:49! 0°43! 0:98) 0:66) 1:05! 1:05! 1-0.
Asia, Northern Zone...| 1-04) 1:78) 1-19) 0-74) 0-74) 0-44 0°89) 1:33) 1-19) 0°74) 0-74) 1-1
Both Zones united ...) 1°78 1:57) 0°89) 0-84 is 0°47 segs 1°10) 0°84) 0-94) 0-94) 1°]

TasLe XXV.—Result as to Relative Frequency in Season.

Region,

Europe (the whole) ...
France and Belgium ..|
Italy and Savoy.........
Basin of the Rhone ..

Basin of the Danube...
Scandinavia ............
Europe, Northern Zone
Asia, Northern Zone...
Both Zones united

Winter.

1:18
1:22
119
1:35
113
1:38
1:49
1:33
141

Spring. | Summer.} Autumn.
0°87 0:90 1:05
0°81 0°83 1-13
0:99 0°88 0:94
0:69 0°81 1:16
0°89 0-99 0-99
0-73 0-90 0:99
0:81 0°69 1:05
0°67 1-13 0°89
0°75 0-84 0-99

SOTKMDIR OS

es ee ee

mage.

PETC Pe ant rere sent

)
: | pee ee ‘
week" , +2 (POR Pe a n
a

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 31

Taste XXVI.—Result as to Relative Frequency at the Equinoxes and
Solstices.

Winter | Spring |Summer |Autumnal

Region, Solstice. | Equinox.| Solstice. | Equinox.

—S=

Europe (the whole) ..., 1:25 0:99 0°82 0:93
France and Belgium...| 1-43 0:96 0-73 0°87

Italy and Savoy......... 1:02 1:13 0:93 0:92
Basin of the Rhone ...| 1°53 0-81 0-61 1:05
Basin of Danube ...... 1:33 0:70 1:05 0-91
Scandinavia ..........+. 1:36 0-94 0-74 0:95

Europe, Northern Zone} 1°74 0:87 0:48 0:91
Asia, Northern Zone...) 1:20 1:04 0°72 1:04
Both Zones united ...) 1°48 0:96 0:58 0:98

Taste XXVII.—Result as to Relative Directions of Horizontal
Component of Shock.

Rin |e ;|/a)/a4)/A|2-].,

Region. £/e|/s8/g}e]2)/2/F2)8

Z\/al/Hlalv2#|/EBI/E;/eIe

a n n a

Europe (the whole) ...| 1-57| 0°65; 1°65) 0°67) 1 12 0°88) 0:88, 0°60) 464
France and Belgium ...| 1:50) 0:43) 1-88] 0:59) 1-02) 0:96) 0-91) 0:69 149
Italy and Savoy......... 1-09) 0-91) 2-25] 0-91/ 1-09 0:51) 0°87, 0-29) 110
Basin of the Rhone ...| 1:30) 0°37) 1-30) 0-56) 1°86, 1°12) 1-12, 0:37| 43
Basin of the Danube...| 1:33) 0-50) 1:33) 0°50) 1-17 1-00 1:33) 0-83} 48
Seahdinavia ....cee.s0s 0°73) 1-09) 0°73] 1:09] 1:09 1:45) 1-09 0°73) 22
Europe, Northern Zone] 1:19} 0:60) 1-48} 0°30) 2:07; 0:00 1-98 0°59} 27
Asia, Northern Zone...| 2°35) 1-88' 0-94) 0:47| 0-47 0-94’ 0:00, 0-94) 17
Both Zones united ...| 1°64) 1:09] 1-27) 0°36) 0-45| 0°36 1-09 0°73) 44

Taste XXVIII.—Result as to Comparative General Resultant Horizontal
Direction and Intensity.

Bekion Resultant Horizontal| Intensity of
pees Direction. Resultant.
Europe (the whole) ............... E. 33° 42' N. 0°61
France and Belgium .............+. N. 71° 27' E. 0°56
Ttaly and Savoy ...............00000- S.'65> 51" Ei. alate ot 8,
Basin of the Rhone ............... S. 9° 44’ W. 1:23
Basin of the Danube............... W. 2° 39'N. 0:66
SOANGMIAVIA Wel Mum. <puvescecrsdaess S,.22° 30! W. 0:94
Europe, Northern Zone ......... S. 17° 45’ W. 0:23
Asia, Northern Zone............... N. 23° 48’ E. 314
Both Zones united ............... N, 23° 55! E. 1:06
British Telands Cy kiss S. 39° 5! W. ?
Spanish Peninsula.................. EB. 31° 56’ S. 5
Basin of the Rhine ............... Sep th ot tee a
Turco-Hellenic Territory ......... N. 34° 37' W. ?
Mexico and Central America ... N. 31°54! W. ?
DRG ANTES. Rink tibet avivens eects’ E. 22° 5'S8. ?

32 REPORT—1858.

There remains to be noticed, of M. Perrey’s labours, his discussion of the
periodicity of the earthquakes of his annual catalogues for 1844, 1845,
1846, and 1847, with reference to the phases of the moon’s motions, published
in ‘ Mém. de |’Académie des Sciences de Dijon,’ 1848, 1849, part. des
Sciences, p. 105, &c., and also presented to the Institute of France at a
later period.

The result he arrives at, as respects these four years, is, that the number of
earthquakes occurring at the Perigees (when the tides are highest and
lowest) are, to those occurring at the Apogees, as 47 : 39,—a conclusion
which, independently of the assumptions by which it is arrived at, must be
as yet accepted with caution upon so narrow a base of induction, although
possessing more than enough probability, from physical considerations, to
induce further inquiry.

The Academy of Sciences (Paris) appointed a commission to report upon
M. Perrey’s communication; and the following translation of its report
(‘Comptes Rendus,’ tom. xxxviii. 12 Juin, 1854) will give a tolerably clear
notion of his views, which here rest upon a larger base than in his Memoir
as first published :—

“ The Academy has commissioned us, MM. Liouville, Lamé, and myself, to
draw up a report ona paper presented by M. Alexis Perrey, Professor in the
Faculty of Sciences at Dijon, on the 21st March 1853, ‘On the Connexion
which may exist between the occurrence of Earthquakes and the Moon’s
Age,’ and on a note also presented by him on the 2nd January last, ‘On
the occurrence of Earthquakes in connexion with the Moon’s passing over
the Meridian.’

“ At the time of the presentation of the paper of March 1853, M. Arago
had been appointed a member of the commission. The lamented death of
our illustrious associate, since that date, left a vacant place in our commis-
sion ; and before the presentation of the note of the 2nd January 1854, M.
Lamé was appointed to it.

“ M.Arago, whose attention nothing escaped which relates to the physics of
the globe, pursued with sustained interest the researches of M. Alexis Perrey.
The Academy has not forgotten the care which he constantly took to draw
its attention to the notes which the learned Professor at Dijon addressed to
him from time to time within the last few years, in consequence of the in-
quiries he was engaged in on the subject of earthquakes. M. Arago made
particular mention, at several meetings, of the connexion which the author
had already traced between the occurrence of earthquakes and the moon’s
age. ‘

“ The cause of the interest which belongs to this subject is easily explained.
If, as is generally believed in the present day, the interior of the earth is,
owing to its high temperature, in a liquid or melted state, and if the globe
has but a comparatively thin solid crust, the interior, being deprived of
solidity, is compelled to yield, like the superficial mass of the ocean waters,
to the attractive force exercised by the sun and moon, and it acquires a
tendency to swell out in the direction of the rays of these two bodies; but
this tendency meets with a resistance in the rigidity of the solid crust, which
occasions shocks and fractures of the latter. The intensity of this force
varies, like the tides, according to the relative position of the sun and moon,
and consequently according to the moon’s age; and we must also observe —
that as the tides ebb and flow twice in the course of a lunar day, at those
hours which agree with the passing of the moon over the meridian, so the —
direction of the attraction exercised upon a point of the interior globe must
change twice a day, according as the point recedes or approaches the

:

|
|
|

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 33

meridian, the plane of which passes through the centre of the moon. With-
out entering into longer details, we can easily conceive that, if the fusion of
the interior mass of the globe plays a part among the causes of earthquakes,
then its influence may become evident by a necessary connexion, capable of
observation, between the occurrence of earthquakes and the circumstances
which modify the moon’s action upon the entire globe, or upon a portion of
it, namely, its angular distance from the sun, its real distance from the earth,
and its angular distance from the meridian of the place, or, in other words,
the moon’s age, the time of perihelion, and the hour of the lunar day.

“These considerations, which occurred to M. A. Perrey, doubtless in-
spired him with the idea of the two works which we have been commis-
sioned to examine, at the same time that they assisted in attracting the
interest of M. Arago and many other learned men to the results which he
obtained ; but they also suggest that the essential object of the inquiries on
which we are commissioned to report ought to be, to ascertain the precise
date, according to the lunar day and month, of every earthquake the
record of which history has preserved, and even of each of the shocks
of which these earthquakes consisted. We can easily imagine the immense
toil which such a research would demand, and understand that M. Alexis
Perrey having already devoted several years to it without bringing it toa
termination, has yet been enabled at different intervals to obtain such par-
tial results as M. Arago deemed worthy of the encouragement and attention
of the Academy ; and that the learned Professor at Dijon is impatient, before
encountering the labours of still more years, to learn whether the Academy
approves of the course which he has hitherto pursued. The necessity the
author feels for the support and direction of the Academy explains why he
has, upon several occasions, submitted to it results which naturally could
not be complete, and which are not entirely so even in the paper and note
which we are commissioned to examine. In the paper presented on the
2ist March 1853, ‘On the Connexion which may exist between the occur-
rence of Earthquakes and the Moon’s Age,’ the author has devoted the first
chapter to the calculation and numerical changes of the rough results of
observation.

“ He has supposed four possible methods of calculation. In the first,
already followed in the memoir presented to the Academy May 5, 1847,
the author considers as a day of an earthquake each day upon which a
shock has been felt, whether in a single country, or in two or more coun-
tries at the same or at different hours, separated from each other by spaces
in which the motion was not experienced. Then noting, according to the
knowledge of the period, to which day of lunation each day of earthquake
corresponded, he arranges all the days which belong to the first day of
lunation, then all those which correspond to the second day, the third, the
fourth, &c.; and he constructs a table composed of thirty lines, each line
indicating the number of earthquakes which belong to the corresponding day
of lunation. Now these numbers vary one day with another, and they vary
nearly in accordance with the same law, both in a table comprising a total
of 2735 days of earthquake, the result of researches carried on during the
years from 1801 to 1845, drawn up by the author and presented to the
Academy May 5th, 1847; and in a new table containing a total of 5388
days of earthquake, embracing the result of extensive researches carried on
from 1801 to 1850.

“Tn both tables the number of earthquakes corresponding to the days
close to the Syzygies, is generally a little more considerable than that which
Pe sponds with the days close to the Quadratures. In the second method

: D

B84 . - REPORT—1858.

of calculation, the author regards earthquakes experienced in different regions,
separated by regions where the shock is not perceptible, as distinct one from
the other, and reckons as an earthquake every percussion felt in a separated
region. This new method of calculation increases the number of earth-
quakes in the Ist table from 2735 to 3041, and in the 2nd table from
5388 to 6596. The same law is again apparent in these two new tables,
and also in the four other tables which the author forms by dividing the
half century between 1800 and 1850 into two intervals, each of a quarter
of a century, and by successively applying the first and second methods
of calculation to the earthquakes of these two intervals. :

“In the third method of computation, M. Alexis Perrey regards every shock
of which an earthquake is composed as a distinct phenomenon, and registers
it separately ; but he does not possess the documents necessary for this plan,
because the number of shocks in each earthquake has not been accurately
noted. The author has hitherto contented himself with considering in this
manner the Table of 931 shocks felt in South America, chiefly in Arequipa,
published by M. Castelnau in the 5th volume of his ‘ Journey through the
Central Regions of South America.’ This table, without leading to results
identical with those furnished by the other two methods, exhibits the fun-
damental relation already manifested. Lastly, in the fourth method of
computation, the application of which would often be very difficult, and
which has not yet been attempted by M. Alexis Perrey, we are to con-
sider as an unique phenomenon the number of shocks consecutively felt in
the same country during an interval preceded and followed in the same
country by periods of tranquillity.

“To the nine tables formed by one or other of the three first methods of
computation the author has added a tenth, formed by the first method,
This only embraces four years, from 1841 to 1845, and contains but 422
days of earthquakes. In spite of this comparatively limited number, the
proportion of the figures appears the same. In all these tables we observe
a marked preponderance in the number of earthquakes which take place
upon days close to the Syzygies, over those which occur at the Quadra-
tures. However, it is but a general law which can be observed in the state-
ment of figures of which the tables are composed; and there are numerous
exceptions. In order to weaken the force of these anomalies, and more
clearly to exhibit the fundamental law, M. Alexis Perrey divides the 29).
53%, of which the lunation is composed, into 12ths, 16ths, 8ths,~-and forms,
by proportionate calculations applied to the ciphers of his different tables
constructed on the solar days, the numbers which correspond to each frac-
tion of lunation; he displays in all these new tables (excepting some
anomalies of detail) the law of the predominance of earthquakes at the
Syzygies, and thus confirms more and more his conclusion, that, for half a
century, earthquakes have been more frequent at the Syzygies than at the
Quadratures, M. Alexis Perrey has also studied, in the more or less exten-
sive registers which assisted him to draw up his different Tables, the ques-
tion, whether there exists any connexion between the occurrence of earth-
quakes and the variable distance of the moon from the earth in traversing
the different portions of her elliptical orbit. For this purpose he has cal-
culated in each of his registers, and according to the different modes of

computation employed to draw up the above-mentioned tables, how often

earthquakes have occurred two days before and after, and upon the day of
the moon’s perigee and apogee; and he has shown, in the numbers thus ob-
tained, that the total corresponding to the perigee, in which the moon is
nearest the earth, is greater than that corresponding to the apogee, in which

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 35

she is at her greatest distance: then, in order to compare the results, he has
taken the difference of the totals thus obtained and divided it by their sum,

. . . . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .
which has given him the quotients 53 a’ Ge Gav’ ise’ 2a 1073’ Which are
all greater than = and the last almost equal to >:

“The apparent result from this is, that the difference between the unequal
attraction exercised by the moon at her greatest and nearest distance has a
sensible influence over the oceurrence of earthquakes, In the note on the
‘occurrence of Earthquakes in connexion with the passing of the Moon
over the Meridian,’ which he presented to the Academy January 2, 1854,
M. Alexis Perrey discusses the question, whether the division of the shocks
of earthquake during a lunar day is, like the tides, connected with the
passage of the moon over the superior and inferior meridian. For this
method of investigation he could only avail himself of the 824 shocks felt at
Arequipa, which are registered with day and hour in the above-mentioned
table of M.de Castelnau. By means of proportional calculations, which
must have occupied a considerable time, he has calculated to which hour
after the passage of the moon over the meridian, each of these shocks cor-
responds. He thus formed a lst table (which he afterwards changed by
dividing it into sixteen equal portions, grouped side by side, to form eighths)
containing the 24 hours 50 minutes and a half of which a lunar day gene-
rally consists.

“ By these two methods (notwithstanding some marked anomalies which
could not but exist in so limited a number of facts as 824), the results
obtained in both arrangements manifest the existence, in the length of a lunar
day, of two periods of maaximum for the occurrence of shocks, and two of
minimum, The two periods of maximum occur at the hours of the passing
of the moon oyer the superior and inferior meridians ; and the periods of
minimum fall about the middle of the intervals.

“ M. Alexis Perrey has thus succeeded, by the simple analysis of catalogues
which he had previously drawn up, in proving, by three different and inde-
pendent methods, the influence which the moon possesses in the production
of earthquakes ;—

“1st. That earthquakes occur more frequently at the Syzygies,

2nd. That their frequency increases at the Perigee, and diminishes at
the Apogee of the moon.

“ $rd, That the shocks of earthquake are more frequent when the moon
is near the meridian than when she is 90 degrees away from it,

* But the numerical tables from which these three propositions are derived,
present some anomalies; and the author has omitted nothing to endeavour to
account for them, and to prove the law which is revealed at their first in-
spection. He first conceived the idea of constructing graphically the num-
bers contained in the tables, so as to obtain by the usual method a poly-

_gonal line analogous to those by which barometrical observations are usually

represented, in which the eye catches at once the general course of pheno-
mena in the midst of anomalies which tend to conceal it. We are tempted
to regret that he has not further developed this graphical part of his work,
which would have had the great advantage of displaying at a glance the
direct result of his researches; and that he has not even annexed to his me-
moir any of the lines which he constructed. But M. Alexis Perrey con-
sidered that he would obtain still more certain results by employing caleu-
lation ; and to this arduous task he devoted the 2nd Chapter of his principal

- paper, and the Second Part of his note of the 2nd January, 1834, It would

be difficult for us to follow the author step by step in these analytical discus-
D2

36 REPORT—1858.

sions; we will restrict ourselves to the observation, that, in order to repre-
sent the result of his work, he has employed a formula of interpolation of
this kind :—

“¢=M-+A sin (¢+a)+B sin (2+ 8)+C sin (3¢+y)+..-. in which M,
A, B, C, &e. are always coefficients of the same nature as ¢; a, ps ¥> &e.,
are always angles, and ¢a variable angle dependent on the lunar motion, which

_will be equal to 0 degree for the new moon, to 90 degrees for the first
quarter, to 180 degrees for the full moon, &c. He then adapts this for-
mula to the numerical tables deduced from observation, and determines the
particular truths which it contains. By means of the formula thus ob-
tained, the author was enabled to draw up numerical tables corresponding
to those deduced from observation alone, and in which the law of the phe-
nomena appears disconnected from the principal anomalies which tended to
obscure it in the first tables.) The numbers contained in these new tables
are carefully arranged, and form regular curved lines, in which the law is
clearly manifest. These curves have a marked resemblance to each other,
although they are not entirely alike—which could not be, for they are only
approximative—and each bears the stamp of the group of figures which it
represents. The resemblance of these curves is essentially increased by the
fact that each presents two principal maxima corresponding to the Syzygies,
and two principal minima corresponding to the Quadratures. We are thus
brought back to the conclusion so evident by M. A. Perrey’s toil,—that, for
half a century, earthquakes have been more frequent at the Syzygies than at
the Quadratures.

“The Academy fully conceives the importance of this conclusion, and
appreciates the labour the author has taken to collect nearly 7000 observa-
tions on the first half of this century. This number, however, is very small
for the solution of a question of this nature ; and it is very desirable to have
it increased, either by collecting all future observations from year to year,
a by going back to past centuries, as the author has already commenced

oing.”

These views of Perrey have found support in the opinions enunciated
by M. Zantedeschi as to the probable existence of a terrestrial as well as
an oceanic tide, one in which the solid mass of the earth’s crust, and the
liquid or semiliquid nucleus beneath (if indeed it exist in any such state) is
supposed to be an ellipsoid, with a major axis perpetually following the move-
ments of the moon and sun. To what extent such a change of form is possible
in the solid material of our planet under the constraint of the same forces that
produce the oceanic tides (and whose elevations must in so far act against
such change of form), it is for physical astronomy to determine. But even
if its existence be admitted, and the change of level of a given point on the
earth’s surface were proved to amount to many feet—to far more, in fact,
than the total elevation of the greatest ocean tide-wave, it is difficult to con-
ceive how it even then could be a direct or immediate cause of earthquakes.

Such change of form would be probably quite insignificant as compared

with the earth’s total mass; so that the flexures or changes of form produced
by it in the solid crust would probably be far within the elastic limits of its
materials, and, hence, the occurrence of fractures or dislocations due to such
a train of causes impossible.

If it ultimately prove a fact that there is a real relation in epoch between
earthquakes and the ocean tides, or the moon’s and sun’s position in respect

-

to the earth, the phenomena will probably be found in relation, only through |
the intervention of changes in terrestrial temperature, or in the great circu

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 37

lations upon or within our planet, of its electrical, or magnetic, or thermic
currents, or the conversion of these into each other reciprocally, and not to
the direct action of the variable attractive forces of our primary and our
satellite. To some such conversions of force into heat, developed at local
foci, it would appear much more probable that all volcanic phenomena are
due, than to a universal ocean of incandescent and molten lava beneath our
feet, with a thin crust of solid matter covering it, the present or historical
existence of which is not only not proven, but for which no argument of
weighty probability has been, as I conceive, advanced.

In the present state of our knowledge of the obscure relations between
the internal mass and actions of our planet with the cosmical forces that
act upon it both within our own atmosphere and from the abysses of
space beyond, and in our comparative ignorance even of the terrestrial
phenomena themselves, no speculation, however hazardous or hardy, that
is based upon a natural hypothesis, need be regretted: such views in the
beginning of every separate road of inductive science are eminently sug-
gestive, and, although in themselves false, may point towards truth. It is only
in this aspect that a memoir by Dr. C. F. Winslow, M.D., ‘On the Causes
of Tides, Earthquakes, Rising of Continents, and Variations of Magnetic
Force,’ requires notice. The communication appears to have been made to
the Academy of Sciences of San Francisco, California, by the author, in 1854
or 1855. Ihave met with it only through a printed copy, for which I believe
I am indebted to the author.

That our satellite does actually influence the magnet directly, has been
discovered by Herr Kreil, of the Vienna Royal Observatory (see ‘ Phil.
Trans.,’ 1857, and ‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.,’ vol. vii. pp.67-75). General Sabine,
in the introduction to vol. iii. of ‘ Magnetic and Meteoric Observations made
at Toronto,’ p. 9, states—‘“ The decennial solar period of ten or eleven years,
in connexion with the solar spots, proved to connect itself with the magnet-
ism of the earth, but xo¢ with other cosmical phenomena” (see ‘ Phil. Trans.
1852,’ Art. VIII.); that is to say, I presume, not with such cosmical phe-
nomena as have had their laws already ascertained. Again (p. xi.), the
author adds—“ The solar diurnal variation appears to be wholly irrecon-
cilable with the hypothesis which attributes the magnetic variation to
thermic causation.”

We find, then, that both sun and moon influence, with other and more
occult forces than those that address sense and eye, our planet, and that these
all incessantly modify the conditions and relations (mutual and to things on
the surface) of every grain of matter in the inmost recesses of its nucleus.
While every cosmical force is thus, as soon as its laws are discovered, found
to be correlated to every other, all mutually convertible, and capable of
disappearing and reappearing “ by measure, number, and weight,” as mere
brute power or mechanical force, it is not too much, at least, to affirm
the advancing probability, that a distinctly (though irregularly) periodic
phenomenon, such as earthquakes, will be found intimately related to them,
possibly with no very long or intricate intermediate chain of causation.

As regards the periodicity, &c., of those solar spots which admit of con-
sideration in relation to the two paroxysmal maxima and two minima in each
century (noticed hereafter), Humboldt may be referred to (‘ Cosmos, ’ vol.
iii. p. 291). Schwabe of Dessau, whose works the illustrious author quotes,
observed the solar spots from 1826, and, during the whole period, found three
maxima (average number 300,) and two minima (average number 33,) the
period being about ten years, or the tenth part of a century. Wolf of Berne
(‘Comptes Rendus,’ vol. xxx.) considers the period of the minima as de-

88 REPORT—1858, 2

finite, but that the maximum varies, being on an average five years after the
minimum, and that nine minimum periods exactly make up each century ;

adding, that all the notable apparitions of solar spots on record agree with

this rule. Other papers on this subject will be found, with details in the

‘Ast. Nach.’ and ‘ Pogg. Ann.,’ from 1850; and in ‘ Silliman’s Journal,’

vol. xxv., some remarks of Reichenbach are worthy of attention. He ob-

serves that the period of Jupiter is 11°86 years, and that there are certain

coincidences between the planet’s periodic returns and those of the solar

spots,—adding that their conjoint magnetic effects upon our planet, in rela-

tion to the magnetic periods above referred to, cannot but be great. See also

‘Gilbert’s Annalen,’ vols. xv. and xxi., for Ritter’s memoirs on the subject ;

and “ Hansteen on the Relations between Earthquakes and the Aurora,” in
‘ Bull. de l’Acad. de Bruxelles,’ 1854, t. xxi.

I am myself indebted to my friend Dr. Robinson, Astronomer Royal,
Armagh, for much of my information upon the subject, which connects.
itself with our own in relation to the preceding reflections, and through the
singular point of coincidence as to periodic recurrences in both-—the one
presenting traces of being in time a submultiple of the other. But at present
this must all be taken for what it is worth, and no more:

It may be suitable to remark here, that the movements of the inclination
magnetometer as well as of the barometric column, of which several have
been of late years recorded as occurring at the time of earthquakes, are
most probably merely mechanical and due to the shock movements direct.
This has been ascertained by Kreil at Vienna, and Padre Secchi at Rome
(see also Perrey’s ‘Mem. Europe and Africa,’ p. 11); and such appears to
have been Humboldt’s view (though expressed with some qualification)
at the date of publication of ‘ Cosmos.’

The following is a translation of Zantedeschi’s expressions of his own views
as to the occurrence of a terrestrial, or rather ¢errene tide, probably better
named, if it exist, the elastie tide :—

“On the Influence of the Moon upon Earthquakes, and on the Conse-
quences probably derivable as to the Ellipsoidal Figure of the Earth and
the Oscillation of the Pendulum. By M. F. Zantedeschi.” Comptes Rendus,
Séance du 2 Aout, 1854.

“TJ have thought for a long time that the form of the earth cannot always
be the same, but that it presents an incessantly ckanging elliptical form,
that is to say, having a continued tendency to become protuberant in the
directions of the radii vectores of the two luminaries which attract it, the
sun and the moon. I have always believed that a direct proof of it might be
obtained by determining a point in the heavens at the epochs of the spring
tides, and at that of the Quadratures. This point must appear lower at the
epochs of the high tides and of the Syzygies. The Imperial Observatory of
Paris, with the means that it has at its disposal, could prove if this difference
be observable, and especially now, that, thanks to the labours of M. Froment,
dividing has been made so exact as to admit of measuring with the greatest
precision a difference of ;1,5th of a millimetre between two consecutive
visible horizontal lines.

“T have always assumed that a compensation pendulum of such a length
that it exactly beats seconds at the epoch of the quadratures and of the neap
tides, must beat more slowly at the epoch of the spring tides, from the
transit of the moon over the meridian of the given place, and at the epoch
of the syzygies; and, taking from this fact that the variations of the force
of attraction upon the mass of the earth are continuous, I have concluded
from it the necessity for astronomy to take account of these times; and

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 39

herein I find the explanation of certain leaps of astronomical clocks of which
the learned have not hitherto been able to discern the cause. I believe
that one day we shall have the equation of time in functions of the varia-
tions of intensity of the planetary attractions, and of the regular oscillatory
movements of the earth, as we now have the equation of time in functions
of the motions of translation and of rotation of the earth itself. I say the
regular oscillatory motions, because, as for the irregular movements, we
cannot submit them to rule, and we are enabled to account only for the
extraordinary concomitant phenomena presented by the atmosphere, by the
earth, and by certain species of animals. The irregular motions which we
call earthquakes, happen more frequently, it has been observed, either at
the epoch of the Syzygies rather thanat the epoch of the Quadratures, or
oftener at the epoch of spring tides than at that of the neaps. This important
observation is found in the works of Georges Baglivi and Joseph Toaldo.

The first, in his ‘ Storia Romani Terre Motus, anni 1703,’ says, “In
singulis lune aspectibus, seu quadraturis, potissimum in plenitudine ejusdem
seu totali oppositione cum sole, certo succedebant terres motus, frequenter
paululum praecedebant ipsos aspectus.”—Georgii Baglivi Opera Omnia,
Bassani, 1737, p. 415, Editionis Venetiarum, 1752, p. 326.

Toaldo, speaking generally of earthquakes, says, ‘“ the late M. Bouguer
in the account of his voyage to Peru speaks much of earthquakes, so fre-
quent in that country. He mentions with doubt the assertion of a Peru-
vian ‘savant,’ that earthquakes have certain fatal and marked lines when
they occur at low water. On the other hand, Chauvalon, in his voyage to
Martinique, notes particularly the earthquakes which took place at the
time of high water; and the earthquake which destroyed Lima on the 28th
of October, 1746, occurred at three o’clock in the morning, at the instant of
high water (ora della prima acqua). Thus we remark in other countries
that these phenomena may themselves depend on the cosmical causes of the
action of the sun, and especially of the moon.” (Giuseppe Toaldo, ‘ Della
Vera Influenza degli Astri, etc., Saggio Meteorologico,’ Padova, 1770,
p- 190.) I hope that the Academy of Sciences will well receive these do-
cuments and these ideas, which tend to augment the merit and the value
of the very important studies of M. Perrey.

Edmonds, also, has endeavoured to show that many formidable earth-
quakes are found to have occurred the day after the moon is in her first
quarter (‘ Journ. Polytec. Soc. Cornwall, Note 158 ; Sabine’s ‘ Cosmos’).

Before dismissing the subject of other earthquake catalogues, the follow-
ing labour as to Indian earthquakes should be noticed. In the ‘Journal of
the Royal Asiatic Society,’ vol. xii. n.s., for 1843, Lieut. R. Baird Smith,
5.E., made one of the most extensive contributions to our slender stock of
oriental earthquake annals. He divides India into nine earthquake tracts,
partly on physical grounds, partly arbitrarily, viz.—

1. Central Himalaya;

2. Lateral Himalaya, including—
“ a. Cabul,
. b. Jellallabad,
F e. Cashmere,
' d. Nepaul,
i e. Assam ;

3. The Solymaun Mountains,
aereE 4. The Aravulli Mountains,

40 ~ REPORT—1858.

5. Delta of the Indus,

6. The Vindhya Mountains,
7. Delta of the Ganges,

8. East Coast Bay of Bengal,
9. Eastern Ghauts;

and under these divisions describes more or less fully a total number of
162 earthquakes, which he finally tabulates, by date and place only. The
epoch of his catalogue commences nominally at a.p. 1505; but almost the
whole of the catalogue refers to the 19th century, and comes down to the
year 1842.

After his remarks upon the earthquakes of the first region (p. 1039), he
observes, “The hot springs, I believe, owe their high temperature to in-
ternal chemical action extensively distributed ; and the earthquakes are due
to the convulsive efforts of the elastic matter generated by this action in
escaping from the interior of the earth.” .. . “To define the nature of this
action, while ignorant of the chemical nature of the springs, would be in
vain;”....but.... “I cannot resist the conviction that both are due to
one and the same origin.” .... “ There are no active volcanic vents yet dis-
covered in the Himalayas, but abundant hot springs and trap dykes, and
evidences of disruptive action.”

In the same vol. p. 741, a translation, by A. Sprenger, of the Arabic
MS. in the Imperial Library at Paris, of a work of As. Soyuti on earth-
quakes, is given. The original work is entitled, ‘Kashf as salsalah’an
wass az Zalzalah,’ z.e. “a clearing up of the history of earthquakes.” It
contains a catalogue of about 120 earthquakes in Western India, Persia,
and Caubul, and extending to Arabia, Syria, and Egypt. It certainly, how-
ever, scarcely warrants its title, and contains few facts of scientific value.

Again (p. 907), a small catalogue of earthquakes in Upper Assam occurs
—the authors, Capt. Hannay and Rev. N. Brown. The chief statement
of importance to be found in it is their opinion, that in this region the hori-
zontal direction of shock seems to be mainly from S.W. to N.E.

Since the publication of former ‘ Reports,’ some monographs of single
earthquakes have appeared ; but reference is here only to catalogues.

While these sheets have been passing through the press, the work of Dr.
Otto Wolger, with catalogues of the Swiss earthquakes, has appeared, and
demands notice for the extreme accuracy and care with which the volumes
have been produced,—‘ Untersuchungen iiber das Phanomen der Erdbeben
in der Schwitz,’ von Dr. G. H. Otto Wolger, Gotha 1857, 1858, 3 vols. 8vo.
The first, “‘ Chronic der Erdbeben in der Schwitz,” also embraces a discussion
as to the periodicity, locality, and extent (Ausdehnung) of the Swiss earth-
quakes, with the results graphically reproduced.

The second contains the geology of the Canton of Wallis, in which so
great a number of rapidly recurrent feeble shocks have been so long recorded.

The third, ‘Geschichte der Erdbeben (im Wallis) des meteorologischen
Jahres 1855,’ together with a chronicle of those in the Swiss Cantons and
adjacent parts of France.

There is an excellent though small map of the Canton of Wallis, showing
the points of observation of the many small sbocks that have become identi-
fied with the name of Pignerol as a centre—and in several instances showing
the horizontal directions observed—which quite bear out the observations to
be found further on, as to the effects of surface in perturbing the general
emergent direction of the wave of shock.

The work of Dr. Wolger is entitled to the study of physical geologists.

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA, 41

Perhaps, like most men who carefully and lovingly perfect their subject, he
attaches a too preponderant value to the limited district of which he treats.

Having so far considered the labours of others as to the distribution of
earthquakes in time, some remarks remain to be made on their distribution
in space by foreign authors. The seismic map of Berghaus in his ‘ Physical
Atlas,’ is the most important attempt of this sort emanating from abroad.
The following are Perrey’s remarks upon this map (‘ Mém. de l’ Académie
des Sciences de Dijon,’ t. iv. année 1855, p. 57) :—

«“ M. Berghaus, of Berlin, has devoted map No. 7 of the geological part
of his beautiful Physical Atlas to volcanic and seismic manifestations,
Greenland is very slightly coloured, and is included in the circumference
of a circle of percussions, the centre of which is in Iceland. This state-
ment does not appear to me to be at all supported by facts. The author
appears to have outstripped observation; for the commotions in Iceland
constitute an almost local phenomenon; rarely ever is the island simul-
taneously shaken in its entire extent, and the shocks are only of moderate
intensity.”

It may be added, that observation points out that the connexion as to
earthquake commotion is between Iceland and Norway, and not between
Iceland and Greenland. Of the latter country, however, in this respect we
know but little.

As to Greenland, I do not know whether any earthquake has occurred
there but that of November, 1755. That was violently felt; it caused a
terror so much the greater, as shocks of this nature were completely un-
known. However, it is probable that they are occasionally felt.

The 22nd of September, 1757, there was a violent hurricane, the wind
from the south, accompanied by hail and rain; the lightning was terrific,
but without thunder. It was generally believed that a shock of earthquake
was felt. (Prévost, ‘ Hist. Gén. des Voy.’ t. ix. pp. 23 & 209.) Earthquakes,
the author adds, are rare in this country.

Two years after, in September, 1759, at New Herrnhut (Greenland), the
house of Siehlenfels experienced shocks like an earthquake, although it was
very low and had walls four feet thick. The houses around suffered severely :
the roofs were spiit; and the boats drawn up on shore were carried away
by the hurricane, which was felt at a distance. This storm was preceded
and followed by igneous meteors, one of which set fire to the house. On
Christmas Eve a similar phenomenon occurred at noon. (Prévost, J. ce.
t. xix. p. 208.)

These are the only facts that I can quote relative to this country,
which, I repeat, notwithstanding its contiguity to Iceland, ought not, in my
opinion, to be placed within the sphere of the volcanic and seismic action of
that island.

M. Berghaus has marked the Azores and Canaries with a darker shade ;
and this memoir will contribute to confirm the author’s idea of also co-

-louring the Archipelago of Cape Verd and the Antilles. But it leaves all
the rest of the basin uncoloured; and surely it is difficult not to admit
some shading, however slight, in latitudes distinguished of late by M.
Daussy. Let us again repeat, that earthquakes, which ought to form an im-
portant part in the study of terrestrial physics and physical geography, have
hitherto been too much neglected. They have been resigned to geology,
to which, in my opinion, they only indirectly belong.

But to continue. Algeria bears, on M. Berghaus’s map, a very dark shade,
which the note I published in our last ‘ Memoirs’ does not justify. Yet the

42. REPORT—1858.

illustrious physicist whom I have just quoted includes the Azores and
Canaries in the seismic region of the Mediterranean.

They would seem to form the western part of an axis which extends to
Hindostan with variable shades, and thus unites the Atlantic with the great
volcanic chain of the Sonde (Sunda), which, as we know, is connected by
the Japanese and Kurile Islands with the Aleutian Archipelago, and by this
chain to the grand volcanic range of the two Americas. This idea is in-
genious, but is ittrue? It is a point that I cannot at present discuss. Yet
we must admit that the Azores, and even the Canaries, seem to form a part
of the sphere of subterranean convulsions, the centre of which is almost
parallel to Lisbon ; and to be at the western extremity of that great seismic
zone which proceeds by the peninsulas of Spain, Italy, and Greece, to the
volcanoes of Asia Minor, and which there joins the central chain of Asia.
It is, in fact, within this zone, extending towards the north as far as the Car-
pathian Mountains, that the principal centres of earthquakes and the most
remarkable seismic axes in Europe are to be found. Extending to the
west along the 40th parallel, this zone reaches the United States of Ame-
rica, where it embraces New York and Boston, which M. Berghaus has per-
haps marked with a rather too dark colour, though earthquakes are not rare
there ; and thence it proceeds to Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missouri, where
the phenomena of the year 1811 demand a darker shade in M. Berghaus’s
beautiful map. M. Berghaus draws a linear region in Arabia, from Medina
to Yemen, along the east coast of the Red Sea. Can this be a partial
axis of convulsion? Is it independent of the Mediterranean zone? Or is
it united to it by a second axis—the Syrian axis, parallel to the east coast
of the Mediterranean? But the countries near to the Isthmus of Suez ap-
pear little subject to earthquakes ; can there be a solution of continuity
between these two axes ? or does the space which divides them, and where the
phenomenon has, so far, been so rarely remarked, constantly present a pecu-
liarity verified more than once in America? In the New World (at Ca-
raccas, for example) certain regions of small extent have been observed to
enjoy a complete calm while the neighbouring country experienced fright-
ful catastrophes.

The historians of these disasters have characterized this unconvulsed part
of the soil by a picturesque expression, namely, “a bridge has been formed.”
The probable physical explanation of this phenomenon of “the bridge” has
been given in a former Report (2nd Report, p. 309), by the author of this,
based upon the view that total reflection of elastic impulses may occur under
certain suitable conditions.

Perrey continues, “ No simultaneous convulsions at both extremities of
this Syro-Arabic linear region have been recorded. However, if we recall
that the Himalaya Mountains are very subject to subterranean convulsions ;
that the Alps, and especially the Pyrenees, are frequently shaken, the Cau-
casus-range still oftener, and that the Andes are almost always in a state of
commotion ; must we not regret that we possess no information concerning
the phenomena in the high Ethiopian chain? is it not to be desired that
travellers in Africa should make observations upon a matter so interesting
to science?

“ During the last few years Abyssinia (strongly marked in M. Berghaus’s
map) has been the study of numerous French explorers. Several narratives
of their vast and useful labours have appeared ; but I do not find one word
about earthquakes! The Academy of Sciences has just given new instrue-
tions to’ M. Rochet (d’Héricourt), about to undertake a third expedition to
that country ; and the phenomenon is not even mentioned by M. Duperrey!

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA, 43

Quite recently, again, I felt the same painful surprise at reading the instruc-
tions given to M. Raffenel. :

“Does Abyssinia form an axis of convulsion perpendicular to the Arabic
axis? or is it the eastern extremity of an unique axis formed by the great
Ethiopic chain, and crossing the African continent at its greatest breadth ?

“Jn nearly the same latitude as Abyssinia, but on the western coast of
Africa, we find the sources of the Senegal and Gambia vividly coloured in
M. Berghaus’s map. What evidence has the author for this statement?
With respect to this region, I am only acquainted with the two following
descriptions drawn from M. Walcknaér's collection.” We read, at t. vi.
p- 181, “ The aspect of the mountains Nikolo and Bandeia prove that this
country has been the theatre of volcanic eruptions. Earthquakes are very
frequent; and shortly before M. Mollieu’s visit, one of the most violent had
occurred, the shocks of which had been felt as far as Timbo.” And further
on, p. 184, “ The mountains, covered with ferruginous stones and cinders,
which enclose the valley in which are the sources of the Senegal and Gambia,
lead M. Mollieu to believe that they occupy the crater of an extinct volcano.
This traveller was at the source of the Gambia, April 8, 1818.”

It is useful to compare this passage with the following, extracted from
the same collection, t. xii. p. 356 :—“ There is no record in Senegal that
any portion of the colony has ever experienced an earthquake.”

Without seeking to justify the accuracy of M. Berghaus, it may not
be uninteresting to remark that the Antilles and the Republic of Guate-
mala lie under the same parallel of latitude (about 15° N.) as Abyssinia and
the sources of the Gambia.

Can there be an axis, or rather an immense zone, of convulsions parallel
to the Equator? Often convulsed in the western counterforts (the Archi-
pelagos of Cape Verd and the Canaries), Africa suffers also in the S.E.,
in the great southern chain of Madagascar. I find in M. Seguérel de la
Combe that “earthquakes are very frequent in Madagascar. When they
occur, the natives leave their houses and commence beating the walls with
their hands. They do not allege any reason for this conduct but custom.”
(‘ Voy. a Madagascar et aux Iles Comorres,’ t. i. p. 3.)

Let me add this remark from an ancient traveller in Madagascar : “ Hap-
pily earthquakes are here completely unknown.” (Le Gentil, ‘ Voy. dans
les Mers de |’Inde,’ t. ii. p. 367.)

If we subjoin to these contradictory statements the few facts which we
possess, we shall justify M. Berghaus’s not having coloured the south of
Africa.

“1786, August 4, 6°35 A.m., in the Isle of France, two violent but harm-
less shocks. ‘The motion was horizontal and vertical. The barometer was
not affected. Earthquakes are of rare occurrence. The volcano in Bour-
bon, active from the 5th of June previous, emitted much lava upon this day,
but the island was not sensible of any shocks.” (Péron, ‘ Voy. aux Terres
Australes,’ 2nd edit. t. i. p. 134; ‘ Ephémér. de Manheim,’ 1788, p- 397.)

1809, 8th of January, the island of Penguin, close to the Cape of Good
Hivpe, was swallowed up by an earthquake. Iam unacquainted with this
island, and U only find this circumstance related in an anonymous work
entitled ‘ Mémorial de Chronologie,’ t. ii. p. 932.

Here, again, relative to another earthquake of the same year, 1809, are
the details communicated by M. Barchers, Minister of Stellenbosch (country
of the Hottentots), to Campbell (end of November 1812), concerning the
first of the earthquakes which occurred three years previously :—

“The church of Paarl was then vacant. The governor begged me to preach

44 REPORT—1858.

there once a month. On Saturday, the eve of the day on which Ihad to go
there, I felt extremely ill and dejected. On Sunday morning my wife and I
set out. When I reached Paarl, I was very weak, and asked for some water;
but it was lukewarm, and I could not drink it. Iwas told it had been
brought from the fountain. I sent my slave, but what he brought was hot,
I went thither myself, and found it was really the case. We could not
imagine the reason. Whilst I was preaching, I felt so giddy that I scarcely
knew what I was saying.

«« After the sermon, I spoke of this sensation to several of my friends, who
declared that they also experienced it. We returned to Stellenbosch on the
following morning. The whole of that day my family and servants and
myself felt very unwell; the dogs also shared in our uneasiness.

«“ At 10 o'clock we were all alarmed by a noise like that caused by nume-
rous carts rolling through streets. We did not know what it was; but
all my family were terrified. A great light shone into the room. Supposing
that a thunder-bolt had burst, I exhorted them not to be alarmed, as the
lightning had passed, and the danger was gone. Whilst I was speaking, the
same noise which we had just heard was again repeated, and we all trembled.
‘Oh!’ cried I, ‘’tis an earthquake ; let us all go into the garden.’ We felt,
to use a Scriptural expression, that ‘there was no more life in us.’ A third
shock followed ; it was less violent than the first two. The noise was dreadful,
not only owing to its loudness, but also to its nature. I can only describe
it as a sort of groaning, or piteous howling. The dogs and birds testified
their fear by their cries. The night was calm, not a breath of wind stirred
the air; but I remarked a number of luminous meteors. I observed small
clouds in various quarters, but their aspect presented nothing new. Every
one endeavoured to keep close to me; alarm was excessive; I said what I
could to allay it. At last we ventured to return to the house, and endeavoured
to sleep to recover ourselves ; but the effort was vain.” (Walckenaér, ‘ Collect.
des Relat. de Voy. en Afrique,’ t. xviii. p. 275.)

1810, in the depth of winter an earthquake occurred at the Cape of
Good Hope.

1811, 2nd June, five minutes before 12 o’clock noon, another earthquake
took place. The heat was greater than usual at this season, the thermometer
was 16°8 R. A thick mist filled the atmosphere, yet did not obscure the sun’s
rays ; not the least breeze disturbed the air. The inhabitants, who greatly
dread subterraneous shocks, were reminded by these symptoms of the earth-
quake of the preceding year. M. Burchell was busy indoors with prepara-
tions for a missionary Journey, when suddenly a noise like an explosion
shook the entire house. Three or four seconds afterwards a second peal
like thunder produced another shock ; at the same instant a singular motion
and vacillation in the atmosphere was apparent, whilst the sky continued
perfectly serene. M. Burchell ran out to discover what had occurred ; he
saw all the inhabitants running out of their houses in great alarm, pale and
trembling, not conscious what they were doing, the women either screaming
with terror, or motionless and incapable of speech. After the second shock,
the trembling of the atmosphere had ceased, and the temperature a little
cooled. The people gradually regained their composure, observing that no~
more shocks followed. Many houses were injured, and walls split.

This earthquake took place five minutes before noon, during the Cape
winter; the preceding year it occurred during the night, in the height of
summer: so this phenomenon is not limited to any time of day or year.

M. Burchell saw the trace of electricity in all the preceding symptoms,
and can only explain the earthquake as an explosion of electric matter.

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA, 45

On the morning of the 19th another shock was felt, but unaccompanied
by explosion or other consequences, A slight sound was heard, which
appeared to travel from N. to S., and lasted about three seconds. (Walcke-
na€r, loc. cit. t. xx. p. 20-22.

To these facts we may subjoin the following :—

1811, 7th June, at the Cape of Good Hope a violent shock of five
minutes; the houses tottered, and even the vessels in the bay felt the shock.
(J. D. 14th Nov.; M. U. 15th Nov. 1811.)

1818, on the night between the 28th Feb. and Ist March, in the Isle of
France, a hurricane similar to that of 1716; it is alleged that shocks of
earthquake were felt. (J. D. 21st June 1818.)

1821, 9th March, in the Island of Bourbon a slight shock. The erup-
tion of the volcano, which had commenced on the 28th February, still
continued. (C. P. t. xxxiii. p. 404; Garnier, Météor. p. 124.)

1840, 7th July, in the Isle of Bourbon, earthquakes recorded without
detail by M. Meister in the Annalen fiir Meteor- und Erdmag., ler cahier,

» 161.
P 1844, 21st Feb., 8 p.m., in Isle of Bourbon, shocks and terrible wind
(communic. de M. Meister.)

If we add to these five or six earthquakes the eruptions of the volcano in
the Island of Bourbon in 1’708, -51, -66, -'74, -86, -87, -91, -93, and 1800, we
shall have all the manifestations which I can quote of the interior activity of
the globe in the south of the African continent. So this part of Africa appears
little subject to subterranean commotions. But is it the same with the
interior of the country? It would be very interesting to learn this.

Johnston, in his Seismic Map (Phys. Atlas, No. 7, Geol.), lightly tints
the southern extremity of Africa, left untouched by Berghaus.

To these remarks of Perrey may be added, that both Berghaus’s and
Johnston’s seismic maps alike labour under two most important defects.

First, a hard and rigid line, often of an extremely irregular figure, limits
strictly and definitely the supposed boundary of seismic commotion in each
assigned region. Two physical misconceptions are involved in this: first,
that forces emanating from a centre, of the nature of earthquake shocks, can
have any definite boundary; secondly, that a line drawn upon the earth's
surface around any centre of impulse, and through a number of points at
which the horizontal elements of shock are alike (suppose those at which
these elements become insensible without the help of instruments, which
would be the boundary line in a popular sense), can possibly have, when
embracing large areas, a highly irregular though closed curvilinear figure.
The curve traced through such a line of points must circumscribe a space
either nearly circular or slightly elliptic ; all irregularities due to variation
of surface vanish over such vast spaces.

Irregular curved areas are alone possible on the assumption of more than
one impulse propagated from the same origin simultaneously, of which we
have as yet no evidence,

The second defect common to both those maps, and possibly difficult to
be avoided from their small scale, is the absence of any positive and in-
variable, though conventional principle of application of the depth of tint in
colouring, which shall determine, by its depth, the intensity and frequency
of seismic action at given centres.

The principles adopted with the seismic map attached to this report will
be explained further on.

_ Berghaus’s maps (3 Abtheil. Geol. No. 7 und No. 9) give an exceed-
ingly imperfect notion of the whole east of China, and indeed of the Sunda

46 Poe ee ee. REPORT—1858.

and Philippine Island groups, including Luzon, incomparably the most im-
portant and interesting earthquake region on the face of the earth, Berg-
haus’s maps, 3 Abtheil. Geol. No. 8 und 10, “ Specialia vom Vulkan Giirtel,”
&c., are worthy of all commendation, save as respects the outline of seismic
regions already adverted to, and here repeated even in a more distorted

form.

Such have been the results of previous labours as to the distribution in
time and space of earthquakes. I proceed to those deduced from our own
researches.

At the conclusion of the Second Report (1851), the principles upon
which the British Association Earthquake Catalogue itself was compiled have
been described ; it remains now to describe the methods by which it has
been discussed, and to state the results.

The collection of an earthquake catalogue is a work essentially of a sta-
tistic character, and partakes of all that disadvantage and incompleteness
that belongs to the collection of facts not the result of choice and experi-
ment, but presented to us, through various and imperfect observations, from
many places and through long-lapsed periods, during which all the conditions
of observation have suffered much change, so that the facts that are presented
for record, and those of which no account is given, are alike subject to
certain contingent or accidental modifying conditions, but of such a nature
as to defy our making them part of our discussion.

So in a work which proposes to collect under one view the transmitted
observations of the whole human race, and of all historic time on this
particular subject, the conditions of human observation itself enter into
the results, and our earthquake record is at once an account of these phzno-
mena, and of the rise, progress, and extension of human knowledge and
observational energy, and also of the multiplication and migrations of the
human family and its progress in maritime power; in a word, at every mo-
ment the indeterminate extent to which man has fulfilled his great destiny
of “ replenishing the earth and subduing it,” affects every continuous record
of his observations or his arts.

The method of discussion followed was that of numerical analysis as to
time, and topical analysis as to space, from which curves graphically repre-
senting the results have been projected by the usual methods.

One conventional arrangement has been found inevitable. It refers to
the cases of long-continued slight shocks or tremors, occurring almost daily,
as at Pignerol in 1808; St. Jean de Maurienne in 1839; Comrie, in Perth-
shire, 1839-1847; and Ragusa in 1843-1850. In these the slight shocks
recorded for each month of the disturbed period are grouped as forming one
earthquake at the locality. Had not some such arbitrary rule been adopted,
these comparatively insignificant, though frequently repeated exhibitions
of seismic force (if they be such) would, when introduced in the curves,
have given, at certain points of time, a false elevation to the abseisse, while
the phenomena themselves are not of a character materially to modify our
results even if excluded.

The conclusions possible from the still vast mass of facts here brought to-
gether, however, will, as a first generalization, be found, I apprehend, not
unimportant.

They may be classed under two great heads; viz. the relation of seismie
energy to time and to space, or the distribution of recorded earthquakes
in each. And, first,—

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. AZ

Of Seismic Energy in relation to Time.

Plates I. II. II]. IV. V. and VI. carry down the stream of time the whole
series of observations from 2000 years before the Christian era to the year
1850.

In all these chrono-seismic curves the ordinate is that of epoch, and must
not be confounded with one expressing in anywise the duration of each
shock or separate seismic effort. The abscissa is that of seismic intensity,
which has been assumed proportional to the number of coincident seismic
efforts, without taking any account in the curve of the variable intensity of
different efforts. This is a source of uncertainty that would not have been
avoided, but rather the tendency to error increased, by any conventional
law of enlargement of the abscissa that could have been devised to suit the
vague proportion of greater or less in earthquake narrations; but the means
are given to the reader of applying such corrective as the information admits,
by placing along the line of time down to the year 1750 the letter G above
each epoch at which an earthquake of undoubtedly great and destructive
intensity has been recorded, and the letter S above all! those that were so
circumstanced as to have been followed by the influx of “ great sea waves.”
This notation might have been carried on further, but that after the year
1750, when observations rapidly multiply, the number of earthquakes re-
corded as being “ great” are so numerous, that to distinguish their epochs
thus would have involved the extension of the ordinate to a new and incon-
veniently enlarged scale. For the first three centuries of historic time
(according to our commonly accepted chronology) it will be seen that there
are no earthquake records, and that, while between a.c, 1700 and a.c,
1400 there are a few scattered facts, there is again from a.c, 1400 to a.c.
900, nearly a period of five hundred years of perfect blank, followed again
(with a few exceptions) by another blank from a.c, 800 to a.c. 600, Even
in the succeeding century, but two earthquakes are recorded; so that, in
fact, the record of any value for scientific analysis may be said to commence
at the five hundredth year before the Christian era.

It is only in the first century prior to our era that the curve shows that
observations may be at length deemed even continuous, every previous cen-
tury being interrupted by lengthened lacune.

From the commencement of the Christian era downwards to the present
day, the abscissz continually increase in closeness and magnitude, and at the
first casual glance suggest the idea that earthquake energy has increased
over the whole earth during the course of ages in a fearful manner, We
shall see, however, reason to correct any such conclusion.

Although periods of thirty and forty years occur in the second and third
centuries of our era without the record of a single earthquake, it did not
seem advisable to affirm as certain the want of all observation, by the sub-
stitution here of lacune for the continuity of the curve.

_ The end of the third century first gives evidence of numerical increase;
and the increase thence is steadily progressive up to the year 1850.

It is not, however, until the seventeenth century that the increased number
of earthquakes becomes strikingly remarkable, increasing still more in the
eighteenth, and presenting a far greater number in the first half of the
nineteenth than in both the preceding centuries taken together.

Yet this vast and rapid expansion, in the three last centuries especially,
affords no proof whatever that there has been a corresponding, or even any
inerease in the frequency of earthquake phenomena. Our chrono-seismic
curve is, in fact, not only a record of earthquakes, but a record of the ad-

48 REPORT—1858.

vance of human enterprise, travel, and observation. The epochs of printing
and the Reformation are those of the first great expansion, while the dis-
covery of the new world, the voyage to India round the Cape, and the vast
accessions of European colonization and commerce of the last 150 years,
connect themselves as causes with the two latest curves. We have traced
at once the history of a physical law and that of human progress. How far,
then, is it possible to disentangle these elements, so as to arrive at a con-
clusion as to whether seismic energy over the world is progressive, constant,
or retrogressive? To do so perfectly is perhaps impossible; the elements
by which the rate of observational knowledge has been determined are too
complex and too imperfectly known to render any attempt to fix its rate of
expansion in time probable. Even the area of observation itself, the land
and water known to history at given epochs, can be but vaguely sketched ;
as vaguely also the number of observers, and the determination of the human
mind towards observation. (See Appendix I.)

This much is certain, however ;—that up to, and even beyond the Christian
era, no record of earthquakes exists for any portions of the earth’s surface,
except for limited areas of Europe and Asia, and a still more restricted
patch of Northern Africa, and, if Kaempfer, is to be credited, for Japan, of
which, however, we know nothing for certain. Yet, of the enormously
larger areas of the then outer and unknown world since discovered, it is not
to be supposed but that there was a proportionate (perhaps even for the
“New World” a more than proportionate) amount of earthquake energy,
though not recorded cr even known to mankind.

If, however, the curve of total energy (Plate VII.), in which the facts of
all the preceding are condensed into a single line, be examined and com-
pared by a broad glance with the great outlines of human progress, the con-
clusion appears sufficiently warranted, that during all historic time the amount
of seismic energy over the observed portions of our world must have been
nearly constant. To assume that earthquake disturbance has been con-
tinually on the increase, would be to contradict all the analogies of the
physics of our globe. These analogies might lead us to suppose that, like
other violent presumed periodical actions, they were getting spent, and that
the series of earthquake shocks would be found a converging one. Were
this so, however, to any considerable extent, we should not find the vast
expansions of results which the last 300 years present; or, although the ex-
pansion might be absolutely large, its divergence would not present such
decisive features of progressive increase. The results due to the number of
observers would be more or less balanced by the increasing paucity of events
to observe and record; but this appears conclusively to lead to the deduc-
tion we have made, namely, that if the curve of total energy be closely
examined century by century, it will be found that, at periods of social torpor
and stagnation of observational energy (and this is so even far down the
stream of time), the number of earthquakes remains nearly constant, or with
a very slight but nearly uniform increase. Thus, from the eleventh to the
beginning of the fifteenth century, the abscissz are almost equal, the crests of
the curves being nearly all ascribable to single great earthquakes, which made
themselves felt over vast, areas. Their expansion just keeps pace, so far as can
be judged, with that of contemporaneous human progress ; but if the series”
was really a distinctly converging one, at such periods we should find the
abscisse decreasing also. On the other hand, we find the increase in the —
number of recorded earthquakes always coinciding with the epochs of in-
creased impulse and energy in the march of the human mind.

We therefore conclude that our evidence, such as it is, indicates a general

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 49

uniformity in the occurrence of earthquakes as distributed over long epochs
of time. Setting aside (as contradicted by all other sources of analogy and
information) the supposition that this, or any other phenomenon of occa-
sional disturbance, has an increasing development upon our planet, we have
two remaining alternatives ;—either that seismic energy is getting gradually
spent and is dying out—this, the evidence before us appears sufficiently to
contradict; or that, upon the whole, during our short and most imperfect
acquaintance with it, it has remained pretty uniform throughout historic
time, taking one long period with another. Yet, could we extend our view
beyond the short limit of man’s history to the vast past duration of that of
our globe itself, it might be found that seismic energy is really a slowly
decreasing force.

A conclusion thus appearing at the first glance even contradictory to the
presented results from which it is drawn, may bear a certain boldness of
aspect, for which I hope to find that the observations preceding, as to the
true character of all earthquake records, and of the sort and amount of stress
that may be laid upon them, will be held a justification.

But while such uniformity or insensibly slow decadence may be the fact
through time taken as a whole, there is also evidence of irregular and par-
oxysmal energy in reference to shorter periods; that is to say, not only (as
all know) do earthquakes occur at some times,-and not at others, in any
given spot; but, taking the whole area of observation together (in which
there is no moment, perhaps, or but a very brief one, wherein there is not an
earthquake somewhere, or more than one), it will be found that there are
epochs when they occur in greater numbers or intensity, either in the same
or in several places within a limited time,—d.e. periods of paroxysmal
energy.

If we omit from our view all the curves of earlier periods and less ample
observation, and limit our consideration to those of the last three centuries and
a half, 7.e. from A.p. 1500 to 1850, this paroxysmal character becomes
evident at a glance, and increasingly so in the last century and a half (the
epoch of all human history the most replete with discovery), wherein the
number of recorded observations is so great, that it was necessary for clear-
ness to double the scale, of the ordinate of the diagram (Plate VI.) in rela-
tion to the preceding ones. On examining these curves, they seem to
justify the following deductions :—

1. While the smallest or minimum paroxysmal interval may be a year
or two, the average interval is from five to ten years of comparative
repose.

_ 2. The shorter intervals are in connexion with periods of fewer earthquakes
—not always with those of least intensity, but usually so.

3. The alternations of paroxysm and of repose appear to follow xo
absolute law deducible from these curves.

_ 4. Two marked periods of extreme paroxysm are observable in each
century—one greater than the other—that of greatest number and
intensity occurring about the middle of each century, the other
towards the end of each.

This is one of the most remarkable facts that these curves seem to point

to: from about the fiftieth to the sixtieth year of each century, both the
number and intensity of earthquakes will be observed suddenly to shoot up ;
again, during the last quarter of the three complete centuries another but

_ less powerful paroxysm is apparent. The paroxysmal power at these two

| aed each century far exceeds any other paroxysms within their limits.
. E

50 REPORT—1858.

Within the first period (in the 18th century) we find the great Lisbon
earthquake; within the second, in the same century, the great Calabrian
one. We find (referring to the Catalogue itself) earthquakes in great num-
bers, and many great ones—in the Mediterranean basin in the middle of
the 17th century, and the great Jamaica earthquake in its latter decade;
and in the 16th century, its middle period was marked by great earth-
quakes in China and in Europe, and the latter period by numerous shocks,
and most of them severe, as at the Azores, &ec. Whether the latter half of
our century shall show the like, remains to be seen ; from its commencement,
however, it presents no paroxysmal period comparable to that between
1840 and 1850.

While this general resemblance of the curves of these latter centuries
admits of no doubt, I would forbear from founding anything thereupon be-
yond this ;—that within this time there seems to elapse a period of about a
century between each of the very greatest paroxysms (number and intensity
together) of earthquakes, and a like period between two other consecutive
paroxysms, of which the second is the next greatest observable, although
far below the first in power; that a period of thirty to forty years seems
to occur between the first and very greatest paroxysm, and that next in
power below it; and that in the middle period (especially in the 17th and
18th centuries) the number of earthquakes is greatest that crowd into a
very brief time (four or five years), while at the latter period the number
is thickly spread over ten or twelve years.

Upon the whole, the forms of the curves appear to indicate a compara-
tively sudden burst of seismic energy at each great paroxysm, and (by
their flat tops or more sloping lines to the right hand) a more gradual
subsidence, as if the train of causes required time to regain, after one spent
paroxysm, their energy and regimen, which, when restored, were suddenly
put into action, and which, once developed, were slow in being wholly
expended and relapsing into repose. }

The occurrence of such epochs at the middle, or towards the end of our —
purely arbitrary subdivision of duration into centuries, must be of course
only accident. The interval of duration between one epoch and the next,
is that alone which can have a cosmical basis.

We may then provisionally affirm the probability of two periods of earth-
quake maxima—a greater and a less alternately—as occurring in a hundred
years, for the last three centuries of history at least. The existence of
some periodic maxima in remoter centuries can hardly be doubted, although
the epochs of the two maxima have a secular movement, and do not fall in
the same place in the older times. Anterior to the 16th century, however,
the general curves of time (Plates I. II. and III.) are, through paucity of
observations, not sufficiently “ prononcées” to enable this to be asserted from
them, or to warrant the graphic representation of the epochs of occurrence
of such paroxysmal periodic maxima for the whole even of the Christian era.

In Plate VII. fig. 2, the periods of paroxysm (number and intensity) are
summed and grouped for each successive century of our era. The Ist,
5th, 9th, 12th, and 18th centuries are those of greatest seismic develop-
ment, while the Ist and 2nd centuries a.c., and the 3rd, 7th, 10th, and
14th centuries of our era, are times of comparative repose. The numerical —
value of the paroxysmal centuries (as we may term them) increases, though
not regularly, as the present time is neared, and is modified, without doubt, —
by the same conditions of observation that affect the expansions of the later —
curves of time. We dare not base any generalization upon it. 4

Numerically, we find the following average ratios of earthquakes for the _

:
:
:

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 5]

successive historic groups, of time extending over the whole record of the
catalogue :—

TABLE XXIX.

Historic Group. Ratio per Month. | Ratio per Year.
ANGO:t0 LOOO 8.0. ccnsssserceeess 0°00033 0:004
1001 3.c. to Christian era ... 0:0045 0°054
Bel TOAD. LOUOM cris cheeos 0°0185 0°222
A.D. 1001 to A.D. 1850 4... 0°545 7°740
Te AL tO AnD LSIOscneccs0s 1:450 17°370
Ae TZOL tO AnD, LODO. .ccasns- 2°610 35°310

These numbers are absolute as well as proportional; nothing can more
distinctly show the relation between the expanding areas of our curves of
time and the increase of observation.

Sir Charles Lyell, at p. 428 (‘ Principles of Geology,’ 7th edit.), caleu-
lates, upon approximate data, the average number of actual eruptions of
volcanic matter at 2000 per century, or 20 per annum,—a result which har-
monizes sufficiently with the preceding, and gives support to the commonly
received view of the connected nature of volcanic and seismic phenomena.

This connexion receives further confirmation from the facts recorded by
Perrey (‘ Mem. on Chili,’ p. 201), as to the long duration there, of many
earthquakes of a character much more violent and decisive than the tremors
long continued, at Comrie, East Haddam, &c. He mentions earthquakes
in 1647, 1730, 1751, 1819, 1822, and 1833, each of which lasted, with little
intermission, for several months, and which, from other sources of in-

‘formation, seem to have been in some instances contemporaneous with pro-

longed activity of the neighbouring volcanic regions.

Of Seismic Energy in relation to Season.

I now proceed to such discussions as the data will admit, of the relations
between seismic development and the time of year. In Plate VIII. are given
the curves of mensual seismic energy obtained from the entire period of the
catalogue, thirty-two centuries,

The northern and southern hemispheres of observations have been
separated for the following reasons. ‘The total number and value of the
Observations in each, present great disparity between them respectively.
We are enabled graphically to present 5879 observational results for the
northern, and but 223 for the southern hemispheres; and, for convenience,
the vertical or seismic abscissa of the former is on a scale which bears to
that of the latter the ratio of 100: 1; the ordinate of time, which extends
to the cycle of an entire year, and is divided and marked for the twelve
Months in order, is the same for both figures. As the months, in fact, in-
volve or contain the seasons of the year, and indeed all other divisions of
our solar revolution, and as the latter are unlike for opposite hemispheres,

and are hereafter to be compared, such subdivision is necessary.

_ Examining figs. 1 and 2, Plate VIII., we find in the northern hemisphere
the annual paroxysmal minimum in July, in the southern it appears to be

in March. The duration of this minimum in the northern extends, with no

very considerable fluctuation, over nearly two months, and suddenly rises
E2

52 REPORT—1858.

in July; in the southern the minimum is more suddenly arrived at, and as
suddenly abandoned, andjit extends over less than one month.

If we take May and June as one minimum in the northern, we have
a second but very much lower one in September, and the corresponding
second minimum for the southern hemisphere in August.

The annual paroxysmal maximum for the northern hemisphere is di-
stinctly in January, and for the southern in November.

January and March are second maxima in the southern, as August and
October are in the northern.

Whatever be the irregularities month by month however, the prepon-
derance of seismic paroxysm for the whole twelve months lies amongst those
that form the winter of our northern hemisphere.

In Plate IX. figs. 1 to 6, curves are drawn for mensual energy, for several
corresponding periods for the northern and southern hemispheres. Figs. 1
and 2 indicate these for the whole period before, and for sixteen centuries
after the commencement of our era. Here the northern minimum falls
in July, and a second minimum in October, while the southern mini-
mum falls in April, and the second before September, approximating thus
to accordance with the curves of the whole catalogue, but less “ prononcées.”
Then for later but shorter observed periods, figs. 3 and 4 give the mensual
energy for a.p.1700 to 1800, and figs. 5 and 6 for a.p. 1800 to 1850, being
the half century in which, for convenience of comparison, the ordinate of
time is double the scale of the other figures, the whole twelve months being
represented by an ordinate of equal length in all.

In the eighteenth century, then, we find in the northern hemisphere the
minima less distinct, occurring in July aud September, and the maximum in
January, with a second maximum between October and January ; and in the
southern hemisphere, the minima about March and September, and the
maxima in May and December.

Again, in the first half of this nineteenth century we have (fig. 5) the
northern minimum in June, a second but less marked minimum between
November and December, and the maximum again in January and Fe-
bruary; while in the southern hemisphere we have (fig. 6) the seismic
minimum in March, and a second but much less marked one between July
aud August, and the maximum in November, with feeble indications of a
second slight one in June.

Such are, then, the results of our monthly discussion. Comparing both
hemispheres, they show several points of general agreement, and some of
decided want of accordance. Little comparative weight can be ascribed to
the few observations as yet made in the southern hemisphere, where so large
a proportion of the earth’s surface is covered by the ocean, and where so
little of the land has, until a very late date, been the subject of observational
record at all. It would seem warrantable therefore not to permit any such
unaccordant phenomena between the two hemispheres to obscure the strong
presumption which the facts otherwise support, that there really is a seismic
paroxysm in the months forming the end and commencement of the civil
year. It may not havea natural or cosmical basis, it may possibly be one of
the accidents inseparable from an observational catalogue; but both this

extended catalogue, and nearly all the partial catalogues of others, indicate —

it as a fact, and one not absolutely without some extraneous support in the
present state cf our knowledge.

When we group the consecutive months into four seasons, spring, summer,
autumn, and winter, and reproduce the curve of seismic energy for the whole
year, and separately for each hemisphere and for the whole period of the

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 53

catalogue, the same relation of scale as before (figs. 1 and 2, Plate VIII.)
being maintained between the northern and southern abscisse, we find
some of the apparent anomalies disappear. In fig.1, Plate X. the curve of
season for the northern hemisphere assumes a very regular form, and gives
a decisive minimum for the summer season (in May and June), and an
equally clear maximum for the winter season (in December and January).

In fig. 2, Plate X. the corresponding curve for the southern hemisphere,
however, still shows two maxima and two minima, the maximum at the
commencement of winter, with second maximum at midsummer; the
minima in spring and autumn assuming the months constituting the re-
spective seasons reversed in the two hemispheres. It must be borne in view,
however, that the base of induction for this hemisphere is from only 223
observations, against 5879 in the northern; that if the southern curve had
been drawn to the same vertical scale as the northern, it would have ap-
peared to the eye as almost a straight line; so that very little weight is to
be attached to the discordance it appears to present to the corresponding
curve, its necessarily exaggerated scale falsely addressing the eye.

In fig. 3, Plate X., the two curves preceding are combined, but to the
same scale of vertical or of seismic abscissa; and the result shows how little
in reality the data that we possess as yet for the southern hemisphere are-
capable of modifying the facts we have for the northern. The southern
curve, in fact, scarcely alters to the eye the preceding northern one ; and
the new curve of season for both hemispheres presents still the winter maxi-
mum and summer minimum.

In fig. 5, Plate X., a curve has been obtained for the whole period of
the catalogue and for both hemispheres, representing graphically all recorded
earthquakes occurring near or at the equinoxes and solstices (the critical
epochs of Perrey and others) within a limit of twenty days, ¢.e. ten days be-
fore and ten days after each equinox and solstice. The base of induction is
moderately large, the catalogue containing the following numbers :—

Vernal equinox (March 10—30)........... . 310
Summer solstice (June 11—July 1).......... 254
Autumnal equinox (Sept. 13—Oct. 3) ...... 249
Winter solstice (Dec. 11—31).............. 318.

This we may call the equinoctial and solstitial curve of comparative seismic
energy. It indicates a distinct maximum about the winter solstice, and an
equally distinct minimum rather before the autumnal equinox. Taking the
average of the whole year for any lengthened period, it may admit of much
doubt, whether there is any real seismic paroxysm at the equinoxes and sol-
stices, although a clear preponderance is shown by our catalogues at two out of
the four annual epochs at which all are recorded ; yet, from the accordance
of Perrey’s results with those given by this much larger base of induction,
we cannot put aside the possibility that the fact may have a cosmical basis.

The most direct connexion in such case that we should expect to find,
with other ascertained, periodical phenomena, would be with the annual
march of the barometer. In fig. 4, Plate X., the annual curves of mean
mensual barometric pressure are laid down to the same scale of ordinate for
time as the equinoctial and solstitial seismic curve below (fig. 5), giving the
variation in atmospheric pressure for places in several and distant latitudes,
Macao, Havanna, Calcutta, Benares; and in Europe, Halle, St. Petersburg,
Berlin, Paris, and Strasburg,—the curves themselves having been reduced
from those of MM. Buch, Dove, and Kaemtz.

On comparing these barometric curves with the seismic one, an obvious

54 REPORT—1858. aS He 36

similarity addresses the eye. Is there any real relation, however? In
the First Report (1850), p. 68, &c., I have treated of the relations of
atmospheric pressure with earthquakes, and at p.’78 have indicated a possible
link of connexion of a direct character between them, and shown how it is
conceivable that local increase of barometric pressure, and diminution simul-
taneously elsewhere, may conspire with other conditions to bring on voleanie
action, and hence earthquake; and Perrey has hinted, in his memoir on France,
p- 98 (4to), at some relation between his seismic mensual curves for Italy and
Europe, having a minimum in November, and Dove’s barometric curves,
given in Pogg. Ann. for 1843, pp. 177, 201, which show something analogous
(quelque chose analogue). Here we observe (comparing figs. 4 and 5) the
barometric minima very closely correspond with the seismic minima, and
vice versd. Bearing in mind the fact, that, as the sun gets nearer the zenith
with the advance of spring and summer, the barometer falls, and that, taking
the whole earth together, the atmospheric pressure is less over those portions
of its surface where it is summer, and greater over those where it is winter;
and that these differences of pressure are greater in general as the latitude
is lower, so that simultaneously that hemispheric surface of the globe which
is at the time most heated by the sun is also least pressed upon by the
atmosphere, and vice versd ; it seems warrantable to presume a cosmical and
even a possibly direct connexion between the two phenomena; and this
receives, again, some support* from the fact (though not without large
exceptions), that on the whole the great earthquake bands of the world pass
through low latitudes, where these barometric and thermic fluctuations are
most developed. ‘

It would be worse than useless, however, to speculate minutely upon the —
physical relations of those facts, in the present imperfect state of our know- —
ledge of their connexion. $

The attempts which I have made to ascertain an absolute relation in —
number, from any discussion of the Catalogue, between the recurrence of —
seismic paroxysm at the equinoxes and solstices, and at an equal period of —
twenty days throughout the whole range of time, have been nugatory ; it is
impracticable to extricate a result, in which any confidence could be reposed,
from the observational expansion and irregularities with the advance of
time.

We must not be discouraged, however, that after the vast labour bestowed _
by so many, upon cataloguing earthquakes and discussing the results, we ©
find these do not bring us even to the threshold of positive knowledge, and —
that the main reward of toil so far, is the having cleared away rubbish, and
at length ascertained how far lists of facts, such as have been hitherto com-
piled from the best available materials, are of any further use. General —
Sabine, in his Introduction to vol. iii. of the ‘ Magnetical and Meteorological —
Observations made at Toronto,’ p. vii., when narrating the former state of ©
magnetical science as compared with its present position, says, “a few of the
German observers had begun to note the disturbance of the horizontal force ;
but as yet no conclusions whatsoever as to their laws had been obtained :” in
the words of the Report, “ the disturbances apparently observe no law.” Such —
may almost be said, as to our present knowledge of the distribution of
earthquakes in time and in space, as referable to any natural law. We
know how the position of terrestrial magnetism has become altered since
the time referred to above by one of its best promoters; let us expect the
same for seismology, and await with hope the rich flood of light that its

ane Cee

* See also Mylne, British Earthquakes, Edin. Phil. Journ, vol. XXXi.

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EBARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA, 55

laws, when once reached, must shed upon terrestrial physics. The period
of mere cataloguing (like that of fossil-list making in the earlier geology)
seems now past; we must give it up, and, in the words of Herschel, “we
must now grapple with the palpable phenomena, seeking means to reduce
their features to measurement, the measures to laws, the laws to higher
generalizations, and so, step by step, advance to causes and theories.”
(Address, Camb. 1845.)

Many cases are recorded in the Catalogue of Earthquakes, of shocks
occurring at two very distant places upon the earth’s surface, but felt simul-
taneously, or nearly so, at both. The coincidence in time is, for all very
distant places, rendered extremely doubtful, from errors of observation and
of clocks, and of their reduction for difference of longitude when the places
are not on the same meridian.

Milne also has collected several such instances; for example—

February 1750...England and Italy.

March 1750...England and Italy.

May 1750...England and Calabria.

August 1750...England and European Turkey.
February 1756.. England and Central France, Holland and the Rhine.
November 1756...Scotland and Malta.

January 1768...Shetland and Central England.
December 1789...Edinburgh and Florence.
February 1818...Great Britain and Sicily.
September 1833...England and Peru.

August 1834...Scotland and Italy.

September 1834... England and Peru.

In these, however, the coincidence in time cannot be assured within several
hours ; and it must be admitted, with Mylne, that the probability of any-
thing more than mere coincidence is extremely slight.

In 1840-41 he found three shocks of this character: viz.

March 1840......+.. Scotland and Germany.
June 1841......... Terceira and St. Louis.
Waly | L941. cases, Scotland and France.

(Edin. Phil. Journ. xxxi. to xxxvi.)

A few such instances, that possess a closer approximation in time and
some additional probability of actual coincidence, have been extracted from
the Catalogue, and have been drawn in the diagram (Plate X bis) to scale,—
those which had horizontal components of motion in the meridians N. to 8S.
or S. to N. being placed at the right and left sides of the great-circle section
of the globe ; and those with horizontal movement E. and W. or W. and E.,
placed above and below.

Right lines connecting the supposed distant points of coincident shock by
chords of the circle, would probably pass through the origin or centre of
disturbance common to both places on the surface. The origin might be
deeper to any extent, and possibly somewhat nearer the surface, at least in
the cases of the longer chords. Were any reliance to be placed upon these
coincidences, some of them would thus give a depth of origin of about 800
miles below the surface. None of those, however, that appear to have any
satisfactory evidence of a real connexion in time and in origin, suggest a
depth for the latter of even one-tenth that amount. All our other know-

56... REPORT—1858.

ledge, both of seismic and volcanic phenomena, leads to the conclusion of
foci very much nearer the existing surface; and the diagram may be re-
garded as conclusive evidence that these presumed coincident earthquakes
at very distant points, even if proved simultaneous, are unconnected, and
have different origins.

In the most singular case on record, that of Ochotzk and Quito, places
nearly antipodal, the common origin would actually be in, or not remote
from, the earth’s centre ; and it is not conceivable that the shock, which, if
sufficiently powerful, must in such cases be felt nearly simultaneously over
the whole globe, should have been confined to the two extremities of a single
diameter.

In recapitulation, it may be convenient to give in numbers, for occasional
reference, a few of the salient results of the distribution in time, already

i discussed :-—
so No. of No. of
Earthquakes. Years.

Total number of recorded earthquakes up to A.D..... 58 1700

Total number from A.D. to end of the ninth century.. 197 900

Total number from the beginning of the tenth to the

end of the fifteenth century .................. 532 600
Total number from the beginning of the sixteenth to

the end of the eighteenth century.............. 2804 300
Total number from beginning of nineteenth century to

the end ‘of the yedr Wa rae ig cs wien cleo = 3240 50

Total Catalozue.. . <ssis0darnns tobe oe. els vileveewan GboL

The number of great earthquakes (7.e. those, as already defined, in which
whole cities and towns have been reduced to rubbish, many lives lost, &c.)
have been but imperfectly exhibited graphically, and not at all for the later
centuries, from their too frequent recurrence making their notation difficult
or confused ; they are here given numerically.

Number of great earthquakes from third century B.c. to beginning of

DUNG) old We ROME. 3 Sead ode Se SO eee Panioo oe 6 0s, os /sfeleioua oleate
Number of same from .p. to the end of the ninth century ........ 15
Number from beginning of the tenth century to the end of the fifteenth

CONUITY ios ole eiek see tee SE Ada Been eeoe 25% - Biotic: oo, Ak
Number from beginning of the sixteenth century to the end of th

ele hteenth Century. '2 © - sexy ee es les, obs stein Sen erence ae oa sieratnace, eid 100
Number from beginning of the nineteenth century to 1850 ........ 53

Total c ssnoit dari ce

If we double the last number but one, to embrace the entire 100 years, the
correspondence between the results for the two last periods is remarkably
close, viz. 100 and 106,—and although the series is still an expanding one,
yet as the numbers for the 16th and 17th centuries are not large; it is
probable that for the last 150 years at least, our news of all great earthquakes
have been complete, and the cataloguing of them perfect, showing that at
present we may calculate upon 1:37—say 1*4, or nearly 14 recurrences of
great and disastrous earthquakes every year, at some one or more places on
the earth’s surface, or one great earthquake disaster every eight months.

oe

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 57

The total number of earthquakes, classed by months, is as follows :—

Adz 4 Seasons, Seasons,
Northern. | Southern. North. Sonthe

January ......... 627 19
February ...... 539 14
March’ ......... 503 9 1669 42
April .........60 489 17
os apgtonedatie 438 20
MUNG) 0... a 428 19 1355 56
RIMLLY A xen te tose 415 18
August ......... 488 12
September...... 463 17 1366 47
October......... 5J6 25
November ...... 473 32
December ...... 500 21 1489 78

Totals ...... 5879 223 5879 223

Total of Catalogue for both hemispheres capable of mensual
classification .......... CE eee OCS. eee 6102
Total of unclassed, except as to annual date ............ 67
Total number catalogued........ 6772
of which, there are recorded by season only—

PRINS. a rje05, a5 a= eT ae eae 6
Summer..... Sh, Rae rr dace nes bs apr Bie /
AMEN OAM sts, 2%, e7ar~ oy 16.0 a oferine airs, ay atesenen ab
IWanter <7 ete. 6 2 ais ee halek Cees YS

LOtales. 4 cuter oo

January, February, and March have been taken for the spring of the
Northern Hemisphere, and for the Southern, July, August, and September.

From the commencement of Catalogue to a.p. 1700, the recorded earth-
quakes in the northern hemisphere are to those in the southern, 940 : 21,
or as 44°3: 1. Again, from a.p. 1700 to 1800, the northern are to the
southern, 1883 : 57, or 33 : 1]; and from the year 1800 to 1850, or conclusion
of the Catalogue, the northern are to the southern, 3076 : 145, or 21°2 : 1,—
a further indication of the effect upon any such statistic record, of the march
of human discovery, the last fifty years having brought into play the vast
seismic regions of the Southern Ocean and South Pacific, before all but un-
known. The observed earthquakes in the Southern Hemisphere may now
be estimated at from 43 to 50 per century, or one every two years. (See
Appendix, No. II.).

Distribution in space.

Such are, perhaps, all the legitimate conclusions that we can now come
to on the distribution in historic time ; and we now proceed to the discussion
of the Catalogue, with respect to their distribution in space upon the surface
of our earth. The method adopted, was that of graphically reproducing
the area of each recorded earthquake by the superposition of coloured tints
upon a large Mercator’s map of the world. The map chosen for use was
that arranged by J. Purdie, and published by Laurie, London, 1851,—the
dimensions being 75 inches by 48 inches, which admitted, from its large

58. REPORT—1858.

size, of perfect clearness and accuracy in the laying down the most complex
localities, and those in which the shocks are most numerous. This has been
reproduced to a much reduced scale (Plate XI.), to accompany the present
Report ; but although executed with much skill and care, by the lithographer
and engraver, I find with regret that its small size has rendered_a perfectly
accurate transcript of the original impracticable, and that a very imperfect
notion of the latter is conveyed by the reduced map.

Strictly, the limits of every earthquake are completely indeterminate ; and
were our globe perfectly solid, homogeneous, and elastic, no limits but its
own could be assigned to any shock from whatever centre originating. The
practical limit (so to speak) is, however, where the moyement has become
insensible without instrumental aid ; for such have been all the observations
dealt with in our Catalogue. This frequently embraces enormous surface-
areas; but these seldom, perhaps nowhere, are symmetrically posited round
the centres, or presumed centres, of disturbance.

We are not concerned here with any of the smaller or local circumstances
that modify, in different radii traced from any seismic centre, the effects,
and the directions and distances, to which they are sensibly transferred, but
merely with some of the greater and constant conditions (for the same region)
in which some of the great natural features of the earth’s surface perma-
nently modify or limit the transference and area of transfer of earthquake-
waves transmitted from adjacent centres. Thus, along the whole chain of
the South American Andes, the propagation of shock is greatly more
towards the west than to the eastward,—the highest crests and intermediate
valleys forming a rude sort of limit, beyond which, to the eastward and into
the heart of the table-land of the continent, shocks felt with destructive
effect down to the shores of the Pacific are propagated with greatly di-
minished force, or rather are so felt upon the surface,

Again, to take another large example, the Northern Indian earthquakes,
whose origin is in Nepaul and along the central Himalayan axis, are pro-
pagated southwards and westwards into the great plain of India, far more
than. northwards into the enormous mass of table-land of Central Asia.
Weare at this moment not concerned with the causes of this, but simply
with the fact, that in these examples, and in several analogous instances, it
is a matter of observation that certain great natural features of the earth’s
surface and material, do modify the forms of the surface-areas shaken,
and render them unsymmetrical, shortening the radii in one direction,
lengthening them in another; so that the area, which in a more homo-
geneous mass would approach a circular or elliptic form, tends to an elon- —
gated, linear, or irregular outline.

In laying down, then, the forms and sensible area of shock of each earth-
quake catalogued (and often necessarily, from the imperfect data alone
afforded), the following rules were adhered to :—

1°. Wken the form and sensible limits of the shaken area were ascertain-
able from the narratives, they were adopted.

2°. When these were wanting, as in the great mass of cases recorded, then, —
as respects form, the physical, geological, or other conditions of
each area, known to modify the distant propagation of shock, were
attended to.

3°. As respects sensible area, when this could not be ascertained for
any one diameter of the shaken area, from the narratives, certain

arbitrary conventional rules (founded upon a natural basis, however)
were resorted to.

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA, 59

The method of colouring therefore was this. The whole of the recorded
earthquakes of the Catalogue were subdivided preliminarily, with as careful
a judgment as possible, into three great classes :—

1°. Great earthquakes, being those in which, over large areas, numerous
cities, &c., were overthrown, multitudes of persons killed, rocky
masses dislocated, and powerful “ secondary effects” produced.

2°. Mean earthquakes, or those which, although perhaps having a wide
superficial area, were recorded to have produced much less destruc-
tive effects upon cities, &e., and little or no changes upon natural
objects, and scarcely any loss of life.

$°. Minor earthquakes, limited to those which, although sensible and
producing in their full development some effects (fissures, &c.) upon
buildings, did not affect natural objects at all, and left few or no
traces of their occurrence after the shock.

Of the first class, the great Lisbon shock of 1755 may be taken as a
familiar type. Of the second, examples are frequent over Central Europe
and the Mediterranean basin, Southern Asiatic Russia, &c. And of the
third class we find notices almost daily from every quarter.

As respects the very smallest development of this class, namely, the con-
tinuous tremors of Comrie, Pignerol, &c. &c., they were grouped into single
shocks upon the same method as described previously for their discussion as
to distribution in time.

To distinguish these three classes upon the map, three different inten-
sities of water-colour tint were prepared—all from the same colour (red
ochre and Indian yellow). The first and most intense having been decided
to designate the first class, that for the second was obtained of one-third
the intensity, by dilution with three volumes of water; and the third by
dilution of the second with three volumes again,—the intensities of the
three tints being therefore as the numbers 1, }, and +, or 9,3, and1. A
single wash or application of the tint relative to its class, upon the given
locality, designated each earthquake when laid down on the map; and
the form or boundary of the tint, when not to be had historically, being
ruled by physical considerations as already briefly described, the extent or
_ superficial area of the tint (when not derivable from the narratives), was

arbitrarily fixed by the following rule :—

~

i

4°, The extreme radius of great earthquakes (1st class) was assumed equal

to 9°, or about 540 geographical miles; that of the 2nd class at 3°,
y': or 180 geographical miles ; and that of the 3rd at a single degree, or
60 geographical miles.

e

These were determined from the consideration that our records give,
when viewed with a broad glance and apart from physical and local limiting
_ conditions of a powerfully disturbing character ; i.e. when the area of dis-
turbance has had a sensible surface-boundary approaching to an irregular
circle or ellipse,—a sensible diameter of about 1000 to 1200 miles for great
earthquakes, and about 400 for those of our second class, those minor

ones of the third seldom extending to above 100 or 150 miles in diameter.
In the case of the enormous surface-areas of the first class, however, it
has rarely been necessary, in the later years of the catalogue period, to
make use of this convention at all, the historic boundaries being usually
alg These in many cases comprise areas of surprising extent: thus
, great Nepaul earthquake of 1833 extended sensibly over 7° lat. by

60 . REPORT—1858.

15° long., a surface four times that of Great Britain, and twice and a half
that of France.

The Cutch earthquake of 1819 extended from E. to W. 5°, and from
N. to S. 6°, though its dimensions in latitude are rather ill-defined. (‘ Asiat.
Journ.’ vol. xii. n. s.)

The Lisbon (1755) earthquake, and a few of those of the Malayan and
Calabrian groups, and of South America, were sensible in certain surface-
radii or great circles over 18°, or perhaps even 20°; but these are the extreme
developments of our first class, and their limits historical, and therefore not
affecting the preceding conventions. Some earthquakes recorded in the
catalogue it was necessary to omit laying down upon the map at all, inasmuch
as no sufficient data could be gathered to fix a probable local surface centre,
nor any information as to the comparative energy of the movement. For
example, some earthquakes (though but few) will be found catalogued as
“in China,” “in Libya,” &c., with scarcely any particulars given. ‘These
omissions are not sufficiently numerous to affect the main result.

Besides these inseparable elements, volcanic and seismic phenomena, an-
other intimately related phenomenon has been marked, as far as the data
enable it. Those tracts of the earth’s surface which have been presumed,
with more or less probability, to be in slow process of subsidence to a
lower level, are marked by blue tints, the boundaries of which are un-
defined to a great extent. These embrace the coral tracts of Darwin, the
west coast of Greenland, and a small tract of the southern shores of the
Baltic. All minor subsiding areas close to or in the midst of volcanic centres
(such as the shore of Italy near Naples) are unnoticed, as such changes of
level, due to the immediate action of adjacent valcanoes, are almost per-
petual, and, in proportion to its state of activity, &c., common to every such
area over the globe.

On examining the Mercator map (Plate XII.), then, upon which, subject
to the above rules, the whole Catalogue has been graphically represented by
tinting, it is to be remarked that—

1. The whole of the earth’s surface known to be subject to earthquakes
will be found tinted more or less intensely.

2. The most deeply tinted surfaces mark the places where either the
number, or the intensity, or both, of successive earthquakes are the
greatest.

3. Whether at any one point the depth of tint be due to number or to
intensity, and the relation between these, may be found by reference
to the Catalogue itself.

4. The shading-off or evanescence of tint towards the extreme sensible
limits of the seismic (coloured) regions over the whole map is due
(not to shading or evanescence of colour in the artist’s sense, but)
to the superposition of tints only upon the principles already ex-
plained. Hence it follows (admitting the two conventions made, as
to intensity and area, and the partial extent to which these in-
fluence the results historically gotten), that the tinting upon this
seismographic map doesas truly represent, over our earth, the known
seismic regions in form and extent, and the relative intensities and
successive developments of seismic action therein, as the contour
lines of a contoured map represent the forms of irregular surfaces,
and the rate of inclination of the slopes and valleys by their ap-
proximation or separation; or as truly as (upon certain engraved
maps, e.g. Irish Railway Commission of Ireland and some German
ones) the relative heights and rapidity of rise of mountain chains are

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 61

graphically represented by multiplying the engraved lines that pro-
duce the shades (or tints) in the joint ratio of the heights and rates
of slope, ¢.e. as the sines of the angles upon a given base.

I therefore venture to present this map as more than a mere picture—as
being, in fact, a first approximation to a true representation of the distri-
bution of earthquake forces, so far as they are yet known, over the surface
of our world.

The voleanoes (including fumaroles and solfataras) are shown by black
dots, and all that are known to be in activity, or are recorded to have been
so, or from other evidence may be presumed to have been so, within the
historic or late geologic periods, have been represented, from the authorities
of Johnston, Berghaus, V. Hoff, Daubeny and others.

The exactitude of the number of volcanic vents along the great lines of
foci, is, however, less important to our object than the marking in of isolated
volcanoes.

Let us now examine our map in detail, and see what it can teach us, taking
for the starting-point of our seismic survey the meridian of Greenwich, the
central point nearly of the dry land, and passing eastward in our review.
But first let us notice some points in the physical features of the earth’s sure
face. Of the 111,000,000 of square miles of ocean (in round numbers)
covering three-fourths of the surface of our globe, the greater part is to usa
blank, so far as direct observation is concerned, the exceptions being the
Atlantic with a part of the Southern Ocean from about 10° S., northwards,
and of the Northern Ocean up to nearly 70° N.,—nearly all other marine
seismic observations being in connexion with centres upon adjacent land.

We see these enormous pelagic areas, consisting of irregular, saucer-
shaped, shallow depressions, bounded by flowing coast-lines which, by the
connecting points of oceanic banks and islets, we can generally unite into
closed curves, forming thus distinct but inosculating basins—of which the
Northern and Southern Pacific together form the largest example. Those
vast but comparatively very shallow depressions may, when viewed in indi-
vidual detail, be subdivided into smaller shallow concavities by banks and
shallows below the ocean surface. But each great oceanic saucer, bounded
by the existing continents and their fragmentary outliers, presents an almost
continuous fringe around, of mountain-chains and volcanic foci. Thus, start-
ing from Mount Elias, long. 141° W., lat. 60°, at the northern extremity of
the Pacific, we find a scattered chain of volcanoes along the west coast of
North America, with a continuous bounding coast line of mountains. South
of the gulf of California, the Mexican and Central American volcanoes, with
those of the South American Andes, carry on a closely linked chain, almost
to its southern extremity. Here the volcanoes of Tierra del Fuego trace the
line on towards that of Graham’s Land, where it plunges into the unknown
regions of the Antarctic continent.

Returning to the extreme north again, from Mount Elias, we have the
almost unbroken line of mountain and volcano of the Aleutian Archipelago ;
carried down through the great elevated peninsula of Kamtschatka, the Kurile
Isles, Jesso, Japan, the Philippines; and to the north of New Guinea by its
volcanoes and those of New Britain, the Solomon Isles, Egmont, New He-
brides, New Caledonia, and New Zealand, to the Antarctic ice again at the
Balleny Islands and Buckle Voleano—a connected belt, with the exception
of the unknown Antarctic region, round its vast pelagic circuit. Within
this the subordinate or secondary basins are marked, though less distinctly,
by lines of volcanic foci: thus from Japan to New Ireland through the
Ladrone Islands, a distinct though sparse line of volcanoes cuts off the basin

62 4% ; REPORT—1858.

(nearly one-half the area of Africa) bounded on the north by Japan, and on
the west by the Philippines.

From lat. 30° S., a sub-oceanic crest-line of shallows appears to spur off
eastward from the volcanic foci of New Caledonia and New Zealand, and,
trending westward and a little northward through the Tonga, Society, Mar-
quesas, and Gallapagos Islands, connected by continuous banks, joins the Cen-
tral American group of volcanoes, thus cutting the great ocean basin
nearly into two secondaries, each of which is probably in a less marked man-
ner subdivided,—the northern sub-basin, by a line through Christmas and
the Sandwich Islands, to some point of the volcanic group of the Audrea-
nofsky Islands in the Atlantic Archipelago, making in its course a wide
sweep to the east and north through an almost continuous chain of isles and
banks; and the southern sub-basin by a line from the Society Islands
through Easter Isle and Juan Fernandez, and combining with the great
Chilian volcanic chain at its eastern extreme.

A vast fissure (noticed by Humboldt), and marked by an almost continuous
line of volcanic vents, extends in a direction nearly east and west, right across
Mexico, between lat. N. 18° and 19°. It is nearly 500 miles in length. Its
main direction, if produced, bears upon the voleanic island of Revillegigedo,
and, as Humboldt also thinks, probably extends to Mouna Roa, in the Sand-
wich Islands. The Mexican extremity of this enormous crevasse probably
marks the continental end of one of the great dividing ridges of the sub-
basins of the Pacific.

Within the great Pacific Basin will be found (tinted blue) most of those
great areas of probable subsidence indicated by Darwin*. These bands will
be observed occupying the great sub-basins of the ocean, not very distant
from great volcanic lines, and although not (with our present imperfect
knowledge of soundings) quite free from the suspicion of occasionally inter-
secting such lines (e. g. Marquesas and Society Islands, Ladrone, and New
Guinea), yet, on the whole, keeping surface positions intermediate to the
volcanic cinctures adjoining or around them.

Less distinctly we may trace the cincture of mountain- and volcanic chain
around the shallower Atlantic basin, and, through it, upon the submarine
elevations dividing its sub-basins. Thus, starting from Iceland; the Ferro
Isles, Scotland, and the mountains of Wales and England (with the breach
of the English Channel, a narrow line in relation to the scale of our present
survey), the Rhenish-German chains, the French and Western Alps, the
Pyrenees, to Cape Finisterre and the coast of Portugal, connect by the
Azores, and by innumerable submarine rocks and shoals, across to New-
foundland. Here the lines to the northward may be pronounced unknown,
until, returning back to Iceland, we find it approximates to the point we
left through the great igneous and abrupt coast-line of Greenland.

In connexion with this oceanic basin, we have two probably subsiding
Haste of land—the one in Davis's Straits, the other in the Baltic—both tinted

ue.

The Central Atlantic forms a well-marked basin girded with voleanoes and
mountain-ranges. Leaving the last stated boundary-line at Newfoundland,
and going again eastward to the Azores, thence through Madeira to the
Canary Isles, the Cape de Verds and including the great sub-oceanic vol-
canic region between 15° and 30° long. W., and lat. 3° N. to 10° S., going
westward by the island of Fernando Noronha to Cape St. Roque on the ex-
treme east of the South American continent, returning to Newfoundland,

* See Dana on Areas of Subsidence in the Pacific. Ass. Amer. Geol., Albany, 1843, and
Edin. Phil, Journ. (New), vol. 35. p. 341. . DS's yO Se

<1 —

ri

—

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 63

we trace the line southwards through the several chains of the United States
down into Georgia, where, with the comparatively narrow breach of Lower
Florida, it is carried on by Cuba and the whole chain of volcanic islands of
the West Indies to Trinidad and the South American continent again.
The Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea form a smaller but separate basin.
In the southern Atlantic we can trace a dividing ridge through South
Ascension—the great suboceanic tract just referred to—North Ascension,
St. Helena, and probably to Cape Negro on the African west coast, and
thence to the Cape of Good Hope, and returning westward by Tristan
d’Acunha, thence S.W. to the Isle of Georgia (lat. 55° S.) and through the
Falkland Islands to the volcanoes of the southern point of South America;
but this, like the sub-basins, through the scattered indications which alone
we yet have in the vast southern portion of the Eastern or Indian Ocean west
of Australia, is uncertain.

There is little doubt that Australia, on its northern existing coast-line, was
once united with New Guinea and the Aru Islands west and south of it
(Wallace, Silliman’s Journal, vol. xxv.), and possibly with much of the land
outlying to the west of that vast and now isolated continent; if not, the
intermediate seas would be much deeper than they are, and the west coast of
Australia with its mountainous chains would bound an ocean basin whose
western boundary would be marked by a line of volcanoes from New Guinea
to New Zealand and the Southern Sea.

The seas of Ochotsk, of Kamtschatka, of Japan, and, above all, the Chinese
and Malayan Seas with Borneo in the midst, form so many distinct basins,
small relatively to the vast areas we have been reviewing, but distinct and
strongly marked. In the Chinese Sea we have a probable tract of subsiding
land, tinted blue upon the- evidence of Darwin. The bay of Bengal, well-
marked all round northward from Sunda, and belted with volcanoes tv the
Ganges, and with mountains near the coast thence to Ceylon, joins probably
Western Australia by a suboceanic ridge, indicated through the rocks of
Greville and Compton, the Island of Apaluria with the adjacent submarine
voleano of 1789, and the ocean shallows and soundings, about 100° W.
long. and 20° to 25° S. lat.

_ The separate basin of the Arabian Sea is equally distinct, from Cape
Comorin along the Malabar coast, all highly mountainous, Beloochistan to
the mouth of the Persian Gulf (itself a small basin), thence by the Arabian
coast-line to the volcanic region at the mouth of the Red Sea, and into
Abyssinia with its characteristic and enormous crater-form lake of Tzana
(though as yet not possessing any earthquake record), and thence through
regions scarcely known upon the East African coast, crossing to the Comoro
Islands (volcanic) and to the mountainous regions of Madagascar,—the vol-
canic islands of Bourbon, Mauritius and Rodriguez, the Nazareth and Saya
banks, the Chagos Archipelago and the Maldive and Laccadive Islands,
completing the cincture with the Malabar coast again.

Along the great band of these islands, and thence trending westwards by
the Saya bank, lies one of the great tracts of ocean-floor which Darwin has
shown to be probably subsiding (tinted blue). Assuming that this really is

a band of subsidence, it would be more probable that the volcanic girdle

v

takes a wider sweep to the south and west of this band, and, leaving the
Island of Rodriguez, makes for the volcanic centre marked in the ocean at
long. 90° E., lat. 10° S., and thence turns northward to join Ceylon, Cape

Comorin and the volcanic region of Pondicherry.
_ Leaving the great ocean and great continent, we trace smaller basins
(or rather saucers, for their extreme shallowness in relation to their surface-
area must never be lost sight of), where larger portions of the elevated moun«

64 . REPORT—1858.

tain-cincture, studded here and there with volcanic vents, are found unsub-
merged and inland (i. e. where the basin within its boundary is partly land
and partly water), thus: Etna, Lipari, and Vesuvius, the Apennine chain,
the southern and western Alps, the Pyrenees, and the great tableland and
axial chains of the Spanish peninsula, with the mountains of Northern Africa,
on through Pantellaria and Sicily, form one such basin. Closely connected
with this is the adjoining basin of the Zgean with the volcanic Greek Islands :
the Black Sea, with the volcanic regions of Armenia and the Caucasus, form
a distinct basin extending on the north far into Russia; the Caspian, with the
Sea of Aral and the plain of Tartary embracing Persia, another, having its
own volcanoes near the former sea, while Central Asia, so little known, seems
probably divisible into several vast saucer-like areas, north of the great table-
land, of which the great lakes and the Altai chains, with their imperfectly
described volcanoes, probably mark some parts of the cinctures, but which,
in the absence of knowledge as to relative level, it would be premature to
attempt to trace. Many of these basins further on to the north appear no
longer bounded by closed curves upon land, but to open out along the great
river-courses which run northward and become lost to our knowledge in the
icy solitudes of northern Asiatic Russia.

Northern Europe presents us with the great Scandinavian, German, and
Russian saucer, whose features have been made so clear to us by the labours
of Murchison and others; while, further north and west, a distinet oceanic
basin appears in the Northern Sea, of which the Norwegian chain, Shetland,
the Ferro Islands, Iceland, the west coast of Greenland, and the volcanic
islands of Jan Mayen, are the marked boundaries.

North America, so far as its surface has been ascertained, is divisible into
several well-marked shallow basins, the most obvious being those of the
Mississippi ; of the Arctic Highlands; the two deserts east and west of the
Rocky Mountains (lat. 80° to 40° N.); and of the great lakes, to which may
be added hereafter Labrador and the North of Canada with Hudson’s Bay ;
the eastern talus of the great Atlantic slope falling into the boundary of the
Atlantic basin. Enough, however, has probably been stated to indicate
that, viewed upon the broadest scale, the surface of our globe consists, as
respects its present solid surface, of a number of saucer-like depressions,
when large, having also convex central areas, all having plan outlines
approximating to extremely irregular ovals or other closed curves, and
bounded by mountain-chains or mere rounded or flat-topped ridges or eleva-
tions of the solid sphere, greater or less. Where three or more of these inoscu-
late, the point between the junction is most frequently a group of mountains
or a high tableland, or both,—as, for example, the knots (Cusco and others)
of the South American Andes, upon which the suboceanic ridges abut.
The greatest of these saucer-like concavities either form or subdivide the
beds of the ocean, but other such shallow basins can be traced upon the
existing land, and embracing seas or parts of seas, or great lakes, or river-
courses within them, but still enclosed by girdling chains of mountains or
the precipitous flanks of tablelands, which latter in their full development
are the pedestals of the greatest mountain-chains. Amongst the wide-
sweeping curves that indicate the dividing crests (if we may use such a
word to designate elevations often, especially in the subdividing ridges of the
oceanic sub-basins, so very low in relation to the areas they separate) of these
vast oceanic basins, it appears impossible to trace any approach to parallelism,
or, indeed, that such an arrangement could exist. 3

We do, however, remark, that it is along these girdling ridges, whether
mountain-ranges or mere continuous swelling elevations of the solid, which
divide these basins beneath the ocean surface one from the ether, that all.

J 1 -
‘, a
ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 65

the volcanoes known to exist upon the earth’s surface are found, dotted
along these ridges or crests in an unequal and uncertain manner.

And as our oceans and greater seas are bounded, and below their water-
surface subdivided, by these ridges, along the lines of which the volcanic
foci are found; so, as long observed, it is a fact that all active volcanoes are
comparatively close to the sea, or to some large body of water; indeed,
they could not present the phenomena they are known to do, without a
supply of water, and nearly always of sea-water, more or less constant and
plentiful, derived from this propinquity. (See Trans. R. I. Acad. vol. xxi.
pp- 98, 99.)

However different, then, may have been the train of forces upon which the
elevation of the mountain-chains and other relatively raised lines of the pre-
sent surface have depended, from those which now produce the ejections
thrown up by volcanic action, the latter seem to follow upon the traces of
the former ; and we shall find that the earthquake generally does so likewise.
The distinction long made, into linear and circularly grouped or clustering
voleanoes, I conceive has no foundation in nature, By far the largest pro-
portion of all the volcanic vents over the whole earth are found arranged
along the flowing lines of mountain-chains.

The so-called clusters or cireulur groups never are found covering surface-
areas larger, if so large, or more widely apart, in any single group, than those
within which volcanic vents are found that undoubtedly belong to linear ar-
rangements (Mexico for example).

Nearly all the clusters or circular groups of volcanoes are situated in the
ocean, and far from continental land ; they stand on, and are connected with
each other, by oceanic plateaux, rounded submarine ridges, shallows, rocks,
and islands, and by similar connexions with points of continental coasts,
either mountainous or volcanic. The conclusion seems justifiable, that
‘these clusters or groups are the gnly visible points, “few and far-between,”
situated along sub-oceanic linear volcanic ranges, along which the open
vents are probably much fewer than along equal lengths on land, but still
marking as truly as the most thick-set linear vents the great lines of fracture
of the earth’s crust. Were this the proper place, much might be adduced
in support of this view of volcanic distribution.

The connexion between volcanic and seismic effort is so obvious, although
the nature of their connexion has been so little understood, that we are
prepared to find the deepest tints of the seismic map fringing off from those
great mountain-ranges where the volcanic foci stand close in rank; but it
was not before so apparent that, along the elevated ridges or mountain-
ranges that gird and divide the great surface-basins, even when not volcanic,
or when volcanic foci are rare and widely separated, the earthquake is still
found to range in broad bands, following the general line of the crest.

Upon a very much minuter scale of survey than we are now occupied with,
such would seem dependent upon the physical fact, that the earth-wave
will be best and furthest propagated through the most solid and elastic line
of material, that is, in the axial line of mountain-chains and valleys, as is
found to be the case; but the indication of our map is a far more extensive
one, and points to some different and deeper cause. Thus, to resume our
Seismic survey of the Map, Iceland, Ferro, Shetland, and the south-west
coast of Norway, nearly to Christiania, form a broad band of seismic con-
nexion, which would probably run on to Greenland, and along its coast to
Jan Mayen, did we know anything of their earthquake history.

_ The fact (if it be so), that the west coast of Greenland, in Davis's Straits,
is sinking gradually, would in nowise conflict with the probability of
F

66 - nt REPORT—1858.

seismic action, or even elevation of the opposite eastern coast, which, it is
extremely probable, may be slowly rising, just as the Scandinavian peninsula
is doing ; and it does not seem a disproportioned supposition, that all three
changing levels are due to the prodigious scale of volcanic action going on
at Iceland.

The Swedish system is another band stretching north-west from the
great lakes to Kola Bay in Russian Lapland; and future observation may
probably include in it the parallel chain of the Doffrefels Mountains. To
the south we mark the broad band whose extremities are Portugal and the
Azores, always in seismic sympathy with each other, and with which the
band of the Canaries is in relation through Madeira, and is also more
distinctly connected with the earthquakes of Barbary and Morocco.

From Tunis, a narrow but intensely marked seismic band stretches up
through Sicily and Italy, sends off a spur to the west through the Alps of
Piedmont and Southern France, along the whole line of the Pyrenees,
and to the northern coast of Spain ; and widening out over the central Alps,
so as to cover a large area of central Southern Europe: extending east and
west from Lyons to Vienna, it again contracts in width at about the latitude
of Strasburg, and stretches away northwards over the whole Rhenish
mountain system, and becomes nearly evanescent upon the low plains of
Holland and the coasts of the North Sea, where, though infrequent, earth-
quakes are not unknown.

Over the great plain of Central Europe, and far into Southern Russia to
the north of the Euxine, the want of observations with distinct dimensions
renders any attempt at precise boundary nugatory. Were our records better,
the Carpathians would no doubt stand out in stronger tint than the well-
inhabited country of Poland and the Vistula, where the greater frequency of
seismic records deepen the tint from Cracow up towards Riga. Better ob-
servations would no doubt also mark with a deeper tint a band of connexion
along the Balkans and line of the Danube, between the Austrian Alps, so
frequently shaken, and the Bosphorus, where the neighbourhood of Con-
stantinople shows itself abnormally intense, from the reiterated records of
earthquakes there that have been collected century after century at that
ancient seat of splendour and civilization. Thus it is that the disturbing
causes that we have remarked as affecting the Catalogue follow into its dis-
cussion in space as well as we have seen they do into that of time.

A broad but somewhat ill-defined seismie band stretches from the Greek
Archipelago to Constantinople, spreads over a large portion of Asia Minor,
and is carried through Palestine, on to the valley of the Lower Nile and the
coasts of the Red Sea, extending further south along its Arabian shore.
From the Gulf of Scanderoon, by Aleppo and Mosul to Lake Van, and
the south of Ararat to Shirvan and Baku upon the Caspian, a wide band
of great and long-continued energy extends, which probably joins into the
Caucasus and is connected with the seismic system of the Ourals in the
distant north.

Again, from about the parallel of Bagdad, a broad but ill-defined seismic
band stretches nearly due east through the whole of Persia, Khorassan, and
to the Hindoo Koosh, sending off a narrower band along the shores of the
Persian Gulf. About Cabool the Persian band joins into the vast seismic
area of Northern India—a band, whose northern boundary is the Hima--
layan chain, and which stretches nearly parallel to it from Cabool to Cal- —
cutta and to the Gulf of Cutch. Beloochistan appears exempt, but probably —
only because hitherto without observation or record. Leaving the vast and —
strongly agitated seismic system of Central Asia, of the boundaries of which

~

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 67

80 little is yet known beyond the general fact that northwards the seismic
bands appear to follow the great river-courses, or more probably the great
axes bounding ¢hem,—and passing also the so frequently convulsed Chinese
empire, which appears to have two chief seismic centres about Pekin and
Canton (these cities have been the centres of observation for all, or nearly all,
the Chinese records of earthquakes that we possess, and hence one reason of
the depth of seismic tint around them; but it is also to be observed that two
of the great volcanic districts of the “ Fire Hills and Fire Wells” of China are
situated within the tinted or shaken regions adjacent to the two capitals),
with a third more central volcanic region, of which I am not aware that any-
thing is known seismically,—and remarking the apparent exemption of Cochin
China, for which there are no records,—we at length arrive at the greatest and
most formidable earthquake- and volcanic region upon our globe. Stretching
in a vast horse-shoe, convex to the south, from Burmah and Pegu, and sur-
rounding the great island of Borrieo, with an intervening belt of sea, and
reaching round to Formosa on the north-west, we have an almost continuous
girdle of volcanoes and lofty mountains. Every island of the group, in-
cluding Java and Sumatra, Celebes and Mindanao, is shaken with earth-
quakes the most formidable and frequent ; and we can point to no spots upon
the whole earth’s surface upon which seismic energy is exhibited with an
intensity equal to that of Luzon and Sumbava.

Nothing even in South America or Mexico appears to rival the grandeur
of volcanic energy and resultant seismic action here. In 1815 the thunder-
ings of Tomboro, in Sumbava, were heard nearly 1000 miles away (through
the earth no doubt). The ashes, or, more correctly, the finely-divided tufa-
dust, floating in the air, made mid-day into darkness 300 miles away in Java,
and were precipitated at sea even a thousand miles from the point of ejec-
tion, while whole tracts of country, with inhabited towns, have suddenly
become engulphed and disappeared during periods of eruption, which over
a large portion of the chain, from one extreme to the other, are almost
continuous.

It will be remarked that the seismic tint is both more intense and rela-
tively more circumscribed in area along the bands that surround the linear
voleanic vents, where they cluster thick, than along mountain-chains or
ridges that. possess few or no volcanic vents. This no doubt arises from the
centres of impulse in active volcanic lines being situated at a comparatively
small depth, in fact, coming from the actual bases of the crater, or not far
beneath ; and hence the horizontal propagation is not so great for a given
force of impulse as where its centre is situated deeper, and the explosive
effort rendered abortive to rupture the solid crust above. The intensity of
tint in the former case is due to repetition of effort, as well as to occasional
intensity of impulse.

An earthquake in a non-volcanic region may, in fact, be viewed as an
uncompleted effort to establish a volcano. The forees of explosion and
impulse are the same in both; they differ only in degree of energy, or in the
Varying sorts and degrees of resistance opposed to them. ‘There is more
than a mere vaguely admitted connexion between them, as heretofore com-
monly acknowledged—one so vague, that the earthquake has been often
Stated to be the cause of the volcano (Johnston, ‘ Phys. Atlas,’ Geology,
p-21), and more commonly the volcano the cause of the earthquake, neither
View being the expression of the truth of nature. They are not in the rela-
tion to each other of cause and effect, but are both unequal manifestations
of a common force under different conditions.

Further north we have the somewhat less terrible, but yet deeply-

FZ

68 REPORT—1858.

coloured seismic bands of Japan, the Kuriles, and Kamtschatka ; and, pass-
ing to the opposite shore of the Pacific, we are presented with the deeply-
coloured seismic bands of Mexico and the South American Andes, whose
influence reaches far out into the ocean, but eastward or landward is
checked by the great chain. ‘The reason of this fact, whick has been before
alluded to, is not hard to find. The general section of the South American
continent, from west to east, consists of a comparatively low-lying narrow
littoral border-country on the Pacific; then the immense chain of the
Andes rising in successive ranges to the axial peaks, and beyond these a
vast plateau—the elevated land of the great continent—reaching over to
near the western coast, where some lower ranges of mountains terminate
the Atlantic shore and bound its basin. This is rudely shown in the accom-

panying figure (1).

Fig. 1.

Now if a shock be transmitted from any origin within the great chain,
and below the level of the great tableland, a6, as from a point 2, the
transmitted elastic wave in the direction as, reaching the surface after a
very short transit, will, in accordance with the well-known law of elastic
bodies, have its amplitude increased (just as the last billiard-ball of a line
of touching balls, is that which is projected when the first of the line is struck
by the blow of a propelled ball), and more powerfully shake all surface-
objects at s than others situated at a, although at an equal radial distance
from the centre of effort,—the free movement of the elastic wave being
here reacted upon by the elastic mass of the tableland which blocks its way
until compressed. Objects on the tableland, at an equal distance from
the origin, may (dependent upon its depth) receive the shock (even if
of only equal amplitude) at such an angle of emergence as will give a less
power of overthrow to the horizontal component of the wave’s transit.
There will in every case be a reflected wave back from the mass of the
tableland—an earthquake echo—producing at s, or along the littoral border,
a second shock, with a line of direction nearly the same, but with a direction
of motion reverse to the first, one shock only being felt on the tableland.

To return, the seismic band of the Andes, at the extreme north of the
continent, and at Trinidad, inosculates with that of the West India Islands,
which sweeps round the Caribbean Sea, and appears, so far as records go,
to transmit its movements further into the Atlantic, than into the former
sea; if so, that probably arises from causes quite analogous to those already
explained for South America—a shallower sea-bottom to the westward, on
the Caribbean Sea, thus playing the part towards the deeper bottom of the
Atlantic that the tableland plays towards the littoral slope of South America.
The North American records have been too few and ill-defined as to boundary
to produce as yet any very distinct conclusions from the tints, which prove,
however, that its western and southern seaboard are by no means free from
earthquake. This has in great part arisen from the great want of orographic
delineation on nearly all (even the largest and best) maps of the United States,
which omit all heights and natural features. The Californian system west of
the Rocky Mountains, that of Upper Missouri, of the Mississippi, and that of
the northern lakes and basin of the St. Lawrence, form the chief and separate
regions in which earthquakes haye been so far observed most frequently.

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA, 69

Future observation will probably show a connexion between the great sub-
oceanic seismic tract of the South Atlantic and the South American conti-
hent on its western sea-board, between Cape Roque and La Plata. It does
not appear so far to have any connexion with the opposite African coast be-
tween Cape Palmas and the Bight of Biafra. A better knowledge will also pro-
bably widely extend the seismic boundary of the Cape of Good Hope along
both the east and west shores of Africa to the northward, and bring within it
the great island of Madagascar, as to which nothing is so far known. New
Zealand (unhappily for its future progress) will afford one of the best regions
in the world for the study of volcanic and seismic phenomena in their con-
nexion.

The earthquake-band of Western Australia, at present so small in propor-
tion to its vast surface, will probably be found to reach much further towards
the interior, and embrace Van Diemen’s Land and a considerable stretch of
the southern coast to the eastward. It remains yet to be observed whether
even the small surface explored of the east side of the Great Island is sub-
ject to earthquakes or not. Abyssinia too, though not affording the record
of a single earthquake, is too closely united with the seismic region of Arabia
and the mouth of the Red Sea, to be probably perpetually in repose.

There are great untinted spaces upon our map. The northern and south-
ern polar regions, immense tracts in North America and in Northern and
East Central Asia; surfaces in South America nearly as large as all Central
Europe; the whole African continent except the northern edge and southern
point; nearly the whole of Australia, and almost the whole of the bed of the
great ocean, are perfectly unstudied and unknown to us, as respects their
seismic condition. They appear white, and hence free from earthquake, upon
the map, but only because there are no observations.

Future researches will probably, however, show that all these vast tracts of
land are traversed by earthquake-bands presenting generally the features
that we recognize elsewhere, and that the ocean-bed, far from the continents,
although always much less disturbed, for equal extent of surface, than the
land, and especially than the coast, of the great oceans, is also traversed by
earthquake-bands continuous with and tracing out their shallowest contours.

Had navigation been, in times past, as frequent and constant in the Pacific
and Southern Indian oceans as it has been in the narrower Atlantic, especially
north of the equator, the former would most probably present, over very much
of their vast surfaces, light seismic tints such as almost the whole Atlantic
presents, included as it is within the range of movements transmitted from
both its western and eastern borders, and also from the foci within its bosom,

_ connected by seismic lines so closely adjacent, 7. e. with sub-basins so com-
_ paratively small in area.
___ Imperfect as are our observations on land, they are much more so upon
_ the surface of the great ocean that covers three-fourths of our globe; so
_ that only a very rude approximation, and from very partial data, can be
‘ made towards the solution of the question, What is the relation of seismical
_ nergy beneath the land and the ocean ?
_ _ The result of Perrey’s, memoir ‘On the Basin of the Atlantic,’ (Dijon
Fi Mém.) assigns, for a period from 1430 to 1847, or 417 years, a total of only
_ about 140 shocks (or three shocks per annum) observed over an area of
_ about 24 millions of square miles. If we contrast this with the only tolerably
_ well-observed portion of the dry land, the great European area, we find
_ thereon at the least 40 shocks per annum observed upon an area of 1,720,000
_ square miles, or (allowing for regions included, but never observed), say,
1,500,000 square miles. There occurs therefore annually in the Atlantic

70 | REPORT— 1858.

basin one shock for every 8,000,000 square miles of surface, and, in the Euro-
pean area, one shock for every 37,500 square miles of surface ; so that within
these large areas the seismic energy beneath the land is to that beneath the
ocean-floor as 213: 1 nearly. The annual number of observed European
earthquakes is certainly below the actual number that occur; and although
the Atlantic is the only oceanic surface of our globe over which there can
be a pretence even to correct observation, yet its recorded numbers must
be very far indeed below the truth, and immeasurably lower in proportion
than for Europe. Making, however, every allowance for imperfect inform-
ation in the pelagic area, the disparity of relative numbers is such, as to
warrant our estimating, with some confidence, that the seismical energy is
manifested with much greater power for equal areas upon the dry land than
upon the ocean-bed.

Should it ultimately prove a fact, as rendered probable from the beautiful
investigations of Darwin, that there are great areas of gradual subsidence now
in motion beneath the Pacific, it may still happen (though it is not probable)
that seismic or even voleanic bands may traverse such areas of subsidence,
without materially affecting their general downward movement. Although
many portions of the earth’s surface now show evidences of vertical insta-
bility, either slowly, or per saléum occasionally, rising or sinking, these effects
are all comparatively insignificant in extent. The great formative forces,
whatever they were, upon which the elevated land of the great continents and
the depression of the ocean-beds depended, have ceased sensibly to act. The
function of the volcano and the earthquake in the existing cosmos is not crea-
tive, but simply preservative ; and vast as they appear to eye and sense, their
effects are very small in relation to the totality of the great terrestrial machine.

If, however, such large areas of oceanic subsidence as have been supposed
really exist, they will most probably be found situated almost centrally within
the oceanic sub-basins, and hence surrounded but not traversed by seismic
bands.

There is one fact, which is shown by the relative positions, upon this map,
of the greatest voleanic areas upon our globe (and these the most active) and
of the blue-tinted areas of probable subsidence, that is worthy of fixing our
attention.

It will be observed that the blue bands of probable subsidence are tole-
rably adjacent to the greatest seats of volcanic activity, and that the latter
generally have subsiding areas at more than one side. Thus, in the Pacific,
the blue band is along the great volcanic girdle from Celebes to New Zealand,
and thence stretches between (and at one point may cut through) the line
of suboceanic volcanic girdles, from the New Hebrides to the Marquesas.

Again, the great volcanic horse-shoe girdle of Sumbava is between the
blue (subsiding) area in the China Sea north of Borneo, and the blue coral
bands north of Australia, which whole continent, or at least its western and
northern parts, may probably be subsiding also. Lastly, in the north we have
Iceland and its voleanic system, between the sinking coasts of Greenland and
those of the Baltic.

If we admit, then, as certain, that these vast tracts are subsiding, we can
searcely withhold our belief that the subsidences are due to and are the
equivalent in bulk of the solid ejecta and exhalations of these various great
volcanic areas respectively.

The assumed area and extent of subsidence of those supposed subsiding
tracts are, however, I apprehend, greatly overrated; this, however, is not the
place to pursue their consideration.

From all that has preceded (here and in former Reports), it is plain that

4 ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 71

:

——s

nothing like one or more great general horizontal directions of seismic move-
ment can exist upon any very large tracts of the earth’s surface ; and that if
it be even possible to assign, as proposed by M. Perrey, a general horizontal
component for limited areas, the method does not admit of extension. The
normal type of an elastic wave in a homogeneous solid, is only varied, so far
as observation yet goes, by the accidents principally of material and surface,
whether the area of disturbance be great or small.

Nor does the seismic intensity in any part of the world, so far as originating
impulse is concerned, seem connected with the superficial character, to the
greatest known depth, of the geologic formations, beyond what connexion
is necessarily inferential from the seismic bands (where they exist) following,
on the whole, the lines of mountains and ridges that separate the surface-
basins of the earth, whether volcanic or not. While, therefore, the seismic
waves diverge, from axial lines that are generally of the older rock forma-
tions, and often of crystalline igneous rocks or actively volcanic, they pene-
trate thence formations of every age and sort, even to plains of the most
recent post-pleistocene clays, sands, and gravels ; and occasionally, by the
secondary efforts of great shocks, these loose materials are shaken or caused
to slip and gather up into new forms (as in the Ullah Bund at the mouths
of the Indus, &c.), and so the earthquake has come to be mistakenly viewed
as a direct agent of elevation. Its true cosmical function is the very opposite :
it is part of the dislocating, degrading, and levelling machinery of the ser-
face of our globe, while the part of the volcano is restoration and renewal.
Both are, however, not creative but conservative (strange as it may sound),
and suited to the period of man’s appearance and possession of the earth.

Viewing as a whole, and in a single glance, the distribution of seismic
ehergy over the whole globe, it presents (so far as we yet know) a vast loop
or band round the Pacific, a more broken and irregular one around the
Atlantic, with subdividing bands and a vast broad band stretching across
Europe and Asia, and uniting them.

Thus an apparent preponderance of seismic surface seems to lie about the
temperate and torrid zones, both northern and southern; but extended
observation is yet required in high latitudes, and particularly in the Autarctic
ones, before we dare venture to affirm that there is a real preponderance
extending over any one or more great climatic bands or zones of the earth’s

surface.

The following are perhaps the most general conclusions that are at pre-

- sent justifiable :—

- Ist. The superficial distribution of seismic influence over existing terrestrial
space does not follow the law of distribution in historic time; it is not
one of uniformity. There is this resemblance, which, however, is
not a true analogy,—that as the distribution is paroxysmal in time,
so it is local in space.

2nd. The normal type of superficial distribution is that of bands of variable
and of great breadth, with sensible seismic intluence extending from
5° to 15° in width transversely.

$rd. These bands very generally follow the lines of elevation which mark
and divide the great oceanic or terr-oceanic basins (saucers) of the
earth’s surface.

_ 4th. And in so far as these are frequently the lines of mountain-chains,

e and these latter those of voleanic vents, so the seismic bands are

: i found to follow them likewise.

_- 5th. Although the sensible influence is generally limited to the average

72 REPORT— 1858.

width of the seismic band, paroxysmal efforts are occasionally pro-
pagated to great superficial distances beyond it.

6th. The sensible width of the seismic band depends upon the energy de-
veloped, and upon the accidental geologic and topographic conditions
at each point along its entire length.

7th. Seismic energy may become sensible at any point of the earth’s sur-
face, its efforts being, however, greater and more frequent as the
great volcanic lines of activity are approached.

8th. The surfaces of minimum or of no known disturbance, are the central
areas of great oceanic or terr-oceanic basins or saucers, and the
greater islands existing in shallow seas.

The fact that certain low-lying river-basins, such as the Mississippi and
the Ganges, are the seats of earthquake disturbance, does not conflict with
the last proposition. In these cases, the impulse is propagated into the plain
from the band of the bounding ridges; and when these are very large
in relation to the basin, the breadth of the seismic band may overlap its
whole surface,—as for example in the basin of the Ganges, where the seismic
banks of the Himalaya and Vindhya mountains cover the whole plain of
Northern India.

We have thus extracted all the information that our Catalogue, or indeed
any further cataloguing of earthquakes, seems capable of giving us; future
research must take a more distinctly physical character. I therefore proceed
to some observations upon instrumental seismometry and the construction
of seismometers, upon which our future progress must much depend.

Twelve years ago, at the period of the author’s paper (Trans. R. I. Acad.
vol. xxi. 1846) “ On the Dynamics of Earthquakes,” the construction of seis-
mometric instruments appeared a comparatively easy matter; there did not
seem to be much difficulty in producing even a self-registering instrument
that should give every element of the earth-wave at the surface, whose nor-
mal velocity of propagation was then assumed to be extremely great, to
approximate to that theoretically due to the elasticity of solid rocky media,
and not to vary very materially in direction of propagation during its transit
from the origin, to any distant point of the earth’s surface.

It is only at a very recent period that experiments and observations as to
the actual phenomena, the velocity and direction of shock, &c. have begun to
show the real difficulties of the subject ; and as these are apparently not very
generally recognized, I propose pointing some of them out here, prior to
indicating the limits within which for the present, it appears to me, we must
be content to restrict our seismometric aims and instruments, and describing
what form of instrument, and in what localities placed, would appear, with
our existing knowledge, the best to give us some information—approximate
only, and incomplete without doubt, but yet such as can be made a safe basis
for a future higher step with more refined and comprehensive instruments. I
shall avoid as much as possible (as out of place in this Report) any mathe-
matical treatment of the subject. The antecedent history of seismometers is
in brief as follows :—

All the instruments hitherto devised or set up may be divided into two
great classes:—1, observational, those whose motions must be observed and
recorded after each shock ; 2, self-registering, which record their own past
movements however repeated, and admit of their observation at any subse-
quent period within certain limits. Each of these classes is again divided
into two sorts :—a. instruments dependent upon the movements by displace-

SES Oe tC LP Um

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 93

solids.

1 (a).

2 (a).

3 (a).

4: (a).

5 (b).

G (b).

7 (0).

ment of liquids; 5. those dependent upon the partial displacements of

Of the first elass, there have been—
That of Cacciatore of Palermo, long in use in Sicily. It consists of a
wooden circular dish about 10 in. ‘diameter, placed horizontally and
filled with mercury to the brim-level of eight notches that face the
cardinal points and the bisecting rhumbs between, and are cut down
through the lip of the dish, equally in width and depth all round.
Beneath each such notch a small cup is placed, to receive such mer-
cury as may be thrown out of each notch by an oscillatory displace-
ment of the main mass of mercury, due to a general oscillation of the
whole system. Either the volume or the weight of mercury found in
each cup is supposed to measure the value of the displacement, and
hence of the shock in its direction in azimuth.
The wooden or other bowl of molasses, or other such viscid liquid,
suggested for use by Mr. Babbage.

A cylindric tub with chalked or whitewashed sides, and partially
filled with some heavy and permanently coloured liquid of deep tint.
(Mallet, Admiralty Manual, sect. vii. p. 218.)

Tubes partially filled with mercury, |__-shaped, with the horizontal
and open limbs directed to the cardinal points, for the horizontal com-
ponent of shock; and U-shaped for the vertical component,—both
sets being provided with marking indices, to show previous displace-
ment of the mercury. (Mallet, Admiralty Manual, sect. vii. p. 214.)
The oldest, probably, of seismometers, long set up in Italy and southern
Europe. A pendulum, free to move in any direction, carries below
the bob a stile partly immersed in a stratum of dry fine sand spread
to uniform thickness over the concave surface of a circular dish
placed beneath, marked to the cardinal points, whose centre is
beneath the point of suspension of the pendulum when at rest, and
whose concavity is that of a spherical segment of a radius equal to
the length of the. pendulum and stile, plus rather more than the
depth of the stratum of sand. It was supposed that the stile would
mark a right line when seen in a plane vertical to the sand-bed, and
in the direction of the shock.

The inverted pendulum, held vertical when at rest by its forming
part of a spring at the base (like the watchmakers’ noddy), armed
with a chalk tracer or pencil above the bob, marking a line or lines
upon the concave lower surface of a dish in form like that of the
preceding. This was understood to be one of the instruments adopted
by the observers of the repeated shocks of Comrie, &c., and the in-
vention, in its improved form, of Prof. J. Forbes. (Phil. Trans. Edin.
vol. xv. part 1; Trans. Brit. Ass. 1841-42.)
The inverted spring and ratchet pendulum seismometer, proposed in
1854 by Robert F. Budge, Esq. of Valparaiso, in a letter (12th March
1854) to Mr. Patterson of Belfast, and obligingly forwarded by him to
the author. Four cylindrical or square rods of spring steel, each carry-
ing a spherical bob (an iron shot) at top, are fixed vertically. Each is
provided with a ratchet, finely cut upon the rod, and a pall, the planes
of motion of the four palls passing through the cardinal points, so that
each spring pendulum is free to make one semioscillation only in its
own direction, or that of its ratchet and pall, and be arrested there
by the latter until its position of displacement be observed and it be
released. Thus, in the figure (2), p W is the spring pendulum (which,
it may be remarked, would be better a flat ribbon of spring steel,

74 REPORT—1858, .e “lO
the broad dimension being transverse to the are of vibration, than
eitherroundor square as proposed), W the Fig. 2.
bob, 7 the ratchet and pall. If we suppose
this to be in the N. and S. vertical plane,
a shock from the S. may bring the pen-
dulum into the position p m, when the
pall will fall into that x, and detain the
instrument in its new position until the
angle 2 p W can be observed.

The main object proposed by the author
of this modification of the inverted pen-
dulum was, that the observable movement
of the instrument should be as nearly as
possible that of the horizontal component
of shock, without being perplexed with
indications due to subsequent abnormal
motions of the instrument.

8 (6). The pendulum seismometer of Santi.
Two pendula suspended close to the faces
of two walls, ranging in vertical planes
traversing through the cardinal points,
are free to oscillate in those planes only.
Each is provided with a chalk tracer, which marks the are of oscil-
lation N. and S. or E. and W., or vice versd as to either, upon the pre-
pared face of the wall. This has been long in use in Italy. The length
of the horizontal chord of the are traced is assumed to be equal to
the horizontal component of shock in the direction marked, and inter-
mediate movements are to be obtained from comparison of the lengths
of both cardinal chords by the known laws of compounded motions.

9 (6). A vertical inverted spring pendulum, formed of an elastic rod (wood
or cane), with bobs of iron shot, is fixed within a hoop, with certain
extemporaneous means of marking its oscillations in any plane, or
more than one, for horizontal component. Such pendula, fixed hori-
zontally in a wall, or in two N. and 8. and E. and W. walls, may be
used for vertical element, or a shot hung from a spiral spring of wire
(Mallet, Admiralty Manual, sect. vii. p. 217, 218.); these were in-
tended for extemporaneous use. The spiral spring arrangement has
had several different proposers, some anterior to the above.

Such are the principal instruments of the first class, used or proposed,
in addition to which may be noticed the balanced circular dish, or wheel-
formed seismometer, suggested, I believe, by Professor J. Forbes and Col.
James, R.E.,—a disk of cast-iron or other metal with a heavy rim, upon a
central point of suspension slightly above the centre of gravity, and provided
with a central tracing-stile, either above or below. The sensibility and power
of horizontal recovery or stability of this instrument are nearly identical
with those of the common balance. It is liable to all the objections that
apply to pendula, whose properties in oscillation it still partakes of; and it
is difficult to see any one special advantage offered by it.

Of the second class, or self-registering seismometers, the number is much
more limited.

1 (a). The first completely self-registering seismometer proposed, the author
believes to have been that invented by himself, an account of which

q

a

a

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA, 45

2 (a).

was read to the Royal Irish Academy in June 1846 (Trans. R. I. A.,
xxi. p. 107). It consists essentially of five fluid pendula,—glass tubes,
partially filled with mercury, four for horizontal, and one for vertical
elements of the shock. ‘The displacement of the mercurial columns
breaks contact, in an otherwise closed galvanic circuit, which, acting
upon some simple contrivances, cause a pencil to trace a line upon
ruled paper, whose length is proportionate to the time that contact
remains broken, or to the amplitude and altitude of the earth-wave.
The ruled paper, placed upon a cylinder, is maintained in motion
by a clock; the position of the commencement of the pencil line
traced on the moving paper, therefore, gives the moment in time, of
the arrival of the wave, or initial instant of shock. The displace-
ment of the mercurial columns is dependent upon inertia, and on

‘the relative mass of mercury in the adjacent limbs of each bent

tube.

Professor Palmieri, of Naples, has, some time since, constructed an
instrument, in point of general principle, very similar to the pre-
ceding, and which has been at work, as he informs me, with satis-
factory results, at the Royal Meteorological Observatory upon Vesu-
vius, and for a considerable period. His instrument consists of two
distinct systems, one for vertical, the other for horizontal, or rather
undulatory movements. The former consists of a clock, constantly
going, and registering date and time. A galvanic circuit, which
includes an electro-magnet, remains always unelosed, except at the
instant of the arrival of a vertical movement of the whole instrument,
when one pole of copper or platinum wire, held suspended from a heavy
bob at the lower end of a spiral spring—as in 9 (8), last sentence—
close over the surface of a mercurial cup (the other pole), drops by
inertia, and making good the contact, establishes the electro-magnet’s
action, and by it stops the clock and rings a bell. The range of ver-
tical movement is, J believe, deduced from the direct motion of this
contact-maker.

The system for horizontal (?) or undulatory movements consists of
a similar clock and galvanic arrangement, and of four U-shaped
glass tubes, open at both ends, and containing equal vertical columns
of mercury, The vertical planes of two of these U-tubes are N. and
S. and E. and W.; those of the other two in intermediate rhumbs.
Close above, but not in contact with, the mercurial surface in one
limb of each tube, is held suspended a platinum pole, the mercury
itself being the other pole of the open circuit. Upon the surface of
the mercury in the opposite limb a small float rests, connected by a
silk cord over a pulley in a vertical plane, with a little counterpoise,
slightly heavier than the float. If, now, such a movement be given
to any one or more of these U-tubes as shall kant it over or throw it
out of plumb, and so alter the relative levels of the opposite surfaces
of mercury in the two limbs of the tube, the U-tube that shall in-
cline towards the limb that contains the platinum galvanic pole will
then make contact, and at the moment of doing so will stop the clock
and ring a bell as before.

The amount of displacement as to level of the two surfaces of
mercury in the opposite limbs will be made observable by the
distance to which the small float shall be found elevated above the
surface of the mercury in the opposite limb. ‘A description of this
instrument has been given, but without a figure, in De la Rive’s

46 REPORT—1858. "O

‘Treatise on Electricity and its Applications,’ English edition, vol.
ili. p. 508*.

3 (6). The last self-registering instrument to be noticed is that of Herr
Kreil of Vienna, of which an account appeared in 1855. This in-
genious and simple instrument can hardly be made intelligible more
briefly than in the author’s own words, which I translate (with the
addition of a word or two) from the ‘Sitzungsberichte der Kais. Akad.
d. Wissensch.’ Band. xv. p. 111, Heft for March 1855 :—

«A good seismometer is a desideratum still to be devoutly wished for. It
Fig. 3.

should not only show the commencement
of the stronger, but also of the weaker
shocks, as well as their duration, direction,
and strength,—a task which is too great for
a self-registering apparatus. Therefore
every idea towards the improvement of
such instruments must be welcome; and
on this account I venture to bring forward
the following design (fig. 3). Let de be
a rod of wood or metal suspended at a,
which at d is fastened to the elastic
spring ¢, like the pendulum of a clock, and
therefore can swing in the plane of this
spring in a vertical direction. Let ab be
a second spring upon the first vertical
one, which permits the bar of the pen-
dulum, de, to swing in the plane of the
spring ¢, i.e. at right angles to the former
vertical plane. The bar de and the
weight fastened to it can therefore swing
in every direction, without its being per-
mitted to turn on its own axis of vertical
length, and as if there were but a thread

or thin wire at 6, The cylinder fg hi wy a ae aa oh
contains clockwork, which obliges it to Whddddiddddddudigy

turn round upon the bar of the pendulum

(as its perpendicular axis fixed with reference to rotation) once in 24 hours.
It is covered with paper or other material, which can be marked on without
great pressure. It contains on the lower edge the numbers of the hours,
which can move behind an index m, fastened to the plate kl, which is
fixed to the axis of the pendulum. Upon a neighbouring pin, o p, is an
elastic and thin arm of brass, o x, which carries a pencil at ”, which, by
means of a screw (spring ?), can be pressed against the cylinder and removed
from it. It is in firm contact with this, and marks upon it an uninterrupted
line so long as the pendulum remains at rest; if, however, this begins to
swing, in consequence of the whole system being shaken, this line will be
broken, and strokes produced which will have a horizontal direction if the
pendulum swings in the plane of xo, but will be perpendicular and cross-
ways if swinging in the plane perpendicular to no. The force and length of

* Since this report was commenced, I have myself had the advantage of seeing this
instrument, and conversing with its distinguished inventor, as to its principles and construc-
tion. Prof. Palmieri informed me that it had been arrested by the celebrated shock of
16th December 1857, and had given indications that he deemed satisfactory. [R.M., May
1858.]

yo sae ss ee

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 77

this stroke will give an approximation to the strength of the shocks. The
middle of the stroke, or, if they are vertical, the end of the uninterrupted
line, gives the time of the commencement of the shock. The strength and
direction of the shocks may also be approximated if the (as respects rota-
tion) fixed plate hikl have an annular recess, filled with quicksilver until
its surface reaches the holes sss, made in the cylindrical sides. At the
first motion of the pendulum, the quicksilver will be shed out through these
holes into a dish divided into the same number of compartments as there are
holes, like those already in use in many existing instruments of this kind
(Cacciatores)”.

Such are the chief seismometers hitherto proposed. They all involve in
some form the principle either of the solid or of the fluid pendulum, the
latter term being applied to the oscillations of liquids in tubes or other such
vessels ; and have disadvantages, both theoretic and practical or constructive,
which render their indications inaccurate.

Every pendulum seismometer has a time of oscillation due to its length,
which in the case of the solid pendulum is

t=2/ u
g

and in the case of the oscillating liquid

ey ay ic a

?

l being the length of the pendulum and of the oscillating column of liquid
respectively ; but if P = the period of the earth-wave or shock, then when-

P Heer Oe : J P
ever T=P, or x P, or —, the indication of the instrument will be in excess
n

of the horizontal component of the wave’s motion ; when, on the contrary, T
represents no function of P, it may be much less than it.

The amount of error depends also upon the velocity of movement of the
horizontal component of the wave. If this be considerable, the solid pen-
dulum, whether hanging or inverted, acted on by gravity or elasticity, is at
the first moment left behind; as the rod becomes more oblique, the pen-
dulum is dragged along, and acquires a velocity (in a direction which ap-
proaches to horizontal) greater than that due to the are through which the
pendulum has fallen in the time. At the end of the wave’s forward move-
ment, then, the pendulum is thrown forward too far; and at the end of the
return movement of the wave, it moves beyond the range of the latter, by a
small are due to its proper motion. This objection applies, though with less
cogency, to the fluid pendula, and in their case to both the vertical and hori-
zontal components of the wave.

These discrepancies of indication will vary whenever the velocity and di-
mensions of the earth-wave become altered ; and as, for the same instrument,
T varies with sin’ \ (A being the latitude), it is obvious that even two per-
fectly similar instruments at stations north and south of each other, will not
give strictly comparable results for the same earth-wave.

These are but examples of one or two points of theoretic difficulty, to
which others might be added, and which affect these instruments prin-
cipally as indicators of the dimensions of the earth-wave. Some of these
theoretic disturbances may be eliminated by calculation from the results ;
but there are also some apparently insuperable difficulties, of a practical or
constructive nature, which affect all solid pendula as reliable indicators even

78 i REPORT—1858.

of the direction of surface-transit (horizontal component) of the earth-wave.
However finely suspended the pendulum—if acted on by gravity only, or,
however constructed if by elasticity or by elasticity and gravity, it is found
impracticable to produce an instrument that shall make even the second half
of its very first complete vibration strictly in the plane of the original dis-
turbance, é. e. in that of the wave’s transit. If, for example, any one of the

Fig. 4.

instruments 5 (6), 6 (b), or 7(), be caused to make a semivibration by a
movement of the nature of one horizontal jerk, and strictly in one vertical
plane a 6 (fig. 4), the trace made will in most instances be found thus; ed, the
first semivibration, is made sensibly in the plane of movement, but the re-
turning complete vibration de, is found diverging from it through a sensible
anglecde. If the vibration of the instrument be suffered to continue, its trace
rapidly becomes an extremely elongated ellipse, whose excentricity constantly
diminishes, as well as the actual dimensions of both its axes, until the in-
strument comes to rest, after tracing thus a mass of elliptic spirals, from
which nothing certain can be gathered as to direction in some instances—
in which, at best, it is only possible to arrive at a probable direction of
originating impulse, by drawing a mean major axis through all these closed
curves.

Constructively, this evil arises not only from the nature of the suspension,
if a pendulum of gravity, or, if one of elasticity, from the form, material,
&c. of the suspending or supporting spring ; but also, in both sorts, from the
fact that it is practically impossible that the point of suspension (or, in the
spring, its centre of resistance), the centre of oscillation, and the resultant
of the various opposing forces of the stile or tracing-point, shall lie in one
vertical plane, and that that plane shall always coincide with that of the wave’s
movement; and hence lateral divergence of the pendulum and elliptic spiral
oscillation. But it is also partly due to the nature of the earth-wave motion
itself, which is never a purely normal one, but always more or less disturbed
by small transversals ; so that the initial movement impressed upon the pen-
dulum is really not exactly that of the wave’s transit. Before entering fur-
ther, however, upon the subject of the actual perturbations of the superficial
earth-wave, as now known, and their effects in relation to seismometers, some
remarks may be advisable as to the special objections which I have either
observed or experimentally ascertained in respect to each particular arrange-
ment of the seismometers already described.

1(a). The Cacciatore mercurial dish.—If the earth-wave emerge with a
considerable angle from the horizon, and large velocity, the mercury
first surges up at the side of the dish towards which the earth-wave
is in transit, and in the direction opposite to its motion; it then,
after spilling out some of the mercury, commences its return oscil-
lation, moving in the same direction as the earth-wave, and spills out
another portion at the opposite side of the dish. The sum of the weights
so spilled out, taken at either side of a diameter transverse to the
earth-wave’s vertical plane of transit, will vary with every change
in the angle of emergence, or in the velocity or in the dimensions

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 79

2(a).

3 (a).

4. (a).

5(d)a

of the earth-wave. Small transversal vibrations, arriving almost
along with the earth-wave, as well as the effects of the form of the
dish, and of its delivering-spouts or adjutages, disturb the initial
simple surge of the mercury across the diameter of the dish, and pro-
duce reflected and other secondary surge movements of the mercury,
which traverse round the circumference of the dish, and spill out
more mercury in irregular gulps. The final result is, that no reliance
whatever can be placed upon its final indication, as to the plane of
the earth-wave transit having passed through the centre of gravity of
that semicircle of cups which are found to contain the most mercury.
The result is not materially different if the line of transit of the earth-
wave be perfectly horizontal. This instrument gives no information
whatever beyond a most uncertain approximation to the direction
of the horizontal component of the earth-wave transit.

The same objections generally apply to this form of instrument, and
one in addition, viz. that a viscid liquid like molasses must always
give indications short of the truth as to excursion in the dish due
to any given shock, and the more so as it is more tenacious and
approaches nearer to a solid; and as we have no correct means of
measuring viscidity, even assuming it constant for the same liquid,
nor any certainty that the specific gravity of such liquids remains
constant (it is certain molasses will not remain of the same density
in any climate for any considerable length of time), so observations
made through their means at different times and places can never
be comparable.

The same objections that apply to 1 (a) apply to the tub of coloured
water, but in a mitigated degree, the diameter being large, the
volume and depth of the liquid great, and the cylindrical sides of the
tub free from any apertures or inequalities. The initial surge gives
a much more distinct indication of direction than in either of the
preceding instruments; and it does not very frequently happen that
a diameter may not be found approximating, with tolerable certainty,
to the plane of earth-wave transit. But in cases where the normal
wave is preceded or accompanied by very appreciable transversals,
those violent tremors that are now known as the frequent ac-
companiments of the actual shock—the water-tub seismometer will
give no indication, or an uncertain one, unless watched and re-
marked as to transit-direction at the instant of the occurrence of the
shock.

Tubes partially filled with mercury give almost unobjectionable
indicatious as to direction of transit. Their evils are too great
delicacy or sensitiveness, for the observation of that class of earth-
quakes of mean power, which are the most important to be studied, and
by which they are completely deranged occasionally, while they are
continually being disturbed in such a seismic region by small tremulous
movements that are unimportant to notice. As respects their indi-
cations of velocity and dimensions of the wave, they are liable to the
objections already noticed as applicable to all pendula.

nd 6 (6). The main disadvantages of these constructions, viz. the
suspended and the inverted solid pendulum have been already
pointed out; it may be added here, however, that with the inverted
pendulum of Forbes, the supporting spring is more or less crippled
down, by asharp vertically (or nearly vertically) emergent shock, which
gives a lateral movement (greater or less) to the pendulum, as though

80

REPORT—1858.

from a horizontal originating motion, so that the instrument gives in
such cases an absolutely false indication.

7(b). Mr. Budge’s inverted spring pendulum, restrained to a single semi-

oscillation in one plane, offers some decisive advantages over ahy
other form hitherto proposed of the pendulum seismometer. The
whole length of the pendulum is elastic; and the rod being light,
the whole weight by whose inertia it is bent may be considered as
in the ball or bob. If © be the moment of resilience of the rod, and
the deflection be not very great, the angle wpn=0, then—

3(L tan g—2) =" ¥,

L being the length, and d the horizontal ordinate of deflection of the
pendulum. It is plain that although, like every other elastic rod,
this will have a time of vibration of its own, and be therefore liable
to part of the theoretic objections made to the simple pendulum on
the same account, this form of pendulum will be “brought up”
much more nearly within the true limits of the earth-wave amplitude
in its horizontal component.

Perhaps the ratchet and pall may not be the best mode, practically,
of arresting its movement at the end of its first semioscillation, with
sufficient delicacy, and other methods are obvious that may be ap-
plicable; but if the elastic rod be a flat plate of sufficient breadth in
relation to its thickness, and each rod or pendulum (of the four) be
so placed, with reference to the cardinal points, that its broadest
dimension shall be transverse to its normal plane of flexure, it is then
obvious that practically we may neglect any flexion of the rod edge-
ways, the four rods in section being posited thus (fig. 5)—

N.
Fig. 5. |

peas

|
S.

and that thus we obtain a flexure, for each pendulum, practically
limited to its own vertical plane of oscillation, and so ean obtain, for
any intermediate line of wave-transit between the cardinal points a
good approximate resultant direction from the two adjacent com-
ponent deflexions. Perhaps a flat ribbon-like rod of tempered steel,
whose section should be a rectangle, with sides having the proportion
of about 30:1, would be better than an elastic wooden lath; and in
either case, it is probable that a tape or silk ribbon, fastened at the
side 7, and passing with friction through asmall horizontal slot in the
elastic rod, so as to be stretched by its deflexion and pulled through,
would be the best and simplest mode of registering the deflexion, or
the angle 0.

While this appears to me the best of the solid-pendulum arrange-
ments, I do not wish to be understood as recommending any one of
the class.

8 (0). Santi’s arrangement is of course subject to the objections made to all

pendula. It possesses some advantage in separation of the results in _

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 8]

different azimuths, and therein in clearness of indication ; but it also
has special disadvantages of its own. If, for example, the line of
earth-wave transit be from S. to N., and the E. and W. pendulum
be set up at the S. side of its own wall, it will tend to be thrown
off or out from the wall by the shock; if placed on the N, side of
its own wall, its friction will be increased on its suspensions,
and tracing-point, by its being thrown in or pressed against the
wall; and if the line of earth-wave transit be, say N.W. and S.E.,
both pendula will be either thrown out from or pressed in against
their respective walls, according to which side of the N. and S. walls
they be fixed at. This source of variable inaccuracy might perhaps
be eliminated by a double set of pendula, viz. one at each of the
opposite sides of the N. and S. and of the E. and W. walls, which
would thus be oppositely affected (in excess and in defect) by this
source of error.

. 9(6). What has been already stated, with reference to errors common to all

~~ S

a...

pendula, and the remarks made under 7 (0) as to the superiority of
elastic over simple pendula, render it needless to enlarge on those
which were only proposed as extemporaneous instruments, and for
which they will be found convenient and useful, and not more in-
accurate than much more elaborate ones.

Referring now to the second class, or self-regulating instruments,—the
disadvantage of the one

2(a),

2 (a).

proposed by the author is of the same character as that of 4 (a) of the
first class, viz. too delicate a sensitiveness to small tremulous shocks,
which derange the composure of the instrument, without its giving
decisive indications. The galvanic recording part of the apparatus
was all that could be desired, and is of course applicable to other
forms of instrument as respects the displacement portions. Indeed,
apparatus identical in all its main characteristics has been since
brought into successful and constant use by Professor Airy, Astro-
nomer Royal, for the registration of astronomical and other kindred
observations, and also by several experimenters abroad. An account
of many such arrangements will be found in De la Rive’s ‘ Treatise
on Electricity.’

The same remark, I think, may apply to Professor Palmieri’s seis-
mometer, with this addition: the movement of the mercury, equal
columns of which are contained in the opposite legs of each U-shaped
tube, depends in his instrument wholly upon the U-tube heing canted
over more or less in its own plane, so as to throw the legs of the tube
out of plumb. This, Professor Palmieri (if I do not misunderstand him)
considers an inevitable consequence of the transit of the earth-wave
at the instrument, conceiving the earth’s surface to suffer, in every
case, such a sensible heaving undulation, as to rock the instrument
upon it, like a ship upon a heavy ground-swell. I must confess to
entertaining great doubts that, in the great majority of earthquakes,
any such sensible undulation (enough, at least, to produce a sensible
throwing out of plumb of the U-tubes) can occur, although I
have no reason to doubt that, from its delicate sensitiveness, con-
tact will be broken, and the instrument act in so far, by some of
the violent jars or jerks that it may receive. ‘his peculiarity con-
stitutes, in fact, the essential difference in arrangement between
the author’s seismometer and Prof. Palmieri’s. In the former the

1858. G

gg REPORT—1858.

mass of the mercury is in unequal columns in each tube, so that
its displacement is dependent solely on inertia; it therefore sympa-
thizes with the movement of the earth-wave, emergent in whatever
way; in the latter, the correctness of indication of the instrument de-
pends not at all'on the inertia of the mercury, but simply upon the
alteration of relative surface-level in the opposite legs of the U-tubes,
when the latter are thrown more or less out of plumb by the sup-
posed undulation of the earth’s surface at the transit of the shock.

3 (6). Kreil’s ingenious instrument is not devoid of some serious objections.
It partakes of those common to all pendula; and these will be further
perplexed when the annular dish #77 is filled with mercury, which
will form a second (fluid) attached pendulum with a time of oscilla-
tion of its own, and differing largely from that of the pendulum which
suspends it. Very little value, however, can be attached to the indi-
cations to be afforded by the very small amount of mercury that can
be caused to spill out, owing to the very small are of oscillation that
the whole instrumeifit can be afforded to make by construction. The
most serious objection, however, lies in the method of flexible sus-
pension adopted for the whole pendulous part of the instrument, viz.,
by two short thin plates or ribbons of tempered steel, whose respective
vertical planes are at right angles to each other, the object being to
allow of oscillation in any direction, but prevent rotation upon the
vertical axis. Whenever a somewhat energetic disturbance shall
be given to a pendulum so suspended—so as to cause oscillation in
a vertical plane, diagonal to the crossing planes of the two suspend-
ing ribbons, ¢orsion of each of these arises, and violent twisting
movements (by jerks) of the pendulum itself result, producing sudden,
jerking, rotatory oscillations of the bob (the cylinder containing the
clockwork, &e.) round the axis of the pendulum. These must of
course interfere with and derange any true results as indicated by
the tracing-pencil, which must also record all such accidental
moments, and probably derange the rate of the clock.

There does not appear, however, to be any insuperable difficulty in
devising another mode of suspension for the instrument, that might
at least remove this defect.

Such are some of the main objections to the seismometric instruments
themselves, hitherto proposed. It remains to consider the difficulties intro-
duced by the nature of the movements we require to observe and record
with them, as they actually take place in nature. What we want to find
is the true direction of emergence of the normal earth-wave, with its dimen-
sions and velocity, at a given point upon the earth’s surface. This, were the
earth a perfectly homogeneous elastic solid, though much easier, would still
be attended with grave difficulties ; one of these, which must ever remain
instrumentally insuperable, consists in the fact that the emergent wave on
leaving the free outlying stratum of the earth’s surface, differs both in dimen-
sions and in velocity from the same wave in the previous parts of its deep
transit. Future and more perfect knowledge of the laws of imperfectly elastic
bodies in wave-transmission will, it may be expected, enable us to calculate
the latter from the observed final part of the transit.

Far, however, from being homogeneous, every portion of our earth’s crust
that we are acquainted with consists of various “ couches,” or masses of
materials, differing in elasticity, density, and degree of discontinuity, in the
character, directions, and openness or closeness of the discontinuant fissures,

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 83

in wetness or dryness, in temperature, and in many other ways. Stratifica-
tion and lamination, with their transverse master-joints, affect the elasticity
of whole mountain-ranges and profound masses of the land, and cause it to
differ in different directions.

The mass beneath our feet is very often not even approximately solid.
Vast beds and cavernous recesses occur, empty, or filled more or less with
water, sometimes with lava, ignited rock, and steam at enormous temperature
and tension; and, for anything we as yet know, scismometry may require to
deal with depths and masses where the solid has passed, with exalted tem-
perature, into the imperfectly liquid state.

Again, the surface of our earth is everywhere more or less uneven, and,
viewed over large areas, such as earthquake-transit is concerned with, is
ribbed with rigid mountain-chains, often intersecting or abutting on each
other, channeled by valleys, river-courses, deep estuaries, and bays, exca-
vated into basin-shaped hollows often long and narrow, sometimes filled with
unconformable rock or with loose and incoherent detrital material, and inter-
sected to unknown depths by dykes, veins, and faults. The result of these
differences and disturbances of internal structure and superficial features is to
produce perturbations in the surface emergence of the earth wave, often of the
most amazing and perplexing character ; and it is not until the nature and
extent of these have been realized to the mind, that we shall be enabled to
choose the best form of seismometric observation, to determine upon the only
proper sites for the establishment of instruments, and to see within what
limits our first researches must be confined.

Let us notice, then, a few examples of striking surface-perturbation, of
direction, of the great earth-wave, already on record.

Savi (‘ Relazione di Fenomeni presentati dai Terremoti di Toscana, dell’
Agosto 1846,’ p. 32-44) and Pilla (‘Istoria del Tremuoto che ha devastato
paesi della Costa Toscana il di 14 Agosto, 1846,’ p. 48-54) have both recorded
examples of horizontal apparent movement of the earth-wave in directions
orthogonal or even actually opposite to each other, and at points within very
limited distances from each other, while, on the whole, there was no doubt
of a ruling general direction of horizontal movement over the whole region.
I can merely refer to their relations, as scarcely admitting of condensation
intelligibly.

M. Perrey, in his ‘Memoir on the Earthquakes of France, Belgium, and
Holland’ (Mém. Cour. de l’Acad. Roy. de Brux. tom. xviii.), under date of
5th July, 1841, has recorded a still more remarkable instance of surface-
perturbation, which the small map (Plate XII.) of the northern and part of
the central region of France, with outlines of the departmental divisions, illus-
trates. Those departments in which this shock was felt are marked by numerals
referring to the following table. The directions of the horizontal component
of the shock, as observed at the several places named, are shown on the map

by ashort thick arrow. A few other places where the shock was felt, but
direction not observed, are marked by a large dot, and the name referred to
by a letter. A few large towns, and the general range of the hilly country

(running mainly in a N.W.and S.E. direction) between the two great seats of
disturbance, are marked in mainly as general guides of position to the eye.
This earthquake was sufficiently powerful to disturb furniture, move objects
visibly, and affect clocks, &c., and was variously reported to have lasted in
different places from two or three, to ninety seconds of time.

oon ns eh

a2

84 REPORT—1858.

ena Department. Locality. Direction of Horizontal Component.
1. (Seine .......cscc0.0. \City of Paris...... N.E. to S.W.; three shocks.
ISEYRES) iehcescere |W. to E.; three shocks.
Chevreuse ......+ N.E. to 8. W,
Longjumeau, m.,.|Direction not given.
2. |Seine et Oise ...... Rambouillet ...... W. to E.
GTigNON....s0..008 N.E. to S.W.
OFSAY 2: ccccoreseees S. to N.; seven shocks.
Meulan .......0000- N. to 8.; three shocks.
3. |Loiret ......... seosee|NOZENE .....2ecceee N. to S.
4, |Loire et Cher ...,../Quincay .........06 W. to E.
5. |Indre et Loire...... |Caumacre N. to S.
Gr HINGLE cs ssecsnecexs nce |LiaD Ge. ssceceressces S. to N.
Le Blane, n ...... More than one shock ; direction not given.
Met WOES sasdusseredses ease] Burges jics.csreres Vertical (soulévement) ; two shocks.
8. |Eure et Loire ...... |\Chartres, 2......00 One shock; direction not given.
9. |Seine et Marne ...|Donnemaire ...... S. to N.; three shocks.
Ges (RULE, cc. seeacqeeee No record of the shock having been felt in
11. |Oise..... Ce Cee ErSCy [el hei amp ere Sopp akan either of these departments.
12. |Codte-d’Or...... +es.++| Bligny-sur-Ouche.|Three shocks; direction not given; very severe.

Here, then, we have two very limited but separated earthquake districts—one
around Paris, the other more widely spread around Tours—and a third to
the S.W., stretching into Cote d’Or, in which we have the observed or hori-
zontal direction of shocks from N. to S., from S. to N., from W. to E., and
from N.E. to S.W., and in one place said to be vertical. In the Paris dis-
trict the extreme distance apart of the places of observation does not exceed
30 English miles, the average being under 15 English miles.

In the Tours district the extremes are under 70 English miles apart, and
the average distance under 30 miles. The central part of one region is not
more than 150 miles from that of the other; and neither district is more
than about 70 miles distant from the axial line of the chain of hills that
separates them, and in the prolongation of which to the S.W. the third
district is widely spread, taking the general line of axial direction.

Making every abatement that imperfect observation can justify, there
remains abundant proof, in this example, that even in places within view of
each other as to distance, but situated over heterogeneous formations, and in
a country of broken and irregular surface, the superficial direction of shock
may present anomalies at first sight apparently admitting of no analysis, and
in any case incapable of giving any direct information as to prevailing direc-
tion, or position of focus, by mere seismometric observations.

The third and last example we shall take from India, as one not devoid of
a larger interest also. In the map (Plate XIV.) a very rude outline is
given of the geological formations of India, in a merely seismic relation
however, z.e. with reference to relative hardness, density, and elasticity of
the rocky masses,—thus distinguishing them only into the six great divi-
sions of crystalline or granitoid, old stratiform, secondary (from carboni-
ferous to cretaceous), tertiaries, alluvial plains, and some igneous porphyries,
diorites, &c. In the colouring of this I have to acknowledge the kind as-
sistance afforded me by Professor Phillips. This map has been fully de-
scribed in “ Second Report on the Facts, &c.” (Brit. Assoc. Trans. for 1851,
p- 313 et seq.), where it should have appeared originally, but was, at a late
moment, prevented by an accident connected with its completion. I shall —

therefore, referring the reader to the former report, merely notice here the
facts as relating to seismometry.

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 85

The great earthquake of 1819, which extended its influence right across
this peninsula from Calcutta to Cutch, and during which the Ullah Bund was
elevated, and the Runn of Cutch submerged—the former a low mass of sand
and clay seventy miles long, about fifteen miles wide, and elevated about
10 feet ; and the latter an area of subsidence of about 2000 square miles—
had a great general line of horizontal propagation of shock, as shown by the
heavy red line, of nearly from W. to E., a few degrees to the S.E.; yet at
Calcutta it was felt from N.E. to S.W., and at many places along this immense
line—situated between the Aravulla and Vindhya chains of mountains, as
for example at Rampura—the great shock was felt in directions quite trans-
verse to the principal line.

So also the general line of horizontal direction of the great earthquake of
1833, whose origin was far beneath the Himalayas to the E. and N., had a
great general direction about that shown by the long red arrow line. At
Katmandu, in the mountains, the shocks were more directly E. to W., and
also (reflected shocks probably) from the ranges to the N., which had a
direction nearly N.E. to S.W., while in the great plain of the Ganges the
observed directions were various, and, without a more complete knowledge of
the geology and surface-configuration of the country, perfectly unanalysable,
in some places N. to S., and at others, sixty miles off, from E. to W.

While we must regard many of these observations as deserving of little
stress as to accuracy, enough remains to prove that perturbations in the
main directions of emergence at the surface of the normal earth-wave, due
to heterogeneity of structure in depth, and to inequality of surface, prin-
cipally, are of such a nature, as to render a special choice of district neces-
sary in attempting any seismometrical researches (even with perfect instru-
ments) which have in view the determination of the position of the focus
of disturbance. This choice, according to our present knowledge, must be
determined by the following conditions :—

1. The whole surface-area of observation, and to as great a depth as
possible, must be uniform in geological structure.

If of stratified rock, not greatly shattered and overthrown, but
(viewed largely) level or rolling only. The harder and more dense
and elastic the formations, the better, but neither intersected by
long and great dykes, nor by igneous protrusions of magnitude, nor
suddenly bounded by such formations.

2. The surface must not be broken up into deep gorges, and rocky ranges,
and valleys. Seismometry, in a high and shattered mountainous
country, can scarcely lead to any result but perplexity. If the surface
be deeply alluvial all over, it is less objectionable than valley-basins,
and pans of deep alluvium, with rocky ribs between them.

3. The size of the area chosen for observation must bear a relation to the

4 force of the shocks experienced in it. Moderate shocks are always

4 best for observation, and, in large areas of the most uniform character

fh of formation and surface, will give the most trustworthy indications.

_ 4, If several seismometers be set up in the area, they should be all

placed on corresponding formations, either all on rock, or all on deep
alluvium. The rock, when attainable, is always to be preferred.

Three seismometers, at as many distant stations, will be generally

found sufficient, if the object be chiefly to seek the focal situation and

depth.

‘

Having now cleared the way by stating the difficulties of seismometric
observations, Ist, as respects the instruments themselves, 2nd, as respects

a

86 REPORT—1858.

their local emplacement, it remains to describe the instruments that appear
to me the best calculated for the attainment of the objects we can at present
propose to ourselves in seismometry, and to point out how such may best be
applied ; as also some indirect methods of arriving at the most important and
interesting primary result, that we are entitled to expect in the first instance
from such researches, namely, an approximation to the actual depth of focus
within the earth, from which earthquake-impulses are propagated to the
surface,

Were it possible to construct a perfect seismometer, it should record
simultaneously, Ist, the movements, both horizontal and vertical, of the
elastic wave itself, viz., the excursion or amplitude, the altitude, and the
maximum velocity in the coordinates a, y, and z,—z being vertical ; 2nd, the
movements of translation of the “advancing form” or wave itself at its
emergence upon the earth’s surface, with the velocities in the correspond-
ing coordinates 2%, Y2, and z,.

These involve alone twelve equations of condition ; and we assume that
the elastic medium (the earth) through which the waye is transmitted, is
homogeneous, in density and elastic modulus; and that the final wave-
movements, of the free outlying stratum at the surface, obey the same laws
as do those of the successive “ couches ” beneath,

Generally, we must assume the elasticity perfect, and that the vis viva of
any particle in motion, Am, is determinable from its velocity at its position of
equilibrium. From the general equation of wave-motion

v= 4 COS (= (w—at)),

we have the velocity at any point where a? is the intensity, \ the amplitude,
a the transit-rate or velocity of propagation, x the abscissa, and ¢ the time.
At the position of equilibrium v=a, and the vis viva of the particle Am
during the whole undulation is Ama’, and proportionate to a. The wave
we must suppose emanating from a central point, and propagated outwards
in all directions alike, in imaginary, concentric spherical “couches.” The
vis viva must remain constant during the whole propagation. The velo-
city of propagation @ is also constant ; and the mass of the medium in wave-
motion at any moment of the translation is the same; so that, if r=the
radius of any such spherical ‘ couche,” the work done in it by the wave
is proportionate to 7?xa*, and constant for the whole transit, a? being

oc ye As, therefore, the mass in simultaneous undulation is constant, the
V4

thickness of each imaginary successive “couche ” must decrease as 7? ; and
so the displacing power of the wave diminishes also as r*, and the work done
by the wave within any such “couche” of determinate thickness=25Ama?,
—or M, being the mass in simultaneous undulation, = 3Ma?.

The wave at its origination, starts in any radius, with one normal and two
transversal vibrations, the separate determination of which wouid require a
corresponding increase in the number of equations for w, y, and z; and in the
recorded facts by the instrument. It is obvious, then, even with the utmost
simplifications we can assume as to the molecular condition of the medium
(the earth), that practically we must be content with a seismometer that shall
record only some of the more important conditions of the earth-wave, and in
such a manner as shall enable us, indirectly, to arrive at others. And in
considering the relative importance of the several elements, the maximum
velocity of the wave at its point of emergence upon the surface, with the

a
3 ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 87

¢

directions in 2, y, and z, or the horizontal components (a and y) of the
direction of motion and the vertical component z, will be found the most
valuable,

These are determinable by one instrument only. By two or more such,
at separate and moderately distant places, the velocity of propagation or
transit-rate @ may be found; and by combining the results obtained by both,
in calculation, each may be made to check and control the other, and for a
given seismic region (apart from serious perturbations of internal forma-
tion) we can obtain the point upon the surface, vertically above the origin
of the wave, and approximate to the depth of the origin itself, or of the
focus of disturbance, below the earth’s surface.

One or other, of two distinct seismometric arrangements, may be adopted,
both dependent upon similar principles,—the second being of a simpler and
less expensive character, but not susceptible (as a sizgle instrument) of indi-
cations as accurate as the first, yet, as respects applicability to determi-
nations of dime (as one of several, set up in a given seismic area), quite as
exact, >
I proceed to describe the construction of both, their principles and action,

The first instrument is exhibited in Pl. XV. figs. 1,2&3,. Fig. lis a
lateral geometric elevation of the instrument, whose length is placed in the
direction N. and S., as seen in plan in fig. 2,—a precisely similar instrument
being placed at right augles of azimuth to it, or with its length E. and W.
The same letters of reference apply to similar parts in all the figures. Fig.2
represents both the N. and S. and E. and W. instruments as placed in posi-
tion, ww being part of the external wooden shell or wall of the seismic ob-
servatory, which may best be always of wood, or such material, and circular
in form.

In figs. 1 and 2, aa is a cast-iron tabular bar, whose upper surface is
horizontal, and whose long parallel edges are either N. and S. or E. and W.
It is attached to a rigid cylindrical vertical bar of wrought iron, 6 6, which
passes freely, but without shake, through bored holes in the top and bottom
collars of the heavy cast-iron frame ec, which is firmly bolted by its bottom
flanch to the heavy stone floor of the observatory; or, if the latter can be so
placed, to the natural solid rock when levelled to form its floor. Beneath
the frame cc is a pit, pp, for convenience of access to the bottom of the
instrument, Upon the vertical bar 8, a collar is fixed of wrought iron, ,
between which and the lower bored collar of the frame ee, a spiral spring,
é, is placed, having its axis coincident with that of the bar d.

This spring sustains, when at rest, the weight of the bar and table aa, and
of all resting upon it, and is so adjusted as to resistance, that such forces in
the vertical direction, as it may be expected the instrument will be exposed

_ to at any time, shall not be able to compress the spring to such an extent, as

_ to bring the lower surface of the table aa, into contact with the top part of
_ the frame ce. A vertical “feather,” let into the bar b, prevents it, or its
superior attachments, from altering their position with reference to the frame
sy § P

_€e, by turning round the vertical axis of the bar 6 in its collar-bearings,
A small sliding index, not shown in the figure, also moves in a longitudinal
groove at the opposite side of the bar db, and, being placed in contact with

_ the top of the frame ec, when the whole is at rest, indicates the extent of any

_ Yertical depression of the bar 2, and of its load, by compression of the spring
_@ A buffer collar of vulcanized india-rubber is placed at J, above the iron
collar , as a precaution against a jar, in case of the sudden removal of part
of the load on aa by any accident.
Upon the upper side and centre of the length, of the tabular bar aa, is

88 REPORT—1858.

cast a hollow quadrilateral prism, g, which will be called “ the block,” provided
with four “lugs” to receive the pivot-screws 7,7, ”,”. The table aa, sup-
ports two similar cast-iron inclined planes ¢, 2, having for their entire length
the trough-shaped section as shown in fig. 3. These planes are fixed to
the table aa, by the pivot-screws ”,m, and by the adjusting-screws m, m
beneath, so that by means of the latter, the inclination of either plane may
be altered or fixed, being otherwise free to rotate in a vertical plane,
within certain limits, round the pivot-screws 7,2, so as to alter the angles
of inclination.

Upon each of these inclined planes, is placed a large heavy ball, formed of
a hollow sphere of hard gun-metal, of about 0°3 of an inch in thickness,
truly spherical and polished outside, and filled up solid with lead. These
balls are adjusted in diameter, to the breadth and form of the inclined planes
(as in fig. 3), so as freely to roll along, with but two points of contact. _

When the planes 2,2 are adjusted at equal inclinations, the balls B, B, rest
at their lowest ends, and are laterally in contact with, and supported by, the
hard wood stops 7, 7, driven (from outside inwards) through, and well-fitted
in, corresponding rectangular horizontal “slots” in opposite sides of the
block g,—the end of each wood stop being curved to fit the surface of the
balls, in a horizontal great circle, and so that the plane of the stop passes
through the centre of gravity of the ball. Through each wood stop there
pass the e— and e+ extremities of a galvanic conducting-circuit of thick
copper wires, placed at about an inch apart, where they pass parallel to each
other, through the wood stop, with their extreme ends coinciding with the
surface of the stop next the ball, and being amalgamated ; so that while ever
the ball reposes in contact with the wood stop, the galvanic circuit remains
completed, through the ball, between the ends of the wires, but is broken
the moment the ball is removed from contact with them.

For one complete seismometer there are two such instruments as have
been thus described,—one placed, as in fig. 2, in a N. and S., and the other
in an E. and W. direction, as respects their length, and having thus four
inclined planes and balls, each with its own distinct galvanic circuit from
one common battery. A clock placed in the observatory carries round a
cylinder with ruled paper, and each of four pencil markers continues to
describe an unbroken line thereon so long as the balls are in contact with the
blocks (or wood stops and galvanic poles); but (by an arrangement pre-
cisely similar to that described for my fluid pendulum seismometer—Trans.
Roy. Irish Acad. vol. xxi. p. 107) the moment any ball ceases to be in con-
tact with the block, and for as long as it is so, the pencil is withdrawn, and
leaves a break in the otherwise continuous line traced by the rotation of the
paper. No part of this clockwork registering-arrangement is shown in the
Plate, as several modifications of it are practicable, and no one in parti-
cular is essential to the principle of the seismometer before us.

To illustrate the mode of action of the instrument,—returning to fig. 1,
suppose it to be the N. and S$. one, and adjusted so that the bar & is truly
vertical, the parallel sides of the inclined planes ¢ and ¢ truly én directum,
their angles of inclination to the horizon the same. Then if the arrow Q
represent the direction of emergence of an earthquake-wave (supposed here
to be in the plane of the meridian, and from S. to N.), at the first instant
that the wave reaches the instrument, the bard, and table a a, with all they
carry, will commence to descend and to compress the spring e by their inertia,
with a velocity dependent upon the vertical component of the wave, which
carries up the frame ec vertically. Also at the first instant of arrival of
the wave, the ball B,, in virtue of its inertia, will move off from the block

-

:

A ER

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA, 89

towards C, ; and the instant of its departure, by breaking galvanic contact of
the poles at its stop, marks that of the commencement of the shock. But the
whole instrument is carried forward by the horizontal component cf the
shock, and then moves back again; the ball B is therefore carried forward
also, urged by the block at 7, and is caused to roll up along the inclined
plane a certain distance, say to C, where it comes to rest, and, reversing its
motion, rolls back again by gravity, and returns to rest in contact with the
block and galvanic poles of its own stop. The ball which first moves, which
we may call the Time Ball (as indicated in time by the pencil trace on
the clock-cylinder paper), will always be that at the side from which the
shock arrives. We neglect any account of its subsequent motions. The
other ball, which we may call the Element Ball, by its movements gives
us the elements of the wave. The instrument records the whole time that it
is out of contact with the block g, viz. that of its excursion up and down
the inclined plane z. If, in place of the wave having emerged at some angle
to the horizon from S. to N., it had come at the same or at any other angle
of emergence between vertical and horizontal, in the reverse direction or
from N. to S., then the action of the balls also would have been reversed,
B becoming the Time Ball, and being left behind, and thus noting the mo-
ment of arrival of the wave; and B, being thrown up along the inclined
plane 2, giving its elements.

Again (referring to fig. 2), if the wave emerge at some azimuth between
N. and S. and E.and W., suppose from the $.W., with any angle of emergence,
then by the vertical component the springs of both the N.S. and E.W. instru-
ments will be compressed (and nearly alike). The time balls B, of the N.S. and
B, of the E.W. instruments will be left behind, as before, (and both at the
same instant will break contact with the block); and the element balls B and
B will be thrown forward upon their respective inclined planes, as before—to
equal distances in the case of the exactly intermediate azimuth here supposed,
but to unequal distances if this azimuth be more to the W. or to the S.
The instrument records the simultaneous excursions of both balls B and B,
giving the total time (as before) that each ball is out of contact with its own
block or stop; and if the direction of the wave-movement be reversed as re-
spects the instrument (suppose, from some point of N.E. towards S.W.), then
therespectivemovementsand functions of the balls willalsoreverse themselves,
B and B being left behind, and B, and B, thrown forward, &c.

The general size and strength of the instrument must be determined with
reference to the degree of violence of the earthquake-shocks to be anticipated
in the seismic region it is intended for. The very greatest, and the very
smallest perceptible shocks, are alike unsuited for useful measurement. The
dimensions of the instrument, as shown by the scale of the plate, are such as
I consider fitted to ensure its functions, under the effects of those shocks of
mean intensity (such for example, as those common in the Mediterranean
basin, or in those of Hungary and Austria), and with moderate vertical angles
of emergence, which are those best to observe in the existing state of our
knowledge.

The most important points of precaution of a constructional character to
be noticed are the following :—The balls should be of lead chiefly (the sur-

face being formed, for hardness and smoothness, of gun-metal), to reduce

their proper elasticity as much as possible. The inclination of the planes é,

must be small, probably never exceeding 15°, and the length and inclination
so adjusted by experiment, to the maximum time of wave-oscillation in the
- district of observation, that the whole time of rolling up and down of the ball
shall be considerably longer in duration. Their bearing-edges must be per-

90 REPORT—1858,

fectly parallel and smooth; and the length of the planes must be such, as to
make it highly improbable that any ball, in its excursion under shock, can
reach the upper end. A wood stop is fixed at this point to arrest the ball,
should it ever chance to reach it; and beyond this a stout net (like the purse of
a billiard-table) may be fixed to a separate support (from the floor), to receive
the ball, if upon an extraordinary occasion thrown out of the instrument.

It is assumed that any alternate alteration of the inclination, of the inclined
planes 7, i, by actual swrface-wndulation, carrying the whole instrument with
it at the passage of the earth-wave, may be neglected, z.e. that, for example,
a wave passing in a direction from 8. to N. will not sensibly lift up the S. end
(of the N.S. instrument) first, and then the N, end, and so first increase the
inclination of the plane of B, and reduce that of B, and then vice versd;
and that whatever amount of ¢é/ting may thus occur will so momentarily
affect the inclined planes, and in opposite directions, as not to interfere
with the proposed movements of the balls.

This assumption is justified by the fact that the value of A, the amplitude
of the earth-wave in the normal, is always great in relation to its altitude,
and in the case of oblique surface-emergence its horizontal component is of
still greater length; so that the angle of slope of either face of the emergent
wave with the horizon, is practically imperceptible in moderate shocks; and,
further, any tilting that can occur takes place in opposite directions suc-
cessively, so as nearly to compensate.

The vertical spring e must be delicate and sensitive, at the first instant of
its compression, in proportion to the movement by inertia of the large mass
that it carries, and its range, proportioned to the degree of steepness of
emergence to be expected in the region of observation.

The whoie vertical component is absorbed by this spring, and may be mea-
sured by its compression ; but it is important that it shall give way sensitively,
at the first moment of shock, in order that neither of the balls shall have any
tendency to rise from the inclined planes that support them, and that its resili-
ence shall not be too lively, so as not to produce rebound upon the restoration
from compression. In certain seismic regions, where great steepness of
emergence may be looked for, the vertical component will probably be best
met by the depression of a conical float with the apex downward, fixed to
the lower end of the bar 04, into a cylindrical vessel of water placed beneath
the instrument; but this must be matter of experiment in such regions.

Were the whole instrument rigidly fixed to the ground, the latter as well
as the materials of the instrument and ball highly elastic, and the velocity
of emergence of the wave, in its vertical component, very great, it is obvious
that time would not be afforded to the ball B, merely to roll up along the
plane; it would be ¢hrown up obliquely from it, aud, describing a short trajec-
tory, would fall back again upon the plane a little higher up, and then re-
peat a still shorter trajectory, or begin to roll upwards. But the ball is very
inelastic, the rate of emergence of the wave is not ‘very great in its vertical
component; and the effect of this upon the instrument is spread over a still
longer time by the interposition of the spring e.

If =the time of the wave in seconds, : will be nearly the instant of its
maximum velocity v, in feet per second ; thus the condition that shall ensure

the ball B rolling only, and not being projected, is that the vertical compo-
nent of v shall be less than

== 82

a ee ee ee ee

:

ONS eS

~

>

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 91]

Unless, possibly, in the case of nearly vertical emergence, and from the most
solid, and elastic crystalline rock, an ample latitude, ¢, is secured by the ver-
tical spring.

We will now consider the movements of the element balls B and B, along
the planes 2, ¢, due to the horizontal component of motion, taking the two in-
struments (viz. the N. S. and E. W. seismometers) together, and assuming the
horizontal component in any azimuth 0.

The blocks gv (N.S.) and g7 (E. W.) move forward horizontally, and

force on the balls B and B, before them until the instant, . when the blocks

have acquired their maximum velocities, with that of the wave,v; the balls then
part company from the blocks, and continue to move up along the respective
inclined planes 2, i, sliding for the first indefinitely short moment, and then,
with a certain reduction of velocity due to the friction of the planes which
produce the change of motion, rolling up along them. This initial sliding
velocity will be

For the ball B ... V=v sin 0;

For the ball B,... V=vw cos @.

As soon as the sliding is converted into rolling motion by friction, these
velocities will become

Bie at. 5
—v sin 0, and — v cos @.
7 UNO

Assuming that the change takes place almost instantly after the balls have
begun to move from the blocks, i.e. that gravity has not had time perceptibly
to alter the velocity up the plane, and neglecting the small effects, due to the
elastic compression of the -balls and blocks themselves, and also supposing
that the loss of velocity of the ball, by conversion of its sliding into rolling
motion by friction, is less than the diminution of velocity of the block (in the
same short time), in returning from its maximum velocity to rest, the balls
B and B, will be retarded by forces—

i being the common inclination of the planes.
The ball B will therefore ascend upon its plane to a vertical height

we have therefore

So also the ball B, will ascend to the height

v cos = J ont:
tan a=, /H
HY

therefore

92 REPORT—1858.

and Ve, / 14g (AH) g (H— —H’),
or, if g=32, = a/ #8 (aH) M8 (H—H!)= 89-6 (HH).

This calculation assumes that the sliding is converted into rolling motion in
an indefinitely short time, as it would in fact be, if the adhesion of the balls
were large, and the inclination of the planes ¢ small; but if the inclination
of the latter be considerable, as 15° or upwards, a more exact determination
is necessary.

Let, as before, the horizontal components of the velocity with which the
balls begin to move, be v sin 0, and v cos 0, Z the velocity in the vertical,
and the inclination of the planes 7 now large.

The initial velocity of ascent parallel to the planes will be,

For the ball B........vsin@ cost+Z sin Zz,
and For the ball By. 2cm sas » cos @ cost+Z sini.

Let ¢ be the coefficient of frictional adhesion, of the balls to the plane;
then they will ascend the planes to the heights,

Bo. nies re ee

29 2 tani+7o
B,.tae Bes _(v cos 6 cosi+Z sinz)? 2 tani+5¢
2g 2 tani+7¢

v and @ are known if the value of Z be given; and this may be ascertained
experimentally from the compression of the vertical spring; or, as sug-
gested by my friend Dr. Harte, to whom I have been indebted for these
equations, a second pair of experimental inclined planes and balls might be
used, with an inclination greater than 7 (say 22), from the observed movements
upon which, two more equations could be got, the four equations being then
more than enough, to determine v, Z and 0.

But the nature of the instrument is to record the values of H and H,, zn
terms of the whole time that the balls B and B are out of contact with the
block gr, @. e. of their rolling up, and down, the inclined planes,—this time
being given, by the lacune in the pencil-trace made upon the revolving cy-
linder of paper carried along by the clock. The time of the balls’ ascending
to the highest point reached on the plane will be independent of adhesion ;
and calling it ¢, we have,

For the ball B........ ¢ =? 5inO cost+Z sing
g sing

Bor the ball By. \, sage=e eet a
gsinz

The time of descent back to the starting-point, due to the heights H and H’,
will be a little, but inappreciably, less than this.

The entire time of the double oscillation of each ball, therefore, or its
movement up and down the plane, as recorded by the instrument, is,

For B.... T =? Sin. 9 cost+Z sins sin 6 cosi+Z sini (+4/2e

gsint 2tani+7¢
and For B, .. T= oe |
g sine 2tant+7¢

the coefficient } being always =tan a, the angle of sliding for the surface-
material of the balls upon that of the inclined planes.

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 93

Reverting now to the time balls B,, B*, those which, being left behind, record
the instant of the arrival of the shock at the instrument,—it has been stated
that we have no occasion to determine their subsequent movements ; it
may be well, however, to clear our notions generally as to what these will
be. Rotation is almost instantly communicated to these balls by adhesion
with the moving planes on which they rest. The block moves off horizon-
tally (in the direction of the wave) from the ball, which rolls thus with a
retarded motion up the inclined plane in a relatively opposite direction. The
block attains its maximum velocity V, and, coming to rest, reverses the direc-
tion of its own motion, and now follows back after the ball that it had left
behind, which it may overtake, and strike, with a relative velocity equal to
the sum of its own velocity and that of the ball, or to their difference, depend-
ent upon the state of motion of the ball at the moment of impact. The
impact calling forth elastic force from ball and block, the former will be
thrown up along the inclined plane; but the extent of this movement, or
whether it occur at all, will depend upon the dimensions and velocity of the
wave itself (resolved into the line of movement on the inclined plane) and
upon the elasticity, &c. of the ball and block. These we have no occasion
to pursue further: the actual movements of these balls, B, and B?, how-
ever, will be found recorded in time also, by their own pencil-tracers on the
cylinder; but the only indication that concerns us, is the first instant of
broken contact, as already explained.

A single seismometric observatory, such as has been now described, set up
within a given region of disturbance, is capable of giving the elements, neces-
sary for the calculation of the position of the seismic focus, but without the
power of controlling the accuracy of the results, except in so far as coinci-
dent repetitions may confirm or refute them. But if three such seismome-
tric observatories be set up within the region chosen, in positions that shall
form the angles of a triangle with respect to each other, at moderate distances
apart (from 15 to 30 miles), and these be all connected by galvanic wires,
so that the whole of their records shall be made upon a single paper cylinder,
moved by a single clock in one of the three observatories, we then have a
further control, and an independent method of obtaining, both the hori-
zontal component of direction, and the surface-velocity, from which, by
methods yet to be stated, the depth of origin may be calculated without
direct ascertainment of the vertical component in Z. The cylinder must in
this case carry twelve pencil-tracers, four leading from each observatory.

This leads us to the second and somewhat simpler form of seismometer
proposed by me, and shown in figs. 4,5, 6 and 7 (of Plate XV.). In some re-
spects, the principles of this instrument are the same as of that just described :
like the former, it is a double instrument, each instrument having two move-
able balls; but their action is different. Fig. 4 represents, in elevation, one
of these instruments (let us suppose, that N. S.) as seen looking eastward,
and the upper part of which is seen in plan in fig. 5. ss is the floor of the
observatory within which the two similar instruments are placed. ¢¢is a
shallow and flat-bottomed dish or basin of some feet in diameter, and about
nine inches in depth, formed by a circular wooden curb or rim secured to
the floor.

___ In the centre of this, there stands up vertically a very stiff pillar or upright,

rigidly secured into the floor, and which may be either of hard stone, hollow
cast iron, or of hard wood, but best of the second. Its upper end is formed
of wrought or cast iron in the form shown; and into it are secured the vertical
supports of hardwood, s,s, which are placed with their parallel and vertical
axes in the plane of the meridian or at right angles thereto, and are prepared,

94 nuPORT=-1858:

so as to support the balls B and B, upon their upper ends, which are slightly
hollowed to the same curve as the surface of the balls, as seen at full size in
fig.7. The balls, when in this position, rest against and are steadied by the
hollow stop over the axis of the vertical pillar, 6 in figs. 4, 5, and 6.

The balls may be common cast-iron cannon shot, chosen of good sphe-
rical form and of equal weight ; and each ball is in metallic connexion at one
point of its surface with a galvanic-circuit wire, of which it forms one pole,
marked e¢,—the supports s, s, and the stop b, being all of hard wood or other
insulating material, as pottery or glass. The height of the central column
should be such, that the centre of gravity of each of the two balls, when on

their supports, may be some submultiple of 32 ft.=g (say 8 feet =i) for

facility of calculation.

The shallow basin ¢¢ is subdivided in two semi-circular separate areas, by
a wood division, d, equal in depth to the outer rim, this division crossing in
the diameter which lies at right angles to the plane of the supports s, s,—7. @.
being east and west for the north and south balls, and vice versd in the other
instrument. Each segment of the shallow basin is lined within its outer rim
and bottom with sheet-lead, which is at one point of each in metallic con-
tact with the other pole of the galvanic circuit marked E,—.

The two segments of the dish are filled up to the level of the surround-
ing rim, with a bed of damp sand, pressed uniformly and “struck off” level
to the rim by a straight edge, so as thus to present a uniform bed 9 inches
deep, the balls B, B, being 6 inches in diameter and 8 feet above it. While
the instruments (i. e. that N.S. and E.W.) are thus prepared, the galvanic
circuit remains constantly broken, the poles formed by the balls being in-
sulated from the other poles formed by the sand-beds, the lead lining, &e.
Suppose now, in fig. 4, an earthquake-wave to emerge from S. to N. in the
direction of the arrow; the ball B, is deft behind as in the former instrument,
topples off its slender support s, and commences to fall to the surface of the
sand. The moment it strikes the sand, it makes contact with its own circuit,
and as the time of its fall can be exactly calculated and is constant (neglect-
ing the small resistance of the air), this ball (as before) marks the precise mo-
ment of the arrival of the shock at the instrument. The other ball B is
urged forward by the movement of the whole instrument in the direction of
the arrow, or that of the wave’s emergence, being supported by s and 8, until
the instrument acquires its maximum velocity vas before. This ball is then
thrown off from its support with this velocity, and, describing a small trajec-
tory in air, falls to the bed of sand, and inits turn makes contact with its own
galvanic circuit. The ball partially buries itself in the damp sand at the
spot it falls upon, without change of position from any elastic effort, all such
being absorbed by the “deadness” of the sand. If the shock has been in
the plane of the meridian, the place where it shall land on the sand-bed will
also be in that plane, say at BY.

Then the horizontal distance from the centre of its support s to the centre
of the ball, measures the horizontal component of the velocity, this space
being described by it during the time of its descent through eight feet. The
difference in time (as shown upon the ruled paper by the pencil-tracers and
clockwork as before) between the instant of B, and of B leaving their sup-

ports, is almost exactly = > or half the time of the wave.
The same explanations will apply to the other, or E. and W. instrument ;

and if the azimuth of emergence 6 be somewhere between N.S. and E.W.,
all four balls will be displaced, and the obliquity of throw of each of the balls

il Og

bisa ee ee a

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF BARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 95

B(N. and S.) and B (E. and W.) from their respective cardinal and ver-
tical planes, will indicate the actual azimuth of the horizontal component of
the earthquake wave—giving this indication in two ways, each controlling
the other,—viz. by direction of throw as stated, and by distance of horizontal
traject, which will be proportionate to sine and cosine 0.

The stop 6, it should be remarked, is hollowed at contact with each ball,
so as to embrace 90° of its horizontal great circle; so that in case 6=45°
from the meridional or the E. and W. planes, the balls cannot slip aside, but
must be thrown in the same direction, the extreme angles of the stop then
passing through the plane of motion and centre of gravity of the balls.

Figs. 5 and 6 show in plan the relative positions of the N.S. and E.W.
instruments, the upper portions alone being represented, and not at the ne-
cessary distance apart.

These instruments singly, then, give us the velocity of the wave and its
direction in azimuth with considerable accuracy ; but their full value would
only be ensured by placing three such seismometers within a given district
(as already stated for the former instrument) and connecting them all by
galvanic wires, so that the indications of the three shall be recorded by a
single clock register. We then have the ¢ime of arrival of the shock at each
seismometer given with perfect accuracy, from which both its horizontal
velocity and azimuth may be computed; and the relative positions and
distances apart of the several seismometers being known, the true direction
of emergence of the wave, and the point of the surface vertically over the
origin, and the depth of the focus itself may be computed. The two following
methods of computing these are due to Professor. Haughton, of Trinity
College, Dublin, who communicated them to the Geological Section of the
British Association at Dublin, on the occasion of this report being read, and
-from whom I have received them for publication here.

The determination of the “ coseismal line’’—a term first used by me at the
suggestion of Sir John Herschel, to signify, the crest of the simultaneously
emergent earth-wave upon the earth’s surface at any moment of its progress
—is the same thing as determining the direction of its motion on the surface,
a horizontal tangent to the coseismal line at any point being always ortho-
gonal to the direction of motion.

Given the Times of an Earthquake Shock at three places, to determine its
Horizontal Velocity and Coseismal Line.

Zz

we Pad

‘Let A, B, C, denote three stations at which the time of arrival of the earth-
: quake shock is determined by the seismometers or other means, and let

:

96 REPORT—1858.

a, b, c, denote the distances between them; let » denote the unknown hori-
zontal velocity ; and let © denote the unknown angle made by the coseismal
lines 2 Ax, y By, with the line A B joining the first two stations ; and ¢,, f,, ts
be the times of the observed shock at A, B, C, respectively.

Letting fall the perpendiculars p and q, we find,

+: ba 2 alg aaa

y= _ 9 sin (B—®) Ape eae
= na.

p _esin®
t.—t, t,—t,

—

Equating these two values of v, we find
c(t,—t,) sin b=a(t,—t,) sin(B—®).
Expanding, and solving for tan ®, we finally obtain
a(t,—¢,) sin B bie)
c(t,—t,)+a(t,—t,) cos B

Having found ® by means of this equation, we can then determine v from
either (1) or (2).

tan o=

Given the Horizontal Velocity of an Earthquake at any two points, and its
absolute velocity; to find the position of the focus from which it has
proceeded,

m

Let A and B be the points under consideration, and for simplicity suppose
them to lie at opposite sides of the unknown focus F, and in the same vertical
plane passing through F. [These suppositions are only made to simplify the
figure, but do not in any way diminish the generality of the result. ]

Let AX be the space moved through on the surface of the ground at A
in the unit of time, and equal v the horizontal velocity, and let BY be the
velocity at B and equal v'. Letting fall the perpendiculars AP and BQ;
PX and QY will denote the spaces described by the earthquake in a radial
direction (FX or FY); they are therefore equal and each is the absolute
velocity of the earthquake=V. Hence '

cos AXF=”. ° ° ° ° . . . . (1)

v

cos BYF=, . of 5 os. Serene ae
Vv

Therefore since v, v', V are all known quantities, the angles A X F and
B Y F are also known, and therefore the lines X F and Y F may be drawn,
and their intersection F will give the required position of the focus.

Corol. 1. If the position of the point O, at the surface, from which the
earthquake appears to radiate, be known; one velocity will
determine the depth of the focus.

we

_ ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 97

Corol. 2. Independently of any diminution in the absolute velocity of the

ae earth-wave, the apparent horizontal velocity will diminish rapidly,
approaching indefinitely the limit V. This is evident from the
geometrical considerations arising from the fact that PX is
always equal to QY.

It is obvious, then, that by the establishment of these very simple and in-
expensive seismometers, and connecting them galvanically (as respects their
registration) by methods now become both familiar and simple, we may get
good first approximations to one of the most important questions of the
physics of our glube—a knowledge of the depth from which earthquake
impulses arrive.

Simple and inexpensive, however, as the apparatus recommended is, its
establishment in the only way in which it can be of much real use, namely
by connected distant stations, involves the choice of seismic areas fitted for
the purpose, and the support and aid of governments, if not for outfit, at
least for appointment of observers, and police protection of stations and wires.
It is to be hoped that even these may not be withheld as the advancing know-
ledge of the importance to physical geology of seismic research becomes better
understood and diffused. Meanwhile a still simpler form of rough seismo-
meter, suited to the resources of distant and isolated observers, may be with
advantage, perhaps, pointed out,—and also an indirect method, by which the
depth of earthquake origin may be approximated, without the use of seismo-
meters of any sort. The form of seismometer about to be deseribed is most
applicable to seismic districts where the angle of wave-emergence is not
steep, 2. e. where the shocks are usually nearly horizontal.

If any homogeneous, parallelopiped, or rectangular prism, standing on
end, upon a level surface, be upset by its own inertia, the supporting sur-
face being suddenly moved beneath it, in the direction of its own plane (as
by the horizontal component of an earthquake shock), it may be shown
that the velocity of the surface must be

A s—=—~., (1—cos 0
Vis go V FB Ex ( cos’@. )

where a is the altitude of the solid, d its diameter of base, and @ the angle
formed by the side and a line drawn through the centre of gravity to the
extremity of the base, and V?=2gh.

_ This velocity is independent of the density or material of the solid,
because the oversetting force, being its own inertia, is always proportionate
to the density. With a given velocity V, therefore, it is possible to as-
‘sign the dimensions a and b such, that it shall be just overset; and with
this velocity another solid, having @ greater, shall remain unmoved,—as-
suming always that friction upon the supporting surface gives sufficient
adhesion to cause the solid to upset, and not to slide (partly or wholly)
without upsetting.

_ If in place of a square prism like a wall, the solid be a right cylinder, such
as a pillar, the diameter of whose base, as before, is &; then

156°4-16a2
tm
br 12a2

and from this very simple expression for the horizontal velocity, for which I
“am indebted to my friend Professor Haughton, it is easy to construct a seis-
Mometer of the greatest simplicity, that (in the absence of better means)
hall give, within a narrow limit, the actual velocity of shock.

1858 H

xg Va? +01 —cos 0);

98 REPORT—1858.

Let there be constructed two similar sets of right cylinders, say each set,
six to twelve in number, all of equal height (a) and of the same sort of
material, but varying in diameter in each set, with a uniform decrement
from the greatest to the least.

Convenient dimensions for earthquake observations of mean intensity, will
be such, that the cylinder of largest diameter shall have its altitude equal to

three diameters, or b=o, and that the cylinder of least diameter shall have

«

its diameter one-third of that of the greatest one, or bat Any number of

cylinders of intermediate diameters may be interpolated between ; and the
greater the number, the more accurate the instrument becomes. A series of
six to ten in each set will, however, be sufficient for any purpose. For
observation of shocks of extreme violence, larger diameters, in proportion to
altitude, should be chosen for all the cylinders.

The material of the cylinders is not important, cast iron, stone, pottery, or
other substances at hand, whose arrises will not crumble away by being
overthrown, may be used; but no material will be found more convenient
than some hard heavy wood, of uniform substance, straight grain, and equa-
ble specific gravity, from which the cylinders can be formed in the lathe,
and their bases brought perfectly square to the axis with facility.

Upon any horizontal and solid floor let two planks be placed, as in fig. 6,
with their directions in length respectively lying N, and 8. and E. and W.,

Fig. 6.

each plank to be about 3 inches in thickness, and in width equal to the dia
meter of the largest cylinder, and its length such that the set of cylinders, —
when placed upright and equidistant thereon, shall have a space greater than —
the altitude between each. Thus, if the cylinder of largest diameter have

b=0'5 of a foot, the length of plank will, for a set of six, as in the figure,
be about 12 feet. These base-planks being fixed, level, and solid, the floor is

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 99

eylinders adjusted to their places, one set running in an east and west, and the
other in a north and south direction, so that in whatever direction the hori-
zontal component of shock may move, the overthrown cylinders, of one or the
other set, shall fall transversely to the lengths of either of the plank bases, and,
lodging on the sand-bed, remain ewactly in the position as to azimuth in which
they were overthrown. If now a shock of any horizontal velocity capable of
overthrowing some of the cylinders, but not all of them, arrive, it will throw
down at once all the narrower ones, and up to a certain diameter of base.
For example, suppose a N. and S. shock, of such velocity as to overthrow
W 6, W 5, and W 4, leaving W 3, W 2, and W 1 standing; then V will
have been greater than the velocity due to the overthrow of W 4, and less
than that due to the overthrow of W 3, and, within those limits, may be
found from the preceding equation. The cylinders here overthrown, W 6,
W 5, and W 4, will be found with their axes lying N. and S., at rest upon
the sand-bed. The cylinders N 6, N 5, and N 4, will be also overthrown;
but in this case they will fall in the line of their own plank bases, and may
roll and so give no indication as to direction of shock in azimuth. Hence the
necessity for two sets of cylinders; one set, however, will be sufficient, if
space enough be provided between the cylinders, and if each be placed
upon a cylindrical and separate basis of a diameter equal to its own, and in
height equal to the depth of the sand-bed.

This form of instrument, then, is capable of giving approximate deter-
minations of—

Ist. The velocity of the horizontal component of shock, neglecting the
vertical component, which may be done where the angle of emergence is not
great.

2nd. The azimuthal direction of the horizontal element of shock.

3rd. Its absolute direction of primary movement, viz. the direction of
translation of the wave, which always coincides with the direction of mole-
cular movement of the elastic wave itself, in the first half of its complete
phase: e. g., if the wave show a N. S. azimuth, by the line of direction of axes
of the overthrown cylinders, and these be thrown to the northward, then the
wave has traversed from S. to N.

4th. The exact time of the transit of shock may be also indicated if the
narrowest cylinders, N 6 and W 6 be connected with a clock, so as to stop
it at the moment of overthrow by the very simple means which I have
pointed out in the ‘Admiralty Manual’ (art. ‘ Earthquake,” sec. vii., p. 208,
2nd edit. ), inasmuch as, by hypothesis, the narrowest cylinders will be always
overthrown.

' A single cylinder or prism, however entirely distinct from either seismo-
metrical set, and of even less stability as respects shock, may be with
_ advantage adopted as the means for stopping the clock by the above method,
_ which is capable of giving the time to within 0-1 of a second.
- It is obvious that the application of the principles involved in this form
of seismometer to observations made upon the recent overthrow of walls,
columns, or other such objects to be found in regions which may have been
‘visited by earthquakes, is capable of giving also approximate measures of
‘velocity and direction of shock. This class of seismic observation will, I
hope, be found more fully developed elsewhere.
~ In conclusion, one other method of indirect seismometry remains to be
explained, which does not require the aid of any seismometric instrument.
‘The facts upon which this method depends have been alluded to in the Re-
‘port on Earthquakes of 1850, p. 35. It has been long observed that, in
ive surfaces of country that have been exposed to the effects of shock,
H2

‘100 REPORT—1858.

certain zones or areas of surface, more or less irregular, present themselves,
within which the destructive effects upon buildings and other objects capable
‘of overthrow are manifested much more intensely, than upon similar objects
situated upon other portions of the superficies of the country. These zones
of maximum disturbance (as yet ill observed) have been remarked to run in
curvilinear directions of surface, to approach more or less, according to the
means of (i. e. the objects afforded for) observation, to closed curves, and to
be wholly distinct from those variations of destructive agency, irregularly
“parsemé over large shaken areas, which depend upon differences of geologic
surface-formation, configuration of country, &c., construction of buildings,
and many other conditions, which modify the direction and effects of the
shock at points often very little removed from each other, and the analysis
of which, and extrication of the true primary movement from the entangle-
ment of such minor phenomena, constitute the greatest difficulty of earth-
quake observation. The physical conditions which give rise to such zones
of maximum disturbance are easily explained.

Fig. 7.

:

x

a
ia

=

;
:
; Referring to fig. 7, let h! h be the horizon (which we may assume a
right line) cut by a vertical plane passing through a great circle of the earth, —
and through A, the centre of impulse of the earthquake. The blow from
this origin is propagated outwards in all directions, through the elastic mass _
of the earth (here assumed homogeneous), in spherical concentric shells, —
which the circles 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. denote, at similar phases of the wave. The
elastic wave starts from the impulse with one normal and two transversal
vibrations. Its vs viva must remain constant, and (in the same medium its |
dimensions being very great) the velocity of translation also. The mass in —
Wwave-movement, at any moment of its transit, is therefore the same, and the
thickness of each successive spherical shell decreases from the centre of im- _
pulse as the square of its mean distance. This is the measure of the normal —
excursion of any particle, from any given phase of the wave, in its passage out-
wards, to the recurrence of the same phase, and is also the measure of the nor-
mal intensity of the shock, or that in directions AB, AC, AZ, &e. Neglect- —
ing for the present the effects of the transversal wave, the normal intensity or _

direct overthrowing power of an earthquake shock varies inversely as the
square of the distance from origin. But the surface capability of the shock

'

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 101:

to overthrow buildings, &c. depends not only upon its intensity, but upon
the direction of its movement with respect to the horizon. A shock per-
fectly vertical has no tendency to overturn the walls of a house, though it
may bring down the roof or floors. Now it is obvious from the figure,
that as the wave passes outwards from the origin, A, it reaches the earth’s
surface vertically at B, the point in the prime vertical, pA, directly over
the same; and that as it travels outwards, it emerges at the surface with
angles more and more nearly horizontal; the angle of emergence being the.
same at all points of any coseismal line, all such lines being, on the as-
sumption of homogeneity, concentric circles round B (like those upon a
pond into which a stone has been thrown).

So far as the direction of wave-motion is concerned, therefore, its power to
overturn buildings is greater the further it has travelled, or the greater the
radius of the coseismal cirele from B ; but its‘erergy has been shown to be
inversely as the square of the distance (not upon the earth’s surface, but in
the normal). Hence it follows that there must be some given distance upon
the surface around B at which the combined effect, of most advantageous
direction and lessened energy, shall produce the most destructive effects
upon buildings, &c., or a point, C, intermediate to B and Z, or Z! supposed at:
any indefinite distance, at which the shock will be, in this respect, a maximum.
The radius BC will then describe a coseismal circle upon the earth’s sur-
face, which will be a zone of maximum disturbance.

Conversely, if we can trace by observation of the shaken country such a
zone, or ascertain three points in its circle, we can find the centre of the
circle or the point B, which is plumb over the centre of impulse beneath ;
andif we have ascertained the angle of emergence that produces the maximum
effect (and which isa constant), wé*can then calculate the depth of the centre
of impulse, A, beneath the earth’s surface.

Fig. 8.

pP

A

Beeieferring to fig. 8, let A be, as before, the centre of impulse; B the
int upon the earth’s surface (supposed a plane), in the prime vertical pA,
directly above it. It is required to find a point, C, at which the horizontal
“overthrowing effects of an impulse in the direction AC, whose intensity
Varies inversely as the square of the distance, shall be a maximum.

_ Produce AC to d, and complete the parallelogram of forces, f d being
parallel to the horizon.

102’ +4™5 REPORT—1858.

Let BA=a, the depth of origin ;
BC=r, the radius where the horizontal force is a maximum
AC=the normal due to this radius.
The angle Cde= BAC=0.

Then the force at C in the direction AC is

- -; and that in the direc-
+7"

a
tion of the horizon is sin @ x ———; and as
a+r
ind r
ht
Ver
VETP
2 2 ——
Cen fe aaa
we have + 1 iE ie
1 r rT f
XS Sg a MM
and +r Ve+r (a?+7°)?

3 “
Differentiating, (a?+7r°)? xdr—3(a*+7°)? x 2r°=0.

e+r=3r?

V2. 2
The angle CAC’! is therefore very nearly 70° 31! 43", which is the angle
of the cone whiose base in the horizontal plane limits the zone of maximum
disturbance; and as the angles at B are right, the angle of emergence
BCA=54° 44! 9", and the sides of the triangle, BC : BA: AC, are to each
other in the ratios of at x
1:/72: V3.
Hence we arrive at the very simple practical rule.

Having found the coseismal zone of maximum disturbance by observation,
or three points in it, and the centre of the circle passing through them, the
depth below the surface, of the origin or centre of impulse, will be the dia-
gonal of the square whose side is equal to the radius of the given circle.

Within certain approximate limits, then, the application of this rule is
capable of giving some information upon that great object of research, to
which, above all others, seismological investigation points, namely, the depth
beneath our surface from which such impulses reach us, and, by consequence,
that at which active volcanic forces are in operation within our planet.

This method can scarcely be applied in very mountainous regions, unless —
both mountain-formations and seismic energy be developed upon a grand
scale, as in Mexico and SouthAmerica ; and in every case the observer will
find himself encumbered and perplexed by the interference of many minor
circumstances of disturbance to mask and render difficult his observations.
These, however, should not prevent our bearing the method in mind when-—
ever favourable conditions present themselves for its use.

In the present state of the theory of wave-movements in elastic solids, it
cannot be said to be experimentally certain, that the energy of the wave, in
the normal, does diminish with the square of the distance. Another view of
the primary conditions of its motion would make it diminish directly as the
distance, in which case it may be proved that the angle CAC’ of the
coseismal cone of maximum disturbance will be 90° and constant, and hence

pa
ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 103

that the depth of the origin (upon that hypothesis) will be always equal to
the radius of the circle of maximum disturbance. It would be out of place
here to enter further into the physical discussion of this question, except by
referring to Herschel (art. “ Light,” ‘Encye. Metrop.’ vol. iv. paragr. 18.
p- 578) and to the various papers of Cauchy, Wertheim, Stokes, Airy,
Haughton, and Maxwell on the subject.

I have stated that in the preceding investigation the effects of the transver-
sal wave are neglected. In the observation of actual earthquake phenomena,
this may probably be safely done as respects all points that are at consider-
able distances from the centre of disturbance. ‘The normal and transversal
waves, starting at the same instant, appear to travel with unequal velocities.
They part company ; and their distance becomes greater, and the interval
larger between their arrivals, the further they have both travelled. Were
we enabled, therefore, to ascertain the precise velocity of the normal wave,
and the exact interval of time between the arrival at a distant point of the
normal and transversal waves, we could still by another method arrive at the
distance from which they had come, and therefore at the depth of the origin
of impulse, if the angle of emergence at one point were known. According

_ to Cauchy, the velocity of transit of the normal is to that of the transversal
wave as 4/3: 1 in media of unlimited mass; and Wertheim’s modified for-
mule for elastic bodies fix itas 2:1. My own experimental observations
with the seismoscope have proved to me that the separation of the two waves
can be noticed, and the interval of time measured upon even very moderate
ranges of wave-transit, not exceeding a few miles; and the observations of
earthquake shocks indicate that one cause of the tremors that usually sacceed
the main blow, is the later arrival of the normal wave, whose amplitude at
considerable distances from the origin is always small.

However this may be, it is certain that in all earthquakes the real mis-
chief and overthrow, at places pretty far removed from above the centre of
impulse, are done by the blow from the normal wave, which appears to
come first; hence the main observable effects are those of the normal, and
we are justified and enabled, zn such localities, to neglect the transversal.
But within a considerabie circle of area, whose boundary is evanescent, and
whose centre lies at the point B (figs. 7, 8), right above the origin, the
actual effects of the transversal wave are very formidable, and can never be
neglected.

_ The ground beneath an object so situated, such as a house or pillar (as
the distance from the origin to the surface is the minimum range of emer-
gence, or shortest possible, and therefore its energy the greatest), is almost
at the same instant thrown nearly vertically upwards by the normal wave,
and at the same moment rapidly forced forwards and backwards horizontally
in two directions orthogonal to each other; and this combined movement,
which is that called “vorticoso” by the Italians and Spanish Mexicans, is
one that nothing, however solid and substantial in masonry, &c., can long

_ withstand.

Hence it follows that, within the zone of maximum disturbance which we

have treated of, and occupying its central region, we shall always find an
area, more or less circular, also of great overthrow and destruction, though

_ presenting entirely different characteristics as to the manner of overthrow of

the buildings, &c. This middle region may therefore be sought for as a
further directrix to the point B over the centre of impulse. Jt may be

necessary to remark that this combined movement, due to the two transver-
‘sal waves, and dimited to a region closely above the prime vertical passing
‘through the centre of impulse, must not be confounded by any misconcep-

104 ; REPORT—1858, “6 THe? woo

tion of the phrase “ vorticoso,” with that false notion of vorticose shock,
such as was presumed to have twisted the Calabrian obelisks, &c., the real
nature of whose displacement I indicated in 1846. (Trans. Roy. I. Acad. —
vol. xxi. part 1. See also 1st Report Trans. Brit. Assoc. 1850, pp. 33, 34.)

In conclusion, I would repeat my conviction that a further expenditure
of labour in earthquake catalogues of the character hitherto compiled, and
alone possible from the data to have been compiled, is now a waste of scien-
tific time and labour. The main work presented for seismologists in the
immediate future, must consist in good observations, with seismometers ad-
vantageously placed at sufficiently distant stations, and galvanically connected
as to time; and in the careful observation of the traces left by great shocks
(when of recent occurrence) upon buildings and other objects artificial and
natural, with a view to determining the nature of the forces that have affected
them, aided by the resources of the physicist and mathematician.

Amongst the unknown regions of our world, as respects the recurrence of
earthquakes and their phenomena, the most prominent are Central Africa,
Abyssinia, Madagascar, Northern Asia, and the north-west of North Ame-
rica. For observations of the last, the new settlements about being formed
at Vancouver’s Island will, no doubt, offer great facilities, as well as future
access to the great Aleutian chain of volcanoes and their seismic zone.

I reserve for the Appendix a few observations, upon great sea waves and
certain ill-understood phenomena, which could not systematically find place —
in this Report.

Sy

APPENDIX.

‘ No. I.

(P. 48.) The following table of some of the men and events upon which the
progress of human knowledge and discovery and the diffusion of mankind have
depended, may serve to illustrate the relations that these bear to the expand-
ing character of the catalogue :—

Date
A.C.
Yards for spreading ships’ sails invented ............csscssscauececcsscceccaeseccaesecessbactes 1200
Silver money.—Anchors.—First sea fight...........:..ccssevececcesssesuceesesnnscessunstecees 700
Amber and tin carried by Pheenicians from the Baltic and England to the Leyant.. 600
The sounding-line used at sea—Maps in use.—Multiplication table—Moon’s
eclipses caleulated:—Pythagoras \..ti.c1-..c-q/-cccseebeees feeccesscacctreccesssnumepepieees 500
Trireme galleys in use.—The burning-lens KNOWN .............ececceeeeseeeessesensereeees 400
War chariots in Gaul.—Arrack brought from India into Europe.—Electricity
noticed.—Hemp, cordage (?), and sails (?).— Aristotle .........s0cseccccesseeduceseeeas 300 ©
Clepsydra.—Ballistee—Silver coin at Rome.—The olive.—Chinese wall.— Hannibal 200
Lucullus introduces cleansing soap from Gaul—sal-ammoniac from Egypt.—Solar
rear aie POW eE ee Le, A, OAR Te oe 100
Christ born.—Seneca.—Strabo. AWD,
Hrst.sex voyage to India, probably) ..ss.cxpipacasides sve vacua Sovdncsteeete cy eye eeeeeeeeneeee 3
Stained-glass windows—the vine—Saw-mills—Monachism—all in Germany ......... 300
The Western Empire.—Public lights at Antioch.—Church bells ..............cseeeeeee- 400
The dark ages commence.
Franks Christianized.—Silk-worms in Hurope................cccececcceceeeeecceceacavceeceas 500
Hops.—Quill pens.—Latin disused.—Mahomet I. ...........cc..ccccssssesseeeseeeeceseeses 600

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 105.

Date

A.D.

Oxford and Cambridge Universities—First book.—Alfred the Great .......s..s0ccsees 900

Arabic notation in Europe.—Wheel clocks in use.—The first crusade ..........00e.000 1100
The three last crusades.—The sugar cane in Sicily.—Coal as fuel_—The corporation

of London.—The Popish inquisition Saladin ............cccceeeeecceeeeneeeeeeeeee eens 1200

English parliaments.—English in our law courts.—Gunpowder.—Cannon.— Mari-
ners’ compass.—Printing.—Engraving.—Oil painting.—Coaches.—Roger Bacon.
eNO ATR CT IMD Sn tartposrentsctsceritrrsechcsst te snspgntaeceloseaae co sncdavartecaeeigs 1400
America.—Columbus's four voyages, from 1492-1504.—Cape of Good Hope.—
Indian Sea.—Vasco di Gama, 1499.—John and Sebastian Cabot, 1497.—Publice
road and bridges through Western and Southern Hwrope.—Luther.—The Re-
MONEE TPOM UDR E RG tro easier ove Sees sens. aaraanalescawaesttyeses scot ecneserbo tiene chose osasaths 1500
Logarithms.—W atches.— Barometer.— Telescope.— Mercator.—Italian book-keep-
ing.—Jupiter’s satellites discovered. — Copernicus. — Galileo. — Magelhaen’s
VEER PT DLO TAKES YOYHEE, LOSO oo... .cveccenseveescossccesceceasenecenresctestone sence 1600
Royal Society. — Newton. —Sextant.— Chronometers. — Greenwich Observatory.—
ea into Europe.— Clive.—Penn.—South Sea Company.— Cod and herring
fisheries —Semaphore.—New style calendar
MRC (UPSD one, forte esh tess cc cecsccate deerese tes sncastrasg scnutimaneiecsereinem
Cook’s last voyage (1779)
La Perouse (1788)
MIPS ION Dee ahs cto ce cass toast asin etc (thane seh c teens cts cap sumnduals ve scangys sae
STERRIETNTG (LTO) necr scce tate c sec cr cerecantattb nosing <ttessetansiapeesmecascn asap
Napoleon.—Nelson.—Embassies to China and Japan.—Vaccination.—Gas lights.
— Life-boats. — Public docks. — Public coaches and diligences.—Newspapers | 1800

Acer eet ee deme eee e renee tases an sens eet nas eeeeeseeseeteeserssesseseeseesesees

SUEROR Sry Petra tat Seve warccrtaterer create shone sadscesr tects e pte nstcs srcecchenet sey ttine to
Steam navigation.—First steam-ship ‘Savana’ crosses the Atlantic, 1819.—Rail- { present
way system, 1820.— Electric telegraph, 1830.— Law of tides—of storms.— | date.

Gold in California—in Australia

eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee ee ee eee eee eee eee eee es

No. II.

(P. 57.) From the interest that belongs to observations of earthquakes in
the Southern Hemisphere, hitherto so seldom recorded, I append the following
extracts from the letter of an intelligent friend, referring to the New
Zealand shock of 1854-55, written very soon after the event. The writer is
a civil engineer.

The New Zealand Earthquake.

j 7 i “ Wellington, 23rd January, 1855.
“Whilst sitting reading and talking at 8.50 p.m., I felt the house (which had been shaking
with the occasional N.H. gusts so usual at Wellington) give a very extraordinary shake,
which seemed to continue, and was accompanied by a fearful noise. I at once jumped up,
rushed, as well as the violent motion would permit me, into the front garden, the motion
increasing in violence, accompanied by a roaring as if a large number of cannon were being
fired near together, and by a great dust caused by the falling chimneys. The motion at first
_ was a sharp jerk back and forwards in a N.E. and 8.W. direction, increasing in extent and
_ rapidity, until I got into the garden—say 25 seconds; it was then succeeded by a shorter
and quicker motion at right angles, for nearly the same time, still increasing, but appearing
to be perfectly in the plane of the horizon, This was followed by a continuation of both,
asort of vorticose motion, exactly like the motion felt in an ill-adjusted railway carriage
on a badly-laid railway at a very high speed, where one is swayed rapidly from side to side.
This was accompanied by a sensible elevatory impulse; it gradually subsided; and the
_ above, constituting the first and greatest shock, lasted altogether, I should say, 1/ 20” or 1}
at Wellington. The earth continued to vibrate all night like the panting of a tired horse,
_ with occasional shocks of some violence, decreasing in frequency and violence towards
_ morning, and nearly all in the N.E. 8.W. direction, some of them a single jerk back and
_ forwards like that of one railway carriage touching another, but generally they were
followed by a vibration gradually decreasing. These lasted, with increasing intervals, until
IT left Wellington on the ilth April. For the first week after the first shock, the vibration
% ‘never wholly ceased. All the brick buildings in Wellington were overthrown, or so injured,
_ 88 to necessitate their removal; the Hutt Bridge was thrown down; the hill-sides opposite
‘ Wellington were very much shaken, as evidenced by the many bare patches with which
_ they were chequered fully to the extent of one-third of their surface, whence trees had been

Ft es ce

106 . “REPORT—1858.

shaken off: this range, particularly its lower portion, appeared to have been the most
shaken. It is called the Rimatuka Range, and divides Port Nicholson and the basin of
the Hutt from the Warumrapa Valley, where the earthquake was felt with greater violence
than at Wellington, the ground haying opened in many places 8 or 9 feet, and sunk in one
place for 300 yards square to a depth of 8 or 9 feet. ‘The cracks are very frequent, and
at first were of considerable depth (deemed unfathomable, because people could not see
their depth), perhaps 15 or 20 feet in depth, and extending for many hundred yards.
Ploughed ground and mud, dry river- or pond-beds were thrown up into all sorts of un-
dulations like a short cross sea, the ridges in some cases 2 feet in height, the prevailing
direction of cracks and ridges being generally at right angles to the apparent line of force,
N.E. 8.W. The strata about Wellington and the Rimatuka are a sort of shale and clay-
slate, all broken into pieces not bigger than road-metal, with yellow clay joints ; and in
places where the overlying clay has been cut through by roads, one can see the cracks
caused by former earthquakes filled up by a different-coloured material. I should mention
the great sea-wave which came in immediately after the first shock, about 5 feet higher than
the highest tide inside the harbour, and 12 feet higher outside; the tide (¢. ¢. water-surface)
continued ebbing and flowing every 20 minutes during the night, and was most irregular
for a week, ebbing further than ever known before. After that time it became more regular ;
and now the ebb and flow is the same as before the earthquake; but since that, it does not
come at high-water within 3 or 4 feet of its former height, proving that the whole south-
ern part of the northern island has been raised, the elevated portion commencing at
Wangarner, on the west coast, and going round to Castle Point on the east, where it
terminates. The vertical elevation is greatest at the Rimatuka Range, outside Port Nichol-
son, and becomes zz/ at the above-mentioned points. The shock was felt at Nelson
almost as badly as at Wellington, slightly at Canterbury and Aburii. It was most violent
on the sides of hills at those places, and least so in the centre of the alluvial plains.

“The great shock continued at any one point longer, the further it had diverged from its
apparent centre of action opposite Wellington, and became less violent, the motion being
slower and notto such anextent. This I think plainly proves (if any thing were wanting to
prove) Mr. Mallet’s wave theory: any person of the slightest perception experiencing the
shock and comparing the statements of persons who had felt it in different places could
come to no other conclusion. I do not think the thermometer or barometer was affected ;
T had no opportunity of observing myself; but so I heard; nor was the compass acted on
more than was due to the motion.

‘The captain of the vessel I went in to Ahurii was outside Port Nicholson, lying-to in a
gale, and thought his vessel had struck, and was dragging over a reef of rocks; the next
morning he passed hundreds of dead fish all of one sort, a species of ling, whose habit it is
to lie on the bottom. The shock was also felt by the ‘ Josephine Willis,’ 150 miles off the
coast. I only regret, time and want of means prevented my making more accurate obser-
vations, and even giving you those I did make in greater detail. W. C. B.”

[The direction of primary shock mentioned by the writer is in the line of the mountain-
chain, reaching from the interior down to Wellington, and also in that pointing to Ton-
guro and other volcanic cones.—R.M. ]

No. III,

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF EARTHQUAKES.

At the period of publication of the Second Report on Earthquakes, it was
my intention to have prepared a complete Bibliography of Earthquakes, the
want of some such index having been much felt by myself, at former periods,
Subsequently, however, I found that my friend, Professor Perrey, of Dijon,
had had such a work in progress for some years; and he has since published
his Bibliographical Catalogues in the ‘ Mémoires de l’Académie Imp. de Dijon,’
vols, xiv. and xy. 2nd ser., for 1855-56, which contained, in alphabetical
order, one thousand eight hundred and thirty-seven different works on Seis-
mology. Even yet, however, the store of literature in this speciality are not
completely taken stock of. Ihave hence deemed it best simply to publish,
in the following lists, such works as I have found in the several European
libraries named at the head of cach separate list, along with one in which
works, that from various sources haye met my eye, are collected. The ma-
terials thus given will be, I should hope, of some present service to scientific

—— >. we

{ os a

ON THE FAOTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 107

travellers abroad; and such portions as are new can be intercalated with
future editions of more perfect catalogues, such as M, Perrey’s, The following
is the order of the library lists :—

1. British Museum.
2. Royal Society of London.
3. Trinity College, Dublin.
4. Royal Library, Berlin.
5. Naturforschenden Freunde of Berlin.
6. Royal School of Mines, Berlin.
7. Library of the University of Gottingen.
8. Royal Library of Munich, Bavaria,
9. Royal Library of Dresden, Saxony.
10. Library of Gand, Belgium.
11. Library of the Mineralogical Museum, Naples.
12, Works on Seismic and Volcanic Subjects from various sources.

Library of the British Museum.

Verhail van de Groote Aertheninghe binnen Mantua in Lulio 1619. 4to. Antwerpen.
No date.

Account of the late Harthquake in Jamaica. S8yvo. London, 1693.

Supplement to the Bishop of London’s Letter on occasion of the late Earthquake. S8vo.
London, 1750.

Serious Thoughts on the Harthquake at Lisbon. S8vo. London, 1755.

Reflections, Physical and Moral, upon the uncommon Phenomena which haye happened
from the Harthquake at Lima to the present time. 8vo. London, 1756.

A short and pithie Discourse concerning the engendering, tokens, and effects of all Harth-
quakes in generall. By T.T. 4to. London, 1580. (Black letter.)

A most true relation of a very dreadfull Harthquake which began upon the 8 December,
1612, and still continueth in Munster, in Germanie. 4to, London, 1612. (Black letter.)

Vera Relatione del Spaventevole Terremoto nelle provincie di Calabria citra et ultra.
4to. Roma, 1638. Also editions in Latin, Neap. 1638; Angl., London, 1638.

Sopra il Terremoto Lezioni tre. 4to. Spoleto, 1752.

Strange News from the North, containing a true and exact relation of a great Harthquake
in Cumberland and Westmoreland. 4to. London, 1650.

Relatione dell’ horribile Terremoto seguito nella citta di Ragusa et altre della Dalmatia et

. Albania. 4to. Ven. 1667. Alter edit. angl., 4to, London, 1667.

Strange News from Italie; being a true relation of a dreadfull Earthquake in Romania,
and the Marches of Ancona, April 14, 1672. Trans. from the Italian. 4to. London,
1672.

A relation of the terrible Earthquake at West Brummidge in Staffordshire, January 4,
1675-6. 4to. London, 1676.

Strange News from Lemster in Herefordshire; being a true narration of the opening of
the earth in divers places thereabouts. 4to. London, 1679.

Strange News from Oxfordshire; being a true and faithful account of a wonderful and

' dreadful Earthquake that happened in those parts, September 17, 1683. Folio.

A true and exact relation of the Earthquake at Naples, June 5, 1688. ‘Transl. from the
Italian. 4to. London, 1688.

A true and impartial Account of the strange and wonderful Earthquake which happened
in most parts of the City of London, 8 September, 1692. Folio.

A Philosophical Discourse of Earthquakes, occasioned by the late Harthquake, September

8,1692. By C.H. 4to. London, 1692.

A true and perfect relation of the Earthquake at Port Royal in Jamaica, 7 June, 1692.

2 oe

- Folio. London.

A full Account of the late dreadful Harthquake at Port Royal in Jamaica, June 22, 1692.

_ In two letters from the minister of that place. Folio.

A sad and terrible relation of the dreadful Earthquake which happened at Jamaco [sic].
12mo. London, 1692.

A Practical Discourse on the late Harthquakes, with an Historical Account of Prodigies
and their various effects. By a Reverend Divine. 4to. London, 1692.

Epistola ad Regiam Societatem Londinensem, qua de nuperis terremotibus disseritur ot

108 i ~REPORT—1858. VAT BAL HO

vers eorum cause eruuntur. 4to. London, 1693. Proposes to account for earthquakes
occurring on astrological grounds, ; ;

An account of the late terrible Earthquake in Sicily. Done from the Italian copy printed
at Rome. 4to. London, 1693.

The Harth twice shaken wonderfully; or an analogical Discourse of Harthquakes. By
I. D. R. [Rouffional], French minister. 4to. London, 1693-94. 47 pages.

The General History of Earthquakes. By R.B. 12mo. London, 1694.

A full and dismal Account of an Earthquake that happened in Batavia, 28 February,
1700. 12mo. London.

A true and particular Relation of the Earthquake which happened at Lima, the capital of
Peru, the 28 October, 1746; with a description of Callao and Lima before their
destruction, and the Kingdom of Peru in general. 8vo. London, 1748, (Erased in
Catal.

Istoria de Fenomeni del Tremoto avvenuto nelle Calabrie e nel Valdemone nell’ anno
1783, porta in luce dalla Reale Accademia delle Scienze e delle Belle Lettere di Napoli.
Fol. Nap. 1781.

Dreadful News, or a true Relation of the great, violent, and late Harthquake, which hap-
ened the 27 March Stilo Romano last, at Callabria in the Kingdom of Naples. London,
638. Gives a list of 30 towns and cities overthrown, and 50,000 people killed.

A full Account of the great and terrible Harthquake in Germany, Hungary, and Turkey,
one of the greatest and most wonderful that ever was in the world. Translated from
the Dutch of Leopold Wettersheint de Hodensteen, by Richard Alcock. 4to. London.
Date illegible. Refers to Cardan’s opinions of earthquakes, in ‘‘ De Subtilitate.” j

A Narrative of the Earthquake and Fire of Lisbon. By Antonio Pereira, of the Congrega-
tion of the Oratory, an Hye-witness thereof. ‘Translated from the Latin, 8vo. London,
1756.

A true and exact Relation of the late prodigious Earthquake and Eruption of Mount Aitna,
or Mount Gibello, as it came in a Letter to his late Majesty from Naples, by the Right
Hon. Earle of Winchelsea, Ambassador at Constantinople. 4to, London, 1669.

Dolorosa Tragcedia representata nel regno di Catania, &e. 4to, Catanie, 1695.

Del Terreemoto dialogo di Jacomo Antonio Buoni, Medico Ferrarese. Distinto in quattro
giornate. 4to. Modena, 1571. 59 pages. A digest in the usual fashion of all old know-
ledge; and a large catalogue, with approximate dates of earthquakes. This catalogue is
very copious and valuable. Ten signs of earthquakes enumerated. Catalogue contmued
to a.v. 1010.

Del Terremoto Dialogo del Signor Lucio Maggio, Gentil huomo Bolognese. 4to, Bologna,
1571.

Bridges’ Annals of Jamaica. (The great Jamaica Harthquake.)

Some Considerations on the Causes of Harthquakes. By 8. Hales, D.D., F.R.8. 8vo.
London, 1750.

William Stukely, M.D., The Philosophy of Earthquakes. 8vo. London, 1750. With Part IT.

A Philosophical Discourse of Harthquakes, occasioned by the late Earthquake of 8 Sept,
1692. By C.H. 4to. London, 1693.

Vera relatione del Spaventevole Terrzemoto successo alli 27 di Marzo, su le 21 hore nelle
Provincie di Calabria citra et ultra. 4to. Roma, 1638. 71 pages. ;

Oratio in recentem Terre motum Germanie utriusque terrorem, anno 1640, 4 Aprilis,
post tertiam matutinam. A Jon Haleno Canonico. 4to, Col. Agrip. 1640. 41 pages. —

Trattato universale di tutti li Terremoti occorsi e noti nel mondo con li casi intausti
ed@'infelici pressagili da tali Terremoti. 4to. Nell’ Aquila, 1652. 146 pages.

A Catalogue of Earthquakes from the earliest Times of the Jews and Phylistines down to
that when the Emperor Henry IV. made war with Pope Pasquale II. (Vide date.)
Few precise dates given; chiefly a mass of churchmen’s superstition.

Relatione del horribile Terremoto seguito nella citt’ di Ragusa et altra della Dalmatia
et Albania il giorno delli 6 Aprile, 1667. 4to. Venetia, 1667. Only a letter.

M. Kircher, Mundus Subterraneus, lib. 4. There is much information as to Earthquakes.’

Tremble Terre, oi sont contenus ses causes, signes, effets et remédes. Par Louys du'Thoum,

. Docteur et Avocat, &c. 4 Bordeaux. 8vo. 1616. Discusses all the causes, kinds, signs,
presages, and supernatural remedies of the Ancients. A learned book in its time and way.

Del Terremoto Dialogo del Sig. Lucio Maggio di Bologna. 8vo. Bologna, 1624. Trans-
lated into French, and published at Paris, 8 vols., 1675.

Reflections, Physical and Moral, upon various uncommon Phenomena from the Harth-
quake of Lima, &e. 8vo. London, 1756.

Ragionamento del Dottor Signor Gaspare Paragallo, intorno alla cagione de’ Tremuoti.
4to. Napoli, 1689. 151 pages.

Dominici Bottoni de immani Trinacrie Terremotu Idea historico-physica; in qua non

7
;

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 109

] i
oe concussiones transactee recensentur, sed novissimee anni 1717. 4to. Messane, 1718.
31 pages.

Lettere scientifica intorno alla cagione de’ Terreemoti. Scritta dal Dottore Girolamo Giuntini,
all’ Illust. Sig. Caval. Giuseppe Ridolfi. 4to. Firenze, 1729. 40 pages.

Practical Reflections on the late Earthquakes in Jamaica, England, Sicily, Malta, &., anno
1692. By John Shower. 1693. (A Presbyterian minister.)

A Form of Prayer ordered by the Queen and Privy Council (for the Harthquake noticed

_ by Spencer), 1 May, 1580,

A short and pithie Discourse concerning the Engendring, Tokens, and Effects of all Harth-
quakes in general; particularly applied and conferred with that most strange and terrible
Worke of the Lord within the citie of London, &e., &c. 4to. London, 1580,—Catalogue
of Books bequeathed to the Bodleian Library by Richard Gough, Oxford, 1814, p. 209.

A Sermon occasioned by the late Earthquake in London. By Samuel Doolittle. 4to.
London, 1692.—Jdid. p. 210.

The right Improvement of alarming Providences; a Sermon preached at Cheshunt in
Hertfordshire, March 18th, 1749-50, on occasion of the two late Earthquakes. By John
Mason, A.M. London, 1750.

The Scripture Account of the Cause and Intention of Earthquakes; in a Sermon preached
at the Old Jewry, March 11, 1749-50, on occasion of the two shocks of an Earthquake,
the first on February 8th, the other on March 8th, By Samuel Chandler. London, 1750.

Ray’s Physico-Theological Discourse of the Deluge (209 pages); and Dr. T. Robinson’s
Letter to Ray, 22nd Sept. 1692. Both relate to the great Jamaica Harthquake.

A Discourse of Earthquakes, as they are supernatural and premonitory signs of a nation,
by 1 author of the Fulfilling of the Scriptures. By Robert Hemming. 8vo, London,
16

A Chronological and Historical Account of Earthquakes from the beginning of the Christian
period to 1750, with an Appendix of those felt in England; with a Preface and Index.
By a Gentleman of the University of Cambridge. S8vo. Cambridge, 1750.

A further Account, by the same Author, of the memorable Earthquake of 1756, with a
Relation of that of Lisbon; together with an Abstract of Father Gorée’s Narrative of the
rise of a New Island in the Bay of Santorini, in the Archipelago, in 1707, and an
Appendix, giving an Account of an Auto da Fé at Lisbon, by an Eye-witness. 8vo.
Cambridge, 1'756.

The History and Philosophy of Earthquakes, from the remotest to the present Times, col-
lected from the best writers on the subject, with a particular Account of the Phenomena
of the great one of Nov. 1, 1755, in various parts of the globe. By a Member of the

Royal Academy of Berlin, With an Index. London, 1757.
_ Observations on Three Earthquakes; their Natural Causes, Kinds, and manifold Effects
and Presages : occasioned by the last which happened, the 8 of Sept. 1694, in the Kingdom
of Naples in Italy. By I. D. R. (I. de Rouffional), French Minister. 4to, London, 1694.

A Relation of the dreadful Earthquake which happened at Lima and the neighbouring
port of Callao, on the 28th Oct. 1746; published at Lima, and translated from the
Spanish, with a description of these towns before their destruction, &., &c, Also an
Appendix, containing a full Account of the Harthquake at Port Royal, Jamaica, in
1692. In Two Letters, written by the Minister of the place. 8vo. London, 1748,

Library of the Royal Society, London.

Bylandt, Résumé préliminaire de l’ouvrage sur la théorie des Volcans. 8yvo, Naples, 1833.
Phillippus Beroaldus, De Terrseemotu et Pestilentia, cum annotamentis Galeni. 4to.
__ Argentorati, 1510.

Noel André, Théorie de la Surface actuelle de la Terre (Harthquakes?). 8vo. Paris, 1806.

Library of Trinity College, Dublin.

Barth Keckermannus, De Magno Terremotu Sept. 8, intra 2 et 3 noctis horam, 1601.
4to. Heidelberg, 1602.
_ From the Collection of Bound Pamphlets :—
Medical Tracts: FI. n. 23. Several narratives.
Tracts on Earthquakes. (Lib. Fag.) H. 11. 26.
. . Hottinger Analecta, Hebrew Earthquakes. BB. 11. 57.
Pamphlets on Earthquakes. P. 11. 56. Several narratives.

ere ae Oe eer

110 REPORT—1858.
Royal Inbrary at Berlin.

Vuleane; Geologie; allgemeine Schriften.

Thom. Ittigius, Lucubrationes academic de montium incendiis. 8vo. Lips. 1671.

Joh. Henr. Mullerus, pres. (resp. Jo. Leonh. Andrew), Diss. inaug. de montibus ignivomis
sive vulcaniis. 4to. Altdorfii, 1710.

W. Hamiliton, Observations on mount Vesuvius, mount Etna, and other Volcanos, in a
series of letters addressed to the Royal Society. New edition, c. 6 tabb. 8yo. London,
1774.

Beobachtungen iiber den Vesuvy, den Aetna u. andere Vulkane; in Briefen an die R.
Grossb. Soc. d. Wiss. Aus dem Engl. c. mappa et 5 tabb. en. 8vo. Berlin, 1773.

Adheec :—
1. Ejusd. Neuere Beobachtungen itber die Vulkane Italiens und am Rhein; in
Briefen nebst Bemerkungen des Abts Giraud Soulavie. Aus dem Franz. von
G. A. R. (Rucker), mit Anmerk. ce. mappa. Frankf. und Leipzig, 1784.
2. Hjusd. Campi Phlegrei: Observations on the Volcanos of the two Sicilies, as
they have been communicated to the Royal Society of London, in English and
French. c. 54 tabb. en. col. Fol. Naples, 1776.

3. Hjusd. Ciuvres complettes, commentées par Giraud-Soulavie. S8vo. Paris, 1781.

R. E. Raspé, Account of some German Volcanos and their productions, with a new hypo-
thesis of the prismatical basaltes. ¢. 2 tabb. en. Svo. London, 1776.

Cosm. Collini, Betrachtungen iiber die vulkanischen Berge. A. d. Franz. iibersetzt,
c. tabb, en. 4to. Dresden, 1783.

Faujas de Saint-Fond, Minéralogie des Volcans. co. 3 tabb. en. 8vo. Paris, 1784.

Frz. yon Beroldingen, Die Vulkane aelterer und neuerer Zeit, physikalisch und mine-
ralogisch betrachtet. Th. 1,2. 1 vol. Mannh. 1791.

Carl Wilhelm Nose, Beitrage zu den Vorstellungsarten iiber vulkanische Gegenstinde.
8yo. Frankf. a. M. 1722.

Adhsec :—

1, Hjusd. Fortsetzung der Beitrage, ib. 1793.

2. ,, Beschluss der Beitriage, ib. 1794.

3. ,, Beschreibung einer Sammlung von meist vulkanischen Fossilien die
Déodat Dolomieu im Jahre 1791, von Maltha aus nach Augsburg und Berlin
versandte. Fol. Frankf. a. M. 1797.

Le Prince Dimitri de Gallitzin, Lettre sur les Volcans 4 Mons. de Zimmermann. 8yo.
Brunswick, 1797.

C, N. Ordinaire, Histoire Naturelle des Volcans, comprenant les Voleans soumarins, ceux
de boue et autres phénoménes analogues. c. mappa. 8vo. Paris, an. x. 1802.

C. Lippi, Fi il fuoco, o V’acqua che sotterrd Pompei ed Ercolano: Scoperta fatta nel 1810.
Prima edizione italiana, c. 1 tab. 8vo. Napoli, 1816.

A. vy. Humboldt, Ueber den Bau und die Wirkungsart der Vulcane in verschiedenen
Erdstrichen. 8vo. Berlin, 1823.

Sammlung von Arbeiten auslaindischer Naturforscher iiber Feuerberge und yerwandte
Phinomene. Deutsch bearbeitet von J. Noggerath und J. P. Pauls. Bd. 2. Elberfeld,
1825, c. 3 tabb. et tit.:—T. T. Raffles, Die Vulkane auf Java; L. A. Necker, tiber den
Monte Somma; und C. Daubeny, iiber die Vulcane in der Auvergne. A. d. Engl. und
Franz. ibers. mit Anm. von J. Néggerath und J. P. Pauls. c. 3 tabb, lith. 8yo.
Elberfeld, 1825.

Poulett Scrope, Considerations on Volcanos. ec. tabb. S8vo. London, 1825.

W. H.C. RB. A. von Ungern-Sternberg, Werden und Seyn des vulkanischen Gebirges.

'¢.8tabb. 8vo. Carlsruhe, 1825.

H. Abich, Vues illustratives de quelques Phénoménes géologiques, prises sur le Vésuve et
ag pendant les années 1833 et 1834. c. 10 tabb. lith, Fol. Paris et Strasbourg,

~— Geologische Beobachtungen iiber die vulkanischen Erscheinungen und Bildungen in
Unter- u. Mittel-Italien, Band. i. Lief. i, c.3 mapp. und 2 tabb. lith, 4to. Braunschw.

1841.
A. de Bylandt-Palstercamp, Théorie des Volcans, tom. 1-3. 3 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1835.
‘ > * Atlas. 17 tabb. lith. 1 vol. fol. Paris, 1836.
“Walter, Ueber die Abnahme der yulkanischen Thiitigkeit in historischen Zeiten Pro-
gramm. Berlin, 1843,
Angebunden :—
Andr. Schumann, Versuch einer Theorie des Erdvulkanismus: Progr. 4to.
Quedlinb. 1842.
©. W. Ritter, Beschreibung merkwiirdiger Vulkane. Neue Ausgabe ohne Kupfer, 8yo.
Breslau, 1847. ;

a

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——

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Beschreibung des Erdbebens, welches die Stadt Lissabon, 1755, heimgesucht. St. 1. 4to,
Danzig, 1756. B.D. 2139.
Yeue und ausfithrt Nachricht von denen zeither und besonders seit d. 5 Febr. d, Pf. in
Bh ine i; Calabrien sich ereigneten schrecklichen Erdbeben, 8vo, Berlin, 1783.

12

116 REPORT—1858.

Books on Earthquakes in the Library Catalogue of the “ Naturfurcherenden
Freunde” in Berlin.

Beschreibung des Erdbebens, welches die Hauptstadt Lissabon theils umgeworfen, theils
beschiidigt hat. Danzig, 1756.
On Volcanoes :—
Mortesagne, Briefe tiber den erloschenen Vulkane yon Vivarais u. Belay. 8vo. Hamb, 1791.
Wiedeburg, J. C. W., Ueber die Erdbeben und den allgemeinen Nebel. 8yvo. Jena, 1784.

Library of the School of Mines, Berlin.

Vincentius Abarius Crucius Gennius, Vesuvius ardens, sive exercitatio medico-physica ad
‘Pryor uperoy, id est, motum et, incendium Vesuvii montis in Campania, 16 mensis De-<
cembris, ann. 1631. Libris II. comprehensa. 4to. Rome, 1632.

Teodoro Monticelli, Memorie su le vicende del Vesuvio (1813-1823). cum tabb. lithogr.
4to. Napoli, 1841.

e N. Corelli, Storia de Fenomeni del Vesuvio avvenuti negli anni 1821, 1822, e 1828.
ce. 4 tabb. lithogr. 8vo. Napoli, 1823.

Scipion Breislak, Essais minéralogiques sur la Solfatare de Pozzuole. Trad. du mscr. ital.
par Franc. de Pommereul. 8yo. Naples, 1792.

Humboldt, Ueber den Bau und die Wirkungsart der Vulcane in den verschiedenen
Erdstrichen. 8vo. Berlin, 1825.

Sammlung von Arbeiten ausliindischer Naturforscher wher Feuerberge und verwandte
Phanomene. Deutsch bearbeitet von J. Noggerath u. J. P. Pauls. Bd. I. & II. 8yo.
Dlberfeld, 1825. ‘

A, von Ungern Sternberg, Werden und Seyn der vulkanischen Gebirges. c. 8 tabb. 8yo.
Carlsruhe, 1825.

A.de Bylandt Palstereamp, Théorie des Volcang. tt. 1-3, et Atlas. 8vo. & fol. Paris,
1835-36.

C, W. Ritter, Beschreibung merkwiirdiger Vulcane: ein Beitrag zur Physik. Geschichte der
Erde. Neue Ausgabe. 8vo. Breslau, 1847.

C. BE. A. Hoff, Chronik der Erdbeben und Vulkan-Ausbriiche. Th. 1-4. 8vo. Gotha, 1840.

Kurtze und wahrhaffte Relation, Von dem erschrecklichen Erdbeben, welches sich zu Neapel
und benachbarten Orten, insonderheit zu Benevent den 5 Juni 1688 begeben, s. 1. e. a.
4to.

J. Nogeerath, Das Erdbeben yom 29 Juli, 1846, im Rheingebiet und den benachbarten
Landern. Mit einer Karte. 4to. Bonn, 1847.

L. Pilla, Istoria del tremuoto che ha deyastato i paesi della costa toscana il di 14 Agosto
1826. S8vo. Pisa, 1846.

J. Boegner, Das Erdbeben und seine Hrscheinungen. | Mit einer Karte yom Vorbereitungs-
bezirk des Erdbebens vom 29 Juli 1846. 8vo. Frankf. a. M. 1847.

A. v. Humboldt, Observations géognostiques et physiques sur les voleans du plateau de
Quito. Traduit de Vallem. par L. Lalanne. 8vo. Paris, 1839.

T. 8. Raffles, Die Vulkane auf Java. S8vo. 1825.

J. Steininger, Die erloschenen Vulkane in Siidfrankreich. Mit 1 Karte u. 1 Tafel. 8yo.
Mainz, 1823.

C. Thomae, Der vulkanische Roderberg bei Bonn. . Mit einem Vorworte yon Noggerath.
8vo. Bonn, 1835. af

H. Abich, Vues illustratives de quelques phénoménes géologiques prises sur le Vésuve et
ek pendant les années 1833 et 1834. c. 10 tabb. lith. Fol. Paris et Strasbourg,
1836.

J. 8. G. Dinkler, Abhandlung yon denen natiirlichen Ursachen derer Erdbeben. Frankf.
a. M. 1756.

C. v. K. (Kérber), Die Erdbeben: populire Analyse und Darstellung ihrer physikalisch-
geologischen Ursachen. Mit 1 Zeichnung. 8vo. Wien, 1844.

Domen. Tata, Descrizione del grande incendio del Vesuvio succeso nel Agosto 1779. 8vo.
Napoli, 1779. ak

C. Gemmellaro, Relazione dei fenomeni:del nuovo vulcano sorto dal mare fra la costa di
Sicilia e Visola di Pantellaria nel mese di Luglio 1831. c¢. 2 tabb. ith. 8yvo. Catania,
1831.

J. Michell, Conjectures concerning the Cause, and Observations upon the Phsenomena of
Harthquakes. c. tab. en. ~4to. London, 1760.

F. Kvies, Von den Ursachen der Erdbeben. Preisschrift. Herausg. von der Societit der
Kiinste und Wissensch. f. d. Proyinz Utrecht, S8vo. Utrecht & Leipz. 1820.

H. Girard, Ueber Erdbeben und Vulkane: ein Vortrag gehalten im wissensch, Verein.
ce. 1 tab. 8yo. Berlin, 1845,

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 117

J. Kant, Geschichte und Naturbeschreibung der merkwiirdigsten Vorfillen des Erdbebens,
welches an dem Ende des 1755stes Jahres einen grossen ‘Theil der Erde erschuttert hat.
4to. Konigsberg, 1756.

Schreiben der Ritter von Hamilton an die Kénigl. Societiit der Wissenschaften zu London,
in welchem seine selbst angestellten physischen Beobachtungen tiber das Erdbeben in
Calabrien und Sicilien mitgetheilt werden. A.d. Franz. 4to. Strasb. 1784.

R. H. Raspe, Account of some German Volcanos and their Productions, with a new
hypothesis of the Prismatical Basaltes. c. 2 tabb. en. 8vo. London, 1776.

Books on Earthquakes and Vulcanology in the Gottingen University Library.

Opusculum Philippi Beroaldi de Terremotu et Pestilentid, cum annotamentis Galeni.
(68 pp. Little more than the opinions of Aristotle.)

Das erschiitterte und bebende Meissen und Thiiringen, oder eine Beschreibung des am
24 November, annoch seynden 1690 Jahres, in Meissen und Thiringen entstandenen

. Erdbebens, u.s.w. dargestellt. Von Nicolas Héppfnern, Pfarrern zu Draschwitz, in Stifft
a Leipzig, 1691 (62 pp. Contains accounts of several celebrated EHarth-
quakes).

Domenici Bottari, De immani Trinacrie terremotu, idea historico-physica. Messane,
1718 (131 pp. Mainly occupied by the opinions of the ancient philosophers, Aristotle, &c.)

'P. M. Salvatoris Ruffi, Panormitani, e tertio ordine 8. Francisci, De horrendo terraemotu
qui contigit Panormi nocte post Kalend. Sept. 1726, tractatus historicus, &c. Lipsis,
1727 (34 pp. A German translation of this memoir is bound up along with it).

Giornale e notizie de’ tremuoti accaduti nella provincia di Catanzaro, di D. Andrea de
Leone, regio uditore di quel tribunale. Napoli, 1783 (67 pp. Merely an account of
this particular earthquake).

Respuesta a la carta del Il? y R™° Seftor D. Fray Miguel de San Josef, obispo de Guadia,
y Baza, del Consejo de S. Mag., sobre varios escritos a cerca del Terremoto, par el Doct.
D. Josef Cevallos, &e. Sevilla, 1757 (96 pp. Principally occupied by moral reflections
derived from earthquakes, especially the great one of Lisbon).

Memoria sopra i tremuoti di Messina accaduti nell’ anno 1783. Messina, 1784 (66 pp.).

Nachrichten yon den Erdbeben Siid-Italiens in den letzten Jahren, Sendschreiben an den
Herrn K. W. G. Kastner yon Dr. Albrecht von Schonberg. Niwnberg 1828 (23 pp.
An extract from Kastner’s Archiv fiir die gesammte Naturlehre).

Physicalische Gedancken von denen Ursachen derer Erdbeben, u.s.w. von D. Johann
Gottlob Lehmann. Berlin, 1757 (55 pp).

Des derniéres Révolutions du Globe, ou conjectures physiques sur les causes de la dégrada-
tion actuelle des tremblements de terre, ct sur la vraisemblance de leur cessation
prochaine. Par M. L. Castilhon, 1771 (269 pp. An attempt, and apparently a very
weak one, to show from various reasons, historical and physical, that earthquakes were
gradually decreasing in number and violence, and would probably ultimately cease
altogether).

Dei Terremoti di Bologna: opuscola di D. Michele Augusti. Bologna, 1780 (181 pp. An
examination of the connexion between “Terremoti” and “Aeremoti” or meteorological
phenomena).

Le Méchanisme des Cieux, et explication de la Nature des Tremblemens de terre. Par M.
Val, Mathématicien. Rotterdam et la Haye, 1756 (67 pp.). 4

Ueber die Erdbeben und den allgemeinen Nebel, 1783. von Johann Ernst Basilius
Wiedeburg. Jena, 1784 (86 pp.).

Ragionamento del terremoto del Nuovo Monte, del aprimento di terra in Pozuolo nell’
anno 1538. Per Piero Giacomo da Toledo. Napoli, 1539 (28 pp. Chiefly in the
form of a dialogue, with an odd old woodcut of the eruption in which Monte Nuovo
was produced).

Dell’ incendio di Pozuolo. Marco Antonio dei Falconi, all’ illustrissima Marchesa della
Padula. 1538 (41 pp. With the same woodcut as the last).

Werden und Seyn des vulcanischen Gebirges. Empirisch dargestellt von W. H. C. R. A.
yon Ungern-Sternbere. Mit8 Abbildungen. Carlsruhe, 1825 (820pp. Chiefly mine-
ralogical and geological).

Carolus Czsar de Leonhard, Historia antiqua vuleanorum montium. Heidelbergis,
1823 (14 pp. A short and unimportant university thesis, referring only to the ancient
classical authors).

Schreiben des Herrn Ignatz v. Born, iiber einen ausgebrannten Vulkan bei der Stadt Hger
in Bohmen. Prag. 1773 (16 pp. Not important).

Considérations sur les montagnes volcaniques : mémoire lu dans une séance de |’ Académie
Electorale des Sciences et Belles Lettres de Mannheim, le 5 Novembre, 1781. Par M.
Collini, Mannheim, 1781 (59 pp.).

118 REPORT—1858.

Van der Wyck, Uebersicht der Rheinischen und Eissler erloschenen Vulkane und der
Erhebungs-Gebilde. Mannheim, 1826 and 1836 (2 edits. 174 pp. Apparently a very
good account of the extinct volcanoes of the district of the Rhine, between Coblenz and
Bonn).

History Me the extinct Volcanoes of the Basin of Neuwied on the Lower Rhine. By Samuel
Hibbert, M.D., F.R.S. Ed. Edinburgh, 1832 (260 pp., with maps and plates).

Raspe, Beitrag zur alleraltesten und naturlichen Historie von Hessen, u. 8. w. Cassel,
1774 (76 pp. On the extinct volcanoes of the neighbourhood of Cassel).

Raspe, An account, &c. (A translation of the last-mentioned. 136 pp.).

Faujas de St.-Fond, Minéralogie des voleans. Paris, 1784 (511 pp.).

Ducarla, Du feu souterrain. Paris, 1783 (54 pp.).

Joh. Steininger, Die erloschenen Vulkane in der Hifel und am Nieder-rheine. Mainz.
1820 (180 pp.).

, Neue Beitriige zur Geschichte der rheinischen Vulkane. Mainz. 1821 (116 pp.).

Die Vulkane iilterer und neuerer Zeiten, physicalisch und mineralogisch betrachtet von
Franz v. Beroldingen. 2 Th. Mannheim, 1791 (293 and 406 pp. Apparently a good
résumé of what had been previously written on the subject).

Karl Wilhelm Nose, Beitrage zu den Vorstellungsarten iiber vulkanische Gegenstiinde.
Frankfurt am Mayn, 1792 (457 pp.).

— , Fortsetzung der Beitriige, u.s.w. Frankfort am Mayn, 1795 (228 pp.).

, Sammlung einiger Schriften tiber vulkanische Gegenstiinde und den

Basalt. Frankfurt am Mayn, 1795 (344 pp.). :

C. N. Ordinaire, Histoire Naturelle des Volcans, comprenant les volcans soumarins, ceux
de boue, et autres phénoménes analogues. Paris, 1802 (342 pp. The subject discussed
geologically).

Besides many other books, both on earthquakes and volcanoes, the names of which haye
already been obtained elsewhere.

Royal Library, Munich.

Gundinger (A.), Theorie der Volkan. 8yo. Wien, 1840.

Kries (F.), Over de Oorzaken der Aardbevingen. 8vo. Utrecht, 1820.

Kriiger (I. G.), Gedanken iitber d. Ursachen d. Erdbebens. 8yo, Halle; 1756.
Gruithuisen (Fr. vy. P.), Gedanken iiber die Ursachen der Erdbeben. 1825.

Gumprecht (T. E.), Die vwlkanische Thitigkeit auf d. Festlande yon Africa. Berlin, 1849.

Royal Library, Dresden.

Commentatitncula de Terremotu, pronunciata a Martino Weindrichio Professore Physices
in Gymnasio Vratisl. Vratislavie, 1591.

Dissertazione sopra le fisiche e vere cause de’ terremoti, del Sig. de’ Scotti di Cassano.
Praga, 1788.

D. Johann Gottlob Kriigers, Gedanken von den Ursachen des Erdbebens, nebst cine
moralische Betrachtung. Halle und Helmstadt, 1756.

A French pepnation of Hales’s Considerations on the Physical Cause of Earthquakes.
Paris, 1751. -
Historisches kritisches Verzeichniss alter und neuer Schriftsteller von dem Erdbeben. Von
M.C.G.G. Schneeberg, 1756. Small, and worth getting, if possible, for the Cata-

logue of Authors.

Christlicher grimdlicher Undersicht von den Erdbeben. Von Johann Burgower der Artz-
neyen Doctoren zu Schaffhausen. Gedruckt zu Ziirich, 1657.

Kurze Beschreibung des Erdbebens, welches den 5ten Februar 1785, Messina und einen
phe {elabriens betroffen. Aus dem Italienischen des Herrn Michael Torun. Nirn-

erg, 1783.

Die Erdreyolutionen, oder Beschreibung und Erklarung des in Spanien am 21 Marz 1829,
ausgebrochenen grossen Erdbebens. Von B. A. BE. W(eyrich). Leipzig, 1830.

Betrachtung uber die Ursachen der Erdbeben, 1756.

Conjectures physico-mécaniques sur la propagation des secousses dans les tremblements
de terre, et sur la disposition des lieux qui eh ont ressenti les effets. (Probably Paris)
1756.—Very remarkable. He speaks of chains of mountains as long levers communi-
cating the volcanic force applied at one end to the other, the principal effect being felt at
that other, as, when a long row of balls is struck at one end, the last one moves. He says
also that those forces are not so much felt in the extremities of branch chains, because
these are composed of more sandy materials, which do not transmit the shock so well.
There is also much more about the action of subterranean bodies of water, &c, The book
is small, 52 pages, ;

— ete

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA, 119

_ Lettre d’un ecclésiastique de Paris 4 un curé de province, sur les derniers tremblements

de terre. Paris, 1756.

_ Lezioni tre sopra il tremuoto, &c. (No name.) Roma, 1748.

7

Ungliicks-Chronica vieler grausamer und erschrecklicher Erdbeben Hambure. Gedruckt
bei Thomas von Wiering, im giildenen A B C, bei der Borse, 1692.
Also many Abhandlungen seen in other libraries.

The Library at Gand, Belgium.

Histoire des anciennes révolutions du globe terrestre, avec un relation chronologique et
historique des tremblements de terre arrivés sur notre globe depuis le commencement
de l’ére Chrétienne jusqu’a présent. 1 vol. 8vo. Amsterdam, 1780.

Dainetus Sennertus, Curator Laviniensis, Epitome Naturalis Scientia. Amsterdam, Jno.
Raverstern, 1651. Terremotus in part. 1 vol. 12mo.

Antonii Galatei Liciensis, &c. Hlementorum. Basilise, per P. Pernam, 1580. Terreemotus
in part. 12mo.

Memoria sull’ eruzione del Vesuvio, accaduta la sera de’ 15 Giugno 1794. Di Scipione
Breislak. 1 vol. 8vo. Napoli, 1794.

Journal historique, géographique, et physique de toutes les tremblements de la terre uni-
verselle, de 1755 jusqu’a 1756. Par M. , de Académie des Sciences et Belles
Lettres. 8vo, pamphlet, sansnom. 1756.

De Vesuviano incendio nuntius, auctore Julio Cesare Recupito, Neapolitano, 8vo, Lovani,
1639. Terremotus.

The whole that occur in the Catalogue Raisonné of the Library of the
Royal Mineralogical Museum, Naples.

[Note.—There is no classed Catalogue of the Royal Library at the Museo Borbonico ;
and it was found impossible to procure any list of the Earthquake works it may possess. |

Giuseppe di Stefano, Ragionamento intorno le cagioni del tremuoto. 8yo. Nap. 1783.
——, Relazione del tremuoto del di 29 Novembre 1732, avvenuto nel regno di Napoli. 8vo.
—-, accaduto in Napoli, il di 5 Giugno 1688. 4to, Napoli, 1688.
: del danno cagionato dal tremuoto del di 7 Giugno 1695, nella citta di Bagnora,
Oriseto, e luoghi vicino Roma e Napoli. 4to.
Andrea de Leone, Giornale e notizie dei tremuoti accaduti l’anno 1783. Parte la e 2da,
Nap. 1783.
Alberto Nota, Del tremuoto avvenuto nella provincia di 8. Remo. Pinerolo, 1832.
Leopoldo Pilla, Istoria del tremuoto che ha devastato la costa toscana il di 14 Agosto
1846. Fig. 8vo. Pisa, 1846.
Baldassarre Spampinato, Osservazioni su i tremuoti. 4to. Catania, 1818.
Luzio d’ Orsi, Descrizione dei tremuoti e delle rovine di Calabria. 4to. Nap. 1639.
Andrea Lombardi, Cenno sul tremuoto ayvenuto in Tito, il 1 Febb. 1828. Potenza, 1829,
Gottardo Zenoni, Memorie storico-fisiche sul terremoto. 8vo. Cremona, 1783.
——,, Lezioni sopra il tremuoto. 4to. Roma, 1748.
Ignazio de Partenione, Descrizione del terribile terrem. del 8 Febb. 1783. 4to. Nap. 1784,
Frane. Antonio Grimaldi, Descriz. dei tremuoti accaduti nelle Calabrie nel 1783. Fig,
_ 8yvo. Nap. 1784.
Gabriele Pape, Ragguaglio istorico-fisico del tremuoto accaduto nel regna di Napoli il 26
Luglio 1805. 8vo. Napoli, 1808.

_ Giuseppe Saverio Poli, Sul tremuoto del 26 Luglio 1805. 8yvo. Nap. 1805.

Tommaso Mannesi, Accenti lagrimevoli sulle rovine di Rostano pel tremuoto della notte
del 24 Aprile 1836. 8vo. Nap. 1836. é'

EH Augusti, Dei terremoti di Messina e di Calabria dell’ anno 1783. 8vo. Bologna,
1783.

_ Deod. Dolomieu, Memoria sopra i terremuoti della Calabria dell’ anno 1783. 12mo.

Napoli, 1785.

Nicola Zupo, Riflessioni sulle cagioni fisiche dei terrem. a¢caduti nelle Calabrie nell’ anno

1783. 12mo. Nap. 1784.

Procopio Golimi, Lettera su i tremuoti di Messina e Calabria del 1783. 12mo.

Bartolommeo Gondolfi, Sulle cagioni del tremuoto. 12mo. Roma, 1787.

Francesco Ferraro, Memoria sopra i terremuoti della Sicilia. Fig. Svo. Palermo, 1823.

Giovanni Bottari, Lezioni tre sul tremuoto. 12mo. Roma, 1733.

William Hamilton, Relation des derniers trembl. de terre arrivés en Calabre et en Sicile,
12mo. Genéve, 1784.

Laurent Chracas, Descrizio dei tremuoti sentiti in Roma, la sera del 14 Gen, e 2 Febb.
1703, 4to, Roma, 1704,

120 REPORT—1858.

From various Collections and Sources.

In the Leipsic Book Catalogue for 1844, 2nd part, page 65, a book entitled “Die
Erdbebene, von v. Korber.”

Description of a Seismograph or instrument for noting small earthquake shocks (Mémoires
Historiques de Académie Royale de Turin) quotes Abbé Cavalli, Lettres sur la
Météorologie (Rome, 1785), Lettre VI.; and a periodical called ‘ Antologia,’ nos, xvi.
& xvii., Rome, 1685.

Explication physique et chimique des feus souterrains, des tremblements de terre, des
ouragans, des éclairs, et du tonnerre——M. Lemery, in the ‘ Histoire et Mémoires de
l Académie Royale des Sciences,’ Mémoires pour 1700, p. 101.

Nota (Alb.), del tremuoto ayyenuto nella citta e provincia di 8. Remo l’anno 1831. 1
broch. in 8vo, Pignerolle, 1832. (Extracted from the Catalogue of the Library of the
Royal Academy of Belgium.)

Ragor, Von dem Erdbibem, ein griindlicher Bericht, u. s. w. Basel, 1578.

Bernherz, Terreemotus ; das ist gridlicher Bericht von dem Erdbeben, u.s.w. Niirnberg,
1616.

Ferrara, Descrizione dell’ Etna.

Agatio di Somma, Historico racconto dei terremoti della Calabria dell’ anno 1638, fin
anno 1641. Napoli, 1641.

France. Ferrara, Campi Flegrei della Sicilia, &c. Messina, 1810.

Beuther, Compendium Terreemotuum. Strassburg, 1601.

Physicalische Betrachtungen yon dem Erdbeben, besonders zu Lissabon. Frankfort und
Leipzic, 1756. F

Bertrand, Mémoires historiques et physiques sur les tremblements de terre. A la Haye,
1757.

Della Torre, Istoria e fenomeni del Vesuvio. Napoli, 1755.

Athans Kircher, Mundus subterraneus.

A Chronological Account of the most memorable Earthquakes from the beginning of the
Christian period to the year 1750. Cambridge, 1750.

A. J. Buxtorf, Predigt bei Gelegenheit des Erdbebens zu Lissabon. Basel, 1755.

Michele del Bono, Discorso sul l’origine de’ tremuoti. Palermo, 1745.

Lycosthenes, Prodigiorum ac ostentorum Chronicon.

Frytschius, Catalogus prodigiorum ac ostentorum.

Histoire des anciennes révolutions du globe terrestre. Amsterdam, 1752.

Toaldo, Essai météorologique, has a small Catalogue of Earthquakes at p. 270.

A Memoir upon Earthquakes in Russia, by M. Philadelphine, Professor of Physics at
Tiflis.

Istoria del tremuoto che da devastato i paesi della costa toscana il di 14 Agosto 1846. Di
L. Pilla. In 8yo of 226 pages. Pisa, 1846.

Rapport de Vassali-Eandi sur les tremblemens de terre du 2 Avril 1808. (Quoted in
Perrey’s memoir on the Earthquakes of the Basin of the Danube, p. 6.)

Terra tremens, die zitternd oder bebende Erde, infaltig doch klar und deutlicher Bericht,
was Erdbeben seyen, u. s. w., von M. P. 8. A. C. Nurnberg, 1670.

Castelli, Incendio del monte Vesuvio, &c. Roma, 1632.

Sarti, Saggio di congetture su i terremoti.

Magnati, Notizie istoriche de’ terremoti accaduti ne’ secoli trascorsi e nel presente. Napoli,
1688.

A Memoir of M. Keilhau, on the Earthquakes of Norway, in the ‘Magazin for Natur-
videnskaberne.’ Christiania, 1835.

A List of Earthquakes in Iceland, in the ‘ Voyage en Islande,’ published under the direction
of M. Gaimard, p. 313.

Giovanni Vivenzio, Istoria de’ tremuoti ayvenuti nella provincia della Calabria ulteriore e
nella citta di Messina nell’ anno 1783. Napoli, 1788.

Fr. Kries, Yon den Ursachen der Erdbeben. Utrecht, 1820.

P. Merian, Ueber die in Basel wahrgenommenen Erdbeben, u.s.w. Basel, 1834.

Ordinaire, Hist. nat. des volcans.

Dell’ incendio fattosi nel Vesuyio 16 Dec. 1631. Napoli, 1632.

Huot, Cours de Géologie. Probably contains a good deal of earthquake information.

Fr. Nausere Blancicampiani De precipuo hujus anni 1528, apud Moguntiam terre motu
Responsum. 4to. 25 pp.

Histoire des anciennes réyolutions du globe. Amsterdam, 1752.

‘Maria della Torre. Storia e fenomeni del Vesuvio.

Raspe, De novis insulis.

Dell’ incendio di Pozzuolo, Marco Antonio delli Falconi, all’ illustrissima Signora Marchesa
della Padula, nel 1538.

on

ee

EE

*
j ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 121

Ragionamento del terremoto, del Nuovo Monte, dell’ aprimento di terra in Pozzuolo
nell’ anno 1538, e della significazione d’essi, da Pietro Giac. di Toledo. Stamp. in
Napoli, per Gioy. Sultzbach, Alemanno, a’ 22 di Gennaro 1539.

Faujas St.-Fond, Les volcans éteints du Vivarais, &e.

Hamilton’s Observations on Mount Vesuvius, Xe.

Claudius Alberius, De terre motu Oratio, in qua Hyborne pagi in ditione Ill. Reip.
Bern. supra lacum Lemanum, per terre motwm oppressi, historia paucis attingitur,
1585.

Yon den erschréklichen Erdbidem, was sich dem 1, 2, et 3 Maertren 1584 in der Vogthey
Aelen, den Herrn yon Bern zustindig, durch diese erschréklichen Erdbidem begeben
und zugetragen habe. 1854.

J. Hederici Oratio de horribili et insolito terrae motu, qui recens Austriam vehementer con-~
cussit, et aliquot vicinas regiones agitavit. Helmstadt, 1591.

Zappell, Hist. dell’ incendio. C. J.

Bern. Giuliani, Trattato del Vesuvio. Napoli, 1652.

Gio. Batt. Mascoli x. libri de Vesuvii incendio excitato 17 Kalend. Jan. 1631. Neapoli,
1633.

M. Pet. Escholt, Geologica Norwegica, or Remembrances concerning that......&c., Earth-
quakes......&¢., through the south parts of Norway, 24th April, 1657. Englished by
Day. Collins. London, 1663. 93 pages.

Gius. Macrino, Trattato del Vesuvio. Napoli, 1693.

J. Alf. Borelli, Relazione intorno alla famosa eruzione dell’ Etna del 1669. Reggio, 1670.

The same in Latin, with this title :—Historia et meteorologia incendii Autnei anni 1669.

Don Tomaso Tedeschi, Relazione del nuovo incendio fatto de Mongibello 1669. Messina,
1670.

WN. M. Messina di Molfetta, Relazione dell’ incendio del Vesuvio nel 1682. Napoli.

Bottone, De immani Trinacriz terre motu idea historico-phys., in qua non solum telluris
concussiones transactze recensentur, sed noyissime anni 1717. Messane, 1718.

Hipfner, Das erschiitterte und bebende Meissen, &c. Leipzig, 1601.

Catania distrutta. Palermo, 1695.

Ant. Bulifone, Lettere, nelle quale si da distinto ragguglio dell’ incendio del Vesuvio ac-
caduto d’ Avril 1694, &e. Napoli, 1694.

Parrino, Succinta relazione dell’ eruzione del 1696. Napoli.

Ant. Bulifone, Compendio istur'co de monte Vesuvio, in cui si ha piena notizia di tutti
gl’incendi accaduti in esso in fine a’ 15 di Giugno del 1698. Napoli, 1698.

Gasp. Parragallo, Istoria naturale del monte Vesuvio. Napoli, 1705.

Jos. Valetta, Epistola de incendio et eruptione montis Vesuvii. A., 1707.

Keferstein, Zeitung fiir Geognosie, Geol. u.s.w. Weimer.

Anton. Foglia, Istorico discorso del gran terremoto successo nel regno di Napoli, &c.
Napoli, 1627.

Vera relazione del pietoso caso successo nelle terre contenute nella provincia di Puglia.
Napoli, 1627.

ee ech. Ergétzungen, oder...... deutlichen Erklarung der Erdbeben. 12mo. Bremen,
1765.

Joh. Fr. Seyfart, Algemeine Geschichte der Erdbeben. 8vo. Frankfurt u. Leipzic, 1756.

J. G. Roserus, De Terreemotu qui Italiam nuper, primis anni 1703 mensibus afflixit. to.
Stettin, 1703.

Jac. Phil. Maraldi, Observations sur les tremblements de terre arrivés en Italie depuis le
mois d’Octobre 1702, jusqu’au mois de Juillet 1703, In Hist. de Acad. des Sciences
de Paris, 1704. Hist. p. 8.

D. Ign. Sorrentino, Istoria del monte Vesuvio, divisato in due libri, &c. Napoli, 1754.

Relazione del tremuoto intesosi in questa citt’ di Napoli, ed in alcune provincie del regno,
nel di 29 Novembre 1732, ad ore 13 e mezza.

D. France. Serao, Istoria dell’ incendio del Vesuvio, accaduto nel mese di Maggio dell’ anno
1737. 8yvo. Napoli, 1740.

'M. Alexis Billiet, Notice sur les tremblemens de terre de Maurienne. Mém. de Turin,

2e série, t. 2.

Relazione giornaliera del tremuoto seguito in Barga l’anno 1746, nel mese di Luglio.
Compilata dal dott. F. Tallinucci. (Communication of M. Pilla to M. Perrey.)

Courejolles on Earthquakes. Journal de Physique, an. 10. Pluviore.

Catalogue des Tremblements de Terre en Chine. Par E. Biob. Ann. de Chimie, 3 ser.
yol, ii. p. 372.

Sopra...... , Sur les petits mouvements apparents observés dans les murs et les grands instru-
ments d’observatoire de Modena. Par M. J. Bianchi. 4to. Modena, 1837.

Veber das Erdbeben in den Rhein, &c. yom Feb. 1828, yon P. C. Egen. Pogg. Ann. for
1828, part ii. pp. 153-176. An important memoir.

122 - REPORT—1858, #0

Beuther, Compendium Terreemotuum. Strassburg, 1601.

Berhhertz, Terremotus. (A Register of Harthquakes.) Nurnberg, 1616.

Dr. Vincenzio Magnati, Harthquake of Naples, 1688.

Bertrand, Mém. hist. sur les tremblemens de terre. La Haye, 1757.

Bertholon, Jour. de Phys., vol. xiv.

Vivenzio, Istoria e teoria de’ terremuoti ayvenuti nella provincia della Calabria, &e., di
1783-1787. Napoli, 1788.

Cotte, Tab. Chron. de princip. Phénom. Météorologiques, &e. Journal de Phys., vol. lxy.

No. IY.
CATALOGUE OF PERREY’S MEMOIRS.

The immense and long-continued seismic statistics of Prof. Perrey are
Scattered throughout a multiplicity of Journals of various Learned Societies
and elsewhere, and many of them with difficulty accessible in Great Britain.

The author has, at my request, favoured me with the following complete
Catalogue of his seismological labours, which it may be serviceable to place
in a collected form for reference.

Perrey (Alexis), Chronique seismique. 1 vol. 8vo, MS. lere rédaction.

,laméme. 9 vols. 4to, MS.

——, Tremblements de Terre dans les différents siécles et aux différentes époques de
Vannée. Compt. Rend. t. 12, p. 1185-1187, 21 Juin, 1841.

, Recherches historiques sur les Tremblements de Terre dont il est fait mention dans

les historiens depuis le [Ve siécle jusqu’a la fin du XVIIIéme. Ibid. t. 18, p. 899-902,

2 Noy. 1841.

, Recherches sur les Tremblements de Terre ressentis 4 l’Hurope et dans |’ Asie occi-
dentale de 306 41800. Tbid. t. 19, p. 64-646, 26 Sept. 1842. Neuf cahiers seulement
m’ont été remis au Secrétariat de l’ Institut.

——, Note sur les Tremblements de Terre aux Antilles. Ibid. t. 16, p. 1283-1303, 12 Juin,
1843

, Nouvelles Recherches sur les Tremblements de Terre ressentis en Hurope et dans les
parties adjacentes de l’ Afrique et de l’Asie de 1801 4 Juin 1848, Ibid. t. 17, p. 608-625,
25 Sept. 1843.

, Mémoires sur les Tremblements de Terre, en France, en Belgique, et en Hollande,

depuis le [Ve Siécle jusqu’d nos jours. :

, Mémoire des Say. Etr. et Mém. Cour. de l’Académie de Bruxelles, t. 18, 4to.

110 pp. et 2 pl. avec Suppl. MS. ‘

, le méme. 1 vol. 4to, MS. lére rédaction avec addit. MS. de M. Quetelet.

—, Liste des Tremblements de Terre ressentis en Europe pendant l’année 1843. Ibid.
t. 18, p. 393-403, 11 Mars 1844.

——, Notice sur les Tremblements de Terre ressentis 4 Angers et dans le Dép. de Maine
et Loire. Bull. de la Soc. industr. d’ Angers, t. 15, p. 172 et suiv., 1844. Tir. & part,
8yo de pp. 7. :

, Liste de Tremblements de Terre ressentis en Europe pendant l’année 1844. Avec

Supplément pour l’année 1843. Mém. de l’Acad. de Dijon, 1843-44, p. 334-842, et

comprend t. 20, p. 1444-1452, 12 Mai 1845.

, Sur les Tremblements de Terre de la Péninsule Scandinave. Voyages en Scandi-

navie de la Com. Sc. du Nord. 6 div. Géog. phys. t.1, p.409-469. Tir.a-part. Paris,

1845. 8yo de pp. 65, avec Suppl. MS.

, Sur les Tremblements de Terre dans le bassin du Rhone. Ann. de lao: d’ Agric.
de Lyon, t. 8, p.1845. Tir. a part. 8vo de pp. 82,1 pl. avec notes additionnelles de
M. Fournel, et Suppl. MS.

——,, Sur les Tremblements de Terre dans le bassin du Danube. Ibid. t.9. 1846. Tir, a
part. 8vo de pp. 82, avec Suppl. MS.

, Note sur les Tremblements de Terre en Algérie et dans l’Afrique septentrionale.

Mém. de l’Acad. de Dijon, 1845-1846, p. 299-828. Tir. a part. Syo de pp. 24, avec —

Suppl. MS.
, Sur les Tremblements de Terre aux Antilles. Ibid. p. 825-392. Tir. a part. 8vo
de pp. 68, avec ye MS.

, Liste des Tremblements de Terre ressentis pendant les années 1845 et 1846, avec
Supplément pour 1844, et indicative Sommaire des autres phénoménes météorologiques.
Thid, p. 893-479. > Tir, a part. 8yo de pp. 87

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 123

Perrey (Alexis), Mémoire sur les Tremblements de Terre dans le bassin du Rhin. Mém.
des Sav. Etr. et Mém. Cour. de l’Acad. Roy. de Belgique, t. 19, 1847. Tir. A part.
_ 4to de pp. 114 et 2 pl., avec Suppl. MS.

— , La lune exerce-t-elle une influence sur les Tremblements de Terre? Mém. présenté

4 Acad. des Sciences, le 5 Mai, 1847. Compt. Rend. t. 24, p. 822. MS. de 11 pp. en
1 yol. 4to; 1 pl.

——, Note sur les Tremblements de Terre ressentis en 1851. Bull. de l’Acad. Roy. de
Belgique, t. 19, part 1, p. 353-396, et Supplément; Tbid. part 2. p. 21-28, Tir. & part.

——, la méme, avec Supplément pour les années antérieures. Mém. de l’Acad. de Dijon;
Qe sét: t. 2, p. 1-65, 1852. Tir. a part.

—,, Mémoire sur les rapports qui peuvent exister entre la fréquence des tremblements
de terre et ’age de la lune. Compt. Rend. t. 36, p. 537-540, 21 Mars, 1855.

—, le méme, MS. original avec pl. et 1 vol. gr. in-fol. contenant les tableaux des Secousses
de 1801 4 1850, MS. x

——,, Note sur les Tremblements de Terre ressentis en 1852. Bull. de l’Acad. de Belgique,
t. 20, no. 5, p. 39-69, 10 Mai, 1853. Tir. a part.

——, la méme, avec Suppléments pour les années antériewres. Mém. de l’Acad. de Dijon,
2e sér. t. 2, p. 7-128. ‘Tir. a part.

——,, Note sur la fréquence des treniblements de terre rélativement au passage de la lune
au méridien. Compt. Rend. t. 88, p. 16, 2 Jan. 1854. Ce MS. est relié avec le No.
auquel j’ai encore ajouté les tableaux inédits fournis 4 la Commission pour le Rapport
de M. Elie de Beaumont.

—,, Note sur les Tremblements de Terre ressentis en 1853. Bull. de l’Acad. Roy. do
Belgique, t. 21, lére part, p. 457-495. Tir. 4 part.

—,, la méme, avec Suppléments pour les années antérieures. Mém. de I’Acad. de Dijon,
2e sér. t. 3, p. 1-55. Tir. a part.

— , Circulaire relative 4 Observation des Tremblements de Terre, adressée 4 tous les
Voyageurs. Bull. de la Soc. de Géog., 4e sér. t. 7, p. 419-422, Juin, 1854. ‘Tir. a part.

—,, Documents relatifs aux Tremblements de Terre du Chili, ayee Appendice sur les
Tremblements de Terre dans la province de la Plata. Amn. de la Soc. d’Agric: de
Lyon, 1854, 2e sér. t. 6, p. 824-436. 8vo de pp. 206, avec Suppl. MS.

—,, Note sur les Tremblements de Terre ressentis en 1854, avec Supplément pour les
années antérieures. Bull. de l’Acad. Roy. de Belgique, t. 22, lére part. no. 6, p. 526-572,
Juin 1855. Tir. & part. 8vo de pp. 49.

, Sur les Voleans et Solfatares de V’ile de Java, renseignement puisé dans les observa-

tions récentes des Hollandais. Compt. Rend. t. 42, p. 115-116, 21 Janv. 1837. Crest
la traduction dun article sur tine solfatare prés de Tj. Aray, par M. Bensen, dont M.
Elie de Beaumont n’a pas été le nom.

——,, Note sur les Tremblements de Terre ressentis en 1855, avee Supplément pour les
années antérieures. lére partie, Supplément, Bull. de l’Acad, Roy. de Belgique, t. 23 ;
2e part., No. 7, p. 23-68, Juillet 1856.

——, la méme, 2e partie. Ibid. t. 24; lére part., No. 1, p. 68-128.

——, Eruption du Manna Loir aux iles Sandwich. Ann. des Voy. Aout 1856; p. 199-229.
C’est la traduction de deux lettres de M. Coan, suivie de quelques remarques sur
Yéruption du Vésuve en 1855.

—, Excursion sur quelques Volcans de Java pendant l’été de 1854. Ann. des Voy.
Oct. 1856, p. 36-65. C’est la traduction de divers extraits du Mémoire de M. Teijsmann,
Bibliographie Seismique. Mém. de l’Acad. de Dijon, 2e série, t. 4, p. 1-112, 1855 ;

t, 5, p. 153-253, 1856.

——, Sur les Tremblements de Terre de la Péninsule Tbérique, Ann. de la Soc, d’Agric. de
Lyon, t. 10, 1847. ‘Tir. 4 part. 8vo de pp. 50, avec Suppl. MS.

——, Note sur les Tremblements de Terre ressentisen 1847. Bull. de l’Acad. de Belgique,
t. 5, no. 5, 1848. ‘Tir. 4 part. 8vo de pp. 7.

——, la méme, avec Supplément pour les années antérieures. Mém. de Acad. de Dijon,
1847-48. Tir. part. 8vo de pp. 48. C’est une 2e édition, qui pour tous mes cata-
logues annuels est publiée dans les Mémoires de l’Acad. de Dijon, et qui est plus com-
pléte que la premiére.

—, Mémoire sur les Tremblements de Terre de la Péninsule Ttalique. Mém. Cour. et
Mém. des Sav. Etr. de li Soc. Belgique, t. 22. Tir. 4 part. 4to de pp. 145, 2 pl. et
Suppl. MS. Le méme avait été approuvé par l’Acad. des Sciences de Turin qui

_ m’avait yoté limpression; voy. Notizie istoriche dei lavori della Classe delle Scienze nel
corso dell’ anno 1845. Cette notice se trouve dans notre collection.
, le méme, MS. 4to, avec Introductions et Considérations inédites.

——,, Documents sur les Tremblements de Terre au Mexique, et dans l Amérique Centrale.
Ann. de la Soc. d’Emul. des Vosges, t. 6, 2e cah. 1847. Tir. 4 part. S8yo de pp. 97, et
Suppl. MS.

124 REPORT—1858.

Perrey (Alexis), Instructions sur l’Observation des Tremblements de Terre. Ann. Météor.
de France, 1849, p. 299-311. Extr. gr. 8vo.

—, Communication relative 4 mes recherches rétrospectives sur les Tremblements de
Terre, faite 4 la réunion de la Soc. Géologique 4 Epinal le 10 Sept. 1847. Bull. de la
Soc. Géol., 2e sér. t. 4, p. 13899-1400.

, Traduction du Mémoire de M. R. Mallet, intitulé, Sur l’Observation des Tremble-

ments de Terre, avec notes additionnelles du traducteur et suivie de la liste des tremble-

ments de terre en 1848. Ann. Météor. de France, 2e ann. 1850, p. 279-3800. Tir. a part.

, Documents sur les Tremblements de Terre et sur les Eruptions Volcaniques dans le
bassin de l’océan atlantique. Mém. de Acad. de Dijon, an. 1847-1848. Extra 8vo
de pp. 67, avec Suppl. MS.

——, Note sur les Tremblements de Terre ressentis en 1848. Bull. de l’Acad. Roy. de
Belgique, t. 16, no. 3, 1849. Extr. 8vo de pp. 8.

, la méme, avec Suppléments pour les années antérieures. Mém. de I’Acad. de Dijon.
Tir. 4 part. 8yo de pp. 48.

—, Documents sur les Tremblements de Terre dans le nord de l'Europe et de I’ Asie.
Ann. Magnét. et Météor. du Corps des Ingénieurs de Russie, an. 1846, p. 201-236. Tir.
Apart. St. Petersbourg, 1849, gr. in-4to, 4 2 vol., 1 pl.

, les mémes, suivis d’une note sur les Tremblements de Terre en 1848, Ann. de la

Soc. d’Emul. des Vosges, t. 6, 3e cah. 1848. Tir. 4 part. 8yvode pp. 71, avec Supplément

MS.

, Sur les Tremblements de Terre dans les Iles Britanniques. Ann. de la Soc. d’Agric.

de Lyon. 2e sér. t. 1, 1849. Tir. 4 part. 8vo de pp. 71, avec Suppl. MS.

, Note sur les Tremblements de Terre en 1849, avec Suppléments pour les années

1847 et 1848. Bull. de l’Acad. Roy. de Belg. t. 17, no. 3, 1850. Tir. a part. 8vo de

22.

= la méme, avec Suppléments pour les années antérieures. Mém. de l’Acad. de Dijon,

ann. 1850. ‘Tir. a part. 8vo de pp. 65.

, Sur les Tremblements de terre dans la Péninsule Turco-hellénique. Mém. Cour.

de Mém. des Say. Etr. de l’Acad. de Belgique, t. 25, 1850. ‘Tir. a part. 4to de pp. 73,

avec Suppl. MS.

, Note sur les Tremblements de Terre en 1850. Bull. de l’Acad. de Belgique, t. 18,

no. 4, p. 291-308. Tir. a part.

, la méme, avec Supplément pour les années antérieures. Mém. de l’Acad. de Dijon,

2e sér. p. 1-36, 1850. Tir. a part. 7, F

, Sur les Tremblements de Terre aux Etats Unis et au Canada. Ann. de la Soc. d’Emul.

des Vosges, t. 7, 2c cah., 1850. Tir. a part. 8vo de pp. 62, avec Suppl. MS.

Desiderata—LIll-understood Phenomena, Se.

Grent Sea- Waves.—Perhaps the best account that has yet been given of the phe-
nomena of great sea-waves (due beyond question to earthquake or volcanic movement
of sea-bottom), was communicated by Prof. Bache to the American Association for
the Advancement of Science, and was reprinted along with a paper ‘‘ On the Tides
of the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean,” in 1856, in a separate form by Prof. Bache, at
New Haven for private circulation, from which the following are extracts.

On the 23rd of December, 1854, a violent earthquake occurred in the neighbour-
hood of the Island of Niphon (Japan), the local sea-waves of which wrecked the
Russian frigate ‘ Diana,’ anchored in the harbour of Simoda. A correspondent of the
‘New York Herald,’ writing from Shanghae, states,—‘‘ At 9 a.m. on the 28rd of
December, weather clear, therm. 72°, barom. 30°, a severe shock of an earthquake
was felt on board the frigate, shaking the ship most severely. The shock lasted
full five minutes, and was followed at quick intervals by rapid and severe shocks
for thirty minutes.” At 9h. 3m. a.m. the sea was observed washing into the bay
in one immense wave 30 feet high, with awful velocity; in an instant the town of
Simoda was overwhelmed and swept from its foundations. ‘“ This advance and
recession of the waters recurred five times”’.... ‘‘ by 2h, 30m. P.M. all was quiet.”
The log-book of the ‘ Diana’ states that “ the disturbance commenced at 9h. 15m.,
and that the rising and falling of the water in the bay produced a sudden variation
of depth from less than 8 feet to more than 40 feet. The frigate was by this laid four

a ee ee

lili

—n”

—— = a ae

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 125

times upon her side, once in less than 4 feet of water.” Commodore M. C. Perry,
U.S. Navy, states,—‘‘ That the whole eastern coast of Japan seems to have suffered
from this calamity. Yedo itself was injured, and the fine city of Osaka entirely
destroyed. At 3 p.m. a fresh west wind was blowing at Simoda. The agitation
of the water and the movement of the vessel had become very slow; barom. 29°°87,
therm. 10°°5 Reaum. (=55°°63 Fahr.).”’

From other sources quoted by Prof. Bache, it appears that on the same day
(23rd Dec.), at Peel’s Island, one of the Bonin Islands, there was also (the hour
not stated) a sudden wave rise of 15 feet above high water, followed by a recession
which left the reefs entirely bare. The tide continued to rise and fall at intervals of
fifteen minutes, gradually lessening until the evening. Again on the evening of the
25th of December (as to which time there is no account of a second earthquake),
the water rose in like manner 12 feet.

The United States Coast Survey, so ably superintended by Prof Bache, possesses
stations of observation furnished with self-registering tide-gauges, at San Diego,
San Francisco and Astoria, on the Pacific Coast; and Prof. Bache presented to the
Association the curves traced by those instruments, in which the comparative
heights and times, and the mean heights and times at San Francisco and San Diego,
are given; also the tidal curves for both, with the abnormal oscillations superimposed;
and lastly, three diagrams, in which the tidal level being reduced to a horizontal line,
the abnormal waves alone are shown, for Astoria, San Francisco and San Diego.

I can only refer to the original for the full results deducible from these valuable
observations, and repeat here in brief some of their facts :—

«©The San Francisco curve presents three sets of waves of short interval: the first
begins at 4h. 12m. and ends at 8h. 52m., the interval being 4h. 40m.; the second begins
at 9h. 35m. and ends at 13h. 45m., the interval being 4h. 10m. ; the beginning of the
third is about 133h., and its end not distinctly traceable. Thecrest of the first large
wave of the three sets occurred at the respective times of 4h. 42m., 9h. 54m., and
14h. 17m., giving intervals of 5h. 12m., and 5h. 23m.”

««The average tirne of oscillation of one of the first set of waves was 35m., one of
the second 31m., and one of the third about the same. The average height of the
first set of waves was 0°45 foot on a tide which fell 2 feet; of the second 0°19 foot
on a tide which rose 3 feet; and of the third 0°19 foot on a tide which fell about
7 feet; the phenomena occurring on a day when the diurnal inequality was very
considerable. ‘The greatest fall of the tide during the occurrence of the first set of
waves was 0°70, and the corresponding rise 0°60 foot. In the second set the corre-
sponding quantities were 0°30 and 0°20 foot ; in the third these waves would not have
attracted general attraction.’’ There is a general analogy in the sequence of the
waves of the three sets, which seem to mark them as belonging to a recurrence of
the same series of phenomena. The series itself looks like the result of several
impulses, not of a single one, the heights rapidly increasing to the third wave, then
diminishing as if the impulse had ceased, then renewed and then ceased, leaving the
oscillation to extinguish itself. If we had a corresponding account of the facts as
they occurred at Simoda, the subject would lose the conjectural or rather the in-
complete character that belongs to it. Although there is no account of the place of
origin of the earthquake, yet its violence on the Japanese coasts and its diminished
effects at Peel’s Island, as well as the times of arrival of the waves at the Japanese
and Pacific American coasts, prove that it must have been beneath the sea, and not
far distant from Japan. ‘‘ Five distinct waves in succession rolled in at Simoda;
eight are shown by the San Francisco gauge, of which seven were of considerable
height.”” It seems not improbable, although this does not appear to have occurred
to Prof. Bache, that three of the San Francisco waves may have been reflected waves
only. The highest wave at Simoda was estimated at 30 feet, at Peel’s Island 15 feet,
at San Francisco 0°65 foot, and at San Diego 0°50 foot.

At San Diego, the gauge shows distinctly the same three series of waves. The
first begins at 1h. 22m. later than at San Francisco, correcting for difference of
longitude, and ends 52m. later. The interval is 30m. less than at San Francisco,
the oscillations being rather shorter than at the latter point. The second begins at
54m. later than at San Francisco and ends 34m. later. The third begins
about 54m. later than at San Francisco, The average time of oscillation of the

126 REPORT—1858.

first set is 31m., of the second 29m., being thus respectively 4m. and 2m. shorter
than at San Francisco. The average height of the first set of waves was 0°17 foot
lower than at San Francisco, and the second as much higher. This fact, taken with
the difference in the times of oscillation, induces Prof. Bache to suppose that the
difference in the two series was due to interference, which is also suggested by the
position of San Diego in reference to the islands separating the Santa Barbara Sound
from the ocean.

The difference in the periods of tide on the arrival of the waves at each place
would tend to produce discrepancies. The first series at San Diego arrived ona
rising tide of 4 feet, while at San Francisco it was upon a falling tide of 2 feet. The
second at San Diego arrived at near high water, and was chiefly upon a falling tide
of 7 feet, while at San Francisco it was upon a rising tide of 4 feet.

The forms of the waves accord remarkably at both stations.

The tide-gauge at Astoria gives less instructive results, the bar at the entrance of
the Columbia River having no doubt broken up and greatly reduced the waves, even
if they arrived at the entrance unbroken. The gauge showed a disturbance, but

irregular and confused, which was also apparently preceded by (other) unusual’

oscillations of the water; and Prof, Bache sees reason to think that the San Diego
gauge indicates disturbances of the water of an abnormal character previous to the
great earthquake shock, as well as following it at intervals for several days. The
normal time for high and low water does not seem to have been disturbed by the
superposition upon the tide-wave of the abnormal or earthquake waves.

From these results Prof. Bache draws the following conclusions as to the rate of
translation of the great sea-waves of the earthquake,

The latitudes and longitudes of the stations are :—

Lat. N, Long. W. Time.
5 1 o 1 hs
San Diego ...... tera Oo Ae 117 13 7 49
San Francisc0...c.e,.000) 34 48 122 26 8 10
SiImMOdA. ccssccenssaucteeotod, 20 121 62 14 44

The distance from San Diego to Simoda is therefore 4917 nautical miles, and from
San Francisco to Simoda 4527 nautical miles. Assuming the first account of the
disturbance at Simoda at 9 a.m. or at 22d. 23h. 44m. Greenwich mean time, and the
first great wave 30 minutes afterwards, Prof. Bache proceeds to calculate the rate.
There appears to be some typographical errors in the figures, which slightly affect the
result which he arrives at, viz. 363 miles per hour, or 6:0 miles per minute. Cor-
recting the erroneous figures, the result would appear to be,—the first disturbance at
San Francisco was at 23d, 12h. 22m., or 12h. 38m. after that at Simoda, and the
first great wave at 23d. 4h.42m., giving the same interval (of 30m.). The distance
and time therefore give a rate of 368 miles per hour, or 5°966 miles per minute.

Assuming the second account (9h. 15m.), the time of transmission when reduced
would be 12h. 13m,, and the rate of translation 370 miles per hour, or 6°20 miles
per minute.

The San Diego observations, assuming 9h. Om. as the time of transmission at

Simoda, give 13h. 50m., which, when reduced, gives a rate of translation of 355
miles per hour, which is almost identical with the corrected reduction of the San
Francisco observations.

Although not directly connected with our subject, it is interesting to state that
Prof. Bache deduces from these results a probable mean depth for the Pacific Ocean
on the paths traversed by these great sea-waves of from 2100 to 2500 fathoms,
(See also Amer. Journ. of Science, vol. xxi. 2 ser. January 1856.)

I deem no apology needed for this lengthened abstract of Prof. Bache’s communi-
cation, not only because it is, up to the present time, almost the only record of
scientific pretensions, of the phenomena of earthquake great sea-wayes, but as a
model for those who may be engaged in tidal observations upon British or
European coasts, of what is needed to make their results connect usefully with the
requirements of those occupied in seismica! inquiry. The extreme value of self-
registering tide-gauges, and the great importance of multiplying these round our
own coasts, and upon those of our Mediterranean and antipodal stations, are forcibly
shown by the remark of Bache, that but for these instruments, the very

| ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 127

oceurrence on the North American coast of these sea-waves, which had traversed

a ee me

the whole vast breadth of the Pacific, a distance equal to one-fifth of the earth’s
circumference, would have actually passed unnoticed. Had there been a competent
self-registering tide-gauge at Simoda, we could probably have fixed exactly the spot

heneath the ocean at which the earthquake disturbance originated.

There is also a class of doubtful great sca-waves, for the investigation of which
such self-registering instruments would afford precious data.

It has been many times observed at various stations round our own British coasts
(as well as abroad), that abnormal tides have occurred, or that solitary waves of
translation have reached the shore, at abnormal periods, or at uncertain periods of
repetition, which could not be confounded with any recognized tidal phenomena.

Such waves have very customarily been referred to earthquakes for their origin of
late years; yet very many examples occur in which there has been no account of
contemporaneous earthquake, either in the offing at sea, or in any other direction.
And the question arises, are such abnormal waves always to be attributed to earth-
quakes (whether observed or not), or may they possibly be produced by some nodal
action or other disturbance far out at sea of waves of other classes, and if so, of what
nature?

It will be advantageous to adduce some examples, and the rather, as I am enabled,
through the obliging attention of the Commissioners of Public Works in Ireland, to
state one of much interest and in some detail, of which no full account has yet
appeared.

But first we may notice such an occurrence on the coast near Whitby, Yorkshire,
copied from the York ‘ Herald’ of March 8, 1856, for which I am indebted to Mr,
William Gray of York.

“York, March 8, 1856.

*fRobin Hood’s Bay.—On Sunday last, the 2nd instant, at 10 a.m., the tide being
then about two-thirds flood, the following phenomenon was observed :—The rocks,
which had been bare just previously, were observed to be completely submerged,
The water then fell back, and again returned, rushing with considerable force over
the rocks and beach. This was repeated two or three times, the water running up a
moderately inclined beach the distance of thirty yards.

“A remarkable phenomenon of the tides was observed at Whitby on the 2nd
inst. Ata quarter to ten o’clock in the morning, being an hour and a quarter
before high water, the sea suddenly rushed up Whitby harbour, rising in dif-
ferent places from 18 inches to 3 feet, driving a laden lighter from its moorings,
and causing much commotion amongst the small craft. It then receded, but was
followed by other and similar waves, so that the tide appeared to ebb and flow six
times in the space of little more than an hour. A vessel, which was entering the
harbour at the time, was alternately afloat and aground on her passage up, according
to the level of the water. About midnight of the same day, the harbour-officers
observed a recurrence of the event, and in the first hour of Monday the rush of
water appeared to be much more powerful than on Sunday morning. About eleven
o’clock on Sunday night, Mr. Tose, the harbour-master, having obseryed a mark
which indicates that the tide was sufficiently high for a vessel then in the roads to

_ enter the harbour, went up the lighthouse and lit the gas-signal. On his return to

the pier, he was astonished to find that though the tide ought to have risen higher,
it had fallen considerably below the mark. Being afraid the vessel would take the
harbour, he was about to extinguish the light, when suddenly the tide rose far above
the mark above referred to. At Staithes and Robin Hood’s Bay, the phenomenon
was also observed. The rushes of water resembled what are known in some rivers
as ‘bores,’ but on a much larger scale, Such phenomena often accompany sub-
terrancous disturbances, and on some occasions they have been terribly destructive.
As no earthquake has been felt in these parts recently, it is difficult to account for
the phenomenon, and it can scarcely be referred to atmospheric causes. It would
be interesting to learn whether a similar occurrence took place on other parts of the
coast, Dr. Young, in his ‘History of Whitby’ (page 792), remarks, ‘To volcanic

128 REPORT—1858.

agency may be ascribed this remarkable phenomenon, that on the 17th July, 1761,
the tide rose and fell at Whitby four times in an hour.’”

Analogous phenomena have been observed at Pegwell Bay, on the southern coast,
during the present year.

The following documents refer to the observations of such waves made upon the
coast of Wexford, Ireland, in 1854.

The ‘ Wexford Independent,’ a local journal of the 27th September, 1854, gives
the following account :—

«« Extraordinary Phenomenon.—We are indebted to Mr. William Campbell, the
professional helmet-diver, who has done so much for the improvement of the new pier
of Kilmore, by blasting and removing the rocks which impeded its entrance, for the
following account of an extraordinary phenomenon, witnessed there on Saturday
evening, Sept. 16th, 1854. ‘I was’ (writes Mr. Campbell) ‘in one of our boats
seeking after some implements, and not looking seawards, when, on a sudden, I heard
a mighty rush of water against the back of the pier, and in a moment it came
sweeping round the pier-head, full 3 feet high and abreast. It was within one hour
and a half of low water at the time. The inner dock was crowded with the small
sailing craft of the place, and quite dry, the tide being more than four hours
onebb. In less than five minutes every boat was afloat, and we had high water.
In five minutes more the water ebbed again to the lowest spring-tide. This was
repeated seven times in the course of two hours and a half. St. Patrick’s Bridge was
alternately dry and covered to the extent of a mile, and the sea formed a cascade
from end to end of it, the influx appearing to come from the east. Atthe same time
the sea was not by any means rough nor heaving. ‘Standing on the top of the
parapet wall of the pier, I could descry two different currents running parallel, and
counter currents to these quite visible, the discoloured water running east at a rate
of ten or twelve miles an hour, and the intervening water of the original green hue,
and stationary. These tide currents were as far out as the shore of the Saltee
Islands. I can only compare the current to the opening of a sluice gate. There was
no damage done to any of the craft, more than the bursting of a few warps. Had
the occurrence taken place at the period of high water, the result would have been the
complete overflow of the land in the district, and consequent immense loss. We
have often heard old people of that place say that on the Sunday after Lisbon was
destroyed by the earthquake of November 1, 1755, the day being remarkably fine,
the sea at Kilmore suddenly rose and fell in like manner. This occurrence the other
day has been owing, no doubt, to some similar and distant cause.’ ”

The phenomena alluded to in the above paragraph, from the ‘ Wexford Indepen-
dent,’ are not unknown on the Waterford coast, and-are there popularly termed
“death waves.’ It is not very long since two ladies had a narrow escape of being
washed out to seaat Dunmore, by a sudden wave, which surprised them whilst seated
at a considerable distance above high-water mark on the beach.

Repeated instances are on record of such waves upon the north-east coast of
England and upon the south-west coast of Ireland, as well as in many other places
(see also Second Report, p. 47-48), and even on the east coast of Africa.

For the following, I am indebted to the Commissioners of Public Works, Ireland:—

“‘ Office of Public Works, October 19, 1854.
«‘Sir,—I am directed to transmit herewith a copy of a report which the Board
have received from James B. Farrell, Esq., County Surveyor of Wexford, respecting
an extraordinary tidal phenomenon at Kilmore on the coast of that county on the
16th ultimo. The Board send this report, considering it will be interesting to you,
on the subject of earthquakes, to which you are giving your attention.
“To Robert Mallet, Esq.” ““W. Moonzy, pro Sec.”

_ Wexford, October 10, 1854.—In compliance with the request of the Com-
missioners, contained in your note of the 22nd ultimo, I forwarded a newspaper in
which was an account of the tidal phenomenon at Kilmore.

“«* Since then I have made inquiries along the coast, tracing from New Ross round
by Ballyhack, Arthurstown, Duncannon, Hook Head, Slade, Fethard, Bannow, and
on towards Carnsore Point.

“* As far-as Bannow nothing unusual was observed. The Coast-Guard near there,

Tse.

ee

iene Nt nhl eka eth.

]
:

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 129

although one was, as is customary, on the ‘look-out’ at the time of the occurrence,
noted no disturbance. It appears to have been perceived about two miles east of
this station, near the point indicated by the line A on the accompanying map,
Plate XIII., and seems to have been confined between this and the line B. At
‘Ballyhealy,’ a little further east, it was not observed.

«From inquiries into the details of the appearance, I learned from Mr. Campbell
at Kilmore, that six distinct ridges of water, about 2 or 3 feet high, passed from the
west towards the east, very much discoloured and carrying with them large quan-
tities of sea-weed. There was a considerable space between each pair in which the
water was of its usual colour, and quite calm, as was the sea generally, there being
no wind to disturb it.

“These ridges did not proceed in (broken?) waves, but in continuous lines, and
passed on apparently unchecked, while the tide rose and receded on the shore within
them, which it didseven times. Itis stated that, at the second reflux, the water fell
lower than it was ever known by the residents there to fall before.

“Tt would appear that the ridges maintained their velocity sufficiently to force
back the ebb, which flows rapidly round Carnsore Point (nearly three knots an hour)
until they passed St. Patrick’s Bridge, where the ebb-tide regained its motion west-
ward in the shape of the ‘cascade’ mentioned by Mr. Campbell in the printed
account.

“The disturbance lasted, according to his statement, from 20 minutes past 4 to
nearly 7 o’clock p.m.

«On inquiring at the ‘ Bar of Lough,’ I found that at about half-ebb the watch-
man at the Coast-Guard Station, who was in the watchhouse, which is built on the
edge of the sea, felt the flocr tremble under his feet, and at the same time the fire-
irons and other articles of furniture shook and rattled audibly. He was also startled
by ‘an extraordinary noise’ outside. On going out to ascertain the cause, he found
that a large wave was forcing back the ebb. This was repeated three times. The
first wave only, however, was accompanied by noise.

«« A schooner was lying inside the Lough, at the place marked C, from the master
of which, I learned that his vessel was three times swung round, standing alter-
nately to the flood and ebb. He was below, when he had the first intimation of it,
and described his being affected with a strange sensation, as if he were getting sick.
This I believe is not uncommon in cases of earthquake.

« Mr. Lett, R.N., the Coast-Guard officer here, upon whom I called, made to me
a statement confirming what I had collected by inquiry.

«There seems little doubt that the whole thing was caused by a slight shock of
earthquake.

“From the information I had at Kilmore from Mr. Campbell, I have laid down
lines on the accompanying map, exhibiting the ridges as described by him, and
endeavouring to illustrate, by the curved arrows, the action of the ebb-tide upon
them. “James B. Farrevyi, Wexford County Surveyor.”

“With reference to the communication addressed to you on the tidal action on
Wexford coast, I may mention that since it was sent to you, further information
shows that it extended beyond the limits marked by Mr. Farrell, having, by the
report of the Coast-Guard, turned Carnsore Point : ne has written to the Inspect-
ing Commander of the Coast-Guard, to request he will follow it up, and ascertain
how far north the effect was observed.

“Yours, dear Sir, faithfully,

“To Robert Mallet, Esq. “Jno. RADCLIFFE.”

21 Oct. 1854.”

Referring to Plate XITI., it would appear probable that the primary cotidal line of
these waves was about in the direction C C of the heavy dotted line, and that the
change of direction, on approaching the shore about B, was due to the conjoint
effects, of the meeting ebb tidal-stream round Carnsore Point, of reflection at the
Saltees, and of inequality of bottom on reaching the inshore shoal-waters.

An almost identical train of phenomena occurred at the same point upon the
Wexford shore on Sunday, 12th September, 1841. The account is given by Milne,
“On British Earthquakes,’’ Edinb. New Philos. Journ. vol. xxxvi. p. 83, and copied

1858. K

130 REPORT—1858.

from a Wexford newspaper :—‘‘ The day was misty and dark, wind S.S.W. to S.
Thunder heard at noon; wind lulled, and fog became dense. At Kilmore, ten miles
south of Wexford, and directly opposite the Saltee Islands, about noon, a number of
short, loud, smothered reports like cannon were heard. The tide had flowed consider-
ably at the time, and the fishing-boats at the pier were all afloat, when, within the
space of two or three minutes, the water suddenly receded from the pier, and people
walked dry-shod where a little before there had been five to six feet of water.
After a few minutes, again the tide began as suddenly to return; and, after re-
suming its level, continued to rise to high water in the usual way. There was no
extraordinary commotion, only an increased surf. The sky cleared after thunder
and showers.”

The question, however, here chieflyin point is, whence come these waves? what is their
origin? The direction of translation, on entering the wide Bay of Ballyteague, here was
almost exactly from the south-west, and if transmitted from a considerable distance,
the origin of disturbance must have been beneath the deep waters of the Atlantic
Ocean, and it is scarcely probable that an earthquake blow sufficiently powerful to
have originated waves so large after so long a transmission, should have occurred and
not have been generally felt in the South of Ireland, where the hard and elastic cha-
racters of all the formations are so favourable to the distant transmission of impulses.
It is equally difficult to assume, as here operative, a condition which upon coasts
of shoal water and encumbered with banks and bars, may unquestionably originate
great sea-waves, and which very probably is actually the cause of those of not un-
frequent occurrence upon the east and south-east coasts of England.

Almost all great submarine banks are constantly subjected, at the same time, to
aggregation by deposition, and to partial degradation, by the sweeping away of
material along their bases and flanks, by tidal action, either constant or at certain
periods of tide. Deposition takes place by vertical, or more or less inclined preci-
pitation of suspended matter; this form of degradation, by horizontal removal.
The conjoint effect is very frequently to increase the steepness of the angle of slope
of the degrading flank of the bank, matter being constantly added on top and re-
moved from lower down, and with most energy at a level intermediate between the
surface-water and bottom.

A time arises, therefore, at which the angle of slope of the bank is increased be-
yond the limits of repose of the material, whether mud, sand or gravel, or any mix-
ture of these ; and then a great under-water slippage takes place, and a mass often
of enormous magnitude at once slides from the top and flank of the bank down into
deep water, and spreads and levels itself out upon the bottom, to be in its turn swept
away and replaced by fresh materials and to give rise to another slippage. Thus, in
figs. 9 & 10, if s,s represent the surface of the sea, b, b (fig. 9) the sea-bottom in

Fig. 9.

transverse section through the flank of the bank in a plane at right angles to the
stream of abrasion; then, at the point where the equilibrium of repose of the mass
is lost, the mass 7, ” slips and is suddenly transported from its original position to
n,m. The effect upon the surface of the sea, is at the same moment to originate a
positive and a negative wave, w and v, whose crests shall more or less approximate
to the general line of the flank of the bank ; and these will be immediately succeeded
by two solitary waves of translation, a greater, w (fig. 10), and a less, v, whose mo-
tions of translation will be opposite.

See ee

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA, 131]

The magnitude of the wave raised is dependent upon that of the mass of solid
material that has suddenly changed its place, upon the depth of water in which the

Fig. 10.

s $

slippage has occurred, upon the rapidity of the transposition, and in a minor degree
upon the form and material of the portion of the bank that has slipped. Where the
depth of water is very great, its effects at the surface may be quite insensible at the
place; but when this low broad flattened wave of only a few inches becomes heaped
up on shelving shores or tidal estuaries, it may then become very apparent, and
perfectly so to accurate tide gauges. Where the water is comparatively shallow,
as it usually is where large and heavy banks occur, there the undulatory effects on
the surface, even at the seat of disturbance, will be considerable. We have then
a simple mechanism abundantly sufficient to account for the occurrence of some
such abnormal tide-waves or great sea-waves as have been noticed ; but while thus
a vera causa, is it the cause of any of those phenomena that have been observed,
and which do not appear to have been accompanied by earthquakes? This, as well
as all the hydrodynamic phenomena of such sea-waves, I would commend to the
careful attention of future observers. (See First Report, p. 61.)

Stoppage of Rivers.—Throughout earthquake narratives, nothing is more commonly
recorded amongst the secondary phenomena, than sudden derangements of the ordinary
and prior regimen of springs, wells, and especially of rivers. Almost all such facts admit
of simple explanation ; and in the case of rivers, the sudden drying up or stoppage of
their streams, has been most usually due to sudden damming up by the fall of débris
of rocks from precipices, &c. across the river-beds, usually at narrow gorges, where
the damming can easily take place, and whence it is, by the posterior rising of the
waters, afterwards swept away or gradually removed by floods, &c.; often also on a
granderscale,it arises from the occurrence of greatlandslips (in countries of deep alluvial
or other little coherent formation), bulging out into the river-beds, and temporarily
shutting them up, and either forcing the streams into new channels, or damming
them up until the waters produce a debacle and sweep away the obstacle.

But not a few cases are upon record of sudden stoppages in the ordinary supply
of water in river streams, not known to have been connected with any earthquake,
or with any sufficient and explainable cause. Perhaps the phenomena cannot be
more briefly set forth than by transcribing a notice from ‘Chambers’s Edinburgh
Journal’ for Jan. 19, 1839, No. 364. p. 412 :—

“Late Stoppage of Rivers in the South of Scotland.—Most of our readers have
probably read the accounts which appeared in the newspapers of a simultaneous
stoppage of the rivers Teviot, Clyde, and Nith, on the 27th of November last; yet,
as many may not have heard of it, and few may have paid to it the attention which
it deserves, we are glad to have the opportunity afforded us of bringing the circum-
stance under the especial notice of our readers. It has, we are glad to find, been
taken up, as a subject worthy of scientific investigation ; and in this we have been

_ invited to assist, by endeavouring to procure information from any of our readers

who may be able to affordit. The phenomenon, it is suspected, is attributable to
some agent or cause which had acted over a very extensive range of country, and
which, probably, produced similar effects, in many other places besides the banks
of the three rivers above specified. We trust that if such effects were perceived by

any of our readers, they will be so obliging as accede to the proposal and the request
_ with which we conclude the present notice.

“On the morning of Tuesday, the 27th of November last, about six o’clock, the

miller of Maxwellheugh Mill, situated on the Teviot, near its confluence with the
_ Tweed, perceived a great diminution taking place in the water which flowed through

his mill-course. At eight o’clock the water altogether ceased to flow. Thinking
that the sluice had fallen down, or that the cauld [dam] had given way, he went up
K 2

132 REPORT—1858.

to the cauld, and found, much to his surprise, that there was hardly any water in
the river. There were here and there a few pools, where there were hollows in the
channel; but there was no longer a running stream. The channel continued dry
for four or five hours—after which the water began gradually to flow, till the waters
reached the same level they were at previously. At this place the Teviot is on an
average about 50 feet wide, and 2 feet deep.

“The same phenomenon took place in the Nith, in the parish of Durrisdeer, at
Enterkinefoot. The channel was so dry, that a person could have walked across
without wetting his stockings.

“It was observed also in the Clyde, a little above New Lanark. The extensive
cotton-mills at that place were for some hours stopped, in consequence of an entire
cessation of the current. Numbers of fish were caught with the hand, and many
persons walked across without wetting so much as the soles of their feet.

“‘ The above particulars we have taken from the newspapers, and we do not vouch
for their perfect accuracy ; but we have no reason to doubt it, as the statements have
not been contradicted.

“« Tt appears that the same phenomenon has occurred frequently before. In the
Teviot, it is known to have occurred at least five times between the years 1748 and
1787. It happened also in the Clyde in the year 1787, and within a few days of its
occurrence in the Teviot : and it is remarkable, that, in regard to both of these rivers,
the part of the channel where their waters disappeared, turns out to be the very
place where they disappeared last month. But there are several other rivers, both
in England and in Scotland, where the same phenomenon has been observed within
the last half-century.

“We feel satisfied that our readers will share with us an extreme anxiety to
discover, if possible, the cause of this singular phenomenon: and we will now ex-
plain to them in what way they can be instrumental in assisting in this discovery.

“‘The first object should be to obtain a minute and accurate account of all the
facts apparently connected with the phenomenon, at the places where it was observed.
We are happy to learn that steps have been taken for this purpose by persons well-
qualified for such an inquiry. Butas itis just possible, that even they may not have
gathered up all the circumstances calculated to throw light on the subject, our readers
in these quarters would do well to note down, ere it fades from their memories, any
thing particular which they observed.

«< We may now allude to the different theories which have been started to account
for the phenomenon, because they will immediately show the importance of
gathering together as many facts as possible. It is by facts alone that these theories
will be confirmed or refuted.

«©Some persous ascribe the phenomenon toa severe frost which occurred on the
morning of Nov. 27, and which, it is said, froze up the streamlets and springs that
supplied the rivers where the phenomenon was observed, We cannot see how, on
any philosophical principles, the effect here stated would follow from such a cause.
But, even if it were sufficient to produce it, then the same phenomenon should have
occurred in the Tweed, the Jed, and all the rivers where the frost reached. More-
over, it should be observed every winter, and it ought to have been very strikingly
observed last winter. Besides, the waters should, after the frost gave way, have
risen considerably above their usual level, which, it is said, was not the case.

“© We have adverted to these inferences from the theory just mentioned, in order to
show how its truth or falsehood may be tested; and many of our readers may be in

possession of facts which will supply this test.

“* Another theory has been proposed, which, we confess, appears much more pro-
bable. It is suggested, that a fissure may have been formed under or across the
channels of the above rivers, into which their waters found their way. The current
would thus cease to flow in its ordinary channel until the fissure closed, or was
filled up by the sediment and water poured into it. The fissure might be either a
crack across the country, or a local sinking of the ground. It is well known that
earthquakes frequently produce such effects; and there are few yearsin which, in
some parts of Scotland and England, the shock of an earthquake is not felt. When
the Clyde stopped in January 1787, a rivulet in the parish of Strathblane, in Stir-
lingshire, which drove a mill, also disappeared. On the same day, the shock of an

*
4
+

|
|

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA, 133

earthquake was very sensibly felt in Glasgow and its neighbourhood. Whether or
not at either of these places any fissures were observed, into which the streams
flowed for a time, we have been unable to learn. That there are fissures, or slips
(as the geologists call them), which everywhere intersect the crust of the earth, is well
known to every collier and miner ; and that there are such fissures in that part of the
channel of the Clyde, where its waters have repeatedly disappeared (namely, between
the uppermost fall and Corra Linn), is extremely probable. It might be thought,
however, that, if a crack was produced, sufficient to allow the waters of a large
river to escape, it would soon be discovered. But it is quite possible, that, after the
lapse of a few hours, the crack might close again, and leave scarcely any external
traces of its existence. Still, we cannot help thinking that some traces should be
discoverable ; and this is just one of the points on which our provincial readers may
be able to afford information.

“* We shall conclude by suggesting one or two points, to which, if any of our readers
would be so obliging as to investigate the subject, their attention may be directed ;
and we doubt not, other points will occur to themselves :—

“1, Have phenomena, similar to those which occurred in the Teviot, the Clyde,
and the Nith, on the 27th of November last, been observed, on the same day, or
about the same time, in any other rivers in Great Britain?

«9. If so, at what hour were they first observed, and how long did they continue?

“3, Where is the highest place, in the course of the river, where its waters dis-
appeared ?

««4, Was any crack, or fissure, or sinking, or disturbance of the ground, visible at
that place ?

“5. Was the shock of an earthquake felt, anywhere, about the period above
mentioned ?

«6. Was there much or any ice on the river, or its tributaries, where the aforesaid
phenomenon occurred ?

«<7, When the water began to flow again, did it rise to a higher level than it had
been at previously?

“8, Is there any appearance of a slip, fault, dyke, or trouble in the strata, at or
near the place where the waters began to disappear?

“©9. Has this phenomenon, or anything similar to it, been observed in former
years—and when?

«© We may also repeat the queries 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8, with regard to the stoppage
of the Teviot, Clyde, and Nith; for on the subjects of those queries with regard to
the phenomenon of the 27th of November, we are as yet uninformed.”

See also some analogous facts mentioned by Perrey in his memoir ‘‘ On the Earth-
quakes of Europe, and adjacent parts of Africa and Asia, from 1801 to 1843”
(Comptes Rendus, Sept. 1843, last page but one of the memoir). Most of these phe-
nomena have occurred in the winter and in higher latitudes ; and although there are
considerable difficulties in the way of the frost theory of accounting for them, and I
incline to the view that it will hereafter be found to be the true one, yet there is
sufficient to induce the question—Can it be possible that partial or local elevations,
with or without fractures or earthquake, take place occasionally, and to such an
extent as to change the levels of portions of the earth’s surface, and for a time
derange the flow of rivers, or other such main channels of drainage ?

Those who embrace the views of Von Buch and Humboldt, &c., and admit the
possibility of bowrsouffié domes of trachyte, will be prepared to find no difficulty in
imagining such comparatively small surfaces elevated and swollen up, by the assumed
elastic forces beneath, so as to produce new and extemporaneous water-sheds ; and
although I cannot join in such views, the subject appears to me worthy of more exa-
mination at the hands of Vulcanologists and Seismologists.

Nausea at the moment of shock.—This curious effect of earthquake shock upon
human beings, and if accounts are to be credited, also upon some domestic animals,
is deserving of more attention than it has yet received.

The fact itself, as respects buman beings, admits of no doubt. I have direct
testimony of the boys of a large boarding-school being suddenly awakened at night
by one of the North American shocks, and the greater number suffering from imme-

134 REPORT—1858.

diate sense of nausea, amounting to vomiting in many cases. In the late earth-
quake at Naples (Dec. 1857) many instances were related to me by the sufferers.
The question arises, Is the nausea an effect of the sudden disturbance of the
nervous system by alarm, &c., or is it due to the movement itself, and analogous
to sea-sickness? There are great difficulties in the way of either solution. Those
most likely to suffer severely from nervous alarm, do not seem to be those most usu-
ally affected. The direct movements are very generally too sudden, sharp, and of
too little duration, to admit of the second explanation. The facts, however, require
to be more numerous, and to be scientifically collected and classified as soon after
the occurrence as possible, and are commended to such physiologists as may be
favourably circumstanced for the observation in earthquake regions.

Indirect estimation of the force due to the shock.—In our ignorance of the precise
nature of the originating impulse, whether of one or of more than one sort, or of the
degree of force at the centre of impulse necessary to transmit a wave, sensibly, to a
given distance through the common formations of the earth’s crust, any trustworthy
observations, of the distance to which the very analogous blow produced by fired
mines, or other masses of gunpowder, has been sensibly conveyed, are not to be
at present neglected. The 2nd Report gives exact information as to the distances to
which such impulses from fired powder, even of a feeble character, may be conveyed
through the worst conducting material (sand), and made instrumentally sensible.

I have collected since that period a few occasional notices of the explosions of
large masses of gunpowder, and of such facts as may be found, of the magnitude and
distance of the impulse conveyed, which I here transcribe for reference. It would
be very desirable that officers of engineers entrusted with demolitions, or requiring
to explode very large masses of powder, would endeavour to provide for obtaining
observations as to the precise radius of the superficial area at which the ground
shock became insensible without the aid of instruments, and that such observations
were accompanied by a general account of the nature of the geological formation,
and of the physical features of the country around.

‘The Monster Blast at Furness.—The monster blast of gunpowder at Furness
Granite Quarry took place on Wednesday afternoon, with complete success. The
charge consisted of no less than three tons of gunpowder, and was deposited in two
chambers—-one and a half ton in each. The shaft was 60 feet in depth, and the
chambers in which the powder was placed were 17 feet long. The charge was
ignited by a galvanic battery, and lifted an immense mass of rock, computed to have
been between 7000 and 8000 tons. The flame belched out on the seaward side,
and was well seen by a large concourse of spectators from Inverary, the watering
places of the Clyde, and a party of excursionists from Glasgow, on board the ‘ Mary
Jane.’ The report was not loud, but deep and hoarse, and the ground in a very wide
circle was strongly agitated.”—Glasgow Constitutional, October 5, 1852.

The ‘ Journal de Turin’ of the 29th ult. has, under the head of “latest intelligence,’’
the following paragraph :—‘‘'T'uRIN, 11°45 a.m. Two successive shocks have been
felt like those of an earthquake. The powder magazine of Borgo Dora has ex-
ploded. The population is hurrying to the scene of disaster. The rappel is being
beaten. All the faubourg is on fire. A barrack has fallen down. Two hundred
deaths are spoken of.””—Saunders’s Newsletter, May 1852.

It is quite probable that both in this case and in that of the magazine at Mayence,
which subsequently exploded, information might still be obtained as to the weight of
powder fired and the extreme distance to which the shock was felt.

«Improvement of the Port of Brest.—The ‘ Moniteur de la Flotte’ states that M.
Verrier, engineer, charged with the work of clearing away the Rose Rock, which
obstructs the entrance of a part of the harbour of Brest, called the Penfield, made
an experiment a few days ago, which was perfectly successful. One of the convicts,
covered with a diving-dress, descended to the rock at half-tide, and deposited a box
full of gunpowder, to which were fitted two gutta-percha tubes, also similarly filled.
As soon as the man had come up, a light was applied to the tubes, and shortly after
a loud cracking noise was heard, and a large column of water, with fragments of
stone and a quantity of sand and mud, were thrown up to the height of 20 feet.
The commotion was so great, that the Bastion de la Rose, which stands near,

saath

ON THE FACTS AND THEORY OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 135

trembled to its foundation. The mass thus moved has been considerable.’’—Times,
April 17th, 1857.

The following is the ‘Times’ account of one of the explosions at the siege of
Sebastopol :—

“Thursday, Aug. 30, 1855.—The whole of the camp was shaken this morning
at 1 o’clock by a prodigious explosion, which produced the effects of an earthquake.
A deplorable accident had occurred to our gallant allies as they were pursuing their
works with accustomed energy. A tumbrel, from which they were discharging
powder into one of the magazines near the Mamelon, was struck by a shell from
the Russian batteries, which burst as it crashed through the roof of the carriage, and
ignited the cartridges within; the fldmes caught the powder in the magazine, and,
with a hideous roar, 14,000 rounds of gunpowder rushed forth in a volcano of fire to
the skies, shattering to atoms the magazine, the tumbrels, and all the surrounding
works, and whirling from its centre in all directions over the face of the Mamelon
and beyond it 150 officers and men. Masses of earth, gabions, stones, fragments of
carriages, and heavy shot were hurled far into our works on the left of the French,
and wounded several of our men. The light of the explosion was not great, but
the roar and shock of the earth were very considerable. The heaviest sleepers awoke
and rushed out of their tents. The weight of powder exploded was about seven
tons, or 1400 rounds of 10Ibs. each.””—Times, Sept. 13, 1855.

The following is part of the French account of the expedition against Kertch -—

“May 26tk, 1855.—Finally, before evacuating Yenikale, they blew up a powder
magazine, containing about 30,000 kilogrammes of powder: the shock was so great,
that many houses were destroyed, and vessels anchored ten miles out at sea felt it
severely.”’—‘ Moniteur’ quoted by ‘ Times,’ June 1855.

And the following of the great explosion in the camp before Sebastopol, on the
15th of November 1855 :—

«Shortly after 3 o’clock on Thursday afternoon the whole camp, from Inkermann
to far beyond Cathcart’s Hill, was literally shaken throughout every square foot of
its area, by the most tremendous explosion that has ever echoed through these
Crimean hills. A greater quantity of gunpowder itself may have been exploded in
some of the magazines discharged for the destruction of the buildings and works
after the abandonment of the ruined city and fortress; but this is doubtful, and
certainly there were never fired at the same time so great a number and variety of
deadly and explosive projectiles. The force of the blow from the impelled air, the
stunning noise, the flashing of the fire, the suffocating smoke, arrested every reason-
ing faculty, and took away all sense, save the instinctive impulse to fly from the
source of evil. Among the regiments themselves of the light division, whether in
tents or huts, a sudden sensation was felt as if of an upheaving of the ground, at the
same time that a violent shock was experienced from the concussion of the air.
Almost instantly followed the loud report of the explosion; not sounding as if a
single charge or magazine had been fired, and without the ringing tone or decided
character of a salvo of artillery ; but seeming rather as if a number of magazines had
been discharged, one after the other, so rapidly, that all the reports were blended into
one. As the thunder of the first report subsided, its place was occupied by the
sharp cracking sounds of shells bursting high in the air, the rush of fragments falling
to the ground, and the loud bangs of shells which had been scattered and were ex-
ploding on all sides. Simultaneous with these, almost from the very commencement,
was the crushing of wooden huts, splitting of timbers, and noise of falling glass from
the broken windows. The tents were violently agitated, and sometimes the cords
or poles were snapped asunder. Then followed a continued succession of minor
reports, and the roar of flames, and crackling of burning wood, as the fire advanced
and increased among the huts and artillery stores of the siege train dépéts. To say
that it equalled in violence the combined salvos of a thousand parks of artillery
might seem extravagant; and yet the simile would but feebly convey an idea of the
volume of thundering sound that shook the earth for miles around, tearing down
the most substantial masonry and wooden huts, and levelling tents as by the sweep
of some invisible giant-arm. I had seen the explosions on and after the 8th of
September, which so many pens have since described ; but no half-dozen of them

q

136 : REPORT—1858.

together would have equalled this one, either in force or sound. Over an area of
nearly half a mile from the spot of its occurrence, the air was one huge column of powder
smoke and cast-up earth, up into and athwart which ignited or exploding shells
and rockets ever and anon darted and fiashed by hundreds, spreading destruction to
nearly everything animate and inanimate, within a radius of more than a thousand
yards. Heavy siege guns were wrenched from their carriages and thrown many
perches from where they had been standing, whilst the carriages themselves were
torn asunder.””—London Express, Nov. 29, 1855.

The following notices of the Great Blast at Seaford Cliff are extracted from
‘ Saunders’s Newsletter’ of September 15, 1856 :—

“The great explosion at Seaford.—There has been a great concourse of visitors in
this little town today to witness the operation of ‘blasting,’ by the explosion of
gunpowder, an immense mass of chalk cliff from the heights down upon the beach,
there to form a barrier which may check the drifting of the shingle towards Beachy
Head and the east. The ground about Seaford for two miles to the west lies low,
and there is nothing to protect it from the inroad of the sea at high tides but a
narrow beach bank of shingle. This barrier is becoming gradually weaker in con-
sequence of the tendency of the shingle to drift away, and it has become a matter of
urgent moment that this should be stayed. Close to Seaford, on its eastern side,
rises a noble line of cliff, in some places 300 feet high, and averaging above 200. It
was determined to project a huge slice of the cliff on to the beach, with a view
thereby to constitute a groin for the purpose of retaining the shingle and preventing
its leaving the bay. The operations have been conducted by the Board of Ordnance.
The spot selected is not much above half a mile to the east of Seaford. At a height
of about 50 feet above high-water- mark there was driven into the cliff, or excavated,
a tunnel or gallery 70 feet long, 6 feet high, 5 feet broad, ascending with a slope of
lin 3. At the inland extremity it turned right and left in the heart of the cliff,
above 50 feet one way and above 60 the other, with a more gentle ascent, the two
smaller galleries being 4 feet 6 inches high, and 3 feet 6 inches broad, and the three
being in the form of a capital T. At the utmost end of each of the side or cross galleries
was a chamber, 7 feet cube, lined with wood; and in each chamber a charge of no
less than 12,000 lbs. of gunpowder was deposited ; making the distance of the centre
of the charge 70 feet from the face of the cliff towards the sea, and about 70 feet
above high-water mark. The galleries were ‘tamped,’ that is, stopped up, with bags
of sand, and chalk in bags and loose, to within 50 feet of the mouth, both branches
being tamped up, and 20 feet down the large gallery. It was not till 12 minutes
past 3 o’clock, that suddenly the whole cliff, along a width or frontage of some
120 feet, bent forwards towards the sea, cracked in every direction, crumbled into
pieces, and fell upon the beach in front of it, forming a bank down which large
portions of the falling mass glided slowly into the sea for several yards like a stream
of lava flowing into the water. The whole multitude upon the beach seemed for a
few moments paralysed and awe-struck by the strange movement, and the slightly
trembling ground; everyone sought to know with a glance that the mass had not
force enough to come near him, and that the cliff under which he stood was safe.
There was no very loud report ; the rumbling noise was probably not heard a mile
off, and was perhaps caused by the splitting of the cliff and fall of the fragments.
There seemed to be no smoke, but there was a tremendous shower of dust. Those
who were in boats a little way out state that they felt a slight shock. It was much
stronger on the top of the cliff. Persons standing there felt staggered by the shaking
of the ground, and one of the batteries was thrown down by it. In Seaford, too,
three quarters of a mile off, glasses upon the table were shaken, and one chimney fell.
At Newhaven, a distance of three miles, the shock was sensibly felt. The mass
which came down is larger than was expected ; it forms an irregular heap, apparently
about 300 feet broad, of a height varying from 40 to 100 feet, and running 200 or
250 feet or more seaward, which is considerably beyond low-water mark. It is
thought that it comprises nearly 300,000 tons.” :

These meagre and most imperfect accounts, as respects the object here in view,
will however, it may be hoped, direct future attention to more precise observation of
the data required.

: A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 137

Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1857-58. By the Rev.
BaveEn Powe tt, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,F.G.S., Savilian Professor
of Geometry in the University of Oxford.

Durinc the year which has elapsed since my last Report to the British Asso-
ciation, I have received a considerable number of communications of meteor
observations from various observers, especially, as on so many former occasions,
from Mr. E. J. Lowe, as well as from other friends, to whom I am happy to
add on this occasion the names of Dr. J. H. Gladstone and Mr. G. J. Symons.
The last-named observer is the only one who has recorded any remarkable
number as seen at the August period. He has communicated many seen
on the 10th of August, 1856, anda still larger number about the corresponding
time in 1858, few, however, ov the 10th, but a great number on the 13th. In
some parts of England the 10th was cloudy.

Of the various theories which have been proposed to explain the nature of
luminous meteors, some were alluded to in the Report of last year. At the
meeting of the British Association at which that Report was presented, a paper
was also communicated by Mr. Daniel Vaughan, of Cincinnati, U. S., in which
he proposed another hypothesis which seems to have considerable claims on
our attention; it has also been given at large in his recent work entitled
* Popular Physical Astronomy.”

The main principle of this theory is, that the author conceives the lumini-
ferous ether diffused through space, but in obedience to the law of gravita-
tion condensed round large bodies, in a more intense degree in proportion to
their mass. Hence in our system it is immensely condensed round the sun,
but feebly round the planets. When in this state of condensation, it is capable
of being acted upon so as to produce the most intense light and heat. As
existing round our earth, it can only be sufficiently condensed to produce such
effects by the immense local compression arising from the rapid motion of
meteorites. Hence their luminosity, even when far above the atmosphere ; but
on entering it, the compression is so great, according to the author's calcula-
tion, as to crush them to pieces.

The details of this theory are given in the Appendix (No. 1), by some
extracts from the author's work, and also in a letter addressed by him to the
author of this Report, with the view to correct some misapprehensions of the
theory which have been entertained.

In the Appendix (No.2) there is given a statement which has appeared in
print, of a very singular luminous phenomenon, the nature of which it is diffi-
cult to conjecture; but it has the appearance of being the account of a plain
matter-of-fact witness, who offers no comment or conjecture. To these, one
or two other communications have been added.

List of Meteors observed up to August 1857, by G. J. Symons, M.B.M.S.,
at Camden Town, London.

:

Date. Time. Mag. | Direction. | Track. | Remarks.
a ee ees ites inte keeled |
Dec. 13} 9 10 p.m. 3 sw.nw. | ~2S~ Very near the horizon.

30) 9 0 p.m. 2 NE.-SE. | ae

rose. z oe -. Chee

138 REPORT—1858.
Date Time. Mag.| Direction. | Track. Remarks.
1856. [h m Rae eee cree wertpeg | ys
March 6) 9 48 p.m. 4 SSE. It
June 411 5pm. 3 ESE. 3f Very bright though small.
Aug. 210 8 p.m. 2 NW.-E.
Several small ones not noted.
3) 8 10 p.m. 3 E.-SE. Moved very slowly.
cae {Bored smaller ones.
7| 9 48 p.m. 3 ESE.-E. —
9\10 52 p.m. 2 SE. V/ Train visible for 10 seconds.
11 30 30p.m.|} 2% wnw. It Train visible for 30 seconds.
10| 0 8 a.m. 3 NE.-NNE. Fig
013 am. 3 NE.-S. —
015 a.m. 3 SE. B
| 018 am. 3 WNW. ie
028 50am.| 4 E. 4
0 3lam. 2 E.-SE. >
0 35 a.m. 4 ESE, V4
0 37 am. 4 SE. A
1 lam. 2 SE, \
110 am. 2 SE. AWN
112 am. 1 SE. \\
113 am. 4 E.
118 a.m. 1 SE.
1 22 a.m. 1 neta aa . “TEA Train visible for 30 seconds.
1 24 a.m. 2 SE.
1 29 am. 3 SE.
9 7 p.m. Q N.-S XX [ee note.
9 15 p.m. 3 SE.—W. ——
9 18 p.m. 2 NE. N
9 25 p.m. 4 E.
9 28 p.m. 4 S.
9 31 p.m. 3 S.-NE.
9 54 p.m. 3 E.-S =
9 59 p.m. 3 E.-S. s>s~ |Exactlysimilartothe one preceding

*

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 139

Date. Time. Mag.| Direction. | Track. Remarks.
1856. | h m
Aug. 10/10 5 p.m. 3 E.-SE. s~s
10 12 p.m. 3 NES,
Sept. 4) 9 54 p.m. 2 NE.-SW. A Across the zenith.
29/11 48 p.m. 2 ESE. Wd
Oct. 13)10 30 p.m. 1 S.-W. iN
10 35 p.m. 2 N.-s. =z |Across the zenith.
11 0 p.m. 3 s.
RE 7 p.m. 3 Ss.
Nov. 6/10 48 p.m. 3 S.
8}11 28 p.m. 1 NE.-NW. Brilliant white.
1857. |
April 6} 947 30p.m.} 1 Nw. ff From neare Perseito near 9. White.
19} 1 8am. 1 ssw. From near Arcturus to near Spica
Virginis.
20| 9 35 p.m. 3 E. a ;
10 10 p.m. 4 sw. >> |Pale white.
10 51 p.m. 5 E.-NW. “E |kcross the zenith,
11 lpm. 2 SSE. i
11 2pm. Rey N.-S, >> Train visible for 15 seconds.
ispm. | 1 NE. 4
23; 915 30p.m.| 3 ENE,-E.
o>
May 11) 95150p.m.| 2 SE.-ESE. -=—= |Very slow in its movement.
July 14/11 7 p.m. 4 SW.-NE. s=> Across the zenith, only visible for
about 5°.
15)10 46 p.m. 2 | Zenith-ssw. Ay Train visible for 5 secs.; very rapid.
24/11 34 p.m. ec E. aig Like Sirius in colour, but nearly
double its apparent brilliancy.
so See note.
25/10 32 p.m. 3 S.-N, >” |Across the zenith.
, 10 35 p.m. 1 NE.-NW. rl
10 49 p.m. 5 NNW.-S. Near « Urs Minoris.
10 50 p.m. 2 SE. jf
10 56 p.m. 1 NE.-NNW. == /Train lasted 5 seconds.
10 56 30p.m.| 2 NE.-NNW. =< |Train lasted 2 seconds.
26] 0 4am. 1 SE.-N. oa Train lasted 5 seconds.

LQ

140 REPORT—1858.
Date. Time. Mag.| Direction. Track. Remarks.
~ 1857. |h m ay | ae ae.
Aug. 1/0 810am.|} ESE. bk Moved veryslowly, varied in lustre.
0 45 a.m. 2 | Zenith-nneE. i“
0 46 a.m. 3 SE.-SSE. 7
2/10 2 p.m. 3 | NNE.-NNW. & From near 8 Cassiopeiz to near!
10 7 p.m. 2 NNE, It ar mary Cate RESET
10 8 p.m. 2 N.-S a
10 20 p.m. 2 N.-W. LZ Very swift.
28/1028 p.m. | 3 N. We
10 29 p.m. 4 w. iy
10 44 p.m. 2 n-ssE. | SSX
10 49 p.m. ENE. lr See note.
10 55 p.m. 1 E,-SE. S Rapid motion.
10 59 p.m. 1 SE. NN Train of white light.
Additional Notes.
1856.

August 10th, 98 7™ p.m.—This meteor passed N. to S., passing within about
10° of the zenith, leaving a train of light like luminous vapour, which, in
spite of the remaining twilight, was visible upwards of a minute.

1857.
July 24th, 115 34™ p.m.—Remarkable for the extraordinary rapidity of its

motion,

August 28th, 105 49™ p.m.—This meteor appeared (while I was watching
the constellation) between the stars a and y Cassiopeiz, of a light blue tint,
and apparently double the size of Sirius ; as it passed downwards it increased
greatly in magnitude, assuming the appearance of an oval dise of a bright
violet colour, and leaving a train of brilliant gold-coloured sparks.

List of Meteors from January to September 1858.
Observed by G. J. Symons, M.B.M.S., at 27 Queen’s Road,
Camden Town, London.

Date. Time. Mag. Colour. Train.
1858.|h m
Jan. 14) 9 19 p.m. >% blue none
30/10 42 p.m. |=2x%| green red sparks
Apr.17| 9 13 p.m. 2 yellow none
18) 9 14 p.m. 3 white none
19} 1 lam. 1 white none

Direction. |

——_——$ $<.

Vertically from a point 3° W. of 2
towards the horizon.

‘From Musca towards eAndromede.

From p Urse Majoris towards
@ Hydre.

FromyvFHerculis towards «Herculis.

From « Coron Borealis towards
Spica Virginis.

a ee

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 141

Date. Time. Mag. | Colour. | Train. Direction.
1858.) h m s !
June 1/10 24 30p.m 2 white none He y : i towards Cor Caroli. (Very
slowly.
10 51 p.m. 3 white none /|From y Serpentis towards 6 Libre.
2)11 50 p.m. 2 white none |From Coma Berenices towards 6 Virginis.
13}11 23 p.m. 3 white none |From ¢ Corone Borealis towards Spica Vir-
inis.
16,0 3am. 2 blue none roi 3° S. of Arcturus towards \ Libre.
July 28} 9 12 20 p.m. 1 white broad |From Z Urs Majoris towards 7 Bootis.
10 46 p.m. 1 white none |From pu Lyre towards e Ophiuchi.
29| 0 26 20 a.m. 1 white | slight |From Vega towards « Herculis. (Swift.)
0 42 a.m. 1 dull yell.) none /|From p towards ¢ Ophiuchi. (Very slow.)
1 150am 1 brill. wh.| slight |From Altair towards r Ophiuchi. (Swift.)
1 5am. 1 white none |From e Aquila towards 6 Herculis.
31| 0 22 25 a.m 1 brill. wh. |visible for|From y Draconis towards « Corone Borealis.
5 seconds| (Very swift.)
0 36 a.m. 2 yellow none |From 6 Cygni towards e Urs Majoris.
0 39 a.m. 2 white none (|From & Herculis towards Arcturus.
0 42 a.m. 3 white none /|From d Bootis towards Cor Caroli.
0 49 a.m 3 white none /|From $ Cygni towards e Urse Majoris.
059 20 a.m 2 white none |From yu Herculis towards Corona Borealis.
Aug. 1)11 47 p.m 2 white none |From 7 Herculis towards » Urse Majoris.
(Rather faint.)
11 49 p.m 1 white none /from p picie towards y Bootis. (Very
bright.
11 54 pm 2 white none Frou Draconis towards n Coronz Borea-
lis. (Swift.)
2)0 4am 1 white none |From e Herculis towards 6 Ophiuchi.
0 6a.m. 3 white none |From 6 Cygni towards ¢ Delphini.
0 610a.m. 1 white j|longand|From Altair towards Scutum Sobienski.
brilliant | (Rapid.)
0 32 a.m. 2 -blue white |From @ Draconis towards y Serpentis.
0 35 a.m 2 white none |From y Ophiuchi towards 6 Herculis. (Un-
dulating course.)
PSI NI SS
3)11 48 p.m. 2 whitish | none |Froma Urse Majoristowards y Urse Majoris.
yellow
11 57 p.m. 2 . slight [From » Cygni towards x Draconis. (Faint.)
4,0 912am. 2 white none |From 7 Herculis towards e Urs Majoris.
5) 9 41 p.m. 1 yellow none /|From 6 Cassiopeiz towards Capella.
6| 9 28 p.m. 1 white none |From Capella towards Castor.
8/11 1 p.m. 1 white none /From a point 10°N. of Vega, at an angle of
1l lpm. 4 white none about 80° with the horizon, and before it
had disappeared (certainly within 2 se-
conds),a small one crossed it in the oppo-
site direction, but at a similar angle.
ll 7pm. 3 white none /|From yp Herculis towards y Serpentis.
11 22 p.m. 2 white none |From Vega towards a Ophiuchi.
1] 24 30 p.m. 1 blue |wh. train/From e Herculis towards « Herculis,
112610pm.| >1 white |vis.7secs.|From i Cygni towards y Ophiuchi.
11 37 p.m. 2 white none |From 6 Aquile towards Corona Borealis.
(Faint.)
11 38 p.m. i! brill. wh.| none |From 0 Draconis towards 6 Bootis.
1] 42 30 p.m. |variable.|See Note. From Cor Caroli towards Coma Berenices.
11 44 p.m. 1 white none |From e Draconis towards Arcturus.
11 54 p.m. 2 white none |From 6 Cygni towards « Ophiuchi.
9{11 43 p.m. 2 white none |From X Herculis towards 8 Ophiuchi.
11 47 p.m. 2 white none |From y Draconis towards p Bootis.
11 47 10 p.m. 3 white none |From yv Draconis towards pz Bootis. (Exactly
in the same track as the foregoing.)
12| 0 5 40 a.m. 2 white none /|From 6 Cygni towards Taurus Poniatowski.

142

Date.

1858.
Aug. 12

13

Time.

—

hm s
017 30 am.
20 a.m.

0
0
0
0
0
0

118 30 a.m.

9 55 p.m.
9 57 p.m.
10 8 p.m.
10 12 p.m.
10 17 p.m.
10 19 p.m.
10 20 p.m.
10 22 p.m.

10 24 p.m.
10 45 p.m.
10 48 p.m.

Mag.

then Ist.

1
1

- | 2X Isit

2

3

2
>1

LS ow) rom ro Ve 0

Nene Nwwe RN NNK Wwe 40

a

variable.

REPORT—1858.

Colour.

white
white
green
white
white
white
white

white
white

blue
white
white
white
white

white
white
white
white

green

white
white
white
white
white
white
white
white

white
white
white
white
white
white
white

white
red

white

white

See

Train. Direction.
none |From Vega towards 8 Ophiuchi.
none (From ¢ Urs Majoris towards Coma Bere-
nices.
none From # Herculis towards « Serpentis.
none /Fromy Ophiuchi towards Scutum Sobienski.
none (From z Herculis towards « Herculis.
slight From 7 Ursz Majoris towards Arcturus.
none |From y towards f,
then turned towards
az Bootis. (Very ee.
slow.) Arcturus
none |From « Draconis towards y Bootis.
none |From y Draconis towards Corona Borealis.
none |From 6 Capricorni towards 7 Sagittarii.
none |From e Cygni towards e Aquile.
none /|From ¢ Herculis towards y Serpentis.
none (From p Lyre towards 8 Ophiuchi.
slight in From « Herculis towards p Corone Borealis.
the mid-
dle of its
track, but
fading at
both ends
none |From y Lyre towards y Ophiuchi.
none /|From c Herculis towards « Herculis.
slight |From e« Cygni towards « Lyre.
none |From 1° S. of Vega towards 7 Serpentis.
none /|From @ Cassiopeiz towards 7 Cygni.
none |From e Pegasi towards 8 Aquarii.
none |From 6 Aquile towards é Sagittarii. (Very
slow.)
none |From 6 Aquilz towards € Sagittarii.
none /|From é Cygni towards ¢ Cygni.
none |From #8 Draconis towards 5° below Vega.
none |From « Draconis towards Corona Borealis.
(Faint.)
none |From 3° N. of Vega towards « Corone Bo-
realis.
slight |From « Cygni towards @ Herculis.
none |From o Cygni towards « Aquile.
none |FromePerseitowards( Andromede. (Slow.)
none |From y Ursz Majoris towards Arcturus.
none |From y Lyrz towards « Herculis.
none (From Polaris towards 0 Aurige.
none |From 7 Herculis towards e Bootis.
none From 3° W. of y Urse Majoris towards
Coma Berenices.
none From p Cassiopeie towards Mirach.
none Frome Draconistowards CorCaroli. (Rapid.)
none (From @ Draconis towards Corona Borealis.
none |From 6 Cygni towards e Aquilz.
none (From y Draconis towards 6 Herculis.
none (From pu Ophiuchi towards e Ophiuchi.
none /|From between Vegaand y Draconis towards
eu Herculis.
none |From 0 Bootis towards Coma Berenices.
vis. for 45 |From y Ursze Minoris towards Cor Caroli.
none |From @ Cygni towards 7 Herculis.
none |From y Urs Minoris towards Corona Bo
realis.
Note. From « Draconis towards Cor Caroli.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 143

Time. Mag. | Colour. | Train. Direction.
1858./h m
ug.13}11 37 p.m. 4 white none |From £ Ursz Minoris towards Polaris.
Extraordinarily brilliant ; I never saw so
small an object give so much light.
1 48 p.m. 2 white none |From 6 Persei towards Pleiades.
0 0 bam 4 white none |From a Persei towards @ Aurige.
0 015 am 1 white |vis.for 3°|From Polaris towards Castor.
0 7am. 3 white none |From 6 Cassiopeiz towards 0 Persei.
017 10am 1 white slight |From y Persei towards y Draconis.
019 a.m. 1 white none |From p Ursz Majoris towards X Urs Ma-
joris.
0 23 a.m. 1 white none |Fromy Ursz Minoris towards» Urse Majoris.
9 20 p.m. 2 white none {From 7 Urs Majoris towards 7 Bootis.
9 33 p.m. > 1) white fvivid wh./From # Cygni towards « Aquile.
10 44 p.m 2 white |vivid wh.|From 6 Lyre towards 8 Ophiuchi.
10 47 p.m 1 white long /From 7 Pegasi towards « Pegasi.
10 51 p.m. 3 white none {From ¢ Pegasi towards 6 Lyre.
0 47 a.m. 1 white none |From Polaris towards « Ophiuchi. No va-
riation in brilliancy throughout its course.
0 49 a.m. 2 white none |From « Cygni towards e Aquile.

Smaller Mereors were observed on every clear evening between August Ist
and 17th, and numbered from 20 to 30 per hour on the 8th, 11th, and 12th.

Additional Notes on the Meteors of August 8th and 13th.

August 8th, 112 42™ 308 p.m.—This meteor (which was the finest of the
period), when first seen, appeared the size of a star of the first magnitude ;
after passing somewhat obliquely for about 5°, and in-
creasing in size, it suddenly threw off a shower of in-
tensely brilliant green sparks, and at the same instant

_ disappeared ; just as the sparks were fading away, it
reappeared about 3° lower, of a pale pink colour, and
much larger than before; after passing about 4° further,
it assumed a globular form and instantaneously disap-
peared. At this time its apparent diameter was between
5' and 6’. The accompanying sketch is copied from
the original in the Observation Book. It must, how-
ever, be understood that the appearances were really
in succession.

August 13th,11" 32™ p.m.—This meteor was remark- aC
able for varying from considerably brighter than a first Ls ba:

ae

magnitude star to less than a fourth at intervals of
about 7°.

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144

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146

Date. Hour.

1853. | h m ine
Oct. 31) 8 20
Nov. 1) 8 30

8 40
50
25
12
12
25

14

1857.
Sept. 1611 3

i 3) 2

29/10 14 30

8/In the even-
ing.

Oct.

|

REPORT—1858.

Appearance and
Magnitude.

Small, 3rd mag. ......
2nd size, of 1st mag.*

Similar

Sete ee eee eereeeaee

3 times size of 2

[st Mag.* ore .creceess

= 2nd mag.*

eee teens

=2nd mag.*

=6 times }. From
the moment it be-
came visible it in-
creased rapidly in
size until it was=6
times diameter o:
%, disappearing
suddenly whenatits
maximum bright-
ness.

eee t eee ee taee Peon er eeeeee

Older Observations by E, J. Lowe, Esq.

Brightness
and Colour.

Colourless

Yellow

eeeeeenee

feta nsees

Blue,increased
in brilliancy.
Blue

see ee eee
seaeeneee

..| More orangein

colour than

aeeeeecee

Intense blue,
very bright.

Vf

: Velocity or ¥

Train or Sparks. Duration. a
Streamers: «.s.sc.sssapaseeus .|Rapid ..... ove

Long train ............ eee.s./Slow, duration qv

sec, i

NTYAIN) 5. csuraeseo ass ses ssened Rapid ...... cece
Broke into separate balls../Duration 2 secs.
WALT Sy ss.< shes ces aes centae Duration 1 sec.
TD ARN Se ath sGnceuene st scauacen hee Medium pace ..
Hig US a RS AS en aes Medium pace .,

au oRCenesiger scapes Duration 0°5 se

Without streak, but broke|Duration 14
into two balls and dis-| slow.
appeared.

Oe P eS eUUECTOOOCOOSCOTOCOeTOere TT)

Observations of Luminous Meteors,

Streak \...-ssecvectentssrpcwnae Slow, duration
sec.

Streak. ..cccscvnccnestene .eeeee/SlOW, duration 0
sec.

No streak left after the/Duration 1}§ se
meteor had vanished.) moved over 11}
No noise heard. of sky.

2nd &3rdmag.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 147

e

not inserted in former Catalogues.

; Direction or Altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference.

erpendic. down from under y|Aurora Borealis ...|Beeston ......... E. J. Lowe ...... Mr. Lowe’s MS.
‘Pegasi.
om vy Piscium to 7 Aquarii...|Manysmall meteors|Ibid................ idlacasevaras setters Ibid.

erpendic. down from B Del-|..........ccsseeseeeeees [101s bss45 scceperee 1G Dee crene, ae Ibid.
phini.

loved horizontally towards N..,|...........sscecseseeees RDG rep teenana aes 35 dea aastanaa semen Ibid.
passing near Capella.

erpendic. down passing imme-|..............seeeeeeees [bidsstee se. BA een teeechay. Ibid.
diately through Castor.
MMII AUO VATICLIS ...000ceslecessscececcceseconessss MDI sacueserecncees [decsasadeclese\sistces Ibid.
erpendic. down through Rigell..................sss00e 1G ESS ae er ceeeees Tae reiesctcewe=s =. Ibid.
rom « to « Urs Majoris ...... Aurora Borealis ...|Ibid.........-...++ Lege ipesenenvesone Ibid.

om A 145 54™, decl. 53° N./From 8" till 105,|Tbid.............06 Ta seAei bet seis: Ibid.
to M 14559™, decl. 7°40’) lightning in N.
S., fading away near 3 Libre.

BPERIENETAHINIC ALN... csccccces|sovccecessncsssssccssess Whidicenacessceis seall Qt eacesuanseecdeoe Ibid.

by E. J. Lowe, Esq., 1857-58.

assed through « Pegasi and felll................s0c0e0es Highfield House|E. J. Lowe ...... MS.communication
downwards towards the E. at Observatory. to Prof. Powell.
an angle of 45°.
this started at » Pegasi, and/This meteor seemed|Ibid................ doa sencseecnae toe Ibid.
followed the same track as} to be connected
he last meteor. with the last.
perpendicularly down inl.........coscecscscseess LIDTG Han Se erernadec Nels. aeeadewewest ae’ Ibid.
+, passing 2° E. of the star
'@ Urs Majoris and 2° 15’ E.
_ of 8 Ursz Majoris, disappear-
ing 3° below and 2° 15’ E. of|

6 Urse Majoris.
‘he preceding edge was circular lf
and well-defined, but in every XQ
aT

other direction it ended in
long streaks of light not un-
like streams of Aurora Bore- \
-alis in form, yet very like
electric light in brightness. |
A lunar halo and faint Aurora
Borealis at the time, the
temperature 51°°3, wind S.,
and almost calm ; clouds few
cirri overhead, with a white
stratus in the valley.

Baese Me giecteaisesn0/0.550 svesvnersonf DEVEL MUM CNCOLS Nass] LD\asavons sss ceenss|LOnes ogonpanasacrens| DIC.

148 REPORT—1858.

Velocity or
Duration.

Appearance and Brightness

Date. Hour. Magnitude. and Colour.

Train or Sparks.

1857. |h m
Noy. 13} 7 59 = insizeand bright-/Greenish ...... Burst into three balls, and|/Duration 3
ness. left a streak behind. motion slow.
AM CVENIN Gis <oawvserveveasvcasesviseevelvervedsouiessvews|oscesesvedvevienssevenevdveedesewelSrrceayaan name oe eans
23/11 37 45 |Twice the size and|Yellowish, the|Leaving a streak behind in|Rapid; duration
twice thebrightness} streak being] its path, which was very; falling throu
of 2. a milky-wh.| brilliant, and which} 20° of space
lasted nearly 5 minutes} 0:2 sec.
after the meteor itsel
had vanished.
Dec. 7|In evening..|...... Ceesaccaecscescncceveleresseeascrenscseclseeseascscansassesessssossonees ds] aws/os seus esos yneeaae .
10 59 = Ist mag.*.......000- BI WISD eens sn <|srccasspanasssesacacsatseecdxanal Id s.sseceswed
11 10 = (USb MAR Pen csss ccs cc-| DMS anes, ts .c|ncovnesacheseoutsessseemmeeeee idee
1918 3 =2nd mag.* ......¢.. Colourless_ ...|Leaving a streak............
1858.
Feb. 7/| 6 25 =2nd mag® ! ack... Colourless .../Leaving a train ............ Rapid .........00%
28] 8 ll =in size to Saturn.,./Blue............ Separate sparks left behind|Slow, duration
secs.
ABIL Oi In eveTiMp.| SMALL wccgscuerecesssss|acasccityocvvscess|esssgeosocssovoaccasesersentccces! itamnenteenemnEnne
10) 2 O am./=2nd mag.* ......... Colourless un-/Train ......seecsecseceeeeeees Medium rate .....
til met by a
coruscation,
and then
golden and
brighter.
May 31/11 30 =}th apparent dia-|Blue............ Burst into fragments ...... Instantly disappe
meter of C. ed.
July 21/11 0 =twice size # ...... (Colourless?;.:{No train ...:cccctesresneeetes SlOWsec.scsssnssan oad

Sept. 12) 8 29 30 |=4 times size of Ist|/Exceedingly |Leaving a long train in its/Duration 0°8 sec...
mag.* brilliant. track, |

8 30 0 |=4 times size of Ist/Exceedingly |Leaving a lengthy train in Duration 0°8 sec...

mag.* brilliant. its path.

"Direction or Altitude.

ed from « Pegasi to Jupi-|.
ter, burst into three balls,
“which fell perpendicularly

Serene eee ee ee eesereeesressesees

almost | perpendicularly
down, but inclining slightly
_W., starting from a position
‘about 3° perpendicularly un-
der Jupiter, and falling 20°.

ed through Ursa Major
endicularly down from 6
minorum.

horizontally across 8 Arie-
tis from the direction of Ju-
_piter.

down through Aries
_§.S.E., moving downwards
towards S. at an angle of 50°,
and passing from about half-
_ way between » and ¢ Hydre
to near No. 19 in Argo Navis.

‘n all directions, especially near
the zenith.

tale e eee ees eseraeeneeereees

General remarks.

—

Several meteors ...

The colour of the
meteor different
to that of the
streak. Aurora
Borealis at the
time.

Many meteors, espe-
cially about 11
o’clock.

Fee eee e ner e ener eeetaee

PO eee eee eam eee aneeee

The form circular
and well-defined.
The meteor came
from behind a
dense cloud, and
had the appear-
ance of passing
beneath some
woolly cumuli;
yet probably this
was a deception.

Manysmall meteors,
but their paths
not noted, as at-
tention was taken
up with a magni-
ficent Aurora Bo-
realis which was
occurring at the
time. (See April
10th.)

This meteor, when

it met a corusca-

tion of Aurora

Borealis,instantly

became golden &

much brighter.

. povercast, except an opening
in E.S.E. at 10° above hori-

zon. The meteor appeared

in this opening.

. at an altitude of 30° mo-

ng towards S.W. horizon, at

an angle of 45°.

oved from Vulpecula through

4 Aquile.

starting in the zenith and pass-

ing down through 8 Lyre to

fa

_ @ Herculis.

Night hot, temp. 65°

oe ere reer

Place. Observer.

Highfield House|E. J. Lowe ......

Observatory.
LEG Wrarecar nee eeee UGE Rcoseao caso:
UDG esecaceneans eo Id. stadoscnwereane ss
Ibid..........c0000. LI passenacoencicnacne
TU cede ceans cone UG Ges rnc nonicocee sae
Ibid...,.... nppoaSt Td... cecceesccccere *
Tbid........000..00s UG eccrrcece Seeeess
bidessach. adnensas UG Cee careoccedoooate
TD1dscnsceseaseace salilcccenenens “psssar
Thid.. scccexonseass Weresetesss Cec ce
Tbid......c-sesccoes Udupessacauset vee
[bidesecsceevencs ss Ed eostenanncaceebses
Mbidss.cs<steesepeee 1G oases SAberRne
Observatory, elsoaraseenper ai eess

Beeston.
Ubidsewacesaresseeee Midis stcememe tenses

Similar in every re-
spect to the last.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

149

Reference.

MS.communication
to Prof. Powell.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Mr. Lowe’s MS.

Ibid.
Ibid.

150

Date. Hour.

1858. |h m s
Sept. 12) 8 31 30

30) 7 51

In evening..

Oct. 8)In evening..
9) 7 13
7 27
1857.

Aug. 25] 8 30 p.m.

1858.
Jan, 10) 8 17 p.m.

31/10 40 p.m.

=twice that of Mars

== [8b MAG ecsscecur-ss

Brilliant ball =

REPORT—1858.

Appearance and
Magnitude.

at time of opposi-
tion. Form circu-
larandwell-defined.

=from 2nd to 3rd Colourless

mag.*, shape elon-
gate.

seereteee

Velocity or
Duration.

Brightness
and Colour.

Train or Sparks.

Exceedingly |Leaving a slight streak in|Duration 2 secs.
bright co-| its track.
lour, an in-

tense blue.

Tolerably rapid,

...|Same body seemed to dis-
ration 0°8 sec.

appear and reappear 21
times.

SOOO Oe rere ne eereeneeererereuannenleree®

eae ee ee eeeesesenes

aac PoUbe a dines canaecaea

OP Pere cere errr rrr Oe enenee

Very rapid ......

see eeeeee

Motion slow, dur.

Long tail, and leaving a
tion 1°15 sec.

streak in its track.

eee eteee

Brilliant) ..ccenescsssesnlun

Bright meteor =moon|Orange.........

and in form of a
crescent, as if 5or 6
days old; became
elongated a little,
and fell rotating;
diameter of circle
of rotation being
about 3 times the
diameter of the
crescent.

.--|Orange......00e

Observations of Luminous Meteors

On bursting threw out a/Continued about
shower of fire and disap-| secs., then bur
peared in about 2 secs.

Broke into brilliant reddish].....s.seseeesseeeees
fragments. i

Threw off large sparks and].....c.ssssereecesee
disappeared below hori-
zon.

Perec ere

=e)

y

!

| ‘

| A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 151

- Direction or Altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference.
id -
ath from the Sword-handle of|Night remarkably|Observatory, E.J. Lowe Mr. Lowe’s MS.
Perseus, moving downwards} clear and cloud-| Beeston.
towards the N., passing 8°] less. Day had
above Capella and almost] been very hot,
th ough f Aurige, fading] temp. in shade
away near that star. reaching 80°°5
li perpendicularly down, OF|Uvctnecccnvs Fiecen-veees|taiphtield’ TOUSEIT Gd)... vcisc.ccdccas Ibid.
ather nearly so, and moving Observatory.
allel with and 1° W. of the
uperior edge of Donati’s
Comet. Had the appearance
of moving behind some
opake body, as the same
shaped object disappeared
and reappeared 21 times.

———S= ———$ $$ —— | ——— ———. —_ — —.

2

i
:

-|Many other meteors|Ibid.............065 dsp coseues See 3009 Ibid.
Many meteors...... Thid...seeesseeeeee Del Jee oeke Ibid.

nati’s Comet, and was first
seen near the nucleus on W.
side of Comet.

direction of the star \ Dra-
conis, and crossing the star
x Urs Majoris.

Ry
from various Observers.

Dresteseescesstecscscesccevvens .-.|Appeared near......|Southsea, near/Mr. S. Atkin ofMS. communica-
Portsmouth. Liverpool, Mr.| tion.
W. J. Hay,
Chemist to the
Dockyard, and
Mr. W. W.
( Hayes.
cended from N. in a curved)....... seeesss-++| Little Woodhouse] W. Braithwaite, ana Guard-
‘ine towards E. near Leeds. Surgeon.
N. W. nearly opposite ).|............ acevo she'ades Fern’s Plat, St.|J. Jeffery....... times, Feb. 4, 1858.

40° (about) distant. Day, Cornwall.

Date. Hour.

1858. |h m
Sept. 30) 8 45 p.m./Two meteors near to-|Bright ......... Bright streak left behind,|.............++.

152 REPORT— 1858.

Velocity or

Appearance and Brightness
Duration.

Magnitude. and Colour.

————— | ——_—_— | |

Train or Sparks. |

gether. lasting about 1 sec.

May 4).....2--.s0800 Ignited globe .......--|...-2-.sscsecone .» Fell down into a farm-yard.|........+.se1e-++ 040

Exploded with a loud
report ; incandescent
fragments flew in differ-
ent directions; one hita
cow.
8 45 p.m.|= 2.......00+0+.-+.-+ee+|Brilliant white After meteor had passed,|Instantaneous ...
streak remained visible 3
or 4 secs., having a wavy
| motion, filling up exactly
the distance between
| Polaris and 6 Ursz Min.

blue, then! concave to the horizon;
sensiblysmallerand| green, and| uniform insize; appear-
disappeared as aj finally a red| ed to vanish before the
point. point. Shape] meteor vanished ; colour
round, no} a whitish red; sparks
change of] very few, whitish.
form.
5| 4 45 p.m.{Round and larger than|Bright white...|Train after disappearance..|Almost
%; then divided neous.
into two, one going
in advance of the
other. Both disap-
peared suddenly.

nishing, when it got

APPENDIX.

No. 1.—Extracts from the section on Meteorites, &c., of a work entitled
“ Popular Physical Astronomy,” by Daniel Vaughan. Cincinnati, U.S., 1858
(p. 82 et seq.).

After mentioning some of the well-known instances of large meteorites, the
author observes that the average of observations shows about one fall annually
in the extent of territory including the British Isles and France; or in about
zisth of the earth’s surface. Chladni calculates that about 700 fall annually
on our planet. Their mean velocity appears to be about equal, or even supe-
rior to that of the earth in its orbit. [This result seems at variance with that
assumed by Mr. Bompas: see last Report.] Solid masses moving through
the air experience or produce a pressure nearly proportional to the square of
their velocity. This pressure the author calculates, on a mass entering our
atmosphere with the velocity of a meteorite, would amount to 80 tons to the
square inch, which would suftice to crush it into fragments, especially if de-
scending almost vertically; when more oblique, the resistance and the chance
of rupture will be less.

This the author considers a sufficient cause to account for the seeming ex-
plosion and noise. :

He next adverts to their duminosity. Some attribute this to the condensa-
tion of the atmosphere by their velocity. But this he considers untenable,
as in fact the most luminous meteors are those which move obliquely or even

13) 6 39 p.m./=3). Uniform until/Very brilliant. Train 12 times the length|Nearly 23 second
the moment of va-| At firstlight of the meteor; slightly, ratherslowerth

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 153

[ 4 Direction or Altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference.

—_—|—_— | | |

near y Andromedzto near Osborne Place,/G. V.. Vernon,|MS. communica-
Lyre. Old Trafford,} F.R.A.S. tion,
Manchester.
Quainton, 6 miles}]..........sceeeeee --.|Communicated by
thestrawdisturb-| N.W. of Ayles- Mrs. Smyth, St
ed and turned up| bury. John’s Lodge,
where it fell. Aylesbury,

Polaris through B Ursz}.........006. sesseseeeee(Stretton, near|Prof. Powell and
inoris. Disappeared behind Ledbury. family.
house.

n first seen about 25° abovel..cscesscesessessseeeees Temple Gardens,|J. Pope Hennesy|MS. communica-
horizon 8.S.E. Disappeared London. tion.
at 12° above horizonatS.S.W.

mgh the zenith from N.E.|.......secseeseeeeeeeees{Near Willesden,|Mrs. Baden
toS.W. Middlesex. Powell.

horizontally. Of this he gives various striking instances. In fact, all the
large, intensely brilliant meteors, move across the sky more or less horizon-
tally, while those which fall near the perpendicular are always small and in-
conspicuous. The paths of the large and brilliant meteors of Bononia 1670,
of 1719 and 1783 in England, were horizontal, while those of Weston, U.S.,
1807, of Benares and of L’Aigle, which were less bright, moved in more in-
clined paths. He observes that the most extraordinary circumstance is the
enormous apparent magnitude of the luminous mass or ball, as calculated from
the ascertained distance. Thus the Weston meteor was 500 feet in diameter,
and those of 1719 and 1783 were estimated at half amile. Yet the quantity
of matter known to fall has been but very small in comparison. It has been
alleged that only a few fragments were attracted to the earth while the great
mass rebounded from the atmosphere, a condition which the author contends
is impossible. He is of opinion that the actual solid masses of these bodies
are very much smaller, and then adverts to the observations of Professor
Lawrence Smith (of which an account was given in the last Report), who
has assigned an optical cause for this phenomenon.

The author, however, dissents from that conclusion, and alleges that the
effect in the experiments there mentioned, of apparent great enlargement in
the dises of luminous bodies seen at a distance, is really due not to any cause
analogous to irradiation, or of an ocular kind, as there supposed, but simply
‘to the reflective power of the atmosphere, which he considers to be made out

8. M

PSP LOS DA MBL

154 . we REPORT—1858.

by placing near the luminous body any small reflecting substance, and ob- —

serving at a distance the illumination which it seems thus to spread to some _

distance around. . In a word, he considers the effect in these experiments as
due to illuminated air, which became visible as distance rendered the glare
of the bright central point less overpowering to the eye.

Now this cause he contends cannot produce any effect in the case of
meteors above the atmosphere, or even its higher rarefied regions.

“ Meteoric stones, fire-balls, and shooting-stars are only luminous at or
beyond the boundary of our aérial atmosphere, and cease to be so on their
entrance into the denser air..... Of the extraordinary illuminating power
of the fluid which burns around shooting-stars, we may be convinced from
the vast amount of light which these objects emit, compared with their dimi-
nutive size. Although some observers, judging from their luminosity, have
ascribed to them a diameter of from 80 to 120 feet, yet from the manner in
which so many myriads of them have been lost in the atmosphere during the
great meteoric showers of 1799 and 1833, we cannot assign to them a higher
rank than hailstones or drops of rain, so far as actual magnitude is concerned.”
—(p. 95.

es Por is led to his explanation of the luminosity of meteors from the
theory of the solar light, which assigns to the external photosphere of his
globe the locality of the luminous emanation; and this photosphere he con-
siders to arise simply from the intense condensation upon and near his surface,
of the luminiferous ether, the same as the resisting medium, diffused through
the planetary spaces. He rejects the idea of combustion or chemical changes
being the source of the sun’s luminosity; as these must in time become
exhausted, and the supply of light and heat be consequently interrupted. He
alludes to the query of Newton, asto why and howit was that lucid matter should
be separated and made to form the sun, while opake matter was distributed
among the minor bodies of the system. He then adds,—* But there is no
necessity for this unnatural division of matter; since even if the sun were |
identical in composition with his attendants, yet in consequence of the great
superiority of his attraction his surface would necessarily become the focus
in which the ether of space must display its luciferous properties.”—(p. 98.)

The same law he conceives to apply to the fixed stars; he rejects the idea
of the luminosity being due to any mechanical action on the ether dependent
on the rotation of these bodies, for then Jupiter and Saturn, by reason of their
far greater rotatory velocity, ought to be more self-luminous than the sun.
He contends that it is due to “the chemical action which may be expected
to take place in the etherial fluid as it condensed around the great sphere.”
—(p- 101.)

He raises other objections against the theory of Prof. W. Thompson, which
was briefly described in a former Report, ascribing the solar light to the im-
pact of innumerable meteors on his surface.

“The (etherial) fluid is so much rarefied in the interplanetary domain,
that no chemical changes can take place between its elements, except where
it is collected around the largest spheres and compressed by their powerful
attraction. In obedience to the law of gravity, which exerts a universal
control over all matter, atmospheres of the etherial fluid are collected around
the earth and the other large planets, but they are not sufficiently dense for
chemical action, except in cases where they receive an additional pressure
from meteoric stones sweeping through them with furious rapidity. When
these cosmical bodies, on falling to the earth’s surface, move in adirection almost
horizontal, they take a longer course through the verge of the atmosphere,
and the etherial medium is stimulated to chemical activity by the pressure,

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 155

_ not only from the meteoric mass itself, but also from the particles of air which
it drives in every direction from its passage. As such a chemical action must
be attended with a development of heat and light, it is not surprising that
meteorites are luminous before reaching the confines of the air, and that their
brilliancy is exhibited on a gigantic scale when their paths are almost parallel

_ to the horizon.”—(p. 93.)

In further illustration of these views, and to correct some misapprehension
which has existed respecting them, it will be desirable here to add an extract
of a letter to Prof. Powell from Mr. Daniel Vaughan.

“‘ Cincinnati, Ohio, October 9, 1858.

___ “TI deem it necessary to offer an explanation of the main point of my theory,
as the idea I have endeavoured to convey in relation to it has not been cor-
rectly understood. I therefore take the liberty to say, that I do not regard
_ meteoric light as due to the presence of a luciferous atmosphere belonging to
_ the meteorite itself; for I cannot believe that any appreciable quantity of
ether or of inflammable gas could be confined around such small bodies, or
retained by their feeble attractive power after they come in conflict with the

_ air. On the contrary, I have maintained that the light arises from the atmo-

_ sphere of luciferous ether, which envelopes the earth and which is rendered

luminous by the powerful compression of meteorites as they move through it

with immense velocities.

_ “Tn obedience to the law of gravity, the ether of space must be condensed
about all the large planets; but it must undergo the greatest condensation
at the surface of the sun. On this vast body the density is sufficiently great
to admit an incessant chemical action, giving rise to an unfailing development
of heat and light; whereas, in the luciferous envelope of a planet, the same

_ phenomenon cannot be expected, except on the fall of meteoric masses. Of

the extent to which the compression of the ether is increased by falling me-

teorites some idea may be collected from the fact, that a body flying near the

earth’s surface at the rate of 20 miles a second, would impart to the air a

pressure of 150,000 pounds to the square inch, or over ten thousand times

the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere. We may therefore conclude that
the etherial atmospheres of the several planets must display its illuminating

_ power around the meteoric body, where it is compressed as intensely as it is
on the sun’s surface.

“ A certain degree of compression or density being necessary for chemical
action in the ether which maintains solar light, it cannot manifest its light-
producing energy in the wide domains of space, nor even on the planets, except
in the rare cases of meteoric falls; and it must make the largest spheres
above the theatres of its luminous action. My theory, therefore, not only
accounts for the fact that the planets are not self-luminous, but also gives
intelligence of the vast size of the fixed stars DANIEL VAUGHAN.”

Mr. Vaughan has given some account of his views to the British Associa-
tion, 1857; sce Sectional Proceedings, p. 42: also in some Essays published
‘in 1853 and 1854, and in an article in the American Journal of Science and
Art for May 1855.

No. 2.—The subjoined extraordinary statement is copied from the ‘ Times’
of Dec. 4. It bears the appearance of a simple straightforward account of
fact, the nature of which seems difficult to conjecture. It is here inserted
simply in the hope of attracting attention, and that in time some light may

be thrown upon it by other observations.
g M2 ‘

156 -REPORT—1858, a

Extract of a letter to the Editor of the Times, Dec. 4, 1858.

“... Last night (Nov. 30), at 15 minutes to 9, it being very dark and raining
heavily, I was ascending one of the steep hills in this neighbourhood, when
suddenly I was surrounded by a bright and powerful light which passed me
a little quicker than the ordinary pace of man’s walking, leaving it dark as
before. This day I have been informed that the light was seen by the sailors
in the harbour, coming in from the sea and passing up the valley like a low
cloud....—JABEz Brown.”

Boscastle, Dec. 1.

No. 3. Oxford, Sept. 13.

At 6} p.m. a luminous ball was seen in the region of the sky to the east of
the moon, and higher than that luminary at the time. It appeared much
larger and brighter than any star of the first magnitude. It carried with it

SS

LLLP

D

I

a train or tail like the tail of the comet now visible, and of about the same
length. First was seen the ball,—then the tail appeared, in a nearly horizontal
line, then ball and tail disappeared. It seemed as though it came out, ran
along the sky for a short space, and then entered the sky again——From a
Lady in a letter to Professor Phillips.

No. 4.—The following account of a meteor was communicated by Prof.
Stevelly to the British Association, Section A, at the Meeting (1858).

“On Wednesday evening, the 7th of October, 1840, as a number of us
were returning from a Lecture on Storms, delivered by Mr. Espy in the rooms
of the Natural History and Philosophical Society of Belfast, as we were
passing along the east side of College Square, a beautiful meteor appeared
for a few seconds, almost due south of us, but a little to the west, and so
bright that you could distinetly read by its light. It was then within about
20 minutes to 10 o’clock; the moon was shining, though at the moment ob-
scured by a cloud; and afterwards, when I found that others had seen the
same meteor at a distance, we estimated, as accurately as we could, the alti-
tude at which it had been seen, and found it at about 30°. On the night of
Friday, the 9th, or two days after, I travelled to Dundalk by the Dublin mail
coach, and the guard, Joseph Hill, asked me, had I seen the very brilliant
flash of light on Wednesday evening, at about a quarter to ten o'clock. I
told him I had, and inquired from him the particulars of where and how he
-saw it. He informed me of the place, which was about 54 miles out of
Dublin, where the road was very straight, and tending to the north. He had
seen it, as he explained, almost overhead, but somewhat to his right hand,
and it was so bright for some seconds that the entire place around was lighted —
up so that a person could distinctly read by it. It had, therefore, been ver-
tically over a place about 75 Irish miles from Belfast, and from these data it

ON THE ANATOMY OF THE ARANEIDEA. 157

is easy to calculate its altitude above the earth, which must have been about
43 miles. A few days afterwards, the same guard, Joseph Hill, sent me the
_ following letter and extract from the ‘Warder’ Dublin newspaper of Satur-
_ day the 10th, which confirms Hill’s accuracy, as the correspondent of the
_ Warder’ must have seen it on the opposite side of the place where it had

_ been vertical from what we did :—
* Belfast, 12th October, 1840.

4 Sir,—I had the pleasure also of seeing this phenomenon the same time

_ as Correspondent. I was about 53 miles on this side of Dublin when it hap-
pened.— Yours, &c., Josepu Hixx, Mail Guard.

‘Extraordinary Appearance inthe Sky.—( From a Correspondent.) —About

a quarter before ten o’clock on Wednesday, at an immense altitude, a white

ball of fire appeared in the north-eastern part of the sky for a moment, and

shot downwards, illuminating the whole heavens, and causing an extraordi-

_ hary sensation in those who witnessed it before its descent. The ball was

tinged with a beautiful violet blue —From the ‘ Warder’ of Saturday, Octo-

:
: ber 10, 1840.”

On some Points in the Anatomy of the Araneidea, or true Spiders,
especially on the internal structure of their Spinning Organs. By
R. H. Meapz, F.R.C.S.

[A Communication ordered to be printed entire among the Reports.]

Ir is not my intention in the present communication to enter generally into
the anatomy of spiders, but to confine myself to an account of the arrange-
ment and structure of the parts contained in the abdomen; and more espe-
cially to describe the glandular organs by which the silk forming their webs,
is secreted.

I was led to undertake this investigation by the hope that an accurate exa-

mination into the minute anatomical structure of the spinning organs might
clear up some important differences of opinion as to their functions. Martin
Lister, Cuvier and others, contend that spiders have the power of forcibly
ejecting the fluid which forms the silk from their spinnerets; and are thus
able to propel a thread to a considerable distance, and in any direction.
Both the above-named naturalists state that they have distinctly seen them
shoot out their webs, but Mr. Blackwall (the greatest living authority on
Arachnology ) denies that they have any such power, and says that the tena-
cious fluid is simply emitted from the extremity of the abdomen by pressing
it against some fixed point, and then drawn out into a thread by a current of
air, and wafted to some neighbouring object to which it adheres, or left
floating in the atmosphere. Should my researches fail to clear up this inter-
esting question, they may tend to elucidate some other curious points con-
hected with the functions of the spinning organs,—such as the power which
spiders have of forming different kinds of threads from the same spinnerets,
some of which are adhesive, while others have no viscidity, but simply form
a framework to support the others.
_ I met with considerable difficulties in the course of my investigations, had
to make numerous dissections, and at Jast was unable to arrive at satisfactory
conclusions on many points; for the organs are so small and delicate, and
become so brittle when the spiders have been preserved any time in spirits,
that it is not easy to separate them. My plan has been to dissect carefully
in water or spirit, under a simple lens, and then to submit each portion sepa-
rately to the action of a compound microscope.

158 REPORT—1858.

The abdomen of spiders is covered by a tough integument, consisting of
three layers: the external one is a thin transparent horny membrane, nearly
colourless, but more or less densely covered with coloured hairs; beneath
this lies a soft layer of pigmentary matter, upon which the peculiar colour of
the body depends; for it may be observed, that, when the hairs with which
the body of a spider is clothed are rubbed off, the integument beneath is
usually of a dark tint. The third or inner layer consists of an expanded
network of muscular fibres, which are irregularly interlaced, and which must
enable the spider forcibly to compress the abdomen. The muscles forming
this layer are very faintly, if at all, marked with transverse striz (see Plate XVI.
fig. 1).

At ohe apex of the abdomen, on the under side, is the anal tubercle, partly
concealing the opening of the intestinal canal; and immediately in front of
it are seated the spinnerets, a group of projecting processes or mammule;
mostly articulated, and moveable in all directions. Their number is gene-
rally six, but sometimes they are reduced to four, and, as Mr. Blackwall dis-
covered, they amount to eight in one family. They are placed in pairs,
closely grouped together. When six in number, the two anterior and two
posterior are much larger than the two intermediate ones, which in a state
of repose are hidden beneath the others (see Plate XVI. figs. 2and 3). The
posterior spinnerets are often triarticulate, and have the terminal joints much
prolonged and very hairy, when they have been called anal palpi, and supposed
not to take any part in the construction of the webs; Mr. Blackwell, how-
ever, demonstrated their true character, showing that they are provided with
moveable papillz for the transmission of the silk, like the others. The ex-
ternal anatomy of the spinnerets has been so fully described by Mr. Black-
wall *, who has shown the number and arrangement of these papilla, which
vary greatly in different species and on the different spinnerets, that I need
not dwell further upon them. In Plate XVI. fig. 6, I have represented some
of them, which are like hollow bristles with dilated bases.

In the spiders belonging to the family of the Cinifloride, Blk. (the type
of which is the common Ciniflo (Clubiona) atrox), there is a fourth pair of
spinnerets. They are short, compressed, and inarticulate, and different in
appearance from all the others. They are seated at the base, and in front
of the ordinary anterior pair, and have each on the surface an oval flattened
space perforated with an immense number of exceedingly minute pores, which
are the orifices of the spinning tubes (see Plate XVI. fig. 5).

The spinnerets are counected with the surrounding integument by means
of diverging bands of muscular fibres (Plate XVI. fig. 3), which enable them
to move in different directions ; these muscles are placed immediately beneath
the skin, and their expanded extremities are inserted into it so that they are
separated with it, unless dissected very carefully.

In the interior of the abdomen, nearer to the base than the apex, and in
female specimens opposite the opening of the oviduct, is a fixed spot, pro-
bably tendinous in character, from which muscular bands radiate in various
directions, keeping the different abdominal organs in their places. Some of
these bands are inserted into the integument on both the ventral and dorsal
surfaces of the body; others run backwards in straight parallel bundles, and
pass into the interior of the different spinning mammule. The last-men-
tioned fibres are strongly striated (Plate XVI. tig. ’7), while those passing from
the same point to the skin, like the muscles fixing the margins of the
spinnerets to the integument, are almost destitute of striz. When the abdo-

* Report on the Araneidea, British Association.for 1844. . .

ON THE ANATOMY OF THE ARANEIDEA, 159

_ men is opened, a large quantity of adipose matter comes into view, which sup-

ports and separates the different organs. In recent specimens this tissue is
formed into lobules, which are again connected by fine cellular tissue into
larger lobes (see Plate XVI. fig. 8) ; when, however, spiders have been kept for
some time in spirit, the connecting tissue disappears, the lobules break up,
and a mere unconnected granular mass remains. This reservoir of fat is a
storehouse of nutriment, which enables spiders to bear very long abstinence ;
and when they have been deprived of food for a long while, the abdomen
becomes small and shriveled. This adipose matter was described by Cuvier

and others as the liver. The chief organs which the abdomen contains are

the ovaries (in the female), the intestinal canal, and the glands for the secre-
tion of the silk. The ovaries, which shortly before the deposition of the eggs
occupy a large portion of the cavity, are seated in the central and posterior
part; the intestinal tube runs through it, in nearly a straight direction, from
the base to the apex; and the sacs and tubes which elaborate the material
for forming the webs, are placed in the lower, lateral, and anterior parts. I
shall confine myself to the anatomy of the last-named structures, merely
noticing with regard to one of the others, that I have generally observed the
lower part of the intestinal canal to be filled with a whitish turbid excre-
mentitious fluid, sometimes mixed with black particles*. After having been
some time in spirit, this fluid is converted into a whitish substance of the
consistence of mortar.

The silk-glands, with their excretory tubes, which I shall now proceed to
describe in detail, are very numerous, and of very beautiful construction.
They essentially consist of a number of hollow cavities or sacs, of different
sizes and shapes, each of which is furnished with a distinct duct. None of
them or their ducts have any communication with each other, but terminate
separately at the extremities of the spinnerets. The nature and construction
of the glands are essentially similar in all the species of British and foreign
spiders that I have dissected, though they differ greatly in form and number.
As might be expected, they are most highly developed in the web-spinning
species; while in those that hunt for their prey, as the Lycose, they are few
and small in comparison, with the exception of those species which are aéro-
nautic in their young state. They appear to be similar in the males and
females.

When the integument of the lower and front part of the abdomen is re-
moved, together with a thin layer of fat, and the muscles which move the
spinnerets, a large bunch of minute vesicles (just visible to the naked eye in
a large spider, such as Epéira diadema) is brought into view; these, exa-
mined by the microscope, are found to be small transparent oval sacs about
200th of an inch in diameter in Ap. diadema, with fine and exceedingly
elastic ducts, which proceed in bundles into the anterior and posterior pairs
of spinnerets ; few, if any, terminating in the intermediate pair. When accu-
rately examined, these small glands are found to be of two kinds; the most
superficial, which are fewer in number than the others in Ep. diadema, are
spindle-shaped, and imbedded in oval capsules of an opake finely granular
substance, which is brittle and easily rubbed off, when pressed between two
pieces of glass. I have endeavoured to represent these in Plate XVI. fig. 10 a,
and fig.11. The other cells, which are more deeply seated, are exceedingly
numerous in some species; they are nearly transparent, but when examined
by a good glass-look as if they were embossed, or covered with little eleva-

» * Mr. Blackwall noticed that the excrement of spiders often contained these black par-
ticles, which had previously been described as calculi,

160 ‘ REPORT—1858. |

tions. I think this is an optical illusion, and that the appearance is due to
the interior being furnished with numerous cavities or hollows (Plate XVI.
fig. 104, and fig. 12).

In Ciniflo atrox and C. ferox, and probably in the other species of the same
family, there are a number of very minute sacs, imbedded in granular opake
matter, which are not more than a fourth of the size of those which I have
before described ; they are of a round or pear-like shape, with the appearance
of a nucleus in the interior, and are furnished with exceedingly minute ducts,
I found them close to the spinarets, beneath the skin, and their ducts pro-
bably proceed to the minute orifices on the extremity of the extra pair of
spinnerets ; but owing to their extreme delicacy, I could not succeed in tracing
them there (Plate XVI. fig. 13).

In the middle and even upper parts of the abdomen are a number of tubular
or bag-shaped cavities, which vary much in shape, number, size, and structure
in different species; some are hard and cartilaginous in consistence, with
transparent walls; these present no appearance of fibres under the micro-
scope, but when forcibly compressed, crack and break into irregular frag-
ments. Their ducts seem similar in structure to the body of the sae, being
hard and brittle. In Epéira diadema and Ep. quadrata these glands are of
a large size; in the former species there are six of them, three being on each
side; they are somewhat cylindrical in shape, and very much convoluted
(see Plate XVII. fig.1@). I succeeded in tracing one of their ducts into each
of the six ordinary spinnerets. In Agelena labyrinthica they are represented
by several oval-shaped sacs, of moderate size (see Plate XVII. fig. 1 e), quite
transparent, and so firm in consistence, that they feel like solid bodies when
taken between the fingers.

We now come to a series of membranous sacs, of various shapes and sizes,
some being large and vermiform, others club-shaped, while others are dilated
in the middle and furnished with branched ceca. All these different forms
do not occur in the same individual, but some in one species and some in
another; they all appear, however, to resemble each other more or less in
structure. When any of the larger varieties are minutely examined, their
walls appear thickened and fibrous. Their inner surface is studded with mi-
nute cavities or hollows, giving it somewhat the appearance of the interior ofa
piece of human intestine, with its valvule conniventes ; thus affording an in-
creased surface for secretion. When carefully removed from the surround-
ing textures, they all appear coated externally by soft granular matter. I
think it probable that the blood or nutritive fluid which supplies the mate-
rials for secretion circulates in this coat, which must therefore be considered
as the cortical part of the gland. These sacs are well seen in Agelena laby-
rinthica, where they are met with of a large tubular or clavate shape. I
have figured three ( Plate XVII. fig. 7), the ducts of which I found terminating
in one of the elongated posterior spinners; fully confirming Mr. Blackwall’s
opinion as to the true nature of these anal palpi, as they have been called.
In Ciniflo ferox I noticed two large branched sacs of a very peculiar form
(see Plate XVII. fig. 6).

One of the most interesting parts of the structure of these membranous
sacs is the formation of their excretory ducts. A transparent and highly
extensible tube is encircled by a fibrous or muscular coat, which loosely sur-
rounds it, and seems to be a continuation of the outer coat of the sac itself.
When the ducts are stretched, which they unavoidably are in their removal
from the body, this breaks up into circular rings and becomes loose from the
tube within, which is exceedingly extensible, and stretches out so as to be-
come much less in diameter than the outer coat. This structure may be very

a

ON THE ANATOMY OF THE ARANEIDEA, 161

_ plainly seen in Agelena labyrinthica and Ciniflo ferox, but is still more distinct

in some large foreign spiders. I have figured a sac and tube taken from a
large species of Olios, which I had an opportunity of dissecting through the
kindness of Dr. Gray of the British Museum (Plate XVII. fig.5). The ducts
from these glands seem principally to terminate in the posterior and interme-
diate spinnerets, but I have traced some of them (especially in Ciniflo ferox)
into the anterior pair. When dissecting a large specimen of Mygale, I found

that the fine ducts proceeding from the numerous small oval glands in the

vicinity of the spinnerets had all the same structure as those I have described
(Plate XVI. fig. 120). I have noticed that some of the larger ducts proceed
parallel with, and are partly imbedded in, the fibres of the muscular bands
which extend into the interior of the spinnerets (see Plate XVII. fig. 8).

Ishall now endeavour to draw a few physiological inferences from the facts
I have imperfectly related. Every papilla or spinning tube is furnished with
a separate duct, so that each thread which a spider spins is secreted by a
distinct gland having no communication with its neighbours; and there can
be no doubt that different varieties of silk are secreted by the different kinds
of glands; but it is exceedingly difficult to demonstrate the fact, as no direct
experiments can well be made in proof of it. Treviranus says that he thinks
the small glands near the spinnerets of Ciniflo atrox, the existence of which
he ascertained (I do not mean the minute ones connected with the additional
spinnerets), contain a different kind of fluid from that in the large sacs; but
they are so small, that I do not think it possible to determine the nature of
their contents except by the colour, and that must be influenced by the struc-
ture of the walls of the sacs or glands.

We have seen that the secreting glands are of very different sizes and kinds ;
the orifices in the spinnerets, and the spinnerets themselves, are also different ;
and reasoning upon these facts, and upon some points which may be con-
sidered as proved, in the economy of the spinning organs, I think we may be
justified in drawing certain conclusions, or rather offering suggestions as to
their uses.

I have said that in Cinzflo atrox and allied species there is a distinct pair
of supplementary spinnerets, furnished with a fine sieve-like surface, for the
emission of a number of exceedingly delicate threads; there are also a num-
ber of very small and peculiar looking cells, apparently connected with these
spinners; now Mr. Blackwall has distinctly shown that these spinnerets per-
form a peculiar function, spinning exceedingly fine lines of pale blue silk,
which is woven into a flocculus, as he calls it, by a most beautiful comb or
calamistrum connected with the hind legs*, which flocculus performs a pecu-
liar office in the webs of this spider. In this case there are a distinct set of
glands, connected exclusively with a distinct pair of spinnerets, so that it is
very easy to determine their functions; the other glands, however, have not
peculiar spinnerets to themselves; therefore there must be a greater uncer-
tainty in hazarding opinions as to their uses.

By far the most numerous, and most constant in size and shape, of the
spinning glands in spiders generally, are the small ones seated near the spin~
nerets; these probably secrete the finer threads which form the more deli-
cate textures of their webs, construct the cocoons in which they enclose their
eggs, and the retreats in which some of the species conceal themselves.

I remarked that the hard cartilaginous sacs were peculiarly large and
numerous in the geometric spiders, as Epéira diadema. I would suggest
that they secrete the adhesive threads, which are spirally fixed upon the

* Researches in Zoology, p. 273.

162 : REPORT—1858.

framework of elastic filaments first constructed. The common house spider
( Tegenaria civilis) is said to form no adhesive lines, and I have been unable
to find any of the cartilaginous glands in its abdomen.

We now come to the consideration of the various shaped membranous sacs,
the ducts of which are much larger than in the cartilaginous kind, and, as I
have shown, are furnished with a fibrous coat arranged in distinct rings. I
have no doubt that these sacs form the fluid which constructs all the strong
non-adhesive threads spun by spiders, and also the floating lines or gossamer,
of the aéronautic species. In support of the latter assertion, I have found
that two of the most common among the aérial spiders, viz. Lycosa saccata
and Thomisus cristatus, contain these sacs in great size and number; whereas
they are erratic species spinning no regular webs, and therefore having no
other apparent use for them. In most other species of Lycose the spinning
organs are in a very rudimentary state.

I have now arrived at the most interesting, but most difficult part of my
task, viz. the question whether there is anything in the structure of the silk-
forming organs that will decide the question as to the power of spiders to
eject their threads to a distance. Looking at the strong fibrous coat on the
ducts of the membranous sacs, and the fibrous tissue surrounding the glands
themselves, I think that they must possess a powerful contractile power, which
may also be increased by the muscular coat of the integument enabling the
spider to compress its abdomen: may not the striated bands of muscular
fibres, which run in a parallel direction down the middle of the abdomen
quite into the interior of the spinnerets, and surround the termination of the
ducts, also assist in this object? They are not attached to the tegumentary
coverings of the spinnerets like the other muscles, and cannot therefore be
for the purpose of moving these processes ; their action must be to draw the
spinnerets inwards. On examination of the pectoral muscles which connect
the legs with the cephalothorax, and which possess great power, to enable
the spider to perform its various active movements, I found that they pre-
sented exactly the same microscopic appearances as the deep abdominal
muscles, being very strongly striated; I therefore conclude that the latter
perform some very active functions.

In adopting the conclusion that spiders have the power of forcibly pro-
pelling the silky fluid from their spinners, I know that Iam running counter
to the convictions of Mr. Blackwall, for whose opinion on all points con-
nected with Arachnology I have the greatest veneration. That patient and
acute observer based his views upon the result of many carefully conducted
experiments ; he found that spiders, when placed upon an upright stick which
had its base fixed in water, could not escape when they were covered by a
glass shade, so as to prevent any movement of the air; but when left un-
covered, in the ordinary atmosphere of a room, they emitted a little fluid
from their spinnerets, which was drawn out into a thread by the slightest
current of air, and soon became attached to some neighbouring object. I
think it very probable that a current of air may thus draw out these almost
imponderable lines in some cases, but I consider that we cannot thus account
for the formation of their threads under all circumstances and in all places.
We have also the testimony of Cuvier and others, that spiders sometimes
eject their threads simultaneously in opposite directions. Cuvier has seen
this feat performed by a Thomisus*, and Kirby and Spence quote an obser-
vation made by an anonymous author, who says he saw a small spider shoot
out obliquely in opposite directions small threads, which attached themselves

_* Regne Animal.

ON THE ANATOMY OF THE ARANEIDEA. 163

in the still air of a room, without any influence of the wind, to the objects
towards which they were directed *.

Spiders are exceedingly sagacious, and vary the expedients which they
adopt to escape from confinement or to reach a neighbouring object. I was
much interested lately in observing one (Hpéira inelinata) shift its position.
It was on a horizontal piece of wood, and wished to reach another piece
placed about a foot beneath it, and at a short distance from it laterally. It
suddenly dropped, spinning a thread as it fell, which of course it had first
fixed to the wood above. When it had fallen to a little below the level of
the object which it wished to reach, it stopped itself by catching the line with
one of its feet, and remained suspended in the air by the thread. It now
made several violent jerking movements, and thus acquired a swinging mo-
tion, which it managed to increase until it brought itself into contact with
the neighbouring object: as soon as this was effected, it clambered on to it,
and walked leisurely away.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Pirate XVI.

Fig. 1. Portion of the muscular layer of integument.

Fig. 2. Spinnerets from a large species of Olios.

Fig. 38. Spinnerets of Hpéira diadema, with motor muscles.

Fig. 4. Portion of one of the same muscles, greatly magnified, showing its
attachment to the skin.

5. Spinnerets of Ciniflo ferox:—a. Extra spinnerets, which form the
flocculus; 5. Cribriform surface on the same.
6. a. Papille or spinning tubes on a portion of a spinneret; 6. Highly
magnified view of one papilla.

Fig. 7. Striated muscle from the interior of abdomen :—a. Bundle of fibres ;
b. One fibre, highly magnified. |

Fig. 8. Fat lobules.

Fig. 9. Interior of the abdomen of Epéira diadema, showing the silk-glands
in situ.

Fig. 10. One of the spinnerets of Epéira diadema, with portions of striated

muscle, and some of the small oval and fusiform glands attached.

Fig. 11. Two of the fusiform glands, with their granular capsules highly
magnified.

Fig. 12. a. Oval gland, from Epéira diadema, showing its embossed appear-
ance ; 6, Ditto, from a large species of Mygale, showing its duct
with a fibrous covering.

Fig. 13. Minute glands near the supplementary spinners in Ciniflo atroa;
two ordinary glands appear with them.

Prats XVII.

Fig. 1. Cartilaginous or hard silk-glands:—a and 6. Two varieties from

Epéira diadema; ce. Variety from Agelena labyrinthica.

Fig. 2. Membranous sac and duct from Agelena labyrinthica.

Fig. 3. A portion of the body of the same, highly magnified.

Fig. 4. A portion of the duct of the same, highly magnified.

Fig. 5. Large sac from a species of Olios:—a. A portion of the duct of the
same, showing the fibrous coat.

Fig. 6. Peculiar shaped sac, with branched ceca, from Ciniflo atrox.

_ * Introduction to Entomology, 3rd edit, vol. i. p. 418.

164 ; REPORT—1858.

Fig. 7. One of the posterior triarticulate spinners from Agelena labyrinthica,
with spinning glands attached.

Fig. 8. Portions of duct, from spinning glands imbedded in muscle, just as
they are entering one of the spinnerets.

The Patent Laws.—Report of the Committee of the British Association.
Presented by W. Farrpairn, F.R.S.

Tue subject of the Patent Laws has frequently occupied the attention of
meetings of the British Association, and committees have from time to time
been appointed for the purpose of considering how those laws might be
rendered more efficient for the objects with which they are maintained.
The Rev. Vernon Harcourt, in the inaugural address at the first meeting of
the Association, held at York (September 1831), in which he expounded
the objects and plan of the Association, referred to those laws as an instance
in which fiscal regulations interfered with the progress of practical science,
and as failing to give protection to property in scientific invention to the
same extent as protection is given to every other species of property ; and
he suggested a revision of those laws as one of the subjects to which a
scientific association might be justly expected to call public attention; and
Sir David Brewster, and others, have on several occasious brought the
subject before meetings of the Association.

By the Patent Law Amendment Act, passed in the session of 1852, the
rights of the inventor to property in the offspring of his brain, and in the
creations of his intellect when embodied in products of national industry, were
fully recognized ; provisional protection to that property was secured to such
inventor from the date of his application for a patent ; one proceeding was sub-
stituted, and one patent issued, extending to the whole of the United Kingdom,
instead of three proceedings and three patents separate and distinct for each
of the three countries, England, Scotland and Ireland ; property was created
and protection obtained for six months by a payment of £5; for three years
by a payment of £25; and for the further terms of four and seven years, by
additional payments of £50 and £100 respectively, instead of by the pay-
ment of upwards of £300 in the first instance, under circumstances of such
uncertainty as threw discredit on the whole system; the specifications of all
patents are to be printed and published, and sold at extremely low prices; a
benefit to the public as well as the inventor, which it would be difficult to
estimate too highly ; and, lastly, provision was made for the regulation of
matters relating to patents by commissioners furnished with ample powers
for the purpose.

This Act came into operation on the Ist of October, 1852, and the ex-
perience of the first two years showed that the payments by inventors upon
the above scale of charges would be at the rate of more than £50,000 per
annum, without including the further or additional payments for the main-
tenance of the patents for the further terms of four and seven years, after
the expiration of the first three or seven years respectively.

At the meeting of the British Association in Liverpool, September 1854,
a committee, presided over by the Earl of Harrowby, was appointed “ for
the purpose of taking such steps as may be necessary to render the patent
system and the funds derived from inventors more efficient and available
for the reward of meritorious inventors and the advancement of practical
science.” This committee communicated with the Earl Granville and Lord
Brougham, to whose exertions and watchful care the passage of the measure

ON THE PATENT LAWS. 165

_ of 1852 was mainly due; and made a report to the meeting of the British
_ Association, held in Glasgow in the following year, when the subject of the
tax on inventors and the appropriation of the funds so levied was fully dis-
cussed ; and another committee, consisting of His Grace the Duke of Argyll,
the Earl of Harrowby, Colonel Sabine, the Master of the Mint (Prof.
Graham), Mr. Fairbairn and Mr. Webster, were appointed with similar
powers. The Glasgow Committee addressed a memorial to the Lord Chan-
cellor (Lord Cranworth), calling attention to the proceedings which had
taken place at the various meetings of the British Association, to the nume-
rous questions of administration and legislation then adverted to, or which
might be expected to arise, and suggesting that Her Majesty should be ad-
vised, in accordance with the provisions of the Patent Law Amendment
Act, 1852, to appoint others than the official commissioners, and to make
the working of that Act the subject of immediate inquiry.

At the meeting of the British Association, held at Cheltenham in 1856, a
committee, consisting of the Earl of Harrowby, Lord Stanley, M.P., Mr.
Fairbairn, Prof. Graham, the Master of the Mint, Mr. James Heywood,
Mr. Commissioner Hill, General Sabine, and Mr. Webster, were appointed
with like powers; the Earl of Harrowby and Mr. James Heywood commu-
nicated personally with the Lord Chancellor; the Lord Stanley took a warm
interest in the subject, embodying his views on the necessary alterations in
a published pamphlet; but up to this time the objects in view have not been
attained, and it will be for this meeting of the British Association to consider
what further steps should be taken.

The printing and publication of the specifications has led to results which
were hardly anticipated, as to which the following extract from a Report of
the Commissioners of Patents in 1856, will be read with interest :—

“The Commissioners of Patents have presented complete copies of all their
publications to such of the government officers and seats of learning as have
applied for them, and to the principal towns in the United Kingdom, on con-
dition of their being daily open to the inspection of the public free of charge.
In their selection of towns for this gift, they have been guided by the num-
ber of applications for patents proceeding from each.

“This gift has in most cases laid the foundation of public free libraries
where none previously existed. In some instances, where the local authori-
ties hesitated to accept the works on account of the incidental expenses,
the custody has been solicited and temporarily undertaken by scientific in-
stitutions, which have modified their by-laws to enable a free admission of
the public daily to the library in which the works are deposited.”

The same Report, after enumerating a list of the places which have received
the works, says, “it is satisfactory to find that these national records of in-
vention are especially consulted by that class whose skill in the improvement
of manufactures is so essential to the maintenance of the commercial pros-
perity of this kingdom ;” and adds the testimony of the librarians of several of
the free libraries to the same effect.

Complete sets of the Commissioners’ works have been sent to the Colonies ;
to many Foreign States; to the Patent Office, Washington; to the Aster Li-
brary, New York ; to the Franklin Institution of Pennsylvania; to the Public
Free Library, Boston, U.S.; and the Honourable Charles Mason, Commis-
sioner of Patents for the United States, addressing the Commissioners of
Patents in this country, writes as follows :—

“The admirable exampie you have set in publishing the specifications and
drawings in full, and putting them on sale at a moderate price, so that all
ean easily provide themselves with what they need for private use, will ere

166 REPORT—1858, -

long, I trust, stimulate our own Government to do the like. Nothing short
of this in the way of publication can give permanent satisfaction.”

A free library and reading-room has been opened at the office of the Com-
missioners of Patents, containing a large collection of works of reference,
which the same Report states to be numerously attended by professional
men, the agents of foreign and provincial inventors, and by practical mecha-
nics and operatives; and Mr. Woodcroft has collected a large number of
portraits of inventors and of models, illustrative of the history and progress
of invention, which it may be hoped, at no distant period, will form a prin-
cipal object in a national gallery of inventors and museum of inventions.

These and other undertakings, well suited to promote the advance of prac-
tical science and the interest of inventors, afford legitimate objects for the ex-
penditure of the surplus funds levied on inventors ; but when ample provision
shall have been made for these objects, there will be a considerable annual
surplus.

The amount paid by patentees during the last year was upwards of
£83,000; and after the commencement of the payment of £100 at the
expiration of the seventh year, the amount levied on inventors will not be
found less than £100,000 per annum; a sum, which, as being levied on
inventors and inventions, may reasonably be expected to be expended on
objects in which inventors have some interest.

In reference to this braneh of the subject, the following questions would
appear to arise for consideration :—

1. Should the present scale of payment be maintained or reduced, so as
to leave no great surplus beyond what may be necessary for the official
expenses P

2. If the present scale be maintained, how should the surplus be appro-
priated ?

It appears that the second payment of £50 before the end of the third
year is not made in respect of more than about one-fourth of the whole
number of patents issued, that payment being made on about 500 out of
2000 patents, so that 1500 are permitted to lapse; the cost of which in
money to the patentees cannot be taken at less than £75,000, in addition
to the expenditure of time and labour on the respective inventions. Can any-
thing be done to diminish this loss beyond affording every facility for access
to information as to what has been done before, and the improved education
of the people ?

In addition to these considerations and suggestions in connexion with the
new system as recently established, and which are of a fiscal character,
there are some other questions deeply affecting the interests of inventors
and the advancement of practical science, which it would not be proper to
close this Report without adverting to.

The Patent Law Reform of 1852 was never regarded as a final measure.
It was but a first instalment obtained under great difficulty; it only laid
the foundation of the superstructure yet to be raised, ‘The following import-
ant questions of—J. improved protection to the property so created ;
2. the amendment of existing patents and specifications, so as to save what
is really new and useful according to the amendment ofthe Patent Law as
effected by Lord Brougham in 1835; 3. the confirmation of an invention
reinvented and introduced into successful use, according to the principle of
the confirmation of rights effected by the same noble Lord; 4. the exten-
sion of the term of patents which have not yielded adequate remuneration to
the inventor; 5. reward to a meritorious inventor, who from causes wholly be-
-yond his control, has been a great loser by, or derived no benefit from a meri-

ON THE LEAD MINING DISTRICTS OF YORKSHIRE, 167.

torious invention, from which the public have derived great benefit; 6. a

system of compulsory licences under existing patents,—are questions, all of
which were omitted advisedly by the promoters of the recent measure, their
attention being directed mainly to the destruction of the existing, and the
establishment of a new system of creating property in inventions.
, These, with other amendments and matters of minor importance, which

the experience of six years of the working of the new system has disclosed,
- willinvolve further legislation, and the consolidation and repeal of no less than
sixteen statutes, or part of statutes, an object of great importance to every
inventor.

Your Committee now remit this subject to the consideration of the Meeting
of the British Association, deriving confidence from the belief that the times
are not unfavourable for further action, and that the town and neighbour-
hood in which the Association is now assembled may appropriately claim to
take a prominent part in the consummation of those reforms which have
occupied the attention of so many previous Meetings.

On the Lead Mining Districts of Yorkshire.
By Stepuen Eppy, Carlton, Skipton.

Iy comparison with the vast coal fields and iron-stone beds of Yorkshire, the
lead-producing district of this county seems trifling ; yet in consideration of
the large population dependent upon the mining and manufacture of lead, it
necessarily claims our attention.

I cannot take it upon me to say, when lead mining was first commenced in
this county ; but that many veins were discovered and worked to some extent,
at a very early period, is fully established, both by the Roman explorations
frequently met with, and the discovery in the vicinity of Greenhow Hill, near
Pateley Bridge, of two pigs of lead, inscribed with the name of the Emperor
Domitian, and bearing date a.p. 82. It is not improbable, however, that

the mines of these districts were worked at a still more remote period by the
ancient Britons.

Tn the earlier age of lead mining, and indeed up to a comparatively recent
period, the discovery of a vein entitled the party finding it to a grant, or
licence to work, on a certain length of such particular vein, generally two
meers ; the meer being 28, 29, 30, or 32 yards, in different districts, re-
spectively. The width of the ground granted was confined to a distance of
8 yards on each side of the vein. This was called the “ Quarter Cord.”

Thus, each vein formed a distinct mine, and from the well-known fact,
that (though there is, generally speaking, a certain degree of parallelism
maintained by the major part of the veins), in each of our mining fields,
numerous intersections take place ; the parties pursuing their allotted veins
frequently found themselves within the quarter cord of the adjacent sett,
and sometimes on their neighbour's vein. The result of such a system of
holding, was not only to cramp the energies of the miner, from his not having
a reasonable extent of ground for works of trial; but also to involve him in
constant disputes and litigations with his neighbour,

The pernicious system of letting ground on a certain vein, with a given
width on each side of such vein, was however continued to a comparatively
recent date; when parties with capital becoming connected with the mines,
and the works being so extended as to render the introduction of machinery
advisable, the necessity for grants on a larger scale was so apparent, that
small holders were by degrees disposed of, and the custom of granting setts

168 ~ > REPORT—1858. ~~

(as they are termed) of certain extent, defined by fixed boundaries, which
has been practised in Devon and Cornwall from a very early period, is now
almost generally adopted in this county.

Generally speaking, the various lead mines which constitute such an im-
portant portion of the mineral treasures of Great Britain, are situated on
rugged and barren elevations, and in this respect those of Yorkshire are not
exceptions.

If we draw an imaginary line from I{kley, bearing about 12° West of
North, for a distance of 35 miles, and then parallel ones to it, through points
10 miles east and 10 miles west from the centre line, we shall in this area of
700 square miles, include the high and uncultivated districts bounding
Airedale, Wharfedale, Nidderdale, Wensleydale, Arkendale and Swaledale;
in which I believe all the lead mines in this county, that have been or are
being worked to any extent, are situated.

The strata throughout the whole of this area, are (like those of the great
lead-bearing districts of Northumberland, Cumberland, and Durham, and
also of Derbyshire) the lower members of the Carboniferous Series.

Although the same class of rocks prevails throughout our lead-bearing
districts, we do not always find each individual stratum to occur, even in
mines in the immediate vicinity of each other ; and when they do exist, their
thickness is frequently found to vary considerably.

It is therefore impossible to make a section, that would correspond with
every mining district, or even hold good throughout a single mining field.

Plate XVIII. figs. 1, 2, and 3, are sections of the strata sunk through in
three of the shafts on the Grassington Mines in Wharfedale. From these it
will be observed, that even in situations so close to each other, the thickness
of the beds varies considerably.

The greatest thickness of Limestone yet proved at Grassington is 66 yards,
whereas at the Cockhill Mines, near Pateley Bridge, only about 6 miles _
distant, it is found to be at least 180 yards thick.

In the metalliferous portion of the Carboniferous rocks, we have the
Rake Vein, the Pipe or Tube Vein, and the lateral embedded, or Flat Vein.

The first has the appearance of a rent or fissure in the strata, extending
to a great length, and generally to an unknown depth. The second, or
Pipe Vein, has the form of an irregular tube, is met with in certain strata,
(generally Limestone), and dips with the beds, or passes more or less diago-
nally through them, for a great length. The Flat Vein is seldom met with,
except in connexion with some Rake Vein, but has always a position con-
formable to the stratum in which it is embedded.

The Rake Veins are by far the most numerous in every district, and the
phenomena presented by them the most varied and complicated. The
greater portion of our lead cre likewise is obtained from them.

The longitudinal course, or “bearing,” of a Rake Vein, is seldom (if ever)
a perfectly straight line; but, for the most part, it gives a tolerably direct
bearing throughout its entire length.

The downward course of these veins varies considerably in the angles
formed with the vertical. The “ Hade,” or inclination, is likewise more toward
a horizontal position, in the soft or Argillaceous Beds, than in the more hard
and solid rocks; and sometimes in passing a seam of Coal or of soft Clay, it
takes the direction of the stratum for a greater or less distance. (See figs.
4, 5, and 6.)

The width of the vein is not uniform throughout its whole length; it
frequently opens out from a width of a foot or two, to one of as many yards,
and then contracts until it becomes a mere thread or joint.

ON THE LEAD MINING DISTRICTS OF YORKSHIRE. 169

At the Cononley Mine in Airedale, the vein is frequently found to vary
from an inch or two in width, to five or six yards, and that, within a longitu-
dinal distance of a few feet. The width of a vein varies also with a change
of strata; it is much greater in the hard strata, where it has a more erect
position than in the soft ; it is generally more open in the Limestone than in
the Gritstone, and very much contracted in the plate or shale. Frequently
we find the vein to be 4 or 5 feet wide in the Grit or the Limestone, when
it is scarcely perceptible in the plate.

The beginning or termination of a vein longitudinally, is seldom explored ;
where this has been done, the vein is found to ramify at acute angles, and

_ the branches quickly terminate.

A remarkable instance of this recently occurred at the Grassington Mines.

In these mines, three levels were being driven eastward on the Cavendish

Vein, at the respective depths of 20,37, and 50 fathoms from the surface.

The 20-fathom level was in a stratum, locally known as the ‘ Top Grit ;’ the

37 in the ‘ Bearing or Main Grit; and the 50-fathom level in the Limestone.

Each level was at the time yielding from 6 to 9 tons of rich lead ore from
every fathom driven. Many parties who went underground in this mine, after
some length of such rich ground had been explored, and while the levels
continued to yield at that rate, concluded that ground was being laid open
from which immense profits could be made, for many years to come; and
they were correct, so far as they had an opportunity of judging ; for, had
the levels continued to open out such rich ground, no difficulty would have
been found in making a profit of 40,0000. or 50,000/. a year from these mines.

Unfortunately a change soon took place. The first cause for apprehen-
sion noticed, was the wedge-like point of thin beds of Plate, introduced in

_ different parts of the “‘ Bearing Grit,” in the 37-fathom level. As these became
_ more numerous, and of greater thickness, the vein began to throw off
brauches on either side, and in the course of a few fathoms there was not a
trace of the vein to be seen. As the upper and lower levels (the 20 and
50) approached the same perpendicular point eastward, the vein in each case
ramified into numerous strings. First, one branch was followed, and then
another, until they disappeared entirely. At about 60 fathoms eastwards
from where all trace of this vein was thus lost, a “ Crosscut” (that is, a level at
right angles to the general bearing of the veins) was driven to some consi-
derable distance both North and South of where it should have been inter-
sected, had it continued eastward; but without discovering the slightest
symptom of a vein.

The Rake Veins are generally found to be “ Fault Veins.” Asa rule, the
‘strata are lower on that side to which a vein hades or inclines, called the
hanging wall, than on the one upon which it rests, known as the footwall
of the vein. Thus a vein with the beds on the north side thrown up, will
hade or underlie to the south. (See figs. 4 & 5.)

The extent of the throw, or difference of level of the corresponding
Strata, varies from a few inches to 20 or 30 fathoms; and such a difference
is often met with when veins are in the immediate vicinity of each other.
‘The extent of the throw is generally considered to denote the strength of
the vein. A vein with a difference in the level of the strata of from 6 to
18 feet, is regarded by the miner with more favour than one with a greater
or less throw. Such a throw is considered evidence of sufficient strength of
vein to ensure its continuity at a moderate size, and not such as to destroy
the effect which certain beds are supposed to produce, when they are found
in the same horizontal line, on each side of the vein.

Am rocks of a different character are brought into the same horizontal

—:1858. N

170 REPORT—1858.

line, that is, when Gritstone on one side of the vein is opposed to Plate on
the other, and Limestone to Gritstone, or Limestone to Shale, the veins are
not often found productive of Lead ores. There are, however, many ex-
ceptions to this rule. At the Grassington Mines are two parallel veins,
within 80 fathoms of each other, both throwing the south side down to such
an extent, as to cause Plate to be opposed to Gritstone, Plate to Limestone,
and Gritstone to Limestone, and so on throughout the whole depth explored
on them. (See fig. 5.) So circumstanced, one of these veins yielded great
abundance of ore, while the other proved to be totally barren.

We often find, when the vein occasions a throw of some two or three
fathoms, that the ore does not extend above the change of strata on the
hanging side, nor below the change on the lying or footwall ; for instance,
when the bed of Grit or Limestone is 10 fathoms thick, and the throw of
the strata is 3 fathoms, we have only 7 fathoms in height of ore; but in
some cases the ore is found to extend the full thickness of the bed with the
addition of the extent of the throw. Diagram 4 represents a transverse sec-
tion of such a vein in the Grassington Mines, from which considerable quan-
tities of ore are now being raised.

The strata on each side of a vein are not only at different levels, but near
the vein they have a different position, being bent upwards on the one side
and downwards on the other. As a rule, the strata on the higher side are
bent downwards to the vein, and on the depressed side from it. Thus, if
in driving a crosscut southward, in search of a vein ranging east and west,
we arrive at a point where the beds assume a faster dip, our approach to a
vein that throws the strata down on the south side, is inferred; while, if in
driving northward, the beds curve quickly upwards, we anticipate a vein
with the north-side strata at a higher level. (See fig. 5.)

In each of our Lead-bearing districts, the strata consist of numerous
alternating beds of Plate, Gritstone, and Limestone; forming the Yoredale
Rocks of Professor Phillips.

The veins are found to traverse or pass through all these beds, but gene-
rally speaking, it is only in certain of them that Lead ore is found; the
Limestone being the prevalently productive stratum in some districts, whilst
in others the principal yield of ore is from the Gritstone. The Argillaceous
Plates seldom yield ore; but there is an exception to this in the Cononley
Mines, where bunches of ore have continued from the surface, to a depth
of more than 30 fathoms; although the alternations of Plates and Gritstones
are exceedingly numerous, and the Plates much thicker than the Gritstone
beds.

From these facts it follows, that a rule, by which to calculate on metallic
products from certain rocks, will not admit of general application; but we
may carry it so far as to say, that in a given district, certain beds generally
are, and others generally are not, productive.

Many veins, particularly in our more Northern fields, preserve a tolerably
direct course for a considerable distance. The Old Gang Vein in Swaledale,
for instance, has been worked for several miles in length, and can be traced
to a much greater distance in nearly a straight line.

In our three Northern Mining Fields,—Swaledale, Arkendale, and Wens-
leydale—the veins appear to be more regular in size and direction, and the
beds preserve a more uniform thickness, than in the three Southern Fields.
In the former, likewise, the calcareous beds have been the principal sources
of produce; whereas, in our Southern ones, the greater portion of the ore
has been, and still is being produced, from the Gritstone.

There are other causes by which the productiveness of the veins appear

ON THE LEAD MINING DISTRICTS OF YORKSHIRE. 171

to be influenced, that are peculiar to the Mines of our three Northern Dales,
while certain characteristics more particularly pertain to our Southern Mi-
ning Fields. We may, therefore, for all the purposes of this paper, treat the
Lead Mines of this county, as belonging to two great Mineral Districts, the
Northern and the Southern.

In each district we have the Rake, the Pipe, and the Flat Veins. The
ores from the Pipe and Flat Veins are generally found more fusible in the
furnace, and to yield a higher per centage of lead, than those from the Rake
Veins; and the ores from the Limestones (whether produced from the
Rake, Pipe, or Flat Vein) are found to be more easily reduced, and to make
a much better quality of metal for White Lead, than those from the Grit-
stone.

Here, I would refer to a correspondence, which took place some few
months ago, in the columns of the ‘ Mining Journal,’ on the subject of Slick-
ensides. It was there asserted that Slickensides had never been met with
in Gritstone. I am prepared to meet this assertion, by the production of
the specimen obtained from the Gritstone in the Grassington Mines; and
with the exception of one from the same place, which I gave to the late
Duke of Devonshire, I much question there being a better specimen in the
country.

The Slickensides first appeared at the point of junction of two veins, and
continued their course in a perfectly straight line in the centre of the joint
vein, for about 70 yards in length; or they might perhaps more correctly be
said to have still divided the two veins, forming the North side of the one,
and the South side of the other. (See fig. 7.)

We could have procured specimens from either side, with as good a sur-
face as the one exhibited, but not so large. It was only from the South
side that they could be obtained of any size, the other being so cracked
horizontally, that it was seldom a piece could be broken off, more than
an inch or two wide ; in fact, the cracks on this side were almost as nume-
rous as the striz on the surface of the North.

The vein, throughout the whole length in which the Slickensides were
found, maintained nearly a perpendicular position; and the striz were as
nearly horizontal. In many parts of the vein, we had the thickness of a foot
of solid ore behind each face of Slickenside.

Many present will no doubt have read or heard of the phenomena reported
to have attended the laying open of Slickensides in Germany; that the
miner has at times been much frightened by the loud reports occasioned
by the explosions.

When driving our level in the Slickensides, we generally worked forward
‘on the North side, leaving the South, or strong side, standing for 6 or 8 yards
in length ; and on more than one occasion, the warkmen spoke of the reports
they heard, sometimes as loud as that of a small pistol. At such times,
numerous places could be seen where pieces had been blistered, and blown
way from the face of the Slickenside; which presented much the same ap-
pearance as a wall recently plastered with very imperfectly-slacked lime, but
on a much larger scale.

The ore from a vein carrying much Slickenside, requires generally a
higher temperature, and is altogether more refractory in the furnace than
that from one free from it.

_ As a general rule, the greatest number of veins in each Mining district
are found to run nearly parallel to each other. There are others that form
a gles more or less acute, with the predominant direction; which, in the
Northern District, is a little North of East, and South of West; whilst in

NZ

172... REPORT—1858.

our Southern Fields, the general direction is North of West, and South of
East.

Where the veins of the more usual line of direction are crossed by
oblique or “ caunter” veins, we frequently find the traversed ones to be shifted
or thrown off their course, and often ramified by those so traversing ; and
sometimes they undergo a curvature on one side, near the cross vein.

As a rule, if the oblique or “ caunter” vein be first met with on the right-
hand side, the shift will be to the left; and if on the contrary, the heave
will be to the right ; or in other words, the vein is heaved on the side of the
obtuse angle formed by the intersecting planes. (See fig. 8; A, B, A.)

To this rule there are however many exceptions, and a remarkable one
occurred at the Grassington Mines, which is represented by Fig. 8. On
finding the vein A A shifted, the level, as usual, was turned on the side of the
obtuse angle, and driven forward on the vein B some considerable distance,
till, despairing of finding the vein in this direction, and after carefully exami-
ning the surface, and some old works in the vicinity, we returned to the point
of intersection, and began a level northward at nearly right angles to the
traversed vein; which in course of time was found to be heaved or thrown
backwards some 50 yards. (See fig. 8; AA, BB, A A.)

In heaves of this class, the veins are consequently lengthened ; while they
are shortened when thrown or shifted on the side of the obtuse angle.

The dislocation of one vein by another is likewise indicative of its ante-
rior existence.

When one or both of the veins produce ore up to the point at which they
meet, the yield is often increased by their junction. The extent of the angle
formed by two veins is looked upon with some interest by the Miner; the
more acute it is, the more favourable is their union considered to be for the
production of metallic Mineral.

At Grassington, it is found that many of the direct veins are not heaved
by the oblique or “ caunter” ones, but are so split or ramified, that it is with
difficulty they can be traced on the other side of the intersection. The
usual course in such cases is to go forward on the “caunter” vein, some fathoms
beyond the point of intersection, and drive a crosscut; when the branches
are often found to have united, and the vein to be reconstructed.

When the displacement of the strata is so great as to cause beds of dif-
ferent mineral character to be opposed to each other, fragments of the en-
closing rocks form a considerable portion of the contents of the vein,

The general composition of the veins is Calcareous Spar, Fluor Spar,
Barytes, and occasionally Calamine. In some districts one of these minerals
prevails, in others another.

A vein enclosed by regularly stratified Gritstone is productive, almost
entirely, ef Galena, which forms the principal yield of Lead Ores through-
out the world. Cases have, however, occurred, when a somewhat thin stra-
tum of Grit, superimposed on an Argillaceous Shale of moderate thickness,
has exclusively contained large quantities of decomposing Galena, earthy
Carbonates, and imperfectly crystallized Carbonates. In the former case, the
ore lies mostly in more or less solid ribs, approximately parallel to the walls
of the vein; while in the latter, the lode is found loosely filled with various
sized pieces, in different stages of chemical decomposition.

When the beds of Gritstone and Shale are much broken and displaced
(as is usual in the vicinity of an anticlinal axis, or contiguous to a line of
extensive fault), or when the.beds of Shale are individually thicker than the
respective Gritstones, the vein throughout its productive depth principally
yields irregular strings and small bunches of Galena; whilst its upper part

ON THE LEAD MINING DISTRICTS OF YORKSHIRE. 173

mostly carries considerable deposits, of mixed rich and poor earthy, compact,
and crystallized Carbonates.

In such ground, when the vein is very wide and encloses detached masses
of Gritstone, or when the sides of the lode are much disturbed and broken,
large crystals of the Carbonate are frequently found pressed flat upon the
faces formed by the jointing and bedding planes of such Sandstone, for
some distance from the body of the ore.

The Limestone beds usually favour the deposits of rich Galena in self
lumips, or nodules of various sizes. These self lumps are often coated with
an earthy white Carbonate, which is also frequently found filling the small
interstices in the adjacent rock, and likewise as a deposit in the nests formed
by those sudden enlargements and contractions so usual in veins traversing
the Limestone beds. Not many of the other Lead Ores (which are seldom
met with, and consequently of little commercial value) have been found in
our Yorkshire Mines.

Minium is stated, in most Mineralogical works, to have been found on
Grassington Moor; but I have never seen, nor heard of any from there,
and certainly for twenty-six years past none has been found. The Phos-
phate and Arsenio-phosphate were formerly found at Grassington, principally
in the Gritstone.

A small piece of native Lead has also been obtained from the Gritstone
in those mines within the last four years.

In each district we have numerous mines; some, that a few years ago
_ were highly productive, are now nearly exhausted; others, though but
recently opened, are yielding well; and there is no doubt there are many rich
_ veins yet undiscovered in both districts.

By far the greater portion of the present produce from the Northern dis-
trict is from the Old Gang Mine, in Arkendale; and the Kell Head Mine,
in Wensleydale; while the Grassington Mines in Wharfedale yield about
two-thirds of the produce of the Southern district. The produce of the
county in 1856 was 8933 tons of Pig Lead, or about tth of the total returns
of the United Kingdom.

The difficulties and uncertainties which attend mining for Metallic Minc-
rals are not generally known.

Many large and regular veins (although presenting very encouraging fea-
tures) prove totally destitute of metallic mineral; others make rich deposits
of ore, but of very limited extent; and in our most profitable mines, a con-
siderable extent of barren ground must needs be opened, even on the best
‘producing veins.

At the Cononley Mines, for instance, although profitable for many years

past, the levels (which are very extensive) have laid open more than 20
fathoms of totally unmetalliferous, for every fathom of productive ground.
__ The Sections produced tend to show that Lead Mining in the secondary
formation is more uncertain in its character than in the more primitive
rocks. When ore is discovered in the latter, it is reasonably expected to
continue upwards and downwards to some considerable extent ; whereas, in a
stratified country, and where the bearing beds are not individually thick, the
ore at best will not exceed a few fathoms in height or depth, and moreover
levels may be driven in certain beds without the slightest chance of success.
_ In one respect the stratified district offers the advantage. The nature
and thickness of the bearing beds, and the inclination of the strata being
known, we can generally determine the elevation for commencing an Adit,
or water level, to drain the productive parts of the veins; and thus avoid
the cost of engine power for pumping, and other expenses,

ee ee ee

q

Mining for Metallic Minerals, whether in the primitive or secondary for-
mation, is of a much more uncertain and speculative character than that for
Coal. In the Coal Measures, we can ascertain at a moderate expense, by
boring, whether seams of Coal exist; and if existing, their thickness, This
being learnt, an approximate estimate of the quantity of saleable Coal in a
given area, and the cost of its get, is no difficult matter.

With the Rake and Pipe Veins of the Lead Fields, the case is different.
A vein which generally approaches the perpendicular, rather than otherwise,
presents little chance of being probed by boring; and even should it be
pierced, the mineral capable of extraction through a borehole would afford
very unsafe data by which to judge the value of the vein. ‘The hole might
quite possibly pass through the only portion of ore contained within many
fathoms ; or, with an equal possibility, penetrate the poor part of a vein,
which at any other point would have yielded widely different data.

Mineral veins may be, and frequently are, discovered (in places where the
surface of the rock is to be seen) by the fracture and interruption in the
regularity of the strata.

In all Mining districts, but especially in a stratified country, the pheno-
mena presented by veins, their frequent heaves and dislocations, and their
varied appearances when bounded by different rocks, call for very close
attention; and even a dependence upon knowledge acquired in one district,
may prove fatal in another.

The Miner should be perfectly acquainted with the nature of those sub-
stances, which it is his daily task to seek in the bowels of the earth,—as
well as with those which, though perhaps worthless in themselves, generally
indicate the presence or absence of the immediate objects of his search.
Long and practical experience, combined with a knowledge of Geology
and Mineralogy, can alone furnish him with this requisition; and is there-
fore essential to success.

174 REPORT—1858.

On the Collapse of Glass Globes and Cylinders.
By W. Farrpairn, F.R.S.

At the Meeting of the British Association last year, a paper was read upon
the Collapse of Cylindrical Wrought-iron Riveted Tubes by a uniform
external force. These experiments upon a ductile and fibrous material, led
to some novel and important results, and suggested the propriety of similarly
testing the resisting powers of a perfectly homogeneous crystalline and
rigid material, in order that our knowledge of the laws which govern the
resistance of vessels to collapse, might be confirmed and extended.

For this purpose, glass was the material selected, not only on account of
its fulfilling better than almost any other material the conditions sought for,
and from the ease with which it could be manufactured into the required
forms ; but also because it was hoped that the results would be practically of
value in those cases in the arts and in experimental science in which it is so
extensively employed.

The experiments were conducted in a similar manner te those upon iron.
Some glass cylinders and globes were procured direct from the glass-house,
blown out of good flint-glass. ‘The open ends of these were then hermetically
sealed by the blow-pipe, and they were placed in a strong wrought-iron vessel,
capable of sustaining a pressure of 2500lbs. per square inch. Water was
then pumped in by means of a force-pump, and the pressure was recorded

ON THE COLLAPSE OF GLASS GLOBES AND CYLINDERS. 175

by a Scheffer gauge. The point of rupture was indicated by an explosion
within the vessel, and by the sudden decrease of pressure.

The first experiments were upon glass globes, intended to be perfectly
spherical, but in most instances somewhat flattened upon the side opposite
to that from which they were blown. Notwithstanding, however, this ellip-
ticity, some of the globes bore enormously high pressures, especially when
the extreme tenuity of the glass is considered, amounting to from one to
- two hundredths of an inch in thickness only.

Tas Le I.—Strength of Glass Globes to resist a uniform external pressure.

Mark. Diameters. Thickness. | Collapsing pressure.

inches. inch. lbs. per square inch.
L 5:05 0-014 292
M 5:08 0:018 410
K 4:95 0:022 470
B 5°60 0:020 475
N 8:22 0:010 35
Cc 8:20 0:012 42
D 8-20 0-015 60

It will be seen that, notwithstanding the extreme thinness of the glass,
the pressures range as high as 475 lbs. per square inch over every square
inch of surface, equivalent to a total pressure of 20 tons upon a 55-inch
globe =,th of an inch thick, before it was fractured.

Unfortunately the 8-inch globes were all elliptical to a serious extent,
and hence in these the collapsing pressure was greatly reduced, ranging
from 35 to 60 lbs. per square inch only.

The next results are upon glass cylinders, blown with hemispherical ends.
In the experiments upon iron, the remarkable law had been deduced that
the strength of cylindrical vessels of that material, exposed to a uniform
external pressure, varied inversely as the length. Thus with vessels precisely
similar in other respects, one twice the length of another bore only half the
pressure, one three times the length bore only one-third of the pressure, and
so on. From the following experiments it will be seen that a similar law
applies in the case of homogeneous glass cylinders.

Tas ce II.—Strength of Glass Cylinders to resist a uniform external
pressure.

Mark. | Diameter.| Length. | 'Thickness.|Collapsing pressure per square inch,

inches, inches. inch, lbs.
E 06 132 | -043 180
G 4-02 132 | -064 297
H 3°98 14 ‘076 382
1?) 4:05 <. “046 380
Q 4:05 7 034 202
T 3°09 14 024 85
R 3:08 14 032 103
iS) 3:25 14 042 175

These cylinders, though of high resisting powers, sustain considerably less
_ pressure than the globes. Comparing cylinders E and P, 14 and 7 inches
‘long respectively, and of the same diameter and thickness of glass, we find
the longer was crushed with about half the pressure which was requisite to
collapse the shorter cylinder, which is a confirmation of the law deduced for
iron tubes.

vf: a REPORT—1858.

The general formula for the globes takes the form of the following equa-
tion,
we xt,
~ Dai7
P being the collapsing pressure in Ibs. per square inch; D=diameter ;
t=thickness of glass. Similarly, putting L=length, the formula for the
cylinders is
3
P= C x na
DxL
which is precisely similar to that for iron tubes.

Report on the Marine Fauna of the South and West Coasts of Ireland.
By X%. Percevat Wrieat, M.B., AB. PLS. MRIA., Di-
rector of the Museum, and Lecturer on Zoology, University of
Dublin; and J. Reay Greene, A.B., M.RIA., Professor of
Natural History, Queen’s College, Cork. Part I. (1858).

At the last Meeting of the British Association, a Committee consisting of
Drs. E. Perceval Wright, Melville, and Kinahan, was appointed to investigate
the marine Zoology of the south and west Coasts of Ireland.

Professor J. Reay Greene and Dr. Carte of Dublin were subsequently
added to the Committee.

The region marked out for their observations extends from Carnsore Point
in the Co. of Wexford, to Gweedore Bay in the Co. Donegal, and embraces a
coast line cf several hundreds of miles. It was evident that so vast a district
could only be investigated by the labours of several years, and hence, on
mature deliberation, the Committee determined to devote themselves and
the money grant placed at their disposal by the Council for 1858, to in-
vestigate parts of the Cos. Waterford, Cork, and Kerry ; reserving the Coasts
of Clare and Galway for the next ensuing summer, and those of Mayo,
Sligo, and Donegal for another year; hoping, at the expiration of this period,
to be able to communicate to the British Association a Report, which, with
the joint Reports from the North of Ireland and Dublin Bay Dredging Com-
mittee, will enable us to draw up a final Report on the Irish Marine Fauna,
which shall be entitled to act a second part to that by the late Professor E.
Forbes ‘On the investigation of the British Marine Fauna,” published in
1850.

Such being our intention, we wish it to be understood that the present
Report is merely provisional, and that we refrain from deducing any theories
from the facts observed, until we have the entire district examined.

Early in July 1858, we proceeded to investigate the first selected region,
and a list of the stations from which the coast at each side was explored is
given, i. e. 1. Carnsore Point; 2. Saltees; 3. Hook Head; 4. Dunmore;
5. Tramore; 6. Youghal; 7. Cork Harbour; 8. Kinsale; 9. Rosscarberry ;
10. Castletownsend; 11. Baltimore; 12. Cape Clear Island; 13. Skull;
14. Crookhaven; 15. Glengariff; 16. Berehaven; 17. Ardgroom; 18. Ca-
hersiveen; 19. Valentia; 20. Dingle; 21. Ventry; 22. the Blasquet Islands.

Several portions of this district had from time to time been investigated

Oe

MARINE FAUNA OF THE S. AND W. COASTS OF IRELAND. 177

by various Irish naturalists, and previous to setting out on our explorations,
we carefully noted the result of their labours, in order that we might corro-
borate all doubtful localities given by them, and also have the benefit of their
past experience; the localities so investigated, were Youghal by the late Dr.
Ball, Cork Harbour by J. Vaughan Thompson and others, Courtmacsherry
and Bantry Bays by Professor Allman, Dingle Bay by W. Andrews, and
Valentia by Professor Kinahan.

Considering that we could not gain a correct knowledge of the Fauna
without devoting a good deal of attention to “shore collecting,” we took
frequent occasion, at the period of low tides, to investigate the littoral zone :
and to this fact may be ascribed the discovery of a large number of new
Irish Zoantharia, and many interesting Nudibranch Mollusca.

The geologic structure of the coast, for the most part Devonian and Silurian,
is such, that “shore collecting’ cannot be prosecuted unless with the assist-
ance of boats: as sheer precipices, often hundreds of feet high and rising
perpendicularly out of the water, quite preclude access to the very fertile
fields of marine zoology which may be found in the tide-worn caverns at
their base.

In many places, too, small rocky islets, covered at every successive tide,
were proved well worthy of diligent search.

While we paid a good deal of attention to this latter kind of investigation,
we yet did not neglect the as important one of “dredging,” The smallness of
our grant, added to the extreme expense which would attend on deep-sea
dredging in such remote-parts of Ireland, prevented us from exploring any
depth beyond thirty or forty fathoms. We, however, hope on a future occasion
to be enabled to undertake a series of deep-sea dredgings on the west coast,
by the kind assistance of some yachting friends.

The commonest sea bottom we met with, was one formed of a coarse
sand, chiefly made up of the débris of decaying Nullipore and broken frag-
ments of Trophon, Natica, Rissoa, Odostomia, &c. This sand particularly
abounds in Bantry Bay; it is most extensively used for fertilizing the land,
being dredged for this purpose in enormous quantities. Marine animals
seem to avoid this “Coral sand,” and with the exception of Hippolyte va-
rians, even the ‘Shrimps’ appeared to us to abandon it. Next, we met with
vast tracks of heavy compact sand, chiefly tenanted by the Crangonide and
Palemonide, diversified here and there with large patches of weedy ground
which abounded with animal life.

Many of the large harbours were very muddy, and abounded with sponges,
&c., which sometimes reached gigantic dimensions.

The Cape Clear Island, the most southern,—and the Blasquet Islands, the
most western land in Ireland, with Bere Island, were carefully examined ; but
their sides present such high and unbroken walls to the ocean, and they are
so exposed to its continual swell, that they were not found particularly pro-
ductive.

To enumerate in detail the various species of the marine Fauna met with,
would be at the present immature. But we would wish to call attention to
some interesting forms that presented themselves, and append a list of the
Zoantharia and Echinodermata as specimens of the richness of the Fauna.

On quiet days, when the Atlantic was moderately calm, nothing could
exceed in beauty and numbers the Medusae—fleets of Equorea sailed past,
accompanied by Zhaumantias globosa, Thompsoni, confluens, and many
others; this last-mentioned species, discovered by the late Professor Edward
Forbes, is remarkable for the peculiar arrangement of its reproductive glands,
which are placed so high up in the gastro-vascular canals, as to present the

178 REPORT—1858.

appearance of a bright red cross, shining conspicuously through the trans- —

parent disk, when the animal is seen floating beneath the surface of the
water.

New forms of Slabberia, Oceania, &c., occurred in the western entrance of
Berehaven, as also many specimens of Willsia stellata.

Except for their abundance, the following Ctenophora would hardly merit
notice, viz. Cydippe pileus and pomiformis, Mnemea Norvegica, and Berée
ovata. This latter swam in shvuals; several of the specimens being of a
very large size and of a bright roseate hue, frequently diversified with a
play of iridescent colours. In Berehaven Harbour we also obtained an
apparently new species of Tomopteris ; its otherwise transparent body glittered
with many bright sherry-coloured spots, and we were enabled to investigate
with some care the anatomy of this very anomalous creature.

The List of Zoantharia appended (List B) will show the species that
occurred. Insome parts of the coast, as off Crookhaven and Dingle, the whole
surface of the rocks for many square yards was covered with specimens of
Corynactis viridis, so far belying its specific name as to appear of the most
brilliant purple, as often as of a bright green, varied with many of a rich
peach colour. Every excavation that the waves had worn in the slaty
Devonian, was inhabited by Sagartia venusta, S. rosea, and others of the genus;
and we observed that at Parkmore Point, near Venty, Tubularia indivisu
abounded in such quantities, that in one place a piece of rock about 20 feet
long by 10 or so broad, and covered by | or 2 feet of water, was one dense
forest of this interesting Hydrozoon; others of this latter division were ob-
served, but details thereof are reserved for a future occasion.

Among the Echinodermata, we may mention that Uraster glacialis occurred
very commonly, and several specimens were dredged, which measured 32
inches in diameter; Luidia fragillissima and Asterias aurantiaca were not
unfrequent. Amphidotus roseus occurred in Bantry Bay. From the list
appended, it will be seen that nearly all the Asteriade, with but few ex-
ceptions, have been obtained on the coast of Ireland.

Cribella rosea and Goniaster Templetoni have been taken by Dr. Ball on
the Nymph Bank off Waterford, and at Youghal. Several new species also
occurred to us. We think we have discovered the “ first appearing” on the
south coast of the Hchinus lividus, on some sunken rocks out at sea; and it
appears to us that a curious relation exists between the vertical and geogra-
phical distribution of the species in question, since the higher the latitude
in which it is found, the shallower the water it would appear to frequent.
We have been led to this conclusion from observations made by us on its
occurrence around the west and south coasts of Ireland. At Dingle, for
example, it lives and thrives high up in the Littoral Zone; whereas about
the Cape Clear district, it loves the deep rock pools, where it is only exposed
to view at the very lowest tides, and even then with from 10 to 15 feet of
water always over it. The rare Hehinus Flemingii has been taken by Dr.
Ball at Youghal. (See List A.)

Of the Crustacea a long list could be furnished, but we would only allude
to the capture of the various species of Ebalia on sandy ground in Castle-
townsend and Berehaven; of Xantho vivulosa at Valentia, where it was
taken in 1856 by Dr. Kinahan; and Péirimeda denticulata in Dingle by Wm.
Andrews, Esq. Galathea Andrewsii, a species recently added to science by
Dr. Kinahan, was dredged in the greatest abundance.

Of the Mollusca little mention need be made,—Doris flammea, coccinea,
the two Hermeas recorded in Alder and Hancock, Holis Farrani, &ce.
were found, the latter three very abundantly ; a large number of Tunicata

i i i a i i

MARINE FAUNA OF THE 8. AND W. COASTS OF IRELAND. 179

awarded our diligent search with several probably new species. Calyptrea
sinensis and Ianthina communis may be alluded to among the Gastero-
pods, with Amphysphyra hyalina, Tornatella fasciata, Philine quadrata, &c.
Aplysia hybrida might be seen browsing in herds on the Codiwm tomento-
sum, which at Berehaven grows most luxuriantly. Arca tetragona occurred
at Ardgroom, Venus casina, &c. with Pectunculus glycimeris, in Bantry Bay.

Amphioxus lanceolatus was taken in Berehaven, one specimen of which
survived its capture for many days, despite of being carried in a glass vessel
nearly 200 miles. William Andrews records the following rare fish as oc-
eurring off Dingle: Capros aper, Sebastes Norvegicus, Cottus Grenlandicus,
Morrhua minuta, and Raniceps trifurcatus ; both Lepidogaster cornubiensis
and bimaculatus were taken by us at the shore of Cape Clear Island.

In conclusion, we would ask for a renewal of the grant for the year 1859
from the Council, trusting to continue our exploration of this interesting
region with unabated zeal, and with a sure confidence that the result of
our labour will prove of some service to those who, like us, are engaged
in the pleasant task of observing and recording the many created beings,
which, nurtured and preserved in life by the great world of waters alike with
it, proclaims the existence of an Almighty and Omnipotent God.

List or EcHINODERMATA (A).

N. |N.E.| E. | S, |S.W.} W. | N.W.

1. Comatula rosacea .......s60..es00+ ceeeelecense * {| * | *¥ | # | ®
2. Ophiura texturata ........... Ct opicur cal paneer MPR plik a ult
a tutt, MaLINGArgeccca pus edtessecners Se eaalias at ok * * * *
4. Ophiocoma neglecta ....... Bo eoerce cai heniss eat otkeweralegsess|() ii
Hers CREM TR pedal) sacpaecacase| faet ce [val tklecceds +
Gee ah ERBLTIT Sh csc deatowe bs su cacevedendac|sucest| sven oe *
meas ULORININ ewes darsese tess Sechanseddealcnesed * * * |esooee] *
8. ,, brachiata....... pectenccosancsmendes| sce ces *
9. ,, granulata........ Gerd duivew er enstrase lee ts cd pee, 20m OL
ements HELIS gos. 00 CREE PEL honckax Bal ecases * * alsoees: *
Nerenis POSUID, Versus dveagsetesscontncnrades|s sss * he lin alk
Devan NUGAY foc. Fsacc cep eesnnet sete ae |Fea's 0 Eel eh ee eed Wee el
T3075; iiesi Ge he Wyeaeresee Pa su|aucuer|caneetlaneses = cima eo
14, Uraster glacialis......ccccocesescccscseeles page hoe Lek beige LS oe *
Pte ermMUUCUS cacwans cays ccksseen wigs sce {oa Ree EPR RE Set ied aes =
V6." 5, VIGlACEa \.. 56224. OBoocecrocer ene Bee pon E Aol: Sil Wk: ch Ne Sh Pa 3
AA? "yj HABA D zasaies cavads vee oddesed dee Us|usehes ial ae Se Ua a
18. Cribella oculata ........cseesscsccesees divagteal SSE} seiko ake pee Loe
BE as ving TOSER Nass ave byte sattheege ae east cad-(nasccsleveens *
20. Solaster endeca ........0.00006 Reavy cass loved * | * | *
2). 4, PapPpOSA ..+...00- duaiines BS SAcconAd Pecan = PUR: oe ORE, MORE Sa
22, Palmipes membranaceus ..........0.|...008 ia a
23. Asterina gibbosa....... dddsascan satis Fus|eaacusfeneaee #?P] # | we | x
24. Goniaster Templetoni ..........0000 $5 kl Bey | Midaset eau *
25. Asterias aurantiaca ..cccccseseccecees Store Heeb Scael At olin bse eel | oie
20, UNAS TeAPUISSIMIA) eiccccacavessesces|sagers (une sus semaes * | * 1 ¥
OF, HIOMMNUE SHIELD .scccseeCdscscecssc cscs] (% | oH PRA Me PS eee %
2G) 045) “niiharighhesi cess. cede. Seusavetes| BOP HOPES SUP gee Pts
Oz) + ie BeMingil, céccaeness sets deveveseses sauces soceel soeeRs *
BOs er MVACUS, dueScncesdcteunae BN aes kaos PA Seca ewetloeeass * * *
31. Echinocyamus pnsillus .........c.ceeeefeee EE N= (hye | i sa
32. Spatangus pUrpUreuS........screeeeeeelreceee * * | x
33. Brissus lyrifer.......... Siesopwensdsaesoc|sscievelsssiees sevdtite eaedap He
34, Amphidotus cordatus.........ccseseccslecceee] *& | * | ¥ | * | ¥
BD. 49, TOSCUS .eccverecnccesereeceseevcscsecieccse| ¥ | * | # | * | *

4

180 REPORT—1858.

N.B. We purposely exclude from this List all reference to the Holothu-
riadz, the species of which stand much in need of further elucidation. We
have also given the distribution, as far as it was known to us, all round Ire-
land, both in this List and the following one on Zoantharia.

List oF ZOANTHARIA (B).

*

99 DAVE, sovsasecocece Reap sianeas oonees

4
5.
6. 4, venusta
7
8. 4, sphyrodeta ......+.+.s0s eaeesunu sis
9

11. —,,_ troglodytes ......sccssserereeseeee
12. gy VidUatA cevrssecvrccvovererceseoses
13. yy PATASILICA.....eeeeeeeereeeeeeecceen
» hastata (n. sp. E. P. W.) ......
15. Adamsia palliata.........cecsserereceeee *
16. Anthea CereuS.......sceeecsseneseseneeee = Sede el ier uae S|
17, Actinia mesembryanthemum.........) * | * | * | * | #¥

*

*

*

*
*

18. Bunodes gemmacea ......... Recsuran| ccotesiinecan|aatecd *
19. Tealia CrassiCOrnis .......sseeessccsseee|eoeese * * *

bh
—
Q
°
=
4
i=}
)
°
ia
77)
<
=5
=f
a
Ee
Lins
E
=]
2
f=}
Ee
is] .
aD
Ra
*
*
*
*

22. 43, MEETOCETA ..rccoracserceverseeeecs suadsclSecenalscssenlsas cae *
23. Tlyanthus Scoticus ...eecsessseseesseeeelereeeslenens *
24, Turbinolia milletiana ........sssesceses|eccescleccese|eecees|scseeelooeees *
25. Zoanthus Couchii ...sccsecccccveceesss|soeees *
26. Cyathina Smithii .......s...ceeseeeee, * * * * *
27. SphenotrochusWrightii (n.sp.Gosse)|...... *

Total number of species of Echinoderms 35, or about two-thirds of the
British list; and of the Zoantharia 27, or about half the number recorded as
occurring in England and Scotland. This difference will, we trust, be greatly
diminished in a few years. Both lists have been brought down to the latest
dates, several species having been added while the MS. was passing through
the press.

The districts marked from 1 to 7, are given as first introduced by one of
the authors in the “ Proceedings of the Dublin University Zoological and
Botanical Association,” vol. i. p. 176, and are briefly as follows :—

1st Province, North.—From Tory Island or Horn Head, on the mainland,
to Rathlin Island or Fair Head, embracing the two extensive Loughs,
Swilly and Foyle, and parts of the counties of Donegal, Londonderry, and
Antrim.

2nd Province, North-East.—From Fair Head to Downpatrick, at the en-
trance of Strangford Lough, embracing Belfast and Strangford Loughs, and
parts of Antrim and Down.

3rd Province, East.—From Downpatrick to Carnsore Point, in the county
of Wexford, embracing Dundrum, Dundalk, and Dublin Bays, and parts of
the counties of Down, Louth, Meath, Dublin, Wicklow, and Wexford.

4th Province, South.—From Carnsore Point to Cape Clear, county of

EXPERIMENTS ON THE MEASUREMENT OF WATER. 181

Cork, with the fine harbours of Waterford, Dungarven, Youghal, Cork, and
Kinsale, and parts of the counties of Wexford, Waterford, and Cork.

5th Province, South-West.—From Mizen Head to Kerry Head, or the
mouth of the Shannon, embracing Bantry, Dingle, and Tralee Bays, the
Kenmare River, and parts of the counties of Cork and Kerry.

6th Province, West.—From Loop Head, county of Clare, to Erris Head,
on Mullet Island, at the extreme north-west of Mayo, embracing Galway,
Clare, and Blacksod Bays, the Isles of Arran, Clare, Achill, and Mullet, and
parts of the counties of Clare, Galway, and Mayo.

7th Province, North-west——From Erris Head to Horn Head, embracing
Killala, Sligo, and Donegal Bays, and parts of the counties of Mayo, Sligo,
and Donegal.

“These seven Provinces might be easily subdivided, but I think this is not
advisable; indeed, I am rather doubtful of the propriety of keeping either
the 2nd or 5th Province: but still we find species peculiar to each of these
localities, or at least occurring in them, and not generally found in the others :
thus, Hc/inus lividus occurs iv Province 5, but hardly, if at all, in Province 4.
I need hardly justify the utility of making these Provinces ; their convenience,
when referring to geographical distribution, is obvious ; as by saying in which
of these Provinces an animal occurs, we at once arrive at an idea of its dis-
tribution in a much shorter manner than enumerating the counties it occurs
in. I have hesitated to call the Provinces Boreal, Lusitanian, &c., thinking
the time has not yet arrived for so doing. The Dredging Committees on
the east, north, and south-west of Ireland will doubtless in time enable this
to be done. I have only to hope this enumeration may be adopted, as it
will render comparison so very easy.”

On Experiments on the Measurement of Water by Triangular Notches
in Weir Boards. By JAmMes Tuomson, 4.M., C.E., Professor of
Civil Engineering, Queen’s College, Belfast.

Tuer experiments proposed to be comprehended in the investigations to
which the present interim Report relates, have for their object to determine
the suitableness of triangular (or V-shaped) notches in vertical plates for
the gauging of running water, instead of the rectangular notches in ordinary
use. The ordinary rectangular notches, accurately experimented on as they
have been, at great cost and with high scientific skill, in various countries,
with the view of determining the necessary formulas and coefficients, for
their application in practice, are for many purposes suitable and convenient.
They are, however, but ill adapted for the measurement of very variable
quantities of water, such as commonly occur to the engineer to be gauged
in rivers and streams. If the rectangular notch is to be made wide enough
to allow the water to pass in flood times, it must be so wide, that for long
periods in moderately dry weather, the water flows so shallow over its crest
that its indications cannot be relied on. To remove, in some degree, this
objection, gauges for rivers or streams are sometimes formed in the best
engineering practice, with a small rectangular notch cut down below the
general level of the crest of alarge rectangular notch. If, now, instead of
one depression being made for dry-weather use, in a crest wide enough for
use in floods, we conceive of a large number of depressions extending so as
to give to the crest the appearance of a set of steps of stairs, and if we

182 REPORT—1858.

conceive the number of such steps to become infinitely great, we are led at
once to the conception of the triangular, instead of the rectangular notch.
The principle of the triangular notch being thus arrived at, it becomes
evident that there is no necessity for having one side of the notch vertical
and the other slanting; but that, as may in many cases prove more con-
venient, both sides may be made slanting, and their slopes may be alike. It
is then to be observed, that by the use of the triangular notch with proper
formulas and coefficients derivable by due union of theory and experiments,
quantities of running water, from the smallest to the greatest, may be accu-
rately gauged by their flow through the same notch. The reason of this is
obvious, from considering that in the triangular notch, when the quantity
flowing is very small, the flow is confined to a small space admitting of
accurate measurement ; and that the space for the flow of water increases as
the quantity to be measured increases, but still continues such as to admit
of accurate measurement.

Further, the ordinary rectangular notch, when applied for the gauging of
rivers, is subject to a serious objection from the difficulty, or impossibility,
of properly taking into account the influence of the bottom of the river on
the flow of the water to the notch. If it were practicable to dam up the
river so deep that the water would flow through the notch as if coming from
a reservoir of still water, the difficulty would not arise. This, however, can
seldom be done in practice ; and although the bottom of the river may be so
far below the crest as to produce but little effect on the flow of the water
when the quantity flowing is small, yet when the quantity becomes great,
the “ Velocity of Approach” comes to have a very material influence on the
flow of the water, but an influence which it is usually difficult, if not im-
practicable, to ascertain with satisfactory accuracy. In the notches now
proposed, of triangular form, the influence of the bottom may be rendered
definite, and such as to affect alike (or at least by some law that may be
readily determined by experiments) the flow of the water when very small,
or when very great, in the same uotch. The method by which I propose
that this may be effected, consists in carrying out a floor starting exactly
from the vertex of the notch, and extending both up stream and laterally so
as to form a bottom to the channel of approach, which will both be smooth,
and will serve as the lower bounding surface of a passage of approach un-
changing in form while increasing in magnitude at the places at least which
are adjacent to the vertex of the notch. The floor way either be perfectly
level, or may consist of two planes whose intersection would start from the
vertex of the notch, and, as seen in plan, would pass up stream perpendicularly
to the direction of the weir board, the two planes slanting upwards from
their intersection more gently than the sides of the notch. The level floor,
although theoretically not quite so perfect as the floor of two planes, would
probably, for most practical purposes, prove the more convenient arrangement.
With reference to the use of the floor, it may be said, in short, that by a due
arrangement of the notch and the floor, a discharge orifice and channel of
approach may be produced, of which (the upper surface of the water being
considered as the top of the channel and orifice) the form will be unchanged
or but little changed, with variations of the quantity flowing ;—very much
less certainly than is the case with rectangular notches.

The laws regulating the quantities of water flowing in such orifices as
have now been described, come naturally next to be considered. Without,
however, in the present interim Report, attempting to enter on a detailed
discussion of theoretical considerations on this subject, I shall here merely
advert briefly to the principal results and methods of reasoning.

—_—— =

EXPERIMENTS ON THE MEASUREMENT OF WATER. 183

By theory I have been led to anticipate that the quantity flowing ina
given notch should be proportional, or very nearly so, to the 3 power of the
lineal dimensions of the cross section of the issuing jet, or to the 3 power of
the head of water over the vertex of the notch. This head is to be under-
stood, in the case of water flowing from a still reservoir, as being measured
vertically from the level of the water surface down to the vertex of the
notch; or, in the case of water flowing to the notch, with a considerable
velocity of approach over a floor arranged as above prescribed, the head is
to be considered as being measured vertically from the water surface where
the motion is nearly stopped by the weir board, at a place near the board,
but as far as may be found practicable from the centre of the notch. The
law here enunciated, to the effect that the quantity flowing should he pro-
portional to the 3 power of the head, I consider should hold good rigidly in
reference to water flowing by a triangular notch in a thin vertical plate from
a large and deep reservoir of still water, if the water were a perfect fluid,
free from viscidity and friction, and free from capillary attraction at its
surface, and from any other slight disturbing causes that may have minute
influences on the flow, the flow being supposed to be that due simply to
gravitation resisted by the inertia of the fluid. The like may be said of
water flowing from triangular notches with shallow channels of approach,
having floors as described above, when due attention is given to make the
passages of approach so as really to remain unchanged in form for a suffi-
cient distance from the notch, while increasing in magnitude as the flow in-
creases (such being supposed, according to my theory, to be possible) ; and
if due attention be paid to measuring the heads in all cases in positions
similarly situated with reference to the varying dimensions of the issuing
streams.

In illustration of these statements, or suppositions, I would merely say that
if two triangular notches, similar in form, have water flowing in them at

different depths but with similar passages of approach, the cross sections of

the two jets at the notches may be similarly divided into the same number of
elements of area; and that the areas of the corresponding elements will be
proportional to the squares of the lineal dimensions of the cross sections, or,

as from various considerations may readily be assumed, proportional to the

squares of the heads; also the velocities of the water in the corresponding
elements may be taken as proportional to the square roots of the lineal
dimensions, or to the square roots of the heads. From these considerations,
supported by numerous others, it appears that the quantities Mowing should
be proportional to the products of the squares of the heads into their square
roots, or to the $ powers, as already stated.

The friction of the fluid on the solid bounding surfaces of the passages of
approach where the water moves rapidly adjacent to the notch, may readily
be assumed, from all previous experience in similar subjects, not to havea
very important influence even on the absolute amount of the flow of the
water; and if we assume (as is known to be nearly the case for high velo-
cities, such as occur in notches used for practical purposes, unless unusually
small) that the tangential force of friction of the fluid, per unit of area of
surface flowed along, is proportional to the square of the velocity of flow, it
follows by theory that the friction, although slightly influencing the absolute
amount of the flow, will not, according to that assumption, at all interfere
with its proportionality to the 3 power of the head, and this condition will
very nearly hold good if the assumption is very nearly correct.

How closely the theory thus briefly sketched may be found to agree with
the actual flow of water will be a subject for experimental investigation ;

184 REPORT—1858.

and whatever may be the result in this respect, the main object must be to
obtain, for a moderate number of triangular notches of different forms, and
both with and without floors at the passage of approach, the necessary
coefficients for the various forms of notches and approaches selected, and
for various depths in any one of them, so as to allow of water being gauged
for practical purposes, when in future convenient, by means of similarly-
formed notches and approaches. The utility of the proposed system of
gauging, it is to be particularly observed, will not depend on a perfectly
close agreement of the theory described with the experiments, because in
respect to any given form of notch and approach, a table of experimental coefh-

cients for various depths, or an empirical formula slightly modified from —

the theoretical one, will serve all purposes. ‘To one evident simplification
in the proposed system of gauging, as compared with that by rectangular
notches, I would here advert, namely, that in the proposed system, when
once the form of the notch and channel of approach is fixed for gauging
any set of streams, the quantity flowing comes to be treated as a function
of only one variable, namely, the measured head of water; while in the rect-
angular notches it is practically treated as a function of at least two variables,
namely, the head of water and the horizontal width of the notch; because
in practice it would be inconvenient, if not impossible, to select any single
width of notch, or any moderate number of widths of notches, for general
use, for very varied quantities of water. It is commonly also a function of
a third variable, very difficult to be taken into account, namely, the depth
from the crest of the notch down to the bottom of the channel of approach ;
which depth must vary in its influence with all the varying ratios between it
and the other two quantities of which the flow is a function.

The proposed system of gauging also gives facilities for taking another
element into account which often arises in practice; namely, the influence
of back water on the flow of the water in the gauge, when, as frequently
occurs in rivers, it is found impracticable to dam the river up sufficiently to
give it a clear overfall, free from the back or tail water. For any given
ratio of the height of the tail water above the vertex of the notch, to the
height of the head water above the vertex of the notch, I would anticipate
that the quantities flowing would still be, approximately at least, proportional
to the 5-power of the head as before ; and a set of coefficients would have to
be determined experimentally for different ratios of the height of the head
water to the height of the tail water above the vertex of the notch.

With the aid of the grant placed at my disposal by the Association at last
year’s meeting, for the purposes of these researches, I have got an experi-
mental apparatus constructed and fitted up at a place a few miles distant
from Belfast, in Carr’s Glen, on the grounds of Mr. Neeson, who has kindly
afforded me all the necessary facilities regarding the water supply and the site
forthe experiments ; and I have got some preliminary experiments made on a
right-angled notch in a vertical plane surface, the sides of the notch making
angles of 45° with the horizon, and the flow being from a deep and wide
pool of quiet water, and the water thus approaching the notch uninfluenced
by any floor or bottom. The principal set of experiments as yet made were
on quantities of water varying from about 2 to 10 cubic feet per minute ;
and the depths or heads of water varied from 2 to 4 inches in the right-

angled notch. From these experiments I derive the formula Q="317 H?;
where Q is the quantity of water in cubic feet per minute, and H the head
as measured, vertically, in inches, from the still-water level of the pool, down
to the vertex of the notch. ‘This formula is submitted, at present tempo-
rarily, as being accurate enough for use for ordinary practical purposes for

ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE PRODUCTS. 185

the measurement of water by notches similar to the one experimented on,
and for quantities of water limited to nearly the same range as those in
_ the experiments; but as being, of course, subject to amendment by more
_ perfect experiments extending through a wider range of quantities of
water.
Out of the grant of £10 from the Association for these experiments, the
_ amount for which J have hitherto had to apply to the Treasurer as having
_ been expended in them is £8 Os. 4d.; which leaves a balance remaining of
- £1 19s. 8d.
___ It will be readily observed, that the experimental investigations indica-
_ ted in the foregoing report as desirable, are such as would require for their
_ completion, and extension to large flows of water, a greatexpenditure both of
time and money, like as has already been the case with researches on the flow
: of water in rectangular notches. All that I can myself for the present pro-
_ pose to attempt, is to open up the subject with experiments on moderately
small flows of water; and with this view, I would be glad to be aided, by a
_ further grant from the Association, in continuing experiments of the kinds
_ already undertaken.

-

, Report of the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain.
.: By Major-General Sainz,

4

_ Tue Committee are glad to be able to state that the Survey has made good
: progress in the course of the present year. Mr. Welsh has completed the
_ Survey of Scotland and its adjacent islands, by adding observations at a suf-
ficient number of points on the islands to the north and west of the main
land to those he had made in Scotland itself in 1857. General Sabine has
employed himself in North and South Wales; and Dr. Lloyd, having asso-
ciated with himself Professors Joseph Galbraith and Samuel Haughton, and
George Johnstone Stoney, Esq., has obtained observations on the course of
the isoclinal and isodynamic lines over Ireland generally.

There is probably another year’s work before the Survey will be so far
advanced that its different parts can be coordinated, preparatory to the final
account being prepared for presentation to the Association. In the mean
time Dr. Lloyd is desirous that the names of Messrs. Galbraith, Haughton,
nd Stoney should be added to those of the Committee named in 1856.

Report on Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Substances imported from
Foreign Countries into the Clyde (including the Ports of Glasgow,
Greenock, and Port Glasgow) in the years 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856,
1857. By Micuart Connau, Esq., and Witu1AM KeEppiE,
Esq., Glasgow.

Tue following returns have been obtained from a careful examination of

_ the Clyde Bill of Entry, printed by the Custom House authorities at Glasgow.

The returns embrace only substances imported from foreign countries, ex-

_clusive of those received “ coastwise.” From the vague and often inaccurate
manner in which the entries are made, it has been found impossible to classify

a number of the substances. Those of unknown or uncertain character have

~been placed under the head of Miscellaneous,

yy

- 1858. °

et

REPORT—1858.

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REPORT—1858.

232

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ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE PRODUCTS.

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REPORT—1858.

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234

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235

MISCELLANEOUS VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES.

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936 REPORT—1858.

MINERAL SUBSTANCES.

Whence Imports, | Imports Imports, | Imports,
Substances, Imported. | 1853,'| 1854. . | 1856, | 1857.
ewt. cwt. ewt ewt.
Alabaster’. ...ccccsssscsescccesecs Leghorn ......+ 36 116 18 52
IMATSENLLES © geysise'el cee sovnnsicss|crceceucsovaleguges wascedlvcpcauneeeee 10
36 116 18 62
Roman Cement ...,.ecseseeee-/ANCOMA seevevoveleoegesceeeee| 46 tons.
tons. tons. tons. tons.
Marble....cccccseesseveeceseceers| ZNO .secevees 308 516 264 3968
Salonica ......+6- 28
SICILY renin aoeeece|ee pace vdvans 8
Antwerp .........[. Baalen'5 aa 28
Bordeaux.........}..ece0e AAROE 16 8 17
Hamburg ..y00-|...ccccecces|sccevoeneces
Ne Wwe QOrk 5.:22uececsdecetlsescgoascens
AGNES i pswepespess|snoq suet cpl scscmnanscce|saeacvmeen ad 18
336 568 290 3985
StuceO cscassivosecsossces eeeseeee|ROUCN cesseseees ealbnenachev tag sects Sahel HEREne veccee|sscssceveres| 20 tONS.
Plaster Of Paris ,...cssccsesess Havre ......0s+...| 85 tons.
Limestone ....sesseeveseeseeve+(FTANCE ...c0ee04e0+| 60 tons, | 45 tons. 160 tons.| 60 tons.
Chalk scscsseosreseseyeeeeeeveeee/L@QHOIN ssesseeee| 2 tons.
IRGUEN sc saepsess os|eacocescsecs|ssseuecceses|an saueebes te 50 tons. |150 tons.
ewt ewt ewt. cwt.
Pumice Stone .....sseescseeeree|MESSINA cesecesss|sescescesees 556 855 93
PATER! faensvses|sceseeserces 408 57
IAM Sisondeaeeases|aveedgn ab 66
Leghorn .asceeee+|oeeceseseens|oos soe scece|esaguesas ee 153 60
hacddsecasse| “LOGO 1065 153
Porcelain.,...cercsseresnsee seeeee/ROUCN sisseseveree|seces regeaasleee sil asc tven Neeser sovoee| 2 CWte
Emery Stones ........s0000 coes[SMYINA ceseeveee 351 tons.|..,......00
Barytes),.+..ssscccesseeeeseesss|ROtterdam ...... 30 tons.
Magnesial....cccoevcssecseves New York ....../.... seseeees| 37 CWt.
HS OFRX: godescatscnsnsehicacesenvasleeascheasere ReCreeeeelTREPERERES OF ives esces 140 ewt.
: tons. tons tons. tons.
Nitrate of Soda ......ssse000{[quique sesseeee| 175 |o.cceeeee = 1055
Valparaiso ...... ROLL SA ce joossess[eestasce sass|anocebuaenn 400
EE ooeccccasccs 1055 400

MINERAL SUBSTANCES.

Whence Imports, | Imports, | Imports, | Imports
Bobieeces- Imported. | 1853. | 1854. '| 1855.'| 1856.
tons. tons. tons. tons.
Salt (Common) .,...sesee0000.{Portugal ....0. to 213 V60e sseccecicces 295
FYANCe ...cceeeiess|ccceosacvies 80
Alexandria ....0.{cosseseeveee|eeees ass. 95
213 240 95 295
Saltpetre .cc.ssseevvessceesesseen(Calcutta ceseeeese|ore Vaasa seal avec ecasecee seoveeveeeee(L56 tons.
tons. tons. tons.
Brimstone POEPOC eee eereenretens Sicily eeeeeeeeeons 3401 9938 4240
France .......55 ae 568 (3/2 es | COCR EEE OD
tally? ic. ceectnes: 370 DGteitsevecsecens|Cepeey “on
Malta ...ceseese : 191 110 43 Badce ras
Alexandria ......|.. cesccssess GO eresctvcwes|s Raasaseeaen
Portugal ...... sea [eccanteane tasloesseconsees teeeesaseees
NeW Work? coes5,ccstecscsese|socseusdestuters sSsceeene|sccseecvess
4530 | 10,969 4283 9372
tons. tons. tons. tons.
Manganese soresessseereeseseeeefROtterdam ...... UI, caeparcanplesrscceccese 8
; St. John’s, N. B.|.....00. “aos seo Sodeercacleess 110
Marseilles) <sevevs|sccdatessess|recestedeseglassececseese|oe ipbhavacss
Leghorn ....... ee[teececeerecs[ecccsecnencs|tetneenseesleeseeenenses
Ddey- leat teserecls snacoveee é 118
Manganese Ore .....+...+0+...|Rotterdam ...... 945 tons./333 tons.!331 tons.|230 tons.
St. John’s, N. B.]...ccsesssss/eee sdagteaedlhwerersepigelavedysetcens
tons. tons. tons. tons.
LGA cccccccccccccssscnvesecsecsss(SPAIM seccsceseree] 299 49 78 149
France ...cceseeses GOR woscsceeec Bawoasssenes|caevetaan cee
Montserrat ......Jesecsees Biikclusneneseeses 3
453 49 81 149
: tons. tons. tons.
Litharge weeeereneseecverseeeeces Hamburg ceeees 17 7
Rotterdam ...... 6 15 4
23 22 4

EEGs cd oapebeddertbsorpeccccuceess Cronstadt,.....+.. Sareeasacevelocdsuetevett|cercasspens,[2G00 DALSS

[ron Ore ......eseceepeeseseeeeee| NeW York ooeese

ape cescevysclssdesaeasens|sesccesnecns] 20 Cite

Sienna Earth .......... obearece Leghorn .........| 144 cwt.| 87 cWt. |..e.cereees.| 42 cwt.
(Hydrous Sesquioxide of!
Tron.)
Pig Tron | .0sscvscecreeeversseees.|Ste JOHN'S, Ne B.leccerosesces|ecseeesescee|s poemesste 14 tons.
St. Petersburg ..}.......s00.-[ees veevereceleeeseceeeses| 10 tons.
CHIE oep.sccorsoecceceesesscesee| NANTES soscoes .»»..[300 tons.

ROQUCIecteraeedsia)|nccdaco0eeer]ccansopaccad(acsaneceense) 0 t00K
cwt.
Plumbago eveceveveseceeeseess.( ROtterdam eeeeee 1

7

237

Imports,
1857.
tons.
3

3

30 tons.
tons.
3448

206
25

129 cwt.

St. John’s, N. B. 6 small |quantitiesjoccasionallly.

238 . °BREPORT-—1858.

6. aly Whence Imports, | Imports, | Imports, | Imports Imports,
Substances. Imported, | 1853.| 1854. | 1855. "| 1856.'| 1857."

——— eed

tons. tons.
‘)Chromate of Iron ..,..++++ «(Smyrna se.) 50 155
i New York Siababiacanilaciani 50

50 200
Copperas ooe.ssseeeeeverseeresees| ROUEN ceegerseseeelscedveccereeleccaneesenes Les vssisossee|ssessenencet] ADOICW
[Pyrites..i.....ccceseeee saatearep POEOMEMEUD azeosslcccfooscssacle escasssausaltane nesacses|acesdascasns] OO EONS:
” aigulbhurss of Iron.)

cwt, ewt. ewt, wt. ewt.
‘|Spelter or Zinc «+..sseeceere-fHamburg «sss. 778 678 148 549

778 3115 938 1442 926

cwt. ewt. cwt. cwt, cwt.
COpPPer..seerseersesveversees cocoe| Ste Kitts seosceees 20 j
QUEbEC. 2. 4ecegeeeyfececes aceren 190
Grenada 5...(ideslecccoccegeeoes abeontdges 21

GOld....csf,secveccosnsheng bvansew

sapesveeeanaleeseesenseeelens seseoeeeel 10 cwt, |
560 cwt.

. eeeeeelens eereecleseteeeerene 4 cwt.
Ultramarine.
Terra Umbra cocsseseeseseseees

‘|Drip-stone ......00+ Sebuencceny

arth, or Painters’ Colours.,.|Montreal .......,

Chrome Ore.......++..ssser09004)5t- Petersburg...
C New York ...

MINERAL SUBSTANCES. 939.

Imports, | Imports, | Imports, | Imports, | Imports,

Bulsteneee: ingorted. 1853. | 1854. | 1855. | 1856. | 1857.
Chrome Yellow eH 2: Rowen ssl oewe P| PT
Burr Stonesss.siscscsssceceas vss {ETANCE ssscseeeeiee 1045 2205 4057 624 4892
Sal-amMoniac .,.,....6..-.0000.(ROtterdam ....0. 3 cwt.

Acetaté of Lime .i.....:...0668 New York .,,,../1825 cwt.J1611 cwt.|1924 cwt.|1976 cwt./2072 ewt.
MVIGEIOL 452 sis cc sitesedsavsee a ciliilsretereter) PePerL LET ere 250 galls.
gallons, | gallons. | gallons. | gallons.

Mineral Water............. seve {Hamburg......c0 600

Rotterdam ...:.. 550

Marseilles. cisiae|sisciesccass ccd. icvaccaelecsas ysanact 2000
Seltzer Water .....:..5:.4......JAmsterdam ,.....|.. HATA. Sete ebsites saat «o4+-/645 galls,
Chromate ? ...sssésees PET TTT ite QBOPbG sicsice gece feceisthacccsjosas cadsicsstes ert er 238 cwt.

Report of the Committee on Shipping Statistics. Presented to the
British Association, September, 1858.

Report of the Committee appointed by the British Association to inquire

into the statistics of shipping, with a view to rendering statistical record more
available as data conducive to the improvement of naval architecture as
| respects the adaptation of the form of ships to the requirements of sea
service.

The Committee, so appointed, consisted of the following gentlemen :—

Charles Atherton. Henry Wright.
William Fairbairn. Andrew Henderson.
James Perry.

Admiral Moorsom.
J. Scott Russell.
J. E. McConnell.

_ The Committee, on commencing their proceedings, received letters from

Admiral Moorsom, Mr. John Scott Russell, and Mr. J. E. McConnell,

whereby the Committee were deprived of the co-operation of those gentlemen

as members of this Committee ; the remaining members, however, agreed to

rosecute the duties assigned to them, and William Fairbairn, Esq., F.R.S.,

by the unanimous desire of the Committee, undertook to conduct the pro-

ceedings as Chairman, with the assistance of Henry Wright, Esq., as Honor-

ary Secretary. The Committee now beg to explain the course of proceed-

ing by which they hoped to promote, if not mature, the objects assigned to
them by the Association.

: In the first place, the Committee issued a circular, inviting statistical in-

formation as to the actual sea performances of ships (Appendix No. 1), with

a view to compiling a comprehensive statement as to the sea performances

of vessels generally, whence the Committee might be enabled to select a con-

siderable number of vessels, of which the performances at sea may have been

240. REPORT—1858.

remarkable ; and their attention being thus directed to a limited selection,
embracing a considerable number of vessels of practically established excel-
lence for sea service, the Committee hoped, after making due inquiry, to be
enabled to present, as respects those vessels, a statistical exposition, in tabular
form, of their various elements of construction and type of build, and thus,
by a system of collation and induction, to discover practically those types
and elements of construction which have been found by experience most con-
ducive to good performances at sea. In the case of steam-ships, it was pur-
posed that the statistics of the original trials to which steamers are generally
put when new, should also be collected, classified, and collated with reference
to the subsequent performances of the same vessels at sea, whence it might
be determined to what extent and in what respects the usual smooth-water
trials of steam-ships may be indicative of the probable properties to be ex-
pected of the same ships at sea, as respects their dynamic capabilities.

The Committee are happy to say that this attempt at practically inquiring
into the peculiarities of construction to which the good or bad qualities of
steam-ships may be attributable, has not been wholly fruitless; for, although
shipowners, shipbuilders, and marine engine manufacturers have been
generally reluctant to communicate particulars whereby the dynamic merits
of ships may be numerically classed and compared, the results of which clas-
sification and comparison might, if promulgated, affect the commercial value
of their property and the relative professional reputation of constructors,
still, in reply to the before-mentioned circular, information has been com-
municated as to the performance of vessels, particularly steam-vessels, by
which it appears that a great difference exists between steam-ships as respects
their economic capabilities for the performance of mercantile steam transport
service, leading to the conclusion that the general aggregate of steam service
is performed by vessels of inferior adaptation for economic duty, and con-
sequently at a rate of prime-cost expenditure ; and, therefore, ultimate charge
on the public, greatly in excess of that which would be involved if all steamers
were of the superior class of excellence that has been already in certain cases
actually attained. For example, this Committee are assured, on authority
which they believe to be unquestionable, that a certain vessel, the Bremen,
of 3440 tons displacement at the time of trial, propelled by engines working
up to 1624 indicated horse-power, attained the speed of 13°15 nautical miles
per hour. Now, if we estimate the dynamic duty thus performed by the
(13:15) (3440)2 _

1624 3

2
formula —=- =C, we shall have the coefficient, C=
Ind.h.p.

2274 X 227°88

1624
the mutual relation of displacement, speed, and power, appears, from the
statements which have been communicated to this Committee, nearly 50 per
cent. higher than that realized by the average performance of the steam-ships
of the present day. The following are the coefficients of dynamic duty de-
duced by the foregoing rule from the performances of mercantile steamers
of high repute, of which the trial data have been communicated to this Com-
mittee, viz. 325, 294, 291, 288, 259, 248, 231, 230, and 204, and many others
below 200.

This Committee therefore regard the Bremen as being a felicitous exem-
plification of naval architecture as respects type of form adapted for easy
propulsion ; and as we conceive that the promulgation of some of the con-
structive elements of this vessel may be of public importance, we are happy
in being authorized and enabled, by Messrs. Caird and Co., of Greenock, the
constructors of the ship and of the engines, to communicate to the British

= 319; and this coefficient of dynamic duty, resulting from

ON SHIPPING STATISTICS. 241

Association the following statistical data as to the elements of construction
of the Bremen :—

Length between perpendiculars of stem and rudder post.. 318 feet

Breadth of beam .....--scerers ceeees Teh igh onaveye sree Oled ss
Depth of hold..........- en Biss a¥ alana: HEE talons > ari ehaisl as. dn LO lines
Mean draught of water at the time of trial........-... 18 ft. 6 in.
Displacement (D) at trial draught ......s.eeeeeeeeee 3440 tons

Area of maximum immersed section (A) at the trial draught 606 sq. ft.

? f Seer 18
Constructors’ load draught ............ oe Us et Meas i .
Displacement at constructors’ load draught ............3440 tons

Rate of ships’ displacement at constructors’ load draught 25 ,, perin.

Data for laying off Peake’s curve of sections :—
Area of immersed vertical section at the distance of 3

length, measuring from stem.......... o Sika inate helslete 256°5 sq. ft
Do. 4 Do. Do.....-. 486 5
Do. 4 Do. Dose. .ees BOG iy,
Do. 3 Do. Dowijeias ss 4895
Do. + Do. Dox 4.125225 ooe

Data for laying off curve of displacement :—

Displacement at draught of 4’ 73", being ; load draught. 300 tons
Displacement at draught of 9! 3", being 3 load draught..1165_ ,,
Displacement at draught of 13’ 103", being # load draught 2240 ,,
Displacement at draught of 18’ 6", or load draught ....3440

2?

The foregoing data afford all the particulars required for the construction
of Peake’s curve of vertical sections, whence may be deduced the position
of the vertical line passing through the centre of gravity of displacement, and
also the positions of the centre of gravity of the fore and aft bodies re-
spectively.

It will be observed, from the foregoing data of the constructive elements
of the Bremen, that the maximum immersed section is at the middle of the
length, and that the vertical sections are in such ratio to each other, with
reference to their respective positions, that the curve of vertical sections will
be a close approximation to a parabola.

The ratios deducible from the foregoing particulars of constructive data,
combining Peake’s curve of immersed vertical sections with the curve of
displacement, will give a close approximation to the type of form of the im-
mersed hull.

The engines of the Bremen consist of two direct-acting inverted cylinders,
90 inches diameter, and 3 feet 6 inches stroke, fitted with expansion valves
capable of working expansively to a high degree. All parts of the engines
are felted and lagged with wood wherever practicable, the lower 16 feet of
the funnel being surrounded by a casing forming a superheating chamber,
the steam entering at the lower end, and passing off at the top into the steam
pipes leading to the cylinders.

On the important question as to the extent to which the ordinary smooth-
water trial of a steamer affords a criterion of the general average perform-
ance that may be expected of the vessel at sea, this Committee have not been
able to obtain such an extent of returns of the comparative smooth-water

242 REPORT—1858.

trials and sea performances of the same ships as enable them fully to respond
to this part of the inquiry, and they refrain from expressing any speculative
opinion, because they have adopted the principle which they desire to recom-
mend to the notice of the British Association, that shipping improvement is
to be discovered by statistical record and analysis of the constructive elements
of ships that have practically shown themselves to possess good sea-proper-
ties, rather than by assuming the mere theories of opinionative speculation,
from whatever source such opinions may emanate,—in short, that experience
of actual performances at sea, statistically recorded and utilized by being
made the basis of comparison, is the most reliable base on which to construct
an inductive system of progressive improvement in naval architecture and
marine-engine construction. This Committee, however, have much satisfac-
tion in being enabled to commence this inquiry by recording the sea per-
formance of the before-mentioned vessel Bremen, on a passage from Bremen
haven to New York and back, during the months of June and July last, during
the whole of which passages indicator cards were frequently taken, and the
indicated working power of the engines ascertained. On the out passage the
mean displacement was 2878 tons, the mean indicated horse-power was 1078,
and the mean speed 10°28 knots per hour, giving a coefficient by the formula
referred to=204; but on the return passage the mean displacement was
2990, the mean indicated horse-power 1010, and the mean speed at the rate
of 11:92 knots per hour, giving a coefficient=348. Hence the mean co-
efficient of the out and home passage=276, being about 13 per cent. below
the coefficient (319) obtained on the smooth-water test-trial of the ship.
The state of the weather and the sea was also recorded daily ; it appears to
have been adverse on the out passage, but favourable on the home passage.
The Committee are, therefore, of opinion that, by following up this course
of statistical record of the smooth-water trial and subsequent sea perform-
ances of ships respectively, a tabtlar statement might be compiled, showing
the probable ratios of the coefficients of smooth water and sea performance,
corresponding to the various rates of speed for which steamers may be re=
spectively powered, whence the smooth water test-trials of ships may be made
available as approximately indicative of their sea-service capabilities as
respects their dynamic properties.

Such are the statistical data of the constructive elements and dynamic
capabilities of the Bremen, and if all steam-vessels engaged in the mercantile
transport service of Britain were equally effective as respects the mutual re-
lations of displacement, speed, and power, that is, capable of producing a co-
efficient of dynamic capability =319, by the formula referred to, it is probable
that the prime-cost expenses of steam-ship transport per ton weight of cargo
conveyed on long passages would, on the aggregate of the foreign trade of
Britain, be reduced not less than 25 per cent. as compared with the prime-
cost expenses incurred by steam-vessels of the average dynamic capability
in present use.

The effect of improved type of build on the economy of steam transport
per ton weight of goods conveyed, is such as shows the inquiry to be of vital
importance in connexion with the management of steam-shipping affairs.

The public importance of improved type of build in a national point of
view (for it is the public and not the shipowners who ultimately bear the
brunt of expensive transport service) may be judged of from the statistical
fact published by the Board of Trade, that no less than 899 steam-vessels
(of which 511 are sea-going ships) were employed on the commercial trans-
port service of Britain in 1857. The ratio in which the transport service of
the country is performed by the aid of steam appears to be constantly on the

ON SHIPPING STATISTICS. 243

increase; and as it is to be expected that mercantile competition will always
cause the cost of freight on the general aggregate of the trade of the country
to be proportionally ruled by the prime-cost expenses that may be actually
incurred in doing the work, it appears manifest that the public economy de-
pendent on the general realization of shipping improvement is a considera-
tion that involves public interest to the extent of millions sterling per
annum.

To demonstrate the vast importance of this subject, Appendix No. 2 has
been compiled from the returns of the Board of Trade, to show the amount
of trade between the United Kingdom and foreign countries during the year
1855. This compilation shows that the tons weight of cargo actually carried

in the foreign trade of the United Kingdom in the year 1855 amounted to—

Taipotts . 3.4... 6,254,259 tons.
WESUGTGS po ots ues 8,370,363 tons.

Total .... 14,624,622 tons.

Nearly 15 millions of tons weight of sea-borne cargo, conveyed at probably
25 per cent. extra cost beyond what would be incurred if ships of the high
order of dynamic merit exemplified by the Bremen were only and exclusively
employed.

By aid of Appendix No. 2, showing the amount of trade between Great
Britain and all foreigu countries respectively, parties conversant with shipping
affairs will be enabled to estimate approximately the gross amount annually
involyed in the goods-transport service of Britain. ‘Thus public interests
require that the statistical records of shipping should embrace such data as
will be availably conducive to shipping improvement, by affording the means
of approximately estimating the dynamic capabilities of ships, whereby every
ship constructor and ship owner, and the directors of steam-shipping compa-
nies, may be enabled to test the dynamic merits and condition of their ships
respectively,—a system, which would gradually lead to the adoption of such
types only as develope a high order of dynamic duty, and would obyiate some
of the most serious hazards to which private and public interests are now
exposed from vessels being employed on commercial and postal services for

which they are not fit.

Ouly let it be publicly known, as exemplified by the Bremen, that steam-
ships and their machinery may be so constructed, that on being subjected to
a test-trial, the cube of the speed in knots, multiplied by the square of the
cube root of the displacement, and divided by the indicated horse power,
ought, in the present day, irrespective of future improvement, to produce a
quotient or coefficient of dynamic duty equal to the number 319, and that
the coefficient deduced from the rule thus enunciated constitutes (ceteris
paribus) a criterion of the cost price at which steam-ships perform their work ;
and we shall then soon find that this test of dynamic merit, or the numeral

coefficient deduced therefrom, will enter into the calculation of the pecuniary

value of steamers to such extent that ships of a low order of dynamic capa-
bility will not be built, because they will not sell.
~The test of dynamic merit, as above set forth, based on the mutual rela-
tions of displacement, speed, and power, presumes on the net power effect-
ively applied in propelling the ship being always in a constant and known
ratio to the gross indicated power.
The inquiry, therefore, so far, is of such a nature as demands professional
knowledge and skill in order to determine and discriminate between the merit

‘that may be due respectively to the type of form of the hull, and to the con-

244 REPORT—1858,

struction of the engines, propeller, and boilers; for a good type of hull, pro-
pelled by an inferior construction of machinery and boilers, or an inferior
type of hull propelled by a good construction of machinery and boilers, may,
by the above formula, produce equal results. This Committee, however,
consider it of vital importance to the promotion of the objects of this in-
quiry, viz., “the maturing of a system of statistical record conducive to the
improvement of naval architecture,” that the owners and charterers of ships,
and the directors of shipping companies or agents by whom shipping affairs
are conducted, should themselves have the means of ascertaining the relative
dynamic merits and working condition of their ships without any reference
whatever to the professional assistance of builders or engineers, but be enabled
to judge for themselves whether the performance be good or bad by refer-
ence to the data afforded by their counting-house records ; and this desirable
object may be at once effected by the displacement of the ship being known,
and by substituting in the foregoing formula the consumption of fuel in a
given time (say the weight in ewts. (W) consumed per hour), in lieu of the
expression for power, and regarding the hull, machinery, and boilers collect-
ively as an integral equipment of which the coefficient derived from the
formula pia * indicates the dynamic condition with reference to the
dynamic condition of other vessels tested by the same rule, viz.:—Miultiply the
cube of the speed by the square of the cube root of the mean displacement,
and divide the product by the consumption of fuel per hour expressed in
ewts. The quotient indicates the relative dynamic condition of tie vessel.
For example: a steam-ship (A) performed out and home voyages amounting
to ’7200 nautical miles in 652 hours, being at the average speed of 11°04
knots per hour, the consumption of coal was 1519 tons, or 30,380 ewts.,
being at the rate of 47 ewts. per hour, and the mean displacement was 2934.
tons. Hence the coefficient of dynamic duty indicative of the merits of the
. 3 2 ¢ .
performance on this occasion is i ea
Again, another vessel (B), with a mean displacement of 840 tons, attains on
long-continued service, the average speed of 12°78 knots per hour, with the
average consumption of 50°3 Sat coal per hour, giving a coefficient of
dynamic duty Ge i) x 89 __ s609, Thus, in one case
(A), the coefficient of dynamic duty, based on the consumption of fuel, is
5870, whilst in the other case (B), it is only 3693 ; that is, one ewt. of coal
in A performs as much dynamically effective work as is performed by 1,8,
ewt. in the case of B, a discrepancy which may well induce professional
inquiry being instituted by the shipowner, whether the inferior performance
of B is occasioned by inferior type of form, or foulness of bottom, or inferior
principle of mechanical appliances, or inferior management, or bad coal; for
these causes, combined, or indeed either one of them alone, may be sufficient
to account for the result.

Now, what are the all-important elements of construction thus proposed to
be embraced in public records, and thereby made known to the purchasers
and charterers of ships with a view to enable such parties to test the economic
working capabilities of ships, so conducive to the reformation above referred
to? Why, by the rule above enunciated, the displacement corresponding to
the constructor’s load draught at which the ship may be tried, and to which
approximately, as a general rule, the ship may be loaded, becomes the only
item of statistical data that requires to be officially recorded, for the test trial

wail

ON SHIPPING STATISTICS. 945

and sea performances of ships, as above shown, will give the capabilities for
speed ; and the consumption of fuel per hour corresponding thereto will be
known from the counting-house ledger.

It is, therefore, suggested that the registration records of every ship give
the displacement when the ship is immersed down to some definite line, which
may be denominated the constructor’s load line.

The assignment of the constructor’s load line draught forward and aft, and
the corresponding displacement, are all the statistical data that are required to
be registered in addition to the details of registration already enforced under
the Merchant Shipping Act of 1854, in order to determine the comparative
coefficients, and put the system of practical rivalry hereby suggested into
operation, as being the most effective system for inducing improvement in
naval architecture.

As regards the existing system of shipping statistics and shipping registra-
tion, with reference to its affording data available for promoting shipping
improvement, this Committee has to observe that, although the aggregate
register tonnage of mercantile shipping appears to be a very close approxi-
mation to the aggregate weight-carrying capability of the entire mercantile
navy, still, when considered in detail with reference to particular ships, it
is found that the register tonnage of a ship affords no approximate criterion
whatever either of the load displacement or of the weight-carrying capabili-
ties of ships respectively; for, by reference to Appendix No. 2, it will be found
that ships are frequently loaded with dead weight of cargo to the extent of
double their register tonnage, and the statement (Appendix No. 2) shows
the following extreme cases of weight-carrying capability with reference to
register tonnage :—

Country traded Weight of | Register | Ratio of
with. Veszels. Cargo. | Tonnage. | Cargo to
Tonnage.

tons.
Morocco assesses 34 11,576 4,075 2°8 to 1
Tunis — seosceeeeees 1 780 259 3 tol
Bolivia .esseesesees 2 2,391 455 5°2 to 1

These cases appeared so remarkable, that the Committee were anxious to
prosecute inquiries with reference to the build and sea performances of those
particular ships, and with that view they addressed a letter to the Custom
House for the purpose of identifying the vessels thus referred to; but the
official fees demanded for responding to such inquiries, put it out of the
power of the Committee to avail themselves to any useful purpose of the
shipping statistics of Government.

Another difficulty which greatly obstructs the collecting of statistics on
the sea performances of mercantile shipping, is the great number of vessels
bearing the same name. In many cases, there are scores of vessels bearing
the same name, thus rendering it extremely difficult to trace and scrutinize
the performance of a vessel of any name with certainty as to her identity ;
for, in publishing the arrivals and departures of shipping in mercantile navy
records, the registered number of a ship, which constitutes the only means
of identification, is not generally given in connection with her name.

246 REPORT—1858.

A further instance of the insufficiency of our present system of shipping
registration as statistical data indicative of the size of the hull of steam ship-
ping, is afforded by the statement given in Appendix No, 3, which has been
deduced from a Return of the House of Commons, showing the per-centage
deduction from the gross tonnage allowed for the engine rooms of steam-ships ;
whence we see that, without any reference whatever being made to the actual
weight of the machinery, deductions are made from the gross tonnage vary-
ing from 5 per cent, to 92 per cent. of the gross measurement, the remainder
only being brought to account as the registered tonnage of the ship,

In conclusion, this Committee beg to observe, that if the views thus
brought before the notice of the British Association should be deemed worthy
of further prosecution, and be favourably entertained by the Government,
the statistics of the Post-office, as respects the constructive elements, and
test trials, and subsequent sea performances of the various steam-ships em-
ployed in H. M. Mail Service, would afford a collection of statistical data
which, if duly analysed and applied as herein suggested, would greatly pro-
mote the objects of this inquiry, which the British Association has thus been
pleased to institute.

The Committee have the painful duty of announcing the death of one of its
members, James Perry, Esq., whose personal character, practical intelligence,
and public usefulness, were of such an order, that his decease may be mourned
as a public loss.

(Signed)
WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, Chairman.
CHARLES ATHERTON.

ANDREW HENDERSON.
HENRY WRIGHT.

The following circular was addressed to Shipowners and Shipping Com-
panies requiring information and assistance.

APPENDIX.

I.—To Shipping Companies, Shipowners, and others connected with the
Mercantile Management and Direction of Ships.

Committee on Shipping Statistics.
11 Buckingham Street, Adelphi, London, W.C.,
26th April, 1858.

GENTLEMEN,—The attention of the British Association at their late Meet-
ing in Dublin, having been directed to the consideration of shipping statistics,
the Committee of the Association came to the resolution “ that the applica-
tion of science to the improvement of steam-ships has been impeded by the
difficulty of obtaining the necessary data from the present registration”; a
Committee were thereupon appointed to inquire into this subject, which Com-
mittee beg the favour of your assistance, with a view to ascertain, from the
general experience and records of shipping companies, shipowners, and others
connected with the mercantile management and direction of shipping, what
description of vessels has produced the best results.

In the prosecution of this inquiry, the Committee desire now, in the first
place, to ascertain what have been the actual sea performances of ships, and
their attention being thus directed to instances in which the performance of

i Name of Vessel and Registered ;

|

—_

ON SHIPPING STATISTICS. 247

~ particular ships has been remarkable, further steps will hereafter be taken to

inquire into the circumstances of such cases, and ascertain the peculiarities
of proportion and type of form of the vessels which have produced such
results.

With these objects in view, the Committee request the favour of your
filling up the annexed form, giving an example of the quickest voyage made
by each of the vessels of the line of packets under your direction, on the

, passage or station on which such vessels respectively may have been em-
ployed.

I am, Gentlemen,

Your very obedient servant,
HENRY WRIGHT, Hon. Sec.

By Order of the Committee.

N.B. The Committee will feel obliged by your returning the form, when
filled up, to the above address, as soon as convenient ; not later than the Ist
of June.

Saippinc CoMMITTEE,
Office, 11 Buckingham Street, London, W.C.

[It is requested that this rorm be filled up and returned by the 1st of June, 1858.]

Nore: In addition to the foregoing particulars,

& Passage referred t
Ee Alaa aad exariple ef the ee 2 By it is reauested that the Displacement of the
ag performance of the Se |S¥ Ed Me ee be given at the following Draughts, if
Ee ip. , {83 123 ~ [sist So e
38 z ~ 2a } Ree ; | He Pa DISPLACEMENT.
sizes, |B .|\eaa | 2 faAglomg) a FI og ;
Ss Ko i} ao, ok Si Sis| wa When immersed
A cae ga g kee Ss & BSS\258| 3 ee 32 |WhenLaunched When ready for|to Constructor’s
glsas/ise 28 lsesal g Fzcleec| 2 (Sile| 22 tere | agen
gs |eee| Balazs] & [se Fe | & Ejee) es : 5
Be (sag Ss |seea| " [28 [gs aR § He ts 2 ae coe eee
& $3 @|Sebe & 24 i) 2 as a5 =
2 3 | gales 3 Es 3 a a e
$3 le ST |s28 ae tS S S 2H & | £8 & | #8
Ra a IA a A a a a A

dys.hrs,}ft. in,|ft. in.|ft. in.|ft. in. tns. ewts.| ft, in, | tons. | ft. im.| tons. | ft. in. | tons.

Signature

Address

REPORT—-1858.

248

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REPORT—1858.

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IJI.—Statement abstracted from a Return of the House of Commons, show-
ing the total number of Steam Vessels Registered in the United King-

Eee

No. of Iron
Paddle
Vessels.

nv
WP CW DNIMUNF PHO HD HD

Lal

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ES

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uction

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No. of Iren
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Hee ee De PY YY DH BPO DN DHL

264.

Per-cent-
age of De-
duction
from Gross
Tonnage
for Engine-
room.

SS

No. of
Wooden
Paddle
Vessels.

COOOPn DinWw HH YN YD ew ee

dom on or before the Ist of January, 1855, and the Per-centage of De-
duction from Gross Tonnage, allowed for Engine-room, distinguishing
whether Wood or Iron Paddle, and Wood or Iron Serew Vessels.

Per-cent-
age of De-
duction
from Gross
Tonnage
for Engine-
room.

12
15
17
19

Per-centage of
Deduction from
Gross Tonnage

No. of Wooden
Paddle Vessels

(continued). for Engine-room.
742
31 7°
18 71
19 72
16 73
14. 74
a 75
pe) 76
2 77
2 78
2 fi)
I 80
I 81
2 82
I 85
I 88
2 89
871
60*
931

Gross Tonnage
for Engine-room,

a ee

|
|

SUMMARY OF TABLE.
Tron Paddle Vessels

274
Iron Screw Vessels ...... 2.64
Wooden Paddle Vessels. 931
Wooden Screw Vessels.. ro
Wood and Iron Paddle
(with 26 per cent, de-
duction from grosston-
| nage for engine-room)
1480]

* The full data are not given to enable
the calculations to be made, in the case

of these 60 wooden paddle vessels.

260 REPORT—1858. 0
General Summary,
Imports.
Z : Difference of Per
No. of Register Tons Weight of ;
Date. each: peso: ‘res ernel. tr Ma beer og
Tonnage.
1852 38,051 7,887,447 6,169,599 | —1,717,848 —21
1853 | 42,876 8,943,106 7:525,063 — 1,418,043 —15
1854 | 41,591 9,161,366 7,290,996 — 1,870,370 —20
1855 | 40,980 8,951,239 6,254,259 | —2,696,980 | —30

8 ee eS

Exports.
‘ . Difference of Per
No. of Register Tons Weight of «
Date. Vessels. Tonnage. Cargo carried. oo ee ect
Tonnage.

1852 | 39,361 8,242,702 6,418,245 — 1,824,457 —22

1853 | 44,779 | 9:447:104 | 7,316,457 | —2,130,647 | —22

1854 | 43.494 | 9,507,721 7,639,473 | —1,868,248 | —19

1855 | 42,597 9,538,231 8,370,363 — 1,167,868 —12
June, 1858, HENRY WRIGHT.

Notice of the Instruments employed in the Magnetic Survey of Ireland,
with some of the Results. By the Rev. H. Luoyp, D.D., M.R.LA.

Tue Irish portion of the magnetic survey of the British Islands was com-
menced in the beginning of August last, and is now nearly terminated,
nothing remaining for its completion but the determination of some of the
instrumental constants. The observations in the northern half of Ireland
were made by Profs. Galbraith and Haughton, and those of the southern
half by Dr. Lloyd and G. Johnstone Stoney, Esq. The instruments employed
were similar in the two divisions of the island, and consisted of a theodolite
magnetometer, and of a dip circle furnished with an apparatus for the deter-
mination of the earth’s magnetic force in absolute measure. The compara-
bility of these instruments was established by observations taken at Dublin
at the commencement of the survey. The elimination of the magnetic changes
will be effected by means of simultaneous observations made at the mag-
netical observatory of Dublin. The theodolite magnetometer for the mea-
surement of the magnetic declination differs somewhat from instruments of a
similar nature hitherto in use,—the ditference consisting in observing the sun
(or other celestial object) by reflexion, and transferring the transit adjust-
ments to the axis of the mirror employed for that purpose. By this arrange-
ment, the observing telescope is always horizontal, and in readiness for the
magnetic part of the observation. The instrument is furnished also with the
means of determining the horizontal component of the magnetic force in
absolute measure ; but this was not employed, the determination of the total
intensity by means of the dip circle leaving nothing to be desired. The ap-
paratus required for this latter determination consists of two additional needles,

ON THE IRELAND-MAGNETIC-SURVEY INSTRUMENTS. 261

one of which is loaded with a small weight, placed at a fixed distance from
the centre on the southern arm. ‘The observation consists of two parts, in
one of which the product of the earth’s magnetic force into the magnetic
moment of the magnet is found by observing the position of equilibrium of
the loaded needle, when placed on the agate planes ; while, in the other, the
ratio of the same quantities is found by employing the same needle to deflect
another substituted inits place. The apparent obstacle to the success of this
method lies in the smallness of the angle of deflection produced by a dipping-
needle, when employed as a deflector at the usual distances; the error of the
deduced force being inversely as the sine of the angle of deflection. The
equation of equilibrium of the deflected needle involves a quantity, which
may be expanded into a series of the inverse odd powers of the distance (be-
ginning with the inverse third), the coefficients of which are functions of cer-
tain integrals depending on the distribution of magnetism in the two needles.
The law of distribution being unknown, these coefficients can only be deter-
mined by repeating the observation at several known distances, and elimi-
nating among the resulting equations. Now, at the distances usually em-
ployed in observations of deflection, the angle of deflection produced by a
dipping-needle would be too small for accuracy; and if the distance be
diminished, the number of terms of sensible value will be increased, and
there will arise increased difficulty and uncertainty in the elimination. This
difficulty is avoided by availing ourselves of a circumstance which ap-
pears to have been generally’ overlooked. It is not necessary that the
usual deflection distance should be one of the series employed in deducing
the coefficients of the inverse powers of the distance in the value of the
constant; it is not even requisite that the relative positions of the two
magnets should be similar in the two cases: for if the value of the cor-
responding function be-found, for any other position, and at any other
distance, that of the required function will be known by a comparison of the
deflections produced. Accordingly, the principle of the present method (so
far as the deflection process is concerned) consists in observing the angle of
deflection in the regular series of observations, at a very short distance, the
deflecting needle being attached to the moveable arm of the divided circle
which carries the verniers, so as to be always rendered perpendicular to the
deflected needle in the course of the observation. In the determination of
the constant the whole apparatus is to be turned in azimuth, until the de-
flected needle is vertical. The deflecting magnet is then to be removed from
its usual position above described, and placed horizontally on a support out-
side the box on a level with the agate planes, and the equilibrium produced
by turning the apparatus in azimuth as before. This observation having
been repeated at several known distances, we have all the data for the deter-
mination of the unknown constant. By these means the uncertainty of the
result, arising from the smallness of the angle of deflection, is removed from
the regular series of observations, and thrown upon the determination of the
constant, which may be made at leisure, and repeated as often as is requisite
for accuracy. Even when the constant is undetermined, the instrument may
be used to observe the total force relatively,—the method having this advan-
tage over other relative methods hitherto used, that the results are completely
independent of the changes of the magnetic moments of the needles in the inter-
vals of observation. Dr. Lloyd concluded by stating some of the results of
the survey, so far as they have been calculated. But as these calculations
are ar incomplete, the results can only be regarded for the present as pro-
visional.

962 —« REPORT—1858.

Report of Dublin Dredging Committee, appointed 1857-58.
By Professor J. R. Kinauan, M.D., M.RLA.

Durine the past year, the following districts, all in the immediate vicinity of
Dublin, have been examined :—Killiney Bay, Bray Head, Kish Bank, South
Strand, Dalkey Sound, Howth, Malahide, Lough Shinny, Bettystown, and
‘considerable advance made towards the completion of the Report. The
following numbers of species have been catalogued :—

Fishes,60; Mollusca, including Polyzoa, 262; Crustacea, 105; Arachnida, 5;
Echinodermata, 29; Hydrozoa, 60; Actinozoa, 17; Sponges, 10; and many
Annelides not yet identified. Various untoward events prevented the Com-
mittee from carrying out fully the dredging arrangements which they had
made at the commencement of the year. For the better perfeeting of the
Report, they have determined to allocate to the several Members of the
Committee certain classes of animals as the special object of study, and have
divided these as follows :—Professor Kinahan, M.D., Articulata and Sponges;
Dr. Carte, Vertebrata; Dr. Wright, Mollusca; and Professor J. R. Greene,
Echinodermata, Coelenterata, &e. They propose also to include in their final
report, as complete alist of the fishes of Dublin Bay as practicable, for which,
as well as the further prosecution of their dredging researches, they would
ask for a grant not exceeding £15 for the year 1858-59, the Committee
consisting, as last year, of Professor Kinahan, Dr. Carte, Dr. Wright, and
Professor Greene.

Report on Crustacea of Dublin District. By Joun Roprert Kina-
HAN, M.D., M.R.I.A., Professor of Zoology in the Department of
Science and Art.—Part I. Decapoda Podophthalmata,

Tue marine districts comprised in this Report consist of a series of open
bays, into most of which a river-mouth enters; and of one or two extensive
sand-banks which lie off the east coast of Ireland.

The chief stations are—Dublin Bay and the estuaries of the rivers Dodder,
Anna Liffey, and Tolka; a long lighthouse pier separates this into sub-
districts—the North and South Bulls. The South Bull is almost exclusively
fine sand, containing great numbers of broken shells, being made up from
the washings of a cliff of marine drift; an extensive strand, left dry here at
low water, is dotted over with sand-pools, in which Carcinus Menas, Mysis
vulgaris, Mysis Chameleon, Palemon squilla, P. varians, Crangon vulgaris,
Gammarus locusta, Gammarus palmatus and other species are found. A
tidal stream called the Cockle lake, divides the bed of drift already spoken of
from the strand proper; this at high tides is in many places from 2 to 3
fathoms deep, but is singularly destitute of crustacea ; the bottom is a quick-
sand.

Passing along from this station towards Kingstown Harbour, we meet
several patches of Zostera, in which Poré. holsatus is found in some numbers ;
having passed Kingstown, the bay becomes rocky, one or two zostera-clad
banks, here called Mullet Grass, being interspersed among the rocks; one of
these, near Sandycove, furnished me at low water with the followingspecies:—
-Hippolyte varians, H. Cranchii, Pandalus leptorhynchus (new species),
Mysis vulgaris and chameleon, Crangon vulgaris, Crangon fasciatus,
Apseudes talpa, Atelecyclus heterodon.

ON CRUSTACEA OF DUBLIN DISTRICT. 263

Dalkey Sound, a narrow channel, separating Dalkey Island from the main
land and from 3 to 10 fathoms deep, bounds the Dublin station. In the
Sound, the following species occur:—Portunus depurator, puber, holsatus and
pusillus, Inachus Dorynchus and Dorsettensis, Hyas coarctatus, Eurynome
aspera, Pirimela denticulata, Pinnotheres pisum, Ebalia Pennantii and
Cranchit, Bernhardus Streblonyx, Thompsonii, Cuanensis, Ulidianus and
Hyndmanni, Galathea Andrewsii, strigosa and squamifera, Palinurus vul-
garis, Hippolyte varians, Thompsonii and pusiola, Pandalus annulicornis,
and many of the commoner species.

Killiney Bay, which succeeds this, and is bounded by Bray, is partly sand
and part shingle and rocks; it calls for no detailed description. At Bray the
Bray river enters and forms a mud bank in about 10 fathoms to the south
of Bray Head; here, in the lobster pots, Palemon serratus has been said to
have been taken. Distant about 7 miles from Bray Head is a bed called
the Scallop bed, part of the Kish bank, the water varying from 6 to over 25
fathoms. Here many rare and one previously undescribed species has
occurred, suchas Crangon sculptus, Crangon Allmanni, Galathea Andrewsit,
all the Bernhardi, except Prideauaii, the two Ebalias already mentioned,
Acanthonotus testudo, Ampelisca typicus, Nephrops Norvegicus.

The North Bull, owing to the influx of the three rivers already named, is
chiefly mud passing into rock at Howth: this district has never been care-
fully explored, but the following species are often thrown upon the white
sand, a bank similar to that already noted as the South Bull: Corystes Cas-
sivelaunus, Portumnus variegatus, Pilumnus hirtellus.

Balscaddan Bay, Howth, is rocky; here Amphitoe littorina is common,
Hippolyte varians, Hippolyte Cranchii, Mysis vulgaris and chameleon,
Porcellana platycheles.

Portmarnock Bay, which next sueceeds, is chiefly sandy, slob banks occur-
ring in parts. At Malahide a great muddy estuary, due to the influx of the
Swords river, is found. This mud slob is separated from that at Rush and
Lusk by the Burrow of Portrane, which is sandy like the two Bulls; to the
north of this the coast becomes rocky till we get to Skerries, where three
islands cause the formation of a bank, from which in 10 fathoms the late
Robert Ball, LL.D., procured Crangon trispinosus, and Diastylis Rathkii.

From Skerries to the mouth of the Boyne the beaches are all sandy, and
call for no special remark. b

Two outlying stations, viz. Ireland’s Isle, or Eye, near Howth and Lambay,
which lie abreast of Portrane, have afforded many rarities; but never
having personally examined them, I must defer particular notice of them till
some future period. ;

The fluviatile districts afford us Astaeus fluviatilis, Gammarus fluviatilis,
besides Entomostraca in abundance. At the mouths of rivers many of the
marine species ascend even into the fresh water; these are marked in the
accompanying Tables as subfluviatile; they are Crangon vulgaris, Mysis
chameleon? and vulgaris, Gammarus fluviatilis, Spheroma serratum,
Orchestia levis, Orchestia littorea, Corophium longicorne, Carcinus Menas.

The terrestrial species are at present recorded in greater numbers than in
any other district, probably having been more sought after, all the genera,
save Platyarthrus, being represented here. The chief species wanting in the
Dublin lists are those which frequent deep water, and which will probably
be yet found when the deeper parts of the Bay are better searched. Mud
burrowers are also absent, which will most certainly yet be found. It is
intended to embody all remarks bearing on the peculiarities of the distribu-
tion of species in the last part of this report; at present I shall content myself

264 REPORT—1858.

with a summary of the species belonging to the Decapoda found here, con-
trasting this with the numbers found in Great Britain generally, and also
with those found in Ireland.

The exact habitat of several species recorded here is as yet a desideratum,
although some of these are by no means rare as drift species; these are
Portumnus variegatus, Corystes Cassivelaunus,extremely common; Gonoplax
angulatus, drifted in at Portmarnock (supposed to inhabit mud banks near
Knocknagin ; for this note Iam indebted to Charles Farran, M.D.) ; Aée-
lecyclus heterodon (full-grown specimens), Portunus areuatus, Portunus
corrugatus, Galathea nexa, Bernhardus Prideauxii, Palemon serratus, Pali-
nurus vulgaris.

The following species have as yet been noted only on the Dublin coast :—
Crangon Allmanni (also Belfast, August 1858), Pandalus leptorhynchus,
Iphimedia Eblane.

The following hasnot occurred elsewhere inIreland:—Crangon trispinosus;
and many species, as Crangon sculptus, C. fasciatus, Pirimela denticulata,
are of extreme rarity elsewhere, :

In Dublin Bay, as will be seen by reference to Table B, Appendix, have
been recorded fifty-nine species of Decapoda out of the ninety-one positively
recorded in Ireland. These represent thirty genera,—the genera wanting
here being Maia, Pisa, Acheus (?), Polybius, Thia, Nika (?), Alpheus,
Athanas—all genera of the south and west ; Munida, Gebia, Calocaris, Cal-
lianassa, genera of deep sea or mud-burrowers, and Cynthilia, Macromysis,
Vaunthompsonia, Iphinoe, and Cyrianassa, genera as yet but little under-
stood and easily overlooked. Pasiphaé is the only genus which has not
been met elsewhere in Ireland; its occurrence in Dublin is doubtful (vide
Appendix, Table A).

Of the thirty-two Irish species not recorded in Dublin and not belonging
to the genera here noticed, Xantho rivulosa and tuberculata, Portunus ear-
cinoides and marmoreus, Pinnotheres veterum, Hippolyte Mitchelli, Palemon
Leachii, Mysis Griffithsii (?}), are probably western and southern. Inachus
leptochirus, Crangon bispinosus, Bernhardus Forbesii, inhabitants of deep
water, and Crangon spinosus, a northern species; Bernhardus levis and
Acheus Cranchit have been reported to me, but I hesitate to insert them at
present.

As compared with the numbers given as British, it must be borne in mind
that among the latter are included many whose specific value is doubtful; at
the same time we could scarcely expect that all the northern or southern
species which occur around the coast of Great Britain, should ever be found
here. Of most of the species recorded here, I have procured specimens in
ova, from many of whick I have succeeded in hatching the zoes ; these, should
time permit, I would propose to notice in the concluding portion of my
report, when I come to speak of the development of the group generally.

Lists of the genera, families, and species are appended.

ON CRUSTACEA OF DUBLIN DISTRICT, 265

APPENDIX.

Tasie A.—Tabular view of Genera of British Crustacea Podophthalmia,
showing distribution of genera in Dublin as contrasted with the whole of
Ireland and with Great Britain and the Sarnian provinces.

Not found | British
Families and Genera.| Dublin. | Irish. | in Great and
Britain. | Sarnian.
EvuBRANCHIATA.
Brachyura.
Maiada.
Inachus 2 Sveoy lite cadab obs cae 3
UERticdcceridarcases|, Seagesses AE eat aches: 1
MN taeRsnccscvanses|\"onstsvegs PW sc ccee eves 2
Hyas .....0+0.. fe 2 DE Ws are ons os 2
Leptopodidz.
Achzeus ......+0. pani lcalatsaisa 74 1 Rcdwavawaeas 1
Stenorhynchus ... 1 1 oe WAG nedede 2
Lambridz.
Eurynome ..... Sees 1 ME iscact. cseeer 1
Cancride.
Pirimela .........++ 1 WB Atv asduteanes 1
Cancer ....ceeeeee. 1 NEO cecal oulcits ane 1
Xantho ae *(1) Br Weigvesenescecs 3 *Very doubtful, X. florida.
Eriphide.
Pilumnus ....000- 1 Te Aa zene aeeentents 1
Portunide.
Portunus ......... 6 8 1* 9 * Portunus carcinoides.
Platyonychid.
Carcinus........... 1 A 7! varreoes Sach 1
Portumnus.....-... 1 BES OM Seatertc sien 1
Polybius.. eeeererens| & Oecceee . 1 eeceeseccece 1
Thiide.
MIAME Ce eeeesceesic|, aseocssds 1 1 1* |Channel Islands,
Corystide.
Atelecyclus..,...... 1 Was Feces 1
Corystes ..... Ree een 1 Tigh leestarancete 1
Gonoplacide.
Gonoplax ......... 1 i einasas nasser 1
Pinnotheridz.
Pinnotheres ...... 1 2 Seto SE 2
Grapside.
MTIIPE RE Setaeee s<s|,.0sccsesge |) spseee rt saese Soe sa 1 Not Irish.
Leucosiadz.
Ebalia_....... anes 2 Deve dcesawattenies 3
Anomoura.
Dromide.
oo .. Sosssvvcsess|lipuasesives. || Cegerse.|| coovceige none 1 Not Irish.
Ttthodes....cccecrees| cvvcesees | cocvee Geiger oie nan 1
Paguride.
Bernhardus_ ......} 6 (1*?) Ci eeerrern res 9 *B, Prideauwii very doubtful.
PaAguristes ..e.secs.| srsceeeee ARRBCE. || one Re deeracs 1* =|*Pag. Dilwynnii not Irish,
Porcellanide.
Porcellana ......... 2 2 cansdveeense 2
Galatheide.
Galathea ...... ee 3 8 Reenecies: 5's 9
Munida ............ baatcees WP eet ec ltskh 1

266 REPORT—1858.

Table A (continued).

Not found | British
Dublin. | Irish. | in Great and
Britain. | Sarnian.

Families and Genera.

Macroura.

AXIUS ..c0008 SCC OREE Not Irish.
GalOCAti8y (ncvocnccs|sececeste |. 2 | §) ceceseacece
Callianasside.
Callianassa. = | cccscocts | Lf cvccesevcese
Scyllaride.
AYClUS scccorvecees
Palinuride.
PalimuruS .cssccosol Lo | “Lf savecccsaces
Astacide.
Homarus .+e..s00e
AStaCUS ....ceseeere
Nephrops ....+.-.
Crangonidz.
Crangon ...-+-s00++ 5 8 2* 8 |*C, Allmanni, C. Pattersonii.
INIKA. csecacssee aoeet| aaenadeeme 2 Rtetees 1
Palzeemonide.
Alpheus ....+0..008 *A. affinis. Guernsey.
Autonomea Not Irish.
Athanas .....

eeecevees | weseee | seerseeseves

— = DO

sidesent cE caesde-A\daserscases ss 1 Not Irish.

* |*All the doubtful species are
included.
Pandalus *P. leptorhynchus.
Palemon
Pasipheide.
Pasiphae..cccsccocce} Lf L | sasscccesees
Paneide.

PENRUS sovevccceree| ssoseccde | coves | sevdccccnece 1 Not Irish.

ANOMOBRANCHIATA,
Stomapoda.
Squillida.
Squilla seceereesers Sul ueeecan |! cscevsccrene

Not found in Ireland.

Schizopoda.
Euphauside.
Thysanopoda ...++.
Myside.

‘ Cynthilia ......0.
MYSIS .2..0+.cosevess
Macromysis ......

Diastylidz.
Diastylis........0.4.

Not Irish.

:
:
:
:
°
.
:
:
.
:
:
:
:
:
tr

oo
=-
—
*"v
VY
i

eaeeeeeersee

now

Not Irish.
*V. cristata.
Not Irish.

Vaunthompsonia
EUAOr a. .isecccsess| svevens de «(| cogemede tinwes Beceesess
[phinoe€ \covesccess.=|) ceseavbae L Hiab iviseetesstests
Bodotria..c......+++
Cyrianassa .........| cerseeeee 1 1*

Not Irish.
*C. longicornis.

Dee whe

The first column gives the number of species found in Dublin ; the second
the number certainly known as Irish; the third contains those which, while
found either in Ireland or the Channel Islands or both, are as yet unknown’
in Great Britain; whilst the column marked British is intended to show thei

ON CRUSTACEA OF DUBLIN DISTRICT. 267
number of species found on the shores, &c. of Great Britain, Ireland, and the
Channel Islands. The families and genera not yet proved to be represented
in Ireland are ¢éalicized. The following summary shows the contrast be-
tween these several districts as regards the number of species and genera.

Tasie.B.—Summary of number of species and genera.

Eubranchiata, Anomobranchiata.
Districts. a SS SSS
Macroura. | Anomoura. | Brachyura. |Stomapoda. |Schizopoda.| Aploopoda.
Dublin ........ iene 19 11 (1?) 25 (1 ?)) sccceee 3 (1?) 1
Preland!.7..... <0. 30 tree dee or BS 6 4
Not found in Great
= ey chaghabianl \ eR sees, Td Bie ae Goes 2
British sce.c.seee0. 47 20 40 2 ll 9

91.
47.

Dublin
Dublin

Species, Irish ......
Genera, Irish

59.
30.

British .,
British

The following is a detailed list of the species found hitherto in Dublin:—
Tasixe C.—Species of Crustacea Podophthalmia inhabiting Dublin Districts, *

ad

* Common. ** Verycommon. ft Rare. { Very rare. L. local.
Ratio
Name of Species. é saiae Zone of distribution Remarks.
rence ;
Inachus Dorynchus ........., * |Coralline.
— Dorsettensis ............ ft |Coralline
| Hyas araneus © ....ecccsceeess ** |Littoral—Laminarian.
—— Coarctatus .........0. ** |Laminarian—Coralline.
Stenorhynchus phalangium | ** |Littoral—Coralline.
Eurynome aspera .......0000 * |Coralline.
Pirimela denticulata .........| Dos sss cescisecscsas «+eee+.|One specimen only.
Cancer pagurus ..........0000 #& | Littoral—Laminarian.
. Pilumnus hirtellus.... t |Laminarian—? littoral.
Portunus puber ..........0064 +#* |Littoral—Laminarian.
— corrugatus ........ seesf E (Hittoval ?. oc cee, enon tacts ...|One young specimen.
—— arcuatus ...,...006 aaeaal oS DO He sasidaan- ease Do.
—— depurator ..........0000 * Laminarian—Coralline.
—— pusillus ......cecceeeees ..| #& |Laminarian—Coralline.
— holsatus ....... Sdeedess * | Do. Do. ....--|Rather local.
Carcinus meenas. .........06 ** | Littoral—Laminarian.
Portumnus variegatus Reet beacuse eOadenasatevertss yesaena Never dredged
Atelecyclus heterodon ...... Mem OGHORAL Seetseescaentecs ees =< Only young met
Corystes Cassivelaunus....,.) * |Littoral .....ss0cceeee Pe} Never dredged
Gonoplax angulatus.........., TL. [Littoral .........ccssecsecees Never dredged
Pinnotheres pisum............, ** |{Laminarian—Coralline
Ebalia Pennantii .........++ t |Coralline
—— Cranchii ...............1 25 WGnyisesrwackeuseruewecedse=¢ Obtained by R. Ball, LL.D.
Bernhardus Streblonyx +** |Littoral—Coralline,
—— Prideauxii.............+. Fo ee dcdddvduteuelee .-..{A single dead specimen.
—— Thompsonii ............ * Coraline.
—— Cuanensis...,.....00....| ** |fLaminarian—Coralline,

268 -REPORT—1858.

, Table C (continued).
RY rir eee er eee eer er Herre Pee Sere

Ratio
‘ of MR ve
Name of Species. banat Zone of distribution. Remarks.
rence.
Bernhardus Ulidianus ...... xx |tLaminarian-—Coralline.
—— Hyndmanni ....... weve] 7K Do. Do.
Porcellana platycheles ......| | *L. |Littoral—Laminarian _ ...|/[xtremely local.
longicornis ...see-ee0e. #* |Littoral—Coralline.
Galathea squamifera ....... ..| t |Laminarian........ seveee-| Never dredged.
—— Andrewsii.........++ «ee. #* |Coralline, &c.
StTIGOSA s..esesscseeeeeee t |Laminarian ..............004. Never dredged.
Palinurus vulgaris ...........- ¢ |Laminarian and Coralline.
Astacus fluviatilis ......... «| * |Fluviatile.
Homarus vulgaris ..... pesca 4& [Laminarian ......ceesesceeees Never dredged.
Nephrops Norvegicus ...... x |Coralline, &c.
Crangon vulgaris ........ ....| %¥& |Littoral—Laminarian ......|Also subfluviatile.
Allmanni .......«0...06., * |Coralline.
—— SCUIPtUS ..,.ccseereeees) * Do.
—— fasciatus ..,............, ¢ | |Laminarian.
—trispinosus ............] tT |Coralline ...............e0e+e.|Robert Ball, LL.D.
Hippolyte varians ............ «x |fLittoral—Laminarian —
t+Coralline.
—— Thompsoni .eeeee.sses. * |Laminarian—Coralline.
—— Cranchii ...............| * —|Littoral—Laminarian.
—— pusiola .........s00..0..., ** |Laminarian—Coralline.
Pandulus annulicornis ......) ** |{Laminarian—Coralline.
— leptorhynchus .........} $ |Laminarian ............. .»...(One specimen.
| Palemon squilla ............/ #* |Littoral—Laminarian .,.|Never dredged.
SEITAtUS cccreccccececss| + (Coralline .....ss00.cecossscers Do. do.
VaTians ....sscsceeeeees .-| * |Littoral—Laminarian...... Do. do.
Mysis Chamzleon............| ** |Littoral—Laminarian...... Also subfluviatile.
—— vulgariS..........s0000++ ee Do. Dor} ccs. ce .-.| Do. do.
me? one secccseveee| cee fLaminarian .........0. Sandycove.
Diastylis Rathkii ............| t |Coralline..... sabanees eeaaeee Robert Ball, LL.D.

Xantho florida is stated also to have occurred, but needs confirmation ; it
may possibly occur in Lambay Island.

On River Steamers, their Form, Construction, and Fittings, with re-
ference to the necessity for improving the present means of Shallow
Water Navigation on the Rivers of British India. By ANDREW
Henperson, 4.1.C.E., M.S.A., F.R.G.S.

[A Communication ordered to be printed entire among the Reports. ]

1. Comprehensive Objects aimed at.—The object of this paper is to offer
some suggestions for the improvement and extension of steam navigation on
the Ganges, Burhampootra, and Irrawaddy, in the east, and on the Indus and
the Punjaub rivers on the west, now forming the river boundaries of England’s
empire in India; the coasts and harbours affording a desirable field for
maritime enterprise, and the employment of British shipping. The valleys,
deltas, and upper aftluents of those rivers extend many thousand miles
through some of the most populous and fertile regions in the world, the whole
route from east to west traversing the most ancient sites of civilization and
channels of trade, there being a probability that the navigation of the Indus

ON. RIVER STEAMERS. 269

will be brought into connexion with the Ganges by means of a canal uniting
their upper branches so as eventually to enable vessels of suitable form and
dimensions to pass uninterruptedly from Kurratche on the west coast, through
the whole riverine system of British India.

2. Proposal for the attainment.—Of late years many plans and proposals
have been brought forward for improving and extending the means of internal
communication in India, and of laying opeu to European commerce and
civilization the productive resources and capabilities of the country.

3. These projects may be divided into two classes,—those which consist in
improving the means of land transport, and those which refer to water
transport.

Of the first class there are three kinds—roads, tram-roads, and railroads ;
of the second there are also three kinds:—river navigation in the main
channels, canal navigation in connexion with irrigation, and lastly, that which
forms the subject of the present paper—the navigation of the shallow creeks,
upper branches, and minor affluents of the great Indian rivers and deltas.

4. Of the first class, all require not only the construction of vehicles, but
of the tracks which the vehicles are to traverse, and are consequently expen-
sive, and require a considerable period of time before they can be brought
into practical operation.

Of the second class, with the exception of canals which are supposed to be
constructed with other views than that of being only navigable channels, the
others merely require the construction of the vehicles, and are consequently
the cheapest, simplest, and at the same time the most readily available.

5. To make the importance of the utilisation of the existing means of com-
munication by shallow-water navigation more readily understood, it may not
be out of place to make a few general remarks upon each of the plans above
enumerated.

6. Present Roads in India.—First, as to roads—such as deserve the name
in India, have hitherto been those which were necessitated by considerations
affecting the military tenure of the country, or were confined to such trunk-
lines of communication as afforded the greatest facilities for military opera-
tions, conjointly with the most pressing requirements of the commercial inter-
ests of the community. In all countries (where water transport is not available)
the number and excellence of the roads may be taken as a fair index of the
condition of the population, and the surest test of their comparative progress
in civilization. Judged by this standard, it is not, perhaps, overstating the
present condition of the greater portion of our Indian empire to say, that it
is hardly above the level of Britain during the occupation of the Romans.

7. There were splendid military roads leading from one great military
station to another; if these stations coincided with commercial positions of
importance, that was an advantage of secondary importance.

8. That such should in a great measure have been, until recently, the con-
dition of British India, may be matter of regret, but it would scarcely be fair
to lay the blame exclusively upon the government of the East India Company.
Since the relinquishment of their charter as traders, their first duty was to
govern the country, to maintain order, peace, and tranquillity. Accordingly,
whatever was done in furtherance of these ends was done, and done well ;
but it was obviously impossible, considering the extent of territory under
their sway, to do anything beyond constructing such trunk-lines of commu-
nication as were required for military and strategic purposes.

9. In these modern days of large enterprises, however, there seems to be
a fatal tendency ‘‘to run before we learn to walk,” to overlook and despise

270 REPORT—1858.

the necessity of turning to the most natural and preliminary means of inter-
course, which ought to precede and pave the way for more improved and
costly means of traffic. Because we cannot do all, we are disposed to do no-
thing ; because we cannot have railways, we neglect to make the roads by
which the railways might be fed and supported; and, lastly, because in such
a poor country we cannot afford to construct public roads, we refuse, unless
in a very imperfect and limited way, to turn to account the existing facilities
for water transport afforded by the numerous upper branches and minor afflu-
ents of the great Indian rivers which traverse the country in every direction.

10. Available Shallow-water Navigation.—Of all conceivable means of
transport from one place to another, that by water (where a smooth and level
highway is provided by nature) is at once the most universal, simple, and
least expensive. It is very certain that the coracle and the canoe were in use
long before the existence of wheeled carriages and roads adapted to them,
for the very obvious reason, that carriages even of the rudest description
require a road to be prepared for them. The ground requires, to a certain
extent, to be levelled and freed from obstructions along the whole route which
the vehicle has to traverse; whereas, in water transport, the route is made
and levelled to hand; all that was required was a hollow tree, or a raft of
loose branches tied together. There was, moreover, this additional advan-
tage, that such a mode of conveyance required less labour for traction, and
at the same time admitted of the application of other than human or animal
labour, by turning to account the propulsive power of the winds, tides, and
other currents.

11. Ofall the different modes by which it is proposed to increase the means
of internal communication in India,—roads, tram-roads, and railroads, river
navigation, canal navigation, and the utilisation of the shallow water chan-
nels—there is not one but what is under certain local and commercial con-
ditions, good and expedient ; but it ought to be borne in mind that they have
each and all a certain natural and inevitable relation to each other; that is,
the most improved and expensive means of communication (as regards the
first outlay) must be preceded and aided by the next lowest, or rather the
next more simple and less expensive mode.

12. Pathways are feeders to turnpikes, and these to railroads; and as a
multiplicity of small streams unite to form even a small river, so do these
latter in turn unite to form the main current of the principal rivers.

13. As before stated, the most universal, the simplest, and least expensive
means of transport is that afforded by the natural water channels already
existing in the country, and which constitute the general basis from which
all the other and more improved means have been derived and rendered
practicable. But with our usual tendency to expensive and ponderous modes
of procedure, the system of most of the water transport organized by English-
men in India has been encumbered by the extended scale upon which it has
hitherto been attempted. Nothing short of steamers of the same construc-
tion and dimensions as those in use in England and America have been
thought eligible for the requirements of river navigation in India.

14. Now, viewing the main channels of the principal rivers as trunk-lines
of traffic, there cannot be a doubt that vessels of considerable dimensions
are desirable for the conveyance of the large and regular amount of traffic
which is to be anticipated on a trunk-line of communication ; but this advau-
tage of using vessels of large dimensions is limited by the disadvantage of
the greater draft of water which they require, owing to the increased weight
of the vessels themselves. This increase in the draught of water precludes

ON RIVER STEAMERS. 271

vessels of large dimensions from entering the upper branches and minor
tributaries of the great Indian rivers.

15. Taking into account the provisions already made, or in process of con-
struction for opening up the interior of India, by trunk-lines of railway, by
roads, canals, and steam navigation on the main channels of the great rivers,
and also taking into account the present and probable future condition of
India for many years to come, it would appear that the most urgent and im-
perative requirements of India are not so much for additional trunk-lines of
traffic, as for feeders to supply them—not so much for main arteries of com-
merce as for the capillaries by which they are to be kept alive. Railways in
India or elsewhere would be comparatively useless if it were not for the means
by which merchandise is conveyed to their termini.

16. However comprehensive the scheme by which the railway system of
India has been arranged, no system which does not take into account the
minor tributaries or existing means of communication with their termini can
be considered complete.

17. The Improvement of Native Bouts proposed.—The entire traffic on the
upper branches and minor affluents of the great rivers is at present conducted
by means of native boats of a peculiar description, which have been in use
from the earliest periods; and since the construction of roads by the natives
themselves has ever been most unwillingly undertaken, there can be no hope
of their ever improving much in this respect.

18. There is therefore every certainty that for many years to come these
native boats must be the means of conveying the great bulk of Indian pro-
duce either to the termini of the railways, or to those stations on the main
channels of the great rivers which can be reached hy the large steamers
now employed.

19. From this point of view, then, it will be seen, that on the improve-
ment of the native river craft depends a very considerable portion of what-
ever success may attend the opening up of the country by trunk-lines, either
of roads, canals, river navigation, or railways.

20. Review of Native Boats and record of the earliest Steamers built in
Bengal.—With the view of calling public attention to the important functions
fulfilled by these boats, I have prepared the accompanying brief description
of the principal types of vessels now in use.

21. Quoting from an account of steam navigation in British India, com-
piled by G. A. Prinsep, Esq., and published by the Government at Calcutta
in 1830, Appendix, A 4, containing etchings illustrating twenty-eight different
kinds of native boats used on the Bengal rivers, from the ponderous Budge-
row or accommodation boat and fast-pulling Bhauleah used by the English,
to the burthensome Patela and Chuprah Oolak of forty tons,—also to the
Pansuai fast-pulling fishing dinghee and Mor Punkhee or native pleasure-
boat, all being of the Nautilus type of form, use the balanced rudder, steer-
oar or skull at the stern; the latter using an oar as a bow-rudder.

22. The notable features of these vessels are, that they are generally built
upon rounded lines, the bottom resembling the immersed portion of a Nautilus
shell. This general contour, together with the absence of dead wood and
gripe, appear to be dependent upon the character of the rudder employed,
which is generally a large triangular board, with a post attached to the centre,
so that the fore-part of the blade falls under what would be styled the dead
wood of a river barge. The whole arrangement is intended to give the boat
great facility for quick turuing, to avoid sand-banks, &e. The dimensions
appear to be from 20 to 80 feet in length, and from 7 to 26 feet in breadth,
the draft of water varying from 1 to 5 feet, and the burden from 4 to 40 tons.

272 REPORT—1858.

23. With a view of exhibiting the relative forms and fittings of the boats
used by the natives of Bengal under different local conditions, there are given
three engravings*, representing—Figure Ist, the Ferruckabad atoora, of
600 maunds burden, or 17 tons, used in the upper branches of the Ganges.
Figure 2nd, the Decca Pulwar, used on the eastern branches and upper

* BENGAL RIVER BOATS. DIFFERENT TYPES USED BY THE NATIVES.

The Katoora Type being followed in building the ‘ Naga’ tow-boat, 1840. The type of
the Ducca and Tumlook boats combined in the model of the ‘ Assam’ steam-tug, built in
Calcutta, 1841; and a combination of all three with some points of the Chinese tea-boat,
together with experience since derived, forming the basis of the model and fittings of pro-
posed nautilus flotilla for general purposes.

Katoora Type.

Fig 1. is the ‘ Ferruckabad Katoora,’ of 800 maunds, or 27 tons burden, as used on the
upper branches of the Ganges; they are generally tracked up the stream. It will be
observed that there is a sort of skeleton guard-board extending from the gunwale: on this
the crew step when propelling the boat by poles. The rudder is a large triangular blade,
with a centre pole ou which it is hung, with the fore-part under the stern, in place of the
dead wood.

Nautilus Type.

Fig. 2 is the ‘ Dacca Pulwar,’ of 500 maunds, or 17 tons burden, used on the eastern
branches and upper channels of the Deltas of the Ganges and Burhampootra. In this the
‘Nautilus’ contour of the bottom is well exemplified. The rudder in this case is suspended
on one side of the stern, and is held in its place by lashings seen in the figure. These are
well-built boats of hard wood, and use square sails.

ON RIVER STEAMERS, 273

channels of the Deltas of the Ganges and Burhampootra. Figure 3rd, the
Tumlook or Salt boat, of 800 maunds, or 27 tons burden, plying on the
Delta of the Ganges below Calcutta.

24. The publication contains 104 pages, in six chapters, on private specu-
lation, the government sea and river steamers, detailed accounts of experi-
ments and opinions of the late General W. N. Forbes and other officers, with
plans of the following steamers :—

25. The King of Oude’s steamer, built at Lucknow, the engines brought
out by Mr. Henry Jessop, in 1819. The ‘ Diana,’ built at Calcutta in 1823,
and employed in the Burmese war in 1824. The ‘ Enterprise,’ the first vessel
that steamed out to India in 1825. The ‘ Irrawaddy’ and ‘ Ganges,’ govern-
ment sea steamers, built by Mr. Seppings, at Calcutta, in 1827. ‘There is also
a plan of the Forbes steam-tug, launched in January 1829, at Calcutta, of the
construction of which I had the superintendence, and in March 1830 con-
ducted her to China, towing a vessel of 380 tons, against the monsoon, as
stated in the 18th page. ‘

26. For river navigation in the Assam valley, the government launched
the ‘Burhampootra’ and ‘ Hooghly’ early in 1827; the former 102 feet long
by 18 broad, built by Mr. Kyd, with the round bilge design by Maudsley and
Co.; the ‘ Hooghly’ being built by Mr. I. M. Seppings, with flat floor, square
bilge, and upright sides. The third and fourth chapters give details of various
trials of these two, and opinions that the ‘ Hooghly ’ steered so badly, that the
Marine Board considered a “rudder in the bow seemed the best remedy.”

27. I have entered into this detail as the papers now before me will afford
much valuable information as to the actual performances of the vessels first
established by government on the Indian rivers; the peculiar character of
that navigation and the difficulties to be contended with are nowhere to be
found so well illustrated as in this record of practical trials, and the opinions
of various sea officers, engineers, professional builders, and naval architects.

28. The fourth chapter contains information peculiarly applicable to the
present pressing demand for water transport by the Great Trunk Railways,
now in course of construction up the valleys of the Ganges and Indus,
by the East Indian and Scinde Railway Companies. The recent crisis of a
mutinous army in the valley of the Ganges (now happily past), has left the

“A Tumlcok, or Flat Type.
/

f~.)s

Fig. 3 is a‘ Tumlook,’ or ‘Salt Boat,’ of 800 maunds, or 27 tons burden, plying on the
Delta of the Ganges below Calcutta. These have their rudders hung through a recess in the
stern, and may, in common with those already described, be tilted up out of the water by
means of depressing the upper end of the pole to which they are hung.

274 REPORT—1858.

roads so unsafe for goods as to force the usual native land traffic to seek
security by the private river steamers; the two established companies reali-
zing fabulous freights of £20 to £30 per ton, and even sea-tugs towing native
boats up the rivers. The exigencies of the government for military trans-
port service, have necessitated the employing of most of the private steamers
in conveying troops and stores, from the utter inadequacy of the few govern-
ment vessels to meet one-third the requirements of the public service.

29. I beg to submit a brief historical analysis and tabular statement of the
particulars of the various enterprises by which the steam navigation of the
Ganges has been hitherto attempted.

30. In 1834 the Indian government established the first system of steam-
tug and tow-boats on the Ganges. Both vessels were of similar form,
dimensions, and tonnage—120 feet in length by 22 feet in breadth, and
275 tons.

31. The mode of towing may be understood by a reference to the sketch
of deck plans exhibited, in which it will be seen that the two vessels were
placed some distance apart.

32. The engines were from 50 to 90 horse-power, and the speed averaging
from 63 to 74 miles an hour, or 50 miles a day on the upward passage, and
80 miles a day down stream in the dry season. During the rains, the rates
were 40 miles and 100 miles up and down the stream respectively. Their
draft of water was from 3 to 4 feet, the capability for dead weight cargo 60
to 100tons. They were very flat-bottomed, having upright stem- and stern-
posts, and large barge rudders often injured by collision.

33. System of Tug- and Tow- Boats established on the Burhampootra, by the
Assam Company.—In 1841 the Assam Company established on the Bur-
hampootra a system of powerful tug steamers, carrying passengers and towing
smaller cargo-boats, as shown in the second line of plans in the sketch, and
in the three diagrams of midship sections on the right of the centre, consist-
ing of the ‘Assam’ steamer, 140 feet in length by 27 feet in breadth, 443
tons, builders’ measurement, and having engines of 100 horse-power—the
‘Naga’ tow-boat of 90 feet in length, 18 feet in breadth, and 91 tons. These
I designed for the Assam Company as adaptations of the rounded lines and
“Nautilus” form of the best river-boats of Bengal, the ‘ Katoora,’ ‘ Dacca
Pulwar,’ and ‘ Tumlook’ boat shown in the sketch.

34. The form and mode of suspending the rudder were also derived from
the same sources. Of these balanced rudders, two-thirds of the blade were
placed abaft the spindles, the rudders occupying the space of the dead wood,
but not extending beyond the stern. A small rudder forward occupied the
same position in the bow. By this arrangement, as the vessels had no keel,
the two rudders fulfilled the functions of dead wood and gripe in steady
steering, and gave the power of turning the vessel on the centre, when they
were placed in opposite directions.

35. The peculiar advantages of these double rudders, in steering a train of
tow-boats, will be best explained by a reference to shear and deck plans of
the bow and stern of two vessels of the “ Nautilus” type, now proposed for
military transport service, 100 feet in length, 15 feet in breadth, and 109 tons,
builders’ measurement. The diagram of midship sections and height of deck
will be seen on the left of the centre, in juxtaposition with the sections of
the ‘Assam’ steamer, ‘ Naga’ tow-boat, and an iron tea-boat now navigating
the Burhampootra with a native crew; the dimensions are, 75 feet in length,
12 feet in breadth, 7 feet deep, and 52 tons, builders’ measurement.

36. From the difficulty experienced by the Assam Company in obtaining

ON RIVER STEAMERS. 275

labour for the cultivation of tea, the erops were so limited, that, in the ab-
sence of support from the Bengal government, there was not sufficient traffic
to maintain such expensive vessels on the Burhampootra. The ‘Assam’ and
‘Naga’ were consequently employed on the Ganges, making eleven voyages
to Allahabad. The other private steamers established on the Ganges were,
in 1836, the Calcutta Steam-Tug Association, and from 1843 to 1845, the
Ganges Steam Company and the General Inland Steam Navigation Com-
pany. The latter adopted a system of long light-built steamers, carrying
passengers and towing two small cargo-boats with dead wood and gripe, and
provided with large barge rudders, like the government vessels, which
“resulted in the loss of the first vessel, the ‘ Sir Herbert Maddock,’ in the
Hooghly. The shares of this Company, like all other steam enterprises
in India unsupported by government, have fallen to one-fourth their cost,
while competing for freight with public steamers. The dimensions, tonnage,
and the amount of engine power employed in these vessels are here presented
in a tabular form for comparison, with the amount of capital invested dedu-
cing from the displacement and weight of hull, the cost per ton of carrying
capability at different drafts of water.

38. Relative Financial Position, dependent on the capabilities for weight
cargo, with Tabular Comparison of Vessels.—This Table (p. 276, § 37) shows
the relative financial position of the different enterprises, at the same cost price
per ton, and in horse-power or capital expended in obtaining a capability for
weight vargo, at light drafts of water which in our Indian rivers is of more im-
portance than high speed. This was practically proved in the large and power-
ful *Mirzapore’and ‘Ghazeepore,’ which draw too much water to be profitably
employed during the dry season, to obviate which they built large light tow-
boats; but experience has recently shown this was getting into another diffi-
culty of serious magnitude. A letter from Calcutta by last mail, states,—
“It is but a short time ago the Ganges Company lost a tow-boat from the
same cause, being an iron vessel, very light, and over 250 feet in length; in
coming up the river through the Sunderbunds, she would not answer her
helm in coming round a spit of sand, and in consequence came foul of a
steamer, and, in fact, cut her own throat, going down soon after.”

39. It will be seen from the Table that these are the longest and largest

steamers on the Ganges, and were designed on the American system of large
cargo steamers ; also that none of the present steamers on the Ganges carry
any cargo at 2 feet draft of water. A reference to the capital columns shows
a great increase of cost of capability as the draft of water decreases, the
cost varying from £558 per ton at 3 feet; £88 at 4 feet in the steamers
‘Patna’ and ‘ Benares ;’ while, with the Nautilus flotilla of one tug and three
tow-boats I have proposed, the cost of capital will be £75 per ton at 2 feet
draft, £31 per ton at 3 feet, and only £19 per ton at a load draft of 4 feet,
with a capability of 360 tons of dead weight cargo between the four vessels.

40. The relative capability for weight cargo of the various vessels whose
particulars are given and shown on the Plan, will be best seen in the following
Table (p. 276, § 41), in which the ratio of capability for weight cargo to the
load displacement is stated for each, at the same draft of water, as well as
their relative load displacements at the 3 feet load water-line. The Table also
shows the draft at light water-line, with the displacement due to the weight of
the several vessels, in tons; and also the ratio which this weight bears to the
external bulk of the hull iv cubic feet, as affording the best criterion of the
weight of material necessary for strength.

42, Conclusions as to form, construction, and fittings of Nautilus Tug and

bea

~REPORT— 1858.

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ON RIVER STEAMERS. 277

-Tow-boats from 100 to 200 feet long, in Flotillas of four vessels of small class
to two of largest, to meet the present requirements of the Bengal Rivers.—
Taking all the data given, both with regard to what is required, and what
has been done in meeting these requirements, I have arrived at the following
conclusive opinions :—

43. Ist. It is better to attempt constructing a vessel adapted for the general
purposes of inland and coast navigation, than to endeavour to supply special
local requirements. 2nd. That for the present exigencies of Government and
the railway companies, together with the aspect of the country in the proba-
bilities to be anticipated, the wants of all will be most cheaply, speedily, and
effectively supplied, by adopting a uniform model, and system of fittings and
towing, which, with slight modifications suggested by local: circumstances,
may be readily adapted to each case; the following being the smallest vessels
to which steam can be economically applied, and the largest conveniently navi-
gated, by native crews without steam.

44. Dimensions.—To be 100 feet in length, 15 feet in breadth, and 6 feet
in depth, the deck extending one-third of the breadth beyond the sides to
form a guard board ; the roof of the deck-houses to rise 15 feet above the
keel for half the breadth and length of the vessel.

Proportions.—To range from eight breadths to five, as circumstances may
require.

Pee Where light draft is essential, the main breadth to extend for
about three breadths, or half the length of the vessel, the middle of the main
breadth or dead flat to be one-third of the breadth abaft the centre of the
vessel’s Jength ; the bottom of bow and stern to be curved up from the dead
flat to the extremities of bow and stern; the angle of rise of floor to be one
degree, and the bilge to be turned within one square foot.

45. In the arrangement proposed, the cargo, boilers, and fuel are placed
below, while the engine and passengers are placed above the deck. The
framing of the deck-houses is made subservient to the strengthening of the
vessel longitudinally, and although in connexion with the framing of the
vessel, it is distinct, and can be at any time removed.

46. I propose that the shell of the vessel should be made of the lightest
material consistent with strength ; the hulls to be built in three distinct com-
partments, with bow and stern bulkheads placed one-third of the breadth
within the stem and stern as supports for the necessary attachments.

The central compartment to be two breadths within the inner bulkheads,
and to contain the whole of the machinery and fuel. When it is required to
use the vessel as a cargo-boat this machinery to be removed.

47. Other systems of Towing compared with the Nautilus Tug and Tow-
boat.—With regard to the particular mode of towing vessels and the kind of
connexion which experience has proved to be convenient and safe, I consider
that it is not expedient to articulate together the vessels as in the plan
adopted on the Indus River by Mr. Bourne, for the following reasons :—

First.—The only power of steering by means of rudders must be on the
terminal barge of the train, and must consequently be slow and inefficient in
directing the movements of the others.

Second.—The preceding vessel in an articulation not only tows the one
which comes after it, but also steers it, by the position which it assumes with
regard to it, and consequently in the tortuous channels and amid the cross
currents of the Ganges and Burhampootra, there would be no power of inde-
pendent action, to allow each vessel to take care of itself.

48. In the system of towing introduced by me in the ‘Assam’ steamer, and

278 REPORT—1858.

now proposed for the Nautilus flotilla, the tug and tow-boats are to be con-
nected together in such a way that the pivot of the tugging post is placed at
least half the breadth before the stern of the steamer, while the tow-boat had
a second centre of motion, connected by a rigid spar with the pivot, and
situated at a point in advance of the cutwater. The tugging post or pivot
of the tow-boat is made in the form of a timber knee, placed as a bowsprit,
and provided with two rollers for supporting the connecting hawsers.

49. There is by this means established between the various barges of a
river train, the only kind of connexion which admits of sufficient independent
action for each boat to guide itself in an emergency, and is at the same time
strong enough to withstand the strain thrown upon them.

The steering*apparatus is also arranged with the view of independent action ;
each boat is to be provided with two rudders, one occupying the position of
the dead-wood aft, and the other oceupying that of the gripe, forward; the
joint action of these balanced rudders enabling each boat to turn on the
centre of her length. By using the foremost rudder across the stem, the bow
of the boat can be made to follow the stern of the steamer without impeding
the movements of the latter to port or starboard, when turning herself.

50. The rapidity with which a boat of this description can be manceuvred
by means of fore-and-aft rudders is easily explained. When the stern rudder
only is used, the vessel turns upon a pivot situated a short distance forward
of the stern post; while, if the bow rudder only is used, the boat tends to
turn on a pivot considerably abaft of the bow. Consequently when both
rudders are used simultaneously, the common centre of motion will be near
the middle of the length of the vessel ; on trial, the ‘Assam’ steamer turning
short round in 15 seconds.

51. By turning on this centre it is evident that neither bow nor stern will
have as far to move in turning round as if the pivot were situated near either
of the extremities, as happens when only one rudder is used. The peculiarity
of the mode of connexion is, that while the radial spar, forked at one end.
prevents collision between the bow of the tow and the stern of the tug: the
distance between them can be at any time increased by means of the hawsers,
one of which belongs to each vessel, and by hauling up which the crews of
either boat can slack out or take in, as the occasion may require.

52. Necessity for greater care as to displacement, weight of hull, and eapa-
bility for cargo at light draft of water. To be secured by a more correct and
definite system of contracting for steamers, with specific caleulated quantity,
by a tabular form of tender.—From inattention to the necessity of obtaining
correct estimates as to the weight of the vessel and calculations of displace-
ment, the majority of the steamers sent from this country under terms of
general capability for the navigation of the Indian rivers, have been found
to draw a great deal more water than was either specified or contracted for.

53. With the view of ensuring accuracy in this respect, I have used a form
of tender for quantities, that was submitted, for the consideration of the
contractors and shipbuilders with the view of facilitating the calculations of
the quantities to be inserted in the blank tabular form of tender.

The quantities given were not intended to be taken as absolutely correct,
but only as approximations to be verified by the contractors themselves, who
were requested to state their own quantities with the same form and specific
detail. :

The calculation of the displacement, however accurate it may be, only
gives one of the elements for determining the draft and capability for dead-
weight cargo; to arrive at anything like certainty with regard to these two

ON RIVER STEAMERS. 279

essentials of river navigation, the weight of the vessel must be calculated with
the greatest care and minuteness.

54. In the estimates received by the Assam Company for an iron tea-boat
of 75 feet in length and 12 feet in breadth, the weight of the hull appeared
to vary from 17 tons to 10 tons. Much of this was, no doubt, attributable
to variations in the thickness of the metal plates, prepared by different me-
thods of construction.

55. Tenders were sent to the office in the usual routine, and others were
requested by the Directors from experienced shipbuilders submitting a spe-
cification, and to some a tracing of the best boat employed by the Company,
with suggestions for increasing the length from 68 to 75 feet, with fittings
adapted to navigation by native crews. The five tenders received for the
iron hull packed for shipment varied from £300 to 72 per cent. increase of
cost, the former being the net price contracted for, the latter a price per
ton, builders’ measurement, and not including pumps and capstan, these
admitting of an indefinite extra charge. The cost of the same vessel by the
twe contractors would differ 100 per cent.

Having issued the construction form of tender, with specification, and
calculated quantities of displacement, weights, and capabilities for cargo,
they were verified and reconsidered, after consultation, by several experienced
shipbuilders, so as to secure a very great reduction in the weight of the hull,
and consequent increase of cargo at light draft: the contract price of different
builders only varied 4 per cent. The amended specifications also reduced
the weight of hull 25 per cent., increasing the capability for cargo at 2 feet
draft 50 per cent.

57. From careful observation, there are many experienced shipbuilders
and naval architects who are now competent to undertake contracts, not as
formerly, by register tonnage and nominal horse-power at so much per ton
of register, but in terms of capability and speed. Such we know to be the
case, and with admirable results, in Liverpool, London, the Clyde, and
other ports.

58. The exceeding diversity of opinion, and the anomalies of practice,
with regard to the requirements of steam-ships and mode of contracting for
them, may be accounted for by the fact, that the sudden demand for iron
steam-vessels called into existence a numerous body of what may be termed
Mushroom Marine Engineers, who had previously been employed as assistants
to engineers, boiler-makers, or contractors. It is to such men that we are
indebted for the luminous discussions on the “ Formula ” of resistance, power,
and speed of steamers, one of whom propounded as a fixed prineple, that
naval architects had nothing to do but provide displacement at a given area
of section, and that the speed did not depend on the form or lines of the
vessel ; also that displacement or friction of bottom very little affected the
resistance.

59. To such extent has this vague and indefinite style of reckoning pro-
ceeded, that there seems to be almost double entendre in everything con-
nected with the specification and contracting for steam-vessels. In the first
place, there are two meanings attached to the term “tonnage,” the old and
the mew; then the engine-power is reckoned in nominal and effective horse-
power; and the discrepancy which exists between these last-named quan-
tities is scarcely greater than what is found between the net contract price,
and that which, under accumulated impositions, might come under the name
of the commission price.

Steam Navigation in England.—The tabular system adopted of estimating

280 REPORT—1858.

the cost of steam transit by the capital required to obtain a ton of capability
for cargo, is necessarily different from that in use, as with railway or canal
traffic in this country, viz. the cost of a ton per mile, from the absence of all
detail of the working expenses, and the conditions of Indian river naviga-
tion being so various and totally different from canal or even European river
navigation.

The valuable paper read before this Section by Mr. W. H. Bartholomew,
the engineer of the Aire and Calder navigation, lucidly illustrated what
economic results had been obtained by the system of tug- and tow-boats.

The extraordinary practical results shown by Mr. Bartholomew, are not
only honourable to those who, by the combination of practical experience
and scientific investigation, have conduced to such important improvements
in engines and mode of tugging, but afford the best encouragement to
others to persevering inquiry, with the hope of introducing these improve-
ments on the Indian rivers.

The following is a summary of the practical results :—

« A screw steam-tug 64 feet by 11 feet, fitted with its serew and engines,
draws 8 or 12 tow-boats of a gross tonnage of 1240 tons, carrying 820 tons
of cargo 23 miles an hour. Pressure of steam 200 lbs. on the square inch.
Two screws on the same shaft, but working in a different plane of rotation,
making 180 revolutions per minute. Dynamical effect on tow-rope, 32 ewt. ;
consumption of coal 2 tons per day, of 10 working hours; draft of water,
6 to 7 feet.”

Towing cargo on the Humber, these screw tug-boats can tow and turn
eight to twelve barges ; experience showing that the addition of two or four
vessels reduced the speed very little in proportion to the increase of load, but
much depended on steady steering. While on the Bengal rivers, when towing
one very long vessel through the tortuous channels, it was found expedient
to lash her alongside, keeping their two rudders working together, whenever
the length exceeded 180 feet.

Conclusion.—Having had, as commander, builder, and owner of steamers,
thirty years’ practical experience in the establishing and working the earliest
systems of river and ocean steamers in Bengal and the eastern coast of India ;
and retaining up to the present time a deep personal and pecuniary interest
in several local enterprises depending on the development of river steam
navigation and maritime trade in Bengal; having also had much experience
as Director of companies in this country in contracting for engines and
steamers to meet the requirements of the Indian ports,—I believe that the
present great difficulty of want of means of transit in India can only be over-
come by the immediate construction of steam-tugs and tow-boats for railway,
but separately for military and mercantile purposes.

With a view to effective comparison of the money value of tenders and
specifications for river steamers from different builders and contractors, I
have used the following Table, by which the capital or cost per ton of capa-
bility for weight-cargo can be ascertained at three drafts, as well as the
three elements of resistance ; from these a scale or curve of displacement and
areas can be formed, which with the indicated H. P. will afford the means of
ascertaining the coefficient or index number of the vessel daily.

SCALE OF DISPLACEMENT 1h TOS
ve

i

proposed

| Deck Pare of Trucs Stormer Por the}

Talis

Steamer

Sande Roilway a

Samal Bulk at Med™ Haight Deck 5,

—

nage BM. rae $50 rea

e400 }20 ay

( Breemal Bulk at

Deck House Hale
the length and

b Tirange Bat Der

Pra

5 bene
eR TS Teast pen SES

T
ahlity pen |S é/tons a for

ens

0

DRAFT OF WATER SCALE

Deck Plan ofa. Tren of. Wants Tug and Tow Boats pryfse by ppaeana

T ? Z
eS NG iam

25 oF the Breadth
= (UeOF mipsHIP.
je Proposed. )\ Marcantele Wantitos Flotilla
\ eee oer ae are :
lalla ¢ ur a Vessels cf
eucerd Besar Dacha) teins of thre} sieuli mae tt
Taw Beats arid oe Dla Lines
Fug Steamer |\ } Tron Tia Bout 75

|
— hat

ai

Length 100 ree

Del 53 tens

Si
Length: 85 eet
Engjores 200P

Dpt 9 Tins

Dy,

41
\ Dept 126 tnd

Dpt 68Tns |
5 = 1 Dp® 39 tens]
De 39Tm 4, \ An 1
EHD 38 Fire 85 rg

TS fect Ton Dae

LIWB Soy

Assam yn

ap a

D) Zonyth aor
_)) zat

SCALE OF DECK Phans 40 FEET To | INEH

eee OF BOW 4 STEAM 4 FEET 70.44MOH =

6}

rupth 1440 feck

|
Balanced:
[ete | Mudders at
i | Bow & Starn

Stan Bulkh

After Peake 6)

| Gradegre & Mure | |

yes Steam Co¥
—

=

Ds

ceapare &iasemp

adth Tet) 1748 |

ate” Gata bitity |
aseDwe |

113 Tons

5257 Tins Cost:pren

4
st [Para “ad Roiarep Stamnes ee
External Bull ot Mid ™ hat Deck. lett, patel) 43. Gag PS
mag BM, length +95 brecith. 26 Tips 738 | ab3' DWC hes pe eau

Ton.

extemal Buk te rae je oF Deeks
eee ALT hnnk

Sane 185 Deck Plone are Gariges Stein | OF Boats st oF

bx Ne

Z~Assam Tid inching Tow Boat

a

iar Hot

82H.

eee

tiagtas

= 1311 Deck Plans

Flat: or Cargo Bout: of sans
Tonnage Length) 120 B22 Tons

ae Val EE, “Brrt
na Span ea3s
pCa aati

H Assam

y \.

ug. Sterazrver thom 60h SHorse Dover,
art of Winter trae

Cost #13.738

Veo 4 Leek

Estatihed W831 by Bengal Gor

cathe

SCALE OF 40 REET TO | IMCH

Vanpareative

Seer & Deck
Pla a5
Dagrams of
Midshap Sections
© Scales of
Displacement
ot River Steamers
& Tow Boats
established: & proposed
on the
BENGAL
RIVERS
Thar Relanwe
Capatitay Por
Dead Waght Cargo
at light
Dratt of Water
wth the Cayrtal

required per Ton

ea

1 Hol

Plan to Tele ir
ie

Magn Hold

Internal space below deck

2254 atbie ret

Fedde. of Tra

|
|
= sal

rc)

SCALE OF FEET TO A

Timer Tyele

Deck

Phan of

a

SET

7S Da
Naudtdus, Tug an

sehen

#

me Es

of Capalilits

A. HENDERSON'S

Plan of
Nautlius
Tig and Tow Boat
designed. Tor
Gereral Purposes
on the
BENGAL RIVERS
wi Form & Fittings
assuralated: to the
Tidian Type
to bemasigated by
Native (Crews
with or withgut

Steam Power

I

4
DESCRIPTION OF COMPARATIVEH PLANS

OF STEAMERS, TUGS, & TOW BOATS,

ESTABLISHED AND PROPOSED

ON THE BENGAL RIVERS.

Comprising shear and deck plans on a scale of 40 feet to an inch; with diagrams
of their midship sections on a scale of 4 feet toan inch; also on same scale, a
Shear and deck plan of the bow and ufter-body of the Nautilus system of Tug
and Tow Boats, with their special fitlings and mode of connection by Tow spar,
with Low and stern rudders acting simullaneously.

Scare or Toxxaot Disrtacemust,

4 On'tho left hand corner of the drawing there aro given curyes of displacemonts for exch of tho vessols shown
in the drawings. Tho perpendicular scale is ono of draft of water in feot and inches. ‘Tho horizontal ono of roxs oF
DIAFLACEMEST.

‘Tho conve ov nisriacaexr is formed hy setting off on tho perpendicular and horizontal scales tho draft of
water ip feet, and the calculated displacement in tons at threo different depths of water, or height of deck. Lines
from those points, perpendicular to their respective ecales, oro drayn out until thoy, intorscot cach other, that is,
until tho Horizontal water line crosses the perpendicular tonuage line due to it. A curve run through these three

ints of intersection will enable tho displacemeat duo to any draft of water to be readily ssccrtained without the
Aid of caloulation,

‘The namo of tho yessel to which it belongs is written on cach curyo, and also at the point on tho draft of water
scale whore the light draft of each vessel is indicated when Gtted for service and boforo receiving cargo, On the hori-
zontal or tonnage scale tho name of the vessel is written alung tho perpendicalar dotted lino which intersects the curva
of displhcements atthe 3 fect load line. ‘The tonnage displacement duc to it being indicated on tho horizontal scale.

Tho carapitiry yor nrap wefonr canco, marked © WO at 3 feet, is ascertained by deducting tho, displace-
mont atithe light draft water line in tons from that indicated ou the horizontal lino ut 3 feot load draft of water.
On the pracnast ov stpsmr accrioss tho displacements are recorded below the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th fect wator
Hines of each yoasel whoso light draft is loss than 2 foot. ‘The ight water Jine or draft dua to tho weight of tho veascl
is marked in dotted lines and tho weight of the bull bolow it, skewing the draft of water without cargo.

On tho peck rraxs are recorded the Mediam Height of deok, tho Tonnage, Old or Builder's Measuroment, the
External Bulk, and the Ratio betwoon them, or tho number of cubje feet duo to one ton of builder's measurement.
There is also given tho capability for dead weight cargo\at 2 andat 3 fect, os obtained by deducting tho weight of
‘vessel, rooorded below the dotted line (on tho midship sections), from: the displaccment, recorded belaw the 2nd and
3rd fect draft water lines. Fixaxce (on the deck plan}—thore is. Sratescmxz of the amount of capitat expended per
ton of cipability for weight cargo, shoving how the cost of capability increases with tho diminution of tho draft —

‘Assam Tog and Tow Boat, capital expended «£19,738
Lnaded to 4 ft. G.W. C., 231 tons, capital - = es 60 per ton.
D df. , 100 tons, capital Se = x 137 capability.
Ganges Steam Company, 5 Iargo steamers, capital expende wo £06,738

Patna pag W.G. 140 tons, cost £51 per ton Mirzapore, O.W oy 395 tons, cost BS nt 4 ft.
Benares{ ,,. 23 toms, cost £508 capability } Ghazaporo, ,, J 113 toms, cost 263 at d ft.
Navriwws Frorixa or Stkaa Too Avo Tonite Tow Boars, rmovosep uy Axpkew Hexornsox.

“At tho lower part of tho drawing thors is a shoor ani-dook plan of tho stern and bow of tho proposed Neatitus
steam tug and tow boats for general purposes, . Te will bo seon that the togging pust on bonnd the steamer is situnted
about half a-breadth in front of the stern, and that the towing post or pivot of the tow boat is placed over thie cut-
Grater: the two pivots are counceted by a wooden spar which bras a circular head playing on tho post of the stoamer,
‘and has parallel jaws embracing tho towing post of the tow boat, By this means collision, is prevented botwoon the
bow of ona vessel and the storn of the other, while tho hawscrs, which arc shewn as passing over friction rollers oo
the tawipgypost and connecting spar, when relaxed allow tho two vessels to separate to whatever distance’ may bo
required to enablo them to stesr themselves independently by means of the fora and) uft rndders with which thoy are
provided. |Theso rudders, as will bo sccn, aro capable of being tilted out of tho wator im tho samo way as those
described in the nativo boats

‘Ais it is intended that theso tug and tow boats shall bo capable of being, whou-oceasion requires, manageable
by native crévrs, there aro special adaptations of the native fittings with regard to propuléion. It willibe sven that
there is p gunrd boaril or gangway where the crew can make uso of poles whon tracking is impracticable, and also a
<eries of Chinese seulls which can. be worked with great advantage in narrow channols where other moans are
difficult of application, ‘The speciality of these Ohincso sculls is that their action is continuous und not inter
‘as with other sculls; i0 fact, they constitate crow propellers with a variablo pitch adapted to tho speed, nnd w' f
aroreadilysrorked Uy human labour. This isa peculiarity which is well adapted for the vessels intended for the
conveyances of troops in India, when the'soliiers could, on an emorgenoy, propel themsdlyes, even without the aid of
steam power.

‘Arréference to the midship section of the “Nautilus” in tho diagram of sections will show how it is proposed
to strengthen tho yesscl longitudinally, by turning in the top plato, and by placing foro and) aft wooden. stringer
Overt. The deck housos and their framings aro also made subsorvient to their longitudinal/strongth.

Tn tho sheer and deck plans of the samo vexscl, the hull will be seen to bo divided into threo sections, tho
middle ono having a double bulkhead intsnded us a well. ‘Tho Hogive is placed above the deck of tho middle
compartinent, while the fucl and boilorsare situated below. Tt may be deemed advisable to hare small donkey engines
Placed in the sloramoat compartment, s0 that if nocossary thoy might bo cmployed in working tho Inrge sculls already.
Fiferréd to, in cases whero the middlo compartment was dispensed with, and the fore and aft compartments above
Constitated thu whole length of ths vesacl. Tho soparate pieces aro also capable of being employed as pontoons in
military operations.

Theso vessela are intended in tho Grst placo to moot the requirements of the railway, companies, and having
folfilled their functions in this respect, to be banded over to Government so as to form the nucleus of w sinirARy
Waren maxsronr senvior. Thoy msy also bo employed in all cases whero native boats aro now used, By iron
frames and fittines being sent from this country to tho, upper provinees, their bottom and sido may bo filled with
elench-built planie like tho Forruckalud Katoora, forming’ light draft and cheap bont.

VISANOIAL STATEMUNT NAUTILUS VLOTILLA, ONN TOG AND TILLEL TOW OATS

Estimated capital or cost complete at Calcutta, £6,000 to £8,000. ,
Loaded to 4 fe. U.W,0, 376 tons Capital £18 por ton} Loaded to 2 . C.W.O, 91 tons capability, at n
Als [eizergee eel th Fy Th) cost or oapital £77 per ton,

281

ON RIVER STEAMERS,

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1858.

282 -REPORT—1858,

Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee. By Guoren C. HynpMan.

For the purpose of carrying out the investigation of the Marine Zoology of
the coasts of Antrim and Down, the Committee named at the meeting of the
British Association held in Dublin last year proceeded to make arrange-
ments early in the present summer. Dr. Dickie and Edward Waller, Esq.,
repaired to Larne, county Antrim, where they remained for a fortnight
during the month of June, accompanied by the writer for the greater portion
of the time. Some difficulty was experienced from the want of boats and
boatmen. Eventually a yawl, with a crew of five men, was ordered from
Groomsport, county Down, and on the 23rd of June a steamer was hired
and brought from Belfast by Mr. Patterson.

With these means for work, the following portions of the coast were
explored :—

lst. The shallow water lying between the small islands called “The
Maidens” and the shore as far north as Ballygalley Head.

@nd. The northern shore of Island Magee, including Brown’s Bay and
« The Cod-bank,” lying north of the Isle of Muck.

3rd. Larne Lough.

4th. The deep water outside the Maidens’ Lighthouses.

5th. The Turbot-bank and the deep water adjacent.

A small basketful of the sand procured from the Turbot-bank was for-
warded to J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq., and a list of its contents made out by
him, amounting to 127 species of Testacea in that small quantity of sand.
Among these are several very rare shells—a few of them new to the British
list, and several to the Irish.

The weather was in general unfavourable, and interfered very much with
the operations. Among the submarine rocks off the Lighthouses, where the
depth was from 80 to 100 fathoms, the current ran with such strength and
rapidity that the dredges got foul several times, and were recovered with
great difficulty and loss of time. For further exploration in that quarter
some better mode of procedure would require to be adopted.

Dr. Dickie having now been obliged to leave us for Aberdeen, Mr. Waller
took lodgings at Groomsport in order the better to continue the investiga-
tion, and, along with the writer, made a number of excursions in different
directions.

lst. Across Belfast Bay, between the Copeland Islands on the south and
Black Head on the north.

Qnd. Outside the entrance of Belfast Bay, eastward, into 60 fathoms depth,
and across to the Copelands.

3rd. Off Black Head and along the Gobbins as far as the Isle of Muck,
including the Turbot Bank.

4th. The shores of the Copeland Islands and Groomsport, with the Sound
between the Islands and the coast of Down.

5th. A submarine bank, composed of coarse stones, broken shetls, and
mud, with a number of living Mollusca, lying south of the Copeland Islands,
a mile south of Donaghadee, and about a mile from shore, in 20 fathoms
water, and called “The Riggs” by the fishermen, who are in the habit of
setting their long lines there.

From the extent of the area indicated by the boundaries above mentioned,
it must be evident that the portion passed over by our dredges must be
comparatively very small, and that the lists of species enumerated can only
be taken as an approximation to the whole number in the region. ‘The

THE BELFAST DREDGING COMMITTEE. 283

dead shells far exceed the living in number, the latter being for the most
part sparingly scattered, except in the case of a few gregarious species.
Lists are appended of the species obtained from the different dredgings,
from which it will be seen that since last year the following have been
added :—
A. Arctic. N. Northern. S. Southern.

§. Pholadidea papyracea. Discovered in the dredgings of 1857, imbedded in rolled lumps
of hard clay, and again in the deep water this season. Recorded by the late W.
Thompson as found at Portrush by the Ordnance Survey Collectors.

S. Lepton nitidum. Tutbot-bank sand, Mr. Waller; new to the Irish list.

S. Montacuta ferruginosa. Turbot-bank sand, Mr.Waller. Recorded by the late W. Thomp-
son, Dublin coast and south of Ireland.

§. Nucula tenuis. Living in deep water, Maidens, Mr. Hyndman. Recorded by the late
W. Thompson ; Mr. Warren, Portmarnock.

S. Argiope cistellula?, living. This interesting addition to the Irish fauna was first dis-
covered by Mr. Hyndman in the dredgings of 1857, and again taken by the party in
1858. It seems to be abundant on dead bivalves incrusted with Serpule.

Terebratula capsula, living. This new species, taken with the foregoing, proves to be
the same as the shell found by Mr. Norman at Plymouth, and named by Mr. Jeffreys
in the ‘ Annals of Nat. Hist.’ for January 1859.

N. Margarita undulata (Sowerby). Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Jeffreys ; new to the Irish list.

N. —— pusilla ( ). Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Jeffreys ; new to the Irish list.

N. —— cinerea (Couthouy). Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Jeffreys; new to the Irish list.

Rissoa soluta. Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Jeffreys. ‘

Skenea divisa. Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Jeffreys.

Cerithium niveum (Lovén), dead. This interesting addition to the British list was de-
termined by Mr. Jeffreys from the Turbot-bank sand.

Scalaria Eschrichti (Holb6ll), dead. In Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Waller, 1857. Described
by him in the ‘ Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society,’ and named provisionally
Turritella Hibernica, but now ascertained by Mr. Jeffreys to be the Scalaria men-
tioned. Recently discovered by Mr. Jeffreys “in the collection of Mr. Maccullough of
8 ee picked up on the beach at Herm together with other undoubtedly British
shells.” .

N. Eulimella Scille, dead. Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Waller and Mr. Hyndman.

—acicula, dead. Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Waller and Mr. Jeffreys.

Chemnitzia rufa, dead. Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Jeffreys.

— scalaris, dead. Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Jeffreys.

— interstincta, dead. Turbot-hank sand, Mr. Jeffreys.

Odostomia dubia, dead. Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Jeffreys.

— nitida, dead. Turhbot-bank sand, Mr. Jeffreys.

—rissoides, dead. Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Jeffreys.

— cylindrica, dead. Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Jeffreys.

insculpta, dead. Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Jeffreys.

— decussata, dead. Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Jeffreys.

—— truncatula, dead. Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Jeffreys. Plymouth Sound is the only

other known locality of this shell.

Natica clausa, dead. Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Jeffreys.

Trophon scalariformis, dead. Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Jeffreys; new to the British list.

Mangelia Trevelliana, dead. Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Jeffreys.

— Leufroyi, dead, but very fresh. Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Hyndman and Mr. Waller.

— scabra, dead. Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Jeffreys.

Buccinum cyaneum. A fragment only, considered by Mr. Jeffreys to be this species, in

Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Waller.

Cylichna mammillata, dead. Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Waller.

— umbilicata, dead. Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Waller.

ee.

The interesting question, however, still remains undetermined, as to
whether these Northern species may be considered as still living in this
region, or as having been washed out of some submerged pleistocene bed.
Upon this point I feel myself incompetent to offer a decided opinion without
further investigation, but would refer to the observations on the subject
published by Mr. Jeffreys in the ‘Annals of Natural History’ for August
1858, and by Mr. Waller in the ‘ Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society ’
u2

284 REPORT—1858.

for March 1858. I may also quote an extract from a note of Mr. Jeffreys
of the 13th September, showing his latest views :—“‘ I found, in the dredged
sand from the Turbot-bank, two or three shells or fragments which appear
to belong to Cerithium reticulatum; but they are evidently fossel, and as
completely mineralized as a Ewomphalus from the mountain-limestone,
This fact is interesting, and may be, I think, considered fair ground for an
inference that the other shells found with these fossils (being in a totally
different condition) are recent.”

Dr. Kinahan, of Dublin, having lately visited Belfast, took the oppor-
tunity of inspecting the late William Thompson’s collection of Crustacea,
and some private collections. He has kindly furnished a list of the species
he observed, and corrected some mistakes in the names, and has also added
to our list a new Crangon, which he has named Pattersonii.

North of Larne Lough, two miles from land, one mile south of Bally-
galley Head. Depth 15 to 25 fathoms :—

Clavellina lepadiformis, living.

Saxicava rugosa, living, several.

Corbula nucleus, living, few.

Solen pellucidus, living, one.

Psammobia tellinella, dead, few ; living, very
few.

Tellina crassa, dead, one.

Syndosmya intermedia, dead, several.

Mactra elliptica, living, one.

Tapes virginea, living, many.

Venus striatula, living, one.

ovata, dead, many.

—— fasciata, dead, several.

— casina, dead, several (Messrs. Kane and
Smith).

Circe minima, dead, one.

Astarte sulcata, living, several.

—— triangularis, dead, several.

Cardium echinatum, dead, one.

-—— fasciatum, dead, several.

pygmzum, dead, several; living, one.

Lucina borealis, dead, one.

Crenella marmorata, dead, one.

decussata, living, many.

Nucula nucleus, living, several.

Pectunculus glycimeris,dead, but valves united
and quite fresh ; very abundant, in 10 to 12
fathoms, at Ballygalley; their death pro-
bably owing to deposits from peat-bogs
carried down by rivulets (Dr. Dickie),

Pecten tigrinus, dead, several.

Pecten opercularis, living, several.

Ostrea edulis, living, one: very old, with a
Terebratula upon it.

Anomia ephippium, living, many.

Terebratula caput-serpentis, living, two.

Chiton ruber, living, several.

asellus, living, several.

Acmea virginea, living, several.

Emarginula reticulata, living, several.

Turritella communis, dead, one (Messrs.
Kane and Smith).

Trochus zizyphinus, living, many.

millegranus, dead, several.

—— Montagui, living, one.

tumidus, living, many.

cinerarins, living, many.

magus, dead, one.

Littorina littorea, dead, one.

Lacuna puteolus, dead, one.

Rissoa parva, dead, many.

costata, dead, a few.

striata, dead, many.

Natica nitida, living, several.

Lamellaria perspicua, dead, one.

Buccinum undatum, living, several.

Mangelia turricula, dead, one.

Cyprza Europea, dead, several; living, one.

Cylichna cylindracea, dead, one.

— obtusa, dead, several.

Cod Bank, three miles north from Isle of Muck, and two from entrance of

Larne Lough.
broken shells :—

Aplidium fallax, living, few.

Clavellina lepadiformis, living, very few.

Saxicava rugosa, living, many.

arctica, living, few.

Mya arenaria, dead, few.

truncata, dead, few.

Corbula nucleus, dead, many ; living, several.

Thracia villosiuscula, dead, few.

Cochlodesma_prztenuc, dead, one; single
valve.

Solen ensis, dead, very few.

—— siliqua; dead, very few.

Depth, 20 fathoms or more. Bottom: gravel, stones, and

Solen pellucidus, living, very few.
Psammobia Ferroensis, dead, one.
tellinella, dead, many; living, few.
Tellina crassa, living, one.

donacina, living, one.

Syndosmya prismatica, dead, very few.
Mactra elliptica, living, few.

Tapes virginea, dead, many; living, many.
Venus casina, dead, many; living, few.
— fasciata, dead, many; living, many.
— ovata, dead, common; living, common.
Artemis lincta, living, very few.

THE BELFAST DREDGING COMMITTEE.

Artemis exoleta, dead, one.

Cyprina Islandica, dead, one; living, one.

Circe minima, dead, few; living, very few.

Astarte triangularis, dead, very few.

—— sulcata, living, many.

Cardium fasciatum, living, several.

—— pygmeum, dead, very few.

Norvegicum, dead, several.

Lucina borealis, dead, several.

Modiola modiolus, living, many.

Crenella marmorata, dead, one.

decussata, dead, few.

Nucula radiata, dead, one; living, one.

nucleus, living, many.

Leda caudata, dead, several; living, one.

Pectunculus glycimeris, dead, many; living,
few.

Lima Loscombii, dead, several.

Pecten pusio, dead, one.

—— tigrinus, dead, many; living, several.

—— maximus, dead, many; living, very
ew.

—— opercularis, living, many.

Ostrea edulis, dead, many.

Anomia ephippium, living, many.

— striata, living, very few.

—— patelliformis, dead, one.

Chiton ruber, living, very few.

— asellus, living, many.

Larne Lough, 1 to 21 miles from the entrance.

285

Acmeea virginea, living, many.

Dentalium entalis, dead, very few.

Fissurella reticulata, living, one.

Emarginula reticulata, dead, many ; living,
mnany.

Trochus zizyphinus, living, many.

—— var. Lyonsii, living, one.

— — millegranus, dead, many; living, few.

—— tumidus, living, very few.

Montagui, dead, very few.

cinerarius, living, few.

Phasianella pullus, living, few.

Lacuna vincta, dead, very few.

crassior, dead, few.

Rissoa striata, dead, many.

Rissoa (other species, not determined).

Turritella communis, dead, few.

Aporrhais pes-pelecani, dead, few; living,
few.

Natica nitida, dead, several; living, very
few.

— Montagui, living, two.

Nassa incrassata, living, very few.

Buccinum undatum, dead, several.

Fusus Islandicus, dead, one.

Trophon clathratus, living, two.

muricatus, living, one.

—— Barvicensis, living, two.

Depth, 4 to 5 fathoms.

Bottom chiefly nullipore, with occasionally mud, sand, and broken shells :—

Mya arenaria, dead, several.

Corbula nucleus, dead, many ; living, few.

Solen siliqua, dead, few.

— pellucidus, living, very few.

Psammobia Ferroensis, dead, few.

— tellinella, dead, few.

Syndosmya intermedia, dead, very few; liv-
ing, very few.

Tapes virginea, dead, many ; living, few.

— pullastra, dead, few.

Venus striatula, dead, few.

— fasciata, dead, few; valves double.

ovata, dead, many ; living, very few.

Cyprina Islandica, dead, very few; fragments.

Cardium echinatum, dead, very few; living,
one.

—— pygmeum, living, very few.

— Suecicum, dead, very few.

Lucina borealis, dead, few.

Crenella decussata, living, one.

Nucula nucleus, dead, many.

Pectunculus glycimeris, dead, very few.

Pecten opercularis, dead, few.

Ostrea edulis, dead, very few.

Trochus cinerarius, living, many.

Turritella communis, dead, few.

Buccinum undatum, dead, many.

Cyprza Europea, dead, few.

Brown's Bay, Island Magee, from 4: fathoms outside, to close in shore :—

Corbula nucleus, living, few.
Thracia villosiuscula, dead, one.
Solen ensis, dead, one.
Psammobia Ferroensis, dead, one.
Tellina incarnata, dead, several; old sin gle
valves.
—— fabula, dead, several.
Syndosmya alba, dead, few.
— prismatica, dead, few.
Donax anatinus, living, one,
Mactra subtruncata, living, few.
Lutraria elliptica, dead, one.

Tapes pullastra, dead, one.
Venus striatula, living, few.
Artemis lincta, dead, few.
-— exoleta, dead, few.
Cyprina Islandica, dead, one; living, one,
young.
Cardium pygmzum, dead, one.
Lucina borealis, dead, one.
Nucula nitida ?, living, few.
Leda caudata, dead, one.
Turritella communis, dead one.

21st June, 1858.—Between the Maidens’ Lighthouses and the Isle of

Muck, in about 20 fathoms :—

Molgula tubulosa, living, several.
Cynthia morus, living, several.

Saxicava rugosa, dead, few.
Corbula nucleus, dead, few.

286

Pandora obtusa, dead, one.

Tellina crassa, dead, one.

Mactra elliptica, dead, one, double.

Tapes virginea, dead, several.

Venus casina, dead, many.

fasciata, living, one.

ovata, living, several.

Artemis exoleta, dead, one.

lincta, dead, one.

Astarte sulcata, living, several.

Cardium edule, living, one, small size.

pygmzum, living, few.

— fasciatum, living, several.

Modiola modiolus, dead, several.

Nucula nucleus, dead, several ; living, several.

Leda caudata, dead, several.

Pectunculus glycimeris, dead, many; living,
few.

Lima Loscombii, living, one.

— subauriculata, dead, several.

Pecten pusio, dead, several.

—— tigrinus, dead, many ; single valves.

REPORT—1858.

Pecten opercularis, dead, several.

Anomia ephippium, dead, few.

Terebratula caput-serpentis, dead, several ;
living, few.

Crania anomala, dead, several.

Chiton cancellatus, living, few.

Dentalium entalis, living, several.

Pileopsis Hungaricus, living, one.

Emarginula reticulata, dead, several.

Trochus zizyphinus, living, many.

millegranus, living, few.

—— tumidus, dead, one.

cinerarius, living, one.

Turritella communis, dead, one.

Natica Montagui, living, few.

——— nitida, living, few.

Murex erinaceus, dead, one.

Nassa incrassata, dead, many ; living, one.

Trophon clathratus, dead, few.

Cyprza Europea, dead, few.

Dendronotus arborescens, living, few.

Qist June, 1858.—In a day’s dredging east and south-east of the
Maidens’ Rocks, off Larne, in from 70 to 90 fathoms, the operations having
been very much impeded by the strong currents, and the dredge catching on
the rocks at such a depth, the following species were obtained :-—

Pholadidea papyracea, living, one; very
small, in hard clay.

Saxicava arctica, dead, few ; living, several.

—— rugosa, living, several.

Corbula nucleus, living, several.

Solen siliqua, dead, one ; fragment.

Tapes virginea, dead, several ; living, one.

Venus casina, dead, several.

—— ovata, dead, several; living, few.

Lucinopsis undatus, dead, one.

Astarte sulcata, living, several.

Cardium fasciatum, living, few.

—— pygmeum, dead, few ; living, few.

Mytilus edulis, dead, several ; single valves.

Modiola modiolus, dead, several; living,
several.

phaseolina, living, several.

Crenella marmorata, living, few.

Nucula nucleus, dead, few ; living, several.

Leda caudata, dead, several.

Pectunculus glycimeris, dead, few.

Lima Loscombii, living, one.

—— subauriculata, dead, one.

Pecten pusio, dead, few; living, two, small
size.

— striatus, living, one.

—— tigrinus, dead, several ; living, few.

—— opercularis, dead, several.

Anomia ephippium, living, several.

aculeata, dead, several.

patelliformis, living, few.

Terebratula caput-serpentis, dead, several ;
living, several.

Crania anomala, dead, several.

Chiton Hanleyi?, living, one.

cancellatus, living, few.

Propilidium ancyloide, living, one.

Dentalium entulis, living, several.

Pileopsis Hungaricus, dead, several.

Emarginula reticulata, dead, several ; living,
few.

-—— crassa, dead, one.

Trochus zizyphinus, living, several.

—— millegranus, living, several.

—— tumidus, living, few.

— cinerarius, living, one.

Natica nitida, dead, several; living, one.

Montagui, living, few.

Velutina levigata, living, few.

Nassa incrassata, dead, many ; living, one;
dead mostly with Paguri.

Buccinum undatum, dead, several; living,
several, very young.

Fusus Islandicus, living, one.

antiquus, living, one.

Trophon clathratus, dead,
several,

Cyprea Europza, dead, few.

Dendronotus arborescens, living, several.

one; _ living,

CRUSTACEA,
Hyas coarctatus, few.
Eurynome aspera, one.
Portunus depurator, several,
Ebalia Pennantii, two.
Pagurus Bernhardus, many.
— Prideauxii, two.
Thompsoni, several.
Galathea nexa, two.
Pandalus annulicornis, several.

CIRRIPEDIA.
Balanus porcatus, dead, valves.
EcHINODERMATA,

Ophiura albida, few.
Ophiocoma bellis, few.

THE BELFAST DREDGING COMMITTEE. 287

HELIANTHOIDA.

Cyathina Smithii.
Adamsia maculata.

Ophiocoma rosula, few.

Cribella oculata, two.

Solaster papposa, few.

Palmipes membranaceus, one, very small.
Echinus sphera, one.

Echinocyamus pusillus, many. -
Amphidotus roseus, few.- :
Thyone papillosa, two.

Sipunculus Bernhardus, few.

ASTEROIDA.
Alcyonium digitatum.

Hyprorpa.

Tubularia indivisa, many.
— larynx, many.
Halecium Beanii, few.
serpens, few. Sertularia rugosa, two.
Crisia eburnea, few. ; rosacea, many.
Lepralia, various species, not yet determined. _—— tamarisca, two.
Cellularia reptans, few. —— abietina, many.

Flustra foliacea, many. argentea, many.

—— truncata, few. Antennularia antennina, few.
— avicularis, few. . Plumularia falcata, many.
Salicornaria farcimoides, few. Laomedea —— ?, parasitical upon Tubu-
Alcyonidium gelatinosum, few. laria.

PoLyzoa.
Tubulipora patina, few.

Turbot Bank. On the 22nd June some exploration was effected, and on
the 23rd a steamer was engaged from Belfast, when a quantity of material
was obtained from the Bank and the deep water adjacent. After the copious
list published in the Report of the British Association for 1857, it would be
needless to repeat the whole of the species obtained during the present
season ; but in order to show the richness of the deposit, a list is here given
of the contents of a small basketful of the shell-sand forwarded to J. Gwyn
Jeffreys, Esq., and communicated by him as follows :—

List of Testacea found by J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq., in dredged sand from the
Turbot Bank near Belfast Bay.

A. Arctic. N. Northern. S. Southern.

Saxicava rugosa,

Corbula nucleus,

Pandora obtusa.

Thracia villosiuscula.
Psammobia tellinella, living.
— costulata, a single valve.
Mactra elliptica, living.
Tapes pullastra.

—— virginea.

Venus casina.

— striatula.

—— fasciata, living.

—— ovata.

Artemis exoleta.

— lincta.

Circe minima.

Astarte sulcata.

—— triangularis, living.
Cardium echinatum.

—— punctatum (nodosum).
—— fasciatum.

Lucina borealis.

—— spinifera.

Montacuta ferruginosa.
— bidentata.

Modiola modiolus.

—— phaseolina.

Crenella decussata, living.
Nucula nucleus.

Leda caudata.

4

Arca tetragona.
Pectunculus glycimeris.
Lima subauriculata.
—— Loscombii.
Pecten varius.

—— pusio.

—— tigrinus.

—— opercularis.
Ostrea edulis.

Anomia ephippium.
Terebratula caput-serpentis.

N. Crania anomala.
Patella vulgata.

Acmeza virginea.

N. Propilidium ancyloide.
Dentalium entalis.

N. Puncturella Noachina.
Fissurella reticulata.
Emarginula reticulata.
Trochus zizyphinus.

millegranus.

—— Montagui.

— tumidus.

—— cinerarius.

—— magus.

T. (Margarita) undulatus.

T. (Margarita) pusillus.

Phasianella pullus.

S. Adeorbis subcarinata.
Littorina rudis.

=

288 REPORT—1858.

Littorina littoralis. Odostomia insculpta.
Lacuna pallidula. Ne truncatula (one specimen). Ply-»
puteolus. mouth Sound is the only other known
vincta. locality.
— crassior. —— spiralis.
S. Rissoa striatula. —— decussata.
S. —— crenulata. Eulimella acicula.
— Beanii. Natica nitida.
—— punctura. —— Montagui.
— costata. A. clausa (young) ; has the umbilicus
— striata. entirely closed.
— parva. Velutina levigata.
——— inconspicua, var, albida. N. Trichotropis borealis.
— semistriata and var. alba. Cerithiopsis tubercularis.
cingillus and var. rupestris. Murex erinaceus.
— soluta. Purpura lapillus.
Skenea planorbis. . Nassa incrassata.
divisa. reticulata.
Turritella communis. Buccinum undatum.
Aporrhais pes-pelecani. Holbdllii.
Cerithium reticulatum. Fusus Islandicus.
adversum. —— antiquus.
Eulima polita. Trophon clathratus.
distorta. A. scalariformis.
—— bilineata. Ss. muricatus.
S. Chemnitzia elegantissima. Barvicensis.
Ss. —— rufa. Mangelia Trevelliana.
Ss. —— scalaris. rufa.
—— interstincta. — Leufroyi.
indistincta. linearis.
Odostomia unidentata. scabra.
—— plicata. — costata.
—— eulimoides. septangularis.
dubia. Cyprza Europa.
— nitida. Cylichna truncata.
—— rissoides.
— cylindrica. (In all 129 species.)

23rd June, 1858.—Turbot Bank. In addition to the foregoing, the fol-
lowing species have also been since determined, not hitherto recorded from
this locality, including the deep water adjacent.

Lepton nitidum, living, Mr. Waller. Odostomia Warrenii, dead, Mr. Waller.

Area lactea, dead, Mr. Waller. —— excavata, dead, Mr. Waller.

*Emarginula rosea, dead, Mr. Waller. *Eulimella affinis, dead, Mr. Waller.

Rissoa vitrea, dead, Mr. Waller. —— Scilla, dead, Mr. Waller.

*Skenea costulata, dead, Mr. Waller. *Cerithiopsis pulchella, dead, Mr. Waller.

Scalaria Eschrichti, dead, Mr. Waller. Nassa pygmza, living, Mr. Waller.

Aclis supranitida, dead, Mr. Waller. Buccinum cyaneum, dead, 1857, Mr. Waller.

Odostomia unidentata, var. turrita, dead, Cylichna mammillata, dead, Mr. Waller.
Mr. Waller. —— umbilicata, dead, Mr. Waller.

— alba and var., dead, Mr. Waller.

16th August, 1858.—On this day Mr. Waller and Mr. Hyndman dredged
over the entrance to Belfast Bay from Groomsport to Whitehead, thence out
eastward into 60 fathoms, and found only mud and sand with dead and
broken shells, containing nothing worthy of record except a few specimens
of Emarginula crassa of large size, but dead and damaged, and a single
living specimen of the same of small size. On returning, when off the
Copelands, in 40 fathoms, a single broken example of Manyelia Leufroyi
occurred.

On the 18th August they were occupied in dredging in 25 fathoms about
two miles off Black Head, in a line with the Copeland Light. A quantity

* New to the Irish list.

THE BELFAST DREDGING COMMITTEE.

of shell-sand was procured here, not yet fully examined; but, at
the following specics of shells have been made out :—

Saxicava rugosa.
Corbula nucleus.
Pandora obtusa.
Thracia phaseolina.
villosiuscula.
Solen pellucidus.
Psammobia Ferroensis.
Syndosmya alba.
prismatica.
Mactra elliptica.
Tapes virginea.
Venus fasciata.
— striatula.
ovata.
Artemis exoleta.
lincta.
Cyprina Islandica.
Astarte sulcata.
— triangularis.
Cardium fasciatum.
— pygmeum.
— echinatum.
— nodosum.
Lucina borealis.
— flexuosa.
Montacuta ferruginosa.
— bidentata.
— substriata.
Lepton nitidum.
Modiola modiolus.
— phaseolina.
Crenella discors.
— marmorata.
— decussata.
Nucula nucleus.
— nitida.

— radiata.

Leda caudata.
Pectunculus glycimeris.
Lima subauriculata.
— Loscombii.
Pecten opercularis.
— pusio.

— tigrinus.
— striatus.

— similis.

—— maximus,
Ostrea edulis.
Anomia ephippium.
—— striata.

Terebratula caput-serpentis.

Patella pellucida.
Acmea virginea.
Propilidium ancyloide.
Dentalium entalis.
Pileopsis Hungaricus.
Fissurella reticulata.
Puncturella Noachina.
Emarginula reticulata.
Trochus zizyphinus.

Trochus var. Lyonsii.
—— granulatus, fragments.
—— millegranus.

—— Montagui.

— cinerarius.

—— magus.

tumidus.
Phasianella pullus.
Adeorbis subcarinata.
Lacuna crassior.

—— vincta.

Rissoa Zetlandica.

— crenulata.

— Beanii.

— punctura.

—— striata.

—— parva.

inconspicua.
Turritella communis.
Aporrhais pes-pelecani.
Cerithinm reticulatum.
adversum.
Scalaria clathratula.
Aclis supranitida.
Eulima polita.

bilineata.

—-— distorta.
Chemnitzia elegantissima.
indistincta.

—— rufescens.
Odostomia truncatula.
interstincta.

—— spiralis.

Eulimella Scillz.

Natica monilifera.

—— nitida.

Montagui.
Velutina levigata.
Trichotropis borealis.
Cerithiopsis tubercularis.
Murex erinaceus.

Nassa reticulata.
incrassata.
Buccinum undatum.
Fusus antiquus.
Islandicus.
Trophon clathratus, living.
muricatus, living.
—— Barvicensis, living.
Mangelia turricula, living.
Trevelliana.

rufa.
septangularis.
—- linearis.

—— costata.

Cypreea Europea.

Ovula acuminata.
Cylichna obtusa.
Scaphander lignarius.

289

present,

4th and 13th September, 1858.—On a bank called “ The Riggs,” lying
south of the Copelands, about a mile south of Donaghadee, and a mile from

290 REPORT—1858.

land, in about 20 fathoms (the bottom, sand, stones, and broken shells), the

following species occurred :—

Saxicava rugosa, living.
Corbula nucleus, living.
Pandora obtusa, living.
Thracia phaseolina, dead.
Solen pellucidus, dead.
Psammobia Ferroensis, dead.
tellinella, living.
Syndosmya alba, dead.
prismatica, dead.
Mactra elliptica, living,
Tapes virginea, living.
Venus casina, dead.
— striatula, living.
—— fasciata, living.
ovata, living.
Artemis exoleta, dead.
— lincta, dead.
Cyprina Islandica, dead.
Circe minima, living.
Astarte sulcata, dead.
— triangularis, living.
Cardium echinatum, dead.
fasciatum, dead.
Lucina spinifera, living.
Modiola modiolus, living.
— phaseolina, living.
Crenella decussata, living.
Nucula nucleus, living.
—— nitida, living.
Leda caudata, living and dead.
Pectunculus glycimeris, living and
dead.

Lima subauriculata, dead.
—— Loscombii, living and dead.
Pecten pusio, dead.

—— tigrinus, living.

—— opercularis, living.
—— maximus, living.
—— striatus, living.
Anomia ephippium, living.
Chiton , living.
Acmea virginea, living.
Dentalium entalis, living.
Pileopsis Hungaricus, dead.
Emarginula reticulata, living.
Trochus zizyphinus, living.
—- millegranus, dead.
—— tumidus, living.
cinerarius, dead.
Phasianella pullus, dead.
Lacuna crassior, dead.
Turritella communis, dead.
Aporrhais pes-pelecani, dead.
Natica nitida, dead.

— Montagui, dead.
monilifera, dead.
Purpura lapillus, dead.
Nassa , dead.
Buccinum undatum, living.
Fusus Islandicus, dead.
antiquus, living.
Trophon clathratus, dead.
muricatus, dead.
Cyprza Europea, dead.

13th September, 1858.—Four miles from Black Head, in a line with the
Copeland Islands, in 15 fathoms; bottom, mud and dead shells, with coral-

lines :—

Saxicava rugosa, living.
Pandora obtusa, living.
Thracia villosiuscula, dead.
Cochlodesma pretenue, dead.
Solen ensis, dead.

— pellucidus, dead.
Solecurtus coarctatus, dead.
Psammobia Ferroensis, dead.
— tellinella, living.
Tellina incarnata, dead.
— crassa, dead.

—— tenuis, dead.
Syndosmya prismatica, dead.
— alba, dead.

Mactra elliptica, dead.
Tapes virginea, dead.

Venus casina, living.
striatula, dead.

— fasciata, living.

ovata, living.

Artemis exoleta, dead.
lincta, dead.

Cyprina Islandica, dead.
Astarte sulcata, living.
Cardium echinatum, dead.
—— fasciatum, living.

Cardium Norvegicum, living.
Lucina borealis.

— spinifera.

Modiola modiolus, living.
—— phaseolina, living.
Nucula nucleus, living.

—— nitida, living.

Leda caudata, dead.
Pectunculus glycimeris, dead.
Lima Loscombii, dead.
Pecten opercularis, dead.
— tigrinus, dead.

— similis, dead.

—— maximus, dead.

Ostrea edulis, dead.

Anomia ephippium, dead.
Terebratula caput-serpentis, living.
Chiton ? living.

Acmea vVirginea, living.
Dentalium entalis, living.
Pileopsis Hungaricus, dead.
Emarginula reticulata, living.
Trochus zizyphinus, living.
—— millegranus, dead.
—— tumidus, living.

== cinerarius, dead.

_——_

THE BELFAST DREDGING COMMITTEE,

Trochus magus, dead.
Phasianella pullus, dead.
Lacuna crassior, dead.
Rissoa striata, dead.
—— punctura, dead.
Turritella communis.
Aporrhais pes-pelecani.
Odostomia —-— ?

ose ?

Natica monilifera, dead.
— nitida, living.

— Montagui, dead.
Velutina levigata, living.
Trichotropis borealis.

291°

Nassa incrassata.

Buccinum undatum, living.

Fusus Islandicus.

Trophon clathratus.

—— muricatus.

Cyprza Europea, living.

Doris.

Eolis.

Lomanotus.

Eledone cirrhosus, very small.

Scalpellum vulgare, on stems of Antennu-
laria.

Balanus porcatus, dead, but also frequently
found living on other occasions.

14th September, 1858.—The weather being too rough for distant work,
we sent out the men to dredge in the Sound between the large Copeland
and the Lighthouse Islands in 12 fathoms, and procured the following :—

Saxicava rugosa, living, large size; not bur-
rowing.
Mya arenaria, dead.
Corbula nucleus, living.
Mactra elliptica, living.
Syndosmya alba, living.
Tapes virginea, living.
Cyprina Islandica, dead.
Cardium echinatum, dead.
— Norvegicum, dead.
—— nodosum, living.
Nucula nucleus, living.
—— nitida, living.
Leda caudata, living.
Modiola modiolus, living.
Pecten maximus, living.
— opercularis, living.
—— tigrinus, dead.
— pusio, living.
— striatus, living.
Ostrea edulis, living.

Anomia ephippium, living.
Terebratula caput-serpentis, living.
Chiton —— ?

a

Acmea virginea, living.
Dentalium entalis, dead.
Pileopsis Hungaricus, living.
Emarginula reticulata, living.
Trochus magus, living.

Rissoa parva, living.
Aporrhais pes-pelecani, living.
Velutina laevigata, living.
Trichotropis borealis, dead.
Buccinum undatum, living.
Fusus antiquus, living.
Trophon clathratus, dead.
Echinus sphera.

—— miliaris.

Alcyonium digitatum.
Molgula ——?

List of Crustacea inhabiting Belfast Bay.
By Professor Joun Rosert Kinanan, I.D,, MRA.

Explanatory marks:—D. Specimens obtained by me in 1858. CC, In collections.

C.S.B. Identified by C. Spence Bate, Esq.

This is made up from the following sources:—(1) Specimens obtained
during dredging excursions at Bangor, Groomsport, Holywood, Carrick-
fergus, Whitehead, Blackhead, and the Gobbins ; these species are marked
D, and have been all carefully identified. (2) A careful examination of
the specimens in the Belfast Museum, most of which are marked in the late
Mr. W. Thompson’s own hand; in the private collection of Mr. Geo. C.
Hyndman; and some few which had been preserved by Edward Waller,
Esq. (3) From the specimens obtained by the Ordnance Survey Collectors
in 1837-38. And (4) as regards the Amphipoda, chiefly a list of the speci-
mens collected by the late W. Thompson, Esq., and submitted to Mr. West-
wood, kindly furnished to me by Charles Spence Bate, Esq., F.L.S., by whom
they were identified. The list must be, however, looked on as a mere
approximation to a full list of Crustacea, as many of the Amphipoda and
Isopoda recorded even in Thompson’s lists are purposely omitted, being
critical species which have been so imperfectly described as to render their

292

REPORT—1858.

discrimination from kindred species hazardous in the extreme. I have there-
fore thought it more advisable to pretermit all notice of such species.

D. Inachus Dorynchus. Common at Grooms-

port.

D. Dorsetensis. Rather scarce at
Groomsport.

C. —— leptochirus. Collected by Ordnance
Survey.

D. Hyas araneus.

D. — coarctatus.

D. Stenorhynchus phalangium.
D. Eurynome aspera.

C. Perimela denticulata.
D. Cancer pagurus.

C. Pilumnus hirtellus.
C. Xantho florida.

Belfast Museum,

Belfast Museum.
Collected by Ordnance

Survey.
D. Portunus puber.
D. corrugatus.
D. —— arcuatus.
D. —— depurator.

D. —— pusillus.

D. —— holsatus.

D. Carcinus Menas.

C. Portumnus variegatus.

D. Atelecyclus heterodon.

. Corystes Cassivelaunus. Belfast Museum.

Gonoplax angulatus. Belfast Museum.

Pinnotheres pisum. Belfast Museum.

Ebalia Pennantii. Belfast Museum.

— Bryerii. Belfast Museum.

— Cranchii. Ordnance Survey.

Bernhardus streblonyx.

— Prideauxii.

— Thomsoni.

— Cuanensis.

— Ulidianus.

— Hyndmanni.

levis.

Porcellana platycheles.

longicornis.

Galathea squamifera. Ordnance Survey.

nexa. Belfast Museum.

—— strigosa. Belfast Museum.

Andrewsii.

Munida Rondeletii.
by Mr. Hyndman.

Palinurus vulgaris.

Astacus fluviatilis,

Homarus vulgaris.

D. Crangon vulgaris.

D. —— Allmanni. Not in Thompson’s list.

D. —— fasciatus. Not in Thompson’s list.

D. —— sculptus. Not in Thompson’s list.

D. —— spinosus. Not in Thompson’s list.

D. —— Pattersonii, n. s. New species,

dredged by me off Blackhead.

D. Hippolyte varians.

D. —— Thompsoni. Notin Thompson’s list.

D. Cranchii. Not in Thompson’s list.

D. pusiola. Not in Thompson’s list.

D. Pandalus annulicornis.

C. Palemon serratus. Ordnance Survey.

D. — squilla.

D. Mysis vulgaris.

Belfast Museum.

.

avpanayesespshsaaaanaa

Dredged abundantly

Ordnance Survey.

aa

9

. Mysis chameleon.

. — Griffithsii. Belfast Museum.
in Thompson’s list.

Cynthilia Flemingii.

Macromysis brevispinosa.

. Diastylis Rathkii.

. Cuma trispinosa.

. Talitrus locusta.

- Orchestia littorea.

Deshayesii. Not in Thompson’s
New to Ireland.

levis. Not identified in Thompson's

Not

list.

list.
Montagna monoculoides.
Museum.
Lysianassa costae.
longicornis.
Anonyx minutus.
gigas.

Belfast

-B.

-B. Belfast Museum.
-B. Belfast Museum.

.B. Belfast Museum.
-B. Belfast Museum.

-B. Ampelisca Belliana. Belfast Museum.
-B. ——typica. Belfast Museum.

-B. Westwoodeaczcula. Belfast Museum.
D. Iphimedia obesa. Belfast Museum.
D.

.B.

D.

D.

D.

C.

D.

QAAaAAAANR A o Besaqaaa ait

nnnnnnn 2)

Dexamine spinosa. Belfast Museum.
-— bispinosa. Belfast Museum.
Gammarus fluviatilis,
— locusta.
—— marinus.
campylops.
—— palmatus.
list.
-B. —— Othonis. Belfast Museum.
B. —— gracilis. Belfast Museum.
D, —— longimanus.
.B
.B.
.B.

Q
in

Belfast list.
Not in Thompson’s

. Amphitoe rubricata. Belfast Museum.
— littorina. Belfast Museum.
Podocerus falcatus. Belfast Museum.

.B. Erichthonius ——? Belfast Museum.
. Corophium longicorne.
Hyperia galba, In Acalephe.
——? cyanea. With the last.
Caprella acuminifera.
. Arcturus longicornis.
- Idotea pelagica.
—— tricuspidata.
—— emarginata. Belfast Museum.
Limnoria terebrans.
Asellus aquaticus.
Jeera albifrons?
. Lygia oceanica.
Philoscia muscorum.
Philougria riparia.
Porcellio scaber.
— pictus.
levis.
Oniscus murarius.
fossor.
Armadillium vulgare.
Anceus maxillaris.
. Spheroma serratum.
D. —— rugicauda.
D. Nesza bidentata.
C. Aga bicarinata,

ANNN nn

.

oe] 8] FEESEEE| | E28] Soccer” eke}

Belfast Museum.

ON THE ADAPTATION OF SUSPENSION BRIDGES. 293

Description of new species of Crangon, C. Pattersonii, in foregoing list :—
Rostrum rounded, apex scarcely length of ocular peduncles; carapace with
four (?) lines of spines ; abdomen smooéh, without sulcation, except in telson ;

in other respects as Crangon spinosus.

Additional List of Polyzoa.

Crisia eburnea.

Tubulipora patina.

—— incurvata (n. sp.), Hincks.

Diastopora obelia.

Alecto granulata,

—— major.

— dichotoma-Lamouroux. A single spe-
cimen of an Alecto has occurred, which
seems identical with the fossil form de-
scribed and figured by Lamouroux in his
‘ Exposition Méthodique’ under the above
name.

Crisidia cornuta.

Salicornaria farciminoides.

Scrupellaria scruposa.

Aitea anguina.

Gemellaria loricata.

Bugula flabellata.

Flustra truncata.

Membranipora pilosa.

— Pouilletii (Audouin).

— spinifera (Alder’s Catalogue).

— solidula (n. sp.), Alder MS. Mr. Alder
has previously obtained it from other local-
ities.

I have also met with the Asteroid
Forbes.

By the Rev. Tuomas Hincks.

Membranipora simplex (n. sp.), Hincks.

Lepralia Londsborovii. A very distinct and
beautiful form is not uncommon amongst
the dredgings, which | refer doubtfully to
this species, of which very little is known.

concinna.

variolosa,

—— nitida.

—— Woodiana (n. sp.), Busk. This fine
species has only been known hitherto as a
Crag fossil. It will be described and
figured by Mr. Busk in his forthcoming
Monograph on the Polyzoa of the Crag.

Peachii.

ventricosa.

eximia (n. sp.), Hincks.

Cellepora armata (n. sp.), Hincks. I had
already obtained this new species from the
Dogger Bank.

Eschara cervicornis, Busk.

Arenella dilatata, Hincks.

Zoophyte, Sarcodictyon catenata of

Appendiz to Mr. Vianouss’ paper “ On the Adaptation of Suspension
Bridges to sustain the passage of Railway Trains” (Rept. Brit. Assoc.

1857).

For calculations relating to Suspension Bridges, reduced to the simplest
terms, and considering the curve of the chain as a parabola :—

uit of length.
superficies. . . .
MOTMUE Ee Fem 0 Yi
EIR Uo. +e dey

”»
”

”

1 foot.

1 square foot.
1 cubic foot.
1 ton.

. . . .

. . . .

x=half chord of parabolic curve of chain.

y=versed sine of ditto . . . . . . ~ » pclear of supports.

Ah=semi-parameter of the parabola . . . .
N.B. fae by the properties of the parabola.

w=minimum sectional area of the chain, exclusive of appendages.

=appendages of the chain. (See explanations, a.)
w+n=sectional area of chain, for calculating its weight and tension.
u=weight of a cubic foot of iron.

e=maximum weight admitted on chain. (See explanations, b.)

294 REPORT—1858.

sec ¢=length of chain at top or highest part.) corresponding to 1 foot

sec ¢'=ditto at bottom or lower part. in length, measured

k=load on the chain. (See explanations, ec.) horizontally along the

l=weight of the chain and its appendages. chord of the para-

k+lJ=p=total maximum load on chain for cal- bolic curve of the
culating tension. chain.

T=tension at any part of the chain.
r=height or depth of abutment.

P=half length of abutment. (See explanations, d.)
W=theoretical weight of abutment to resist
tension.
FORMULE.
kx Vi? +2"

o= ——— for sectional area of chain.
e—u.n.sece pV hi +2"

T=pVi?+x> . . . for tension of chain.
Tr

W=p . . . + . for resistance to tension.

a. Appendages of the Chains.—The minimum sectional area of the chains
is the product of the breadth and thickness of the iron thereof in its smallest
dimensions. But the links of plate-chains overlap each other at their extre-
mities, which are enlarged and connected together by screw-ended short bolts
of large diameter, secured by nuts and keys; these additions to the simple
chains constitute their appendages, and increase the weight (and consequently
the average sectional area) by about from 20 to 25 per cent. of the minimum
area. Where wire is employed for the suspension in the form of cables, the
appendages thereof will bear a very much smaller proportion than the above
to the minimum area, as they consist merely of the wrappings around the
steel strands of the cables.

b. Maximum Weight admitted on the Chains.—The maximum weight or

strain on the chains or wire cables of suspension bridges, should not exceed
a fourth or a fifth of the breaking weight or strain, nor should it exceed
materially the half of that strain which would produce a permanent effect
upon the natural elasticity of the iron. The breaking weight or strain of
good wrought iron varies from 20 lbs. to as much as 28 lbs. (avoirdupois)
upon the square inch of the section of the bar. The strain which causes
wrought iron to take a permanent set (that is, which so stretches the fibres
of the iron that their elasticity is injured, whereby the iron no longer returns
to its normal length when the strain is taken off), varies from 10 lbs. to
14 Ibs. per square inch. Consequently the expression (e) in the formula
ought not to be taken higher than from 5 Ibs. to 7 lbs., or from 00022 ton
to 0:0032 ton.
f& c. Load on the Chain—This quantity comprises the weight of the sus-
pension rods (dependent from the chains or cables, and from which the
platform of the bridge is suspended), also the weight of the roadway or plat-
form, and the greatest weight with which the platform can be loaded. These,
together, constitute the load on the chains, exclusive only of the weight of
these chains themselves and of their appendages.

d. Dimensions of the Abutment.—The height or depth of the abutment is
to be measured from the point on the outer face thereof, at which the chains
enter therein; and the length of the abutment is to be measured from that
same point to the point at the opposite or inner side of the abutment to

MAGNETIC AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES. 295

which the chains extend, and where they are attached or fastened by means
of mooring-plates, abutting against this extreme end. The weight of the
abutment will be calculated from its dimensions, in proportion to the specific
gravity of the material employed in its construction ; and the actual weight
of the abutment, as built, should be from four to five times the theoretical
weight, determined by the formula, as that required to resist the tension,
exclusive of friction or surface-resistance. If the abutment should be sub-
jected to be surrounded by water, either constantly or periodically, the con-
sequent augmentation necessary in the dimensions and weight of the abut-
ment must be determined, in proportion to the depth of water in which it
may be submerged.

Report of the Joint Committee of the Royal Society and the British
Association, for procuring a continuance of the Magnetic and
Meteorological Observatories.

At the Meeting of the British Association, which was held at Dublin in
August 1857, a resolution was adopted, proposing the continuance of the
system of magnetical observations which was commenced under the auspices
of the Royal Society and of the British Association in 1840; and a Com-
mittee, consisting of the President of the Association, the Rev. Dr. Robinson,
and Major-General Sabine, was appointed, to request the cooperation of the
President and Council of the Royal Society in the endeavour to attain this
object, and to take, in conjunction with them, such steps as may appear
desirable for that end. —

The Committee thus appointed accordingly held a meeting in London, on
the 5th November last, at which it was agreed to recommend that hourly
observations, for not more than five years, should be undertaken at certain
stations in the British Colonies ; and a letter was addressed to the President
of the Royal Society, asking for his cooperation, and that of the Council of
the Society, in endeavouring to attain that object.

This application was favourably received by the Council of the Royal
Society ; and on the 10th of December, 1857, the following resolution was
adopted in reference to it:—

“That Sir John Herschel, the Astronomer Royal, the Dean of Ely, and
Dr. Whewell, be appointed a Committee, to cooperate with the Committee
appointed with this view by the British Association, and to take, in conjunc-
tion with them, such steps as may be necessary, including, if it be thought
desirable, an application to the Government.”

In consequence of this resolution, a correspondence took place among the
members of the two Committees, which having resulted, it is believed, in a
general agreement as to the course to be adopted, the joint Committee so
acting in cooperation met at Leeds on the 24th September, and in the first
instance proceeded to inquire into the nature and scientific value of the results
which have already been secured by the system of observation hitherto
carried out, at the observatories maintained by the Government, at the joint
recommendation of these two bodies; with a view to forming a distinct opinion
whether they are such as to merit being regarded as a reasonable, and, what
may be called, a remunerative return for the labour and thought bestowed
upon them, and the very considerable expenditure of the public money
incurred by them. In so doing, they have limited their views to the results,
as.compared with the expenditure, in the British Colonial magnetic observa-

296 : REPORT—1858,

tories only, without taking into consideration those deducible from observa-
tions made under foreign auspices; and they find that, at the cost of an
expenditure which may be reckoned at about £400 per annum (exclusive
of the cost of instruments, outfit, and publication), for each of the several
observatories at St. Helena, Toronto, Hobarton, and the Cape of Good
Hope during the respective continuance of each, the accumulated observa-
tions, so far as they have yet been discussed, have produced the following
results, which they consider as satisfactorily established by the discussion :—

In the first place, the mean state of the several magnetic elements for each
of the stations, as reduced to a fixed epoch, has been obtained with a pre-
cision of which nothing previously done has afforded any example—emula-
ting, in this respect, the exactness of astronomical determinations, and com-
petent to serve as a fixed point of departure, to the latest ages ; and this for
each of the elements in question—the dip, the declination, and the intensity
of the magnetic force.

Secondly, that at each station, the rate of regularly progressive secular
change in all the three elements above-mentioned has been ascertained with
a degree of precision which contrasts strongly with the loose and inaccurate
determinations of former times.

Thirdly, that the laws of the diurnal, annual, and other periodic fluctua-
tions in the values of these elements, as exhibited at each station, have been
established in a manner and with a decision to which nothing hitherto
executed in any branch of science, astronomy excepted, is comparable; and
that the results embodied in the examination of these laws have laid open a
view of magnetic action so singular, and so utterly unexpected, as to amount
to the creation of a new department of science, and the detection of a com-
pletely novel system of physical relations: for that, in the first place, the
systems of diurnal and annual magnetic changes have each been separated
into two perfectly distinct and physically independent systems,—the one, at
any particular station, holding its course according to laws depending solely
on the sun’s hour-angle at the moment of observation, and his meridian
altitude at different seasons; the other comprehending all those movements
which, under the name of magnetic storms, or “irregular disturbances,” have
hitherto presented the perplexing aspect of phenomena purely casual,
capricious in amount and in the particular occasions of their occurrence
when regarded singly, has been shown, by these discussions, to be subject
in its totality to laws equally definite with the others, though more dependent
for their application on peculiarities of local situation. As regards the first
of these systems of fluctuation, they find it demonstrated :—

That the sun’s regular action on the magnetism of the globe is deter-
mined by a law of no small complexity and intricacy, but which, nevertheless,
has been traced with precision and certainty, and shown to be referable, in
the first place, and for one of its arbitrary coefficients, to the geographical
situation of the place of observation with respect to a certain line or equator
on the earth’s surface, which cannot yet be precisely traced for want of
sufficiently numerous stations (but which seems to approach to the line of
least intensity and is very far from coinciding with the geographical equator),
—and in the next, and for its other influential cause, to the fact of the
sun’s having north or south declination ; so that the whole diurnal change
in any one of the elements, and at any station, is made up of two portions,
one of which retains the same sign, and a constant coefficient all the year
round ; the other changes sign, and varies in the value of its coefficient with
the annual movement of the sun from one side of the equator to the other.

That, consequently, for a station on the magnetic equator (so defined),

MAGNETIC AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES. 297

the mean amount of diurnal change is él, when taken over the whole year;
but that on any particular day in the year it has a determinate magnitude,
which passes through an annual periodicity, with opposite characters in
opposite seasons; and that for a station in middle latitudes the mean
diurnal fluctuation is not zz/, but such as during every part of the year to
exhibit an easterly deviation in the morning hours, and a westerly in the
evening hours, for stations north of the magnetic equator, and vice versa
for those south of it; but that the amount of this deviation, or the amplitude
of the diurnal fluctuation, varies with the seasons, being exaggerated or
partially counteracted by the alternate conspiring and opposing influence of
the sun’s declination during the summer and winter seasons.

As regards the irregular disturbances, though arbitrary and capricious in
extent and in the moments when they may be expected individually, this
does not prevent their obeying with great fidelity the law of averages when
grouped in masses and treated separately from those of the former class.
So handled, they are found to conform in the average effect, at each of the
twenty-four hours of the day, and on each day of the year, to the very same
rules as regards the sun’s daily and annual movement,—with one remarkable
point of difference: viz., that their hours of maxima and minima are not
identical with those of the regular class, but that each particular station
has, in this respect, its own peculiar hours, analogous to what is called the
“establishment” of a port in the theory of the tides; and that, in con-
sequence, the superposition of these two systems of diurnal fluctuation gives
rise to a series of compound variations analogous to the superposition of two
undulations having the same period but different amplitudes and different
epochal times, and that, by attending to this principle, many of the most
complex phenomena, such as that of a double maximum and minimum, with
the occurrence of a nightly as well as a daily movement, are explained in a
satisfactory manner.

The discussion of the observations already accumulated has further
brought into view, and in the opinion of your Committee fully established,
the existence of a very extraordinary periodicity in the extent of fluctuation
of all the magnetic elements, and in the amplitude and frequency of their
irregular movements especially, which connects them directly with the
physical constitution of the sun, and with the periodical greater or less
prevalence of spots on its surface,—the maxima of the amount of fluctuation
corresponding to the maxima of the spots, and these, again, with those of
the exhibitions of the Aurora Borealis, which appears also to be subject to
the same law of periodicity—a law which, as it does not agree with any of
the otherwise known solar, lunar, or planetary periods, may be considered as,
so to speak, personal to the sun itself. And thus we find ourselves landed
in a system of cosmical relations, in which both the sun and the earth, and
probably the whole planetary system, are implicated.

That the sun acts in influencing the earth’s magnetism in some other
manner than by its heat, seems to be rendered very probable by seveya]
features of this inquiry; and the idea of a direct magnetic influence ext the
to the earth is corroborated by the discovery of a minute fluctuation in
magnetic elements, having for its period not the solar but the lunar day, and
therefore directly traceable to the action of the moon. The detection of
this fluctuation by Mr. Kreil, from a discussion of the Prague observations,
has been confirmed by the evidence afforded by those of our Colonial
observatories, and appears to be placed beyond all question by the recent
deductions for the horizontal force and the declination, extending over three

ee observation at the Cape of Good Hope, which General Sabine has
8. x

298 REPORT—1858.

submitted for your Committee’s inspection, and in both which the fluctua-
tions in question emerge in a very satisfactory manner, and one calculated
to give a high idea of the precision of which such determinations are
susceptible, when it is considered that the total amplitude of oscillation due
to this cause in the direction of the Cape-needle is only about 18” of angle.

Your Committee, looking at this long catalogue of distinct and positive
conclusions already obtained, feel themselves fully borne out in considering
that the operation in a scientific point of view has proved so far eminently
remunerative and successful, and that its results have fully equalled in im-
portance and value, as real accessions to our knowledge, any anticipations
which could reasonably have been formed at the commencement of the
inquiry.

Having satisfied themselves of the great and important value of the results
already obtained, independent of the dormant interest as respects future dis-
cussion which the mass of observations accumulated continues to possess,
and which it remains for future theoretical combinations to elicit, your
Committee next turned their attention to the question whether, and to what
extent, the maintenance of some or all of the old Colonial observatories, or the
establishment of new ones for a limited term, might be expected, first, to give
additional certainty and precision to the determinations already obtained,
and secondly to elucidate points imperfectly made out, and more especially
geographical relations which determine the greater or less amount of dis-
cordance between the epochal hours of the regular and irregular diurnal
changes—relations which, no doubt, involve the causes of the irregular
fluctuations themselves (causes at present involved in the greatest ob-
scurity )—and to obtain indications of the points in the earth’s surface at
which the forces producing them originate.

As regards the general question as to the desirableness of some continua-
tion of the observations, its seems hardly to be referred to our consideration
as a Committee,—the resolutions come to both by the British Association
and by the Council of the Royal Society, in the appointment of their
respective Committees of co-operation, indicating an opinion already con-
clusively formed on the part of both bodies to that effect. They have felt
it due to themselves, however, to come to an independent conclusion on that
point; and having done so with perfect unanimity, on the grounds already
adduced and the expectations for the future which those grounds justify,
they next address themselves to the consideration of the two points above
indicated, and to the important questions, first, whether to recommend the
continuance or resumption of the establishments at the former stations, or
the selection of new ones; and secondly, with how few new or revived
establishments, with how limited a scale as to extent and expense, and with
how short a period as the minimum term of their duration, the expecta-
tion of these advantages being secured could be compatible; and finally to
fix upon the stations most desirable.

As regards the first point referred to, viz. the more complete establish-
ment of the laws themselves, and the giving of greater numerical precision
to their expression, the Committee is of opinion that the laws themselves
are not likely to be subverted or contradicted by a larger series of obserya-
tions at any station for which they have once been shown to prevail; but
that every new station differing much in geographical situation from the

‘former in which they might be found verified with or without supple-
mentary modifications, would undoubtedly add strength to the induction by
‘which they have been concluded. Additional numerical precision, on the
other hand, would only be attained by a continuance of observations at

MAGNETIC AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES. 299

former stations, and is not a point of sufficient importance, in their opinion,
to be entitled to any weight in opposition to considerations in favour of
change,—while in the one important case in which such additional precision
is especially desirable, that of the solar period, such additional precision
will be acquired ultimately as a matter of course by continued observation
at any one of the existing permanent observatories, of whose business mag-
netie observation forms a part, as weil as by any amount of Colonial esta-
blishments.

It is therefore mainly in the elucidation of obscure and difficult physical
points, and in the probable extension of our knowledge of the geographical
and other conditions on which the irregular disturbances depend, that our
hope of advantage from further observation consists,—our conviction being
that, without special observations at well-selected stations (selected, that
is, with a view to these objects), there is little or no prospect of further pro-
gress. The general character of the magnetic phenomena may be con-
sidered as secured from loss; but the great problem remains unresolved ;
the local influences are yet to trace ; and the only means of tracing them must
consist in varying the position of our stations so as to embrace great dif-
ferences in geographical situation, and in conformity with such indications
as can be gathered from our present experience. The magnetic establish-
ments permanently existing in Europe and America are confessedly inade-
quate to afford the requisite information. The stations which have occurred
to your Committee as most eligible would be Vancouver Island, New-
foundland, the Falkland Isles, Bermuda, Ceylon, Shanghai or some locality
in China, and Mauritius; but they are fully aware that to demand from
the national purse the institution of observations at all these points,
would be more than is warranted by any pressing necessity, and ought
therefore not to be insisted on. Among them, the principal in point of
interest (for reasons which will be presently mentioned) are Vancouver
Island, Newfoundland, the Falkland Isles, and Pekin or some near adjacent
Chinese station, such as Shanghai; and the Committee consider that much
valuable information would accrue from observations sufficiently prolonged at
these, to which, therefore, they would be understood to limit their recom-
mendation. In regard to the length of time over which they would desire to
see the observations extended, they consider five years (being about half the
solar period, and being also sufficient to give a fair grasp of the secular
change of the magnetic elements) as a period both in consonance with that
* which has been accorded on former occasions, and in some sort designated

by the nature of the case.

The reasons which induce them to give a preference to these over the rest
of the stations enumerated are as follows:—Between Toronto and Point
Barrow the difference of the epochal hours of the irregular diurnal fluctua-
tions is such astoamount to a complete opposition of phases,—a circumstance
which goes far to point out the latter station as being in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the origin of those irregular disturbances. Should observations
be established at the two stations now proposed, there is every reason to hope,
as will appear from a document drawn up at the request of the Committee
by General Sabine, and with his permission appended to this Report, that the
observations at Toronto, which have been partially re-established since 1855,
would, with a view to cooperation for this especial purpose, be wholly resumed
on a fitting application to the Colonial legislature. And in addition to this,
should an application made to the Norwegian Government for the esta-
blishment, during the same period, of an observatory at the North Cape prove
successful (which there is every reason to hope, such an application made on

x2

300. REPORT—1858.

a former occasion having been well received and having ultimately failed
owing only to a want of attention to some point of diplomatic form in its mode
of communication), we should then have a chain of stations in high northern

latitudes, the results obtained at which, being severally brought into com-
parison with those already procured at Point Barrow, and with each other,
could hardly fail of bringing out some very positive conclusion.

As regards the proposal for a station at the Falkland Isles, it is presumed,
from the general course of the magnetic line of minimum intensity, that this
station will prove, in analogy to the Cape of Good Hope, and in contrast with
the northern stations recommended, to have the character of an equatorial, or
approximate equatorial station ; and in respect to that proposed in China, that
it will complete and carry round the globe the chain of northern middle-lati-
tude stations,—the intermediate links being supplied by the Russian observa-
tories, and by those which it is hoped may be established at the North Capeand
at Vancouver Island. As regards the Falkland Isles and Newfoundland, it
should be noticed that there exist considerable facilities and conveniences for
the comfortable establishment of an observatory there; and in respect of the
other two, it may be remarked that they are both points of great present
interest, and that a determination of the incteorological as well as magnetic
peculiarities of both would be important. The affections of a telegraphic
wire by electric discharges in the nature of Aurora Borealis have already
attracted attention, and produced confusion in the ordinary use of such wires,
and constitute one of the motives for inquiry into the nature and laws of the
so-called magnetic storms. It may also be observed that, in reference to
the anomalistic equation of the sun’s magnetic intensity, or the effect of its
annual approach and recess due to the ellipticity of the earth’s orbit, the
influence of local temperature upon the observations requires to be elimi-
nated, in order to bring this effect into evidenee, by a combination of the
results obtained at stations whose seasons are opposite.

In reference to the important consideration of keeping down as much as
possible the outlay consequent on the establishment of these observatories,
your Committee have given attention to the question whether it be desirable
to continue, as heretofore, the printing of the observations in extenso—a
measure resulting in the production of vast and costly volumes, and entailing
a great amount of laborious superintendence. They consider that, the form
of the observations remaining unaltered, and the principles of their reduction
being now rendered familiar, this would not be necessary, provided the
original observations were registered in triplicate, and the copies separately
deposited in different and secure custody for preservation and occasional
reference when required, and provided that sufficient and well-digested
abstracts of their reduced results were published. One series of observations,
however, they consider must be excepted from this alteration of system :—
those of a continuous nature, made on term days, Four of which per annum
they desire to see still kept up; and those taken on occasions of magnetic
storms, when continuous observation is substituted for that on the regular
hourly intervals: for the treatment of such observations is still a matter of
scientific inquiry ; and to render them available in comparison with others,
the complete register is indispensable.

Your Committee cannot but contemplate a revival of active interest and
cooperative participation in the system of observation, on the part of our
Colonial and of Foreign Governments, when once it shall become known
that the subject is resumed by our own Home Government in the manner
recommended. On this subject they beg to refer to Gen. Sabine’s reply to
their inquiries, already alluded to, which places in a distinct point of view

MAGNETIC AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES. 301

the expectations which may justly be indulged on that score. In reference,
moreover, to the personal and material establishment at each of the Govern-
ment observatories, this document contains a summary of what is needed,
and of what ought to be applied for. :

And this leads your Committee to a point which they consider of such
importance to the success of the whole proceeding, that they cannot help
embodying their opinion on it in this Report. It is of little avail to accu-
mulate observations unless their effective and complete reduction be provided
for, and the assurance obtained that when reduced they will undergo such
discussion and scientific treatment as shall elicit from them the laws of the
phenomena of which they are the records. The zeal and ability with which
the present Superintendent of the Government Magnetic and Metevrological
Observatories has hitherto executed this task, if extended to the new series
now ealled for, would afford that assurance in its fullest extent ; and they
earnestly trust that this will not be lost sight of in the arrangements to be
made in carrying out their proposals, if adopted.

There is another point to which your Committce consider their attention
ought to be paid simultaneously with the establishment of the proposed ob-
servatories :—it is that of the extension of Magnetic Surveys of the districts
in their immediate neighbourhood, with a view to fixing the situation and
direction of the iso-magnetic curves within some considerable adjoining
area (in the ease of the Falkland Isles, that of the whole group).

On this point the following remarks by General Sabine, in a communica-
tion addressed by him to us in reply to certain inquiries which we considered
it right to make of him, are, in the opinion of your Committee, conclusive in
deciding them to recommend that provision be also made for the execution
of such surveys, collaterally with the observations at the fixed stations.

* Recent observations in North America, discussed in the proceedings of
the Royal Society for January 7th, 1858, have made known that the general
movement of translation of the isoclinal and isogonic lines, which from the
earliest observations have been progressing from West to East, has within a
few years reached its extreme eastern oscillation, and that the movement in
the reverse direction has already commenced ; we live therefore at an epoch
in the history of terrestrial magnetisin which we have reason to believe will
be regarded hereafter—when theory shall have more advanced—as a highly
important and critical epoch. The geographical position of the maximum
force in the Northern Hemisphere appears to have reached its extreme
easterly elongation, and from this time forth may be expected to move for
many years to come towards the meridian which it occupied in Halley’s time,
accompanied by a corresponding change in the positions and forms of the
isodynamic, isoclinal, and isogonic lines in North America; a careful de-
termination of the absolute values and present secular change of the three
elements at this critical theoretical epoch, at stations situated at either side
of the American continent, and nearly in the geographical latitude of the
maximum of the force, would furnish therefore data for posterity, of the
value of which we may have a very inadequate appreciation at present. I
may refer to the discussion prefixed to the third volume of the ‘Toronto Ob-
servations, to show that the means and methods with which we are conversant
are adequate for the purpose, and I may indicate Vancouver Island and
Newfoundland as colonies well suited for establishments of the same nature
as those of which the efficiency has been proved.”

As regards the instrumental means to be employed, the Committee believe
that the consideration of the subject would be more fitly undertaken by the
Royal Society, who will probably think it right to appoint a special committee,

302 REPORT—1858.

as was done on the former occasion, to consider it maturely, and to report
upon it. Well as, in general, the instruments employed in the British colonial
observatories have performed, it may be desirable to consider whether they
could not be improved, by diminishing considerably the size of the magnetic
bars employed. Small bars indicate more certainly the rapid magnetic
changes; they may be hardened more perfectly, and therefore vary less in
their magnetic condition with changes of temperature ; they admit of more
perfect protection from the effects of disturbing aérial currents; and finally,
the instruments may be constructed at less expense, and may be grouped
together in a smaller and less costly building.

The joint committee therefore have finally agreed to the following resolu-
tions, which they submit for approval to their respective appointing bodies :—

1. That it is highly desirable that a series of magnetical and meteorological
observations, on the same plan as those which have been already carried on
in the colonial observatories for that purpose, under the direction of H.M.
Board of Ordnance, be obtained, to extend over a period of not more than
five years, at the following stations :—

1. Vancouver Island.

2. Newfoundland.

3. The Falkland Isles.

4. Pekin, or some near adjacent station.

2. That an application be made to her Majesty’s Government, to obtain
the establishment of observatories at these stations for the above-mentioned
term, on a personal and material footing, and under the same superintendence,
as in the observatories (now discontinued) at Toronto, St. Helena, and Van
Diemen Island.

3. That the observations at the observatories now recommended should be
comparable with and in continuation of those made at the last-named obser-
vatories, including four days of term-observations annually.

4. That provision be also requested at the hands of Her Majesty’s Govern-
ment, for the execution, within the period embraced by the observations, of
magnetic surveys in the districts immediately adjacent to those stations—viz.
of the whole of Vancouver Island and the shores of the strait separating
it from the main land, of the Falkland Isles, and of the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the Chinese observatory (if practicable) wherever situated—on
the plan of the surveys already executed in the British possessions in North
America and in the Indian Archipelago.

5. That a sum of £350 per annum, during the continuance of the obser-
vations, be placed by Government at the disposal of the General Superin-
tendent, for the purpose of procuring a special and scientific verification and
exact correspondence of the magnetical and meteorological instruments, both
of those which shall be furnished to the several observatories and of those
which, during the continuance of the observations for the period in question,
shall be brought into comparison with them either at Foreign or Colonial
stations.

6. That the printing of the observations 72 eatenso be discontinued, but
that provision be made for their printing in abstract, with discussion, but that
the term-observations, and those to be made on the occurrence of magnetic
storins, be still printed 7% eatenso; and that the registry of the observations
be made in triplicate—one copy to be preserved in the office of the General
Superintendent, one to be presented to the Royal Society, and one to the
Royal Observatory at Greenwich, for conservation and future reference.

7. That measures be adopted for taking advantage of whatever disposition
may exist ont he part of our Colonial Governments to establish observatories

i

MAGNETIC AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES, 303

of the same kind, or otherwise to co-operate with the proposed system of
observation.

8. That in placing these resolutions and the report of the Committee before
the President and Council of the Royal Society, the continued co-operation of
that Society be requested in whatever ulterior measures may be requisite.

9. That the President of the British Association be requested to act in
conjunction with the President of the Royal Society, and with the members
of the two Committees, in any steps which may appear necessary for the
accomplishment of the objects above stated.

10. That an early communication be made of this procedure to His Royal
Highness the Prince Consort, the President elect of the British Association
for the ensuing year.

APPENDIX.

Eetter from General Sabine to Sir John Herschel.

St. Leonard’s, June 26th, 1858.

My dear Sir,

You wish me to state for the consideration of the Committee
what specific measures for the continuance and extension of magnetical re-
searches appear to me suitable to the present state of that branch of science,
and at the same time sufficiently moderate and reasonable to justify the ex-
pectation that the portiou of them which requires it may receive the sanction
of Her Majesty’s Government.

For this purpose it may be convenient to divide the subject generally
under three heads, and to consider separately what may be expected,

lst. From our own Government ;
2nd. From our own Colonies;
3rd. From foreign Countries.

ist. From our own Government.

The establishment, for a limited period, of Observatories in the three
colonies,

Vancouver Island,

Newfoundland,

The Falkland Islands,
ona similar plan to those which were established at Toronto, St. Helena,
and Hobarton, and which have now ceased, having accomplished their objects,
The “ personnel” at each of these three observatories to consist of an officer,
four non-commissioned officers, and one private, either of the Artillery or of
the Engineers, with the same extra pay and allowance for incidentals as was
the case in the observatories which have terminated. The instruments, both
absolute and differential, to be of the same description as before, with of
course such modifications and improvements as experience has suggested.
The instruments to be prepared at Kew, and the directors of the three
observatories to be instructed there. The system of observation to be hourly,
Sundays, Christmas-days, and Good Fridays excepted. The time to be em-
ployed to be mean astronomical time at the station, both for magnetism and
meteorology. The observatories to be maintained until fiye complete years
of observation are obtained. The number of term-days in each year to be
reduced from twelve to four.

The public departments whose sanction will be required are, the Treasury
for the expense, and the General Commanding in Chief for the selection and
appointment of the officers and non-commissioned officers. In addition to
the officer for each observatory, a fourth officer will be required as an assistant

304 REPORT—1858.

to the general Superintendent, in carrying on, under his direction, the details
of correspondence with the observatories. ‘Total, four officers, twelve non-
commissioned officers, and three privates.

2nd. With reference to our own Colonies.

As soon as the sanction of Government has been obtained for the observa-
tories already named, the governors of British Guiana, Mauritius, and Mel-
bourne may be written to, suggesting that a communication should be ad-
dressed from each of those colonies to the Secretary of State for the Colonies,
expressing the desire which is felt in the colony to participate in the proposed
systematic researches, stating what facilities can be afforded, and what portion
of the expense can be borne by the colony itself, and requesting to be placed
in official communication with some suitable authority for the preparation of
instruments, and for furnishing such instruction and advice as may be
required.

The accompanying letter from Lieutenant-Governor Walker, of British
Guiana, to Mr. Sandeman (which has been just forwarded to me), will show
how ready that colony is to take its part, and that it waits only for that
measure of countenance and encouragement which it reasonably expects, and
ought to receive, from the mother country. At Mauritius, a Meteorological
Society formed by the colonists themselves is most actively and usefully
employed in tracing out, by means of the logs of merchant vessels, the phae-
nomena of the storms by which navigation in that vicinity is troubled, and
is making most pressing appeals for an authorization which should enable
them to add researches in magnetism to those in meteorology, —having on the
spot, in Captain Fyers of the Royal Engineers, a person who would make an
admirable director of such an establishment. At Melbourne, a proposition
for a magnetic observatory and survey is now before the local government ;
means are abundant, but instruments and direction are wanting. Mr. Jeffery,
so well trained in the Hobarton observatory, is in that country, and is desirous
of such employment, as M. Neumayer is of being engaged in the survey.
Melbourne would be a most important station for a magnetic observatory, as
we might expect from it the verification or otherwise of the increase in the
magnetism of the earth, at the period of the year when she makes her nearest
approach to the sun.

Other Colonies might follow the example ; but in regard to these three we
are justified in expecting that, with suitable measures of encouragement,
we should have thoroughly efficient establishments, carrying out the system
of observation in its completeness.

3rd. With reference to foreign countries.

A proposition has recently been made to the Netherlands’ Government, by
Dr. Buys Ballot (who fills the same official position in Holland that Admiral
FitzRoy does in this country), for the establishment of a magnetic observa-
tory in the Dutch Colony of Batavia; and Dr. Buys Ballot has written to
inquire whether, in the event of the proposition being acceded to, two sets of
instruments, one for Batavia and the other for Utrecht, could be prepared at
Kew. An intimation that the British Government was about to resume and
extend its magnetical researches might be expected to have a favourable in-
fluence on the success of Dr. Buys Ballot’s proposition, and might also lead to
the adoption of our colonial system of observation in its full extent at the
Batavian observatory.

The importance of the North Cape of Europe as a magnetical station,
especially with reference to the connexion between the Aurora and the mag-
netic disturbances, has already been noticed iia preceding letter from me (that
of May 13). ‘The instruments which were prepared some years ago at the ex-

MAGNETIC AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES. 3805

pense of the Royal Society, and were intended to be presented to the observa-
tory at the North Cape (should one be established there by the Norwegian
Government), are still in existence, and with a few modifications might be
applied to their original purpose. The re-establishment of magnetic observa-
tories in the British Colonies might furnish a favourable oceasion for reviving,
in concert with M. Hansteen, a proposition for an observatory at the North
Cape, which seems to have failed on the former occasion rather from an
accident than from any real difficulty in the matter itself.

M. Secchi, of the Observatory of the Collegio Romano, at Rome, has
recently been supplied from Kew, at the expense of the Papal Government,
with a complete equipment of magnetical instruments, similar to those which
have done such good work in the British Colonial establishments. With the
encouragement derived from the revival of active measures here, M. Secchi
might hope to obtain the aid which he desires, in the way of temporary
assistance, to enable him to carry out the complete system of observation for
which he is already provided with the instrumental means.

The concert which has prevailed between Russia and England in magnetic
operations gives reason to hope that renewed activity here might so far
strengthen M. Kupffer’s hands as to enable him to carry out efficiently the
hourly system of the three elements, at one at least of the stations in Eastern
Siberia, the probable importance of which can scarcely be overrated.

A meteorological observatory has recently been instituted at Havana ; and
the director, M. Poey, has proposed to the Cuban authorities the purchase
of magnetical instruments, to be prepared at Kew, and a sufficient increase of
assistants to provide for observations to be made with them. M. Poey is
active and intelligent, and has recently visited the principal magnetic institu-
tions in Europe. He would not fail to avail himself of the support which
his proposition would derive from the measures which might be taken here.

The Regents of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington have agreed to
allot a portion of their funds to a magnetic observatory ; but neither the
instruments nor the system of observation have yet been determined : their
decision might probably be hastened by the knowledge that active measures
are in progress here.

Viewing the necessity of resorting to means of securing and ascertaining a
precise correspondence between the magnetical and meteorological instruments
which may come to be used in these operations, or in cooperation with them in
other quarters, as well as their exact and scientific adjustment, as also of se-
curing a self-registered series of photographic delineations of the solar spots
during their continuance, it is proposed that, during the continuance of the
observatories, an annual sum, not exceeding £350, should be taken on the
estimate, and placed at the disposal of the general Superintendent for these
purposes.

There is a point referred to in a former letter which will require the atten-
tion of the Committee: it is the question whether the observations of the
proposed observatories should be printed zm extenso, or in abstract accom-
panied by a discussion of the principal results.

I remain,
My dear Sir,
Faithfully yours,
EDWARD SABINE.
Sir John Herschel, Bart.

806 REPORT—1858.

Description of a Self-recording Anemometer. By R, Becxury,
Assistant at the Kew Observatory of the British Association,

In all cases in which the system of hemispherical cups (devised by Dr.
Robinson as a measurer of the velocity of the wind) has been used, the
direction-apparatus has required a distinet support on the exterior of the
building. In my arrangement, a cast-iron tubular support (fig. 1, Plate XIX.)
carries the whole of the external parts of the instrument, which can be easily
adapted to any form of building upon which it is desirable to mount it.

The general arrangement will be better understood by reference to
fig. 3, Pl. XIX., showing the same in section,

Upon the wind moving the cups, motion is given to the tubular shaft
aa a, the lower end of which is provided with an endless screw g, that works
into the worm-wheel a, fig. 1, Pl. XX.: thence motion is communicated to
the registering pencil A,

The fan or windmill governor was first used by Mr. Osler for indicating
the direction of the wind, owing to its steadiness compared to a vane. I
have therefore adopted it, but use two, D, D, fig. 2, Pl. XIX., fixed directly
on to the worm-spindle A, working into the fixed wheel B ; by this arrange-
ment a countershaft is dispensed with. The bearings of the worm spindle
A run upon four rollers, 2, 2, 2, 2, fig. 3, Pl. X1X., contained in the boxes ¢, ¢,
fig. 2, Pl. XIX. A section of the box and rollers is shown at fig. 4, Pl, XIX.

The action of the fans is to keep their axis at right angles to the direction
of the wind; any change taking place, they right themselves, carrying with
them the outer brass tube d 3, fig. 3, Pl. XIX., which is screwed to a long
tubular fitting of cast iron, ¢ ¢, the top of which is formed to receive the
friction-balls ¢ ¢, and with a shoulder which bears upon the friction-
balls u, w. To the lower end of this fitting is fastened the necessary length
of brass tubing, g g, completing the direction-shaft, on the lower end of
which is a mitre wheel, ¢, fig 2, Pl. XX.

The method of registration consists in using De la Rue’s metallic paper,
this paper having the property of receiving a trace from a brass pencil.
Pencils can therefore be made of any form desired.

In the first instrument made by Mr. Adie, of 895 Strand, from my
drawings, the velocity is registered by motion being given to the segment of
teeth A, fig. 4, Pl. XX., taking into two racks, B, B, alternately, each traverse
being equal to fifty miles of horizontal movement of the air, the pencil being
inserted in the eye C; and the direction of the wind is registered by a spiral,
of such a figure that equal angles correspond to equal increments of are D,
fig.4, Pl. XX., which is in fact a screw upon a plane, on the edge of which is
screwed a thin strip of brass, E. This, being kept against the paper by a
spring, forms the direction-pencil.

In the instruments recently made, I have placed the strip of brass or pencil
round the cylinders A and B, fig. 2, Pl. XX., making a very thin-threaded
screw,—the advantages of such an alteration being that the point of contact
of two cylinders is less than in the case of a cylinder and a plane, and
then requires no spring or appliances to keep them up to their work.

In reference to the figures 1, 2, and 3, Pl. XX.—The worm-wheel a, fig. 1,
is moved one tooth by each revolution of the hemispherical cups, and is pro-
vided with such a number of teeth that one whole turn is equal to one mile
of movement of the air. On the same axis is a mitre wheel, e, working into
its fellow, e, fixed on and giving motion to the inclined worm shaft f,
which works into the worm wheel g, having fifty teeth, one whole turn being

ON A SELF-RECORDING ANEMOMETER, 307

equal to fifty miles of wind. On the same fitting, and moving with it, is the
wheel z, working into its fellow 7, which is fixed on and gives motion to the
axis of tle screw-pencil cylinder A: these wheels are kept in gear by the
radial arms 0,0. The pitch of screw for the velocity-pencil is equal to a
seale of fifty miles upon the paper on the cylinder C. By this method I get
a very open scale within a small space.

Any change in the direction of the wind is communicated to the mitre
wheels ¢, c, fig. 2, Pl. XX., fixed to the shaft K, onthe other end of which is
the wheelZ; from this, by two others, m, m',a corresponding motion is given
to the wheel x, fixed on the axis of the screw-pencil cylinder B. I found it
better to introduce the small wheels m, m, running on studs in the shifting arm
P, for the direction-pencil, as the motion is variable. The pitch of the screw is
equal to a scale of the cardinal points of the compass upon the paper.

While these pencils are being acted upon by the wind, the clock gives a
uniform motion of 3 in. per hour to the cylinder C, upon which the paper is

. fastened,—in connexion with which I beg to say that, as the clock must be

wound up daily, and as the time occupied in changing the paper is not
more than two or three minutes, [ think it better to do so than to have a
continuous roll of paper lasting many days, which certainly is not so conve-
nient for reference as the daily record of 12 inches by 8 inches.

By using the spiral form of pencil, I overcome the trouble attending the
old method, viz. the pencil shifting off the scale. To ensure registration, it is
usual to have three scales upon the paper, and set the pencil on the centre ;
but even then, should the wind shift twice round in one direction, it ceases to
indicate: by my method it must at all times register upon the one scale.
Fig. 5, Pl. XX., is a copy of a sheet from the Kew Observatory, in which the
advantage is evident.

In conclusion, I would suggest that as the pencils are kept upon the paper
by their own gravity, requiring no attention and being as long as the trace
they make, they will last a long time. The space required for the instrument
not being morethan18 inches x 8 inches, I should recommenditsbeing placed
upon a bracket as close to the roof of the building as convenient, similar to
the anemometer at Kew, it being very advantageous to keep the shaft as short
as possible.

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NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS

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, NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS

OF

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.

MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

MAaAtTHEMATICS.

Address by the Rev. W. Wuewe tt, D.D., F.R.S., President of the
Section.

Tue managers of the Association have assigned a small room to this Section. I
hope that no one is at present inconvenienced by this. I shall be glad if it should
be found that in this respect the managers have been mistaken. But the fact is,
that we are very much in the habit in this Section of treating our subjects in so
sublime a manner that we thin the room very speedily. This is true, but this is no
fault of ours. We seek the laws of Nature, and Nature presents to us her laws in
a form which is to many persons repulsive, namely, a mathematical form. It has
been truly said, both by sacred and profane writers, that all things are made by
number, weight, and measure. Now things which happen by number, weight, and
measure, happen according to mathematical laws, according to the relations of
number and space. According to such relations the laws of various of the appear-
ances which Nature presents to us were studied at the earliest periods of the intel-
lectual progress of man; and if the laws detected by man on such subjects are in
some respects perplexing to many from their mathematical form and complexity,
and are thus repulsive, they are at least attractive in another point of view; for
the extent and brilliancy of the success which has been obtained in these fields
of speculation are such as could not have been in any degree anticipated at an
early period. And the truths obtained in this way at an early period of man’s
intellectual progress are even still of great value and interest, and are essential
parts of the body of scientific truth at the present time. The astronomy of the
ancient Greeks, expressed in the mathematical forms which they devised, has been
an important element in the formation of that astronomy of modern times of which
I have several of the eminent masters near me. And this connected progress
of knowledge from ancient to modern times has been exemplified in various por-
tions of science, and still goes on appearing in new examples. You recollect,
perhaps, that a Roman philosopher, Seneca, made a remark which, though con-
jectural, is striking. In speaking of comets, he said: These objects now seem
to follow no law, as the planets do. They appear unforeseen and unexpected,
filling us with perplexity and alarm. Yet these bodies, too, he said, shall disclose
their laws to astronomers in future years. Their returns will be predicted, their
laws known, and our posterity will wonder that we did not discern what is so plain.
And this prophecy has been fulfilled. Comets have had their returns predicted, and
have fulfilled their predictions. And though this is not always the case, for comets
still shine forth unpredicted and unforeseen, yet still, even in such cases, we are not

1858. 1

Z REPORT—1858.

quite destitute of knowledge of their laws and progress; for when an unexpected
stranger of this class blazes forth in our sky (as is the case at this moment), as soon
as he has shown himself for a few days, we can mark the path which he will follow,
the rate at which he will travel, and in a great degree the appearances which he will
assume. And even objects which as yet are still more lawless and perplexing to our
science than comets are, are still not altogether extraneous to the domain of our know-
ledge. There is a class of such objects which has been especially attended to by the
British Association, This is the subject of the first of the communications which are
to be laid before this Section to-day. I speak of Prof. Powell’s ‘ Report on Luminous
Meteors.’ These objects, falling stars, shooting stars, fiery globes, or whatever they
may be commonly called, have attracted the attention of this Association for many
years ; and the Report which we are to have laid before us to-day is the continuation
of several Reports of the same kind prepared by the same gentleman in preceding
years. These bodies, as I have said, are in a great degree irreducible to laws and
extraneous to our science; yet not wholly so. We have speculations of recent times
by some of our most eminent philosophers, in which these bodies play an important
part. Prof. W. Thomson has been led, by his mathematical speculations on Heat,
to the conclusion, that the heat of the sun is maintained by the perpetual falling in
upon his surface of the abnormal bodies moving in the solar system, which appear
to us as luminous meteors and shooting-stars. And he conceives that he has shown
that there is in those bodies a sufficient supply to keep up the heat of the sun; and
that, by the effects of them, the sun may have gone on radiating heat for thousands
and thousands of years without the smallest diminution. And this, again, is the
result of profound and complex mathematical calculations,—so wide is the domain of
mathematical reasoning, and so necessary is it in any line of speculation in which
we are to convert our ignorance into knowledge. I may mention, as another example
of this, a case which is far removed from the vastness of astronomical phenomena, —
a case of the manifestation of mathematical law upon a scale of the smallest dimen-
sions, and in the work of a humble insect. I speak of the form of the cells of bees:
a mathematical problem which already attracted the attention of the ancient Greeks,
and which has been the subject of mathematical investigation by several of the most
eminent mathematicians of modern times ;—the most eminent, for being a problem
involving the properties of space of three dimensions, it requires‘considerable powers
of mathematical conception. Upon this subject two communications are promised
to the present Meeting, to be laid either before this Section or the Section of Natural
History. And in order further to exemplify the advantages derived from the action
of the British Association, I may mention another report upon a very different sub-
ject, Mr. Cayley’s ‘ Report on the Progress of Theoretical Dynamics.’ The gene-
rality, multiplicity, and complexity of the recent labours of analysts in this depart-
ment of mathematics have been so great, that ordinary mathematicians cannot hope
to follow them by reading the original memoirs; and I am greatly obliged, as one of
them, to Mr. Cayley for enabling us compendiously and easily to understand what
has been done and how it has been done. Perhaps, after all, his Report is not so
very unlike that of Prof. Powell ‘On Luminous Meteors ;’ for the original researches
of the great analysts who have treated this subject, though bright and objects of won-
der, are so far above our head and so difficult to understand, that they are not unlike
the things tabulated in the other Report. And now, having explained that we must
often be necessarily difficult to follow in this Section, I must ask the ladies and gen-
tlemen here present, as the Spectator asks his readers, to believe that, if at any time
we are very dull, we have a design in it.

On a General Method of deriving the Properties of umbilical surfaces of the
second order, having three unequal axes, from the properties of the sphere.
By the Rev. J. Bootn, LL.D., F.R.S.

The author called the attention of the Section to the researches of M. Chasles and
other French geometers, on the methods of deriving the properties of surfaces of re-
volution from those of the sphere by the method of “ Reciprocal Polars,’’ and called
attention to the fact, that they did not grapple with the more general problem when

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 3

the three axes are unequal. Dr. Booth mentioned as the results of the method he
developed, that every umbilical surface of the second order has four directrix planes
parallel to the circular sections of the surface ; that these directrix planes—when the
surface is an ellipsoid—pass two by two through the directrices of the principal sec-
tion, in which lie the greatest and mean axes; that every such surface has four foci
situate two by two on the umbilical diameters; that when the surface is an oblate
spheroid, the four directrix planes are reduced to two parallel to the equator; and
he concluded by showing that every graphic property of the sphere may be repro-
duced in an analogous form in umbilical surfaces of the second order having three
unequal axes.

On the Mutual Relations of Inverse Curves and Inverse Curved Surfaces.
By the Rev. J. Bootu, LL.D., F.R.S.

Inverse curves and inverse curved surfaces were defined as curves and surfaces, the
product of whose coincident radii vectores is constant ; he showed that the tangents
to the two curves are equally inclined to the common vectors; that the sum of the
vectors drawn from the common pole to the two inverse points, each divided by its
corresponding cord of curvature drawn through the pole, is constant and equal to

unity; that if a=) y being the radius vector of the primitive curve, the arc of the
r

derived curve is the same function of wu that the arc of the original curve is of r. He
showed, also, that the element of the arc of the inverse curve represents the velocity
of a planet in its urbit through the corresponding element of its orbit, assumed as
the primary curve. He moreover proved that the circle is inverse to a circle, but
when the pole is on the circumference the inverse curve is a right line; that when
the focus of a parabola is the pole, the inverse curve is a cardioid ; but that when the
vertex is the pole, the inverse curve is the cissoid; that the spiral of Archimedes is
inverse to the hyperbolic spiral, while the logarithmic spiral is inverse to itself. He
drew attention also to certain curves which are inverse to themselves, pointed out the
facilities which this inverse method affords of passing from curves of the second order
to corresponding properties of curves of the higher orders, and concluded by stating
that the theory would be fully developed in the forthcoming Numbers of the
© Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics.’

On the Notion of Distance in Analytical Geometry.
By A. Cayrey, FR.

The author remarks that the principles of modern geometry show that any metrical
proposition whatever is really based upon a purely descriptive proposition, and that
these principles contain in fact a theory of distance; but that such theory has not
been disengaged from its applications and stated in a distinct and explicit form. The
paper contains an account of the theory in question, viz. it is shown that in any
system of geometry of two dimensions, the notion of distance can be arrived at from
descriptive principles by means of a conic termed the Absolute, and which in ordi-
nary plane geometry degenerates into a pair of points.

On Dr. Whewell’s Views respecting the Nature and Value of Mathematical
Definitions. By J. Pore Hennessy, of the Inner Temple.

Having briefly referred to the several controversies which had taken place on this
subject, the author remarked that the question at issue was equally interesting to two
great divisions of the scientific world—the mathematical and the metaphysical.
That question is, Are the deductions of mathematical reasoning absolute truths, or
are they merely hypothetical? Against the form of the reasoning there could be no
objection. It was that of the ordinary Sorites, and might, with a little labour, be
split up into separate syllogisms. This had, in fact, been done, with some of the
books of Euclid, by two foreign mathematicians. The reasoning process then being

perfectly sound, the absolute truth of the conclusion must depend on the absolute
: 1*

4 REPORT—1858.

truth of the first premiss; in other words, it must depend on the nature and value
of the definitions. If, as had often been asserted, a mathematical definition was
merely an arbitrary phrase employed to prevent useless repetition, it would be value-
less as far as the deduction of truth was concerned. An arbitrary definition never
could lead to absolute truth. But if the definitions were not merely an assumed
form of words, if, as Mr. Hennessy believed, they were necessarily involved in that
fundamental conception under which the mind contemplates the foundations of geo-
metry,—the idea of space—then the conclusions would be, in every sense of the word,
true. There were two ways in which the necessary truth of the definitions might be
shown. The first, and by far the most important, was by a metaphysical analysis.
This had been done successfully by Dr. Whewell. The second, which had not
hitherto been attempted, was by a careful comparison of the definitions one with
another. This Mr. Hennessy then proceeded to do. Taking the earliest examples
with which we are acquainted, he showed that Euclid’s definition of a right line and
his definition of a plane surface had the same differentia. Plato’s definitions bore
a similar intimate relation to each other. Hero’s definition of a plane surface, and
that adopted some centuries afterwards, of a right line, were also similar. He
pointed out that such analogies may be traced throughout the whole group of defi-
nitions, in which not only Euclid’s Geometry, but any mathematical work what-
ever, as the mathematical Euclid, for example, is built up. Where the analogy ap-
pears to fail, it will be found, on careful examination, that it only makes the case
still stronger. For instance, Euclid’s definitions of a circle and of parallel lines ap-
pear not to have the slightest analogy. This is readily explained by the fact that the
latter definition, as every one admits, is defective. But when we substitute for the
defective definition one which is sound and useful, an analogy becomes evident.
Parallel lines may properly be defined to be two right lines, the perpendicular di-
stances between which are all equal. A definition closely resembling this had been
used by Boscovich and Wolfius. From it every property of parallels may be easily
deduced. Euclid’s definition of a circle is, a continued line having a certain point
within it from which all right lines drawn to the continued line are equal. Now all
the radii of the circle are perpendicular to the circumference ; and if we could sup-
pose one line, of two parallels, to become a point, the other would become a circle.
The close analogy between the definitions of these two important conceptions is
thus evident. He believed also that these definitions contained the germs of all the
properties subsequently developed. If a definition were not a necessary truth, but
were merely an arbitrary form of words employed to prevent repetition, such analo-
gies as these never would have existed. Their existence shows that mathematical
definitions are neither accidental nor mere matters of choice.

On some Properties of a Series of the Powers of the same Number.
By J. Pore Hennessy, of the Inner Temple.

The author announced the discovery of some general laws which regulate the series
of the powers of any number. For instance, in the following series of the powers
of 5, the number of digits in the several recurrent vertical series may be expressed
by the powers of 2 :—

Number of digits recurring.

5 See Ist.

1 ew a = Sale 25 pe 2nd.
2 Ee me ne aa 125 pe 3rd.
625 oe 4th.

4 a5 BS van <== 3125 due 5th.
8 uae we ae Bs 15625 lige 6th.
78125 wa 7th.

16 Buia oh a3 =a 390625 Be 8th.
32 ae 26 A ae 1953125 weé 9th.
0765625 at 10th.

64 ee iter aia see 48828125 i 11th.
128 oan ee ae 5 54 244140625 dai 12th.

256 wee eee vee ee 1220703125 = 13th.

or

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

‘7 —The vertical series are,

5

2

16

3580

17956240

3978175584236200

19840377976181556439582242163600.
The next consists of 64 figures, and soon. He pointed out that a similar law ex-
isted for every other number; and he exhibited formule by which the sum of any of
the recurrent series may be determined. in the case of 5, S,=2 (S,—1+1), the
consecutive sums of the several series being 7, 16, 34, 70, 142, &c. In this way
tables of the powers of numbers may be constructed to any extent whatever with
very little labour. This discovery will enable certain calculations to be made with a
degree of accuracy hitherto impossible.

On the Conditions of Equilibrium in a Rotating Spheroid.
By Dr. F. A. SinsestROM, of Stockholm.

In the ‘ Mécanique Céleste’ it is demonstrated that, the earth being considered
as a fluid mass rotating with a given velocity, the mathematical conditions of equili-
brium may be satisfied not only by the spheroid of small excentricity, which is the
earth’s actual form, but also by another quite flat ellipsoidal figure. The following
remarks may in some measure serve to elucidate this very curious result of the cal-
culus, and also show that there really is some difference (and that an important ene)
between the two states of equilibrium corresponding to the said figures.

Supposing the mass to be in equilibrium with an ellipsoidal figure, the equation
of condition (though deduced from much more general principles) implies nothing
more than the hydrostatical equilibrium in the centre of the figure between a polar
and an equatorial fluid column. _ If, now, the excentricity is thought variable (the
mass being constant), it can be shown that the value of the equatorial pressure (con-
sidered as a function of the excentricity) has a maximum, on both sides of which
there may be a value equal to that of the polar pressure; consequently two states
of equilibrium and two different figures.

Considering these two states of equilibrium, it is further shown that if in each case
the excentricity is thought a little increased or diminished, the corresponding varia-
tions of the polar and the equatorial pressure will follow in such a manner that
only with the figure of small excentricity (the earth’s actual form) there will be
stability of equilibrium.

Let EBF represent the actual figure of the earth, and sup-
pose the figure change as DAG. Then the equatorial pressure
AC will be > polar pressure DC, and consequently there will
be a tendency with the mass to resume the former figure. But
if EBF represents the other (elongated) figure of equilibrium,
and the excentricity is likewise thought a little increased, then
the pressure of AC will prove < pressure of DC, and con-
sequently the mass will have a tendency still more to change
in the same direction.

As for Jacobi’s famous ellipsoid of three different axes, it will in no°way, if ex-

4 amined in this manner, afford stability of equilibrium. Consequently with a given
velocity of rotation there can be only one ellipsoidal figure with which a fluid mass, .
subject to its own attractive forces, may remain in a real state of equilibrium. ;

On a Mode of constructing the Rectangular Hyperbola by Points.
; By G. Taurnect.
This communication was illustrated by two figures. In the first was shown how

by means of lines drawn in an isosceles triangle parallel to its base, on which were
formed concentric arcs, and through which was drawn, parallel to the base, a sectiov

6 REPORT—1858.

line cutting the arcs in two points, from which were projected upon the tines in the
triangle other points, these last being the points for the desired hyperbola. See figure,

In the second it was shown how to apply this problem in forming the model by
which to work the shafts of columns with hyperbolical entasis, the subject being
illustrated by exhibiting the contour of a column of the Parthenon.

On a mode of constructing Tables of Squares and Cubes.
By C.M. Witxicu, Actuary, University Life Office.

Licut, Heart.

On Heat and on the Indestructibility of Elementary Bodies.
By Miss Rosina Zornuin. (Communicated by S. W. Ayrton.)

On the Duration of Luminous Impressions on certain Points of the Retina.
By Sir Daviv Brewster, KH, F.RS. L.& BE.

It is well known that the duration of luminous impressions on the retina is one-
third of a second for white light of ordinary intensity. In the Report of the Belfast

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7

Meeting, I have shown that the small circular area at the end of the optical axis,
whether it be retina or choroid, retains light longer than the general retina, after the
eye has been exposed to light; and I have recently observed that certain points of
that membrane, situated apparently near its termination at the ciliary processes, have
even a greater retentive power. In order to observe this curious phenomenon, we
must extinguish, suddenly, a gas-flame, to the light of which the eye has been for
some time exposed. We shall then observe a number of bright luminous points
arranged in a circle, the diameter of which is about 72°. These bright points, or
stars, apparently placed at equal distances, vanish so quickly that I have found it
very difficult to determine their number. They may amount to fifteen or twenty. I
have sometimes observed them upon extinguishing a candle, and also upon quickly
shutting the eyes. The parts of the retina from which these points of light emanate
are probably places where the retina is attached to the ciliary ring, or other parts in
the interior of the eye, and may therefore be detected by the anatomist.

On Vision through the Foramen Centrale of the Retina.
By Sir Davip Brewster, A.A, F.RS. LS EB.

At the Meeting of the British Association which was held at Belfast 1 gave an
account of a case of vision, in which it was performed entirely by the choroid coat,
or rather through the foramen centrale of the retina. The space of distinct vision,
as ascertained by the number of minute printed letters which the patient could read,
was 42°, the angle subtended by the foramen, which I had previously determined by
experiment. In this case the paralysis of the retina was permanent, and the patient
was blind, with the exception of the small amount of vision which he enjoyed through
the foramen. In the case to which I now call the attention of the Section, paralysis
was temporary, and was accompanied with severe headaches ; but as soon as the
patient recovered her health, the retina resumed its usual functions. In order to find
the area of distinct vision, the patient observed with care the number of small and
sharply printed Jetters which she could read at a certain distance from the eye ; and
upon measuring the breadth of these letters, and their distance from the eye, I found
that they subtended an angle of 44°, corresponding with the size of the opening in
the retina. These facts, when viewed in connexion with those which I described at
the Swansea Meeting, may throw some light on the functions exercised by the retina
as a whole, or by some of its individual layers. I have placed it beyond a doubt, that
the membrane, whether choroid or retina, which occupies an area of 42° at the ex-
tremity of the optical axis of the eye, is in certain cases less retentive of luminous
impression, and in others more retentive than the retina. If the microscope proves
that there is no retina corresponding to that area, we must consider the choroid coat
as the seat of vision. If it should prove that any one of the layers of the retina
occupies that area, while the rest are wanting, it will be manifest that that layer is
the seat of vision, or rather of luminous impressions.

On certain Abnormal Structures in the Crystalline Lenses of Animals, and
in the Human Crystalline. By Sir Davip Brewster, K.H., F.RS.
L. & £.

In examining, many years ago, the structure of the crystalline lens in the Mam-
malia, Birds, Fishes, and Reptiles, the results of which are printed in the ‘ Philo-
sophical Transactions,’ I observed several deviations from the normal structure of
particular lenses, which I did not think important enough to publish. Having found,
however, that these abnormal structures have been in some instances taken for the
true structures, and that structures accurately determined have, on their authority,
yee considered erroneous, it is necessary to draw the attention of anatomists to the
subject.

In the lenses of several large whales brought home by the Arctic navigators, |
found that the fibres were related to four rectangular septa* ; but in one lens J found

* Phil. Trans. 1836. plate 5. figs. 1, 2, No. 4.

8 REPORT—1858.

only three septa on the anterior surface, and jive on the posterior surface, as shown
in fig 1, two of the three septa being doubled at their extremities. Now Leeuwen-

Fig. 1.—Whale.

hoek * found in the lens of a whale five septa inclined 72° to each other, which
doubtless was an abnormal structure, such as that now described, arising either
from disease or old age.

In the lens of the Cow, and generally speaking of most quadrupeds, there are three
septa inclined 120° to each other ; but in the lens of a cow eleven years old, I found
four septa on one side of the lens and seven on the other, very unsymmetrically dis-
posed. In the other lens of the same cow there were six septa on each side, also
unsymmetrically disposed. In both these cases the additional septa are placed at
the extremities of the ‘iree normal septa. These structures are exhibited in figures
2 and 3.

Fig, 2.—Cow.

Ina Cheviot ewe six years old, both its lenses had three perfectly regular septa in
their anterior surface. In one of them the only irregularity in the posterior surface

* Opera, tom. ii. p. 66. Lugd. Batav. 1722. Phil. Trans. vol. xxiv. 1704. No. 23. p. 1723.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9

was that the septa were not straight lines, and not inclined to each other at angles
of 120°; but in the posterior surface of the other there were sia septa, placed so
unsymmetrically, as in fig. 4, that five of them
were in one semicircle, while only one was in the
other,

When the lenses now described were immersed
in distilled water and examined by polarized light,
the optical figures which they exhibited were not
in the slightest degree disturbed by the want of
symmetry in the number and position of their
septa.

It will be seen from the figures, that in number-
ing the septa I have counted only those from
which the groups of fibres, or vortices as they have
been called by Leeuwenhoek, take their origin.

If the abnormal structures now described are
the result of disease, or of that change in the
lens which is produced by age, it is very probable that several of the varieties of
structure observed in the human crystalline are abnormal. Reil* thought he saw
in a human foetus, seven months old, st septa radiating from each pole, while
in adults there were only four. Dr. Thomas Young has given a drawing of
the human crystalline (fig. 93) in which the fibres occupy ten groups or vortices,
separated by ¢en radial lines extending from the margin to the centre of the lens,
each fibre being parallel to their radii, and consequently meeting at an acute angle.
In another figure, 95, he represents what he calls ramifications from the margin of
the crystalline lens, that is, ramifications of fibres, a structure which is wholly in-
compatible with his fig. 93, showing the order of the fibres of the human crystalline.
No other observer has seen such an arrangement of fibres either in the human cry-
stalline or in any other lens. It is obvious, indeed, that Dr. Young did not possess a
correct method of tracing the fibres to their origin, because he makes their arrange-
ment in Fishes similar to their arrangement in Birds, that is, extending from pole to
pole like the meridians of a globe}, a structure contrary to the results obtained by
every observer. ;

In his ‘ Icones Oculi Humani,’ Soemmering § has given two very minute drawings
of the crystalline ; and has inferred merely from its mode of splitting after macera-
tion in alcohol, that it divides into four unequal segments, and that in each of these
four there are four fissures ; and though he afterwards found that by “a careful and
continued maceration ” in alcohol it separated into fibres, yet he argues that this is
no proof that the recent or the living Jens has a fibrous structure “like the zeolites! ”
Had he been acquainted with the existence of teeth in each fibre by which they are
held together to give solidity and permanence of form to a soft and semifluid body,
he could not have considered, as he does, the crystalline lens to be merely a lenti-
cular humour “like a drop of dissolved gum ||.”

In consequence of these contradictory opinions respecting the structure of the
human crystalline, I was anxious to study it by means of the optical method which
had occurred to me of tracing the fibres to their origin by the diffracted images which
they produced.

In some lenses, the age of which I did not know, I found three septa, as in
quadrupeds.

In two very large lenses there were on each side four septa, two being placed at
each end of a central line, like that which forms the two septa in the Hare and Sal-
mon. This structure is shown in the Phil. Trans. 1836, plate 6. figs. 3, 4, but in
the human lens the central line was very much shorter than in these figures. The

* Lentis crystalline structura fibrosa. Preside Reil. Defendit Samuel Godofredus Sattig,
Silesius. Hale, 1795, p. 14, 29.
_+ Phil. Trans. 1800 ; or Elements of Nat. Phil. vol. ii. p- 605. plate 12. fig. 93.

t Phil. Trans. p. 605. fig. 100.

§ Francofurti ad Meenum, 1804, p. 67, tab. 5. figs. 17, 18.

| Instar gummi liquefacti. Icones, &c. p. 68.

10 REPORT— 1858.

structure, however, was so distinct, that I could measure the length of the central
line, which was 0°0533, or =/5 of an inch.

In four lenses which I examined three days after death, I observed fen septa on
each side, but they had no resemblance whatever to the figure given by Dr. Young.
The groups of fibres or vortices were like those of quadrupeds, with this difference,
that the septa to which they were related were longer and much nearer the margin
of the lens. These lenses were taken from male and female subjects about forty
years of age.

More recent observers have found equal difficulties in determining the true struc-
ture of the human crystalline. Mr. Nunneley*, in his valuable paper on the crystal-
line lens, lately published in the Microscopic Journal, makes the following remarks:—

“« Tn the human lens the arrangement of the fibres is the most complicated of any,
for while the type is the mammalian tripod, and is best seen in the foetus, in the adult
the planes are more numerous, in consequence of the primary planes immediately
branching into secondary, so that a very complicated curvature of fibres exists; the
septa upon the two surfaces frequently not being equal, those of the posterior being
more numerous than those of the anterior. In the anterior nine septa and radiations
are often found, in the posterior surface ¢welve, which Arnold regards as the more
common arrangement in man. This complicity, however, is only in the more super-
ficial layers, for towards the axis the normal mammalian triseptal division is pre-
served.”

Mr. Nunneley does not inform us whether the statement that the structure varies
in the same lens is founded on his own observations or on those of Arnold. Mr.
Nunneley’s mode of observing consists in “immersing the lens for a few minutes in
water at 180° Fahr.,”’ and after allowing it to dry in a warm room, he observes the
number of sections into which it splits, and upon the supposition that it splits only
in the direction of the septa, he infers the number of the septa from the number of
these directions. We cannot place much confidence in results thus obtained. The
lens, we think, should be studied in its entire state by following to their origin the
converging or parallel fibres, by observing the changes in the diffracted spectra which
they produce. By removing in succession the external layers, it will be easy to
determine whether or not the structure changes in the layers near the axis.

On the Crystalline Lens of the Cutile-fish.
By Sir Davin Brewster, A.M, PRS. L. & EF.

The crystalline lens of the Cuttle-fish differs in a remarkable degree from that of
all other animals. Cuvier does not seem to have examined its structure. In his
Memoir on the Mollusca, he merely gives a drawing of its external form, and
mentions that it consists of two parts easily separated,—the anterior part being
more convex than the posterior. In the new edition of his ‘ Lectures on Compara-
tive Anatomy,’ published in 1845, the editors, MM. Frederick Cuvier and Lautillard,
have repeated almost verbatim the description of the lens given in the original
memoir {.

Valentin, in Wagner’s ‘ Icones Zootomice §’, has given a section of the crystalline
lens of the Cephalopods, which is repeated in Victor Carus’s ‘ Icones Zootomice ||.’
In this drawing the lens is represented as a sphere, the anterior part being much
larger than the posterior. In his ‘ Lectures on Comparative Anatomy and Physiology
of the Invertebrate Animals,’ Professor Owen describes the lens as Cuvier does, as
consisting of two distinct parts, the anterior or smaller moiety being the segment of

* In his more recent work, ‘On the Organs of Vision, their Anatomy and Physiology,’
plate 5, figs. 7 and 8, Mr. Nunneley has represented the human crystalline as having nine
septa in its anterior, and ¢welve in its posterior surface.

+ Journal of Microseopal Science, April 1858, No. 23, p. 150.

t Ihave not seen the memoir of Muller in the ‘ Annales des Sciences Naturelles’ for 1831,
on the structure of the eyes of the Mollusks; but as MM. Fred. Cuvier and Laurillard refer
to it, I presume that it contains no additional information on the structure of the lens of the
Cuttle-fish.

§ Tab. 29. fig. 42. || Tab 23. fig. 1. Leipzig, 1857. J Sect. 24. p. 620. London, 1855.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ll

a larger sphere, and the posterior that of a smaller sphere* ; and he adds, what is not
correct, that “ the lens presents the same denticulated fibrous structure, arranged in
concentric laminz, as in the higher animals.’’ Siebold+ gives nearly the same
account of the crystalline, the lens being spherical, and the anterior of its two halves
less convex than the posterior. Mr. Wharton Jones considers the lens as ‘a sphere
divided into two unequal segments, an anterior smaller and a posterior larger f.”’

In studying the crystalline lenses of animals about twenty-five years ago, I had
occasion to examine several lenses of the Cuttle-fish, but having found a consider-
able difference in the structure of different lenses, and not knowing the species from
which they were taken, I did not publish my observations in the memoirs which I
sent to the Royal Society in 1833 and 1835. As the subject, however, is a very
interesting one, and as the attention of anatomists has been lately directed to the
structure of the crystalline lens, I have ventured to submit to the Section a short
account of my observations.

In the greater number of lenses which I have examined, and which I believe were
those of the Sepia Loligo, the lens was not a sphere, as maintained by the greater
number of the anatomists to whom I have referred, nor did it consist of two spherical
segments of unequal convexity. Its posterior and larger portion was decidedly a
paraboloid, and its anterior and smaller portion a spherical meniscus, whose concave
surface coincides with the convex surface of the section of the paraboloid. This re-
markable form of the lens is represented in fig. 1, where ABC is the axis of the lens,
ADCE a section of the whole lens through the axis, DBE the convex surface of
the paraboloid, which is spherical, and MNOP (fig. 2) the spherical meniscus, whose

Fig. 1.—The whole lens. Fig. 2.—The anterior lens.
on M
A Cc 0 Ee
N
BE

concave surface MON has the same curvature as DBE, the anterior face of the
paraboloid.
The following are the dimensions of the various parts of t/ree lenses :—
inch. First lens.
AB=0°3433, DE=0°51, AC=0°433.
MN=0'333, BC=OP=0:09.

Second lens.
AB=0°333, DE=0'50.

Third lens.
AB=0'30, DE=0°457.

In some indurated lenses I have found the spherical surface MON slightly con-
vex, and the corresponding surface DBE similarly concave; but I cannot decide
whether this structure is abnormal, or that of lenses belonging to different species of
the Cuttle-fish. That it was not produced by induration, will appear from the
following description of indurated lenses which have been in my possession for
twenty-five years, in all of which the faces DBEare convex, and the faces MON concave.

1. AB=0°29, DE=0°433.
2. AB=0'235, DE=0°37.
3. AB=0'19, DE=0-27.

* This description is inconsistent with the drawing (fig. 224), which represents the whole
lens asasphere. In this figure the central part of the lens is represented as not lamellar as
its structure.

fT Anatomy of the Vertebrata, p. 283. Boston, 1854.

} Phil. Mag. Jan, 1836. vol. viii. p. 1.

12 REPORT—1858.

The paraboloidal part of the lens, viz. ADBE, consists of paraboloidal lamine, the
surfaces of which are perfectly smooth, and give no diffracted images by reflexion like
the surfaces of the lamine of other lenses. The spherical portion, MNOP, consists
of spherical laminz of the same character. The structure of both portions of the
lens is fibrous, the fibres diverging from poles in the axis of the lenses, that is from
one pole in each lamina of the two lenses. The fibres, however, must be perfectly
flat in order to compose lamine perfectly smooth; and I have not been able to
observe that they are united by teeth as they are in other animals. They must
adhere, therefore, to each other by the contact of their surfaces merely, or by some
structure not visible in the microscope, and not showing itself by its action upon light.

The thin transparent membranes which cover the anterior convex surface of the
paraboloid, and the concave surface of the spherical meniscus, have also a fibrous
structure, the fibres diverging from a single pole in the axis of the lenses. The sur-
faces which these membranes cover are the ends of all the fibres which constitute
the leas; and each lamina terminates in a sort of ring or margin which is well
defined. This ring is a little larger in diameter than the proper section of the para-
boloid, and the consequence of this is that the fibres, or the termination of the lamine,
are curved upwards, so that their surfaces are concave near the line DBE.

The two lenses are curiously united. The concave surface MON is less than the
convex one, DBE, and there is a notch between Dand M going round the lens. The
meniscus is kept in its proper place, in contact with the paraboloid, by a ring abcd
(fig. 3), in which ab=0'50 of an inch, and cd=0°31.

In the Sepia Elcdona the whole lens is nearly spherical, as shown in fig. 4, the

Fig 4.—Sepia Eledona.

Fig 3.—Ring DE.

a

Fig. 5.—Figure by polarized light.

axis or diameter AB being a little larger than mn, whereas in the Sepia Loligo it is
smaller. The lens divides into two parts along maben, abc being a hemisphere about
the ;/;th of an inch in diameter. The whole annular surface, from the circumference
mn to a, C, is covered with two membranes, to which the ciliary processes are attached.

In order to examine the polarizing structure of the lens, I made a section of it by
two planes parallel to the axis, so that the plate was about the 15th part of an inch
thick. When immersed in oil, it gave, in polarized light, the figure shown in fig. 5,
when the axis of the lens po was parallel or perpendicular to the plane of polariza-
tion. The tints to the left of v and w were the highest, namely the yellow of the
first order. The sections 1, 2, 3, 4 are negative in reference to r, and 5, 6, 7, 8 are
also negative in reference to the intersection between 6 and 7. When the polarized
light is transmitted along the axis of the eye, a black cross is seen, as in uniaxal
negative crystals ; but the cross opens upon turning round the section, indicating a
defect of symmetry in the substance of the lens round the axis. The luminous por-
tions at 5, 6 are very bright.

When the lenses are quickly dried, the laminz separate from each other, and the
lenses have the appearance of pearls; the resemblance is so great, that when the ex-
periment is well made, it is difficult to distinguish them from real pearls, as will be
seen in the accompanying specimens*.

* These specimens were exhibited to the Section.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ls

In many of these lenses the lamine are separated in some parts and not in others,
and the consequence of this is, that when we look at the convex surface of the para-
boloid by reflected light, we observe a number of luminous and dark rings surround-
ing the axis of the lens, the luminous rings being produced by the total reflexion of
the light from one or more of the separated surfaces. The effect thus produced is
very beautiful, as will be seen in the specimens on the table.

The preceding observations were made, as I have already stated, nearly twenty-
five years ago, and I have copied them as they stand in the Journal of my Experi-
ments. I observe, however, some discrepancies between the figures and their de-
scriptions, arising, I think, chiefly from not being able to distinguish the lenses of
one species from those of another. These discrepancies I hope to be able to recon-
cile before this communication is published.

On the Use of Amethyst Plates in Experiments on the Polarization of Light.
By Sir Davin Brewster, K.H., F.R.S. L. & F.

In order to determine the exact position of the plane of primitive polarization, it
was usual to observe when the intensity of the extraordinary image of the analysing
prism was a minimum; but as it is difficult to obtain light perfectly homogeneous,
the light of this image could not be completely extinguished. In his experiments on
the rotatory phenomena of quartz, M. Biot employed a coloured glass, which trans-
mitted only the extreme red rays of the spectrum; but this method, owing to‘the
great loss of light in the polarized pencil, was attended with so many incouveniences,
that fifteen or twenty trials were required before he could determine the zero of his
instrument. In order to remedy this evil, M. Soleil interposed between the polar-
izing apparatus and the analysing prism two plates of quartz of equal thickness, the
one right-handed and the other left-handed. These plates were united so as to give
the same tint when the plane of the principal section of the analysing prism coin-
cided with the plane of primitive polarization. This ingenicus apparatus was sub-
mitted to the Academy of Sciences on the 23rd of June, 1845, and has been used
since that time by M. Senarmont and others in their experiments on polarization.
In the year 1819 I communicated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh the very same
method of placing the principal section of the analysing prism in the plane of pri-
mit:ve polarization ; but in place of using two plates of right and left-handed quartz,
I used a single plate of amethyst, in which the two kinds of quartz were combined,
during the formation of the crystal. This piece of apparatus, which is obviously
superior to that of M. Soleil, is thus described in the paper to which I have referred :—
“The properties of amethyst, which have now been described, render a plate of this
mineral a valuable addition to our apparatus for conducting experiments on the
polarization of light. If we wish to place the principal section of the analysing
prism exactly in the plane of primitive polarization, we have only to interpose a thin
plate of amethyst like that shown in the figure, and if the tints of both sets of veins
are exactly similar, the analysing prism will have the required position. If the one
set of tints is bluer or whiter than the other, or if there is the slightest difference
between them, the position of the prism must be altered till that difference is no
longer perceptible. If we wish to place a plate of sulphate of lime or any other
crystal, so as to have its principal section in the plane of primitive polarization, the
interposition of the amethyst plate will give us the same assistance, by indicating
that the circular (rotatory) tints are not affected by it; whereas if we wish to place
the axis of the sulphate of lime at an angle of 45° to the primitive plane of polariza-
tion, the amethyst will point out this position when the opposite circular tints suffer
an equal change.”

On Professor Petzvay's New Combination Lens.

Sir Davin Brewster laid before the meeting a paper, translated by Mr. Paul
Pretsch, entitled ‘ Prof. Petzval’s New Combination Lens, as an Object-glass for
Telescopes,’ and exhibited a fine telescope for which the lens had been originally
constructed. This telescope was constructed for the Imperial General Survey Office
at Vienna, for the purpose of making maps, and the lens which it contained has been

14 REPORT—1858.

found to be the very best that has yet been constructed for the purposes of photo-
raphy.

7 Sir David Brewster gave a brief analysis of this long and interesting communica-
tion, of which the following is the conclusion :—‘‘ What I have offered is a kind of
universal instrument, consisting of three achromatic lenses. The front lens, in con-
nexion with a little larger posterior lens, and mounted like an ordinary portrait lens,
reproduces a strongly illuminated and well-defined picture of the usual size. The
same front lens, in connexion with a smaller posterior lens, reproduces a large picture
with perfect perspective, equal distribution of light, and equal sharpness of the pic-
ture. It forms a combination for multifarious applications, for taking views, groups
of persons, maps,” &c.

On an Apparatus for exhibiting Optical Illusions of Spectral Phenomena.
By Henry Drrcks.

The author, after quoting some passages in Sir David Brewster’s ‘ Natural Magic,’
in which the author had intimated that reflexion by concave specula must form the
basis of all spectral illusions by reflexion, and pointing out the inconvenience of
using these for producing images of living and moving persons, in consequence of
their inverting objects, stated that he had contrived a means by which living actors,
some the real persons, others the images of persons concealed from the direct view
of the spectators, might be formed by a large plate of glass dividing the room in
which the exhibition was made, the spectators being in a darkened portion above,
but at one side of the glass plate; while the living persons on the other side of it
could be seen quite clearly through the glass, and the images of other persons, walk-
ing about in the room under them, seen by reflexion, would appear in the same place
as the living persons seen directly, such arrangement becoming, in fact, a transparent
mirror, and the actors could be thus made to appear to perform most amusing spec-
tral feats, such as passing through walls, into and coming out of the living actors,
and soon.

On a New Case of Binocular Vision. By the Rev. J. Dincve.

The author remarked, that without some provision imperfect vision would conti-
nually arise from the difference of the pictures in the two eyes. Even in the same
object, the point looked at is often visible only to one eye, and the picture of it is
combined in the sensorium with the picture of another part; and in other cases the
superposition of different images would sometimes lead to great inconvenience and
confusion. It sometimes happens, for instance, that in looking at a field of view at
some distance, objects considerably nearer are so interposed as to present themselves
in the picture formed in one eye and not in the other. Thus, in looking at a landscape,
if the finger or any other object is held before one eye, the image of it from the one
retina is superposed in the sensorium on a part of the landscape formed in the other
eye. On mere physical principles, this might be expected to blot out or greatly con-
fuse that part of the landscape upon which it was placed ; but upon trial this is not
found to be the case, as that part is merely a little dimmer than the rest from being
seen only with one eye, but is equally distinct and as truly coloured. By various
experiments the author had ascertained that this was the result of a peculiar power
of the will, by means of which the mind is enabled, when two different images are
superposed in the sensorium, to select whichever it pleases, to bring that object into
view, and entirely to obliterate the other,—it sees, in fact, whichever it wills to see,
and the other image, simply by being neglected, becomes invisible. In ordinary
vision, the determination of the image to be seen is effected by the same act of the
will which determines the position of the optic axes; but by certain arrangements
which were indicated, both images may be made to have the same relation to the
optic axes ; and as the predisposition to select one or the other is thus obviated, it is
made indifferent to the mind which of the two images that occupy the same place in
the sensorium it shall see*. When these arrangements are made, it is found that

* The proof of the law might be allowed to rest on an accurate observation of what is
almost constantly taking place in the act of vision; but the following simple experiment may

a

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 15

mere efforts of the will can easily bring either the one or the other into view. The
importance of this law, which enables the mind to select its image, was pointed out
in different cases of ordinary vision. It obviates the difficulty already adverted to,
of having two different pictures on the same spot; it has not improbably an import-
ant influence in producing the general stereoscopic effect; it also, to some extent,
remedies the effect of squinting, by obliterating the picture in the imperfect eye,
which could not be else done without sbutting it. The effect of the law, in some
extraordinary cases, was also noticed, especially in the power of the will to fix images
on the sight, as Sir Isaac Newton instances in his own case (see his ‘ Life,’ by Sir
David Brewster). The author pointed out the great interest of the subject, not only
in its practical aspect, but also as having an important bearing on the connexion be-
tween mind and matter.

On some Optical Properties of Phosphorus.
By Dr. Giavstone and the Rev. T. P. DAtE.

The authors had recently examined the effect of temperature on refraction by
means of the instrument constructed by the Rev. Baden Powell, from a grant of the
British Association. They had extended their examination of the optical properties
of phosphorus to other points. Solid phosphorus at 25°C. gave the following
refractive indices :—

IBRXGG AGIAN fe Ua ie a eg es wel SRODG
re spre alegre eerame et Too. LA
HictieMmenviOlet Fo tuives Ween eg) «ea iSOOT,

This shows an amount of refraction only just exceeded by diamond or chromate of
lead, and an amount of dispersion perhaps unapproached by that of any other sub-
stance.

Melted phosphorus at 35° C, gave the indices—

RISGU Ine AY ter. cgay Yess oe oe St OSSO
aa iy’ 9 fie ee rill ye rn Ac an inca Nae ALO 7 /221(6)
fe HEN te ae re VOL OO
Figs 25 pga Soe Rade alt Sate nae Cr |
Extreme violet . 2°2267

This shows a considerable diminution both of the refractive and dispersive power.
At the temperature of 35° C., the refraction of the orange ray through solid phos-
phorus was to that through the liquid body in the ratio of 2°117 to 2-071.

The change of refrangibility caused by change of temperature is greater with liquid
phosphorus than with any other known body. A saturated solution of phosphorus
in bisulphide of carbon is almost as refractive and dispersive as the element itself.
Refractive indices for the principal fixed lines of the spectrum, as seen through such
a solution, were given. ‘There is a certain indistinctness about the prismatic image
seen through phosphorus not depending on opacity or crystalline structure, and not
arising from the high refraction or dispersion, nor wholly from the great sensitive-
ness to changes of temperature. It may be connected with the well-known allotropic
variations of this body, no particular specimen being really homogeneous. The
phosphorus experimented on was colourless ; yellow phosphorus cuts off the red rays.
The white flame of phosphorus contains all the visible rays of the solar spectrum, but
exhibits no trace of any dark line or band.

A Hand Heliostat, for the purpose of flashing Sun Signals, from on board
Ship or on Land, in Sunny Climates. By F. Garton, Sec. R.GS.

A flash of sunlight from a looking-glass, of a few inches in the side, can be seen

assist in making it apparent. Let a person stand before a papered wall with pictures hanging
on it, and shift the optic axes so as to bring different patterns of the paper together. The
images of the pictures formed in the two eyes will then be separated in the sensorium, and
shifted off upon the image of a part of the paper; and if the attention is turned upon these
parts, it will be found that it may be made to depend on an effort of the will whether the pic-
ture or the paper will be seen there. The experiment might be still better made with a suit-
able piece of a different paper pinned on the wall; as in the case of pictures, the more inter-
esting or much brighter objects are apt to force themselves too much on the attention.

16 REPORT—1858.

further than any terrestrial object whatever ; and the instrument about to be described
shows how this remarkable power may be utilized for the purposes of telegraphy.
Heliostats are used in all Government surveys, and their power is well known in
penetrating haze, and their utility in requiring no ‘sky line.’”” They were also
habitually employed by the Russians for telegraphy during the Crimean war. But
all heliostats that have been hitherto used have been fixtures of large dimensions ;
commonly, a shaded screen, with an aperture in it, was placed at many yards from
the signaller, who stationed himself in such a way that when he could see the play
of his flash about the hole in the screen, he might be sure that some of the rays
which passed through the aperture would be visible at the distant station. At other
times, a polished ring was used for the same purpose as the screen, but the principle
was the same. The present instrument dispenses with all fixture ; it is more port-
able than a ship’s telescope and as manageable as a ship’s quadrant, and may be
made by a carpenter for 4s., if he possesses a convex spectacle-lens of short focus
and a piece of good looking- glass. The looking-glass attached to the heliostat is
about 3 inches by 43 inches, and therefore capable of being seen at distances, which
may be calculated from the fact, that a mirror 1 inch square is perfectly visible, in
average sunny weather, at the distance of 8 miles, and that it shows as a brilliant
and glistening star at 2 miles. Before describing its principle and action, it will be
necessary to explain clearly the peculiar characteristic of the reflexion of the sun’s
rays from a mirror. If, for instance, we take a small square looking-glass and throw
its flash upon a wall 2 or 3 feet off, the shape of the flash will be little different from
that of the mirror itself, seen in perspective; but if we direct it on an object 3
or 4 yards off, the angles of the flash will appear decidedly rvunded ;, at 20 or 30
paces it will appear fairly circular; and if we can manage to see it at 50 or 100
yards (which can only be effected by selecting some object to throw it on, that is
naturally of a light colour, but lying under a dark shade), it will appear like a mock
sun, of identically the same shape and size as the sun itself; and for all greater di-
stances the appearance remains the same. That is to say, whatever may be the shape
or size of the mirror, and whatever the irregularity of the distant objects on which
the flash happens to be thrown, the shape and size of that flash, if it could be seen
by the signaller, would always appear to him as exactly that of the sun. In fact,
the flash forms a cone of light, at the blunted apex of which are the mirror and the
signaller’s eye, and whose vertical angle equals that of the sun’s angular diameter.
Whoever is covered by the flash sees the mirror, like a small fragment of the sun
itself, held in the hand of the observer; and the larger the mirror, compared to the
distance, the larger and the more dazzling does it appear. Now, the hand heliostat
provides a bright appearance of the sun, which, when the instrument is adjusted and
looked through, overlays the exact area which is covered by the flash of the mirror,
which is attached to its side. It is a perfect substitute for that mock sun which we
can see at 50 or 100 paces distant, but which becomes too faint to be traced much
further. All we have to do, when we wish to send a flash to a distant object, is to
make that image of the sun overlay the object, just as may be done in rough sextant
observations. The principle of the instrument is extremely simple. A convex lens,
of any focal distance (5 inches is convenient), has a small screen attached to it,
whose surface is at its focal distance. The mirror is so placed that a small portion
of its flash impinges upon one end of the lens; say, the right-hand side of it. The
signaller’s eye looks partly through the other end of the lens, and partly free of it.
Now the rays from any one point of the sun’s surface are converged by the right
side of the lens to a bright speck on the screen ; and those rays which radiate from
that speck and impinge on the left side of the lens are brought back by means of it
to a state of parallelism with the rays that originally left the mirror. Consequently
the signaller’s eye sees the bright speck in the precise direction of the vanishing
point of the mirror’s flash, and he can, by looking partly to the side of the lens,
refer it to some particular spot in the distant landscape. But what is true for any
one point on the sun’s disc is true for every point, and accordingly we obtain a
bright disc upon the screen, which appears of exactly the same shape and size as
the sun itself, and necessarily overlays the exact area covered by the flash of the
mirror, It is scarcely possible to describe the instruments that were submitted to
the Association without drawings. They consisted of a tube of wood 15 inches long,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 17

and with an eye-hole at one end; a mirror turned on an axis at right angles to the
tube ; and, in front of the mirror, a slip was cut away from the side of the tube, and
the lens was inserted athwart the cut-out part. Part of the lens projected within the
tube, and part outside of it and in front of the mirror. The screen was placed at
the further end of the cut-out part, and an envelope protected the whole from injury.
A slide in front of the lens regulated the amount of light thrown on it, and toned
the image to the required degree of brightness. The addition of a telescope was not
found practically of much use; neither was that of a second mirror, for double
reflexion, to meet the difficulty of sending signals when the sun was behind the
back of the signaller. It is not difficult to signal within 12° of the point opposite
to the sun, and it is possible to do so within 7°. The looking-glass should be of
the very best plate-glass, and it ought to have its sides truly parallel, else there will
be a confusion of images and an irregularity in the flash. Letters are conveyed by
treble groups of flashes, each of which groups consists of one, two, or three flashes,
as the case may be.

The author detailed the experiments he had made with the help of an assistant,
and trusted that a full trial of the instrument at sea would be made by the authorities
of the Navy, with a view of determining whether it should not be accepted by them
as a subsidiary signalling instrument throughout Her Majesty’s Service. One of the
land heliostats has been sent to the United Service Institution, in Whitehall Place,
together with a more detailed explanation.

On the Fixed Lines of the Solar Spectrum.
4 By J. H. Guapstone, Ph.D., F.R.S.

The author exhibited maps of the fixed lines and bands seen in the solar spectrum
between those usually designated A and B, and of those which he succeeded in seeing
beyond K. The light examined was that of the full sun at noon about midsummer-
day. The dark lines and bands in the lavender rays coincided with those drawn by
Prof. Stokes, as occurring in fluorescent phenomena; and with those of M. Becquerel,
which occur in the photographic image; but the author’s map contained many finer
ones. It extended to M. Becquerel’s N. Another map was exhibited of the dark
lines and bands that make their appearance in the orange and yellow rays when the
sun is near the horizon, as previously described by Sir David Brewster. The long
space of air traversed by the sun’s rays when setting also absorbs the more refrangible
rays, but makes no difference in the angular position of the fixed lines themselves.
The light of the moon exhibits the same black lines, and, when close to the horizon,
it shows the additional lines in the orange in the same angular position. The light
of the moon, answering in position to the violet rays of the sun, appears lavender,
and even grey, like the most refracted rays of the sun. As to the origin of these
lines, Dr. Gladstone had endeavoured to determine whether they were due to the
absorbent power of the earth’s atmosphere, as the lines in the orange appear to be.
Fraunhofer’s conclusion, that they do not occur in the light of some of the fixed
stars, was thought to be open to objection ; but the author’s observations on the light
of the stars had not led him as yet either to a positive or negative result. Artificial
lights seen at a very great distance might determine the point. If these fixed lines
are dependent on the sun’s atmosphere, they ought to be darkest in the light coming
from the edge of the sun’s disc; but the author had been unable to find any differ-
ence between rays proceeding from different parts.

On the Influence of Light on Polarized Electrodes.
By W. R. Grove, M.A. F.RS. &c.

The author, soon after the publication of Daguerre’s experiments, had shown that
when light is allowed to impinge on a prepared daguerreotype plate in water, a vol-
taic current is evolved which affects the galvanometer. In the present experiments,
two platinized platinum plates are placed in dilute acid, and the one exposed to sun-
light while the other is in the dark. A current is detected by a galvanometer con-
nected with the plates, which, after many experiments, the author found was depend-
ent upon the original polarization or unequal chemical action on the electrolyte,

2

18 ; REPORT—1858,

the current being (with certain exceptions noticed in the paper) in the same direction
as that indicated by the original deflection of the galvanometer when it is first con-
nected with the plates. Experiments are given with other solutions producing the
same results. To prove that it is not an effect of heat, it is shown that non-lumi-
nous heat alone does not produce the effects, and that when the sunlight is made to
pass through coloured glasses before impinging on the plate, blue light produces a
greater deflection than yellow or red, showing that the results are due to the che-
mical, and not to the calorific rays of the sun. The effects appear therefore to be
due to an augmentation by the impact of light of the electro-chemical action taking
place at the surface of the plates, the chemical action being doubtless due, as in the
known cases of polarized electrodes, to heterogeneous films on the surface.

On a New, Cheap, and Permanent Process in Photography.
By W.M’Craw. (Communicated by Sir DAviD BREwsTER.)

I now set myself to repeat in writing the mode I use for producing the specimens
which attracted your notice to-day, of permanent photographic prints, produced
without either silver, gold, or the noxious hyposulphite of soda. I need not expatiate
to you upon the advantages of such a process. It is, indeed, felt to be the great
photographic desideratum wherever photography is practised—and that is nearly all
over the world—particularly by the conscientious photographer and the considerate
collector of photographs. The labours of the Committee appointed by the Photo-
graphic Society of London, to inquire into the cause of the fading of photographs
after a lapse of two years, have only amounted to this,—that photographs of a cer-
tain kind have all faded; and that some of those of the kind that have stood best
have unaccountably faded,—the sad presumption being, that in time all photographs
produced in the usual way, by the means of chloride of silver, and fixed (as it is
called) by hyposulphite of soda, will perish. These considerations, and the fact of
a prize being offered by a French nobleman for the discovery of a process for print-
ing photographs in carbon, set me to experiment in that direction. But my experi-
ments with carbon and various pigments led me to think that no material applied
mechanically, or that could not be made to take the shape of a dye or chemical solu-
tion, would ever give results with the exquisite half-tints of the present beautiful but
perishable process. The photographic properties of bichromate of potass were pointed
out by Mr. Mungo Ponton twenty years ago, giving photographs of a pale tawny
colour. A piece of paper is washed over with the saturated solution of the bichro-
mate, and when dried in the dark is of a bright yellow colour, and very sensitive to
light. Ifa negative photograph, or a piece of lace or a leaf, be placed over the pre-
pared paper, and put in sunshine, in a few minutes a perfect impression of the object
is obtained. The light darkens the colour of the bichromate, and renders it inso-
luble in water, while the yellow colour may be washed out from the parts protected
from the light by the lace or leaf, or negative photograph, as the case may be. But
pictures of this kind have little or no practical value ; for although the lights are good
enough, the deep black shadows are only represented by a tawny shade. Some
eighteen months ago a process was patented for deepening these photographs by
treating them with gallic acid and a salt of iron, which went by the name of ‘ Sella’s
process.’ I tried this process at the time according to the specification of the patent,
but failed to make one satisfactory specimen. They wanted everything that a good
photograph should have,—pure lights, clear half-tints, and deep shadows; and as L
found that others had not been more successful, I abandoned my experiments. But
in the course of further experiments, a year afterwards, with carbon, I was struck with
the fact, that when a drop of a solution of bichromate of potass was allowed to fall on
a piece of white paper and afterwards dried and exposed to the sun, when washed with
a solution of protosulphate of iron, and then with gallic acid, while the spot became
perfectly black, the surrounding white paper was unaffected by the liquids. Know-
ing the photographic properties of the bichromate already described, I believed that
this might be the foundation of a good photographic process ; and that if the bichro-
mate could be kept from penetrating the pores of the paper, by being kept on its
surface, the defects of Sella’s process might be avoided. With this view, I began
by filling the pores of the paper with albumen, and then to render it insoluble, im~

- . ~

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 19

mersing the paper in ether. This, however, did not answer. But as it would be
tedious to detail all the pains I took to discover what would not do, and to find in
what proportions and in what order the right materials could be best applied, I will
briefly give the formula which I have adopted, and by which the specimens alluded
to were produced : —First, take the white of eggs, and add 25 per cent. of a saturated
solution of common salt (to be well beat up and allowed to subside) ; float the paper
on the albumen for thirty seconds, and hang up to dry. Secondly, make a saturated
solution of bichromate of potass, to which has been added 25 per cent. of Beaufoy’s
acetic acid; float the paper on this solution for an instant, and when dry it is fit
for use: this must be done in the dark room. Thirdly, expose under a negative,
in a pressure frame, in the ordinary manner, until the picture is sufficiently printed
in all its details,—but not over-printed, as is usual with the old process. This re-
quires not more than half the ordinary time. Fourthly, immerse the pictures in a
vessel of water in the darkened room; the undecomposed bichromate and albumen
then readily leave the lights and half-tints of the picture. Change the water fre-
quently, until it comes from the prints pure and clear. Fifthly, immerse the picture
now in a saturated solution of protosulphate of iron in cold water for five minutes,
and again rinse well in water. Sixthly, immerse the pictures again in a saturated
solution of gallic acid in cold water, and the colour will immediately begin to change
to a fine purple-black. Allow the pictures to remain in this until the deep shadows
show no appearance of the yellow bichromate; repeat the rinsing. Seventhly, im-
mete, finally, in the following mixture :—Pyrogallic acid, two grains ; water, one
ounce; Beaufoy’s acetic acid, one ounce; saturated solution of acetate of lead, two
drachms. This mixture brightens up the pictures marvellously, restoring the lights
that may have been partially lost in the previous parts of the process, deepening the
shadows, and bringing out the details; rinse, finally, in water, and the pictures are
complete when dried and mounted. The advantages of this process may be briefly
stated as follows :—First, as to its economy ;—Bichromate of potass, at 2d. per ounce,
is substituted for nitrate of silver at 5s. per ounce. Secondly, photographs in this
way can be produced with greater rapidity than by the old mode. Thirdly, the pic-
tures being composed of the same materials which form the constituent parts of
writing-ink, it may be fairly inferred that they will last as long as the paper upon
which they are printed. A beautiful photograph of Sir Walter Scott’s monument,
obtained by this process, was exhibited to the Section.

On Moon Blindness. By Sir G. Rosrnson.

The author gave several instances of his men who had slept on deck exposed to
the moonbeams being so blind on landing that they had to be led by the hand. Also
the sailors were in the habit of waking up the soldiers who attempted to sleep on
deck, and warning them that they would be blinded.

On an early form of the Lenticular Stereoscope constructed for the use of
Schools. Exhibited by Mr. Samuet, Edinburgh.

It consists of two semilenses on a frame, from the middle point between which
there extends a brass rod upon which the stereoscopic picture slides, so as to have
two adjustments; one along the rod for persons of different ages; and one of a rota-
tory kind, to place the horizontal lines in the picture parallel to the line joining the
two eyes, an adjustment which exists in no other form of the stereoscope. This in-
strument is described in Sir D. Brewster’s ‘Treatise on the Stereoscope,’ p. 69.

On the Ocular Crystal Micrometer, with observations of twelve double stars, as
evidence of its extraordinary power in measuring small angular distances.
By Norman Pogson. (Communicated by Joun Lex, LLD., FR.S.)

‘The instrument which it is the object of this paper to recommend to the notice of
astronomers, is of such easy application, yet capable of yielding such extraordinarily
a Q*

20 “ey! REPORT—1858.

accurate results when applied to the measurement of small distances, that it appears
singular, as well as a matter of regret, it should so long have awaited a fair trial, and
the publicity it so well deserves.

Although copiously described by Dr. Pearson in his valuable work on ‘ Practical
Astronomy,’ so many varieties of double-image and other micrometers are there
treated, that the one under consideration has :failed to attract more than a passing
notice from the Doctor’s readers, and unfortunately no published results have made
their appearance from which amateurs might judge of the accuracy attainable by its
use. Had such been forthcoming, doubtless the Ocular Crystal Micrometer would
have been generally adopted, and the well-grounded complaint, of the inferiority
of the measures of distance of double stars to those of the angles of position, would
never have been heard of.

Perhaps the best method of drawing attention to this micrometer will be briefly
to explain the construction and use of one, originally made for Admiral Smyth,—
transferred by him to the Hartwell Observatory in 1829, on becoming possessed of
the larger one described in his ‘ Celestial Cycle,’ and recently placed in the hands
of Mr. Pogson for trial, by the kindness of its present owner, Dr. Lee.

The Ocular Crystal Micrometer consists of a variable eyepiece, 7. e. one in which
the second or field-lens is moveable by a rack-work, so as to vary the distance
between itand the eye-lens. This distance is read off, by the help of a vernier, on a
scale of equal parts, and this, as will be shown, is an important element in the ob-
servation. By a well-known optical formula, if e, f, and O represent respectively
the focal lengths of the eye-lens, field-lens, and object-glass of a telescope, when
used with a certain eyepiece, also d, the distance between the first-named lenses, the
magnifying power of the telescope with such eyepiece will be thus found :—

O
Power=| pe+t— d).

From this it is manifest, that when the two lenses are in contact, the power will be
a maximum; that as the distance between them increases, the power will diminish ;
and that the equal divisions on the scale which records this distance will, when mul-

tiplied by the factor 2, give the corresponding changes in the magnifying power.

It is therefore sufficient to determine, with a dynameter, the magnifying powers
when the lenses are in contact, and when most widely separated, and by simple pro-
portion to tabulate the intermediate divisions and corresponding powers. By having
two or three eye-lenses, which can be slipped (not screwed) into their cells, the
range of powers is very considerably increased. Thus in our micrometer, eye-lens
No. 1 extends from powers 261 to 134; No. 2, from 135 to 78; and No. 3 from
71 to 48.

To produce a double image, two prisms of rock-crystal—the one cut in the direc-
tion of its optical axis, the other transversely thereto—are cemented together, so as
to form an achromatic solid of double refraction. Six such prismatic solids, of con-
stant angles from 2474” to 192”, are in our micrometer fitted into brass caps, which
are made to slip on, in front of the eye-lens; so that if the separation of the images
is too great, the prism can be immediately changed for another of a less constant
angle, and vice versd. The double image is therefore formed after the telescope
has performed its office, and is much cleaner and more distinct than in the original
contrivance of Rochon, the inventor, who placed his prisms between the eyepiece
and the object-glass. No wings or coronz trouble the observer as with divided eye-
glass micrometers ; and although of course half the light is lost by the duplication of
the image, the tedious additions of clock motion and illumination of the field are
dispensed with. Indeed, the loss of light sustained by the use of illumination
barely sufficient to render the epider lines of a wire-micrometer visible, far exceeds
that occasioned by the transmission of the rays through good prisms of rock-crystal.
Perhaps the whole secret of the excellence of this micrometer lies in the position of
the crystal being BEFORE instead of behind the eyepiece.

On viewing a double star through the Ocular Crystal Micrometer, two pairs will
be seen, the four members of which must be brought into the same straight line
by turning the crystal round in its cell. The measure is then made by varying the .

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21

magnifying power, 2. e. the distance between the two lenses, until the four stars
appear equidistant. Ifthe power be too small, the middle space will be greater than
that between each pair of stars ; if too great, the reverse. When the four are, how-
ever, satisfactorily adjusted and the scale read off, the measured angular distance is
equal to the constant angle of the crystal divided by the magnifying power employed.
By placing the four stars at equal intervals, the double distance will be measured,
and the uncertainty of a contact between two perhaps very unequally bright stars
avoided, which is highly desirable. It is therefore of the utmost importance to know
the constant angles of the prisms, also the limits of magnifying power of the variable
eyepiece, with all possible accuracy. It does not enter our purpose here to discuss
the various methods recommended by Dr. Pearson for determining these instrumental
constants ; suffice it to remark, that when once found they are not liable to change,
and their investigation is by no means difficult.

The observation of position angle, though less certain than that of distance, is
at least equal to what can be made with any other kind of micrometer. For this
purpose a fine diametral line is cut across the flat side of the field lens, which be-
comes visible when screwed into the focus of the eye-lens. This line must be ad-
justed by running the double star, or if more convenient any adjacent bright one,
along its entire length.. This done, the prism, which is attached to the vernier of the
position circle, must be moved round until the two images of the line are seen in co-
incidence, when the reading will be the zero-point of the position circle. For these
two operations the field requires illumination, though not for the absolute measures.
The four stars seen through the prism must next be brought into the same straight
line, as in the measure of distance, when the difference between the circle-reading
and the zero previously found, plus or minus ninety degrees, will give the angle. of
position. Unless the equatorial adjustments of the telescope have been very cor-
rectly made, it is better to take half the number of zero readings before, and half
after those of position, so as to eliminate any change of the zero arising from the
alteration of hour-angle during the observation.

A temporary defect in our micrometer, which could not be remedied without part-
ing with it just at the time most convenient for its use, prevented the observations
of angle of position being made. A fewonly were attempted, but sufficient to show
that good results may be expected in this coordinate also when the micrometer is
put into working order. But as the observations appended are to be regarded merely
as examples of its capabilities as a distance-measurer, under unfavourable conditions,
and by no means in the light of a series of scientific results, it would not be render-
ing justice either to the instrumentor to the observer to add the few imperfect angles
of position obtained, and they have therefore been omitted.

No kind of micrometer is so suitable to, or convenient for, an unprofessional
astronomer, who cannot enjoy the luxuries of an observatory ; and it is no exaggera-
tion of its merits to say, that any good portable telescope, so equipped, will enable
its possessor to compete successfully with far larger instruments in fixed observatories
not so provided. To prove this point, it is only necessary to refer to the annexed
observations of well-known double stars, measured on different nights, frequently
with different crystals, and therefore perfectly free from any pre-occupation of mind.
As first attempts with a strange instrument, they are naturally open to great im-
provement ; but with practice and care, it seems reasonable to hope that differences
exceeding half a second, or for small distances a twentieth part of the measured
space, will rarely, if ever occur.

It is a striking proof of the excellence of the Smythian telescope, that with an
aperture of only 3°6 inches, with the light diminished by the duplication of the image,
and by its transmission through tolerably thick prisms of rock-crystal, powers over
200 were so readily usable. Its definition is beyond all praise : without the prisms,
it bears a power of 400 well, and separates the closer double stars in a vianner
which puts to shame many much larger telescopes.

REPORT—1858.

22

Distance Measures of Twelve Double Stars with the Ocular Crystal Micrometer,
{ . a .
3| 2 g |Z 8 |2
Date. [=| # =| §/| Date. |s] = |8|| Date. [al s = Is
iss. |8| 8 | 3] 8] 1850. &| & | & |8|| 1868. ele |2 ig
ale | ale ipa = bald Pl Be ol sede ie

a Piscium. y Arietis. y Andromede,

Sept. 4.| 51 233-3) 3-42/5||Aug. 12.]5| 89°6| 8-91|5 /|Aug. 3./6 122-3, 1011/3
» 5.| 5} 234-4) 340]5 » 18.15] 89°2/°8°95 | 5 » 8.|6|128°0) 9-66/8
» §8.|5]218°8) 3°65 |5 » 16.)5| 91:4] 8°73 1/5 » 9.|6]123°9) 9°9915
» 9.| 5] 2318} 3:°441/5]| 4, 23.)5) 911} 8:76)5 » 11.| 6} 123-0) 10-065
» 12.)5]| 2267) 3:52/5]) ,, 25./5} 91°3] 8:74/5 » 12.) 6) 1224) 10°11/5

» 27.15| 908] 8791/5
Castor. % Urs Majoris. a Herculis.

Aug. 8.| 6 | 226-2) 5:47|5 ||Aug. 3.)6) 85°6) {4-44|3||Aug. 27.)4| 110-2) 4°66 |5
» 9D | 144-9} 5°51/5|| ,, 3./5 | 55-1) 14-50/3||Sept. 1.|6| 255-3) 4°85 15
» 11.|6|229°0| 540/5]) ,, 5.15] 56-2/14-19/5|| 4, 4./4] 1123) 45715
» 13.|6} 233-2) 5°31)5]) ,, 5.|6} 86°9)14:28/5]| ,, 5.|6| 2566) 4:82)5
» 16./6|227°6| 5-44/5|/ ,, 6./6| 87°1/14-21/5|| 6.]4| 111-4) 461]5

» %|6| 86°6| 14°62) 5
» 8.|6}| 88°8/13°94) 3
n UL.|6) 877/141] 5
70 Ophiuchi. 100 Herculis. e’ Lyre,

Aug. 1.,5/122'1) 653 )3|/Aug. 9.)6) 88-7) 13-95'5 ||Aug, 1.) 4171-2) 3-00/2
» 5|5/130°8} 6°10 15 » 11.16] 89°4| 13°84) 5 » 9.|5]253°9) 81415
» 4% 15}1293) 61715] ,, 12.16) 88°1)14:04/5]] ,, °6.|5 | 243-4) 3-28 /5
» %|6|194:4| 6:36)3)) ,, 14.)6) 87:°3)14:17) 5 » 1411560) 3°29) 5
» 8.|5|129°0) 6:19}4]| ,, 23.)6) 87-9) 14°07) 5 » 8.| 5] 249-9) 3-19/8
» = 9 | 5 | 127-7} 6°25 | 5

rr]

e? Lyre. y ee Fibs ¢ Aquarii.

Aug. 5.4 | 202°3 3:54) 5

|, 6.|4| 204-0} 252] 5
» | 4/| 20879} 2°46) 5
» 8 | 4| 208°7| 24615
» 9.| 4) 202°8) 2°53)5

Mean Results derived from the preceding Observations.
Extreme differ-
Star. Mean Date. Power. | Distance. Prohale mari, snes
vations.

@ Piscium «2.3: 1858. Sept. 8. 229°0 3-49 6-03 6-25

y Arietis......0000+ ‘ Aug. 19. 90°6 8°81 0:03 0:22

y Andromedie . seol oy) Aug. 9. 124°5 9:99 0:06 0:45

Castor ,,..05. aca | el Haw Aug. 10. 212:2 5°43 0:02 0°20

Z Urs Majoris...| _,, Aug. , 6, 79°7 14:28 0:05 0°68

a Herculis......... or Sept. 2. 169°2 4:70 0:04 0-28

70 Ophiuchi.... an Aug. 5. 136°2 6°24 0°04 0°43

100 Herculis....... A Aug. 14. 88°3 14:01 0:04 0°33

» Aug. 6.| 2243 3:20 | 0-04 0-29
Ar Aug. 7. 205°3 2°50 0°01 0:08
*r Aug. 6. 99-0 11°57 0°04 0°34
5 Sept. 8. 232°7 3°43 0°02 0°13

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 23)

To arrive at a general conclusion as to the accuracy attainable with this micro-
meter, agreeably to the sixty-five observations here given, we shall find that for the
mean power 152°7, and mean distance 7'67, the probable error of one observation,
based upon five measures, will be 0’°086.

Also, if we suppose the accuracy to increase in direct proportion with the power,
the extreme difference to be expected amongst five such observations, taken with a
magnifying power of 200, will be 0'"21.

On the Distribution of Heat in the Interior of the Earth.
By Dr. F. A. Strsestr6M, of Stockholm.

Both the plutonic and volcanic phenomena are generally ascribed to causes residing
within the earth’s solid crust, whilst the interior fluid mass is taken into con-
sideration only with regard to what Humboldt calls its “ reaction.” Without dis-
puting this way of explaining the phenomena—though I really think it liable to
several grave objections—I wish to call attention to a cause of dilatation (and con-
traction) that certainly exists, or at least has existed within the fluid mass itself, and
which, I think, must be considered as an important item in this question.

It seems impossible originally not to suppose different temperatures in different
parts of the fluid earthy mass. Considering the great absolute temperature, as well
as the immense bulk of the earth and other circumstances, differences as great even
as 100° C., nay more, can in no way be regarded as improbable. The natural con-
sequence thereof was the formation of currents, by means of which differently heated
parts were brought together, and the temperature of the mass was made more and
more uniform. However, on various grounds I conclude that even now the tem-
perature cannot be one and the same through the whole fluid nucleus of the earth,
but that currents of the said description still exist in the interior of our planet.

This assumed, let v, v’ be the volumes, and ¢, #’ the temperatures of two differently
heated fluid parts, which are mixed together, and which, for more simplicity, may
be regarded as having the same mass and as being of the same chemical nature.
Let, further, w be the volume and T the temperature of each after the mixture. As
both the dilatation and the specific heat change with the temperature, let A, e be
the mean dilatation and the mean specific heat between the temperatures ¢ and T,
and A’, e’ between T and ¢ (¢ being > #’). Hence it follows that

v =w(t+A¢—T))

=w(e—A'(T— t’))

(t—T)e=(T-?'e’,
and consequently that "\(Ad~A'e)

(ea w (t—?) (Ae’'—A’e

v+y=2w+ ata F

Now v-+»' being the original volume and 2w the volume after the mixture, it will be
seen that there must needs be a change of volume, unless Ae'=A'e, which at least is
not the case with the substances, for which Dulong has determined the variations of
dilatation and specific heat.

If we take as an example the values found by Dulong for iron between 0°— 200°,

it will be seen that if only Paneaes of the earth’s volume were subject to the above-
named process of mixture—one part being considered 200° warmer than the other—
the result would be a change of volume certainly not less than five or six times the
whole bulk of Vesuvius. This may in some way be illustrative of the quantity of
action that might be supposed. As to the absolute intensity and the mode of work-”
ing, I think no other force could be imagined more suited to the purpose,

An Account of some Experiments on Radiant Heat, involving an Extension
of Prévost’s Theory of Exchanges. By B. Srewarr.
These experiments were performed with the aid of the thermomulti plier, the source

of heat being for the most part bodies heated to 212°. Four groups of experiments
were considered. Group the first contains those experiments in which the quantities

94 REPORT—1858.

of heat radiated from polished plates of different substances at a given temperature,
are compared with the quantity radiated from a similar surface of lampblack at the
same temperature. The result of this group of experiments is, that glass, alum, and
selenite radiate about 98 per cent. of what lampblack does; thick mica, 92; thin
mica, 81; and rock-salt only 15 per cent. The second group of experiments was
designed to compare together the quantities of heat radiated at the same temperature
from polished plates of the same substance, but of different thicknesses. The result
of this group was, that while the difference between the radiating power of thick and
thin glass is so small as not to be capable of being directly observed, there is a per-
ceptible difference between the radiation from thick and thin mica, and a still more
marked difference between the radiation from plates of rock salt of unequal thick-
ness. The third group of experiments was made with the view of comparing the
radiations from various polished plates with that from lampblack, as regards the
quality of the heat,—its quality being tested by its capability of transmission through
a screen of the same material as the radiating plate. From this group of experi-
ments it appears that heat emitted by glass, mica, or rock-salt is less transmissible
through ascreen of the same material as the heated plate than heat from lampblack,—
this difference being very marked in the case of rock-salt, which only transmits about
one-third of the rays from heated rock-salt. The common opinion that rock-salt is
equally diathermanous for all descriptions of heat is therefore untenable. The fourth
group of experiments shows that heat from thick plates of glass, mica, or rock-salt is
more easily transmitted by screens of the same nature as the heated plate than heat
from thin plates of these materials. It was shown that all these experiments may
be explained by Prévost’s theory of exchanges, somewhat extended. This extension
consists of the following laws :—1. Each particle of a substance has an independent
radiation of its own equal in all directions and without regard to the distance of the
particle from the surface of the body. 2. The radiation of a particle equals its
absorption, and that for every description of heat. 3. The flow of heat from within
upon the interior surface of a polished plate of indefinite thickness is proportional to
the index of refraction of the body, and that for every description of heat. The bear-
ing of these experiments on Dulong and Petit’s law of radiation was then attempted
to be traced. It was shown that unless bodies from simply being heated change
their transmissibility for the same description of heat (which there is no reason to
suppose), the radiation of thin plates or particles at a high temperature will bear a
less proportion to the total radiation of that temperature than at a low,—the conse-
quence will be, that the radiation of single particles will increase with the tempera-
ture in a less degree than Dulong and Petit’s law would indicate. It may even be
that the radiation of a particle or very thin plate may be proportional to the abso-
lute temperature of that particle. Taking a piece of glass or mica, therefore, ata
low temperature, as it is very opake with regard to the heat radiated by itself, we
may suppose that the total radiation consists of that of the outer layer of particles
only, that from the inner layers being all stopped by the outer. At high tempera-
tures, however, we may suppose that there is not only the radiation of the outer
layer, but also part of that of the inner layer which has been able to pass, swelling
up the total radiation to what it appears in Dulong and Petit’s experiments. This
way of looking at radiation may possibly bring the radiative power of particles to
obey the same laws with the conducting power of particles, which Prof. Forbes has
shown decreases with an increase of temperature. The author of this communica-
tion is indebted to Prof. Forbes for the use of the instruments and substances em-
ployed, and also for many valuable suggestions with regard to the experiments it
contains.

ELEctTRIcITy, MAGNETISM.

On the Intensity of the Terrestrial Magnetic Force. By J. DRumMonp.

In comparing the observations of the dip with those of the intensity, the author
found some anomalous results, of which the following is anexample. In the diurnal

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95

variation the dip is at a minimum about 8 a.m., at a maximum about 11 a.m., after
which it decreases to a minimum again about 2P.m. Turning now to the intensity,
the maximum is found to occur about 8 a.M., and the minimum about 11 a.m., after
which it again increases, reaching a maximum in the afternoon. From these facts,
then, it would appear that, while the earth exerts a greater attracting power over the
needle about 11 a.m. than either before that hour or after it, the intensity of the
force by which this is accomplished is then at its minimum. In other words, we are
driven to the conclusion that the earth exerts a greater attracting power by a mini-
mum of force than by a maximum,—a conclusion entirely at variance with all our
knowledge of the magnetic force. This anomalous result the author traced to the
assumption lying at the foundation of the present theory of the intensity, viz. that
the terrestrial force is exerted in the direction of the dip; and from an analysis of
the phenomena of the dip he arrived at the following laws :—

1. That the direction in which the earth’s force is exerted, is, at all points upon its
surface, in the radial line of its centre.

2. That the vibrations of a horizontal needle being therefore at all points made at
right angles to the direction of the force, their number at any two or more stations
in similar times, or at different periods in similar times, indicates exactly the ratio of
the force at each station and at each period.

On the Development of a Physical Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism, an out-
line of which was submitted to the Dublin Meeting. By J. DrummMonp.

The fundamental principle of this theory was the following :—Assuming the
prevailing idea regarding the early condition and present state of the globe, viz.
that it has cooled down from a state of fluidity, and now consists of a solid crust
enclosing a molten nucleus, the author assumed also that the sun, moon, and
other planetary bodies must exert the same influence upon the enclosed fluid which
they exert upon the surface ocean in producing the tides; that, consequently, a
system of internal tides must be occasioned simultaneously with the external
tides. Further, accepting the theory of Gauss, that the entire matter of the globe
is magnetic, he concluded also that the passage of these internal waves must
occasion corresponding changes in the position of the needle; and reasoning from
these premises, he arrived at the following conclusions, in regard to the changes
in position which the needle ought to undergo. A declination needle at any
station resting on the line of the magnetic meridian ought, upon one of the
internal waves coming from the eastward, to make an excursion to meet it; as the
crest of the wave approaches the station of observation, the needle ought to return
with it; and when it comes immediately beneath the point of observation, the needle
ought to coincide again with the meridian. As the wave proceeds westward, the
needle ought to follow it, making a westerly excursion equal to the easterly ; and as
the wave passes further west, and its influence over the needle thereby declines, the
latter ought slowly to return again to the meridian. Again, an inclination needle
ought to begin slowly to dip as the crest of the wave approaches the station of
observation, reaching its maximum when the wave is immediately beneath it, and
slowly rising again to its former position as the wave passes westward. And the
intensity, as indicated by the oscillating needle, ought to increase as the crest of the
wave approaches the station, reaching its maximum when it is immediately bencath
it, and decreasing gradually as the wave proceeds to the westward, the maximum of
intensity thus coinciding with the maximum of inclination. Taking into considera-
tion the conditions under which a system of internai tidal waves must be produced
and propagated, the more important of which were pointed out, the author was of
opinion that the results of observation fully coincided with this theory.

A Memoir on Electro-Magnetism. By C. L. Draper.

Contributions on the Submarine Telegraph. By WitpMAn WuirTEnovse.

26 >) REPORT—1858,..--- ,

On Induced Electrical Discharges taken in Aqueous Vapour.
By J. P. Gassiot, V.P.R.S.

If the tube of a well-constructed water-hammer is partly covered with two sepa-
rate coatings of tinfoil, and the coatings are connected, one with the outer, and the
other with the inner terminal of an induction coil, a discharge will be observable
through the centre of the tube in the form of a wave line. On repeating this expe-
riment, I ascertained that the vacuum in the tube was very much deteriorated. I
could no longer produce that peculiar bubbling in the ball! of the apparatus which is
always attainable by gently heating the tube with the warmth of the hand; this
bubbling was originally very sensibly perceptible in the tube I now exhibit when I
first received it from the maker, Mr. Casella. I have repeated the experiment with
other water-hammers, and always with the same result; but I have not yet opened
one to examine whether the vapour has been decomposed, and gas evolved.

“ At the close of the reading of the paper, the room was darkened, and Mr, Gassiot,
assisted by Mr. Ladd, exhibited the experiment.

On the Phosphorescent Appearance of Electrical Discharges in a Vacuum
made in Flint and Potash Glass. By J. P. Gasstot, V.P.R.S.

The discharge from an induction coil, when taken in a vacuum tube made of flint-
glass, has (under certain conditions) the property of rendering the glass highly phos-
phorescent, the phosphorescence being denoted by the intense blue colour of the
glass with which the stratifications are surrounded. On trying the discharge in some
vacuum tubes I had obtained from M. Geissler, of Bonn, I observed that the phos-
phorescence was no longer blue, but was of a slight green colour. To test whether
this difference was due to the gaseous matter remaining in Geissler’s tubes, or to the
character of the glass which he uses, I had Torricellian vacuums prepared in German
glass tubes, and in this manner ascertained that the difference in the colour was
entirely due to the character of the glass: that of Germany is, I believe, made with
potash, and is entirely free from any lead, while in the English flint-glass lead is in-
troduced to some extent. I have recently obtained a vacuum tube from Bonn, which
shows this difference in a very beautiful manner : the outer ends of the tube are com-
posed of German glass, the centre of the tube is of English glass; by this arrange-
ment the contrast between the two is very manifest.

Exhibition af Apparatus showing the Correlation of Forces, and Exhibition
of Heating Effects, by Mechanical Operations, on a peculiar Form of
Antimony. By GrorcE Gore.

On an Improved Induction Coil. By W. Lapp, Chancery Lane.

Having been rather extensively engaged for the last two years in the manufacture
of induction coils, and having received the constant and able advice of Mr. J. P. Gas-
siot, and the practical suggestions of Mr. C. A. Bentley, I have thought that a brief
description of the machine as it is now made, with the results obtained, may not be
uninteresting. My object has been not to make very large machines, but to obtain
the greatest results from a three-mile coil, that being sufficiently large for all ordi-
nary purposes. I find the best length for the iron core to be 13 inches and about
15°8 diameter, composed of fine iron wire not larger than No. 22, very carefully
annealed. The primary wire should be of sufficient size to carry freely the whole of
the battery current, and of sufficient quantity to saturate thoroughly the iron core.
with magnetism. For this purpose I use three layers of one continuous No. 12)
copper wire carefully annealed: if more layers.are used, I find that the secondary
wire is removed too far from the magnetic influence. The secondary wire ought not
to be larger than No. 35, covered with silk, which must be laid on perfectly even
and insulated from the primary wire, and also from the layers of the secondary next
ta it. I find the best insulating medium to be the thinnest gutta percha made, and
which I believe to be the only gutta percha sold which cannot be adulterated ; it is

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 27

‘true that it has many minute perforations, but by laying on at least six thicknesses
between each layer of wire perfect insulation is secured. The greatest care must be
taken in protecting the ends of the layers so as to prevent the sparks passing from
one to the other. The condenser should be at least fifty sheets of tinfoil of about
1 square foot in size, These sheets must be separated from each other by three
sheets of varnished paper or gutta-percha tissue. Every alternate sheet of foil is
conected together, thus forming two poles, to be attached one to each side of the
break. It may be placed at the bottom of the stand or in a separate box,—the latter
I prefer. In developing the power of the machine, everything depends upon the con-
tact breaker, which should be capable of retaining contact until the whole of the mag-
netism is obtained, and capable also of breaking contact as soon as the smallest
quantity is induced. These results are obtained in the break attached to this instru-
ment. ‘The hammer is made to vibrate freely between the iron core and the coil, and
the brass screw terminating with the platinum plate at the back of the hammer : a very
small amount of magnetism will be sufficient to attract the hammer, and so break
the contact. If, now, I bring this screw (placed half-way up the spring carrying the
hammer) to bear upon the spring, it will have’the effect of pressing the two platinum
plates together, so that it takes a greater amount of magnetism to separate them.
By this means I can regulate the power of the instrument to the purposes for which
it is required. The battery 1 employ is a five cells of ‘‘ Grove’s,” with immersed
platinum plates 5 X 3, having an exposed surface of 140 square inches. With such a
battery and a coil thus constructed, I can always ensure sparks from half an inch to
4 inches in air. The machine now exhibited contains six miles of wire, and, worked
with the same battery, gives 64-inch sparks. The position which the induction coil
is now taking in this electrical age is one of considerable importance. It has awakened
new philosophical ideas, and is being successfully applied to practical purposes of
the highest advantage to mankind. For blasting purposes, a three-mile coil is capa-
ble of firing fifty charges simultaneously. But important as its present position is,
and successful as its past application has been, there can be little doubt that machines
can be constructed that will obviate the necessity for employing such ponderous
machines, and still more ponderous batteries that have been at work on the Atlantic
Cable.

—

On the Magnetic Dip at Stockholm.
By Dr. F. A. Sirsestrém, of Stockholm.

Later observations on the magnetic dip at Stockholm confirm the known fact that
this magnetic element has a minimum in the winter,

ASTRONOMY.

On the Perihelia and Ascending Nodes of the Planets.
By Enwarp Josuua Cooper, F.R.S.

It is known to many that my attention has been called to the distribution, in helio-
centric longitude, of the perihelia and ascending nodes of the planets since the year
1850, In 1851, the then results were published by me, in my Preface to ‘Cometic
Orbits,’ Since that period [ communicated the further results, arising from subse-

uent discoveries of asteroids, to the Royal Astronomical Society and the Royal

ociety, The last notice which I communicated to the Royal Society was in the
last year, when the number of known planets was 51. This notice was accompanied
by diagrams of their positions. At present there are 62; but no elements of the last
haye been yet, I believe, computed. Taking, then, 61 of these, we find that the
perihelia of 42 are found in the semicircle of heliocentric longitude, between 0° and
180°, and only 19 in the other semicircle. With reference to the ascending nodes
of the 60 planets, 42 are likewise found between 0° and 180°, and only 18 in the
remaining semicircle, But the accompanying Table will show some more remark-
able results, viz. that when there were only 4 known asteroids and 7 large planets,

28 HG REPORT—1858.

if we add to them Neptune, making 12 in all, the perihelia of 10 of these are found
between 0° and 180°; and of the nodes of the 11, none are in the semicircle 180° to
360°. This Table also exhibits these somewhat singular facts, that, adding to the
first 12 those subsequently discovered in groups of 10, the number of perihelia and
number of ascending nodes in each semicircle are almost exactly similar. I would
also observe, that it may be seen, by the diagrams of heliocentric longitude, that the
perihelia and ascending nodes are frequently grouped together in a remarkable man-
ner. I deal now entirely with facts: causes I leave to the more learned in celestial
dynamics.
Including Neptune from the First.
L. Ps. 0° to 180° 180° to 360°,
When 12 Planets there were ..... 10 ...... 2

REL Mae wisticne. +dm fie nasise 1 a a 5
Se OULO me i audesiete aadea AS Ta ROS 3 A
OATES Bib pasven set cuendns DO coseeee 12
he NOI A aboatesel, ikea earess by eee 15
ON CAEEON 2 teense ae ci sas eee AD. whe ants 19
2 0° to 180° 180° to 360°
When 11 Planets there were ...... i. coctes * 0
21 ditto annie Tek Rae 3
YL UEEO ) ac winabay Soe 115 jl 6
Ae TEL y cidanna ee (Us 11
AIC we eice tad sk oakcs ph A ne Sasa 15
Pe GItl), oe tin ceacie. . 2. nee ean 1D tenedek. Aes

Donati’s Comet.— Extracts from Letters received by ¥:. J. Cooper, M.P.,
from Mr. A. Granam, MRLA.
‘“‘ Markree Observatory, Sept. 20.

««T hoped to be able to give you ere now some interesting details of this glorious
comet, but I was arrested in my calculations by a curious result in my observation
of September 14,—the only really good one which the weather permitted me to make
up to that time. Both the compared stars occur in Bessel’s zone 359. One of the
two is also in Lalande, No. 21775 (Catalogue). The mean right ascensions from the
two catalogues differ by 12 seconds in time! There were two wires taken by both
observers, and I have carefully looked over the reductions. I even got C. Robertson
(second assistant) to ascertain the mean places, and he brought out exactly the same
resultas I. On Saturday evening (18th) the comet presented rather a striking ap-
pearance in the nucleus and coma. The part to the right-hand side of the tail was
brighter than the left. I directed the attention of C. Robertson to this circumstance,
to make sure that my eyes did not deceive me; and his impression precisely accorded
with mine. Now it did not strike meat the time that this was the side next the sun,
and that the phenomenon indicated a phase such as would be caused by light reflected
from the surface. The appearance of the tail was exactly such as would be presented
by a hollow conoid of thin vapour under the circumstances. It will be interesting if
other observers confirm this remark.”

September 22. ‘‘ We got satisfactory observations of the comet on Monday and
Tuesday nights. The note in the observing book for Monday the 20th is as fol-
lows :—The south side of the nucleus faded off gradually into the coma without
any defined boundary line. The north and north-east pretty well defined. The
nucleus seemed to be stretched out westward at an angle of about 120° with the
tail, giving a rough idea of a cusp. There was a similar appearance towards the
east, in continuation of the line, but not so well marked. Southward of a line
touching the nucleus on the north side, and making an angle of about 60° with the
axis of the tail on the east side, the light was decidedly stronger than on the other
side of this line. The entire impressed us with some such idea as a view of Venus
would give when slightly gibbous, and when seen very near the horizon, with bad
definition. The light of the tail was pretty uniform throughout the entire breadth
for about twice the diameter of the nucleus northward. Thence it parted into two

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 29

rays, the upper one being the brighter and broader. The tail was directed precisely
to x Urse Majoris, and was about 6° long at least, but the strong moonlight pro-
bably obliterated the fainter portion.”

Note taken Sept. 21. ‘‘Appearance pretty much as last night. The angle made by
the line, which I have regarded as the north limit of the phase, with the axis of the
tail, is not quite so small as 60°. About 75° is a more correct estimate. The tail
was directed almost precisely to Polaris. Moonlight greatly diminished the effect,
and took from the apparent length of the tail.”

On the Results of the Measures of Gamma Virginis for the Epoch 1858, as
determined by Admiral Smyth. By Joun Lux, LL.D., F.RS.

I had the honour of presenting to Section A of this Association at Dublin, in 1857,
the results of measurements of the double star y Virginis for the epoch1857,and I now
have the gratification of presenting similar results of the position and distance of this
important double star y Virginis, for its last apparition, as observed at the Hartwell
Observatory, with corresponding results obtained at Greenwich by Prof. Airy, at Had-
denham by Mr. Dawes, at Tarn Banks, by Mr. Fletcher, and at Wrottesley by My Lord
Wrottesley. The discrepancies are certainly greater than might have been expected
under the present easy state of the object, but on the whole a very satisfactory epoch
is gained. Although stars had been telescopically observed in close juxtaposition as
early as the middle of the seventeenth century, the firm settlement of the physical
theory of double stars by observation and reasoning was reserved for Sir William
Herschel, whose sustained and indefatigable researches from 1779 to 1820 form the
broad basis of our present sidereal astronomy, Of the whole of the numerous ob-
jects which compose his invaluable contributions to this crucial branch of knowledge,
one of the most interesting and momentous is assuredly the star y Virginis, whose
observed and computed places have generally been found. to agree within the limits
assigned to probable errors of observation. This star now presents a system which
affords, by actual changes both in angular velocity and distance—the former varying
inversely as the square of the latter, with the elliptical orbital elements deducible
therefrom—incontrovertible evidence of the physical connexion, of its constituent
members. This binary star has been very assiduously watched by various astrono-
mers, especially during the last thirty years; and the obtained results are converting
probability into demonstration respecting its being subject to the same dynamical
forces which govern our own system. Every advance tends to prove the universality
of the Newtonian influence of attraction, obeying the Keplerian law of areas. Ina
word, by warranting the conclusion of the inconceivable extent of the controlling
agency of gravitation, it forms a wonderfully sublime truth in astronomical science.

On a New Variable Star (R. Sagittarii), discovered with the 5-foot Smythian
Telescope of the Hartwell House Observatory. By N. Pogson. (Com-
municated by Joun Lee, LL.D., F.R.S.)

On the limit of a rich and widely-spread group of stars, Professor Argelander of
Bonn observed one of the 84 magnitude, in his zone No. 227, on the night of
August 7th, 1849. Exactly seven years later, while carefully charting in the vicinity,
I found the assigned position unoccupied; but entertaining no suspicion of vari-
ability, supposed an erratum to exist in the published zone, and simply noted the
star as “missing.”’ On July 3rd of the present year, while looking over my chart
with the Smythian telescope (quite forgetful of the above-named circumstance), I
was struck by finding a fine star nearly of the eighth magnitude not previously
recorded ; a micrometer was immediately applied and some observations taken with
the aid of a sidereal chronometer kindly lent me by the Royal Geographical Society;
these however served only to establish its fixity, thereby proving that it was not one
of the small planets, but most probably a new variable star. Subsequent compari-
sons of its brightness with five stars in the same field of view, have since confirmed
this conclusion.

The uncertain state of the atmosphere from night to night, and other causes, com

30 OOo O RAPORT—TS858. °° °° 7

bine to render mere estimations of magnitude worthless for determining the period
of a variable star. It is therefore best to select a number of comparison stars;
ranging in magnitude from the maximum brightness of the variable, to the minimum
visibile of the telescope, and if possible in the same field of view, to assume the
mean of several estimations of these comparison stars, made on different nights, as
correct, and so to note the difference of magnitude between the variable and such
of the comparison stars as most nearly agree with it in brilliancy. By this means
small variations which must otherwise escape notice may be satisfactorily detected,
and a change amounting to a whole magnitude cannot possibly be overlooked. The
following observations of the new variable star were by this means obtained :—

1858, July 3 ...... 8°2 magnitude. . August 1...... 9°4 magnitude.

» Ll «sve 8°0 by »» 8 sseece 9°6 »
xs 19 seers 90 >» of BD vaewae DD }
99 29 seers O'S ” Sept 5 esses 11°4 9s

Combining these with Professor Argelander’s in 1849, and with my own records of
invisibility in 1856, it appears most probable that seven maxima occurred between
August 7th, 1849, and July 3rd, 1858 ; in which case the period will not differ much
from 465 days, and the next maximum will fall due in September or October 1859.
It would, however, be premature to state this as anything more than a probable
surmise, only to be decided by further observation.

-On the Constitution of Comets. By Dr. F. A. Strsestrém, of Stockholm.

- The prevailing opinion about the comets is, I think, that these heavenly bodies are

most likely to consist of an infinitely thin gas, or perhaps rather dust. I have tried
to show the great difficulty of explaining the diaphaneity of the comet, unless the so-
called ‘dust’? is composed of more or less considerable masses of some dense
(planetary) matter (the comets might be agglomerations of bodies like the metoric
stones). Under this supposition, the diaphaneity of the comets may be experi-
mentally represented by an ordinary rotatory machine (used to show the figure of
the earth as being an effect of her rotation), which, if the brass rings have been
covered with white paper, wil! show a globe of feeble white, through which a candle-
light may be seen with undiminished intensity. [In this experiment the rotation
may be considered only as having the same optical effect as in reality the great
distance.

All a other phenomena, such as the great variation in the light, intensity, the
changes of volume, &c., seem to be very easily explained in this hypothesis. As to
the ¢ail of the comet, I have tried to show that it may be not unsatisfactorily ex-
plained by a ring (also consisting of the above-named smail bodies of dense matter).
surrounding the bulk of the comet; and indeed the comet of 1813 presented an
appearance almost like an experimentum crucis for this hypothesis. However,
further observations are necessary to establish any theory in this belief.

On the successful establishment, by Astronomer Broun, of a Meteorological
and Magnetical Observatory at Travancore, at 6200 feet above the Level
of the Sea; with Results of Magnetical Observations at Trevandrum, as
communicated in a Letter from Mr. Broun to General Sir Thomas Bris-
bane. By Colonel Syxes, F.RS.

The author,—after giving a graphic account of the wild and difficult country in
which Mr. Broun, now Astronomer to the Rajah of Travancore, formerly assistant
to Sir T. Brisbane, and the dangers he had to encounter from wild beasts as well as
the difficulty of inducing the necessary workmen and labourers to encounter the cold
as well as the dangers of these elevated regions, having many nights to sleep ex-
posed to the weather and to heavy rains while the observatory was constructing,
read the following letter:—

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3r.

, “Trevandrum Observatory, July 10.

« My prar Sir,—One of the first results which I obtained from the observations
made in your observatory at Makerstoun, was the annual law of variation of the
horizontal force of the earth’s magnetism; the Jaw, namely, that the force was a
maximum near the solstices and a minimum near the equinoxes.. This law was
communicated by me to the British Association in 1845,—confirmed by a discussion
of the Toronto Observations for 1842; it was also confirmed by the results for other
years at Makerstoun, in a paper read to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, January 5,
1846. I afterwards further confirmed it by the results. of observations. made at
Munich, by Dr. Lamont, in the years 1843-45. Persons interested in these questions
who have examined plate 4 accompanying the paper already cited, must have re-
marked the symmetrical and well-characterized curvés (No. 8), which represent the
movement of the daily mean force from the beginning of January till the end of
March, 1844. It must have appeared curious that Makerstoun should have been
the only place where such curves have been produced, or, at least, that no other
place has shown anything resembling them. Thé eXaibition of the annual law de-
pends so much on a permanent magnet, an undisturbed instrument, and well-cor-
rected observations, that it may have seemed less curious that different results for
this period should have been obtained. As I was satisfied that the curves referred,
to were real representatives of the daily variation of force, I was anxious to compare
carefully other observations for the purpose of showing to what extent the law was
similar at other places. After I had arranged anew the observatory of His Highness
the Rajah of Travancore here, and established another on the highest peak of our
Ghats, I commenced an examination of the observations made at Trevandrum in
1844 by my predecessor, the late Mr. Caldecott. These observations had never been
corrected for temperature, nor indeed had the coefficients been determined; and on
my first researches, as the observations did not quite satisfy me, I put them aside,
On discussing them carefully, however, about a year ago, having determined the
necessary corrections myself, I was much gratified to find that the results at Trevan-
drum in 1844 agreed perfectly with those at Makerstoun. This fact I announced in
the following terms in a letter sent to England in the beginning of this year :—‘ The
relative changes of mean horizontal force are the same all over the globe; and the.
changes from day to day of the mean horizontal force at different places on the earth’s
surface are nearly equal, the unit in each case being the whole value of the horizontal
force at the place. In other words, the changes of mean horizontal force from day
to day are in the same direction all over the globe, and are proportional to the hori-
zontal forces at the places; the different effect of disturbance due to its diurnal
period and the different directions of the secular change being allowed for.’ It was
attempted in this paragraph to give a general statement of the result,—I shall attempt
here to be somewhat more definite. The chain of observatories of the British
Government confirmed and extended the result first due to Celsius and Graham, and.
afterwards to Arago and Kupffer, that magnetic perturbations are felt simultaneously
at places widely distant; but the conclusion did not go beyond this—it appeared
that even for moderate disturbances of one element at one place, some element, it
might not be the same, showed disturbance at the other place. Having satisfied
myself of the great similarity of the variations of force at Trevandrum and Makers-
toun, I could have no doubt but the same result would be obtained from moderately
good instruments at other places; I accordingly undertook the discussion of obser-
vations at Hobarton, Van Diemen’s Island, the Cape of Good Hope, and several
other places. As I had to obtain the temperature coefficients and to correct the
Observations by my own processes, the reductions were necessarily laborious. I first
corrected the observations at Hobarton, and compared the monthly mean values at
the two stations. I found not only that the annual law was the same at the two
stations, Makerstoun and Hobarton, but that the changes of the individual monthly
means followed generally the same law throughout the years 1844, 1845, 1846, 1847,
and 1848, though the diurnal series of observations at Makerstoun were incomplete
in the last three years. The secular change seems to obey the same law at both
stations, but the amount is greater at Hobarton than Makerstoun. This will be
seen by comparison of the monthly means in parts of the horizontal force at the res

spective places for the year 1845 :—

32 : REPORT—1858.

1845. Hobarton. Makerstoun. Difference.
January. csi dvasseads., 1002565 000943 "001622
February eteeet adsense AOOs023 °001013 002010
March... ..ccccasesecee) °003227 000988 “002239
April. .cscreorscecseees *003206 *000890 "002316
May lL cveddchavbbanent PUOso aS “001340 *002253
JUNC 5 chads eds dcecmes eeOOS920 *001645 *002275
July capSepbibcodenspenpenOOage Ws “001572 002241
AUguSt ...sessereeseee *003737 001407 002330
September ........... "003625 001078 *002547
October...s...s0.2006. *°003982 °001461 *002521
November ........... °004312 *001851 *002461
December .....-ee.... "004472 *001895 *002577

An examination of the means given above will show that they follow similar laws
at both places, the average variation of the amounts of difference from month to month
being only about one ten-thousandth (;;4;,) of the whole force, a change that
would be produced by a variation of half a degree Fahrenheit in the temperature of
the magnet ; and this amount includes the differences due to different secular change
and different effect of disturbance. The above numbers, however, are far from giving
an idea of the great‘resemblance in the monthly mean variations at the two places.
It will be some evidence of their agreement, that I was enabled, after projecting the
mean annual curves for Hobarton and Makerstoun, to point out that two monthly
means for Hobarton were probably inaccurate. An examination of the printed
observations showed that this was the case—that one monthly mean was erroneously
calculated, the other error being probably typographical. The former error was less
than two scale divisions, or a quantity which would be produced by a change of 2°
Fahr. in the temperature of the magnet. As it was desirable to compare the monthly
mean variations more minutely than can be done from the twelve values for each year,
I combined the observations in a manner differing somewhat from that hitherto
adopted. The usual plan has been, in examining the variation from month to month,
to employ only those values corresponding to the middle of the months, or the means
of the observations from the first to the last day of each month; and in order to
obtain from these, the law of variation, the epochs of maximum and minimum, the
means are projected, a curve being passed through or among the points; or the
means are considered functions of the line of the sun’s longitude and the values for
different epochs are calculated. Where merely general results are desired, and where
the means for a number of years are combined, either process is sufficient ; but
neither is satisfactory when we wish to note the changes of force as they exist for
short periods. For this purpose, I have obtained the means of the observations made
from the Ist to the 28th inclusive, from the 2nd to the 29th, and so on; so that if
observations had been made on every day of the week, we should have in this way
a monthly mean corresponding for its middle point to each day of each month, each
period containing a lunation. The result obtained was as follows :—the monthly
mean values of the horizontal force of the earth’s magnetism at Makerstoun, Hobarton,
Trevandrum, &c., obey the same law,—the minute variations of the monthly mean
being shown similarly at all the places, but the relative amounts of the changes are
sometimes greater at one place, sometimes at another.

I was now led to consider the variations of the datly mean magnetic force. In the
observations issued from the Colonial observatories, the daily means for each Gottingen
astronomical day are given: at Makerstoun and in several other observatories, the civil
day of the place has been taken. Both methods have advantages ; a disadvantage of
the former method is, that as no observations were made on Sundays, someobservations
made on Saturday had to be combined with some observations on Monday to form one
of the six daily means in each week,—so that one daily mean in six was not comparable
with the mean of any other place not in the same meridian. It was obvious, how-
ever, that for my purpose one daily mean from twenty-four hourly observations was
insufficient ; it was necessary to obtain a daily mean for each hour, as I had obtained
a monthly mean for each day. Thus I combined the twenty-four observations from
midnight on Sunday till 11 o’clock on Monday night for the first mean of the week,
1 a.m. till 12 p.m. of Monday for the second mean, and so on. In this way 120

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 33

daily means were obtained for each week. It was not possible, however, for me to
reduce and discuss the observations for a long period in this way ; I therefore limited
myself, as regards the changes of mean daily force, to the six weeks commencing
January 28, ending March 9, 1844, to which period belongs one of the most symme-
trical curves projected in plate 4 already cited. I performed this discussion for six
places included within the latitudes of 42° South and 55° North, and I found that
the changes of daily mean force from day to day followed, on the whole, the same
law at all the places. The differences and the exaggeration of some of the move-
ments, especially in high latitudes, seem to depend on the different values of the dis-
turbance at different places ; but so exactly do the curves in their general forms (and
frequently in their more minute inflexions) follow each other, that we might, were
the curves for each place presented separately, suppose that they were the same
curve. The sudden changes, and, indeed, with a few exceptions, all the turning
points, occur nearly simultaneously over the globe within the limits considered.
There seems to be a period of about two days and a half, or of about sixty hours,
for which I can offer no hypothesis. This period is exhibited more markedly some-
times near the equator, sometimes in high north latitudes; but in general Hobarton
has the movements slightly smaller than the other stations; but this may depend on
the epoch of the year. I can see no connexion between these points and the posi-
tion either of the sun or moon. I can form no other hypothesis than this, that they
exhibit the variations of the intensity of a distant magnet. If we suppose a power-
ful magnet to act at a distance by induction on a smaller magnet, we might expect
that the daw of distribution of magnetism in the smaller magnet would be unaltered,
and that the variation in the force of the inducing magnet would be shown on the
induced magnet. If the induced force were small compared with the proper force
of the induced magnet, the variation due to induction at any point might be taken
as proportional to the force at that point. ‘This conclusion is not far from the result
of these discussions, The whole range of the curve of February 1844, may be re-
presented approximately by 11 at Hobarton, 123 at Trevandrum, 13 at the Cape of
Good Hope, and 14 at Makerstoun, the unit in each case being 0°00014 of the whole
horizontal force at the place. The values of these forces are approximately, in Eng-
lish units, 4°5, 7°8,4°5,3°4. The total forces are approximately 13°6, 8°1, 7°6, 10°5.
The comparative values of the range given above cannot be quite accurate; they
depend on the unit coefficient of the instruments having been accurately determined,
which is by no means certain in most cases. Even on the theory suggested, it should
be remembered that the inductive capacity may vary in different parts of the terres-
trial magnet. The differences of the mean movements are small, however, when we
consider that the law and amount of disturbance vary with the latitude. Indeed,
the general agreement of the curves at different places lead one to conclude that the
vertical force, and therefore the total force as well as the magnetic dip, obey the
same laws. The diurnal variations of the magnetic declination may be supposed due
to two opposing forces acting at right angles to the magnetic meridian. From a
comparison that I have made between the daily mean values of the magnetic decli-
nation at Makerstoun and Hobarton, I conclude that the mean declination also fol-
lows similar laws, the north end of the declination magnet moving generally in the
same direction at both places. The variations of the daily mean force from hour to
hour are felt simultaneously on all meridians, and, as I have said, they appear to be
independent of the position of the sun or moon. Within the limits specified, then,
we may say that the magnetic intensity of the earth increases as a whole or dimi-
nishes as a whole: it does not increase at one place and diminish at another. ‘These
results are quite different from those for the variations of hourly mean force. The
latter varies with the latitude and the sun’s position (longitude and hour-angle).
The horizontal force is greatest near the equator shortly before noon; it is least at
the same time in high latitudes. If we suppose, then, that the variations of daily
mean force are due (for instance) to the varying force of the solar magnet, we must
conclude that it acts on the whole terrestrial magnet simultaneously, so that there is
an increase or diminution of force everywhere at the same time. ‘This hypothesis,
however, will not explain the diurnal variation, and we must suppose that it is pro-
duced by a wholly different mode of action. I have suggested that these variations
et to the inducing action of the sun shifting the isodynamic lines, the direction
858. 3

«

34 7 REPORT—1858.

of the lines, and of the shift determining the epochs of maximum and minimum. It
is, indeed, obvious that the result is equivalent to a movement of these lines; but
whether the inducing action is experienced by the earth’s surface, or its atmosphere,
was not evident. J think I[ can prove satisfactorily that the diurnal variation is not
due to the sun’s heating power, whether on the earth’s surface or its atmosphere ;
but that it may be due to the sun’s magnetic action on the atmosphere, is, it appears
to me, much more probable. I have said in the letter already referred to that the
diurnal variation of the magnetic declination is least near the equator where the dip-
ping-needle is parallel to the terrestrial axis,—so I believe it will be found that the
diurnal variation of dip and of force is least in mean latitudes, where the dipping-

needle is nearly perpendicular to the earth’s axis.
“Tam, &c., Joan ALLAN Broun.”

Sounp.

On the Mathematical Theory of Sound. By the Rev. 8S. EARNSHAW.

The author adverted to the circumstance, that the only impediment to the com-

plete development of the mathematical theory of sound has hitherto been the dif-
: : saan : ._ dy\? d?y _. d’y

ficulty of integrating the partial differential equation ee phe! oleae As an ap-

2
proximative mode of surmounting this difficulty, it has been usual to assume (2) as

But the author suggested that the legitimacy of that step is by no means evident ;

and that the true test of the allowableness of it is a knowledge of the change which
: saute : d? a

must take place in the constitution of the atmosphere, in order that (3) =p (a)

may be the ewact equation of motion. In this way it will be seen whether the plitysical

2
change, represented by assuming (=) = 1, be of such a minute character as to be

allowable. From this it was inferred that the equation which represents the proper-
ties of sound does not admit of the assumption *=1. The reason why this
a

assumption, though analytically allowable, is not allowable in the problem of sound,
is that in that assumption quantities are neglected which (in the case of sound)
2
represent essential properties of wave-motion, so that the equation 2 = a4 is
x
not an approximation, and from it nothing can be inferred but that the assumption

ae
(2) =1 is not admissible. The result of this reasoning is, that the equation
a

y =F (a + at) + f (a@—at), which has hitherto been the basis of explanation in
treatises on Sound, has nothing whatever to do with sound, but represents the
motion of a wave in an imaginary elastic medium of a constitution very different
from that of the atmosphere and of all known gaseous media. The mathematical
theory of sound is consequently put back to its differential equations, beyond which
not an inch of ground can be maintained. Till the differential equation is integrated

3 . — /dy\2 ‘ ;
accurately, without assuming 2) =1, no advance can be made, and science remains

without a mathematical theory of sound. The author then announced that he has
succeeded in integrating the differential equation of sound without approximative
assumptions; that he has, in fact, obtained its exact integral; and in the result has
possessed himself of the key to the various properties of sound. Among several
other things, it was stated that the exact integral accounts for the great difficulty
which experimenters have found in obtaining accordant velocities of sounds,—for
the sweetness of musical sounds,—for the rapid decay of violent sounds as they pro-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 35

gress,—and proves that the velocity with which a sound is transmitted through the
atmosphere depends on the degree of violence with which it was produced, and not
(as in light) on the length of the wave; so that sounds of every pitch will travel at
the same rate, if their genesis do not differ much in violence ; but a violent sound,
as the report of fire-arms, will travel sensibly faster than a gentle sound, such as the
human voice. This last property the author stated to have caused him much trouble,
in consequence of its being directly opposed to the testimony of almost every expe-
rimenter. For many affirmed, as the direct result of their observations, and others
assumed, that all sounds travel at the same rate, Fortunately, it transpired at the
Meeting, that in Captain Parry’s Expedition to the North, whilst making experiments
on sound, during which it was necessary to fire a cannon at the word of command
given by an officer, it was found that the persons stationed at the distance of three
miles to mark the arrival of the report of the gun, always heard the report of the
gun before they heard the command to fire; thus proving that the sound of the gun’s
report had outstripped the sound of the officer’s voice; and confirming in a remarkable
manner the result of the author’s mathematical investigations, that the velocity of
sound depends in some degree on its intensity.

METEOROLOGY.

On the Formation of Hail, as illustrated by Local Storms.
By W. R. Bownitcu, B.A.

With the fourth or fifth flash of lightning fell hailstones which averaged from half
an inch to an inch in diameter. These hailstones accompanied every flash, which
appeared to come from the zenith to the place where I was standing; but as soon as
the storm had passed away so far that the interval between the flash and report was
appreciable, the hail either did not reach us, or but a very few hailstones fell mingled
with heavy rain. Between the flashes rain only fell: with the flash came a volley of
hailstones, and gradually a few drops of rain would mingle with the hail, until at
length rain only was falling. The transition from rain to hail was sharp and well-
defined; that from hail to rain very gradual.

* The hailstones which fell were of three kinds :—
_ I. Solid balls of ice having two or three small bubbles, or one larger one contain-
ing air.

II. Balls of which from half te two-thirds consisted of solid ice, the remainder
being water and air enclosed in a crust of ice.

Ill. Balls formed of an outer crust of ice containing water and air. In some
instances this icy crust was so thin as to be broken by the fall (though all which I
examined fell upon straw), while in others it was thicker, and bore considerable
pressure before it broke.

In form the hailstones were spheroidal, sensibly bulged at the part corresponding
to the equator on a globe, and depressed at the parts corresponding to the two tro-
pics and the arctic and antarctic circles; and in many, if not all, cases slightly
elevated at the two poles. My attention was specially directed to this latter point,
and although in some instances the elevation (if any) was insufficient to warrant a
judgment without measurement, in many no doubt whatever could be entertained,
for the polar portion was evidently tending to form a point. It appeared as if the
drop had been originally a perfect sphere, which, by rotation on its own axis had
become formed as found, and had then suffered congelation. The bulging towards
the equator, and the elevation at the poles appeared the complements of the depres-
sions above described.

The regularity and perfection of form of these bodies forbid the notion of gradual
accretion in their descent, aud put beyond question the fact of their form being due
to the action of a natural law upon fluid bodies placed in the same circumstances:
It is to be hoped that other observations, or direct experiments, may enable us to
ascertain whether this is the normal form of drops of water falling freely and rapidly

= g*

36 REPORT—1858.

through air, and afterwards solidified in a vacuum. The author adds some theo-
retical considerations in explanation of the formation of hail.

Further Evidence of Lunar Influence on Temperature.
By J. Park Harrison, M.A.

In illustration of the effects of lunar influence, the author adduced proofs of the
frequent recurrence of high and low temperatures on the same day of the moon’s
age, and also at shorter lunar intervals, not only at Greenwich and Dublin, but at
Madras, Toronto, and the Cape of Good Hope. He also expressed his belief that
the fall in temperature which takes place at full moon, before first quarter, and
shortly after last quarter*, is due to the clearing of the atmosphere at those periods,
and the higher temperature about the period of new moon and first quarter to a
more clouded state of the sky, the effects observed being attributed to the action of
terrestrial radiation. In a subsequent communication attention was drawn to the
very different degree of heat which the moon’s crust attains at first and last quarters ;
and to the general clearness of the sky at the periods of greatest fall in temperature
in the months of January and May.

On the Decrease of Temperature over Elevated Ground.
By Professor Hennessy, RS.

The author showed that the decrease of temperature in ascending through the
atmosphere depended not only on height above the sea-level, but also upon the abso-
lute height above the nearest surface of solid land. As the temperature of the air
at any point depends not only on the pressure at that point, but also on the amount
of heat which may be transferred thither by circulation and radiation, it must be a
function of the several elements upon which these calorific influences depend. It
must therefore vary with the distance of the point from heating or cooling surfaces,
as well as with its height above the sea. It will also depend upon the time of the
day, and even on the season of the year, for the energy of the causes referred to is
manifestly subjected to periodical variations depending upon the position of the sun.
The increuse of temperature observed in ascending for short distances above the
ground during the night, and even sometimes during the dayt, will thus have its
anomalous character explained. In this way the decrease of temperature over plains,
mountains, and plateaux would be necessarily very different; and we cannot imme-
diately infer the state of the phenomena in the two latter instances from what may
exist in the former. Some of the results of observations made on the hills and
mountains of Ireland during the Ordnance Survey, as contained in the volume recently
published by Col. James, were referred to as illustrations of these general views.

On the Heating of the Atmosphere by Contact with the Earth's Surface.
By Professor Hennessy, F.RS.

The temperature of the atmosphere depends principally on the heat which the earth
receives from the sun, and on what it loses by radiation. A portion of the solar heat
is absorbed in passing through the air, while another portion penetrates to the earth’s
surface. The ground becomes thus heated, and the lower strata of the atmosphere
acquire the greater part of their heat from contact with the warmed surface. It is
admitted that the mode in which the air becomes heated by contact with the ground
must be a kind of circulation analogous to that seen in the movements of a heated
mass of liquid, such as boiling water. When studying the vertical movements of
the atmosphere, with reference to which Prof. Hennessy had made a communication
to the Association last year, he had been led to consider the connexion between such
movements and the influence of the heated ground. In order to study the ques-
tion experimentally, thermometers were suspended at different heights above the
ground, and under different circumstances of exposure to the influence of the sup-

* See Report for 1857, p. 249.
+ See Prof. Forbes in Reports of the British Association for 1840, p. 60.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 37

posed currents. Observations were made every minute, and sometimes every half
minute, during short intervals, about the middle of the month of May, on days when
the sky was clear, and during which there was consequently a great deal of solar
radiation. The following are the principal results observed: the mercury in each
thermometer rose and fell alternately during intervals varying from about half a
minute up to six minutes. The extent of the oscillations was sometimes very con-
siderable in thermometers freely exposed to the air; the mercury sometimes rising
or falling nearly three degrees in three minutes. In general the thermometers
exhibited fluctuations of temperature, the intensity of which diminished the more
they were protected from the influence of circulating currents in the air. The great-
est fluctuations were presented by thermometers with blackened bulbs exposed in the
sun. This arose from the circumstance that the blackened bulbs, by acquiring a
high temperature, became themselves disturbing agents in the calorific conditions of
the surrounding air. Evidence of similar phenomena appears to be presented by
the curves of temperature obtained by the aid of photographical registration at the
Radcliffe Observatory in Oxford. The application of photography to the continuous
registration of atmospherical conditions, has been carried out in that Observatory
with so much care, and has been attended with such remarkable success, as to have
already allowed its able director to deduce results of considerable interest in meteor-
ology. Among these are results, which observations made merely at stated hours
would probably never have disclosed*. Attention has been called by Mr. Johnson
to a remarkable serration in the temperature curves during the day. This serration
is found only when there is a considerable amount of solar radiation; it disappears
during sunless and cloudy weather. While it is explained by referring it to the in-
fluence of the solar heat upon the ground, and the consequent circulation of small
atmospheric currents, it affords a very satisfactory confirmation of the trustworthi-
ness of the photographical method of registration.

The following Table presents a specimen of the observations made on May 11
with two thermometers, one of which (a) had its bulb plunged 0:25 inch below the
open mouth of a bell-glass, and the other (0) was freely suspended in the air.

May 1l.
Time. (a). Diff. | Fluctuation. || (4). Diff. | Fluctuation.
hm ° ° 4a HO ° °
252 | 662 | +0°8 62°6 | +1°2
253 | 67:0 | +0-2 } +16 || 63:3 | +0°7 } +2°4
254 | 67:2 | +0°6 645 | 40:5
S65 | 67-8. | —o:1 —o1 || 650 | —o-2 —0°2
256 | 67-7 | +0°3 64:3 | +0:2
257 | 680 | +01 ; 65:0 | +0°5 | ,
258 | 68:4 0-0 +05 | 65-5 | +071 & ate
259 | 684 | +01 65:6 | +0-4
30 | 685 | —0'5 -—o5 || 660 | —o-6 —0'6
3 1 | 68:0 | +0°2 +02 || 654 | +01 +0°1
32 | 68-2 00 65:5 | —O1 } ms
3.3 68°2 —0°9 } 249% 65°4 —0°6 qa
Ba) 67-3. |, —O-1 64:3 | +0-2 +0°2
35 | 67-2 65:0

On plunging the bulb of (a) more deeply, the amplitude of its fluctuations pro-
gressively diminished, and they ceased almost entirely when the bulb was 14 inches
below the edge of the bell-glass.

* See Report of the British Association for 1855, Trans. Sect. p. 40. See also Intro-
duction to the Meteorological Observations made at the Radcliffe Observatory in the year
1857, p. xxxiv.

38. REPORT—1858.

Note on Refraction. By Colonel James, P.R.S.

Colonel James, Director of the Ordnance Survey, referred to the results obtained
in the course of the trigonometrical operations of the survey. It was found that the
refraction of the atmosphere was very great in the morning, that it diminished
towards the middle of the day, and then again gradually increased towards evening ;
this he attributes to the greater amount of aqueous vapour in the lower portion of
the atmosphere in the morning and evening, as compared with the amount in the
middle of the day.

On the Daily Comparison of an Aneroid Barometer with a Board of Trade
Barometer by Captains of Ships at Sea. By Dr. Ler.

The author submitted tables of considerable length detailing the results that had
been obtained during a voyage from London to Madras and back again, and the
conclusions he made were as follow :—That aneroid barometers, if often compared
with good mercurial columns, were similar in their indications, and valuable; but at
the same time it ought to be remembered that they were not independent instru-.
ments; that they were set originally by a barometer; required adjustment occasions
ally; and might deteriorate in time, though slowly. The aneroid was quick in
showing the variation of atmospheric pressure, and to the navigator (who knew at
times the difficulty of using barometers) this instrument was a great boon, for it
could be placed anywhere out of harm’s way, and was not affected by the ship’s
motion, although faithfully giving indication of increased or diminished pressure of
air. The aneroid, which is exhibited, had been carefully and daily observed by Cap-
tain Toynbee, of the ‘ Gloriana,’ during his recent voyage to Madras.

On the Construction of a Portable Self-registering Anemometer for recording
the direction and amount of Horizontal Motion of the Air. By F.
Oster, F.RS.

In this instrument the direction of the wind is obtained by fans, similar in prin-
ciple to those at the back of a windmill, as in some anemometers now in use, and
the horizontal motion by Dr. Robinson’s revolving hemispherical cups. The mode
of registration, however, is such as to enable the instrument to be constructed much
more compactly than heretofore. The direction of the wind is recorded by means of
three pencils inserted in an endless band, or flat chain working over two pulleys of
equal size, one of which is on the same shaft as the vane, and revolves with it; the
distance between the centres of the pulleys, and also between the pencils, being equal
to the circumference of one pulley, that is to one revolution of the vane. By this
arrangement one of the three pencils is always making its record on a small hori-
zontal cylinder, over which passes a long band of metallic paper about 5 inches wide.
The cylinder, being connected with the shaft turned by the revolving cups, moves at
a rate proportionate to the velocity of the air, Stationary pencils rule lines on the
paper as it is wound forwards by the motion of the air, and indicate the cardinal
points. Upon the margin of the paper, a pencil moved by means of a clock records
the time, the quantity of paper worked off in any given time showing the amount
of horizontal motion of the air during that period. The instrument can be supplied
with a single length of paper sufficient to last for several weeks, and this paper being
what is termed metallic, small brass wires slightly rounded at the end are used as
pencils. The whole of the registering portion of the instrument is contained in a
cylindrical case about 10 inches in diameter, which protects it from the weather, so
that it does not require the erection or alteration of a building to carry it, but can be
placed for action in any situation that may be desired.

Meteorological Observations at Huggate for 1857. By the Rev. T. RANKIN.

The first part of the present communication consisted of tables, showing for each
month—]. the thermometer; 2. the barometer; 3. winds; 4. weather; 5. rain;
6. hygrometer. Secondly, observations on remarkable days, and circumstances con

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39

nected with the thermometer, barometer, hygrometer, rain, November atmospheric
wave, remarkable appearance of the planet Venus, auroral phenomena, solar halos,

a remarkable appearance of the Via Lactea, lunar circles and halos, winds, weather,
and thunder-storms.

Note on Observations of Temperature.
By Dr. F. A. S1nsEstTROM, of Stockholm.

In a discussion of thirty years’ meteorological observations at the Observatory of
Stockholm, I have pleaded the necessity of taking meteorological media for shorter
periods than a month, which latter seems to me to be quite unfit as a meteorological
period. I have divided the year in seventy-two parts, viz. each month in six parts
of five days (except the last part of the month, whose length varies between five and
six days, and for February between three and four). By this means I have not
only been able to ascertain quite decided laws in the yearly movement of the tem-
perature, which never could have been detected by monthly means (for instance,
three very well-defined minima during the winter, a quite remarkable sinking of the
temperature in the beginning of May, &c.), but also to show the intimate connexion
between the changes of wind and temperature, and to find, in a somewhat new
manner, a confirmation of Dove’s celebrated ‘“ Drehungsgeschichte.” But it is
impossible here to enter into further details.

On the Desirableness of renewing Balloon Ascents in England for Meteoro-
logical Objects. By Colonel Syxxs, F.R.S.

~ With reference to the desirableness of renewing the balloon ascents, I shall limit
myself to a very few words. The Section is aware that in 1852 the Kew Committee
of the British Association effected four ascents. The observers who fearlessly went
up in the balloons, were Mr. Welsh, Mr. Nicklin, and the veteran aéronaut Mr.
Green. The results of the observations were published in the ‘ Philosophical Trans-
actions ;” and Mr. Petermann, in the ‘ Mittheilungen,’ has given a coloured diagram,
from which, by a coup d’qil, the accordances or discordances in the results of the
four ascents at the different heights at which the same temperature occurred, are
seen, 55° and 32° are sufficiently marked. The four ascents took place from Vauxhall
Gardens, near London. ‘The temperature of 55° on the different days was met with
at 6800, 3900, and 950 feet respectively. At the fourth ascent, on the 10th of
November, the temperature at the surface of the earth was below 55°. The freezing-
point in the two ascents in August, occurred at 13,200 feet; on the 21st of October,
at 10,900 feet; and on the 10th of November, at 8500 feet. Now these differences
may be owing to the different angles of the sun on the respective days of observation,
and it would not be prudent to consider the indications as normal conditions. Again,
the rapid diminution of temperature in the upper portion of the ascents leads to the
inference of an almost inconceivably low temperature at the surface of the earth’s
atmosphere. It was found, also, that the tension of vapour, which at the surface of
the earth was very considerable, at nearly 23,000 feet was scarcely appreciable.

All meteorological investigations require so many repetitions to ensure trustworthy
results, that I cannot believe that the Mathematical Section will consider investiga-
tions into the conditions of the upper strata of the atmosphere exceptional. I trust,
therefore, that | only anticipate the wishes of the Section, when I express a hope
that it will recommend to the General Committee to cause another series of balloon
ascents to be undertaken. dos AX

On a New Construction of Standard Portable Mountain Barometers.
By G. J. Symons.

The author showed an instrument, which was very portable, easily set up, and
when packed, only 43lbs. weight.

Particulars of an Ascent of Mont Blanc. By Professor Tynpatt, F.R.S,

The author spoke particularly of the enthusiasm of a guide named Balmat in the
cause of science, and of the efforts that that person had already made towards the

40 REPORT—1858.

advancement of it. He also referred to the fact, that the professional guides, headed
by their chief, sought to prevent his going without the usual complement of guides,
making no allowance whatever for the circumstance that he was engaged in purely
scientific pursuits. This man (Balmat) had conceived the idea of placing on the top
of Mont Blanc a thermometer, for the purpose of noting the minimum winter tem-
perature that might occur at that altitude, and the author had been instrumental in
obtaining £15 from the Royal Society for the prosecution of that object. But this
man was of so independent a nature that he would accept no gratuity, and the result
was, that after paying £10 for necessary expenses, the remainder was to be returned
to the Royal Society.

The author gave in detail the difficulties he had to overcome in ascending
Mont Blanc. He said that the snow, which at that height was like dry dust,
was wafted on that day by the wind, and came in great force against the party on
the summit. The temperature was 20° below the freezing-point, and the effect was
that the eye-lashes and beards of the party were covered by long ice-crystals. In
this ascent Balmat’s hands had been frostbitten, and up to this time they had not
recovered their natural functions.

He then remarked on the obstructions that were encountered by scientific men
making observations at Mont Blanc, on account of the arbitrary proceedings of the
local authorities. A remonstrance was, however, in process of being drawn up, and
he hoped it would have due weight with the Sardinian Government. The guide
Balmat was now being prosecuted by the chief guide, on account of his not having
acted in accordance with the unreasonable interpretation which the chief guide put
upon the printed instructions, and it behoved the Association to render him every
assistance for the sake of science.

On a fresh Form of Crystallization which takes place in the Particles of
Fallen Snow under Intense Cold. By J. Woi.ey, M.A.

In passing a winter in Lapland, it is impossible, whether in observing the tracks
of animals, or merely considering day by day the condition of the roads for sledging,
or of the snow for the use of snow-skates, not to be struck by the very variable cha-
racter of the snow, partly caused by winds and fresh falls, partly by the condition of
the rime or hoar frost upon the surface, but mainly, as it is soon found, by an alter-
ation in the character of the mass of fallen snow.

In Lapland, as elsewhere, the snow as it falls is of several kinds. But whatever its
character, it at first lies more or less lightly on the ground, and if the weather is still
and not very cold, it may so remain for days; but if the cold increases, the snow
rapidly sinks; it becomes at first like sand, is crisp to the tread, bears the smaller
animals, and soon becomes suitable for the skidor or snow-skates. When the cold
has continued, probably many degrees below zero of Fahrenheit, for two or three
weeks, not necessarily consecutive (the phenomena are more especially to be observed
in the cold months of January and February), the snow beneath the surface is found
to be made up of large pieces of a quarter or a third of an inch in diameter, glitter-
ing in the sunshine, clear, heavy, highly moveable upon one another, and seen upon
even a hasty examination to be of a beautiful crystalline structure. On a closer in-
spection, they are found to be somewhat irregular in shape, with the outline of more
or less complete hexagons with sides of unequal length; they are formed around
nuclei by no means placed centrally, often quite where one side of the hexagon
should be; and they grow in layers of bars one outside the other, often larger in
section as well as longer as they recede from the nucleus; these bars (learned
gentlemen will excuse me for not describing a crystal more properly) are free from
one another except at the angles; those of each layer lie in one plane, often not the
same as the layer which preceded them lies in. At the angles are usually small
crystalline projections, rising apparently perpendicular to the general surface of the
crystal. These crystals are broken with a slight force; and many of those where the
ope has been crushed have lost their nuclear portion, but retain the true hexagonal

orm,

Snow, in the cyndition of which I hope to have given at least some faint notion, is
called hieta lumi, or sand-snow, in the Finnish language. It yields more water ; and

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 41

hence, even when it is covered by more recent snow, the Laps take the trouble of
digging down to it to fill their kettles with. These primitive people also use it in its
dry state for washing or cleansing their clothes. After first exposing to the external
cold for some hours the dresses they wish to purify, for reasons which I need not
further explain, they beat them with sticks upon and under a heap of sand-snow.
When the winter covering of the ground is in this sandy condition (perhaps the
moveable state of such shell-sand as that of John o’Groat’s honse may best repre-
sent it in one respect, and the appearance of a bag of clean crystals of salt give some
idea of it in another), it is a great advantage to all the animals of the country in sup-
porting their weight, and is a special comfort to the reindeer, from the facility with
which they can remove it with their fore-feet so as to get at their food beneath.
Though intensely cold to a naked hand, it is much better than fresh snow for lying
upon, as it does not yield too much to the weight of the body, and does not get into
the nicks of the clothes, or melt in the fur. I may mention, that with only a thick
pair of stockings on, one can walk for some little distance from a bivouac without
risk of getting either wet or cold in the feet; and before a fire in the woods this
snow never becomes sloppy, but seems to disappear only by evaporation, which
greatly adds to the facilities of passing the long winter nights in a Lapland forest.
The same thing is in a great measure true in the spring; the snow is very rarely to
be found in that miserable state which marks the breaking up of a snow in England.
Concerning the formation of these crystals, I made experiments by burying in the
snow at certain intervals of time, chip boxes, some empty and some containing fresh
snow : I was prevented from fully carrying out and registering my observations, but
I found that the changes went on in the boxes equally with the external snow, and
in the boxes that contained nothing but air, but nevertheless were not so tightly
closed as to prevent the transmission of air containing water in solution, crystals
attaching themselves to the sides and top, but never to. the floor of the box, which
crystals greatly resembled those in the snow; they were, however, often much
longer, even to upwards of half an inch in length. In the course of my observations, I
found that;this sand-snow formed principally in open places, on lakes, bare soils, &c.,
growing less on spongy grounds, scarcely at all upon logs of wood or outbuildings.

INSTRUMENTS.

On Dials which give the Latitude, the line of North and South, and Chrono-
meter Time. By WArRAND CARLILE.

Working models were exhibited. By one model the latitude is read off at once
without calculating, and the true line of north and south obtained without a mari-
ner’s compass. With the assistance of the compass, the latitude at sea could be read
off at any hour when the sun shines. The other model gives true chronometer time,
and could easily be constructed to give Greenwich time at any place.

CHEMISTRY.
Address by Sir J. F. W. Herscuet, Bart., President of the Section.

Tuoveu it is with much satisfaction that I find myself placed in the Chair of this Sec-
tion, it is a feeling not untempered with serious misgivings. On none of the occasions
when I have attended the Meetings of the British Association, has it ever been in my
power to be present at any Session of the Chemical Section; and attached as I have
always been to that branch of science, and contemplating with the most lively sympathy
the labours of its more active members, this has been to me a source of great regret and
disappointment. And now when the opportunity I have always so earnestly desired
is accorded me in its fullest extent, it comes accompanied with the painful feeling of
occupying a position, which probably nut one of the distinguished cultivators of the

42 REPORT—1858.

science whom I gee around me, would not be more competent to fill with credit to
himself and satisfaction to the Section. However, in this respect, I must throw my-
self on your indulgence. If there be any conventional usages in the conduct of the
business of the Section, which have grown up as matters of habitual arrangement,
and been ascertained by experience to facilitate its working, with which I am un-
acquainted, there are those around me who will good-naturedly set me right.

But there is one deficiency which I feel very much :—it is the want of that thorough
acquaintance, that sort of coup d’cil extending over the whole area of the vast field
of chemical, mineralogical, and agricultural research which the objects of this Section
embrace, which would justify me in the ambitious hope that I could command your
attention as I am aware that my predecessors in this Chair have done on some former
occasions, while placing before you a summary of the progress made since our last:
meeting, in these branches of knowledge, and delineating the leading features of their
present, and the prospects of their future state. In this I should be sure to fail, and
therefore [ shall not attempt it, though I cannot help giving expression to my surprise
and admiration of the astonishing developments which they have undergone, I will
not say since the time when my own acquaintance with chemistry commenced by
hanging in rapt enthusiasm over Macquer’s Dictionary (which seemed to me in those
early days a work of little short of superhuman intelligence); nor since the epoch
when a Davy electrified the world by the decomposition of the alkalies ; nor that when
a Faraday commenced his magnificent career of discovery ; nor when a Berzelius first
showed what might be done in giving precision to analysis—but since organic che-
mistry has assumed, by the experiments and reasonings of Dumas, Liebig, Hofmann,
and its other distinguished cultivators, that highly abstract and intellectual form, under
which it now presents itself, and which, by the links of the platina bases, and com-
pounds such as those described by Gibbs and Genth under the name of the ammonio-
cobaltic bases, and by those which are every day coming into view by the mutual in-
terweaving, if I may use such an expression, of the organic and inorganic systems of
composition in bases such as those of the metallic ethyls and those of boron and silicon
—seems to place these conceptions in much the same sort of relation to the ordinary
atomic theory as put forth by Dalton and Higgins, and the elementary notions of
oxide, acid, and base of Lavoisier, that the transcendental analysis holds to common
algebra.

And here perhaps I may be tolerated if I put in a word of reclamation against
the system of notation into which chemists, who are not always algebraists, have
fallen in expressing their atomic formule. These formule have been gradually
taking on a character more and more repulsive to the algebraical eye. There is a
principle which I think ought to be borne in mind in framing the conventional nota-
tions as well as nomenclatures of every science, at every new step in its progress, viz.
that as sciences do not stand alone, but exist in mutual relation to each other,—as it
is for their common interest that there should exist among them a system of free
communication on their frontier points,—the language they use and the signs they
employ should be framed in such a way as at least not to contradict each other. As
the atomic formule used by the chemist are not merely symbolic of the mode in
which atoms are grouped, but are intended also to express numerical relations in-
dicative of the aggregate weights of the several atoms in each group and the several
groups in each compound, it is distressing to the algebraist to find that he cannot in-
terpret a chemical formula (I mean in its numerical application) according to the
received rules of arithmetical computation,

In a paper which I published a long time ago on the Hyposulphites, I was parti-
cularly careful to use a mode of notation which, while perfectly clear in its chemical
sense, and fully expressing the relations of the groupings I allude to, accommodated
itself at the same time perfectly well to numerical computation, no symbol being in
any case juxtaposed, or in any way intercombined with another, so as to violate
the strict algebraical meaning of the formula. This system seemed for a while likely
to be generally adopted ; but it has been more and more departed from, and I think
with a manifest corresponding departure from intelligibility. ‘The time is perhaps
not so very far distant, when, from a knowledge of the family to which a chemical
element belongs, and its order in that family, we may be able to predict with con-
fidence the system of groups into which it is capable of entering, and the part it will —

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43.

lay in the combination, A great step in this direction seems to me to have been
ately made by Prof. Cooke, of the Harvard University of the United States (in a
memoir which forms part of the fifth volume of the Memoirs of the American Aca-
demy of Arts and Sciences), to extend and carry out the classification of chemical
elements into families of the kind I allude to, in a system of grouping, in which the
first idea, or rather the first germ of the idea, may be traced to a remark made by M.
Dumas, in one of his reports to this Association, and which is founded on the prin-
ciple of arranging them in a series, in each of which the atomic weight of the ele-
ments it comprises are found among the terms of an arithmetical progression, the
common difference of which in the several series are three, four, five, six, eight, and
nine times the atomic weight of hydrogen respectively. So arranged, they form six
groups, which are fairly entitled to be considered natural families, each group having
common properties in the highest degree characteristic; and what is more remark-
able, the initial member in each group possessing in every case the characteristic pro-
perty of the group in its most eminent degree, while the others exhibit that property
in a less and less degree, according to their rank in the progression, or according to
the increased numerical value of the atomic equivalent. Generally speaking, | am a
little slow to give full credence to numerical generalizations of this sort, because we
are apt to find their authors either taking some liberties with the numbers themselves,
or demanding a wider margin of error in the application of their principles, than the
precision of the experimental data renders it possible to accord; so that the result is
more or less wanting in that close appliance to nature which makes all the difference
between a loose analogy and a physical law; but in this instance it certainly does
appear that the groups so arising not only do correspond remarkably well in their
theoretical numbers with those which the best authorities assign to their elements,
but that it really would be difficult to distinguish the elements themselves into more
distinctly characteristic classes by a consideration of their qualities alone, without
reference to their atomic numbers.

When we find, for instance, that the principle affords us such family groups as
oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine self-arranged in that very order; or
again, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth,-—-when we find that it
packs together in one group all the more active and soluble electro-positive elements,
hydrogen, lithium, sodium, and potassium, and in another the more inert and less
soluble ones, calcium, strontium, barium, and lead, and that without outraging any
other system of relations,—it certainly does seem that we have here something very
like a valid generalization; and [ shall be very glad to learn in the course of any dis-
cussions which may arise on such matters as may be brought before us in the regular
conduct of our business from those more competent to judge than myself, whether I
have been forming an overweening estimate of the value and importance of such
generalizations. I will only add on this point, in reference to what fell from our
excellent President in his address to the assembled Association last night, that
this kind of speculation followed out, would seem to me likely to terminate in a point
very far from that which would regard all the members of each of these family groups
as allotropes of one fundamental one, inasmuch as the common difference of the
several progressions which their atomic weights go to make up, are neither equal to,
nor in all eases commensurate with the first terms of these progressions. For instance,
in the chlorine group, the first term being eight, the common difference is nine,
Something very different from allotropism is surely suggested by such a relation. It
would rather seem to point to a dilution of energy of one primary element by the
superaddition of dose after dose of some other modifying element; and this the more
Beetely, since we find oxygen standing at the head of very distinct groups having
very striking correspondences in some respects, and very striking differences in others.
_ But all these speculations take for granted a principle, with which I must confess I
think chemists have allowed themselves to be far too easily satisfied, viz. that all the
atomic numbers are multiples of that of hydrogen. Not until these numbers are de-
termined with a precision approaching that of the elements of the planetary orbits,—a
precision which can leave no possible question of a tenth or a hundredth of a per cent.,
and in the presence of which such errors as are at present regarded as tolerable in the
_ atomic numbers of even the best determined elements shall be considered utterly in-

admissible,—I think, can this question be settled; and when such gigantic conse-

44 REPORT—1858.

quences,—so entire a system of nature is to be based on a principle,—nothing short of
such evidence ought, I think, to be held conclusive, however seductive the theory
may appear. I do not think such precision unattainable, and I think I perceive a
way in which it might be attained, but one that would involve an expenditure of
time, labour, and money, such as no private individual could bestow on it.

If the phenomena of chemistry are ever destined to be reduced under the domi-
nion of mathematical analysis, it will, no doubt, be by a very circuitous and intricate
route, and in which at present we see no glimpse of light. We should, therefore, be
all the more carefully on the watch in making the most of those classes of facts, which
seem to place us, not indeed within view of daylight, but at what seems an opening
that may possibly lead to it. Such are those in which the agency of light is concerned
in modifying or subverting the ordinary affinities of material elements, those to which
the name of actino-chemistry has been affixed. Hitherto the more attractive appli-
cations of photography have had too much the effect of distracting the attention from
the purely chemical questions which it raises ; but the more we consider them in the
abstract, the more strongly they force themselves on our notice; and I look forward
to their occupying a much larger space in the domain of chemical inquiry than is the
case at present. That light consists in the undulations of an etherial medium, or at
all events agrees better in the characters of its phenomena with such undulations, than
with any other kind of motion which it has yet been possible to imagine, is a pro-
position on which I suppose the minds of physicists are pretty well made up. The
recent researches of Prof. Thomson and Mr. Joule, moreover, have gonea great way
towards bringing into vogue, if not yet fully into acceptation, the doctrine of a more
or less analogous conception of heat. When we consider now the marked influence
which the different calorific states of bodies have on their affinities—the change of
crystalline form effected in some by achange in temperature,—the allotropic states taken
on by some on exposure to heat, —or the heat given out by others on their restoration
from the allotropic to the ordinary form (for though I am aware that Mr. Gore considers
his electro-deposited antimony to be a compound, I cannot help fancying that at all
events the state in which the antimony exists in it is an allotropic one),—when, I say,
we consider these facts in which heat is concerned, and compare them with the facts
of photography, with the ozonization of oxygen by the chemical rays of the electric
spark, and with the striking alterations in the chemical habitudes of bodies pointed
out by Draper, Hunt, and Becquerel; and when, again, we find these carried so far,
that, as in the experiments of Bunsen and Roscoe, the amount of chemical action
numerically measures the quantity of light absorbed,—it seems hardly possible not to
indulge a hope that the pursuit of these strange phenomena may by degrees conduct
us to a mechanical theory of chemical action itself. Even should this hope remain
unrealized, the field itself is too wide to remain unexplored; and to say nothing of
discovery, the use of photography merely as a chemical test may prove very valuable,
as I have myself quite recently experienced, in the evidence it has afforded me of the
presence in certain solutions of a peculiar metal having many of the characters of
arsenic, but differing from it in others, and strikingly contrasted with it in its powerful
photographic qualities, which are of singular intensity, surpassing iodine, and almost
equalling bromine.

There is another class of phenomena, which, though usually considered as belonging
peculiarly to the domain of general physics, and so out of our department, seems to
me to want some attention in a chemical point of view ;—it is that of capillary attrac-
tion. The coefficient of capillarity differs very remarkably in different liquids, and
no doubt also in their contacts with different solids;—a fact, which can hardly be
separated from the idea of some community of nature between the capillary force and
those of elective attraction. I hardly dare to hint at the existence of some slight
misgiving I have always felt as to the validity of the received statical theory of capil-
lary action, which carries with it the authority of such names as those of Laplace and
Poisson. Any discussion of this point would be matter for another Section of this
Association ; and if I here touch upon it, it is only to observe that my impression of
the requisiteness of a force so far allied to chemical affinily as to be capable of satura-
tion, rests on other grounds besides that of the mere diversity of action above alluded
to. But I must remember that you are not met here to listen to generalities, of what-
ever nature, but that we have plenty of real and special business before us.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45

In the several papers which will be brought before this Section,—in the elucidation
their authors will personally afford, and in the discussions which will take place on
them,—lI look forward to rich accessions to our knowledge, and to pregnant and fertile
suggestions which will afford us matter of fruitful meditation hereafter ; and I am very
sure, that in the course of such discussion as may involve differences of opinion, that
spirit of mutual and amicable concession which has always characterized the meetings
of this Section will continue to prevail.

On Colorifie Lichens. By J. Beprorp.

The lichens specially referred to were those used in the manufacture of orchil and
cudbear, The author stated that prior to the year 1838, all the lichens employed
were such as grow upon rocks only. In that year, however, a new kind of lichen was
introduced from Angola on the west coast of Africa, by Mr. F. R. Batalho, a Lisbon
merchant, to whom much credit is due for the discovery of its properties and uses.
The novelty consisted in its being a twee lichen, as previously all such had been found
useless for this manufacture.

In 1839 another tree lichen, possessing valuable colouring properties, was discovered
by Mr. G. C. Bruce in Ecuador, South America, and brought into the market in
1840, under the name of Lima Weed.

Similar lichens are now imported from Loango, Benguela, Mozambique, and Mada-
gascar, several of which are considered to be of equal or even of more value than the
best quality of rock lichens, The result has been to reduce the market price of
orchil weed from about £300 to £50 per ton; and now tree lichens form something
like four-fifths of the total quantity consumed in the manufacture.

The author exhibited illustrative specimens of rock lichens from the Canary and
Cape de Verde Islands ; also from Madeira, the Azores, and Sweden, together with
the tree lichens from the places above-mentioned.

On the peculiar action of Mud and Water on Glass, as more especially
illustrated by some Specimens of Gilass found in the Lake at Walton Hall,
near Wakefield, the residence of Charles Waterton, Esq. By C. W. Bine-
LEY, Ph.D., F.C.S.

Along with several other articles lately found in the lake at Walton Hall, near
Wakefield, the residence of Charles Waterton, Esq., were some specimens of glass,
supposed to have been submerged in the lake ever since the hall was attacked by
Oliver Cromwell’s soldiers,

The interest those specimens possessed in a scientific point of view consisted in the
remarkable appearance they presented after their submersion, possessing hues of
colour rivalling those of the finest specimens of pearl shells, Some of the specimens
are of a beautiful azure blue by direct light, and yellow by transmitted light; others
of a fine green colour by reflected light, and red and pink by transmitted light ;
whilst others again are of a red and deep orange colour by reflected light, and blue
by transmitted light.

On scraping the glass with a penknife, the coloured part was detached in minute
scales, those exhibiting the red and orange rays of colour coming off easily, when green
and bluish scales became disclosed to view, which were with more difficulty removed.
The glass underneath appeared as if it had been ground, or subjected to the action of
hydrofluoric acid. On analysis, the scales were found to consist of silicates of lime
associated with iron, but no potash or soda; whereas the glass consisted of a silicate
of potash, with a very slight trace of lime and iron. The glass appeared, therefore,
to be an alkaline silicate, and much more fusible and more easily acted upon by dis-
integrating agents than the glass now manufactured. The potash originally in it
appeared, in the case of the detached scales, to have been replaced by lime and iron
derived from the water. The mud in which they had been imbedded was found on
analysis to contain a large quantity of organic matter, containing nitrogen, and water
charged with sulphuretted hydrogen. No sulphur was found in any form, either in
the glass or in the scales, Any hypothesis, then, of the colours observed owing their
origin to the combination of sulphur with the bases in the glass, the author observed,
was perfectly untenable,

46 -- RepORT—I1858.

Tt has been known for a long time that water acts more or less upon glass, slowly
decomposing it. Scheele, for example, observed that distilled water, which had been
boiled a long time in glass vessels, became alkaline. Ebelmen published some time
ago an account of the strong action of water charged with carbonic acid on glass.
Mr. H. C. Sorby had lately shown the author some specimens of glass which had
rapidly undergone partial devitrification during their exposure to the action of water
boiling under pressure, at a temperature exceeding 300° C. The action of water on
glass is materially assisted by the presence of ammonia. Glass in stable windows is
frequently corroded from this cause. The disintegration of the glass found in the lake
at Walton Hall appeared to the author to have arisen from the combined action of
the water and the ammoniacal and carbonic acid gases derived from the mud, assisted
by the pressure resulting from the superincumbent water. It is probable that the
transformation of the glass was produced by the silica of the glass, after the separation
of the alkali, being left in a gelatinous state, entering into combination with lime,
derived from the mud or water of the lake, to form the insoluble silicate of which the
scales were composed, analogous in composition to tabular spar.

The author next proceeded to a consideration of the peculiar colour of the glass.
On fusing the glass, after removing the scales, it was perfectly colourless. The de-
tached scales, which were very difficult to fuse, likewise became colourless. The
coloured glass, viewed by transmitted light, exhibited rays of colour complementary
to the reflected rays. ‘The various colours presented, therefore, doubtless owed their
origin to the different refractive powers of each of the scales; the refractive powers
of the latter again depending on their thickness.

On the Expansion of Metals, Alloys, and Salts.
By F. Crace Carvert, £.C.S8.

Messrs. Calvert and R. Johnson having purified a considerable number of metal
for the purpose of ascertaining some of their properties, were desirous of testing their
expansion and contraction when exposed to certain temperatures, ‘The apparatus
employed in making these experiments is one constructed by Mr. G. C. Lowe. It
consists of a lever with a long and a short arm. The short arm is brought to bear
upon the bar to be tested, and in the end of the long arm the object-glass of a tele-
scope is inserted. An eyepiece of considerable magnifying power is so fixed, that an
observer, by looking through it, at a graduated scale, is able to determine with the
greatest accuracy the distances through which the object-glass is displaced when heat

is applied to the bar. The parts of the apparatus are so adjusted that sromodth part

of an inch expansion is represented by a definite portion of the graduated scale.

In the course of these experiments it was found that marked differences were ob-
served between the results obtained and those of previous experimenters. This was
attributed to the circumstance of the metals they were employing being in a pure
state, and this view was confirmed by trying in the same manner metals of ordinary
commercial quality. They observed also that a change of the molecular condition of
a bar produced a considerable change in its ratio of expansion. Thus a bar of steel,
when tempered to an extreme hardness, has a ratio of expansion fully one-third greater
than when it is left soft from the fire ; and most of the metals have a very different
ratio according as they are cast or forged. This is particularly remarkable in the case
of pure zinc, a bar of which, when well-hammered, expands very little more than half
the amount that it expands when cast vertically. Again, the axis of crystallization has
a considerable influence upon the expansion of bodies. A bar of pure zine cast hori-
zontally expands much less than if cast vertically. A similar phenomenon was ob-
served also in examining other crystalline bodies. ‘hus amongst the carbonates of
lime, statuary marble was observed to expand more than some of the metals, amongst
which are cast iron, antimony, and platinum ; whilst the expansion of chalk, in which
the particles are differently arranged, is little more than one-fourth that of marble. In
several alloys of metals a remarkable difference was observed between the expansion
found by experiment and that calculated from by the ratios of the metals of which
they were composed. Four different alloys were made and examined, and in each
the expansion observed was less than that deduced by calculation from their equiva-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 47

lents. In alloys of copper with tin, it was found that where only a small quantity of
tin entered into the composition of a bar, the expansion fell considerably below that
of pure copper, although the tin thus added has a much higher ratio of expansion
than copper.
The following is one of the Tables accompanying the paper.
Coefficient of Expansion from 0° to 100°.

Cadmium ...,.,,....+++.+- 0°003323 | Copper (hammered) ,...,.., 0°001769
Ne eps wate asics ee 0°003005 | Gold (GOP RAC REE . 0°001374
et a steal arate /auaisiaia + Pam OOA Liga RISIOUEH (COs )o s osa$: ate « ote . 0°001341
Aluminium,......... Kala Gsw alk 0°002218 | Iron (forged) .,..... jaete ea Ol Lar
Zinc (hammered) ........ -- 0°002193 | Castiron ....eeseeesevees 07001117
Silver (cast). ....s0ce0%s e000, 0001991, Steel (hard) ..)...eeecesese 0001402
BIPORE (GQ:) os cc cy vcasasouse. 0 001930 | Steel (Soft), ..neseerrerxee 0°001088
Copper (do.) ......+++2+++» 0°001879 | Antimony (cast),......,..., 0°000985

Brass (hammered) .......... 0°001828 | Platinum (forged) ,.,....,.., 0°000881

Note on Nitro-glycerine and other Xyloids. By J. Baker Epwarps, Ph.D.,
Lecturer on Chemistry and Toxicology, Royal Infirmary School of Medi-
cine, Liverpool.

The author stated that he had made a considerable number of experiments upon
various animals to ascertain the physiological effects of these substances, some of
which he found possessed poisonous properties.

Dr. De Vry introduced the substance known as nitro-glycerine or glonoine, to the
notice of the British Association at Ipswich, and observed that from some experiments
made upon rabbits, he concluded that it was not a poison. The experiments of Mr.
Field, however, showed that it possesses a powerful physiological action upon man;
and the author had in a great number of instances observed and experienced violent
and protracted headache and irregularity of the heart’s action follow the administra-
tion of a single drop; upon animals, viz. frogs, birds, rabbits, and cats, doses of from
four to ten drops produce at first similar symptoms and dilation of the pupil of the eye.
After apparent recovery from these first effects, a secondary chain of symptoms set in,
viz. vertigo, trismus, violent tetanic convulsions, lasting in some cases for three or
four hours, and then terminating in death by exhaustion. Shortly before death, ex-
treme contraction of the pupil of the eye is observed, and the animal becomes stupe-
fied and nearly unconscious; when the animal is disturbed, however, a convulsive
paroxysm takes place, resembling that produced by strychnine.

Similar experiments were made upon xyloidine from sugar, washed until all bitter-
ness was removed. No effects were produced.

Upon xyloidine from starch, which produced convulsions in the rabbits; but no
fatal effects were produced in a quantity of ten grains.

Upon pyroxyline collodion, which produced no marked effect.

lt is possible in the latter case the ether is antidotal to the peculiar action of xyloi-
dine, for when administered to persons suffering from the effects of glonoine it affords
prompt relief. The author had not concluded his experiments upon this subject.

A Process for the Estimation of Actinism. By R. J. Fow.Er.

In the ninth volume of Gmelin’s ‘ Handbook of Chemistry,’ we find it stated that
* oxalate of ammonia mixed with aqueous protochloride of mercury is decomposed
under the influence of light, yielding sal-ammoniac, calomel, and carbonic acid ;” it
is also stated that “‘ the mixture of the two solutions remains clear in the dark, in
daylight it becomes turbid in six minutes, and in the course of an hour deposits calo-
mel, which in sunshine quickly falls down in soft flakes surrounded with bubbles of
carbonic acid. The filtrate no longer contains mercury, but chloride of ammonium and
undecomposed oxalate of ammonia.”

On seeing this, the author conceived that here might be the elements of a process
for actinometry ; the following’ ate the results of experiments which he has tried on
the subject.

It is perfectly correct that the two solutions named may be kept mixed unchanged

48 . REPORT—1858.

for an indefinite period in the dark, that the precipitation of calomel begins in about
fifteen or twenty seconds in full sunshine, and that this precipitate ceases immediately
the vessel containing the solutions is removed from solar influence, showing that the
action is not continued in darkness after the chemical change has been partially effected;
that the action of the actinism is not in this case calalytic. When three tubes of the
mixed solutions are exposed to pretty uniform light, No. 1 for ten minutes, No. 2
for twenty minntes, and No. 3 for forty minutes, the results are that the tube that had
been exposed twenty minutes contained twice the bulk of precipitate of that which
had been exposed but ten minutes, and the tube with forty minutes’ exposure contained
twice the bulk of the twenty minutes. If the exposure of the solutions be continued
several hours, the vessel containing them will be completely filled with a magma of
the precipitated calomel*.

From these experiments it is concluded that the mixture of solutions of oxalate of
ammonia and protochloride of mercury is very sensitive to light; that as this action
of light is not catalytic, all the precipitate obtained from the solutions may be con-
sidered as being produced by solar influence alone ; and lastly, that a definite amount
of precipitate is produced by a definite amount of actinic force; thus proving that
there are elements of uniformity and certainty in the behaviour of the mixed solutions
under the influence of light, from which a certain method for estimating the actinic
force may be formed.

If extreme delicacy be required in the estimations, the precipitated calomel might
be collected, washed, and dried; but if this is not desired, narrow graduated tubes
might be used for exposing the mixed solutions, and the amount of precipitate read
off after standing a certain time in the dark.

The author used in these experiments nearly saturated solutions of the two salts,
but the formation of calomel takes place in solutions far removed from the point of
saturation ; for if a drop of solution of the protochloride of mercury containing only
rasy of a grain of that salt be added to 300 grains of a solution of oxalate of ammonia
and exposed to the light, the calomel is precipitated in a light powder; and this deli~
cate reaction may therefore be used as a confirmatory test for the presence of the
protochloride of mercury.

It would be interesting to know whether the absorbed actinism of M. Niépce de
St. Victor would affect the mixed solutions. The author has tried several experiments
in this direction, but not with sufficient success to warrant any positive assertions,

On a Method of Observation applied to the study of some Metamorphic Rocks ;
and on some Molecular Changes exhibited by the action of Acids upon them.
By Auvuonss Gaczs, Curator of the Museum of Irish Industry, M.R.1.A.

The author, while admitting that the ordinary method of analysing rocks gives their
absolute composition, is of opinion that it does not give any information as to their
genesis or decomposition. ‘The preliminary mechanical operations to which the spe-
cimens to be analysed are submitted wholly destroy their peculiar state of aggregation,
and mix up substances that may not have been in combination. He accordingly
proposes a new method of examination, which is applicable in a great many cases,
and which is capable of leading to extremely important results in connexion especially
with metamorphic rocks. His method is to expose fragments or thin laminz cut in
certain directions, or whole crystals to the action of acids, alkalies, or other solvents
for a certain time.

The author gave several examples illustrative of his method, of which the following
are the most interesting.

A fibrous dolomite of Miask in the Ural Mountains, analysed by the ordinary me-
thod, yielded —

Carbonate OF Te een. oan ans nie ee Os BOD
As magnesia ........+... 40°974
Sesquioxide of iron andalumina .,.. 0°411
Water and organic matter.......... 0°239
Se See hminasda> hme 805 <aihk Sa
100°202

%* The mixed solutions may be boiled in darkness without any precipitation of calomel.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 49

Considered alone, these numbers would lead to the mere conclusion that the rock was
a dolomite; but by operating on a moderately sized fragment cut in the direction of
the fibres, with dilute hydrochloric acid, fer some days, a skeleton remains of asbes-
tiform tremolite having the following composition :—

UN CA isle nivale dicen MOS
Magnesia eer en ene 29

—a result which shows that the dolomitic rock is a subsequent formation to the tre-
molite.

The new mode of conducting the examination of rocks, depending upon the me-
chanical difference of their preparation, was further advantageously contrasted by the
author. Some varieties of magnesite Jeave silico-gelatinous residues, by which the
transition from meerschaum to a replacing pseudomorphite of carbonate of magnesia
may be followed. Again, crystal of Thomsonite boiled in hydrochloric acid, deposits,
after removal of the alkali, a gelatinous transparent precipitate, and an opaline skeleton
remains, presenting the outlines of the primitive crystal, thus exhibiting the stages
of alteration through which these crystais pass. The opals found in the basaltic di-
stricts of the North of Ireland have most probably been derived from the gelatinous
silica of the decomposed zeolites, while the hydrophane of the same locality resem-
bles in a remarkable manner some skeletons artificially obtained from a laminated
magnesite derived from the decomposition of basalt, and described by General Port-
lock in his ‘ Geological Report.’ ‘This mineral, treated by acids, leaves a skeleton of
pure amorphous silica lighter than water, and having the perfect form of the primi-
tive substance, consisting of thin laminz superimposed like the leaves of a book.
After immersion in water for a sufficient length of time, it becomes translucent, and
acquires all the characters of certain varieties of hydrophane. If left exposed to the
air for some time, it loses the greater part of its water, but retains a mean quantity of
about 6°40 per cent., which corresponds with the formula 3Si 03, HO given by Beudant
for an opake white opal from Castellamonte.

As an illustration of the decomposition and subsequent reconstruction of rocks, the
author referred to a pseudomorphite of laminated quartz-rock, derived from magne-
site, which, though partially crystalline, retained traces of amorphous silica, It would
appear that the original rock, after the disappearance of some of its constituents, had
been infiltrated by the silica of alkaline silicates derived from the decomposition of
trappean rocks. The petrifaction of fossil wood from the vicinity of Lough Neagh
may be referred to the same class of phenomena.

Mountain leather and cork from Londonderry, leave, when treated by acid, a light
spongy skeleton analogous to varieties of nectigue quartz. All these substances are
evidently the result of a more or less advanced state of alteration ef hornblendic and
augitic rocks; sometimes the decomposing silicates are entirely replaced by carbonates
of lime and magnesia, or with carbonate of lime alone, and the original mineral is
traceable only in the form of a thin superficial film on both sides of the newly-formed
carbonates. Serpentine, cut into thin laminz and treated by acids, exhibits in a great
number of instances the original mineral substance from which it has been derived.
The author concluded by stating that the simple treatment of acids acting upon thin
laminz was an efficient means of distinguishing true serpentine, which leave a skeleton
of amorphous silica, from many rocks resembling the former lithologically,

Ona new variety of Pyro-electric Wavellite. By ALPuoNnsE Gaces, V.R.LA.,
Curator of the Museum of Irish Industry, Dublin.

The first specimen with which the author became acquainted, was presented to him
by Mr. G. H. Kinahan of the Geological Survey, and was part of a block found in the
driff on the banks of White River, four miles south of Loughhill, resting on coal-
measures. It was accompanied by blocks of limestone, trappean breccia, syenite and
granite. Wavellite has also been found by Messrs. Jukes and Kinahan in the lower
bed of the coal-measures, just above the limestone, about three miles north-west of
Cahirmoyle.

The present specimen answers in some respects to the description of Fischerite or
Peganite, as given by Dufrenoy and Dana,

1858. 4:

50 REPORT—1858.

It is composed of small crystals of an emerald-green colour, mingled with white
crystals forming mammillated concretions, cementing fragments of a quartzose grit.
In other instances, the mineral forms the cement of a conglomerate of a black

chert-like variety of jasper.
It exhibits slight pyro-electric properties. At 100°C. it loses a part of its water.

Its analysis gave—

Wiaterince cos eee hee siseeinns a Soren POD
AITAIN ALES HA ars eeieer nisl Habel bea Bhs fa ese 36°160
Ppmoxige Of ArOM ay ais siattave caer = ele Prema (cto v2?
Phosphoric acid «2.0.2 0 .se.ceeee sine ae -. 30°881
Silica ..... Ree eaten lees ye roa SURES 3-615
Oxide fof nickel iva sieye'e, $b 'v%-0's wo’ sje); 2 Sieak 325
Phosphate of lime (apatite) ........+--. 1°578
Fluorine ......625. a age ied oda flier Gabi) meet Ce
Qa E a TS RS STN as os od Soe be ohn aire ab 1-003

98:939

Hence the formula 5 { ar re } 3P0°+18HO may be deduced.

Hermann considers Fischerite to be 2Al? O®, PO°+8HO, and the Peganite of
Breithaupt as only differing from it in containing six equivalents of water. The
colour of this last is due to oxide of copper, but in the present case oxide of nickel is
the source. Five equivalents of the Irish mineral, plus one equivalent of Al? O°, will
be equal to three equivalents of Peganite.

The author only proposes this formula as an expression ofa single analysis; but as
a great many phosphates of alumina have hitherto been confounded with Wavellite,
he is of opinion that a complete examination of the whole series would be a desi-
deratum.

A conglomerate of quartz cemented by white Wavellite was also found at some
distance from the first specimen.

It is worthy of observation, that nearly all the varieties of the mineral are to be
found in this carboniferous locality ; and as many of these appear to be of very recent
origin, it is possible that some phosphatic deposits may exist in the locality.

On Electrical Discharges as observed in highly rarefied Carbonic Acid in
contact with Potash. By J. P. Gassior, V.P.R.S.

The author exhibited a tube in which was placed a piece of caustic potash, and
explained that the tube had been previously charged with carbonic acid, and after
being exhausted, had been hermetically sealed. The small residuum of carbonic acid
was therefore in contact with potash. This tube, when cold, showed the stratified
discharge; but on melting the potash, the discharge merely passed in the form of a
waye without stratifications from one terminal to the potash, and from the potash to
the other terminal. As the potash cooled, the discharge reassumed its original

appearance.

On reciprocal Decomposition between Salts and their Acid Solvents.
By J. H. Grapstone, Ph.D. PRS.

It has been recently shown, that when two salts MR and M'R’ are mixed in solu-
tion, a partial interchange of their component parts ensues, with the production of
amounts of MR! and M'R, depending among other circumstances on the relative
quantities of the original salts. L[f to such a mixture in solution, an additional amount
of either MR! or M’R be added, it will alter the state of equilibrium, and itself suffer
reciprocal decomposition, producing an additional amount of both MR and M’R! in
equivalent proportions. An acid, that is a hydrogen compound, HR, comports itself
in such circumstances in the same way as a metallic salt. Hence it may be antici-
pated that when a salt MR’ which is insoluble in water is dissolved in some aqueous
acid, reciprocal decomposition will also ensue, and the addition of either MR or HR!
to the solution will cause a precipitate of the original insoluble salt MR’. The author
had already adduced instances, in the Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society, in

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51

which this extraordinary result does actually ensue; he now drew attention to the
fact that it invariably occurs, and showed that the reasoning applied equally to cases
in which the salt MR’ is not insoluble in water, but only less soluble than MR
or HR’.

Experiment confirmed this view; thus, among other instances, a saturated solution
of sulphate of silver in aqueous nitric acid gives a crystalline deposit of the sparingly
soluble sulphate, if it be treated with a strong solution of either nitrate of silver or
sulphuric acid. Observations on the crystals that separate from solutions of sulphate
of soda, or of nitrate of potash, in hydrochloric acid, when similarly treated, showed at
once the influence of mass, and confirmed the conclusion that at all times four com-
pounds coexist in the solution. The author's experiments on sparingly soluble salts
dissolved in acids had all indicated that the law of reciprocal decomposition holds
good in such cases also, and had afforded additional support to the inference, that
if an acid HR dissolve a salt MR! to saturation, the addition of either MR or HR!
will cause the production of more MR! than the acid can keep in solution, and which
must accordingly precipitate or crystallize out.

The former experiment of dissolving ferric phosphate in hydrochloric acid had
been tried in absolute alcohol instead of water, with a still greater indication of the
non-conversion of the whole of the iron into the state of chloride, and an equally
clear optical demonstration that the addition of more hydrochloric acid increased the
amount of ferric chloride present.

On a remarkable Deposit of Carbonate of Lime about Fossils in the Lower
Lias of Dorsetshire. By Grorce Guapstong, F.C.S.

‘The object of this paper was to bring before the Section some very curious speci-
mens of fibrous carbonate of lime, which the author found during a recent visit to
Lyme Regis.

The lower lias shales, which are there very fully developed, are in many instances
parted by bands of fibrous carbonate of lime, some of which are less than a quarter of
an inch thick, while others are several inches in thickness: the fibre runs exactly at
right angles to the surface of the bands, through the middle of which a dividing line
generally runs, as if the deposit has originated on both the upper and under sides
simultaneously and met in the centre.

In some places these bands are full of what appear like ammonites, having the
markings perfect on both sides, and standing in high relief, as if they were the actual
shells. On examining them minutely, however, it is found that they are composed
merely of two layers of this fibrous carbonate of lime with the shell of the ammonite in
a crushed and flattened state in the centre, the fibre of the lime still maintaining the
same direction as in the rest of the band, viz."perpendicular to the flattened shell, and
varying in length so as to preserve all the curves and ridges which the shell had when

erfect. In one specimen, where the outer whorl of the ammonite being of stronger
exture and filled with sediment, had not been crushed, the same deposit appears,
forming a complete fringe of even thickness, and thus preserving all the form of the
shell beneath.

Some other shells exhibited the same curious appearance, but they are much less
numerous than the ammonites, which must have swarmed at the time these beds
were deposited.

On the Alkaline Waters of Leeds. By W. Huaceon.

The author gave the results of an analysis of a gallon of water from Ripley’s
Well, Holbeck. ‘This aikaline water appears to contain a larger amount of alkaline
matter than any in England. The nearest approach to it is the water of the artesian
well in Trafalgar Square, which, according to the analysis of Abel and Rowney, con-
tains 18 grains of carbonate of soda in the gallon, and 20 grains of the whole solid
matter is chloride of sodium.

_ I have examined ten of the alkaline waters of Leeds, and found them to vary in
the quantity of carbonate of soda, “which is the alkaline substance they contain,”
~ from 24 grains to 45 grains per gallon of water.
4%

52 REPORT—1858.

The water from Mr. Ripley’s artesian well, Holbeck, contains the largest amount
of carbonate of soda, viz. 45 grains per gallon. It also contains ammonia, sulphide,
iodide, and bromide of sodium.

This water I selected for a complete analysis, which shows one gallon to be of the
following composition :—

Saline constituents—Carbonate of lime .... 2:°151

Ah magnesia, 1:023
” ION. se his OOo
” soda .... 45°620

4 ammonia.. 0°045
Sulphate of potash ., 1°303
Chloride of sodium ,, 52°123
Sulphide of sodium ,, 0°740
Todide of sodium..., 0°022
Bromide of sodium ., trace
Silicate of soda..,... 1°312
NICH Ase eee Rercieeae MO OL
Alumina. rn sieauin yO LOO
Organic matter...... 0°227

Total in 70,000 grains............ 105°292 grains.
This water also contains carbonic acid gas, nitrogen, and sulphuretted hydrogen;
a large amount of carburetted hydrogen is evolved at its source.

Some Account of Professor Schdnbein’s latest experiments on the Allotropic
Conditions of Oxygen. By H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.RS,

On an Instrument for Measuring the Constant Intensity of Ozone.
By Evwin Lanxester, M.D., PRS.

This instrument consisted of two small roliers included in a box, which were moved
by means of ordinary clock-work. Over the roller, a strip of paper, prepared with
iodide of potassium and starch, is allowed to revolve, the paper becoming exposed to
the air for an inch of its surface, in the lid of the box. ‘Twenty-four inches of paper
pass over the rollers in the course of the twenty -four hours, which thus registers by its
colour the intensity of the action of ozone in the atmosphere. By this instrument
the intensity of the ozone for every hour in the twenty-four could be registered, and
minima and maxima with an average be ascertained. ‘The register of ozone could also
be compared with those of the anemometer, and the relation of ozone tothe direction
and force of the wind ascertained. Dr. Lankester pointed out the importance of
ascertaining the presence of ozone, on account of its undoubted relation to health,
He drew attention to a series of tables which had been drawn up from the registra-
tions of the anemometer made at London, Blackheath, and Felixstow, on the coast of
Suffolk. From these it was seen that the relation of these three places were as 0-22
and 55. The instrument acted also as a clock, and the time could be accurately marked
upon the ozonized paper.

On the Annual Yield of Nitrogen per Acre in different Crops.
By J.B. Lawes, F.RS., £.GS., and J. H. Girzert, PhD., F.C.S.

In a paper given last year at the Dublin Meeting, on the question of the assimila-
tion of free nitrogen by plants, and some allied points*, the authors had stated in
general terms, that the amount of nitrogen yielded per acre, per annum, in different
crops, even when unmanured, was considerably beyond that annually coming down,
in the forms of ammonia and nitric acid, in the yet measured and analysed aqueous
deposits from the atmosphere. The investigations then referred to were still in pro-
gress; and a desirable introduction to the record of the results would obviously be, to

* Preliminary Notice of Researches on the Assimilation of Nitrogen by Plants. By
Messrs. Lawes, Gilbert, and Pugh.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 53

illustrate, by reference to direct experiment, that which had been before only assumed,
regarding the yickl of. nitrogen.in our different crops. To this end the annual pro-
duce of nitrogen per acre had been determined, in the case of various crops, which
were respectively grown for many years consecutively on the same land; namely,
wheat, fourteen years; barley, six years; meadow hay, three years; clover, three
years out of four; beans, eleven years; and turnips, eight years. In the majority of
the instances referred to, the yield of nitrogen had been estimated, both for the crop
grown without manure of any kind, and for that with purely mineral manure, that
is, excluding any artificial supply of nitrogen. It was the object of the present com-
munication to give a summary view of some of the facts thus brought to light.

Beans and clover were shown to yield several times as much nitrogen per acre as
wheat or barley. Yet the growth of the leguminous crops, carrying off so much ni-
trogen as they did, was still one of the best preparations for the growth of wheat;
whilst fallow (an important effect of which was the accumulation within the soil of the
available nitrogen of two years into one), and adding nitrogenous manures, had each
much the same effect in increasing the produce of the cereal crops.

Other experimental results were adduced, which illustrated the fact, that four years
of wheat, alternated with fallow, had given as much nitrogen in the eight years as
eight crops of wheat grown consecutively. Again, four crops of wheat, grown in alter-
nation with beans, had given nearly the same amount of nitrogen per acre as the four
crops grown in alternation with fallow; consequently, also much about the same as
the eight crops of wheat grown consecutively. In the case of the alternation with
beans, therefore, the whole of the nitrogen obtained in the beans themselves, was over
and above that which was obtained, during the same series of years, in wheat alone,
—whether the latter was grown consecutively, or in alternation with fallow.

Interesting questions arose, therefore, as to the varying sources, or powers of accu-
mulation, of nitrogen, in the case of crops so characteristically differing from one an-
other as those above referred to.

It had been found that the leguminous crops, which yielded in their produce such
a comparatively large amount of nitrogen over a given area of land, were not spe-
cially benefited by the direct application of the more purely nitrogenous manures.
The cereal crops, on the other hand, whose acreage yield of nitrogen under equal
circumstances was comparatively so small, were very much increased by the use of
direct nitrogenous manures, But it was found that, over a series of years, only about
four-tenths of the nitrogen annually supplied in manure for wheat or barley (in the
form of ammonia salts or nitrates), were recovered in the immediate increase of crop.
Was any considerable proportion of the unrecovered amount drained away and lost?
Was the supplied nitrogenous compound transformed in the soil, and nitrogen in
some form evaporated? Did a portion remain in some fixed and unavailable state of
combination in the soil? Was ammonia, or free nitrogen, given off during the growth
of the plant? Or, how far was there an unfavourable distribution, and state of com-
bination, within the soil, of the nitrogenous matters applied directly for the cereal
crops,—those, such as the leguminous crops, which assimilated so much more, gather-
ing with greater facility, and from different ranges of soil, and leaving a sufficient
available nitrogenous residue within the range of collection of a succeeding cereal
crop? These questions, among others, which their solution more or less involved,
required further elucidation before some of the most prominent of agricultural facts
could be satisfactorily explained.

Comparing the amount of nitrogen yielded in the different crops, when grown
without nitrogenous manure as above referred to, with the amount falling in the mea-
sured aqueous deposits, as ammonia and nitric acid, it appeared, taking the average
result of the analyses of three years’ rain, that all the crops yielded considerably more,
and some very much more, than so came down to the soil. The same was the case
when several of the crops had been grown in an ordinary rotation with one another,
but without manure, through two or three successive courses. Was this observed
excess of amount in the yield over that in the yet measured sources, at all materially
due merely to the extraction by the crops, of nitrogenous compounds previously ac-
cumulated within the soil? Was it probably attributable chiefly to the absorption of
ammonia or nitric acid, from the air, by the plant itself, or by the soil? Was there
any notable formation of ammonia or nitric acid, from the free nitrogen of the at-

-

54 REPORT—1858.

mosphere? Or, did plants generally, or some in particular, assimilate this free
nitrogen?

As already intimated, some of the points which had been alluded to were at the
present time under investigation ; the authors having in this the able cooperation of
Dr. Pugh. Others, it might be hoped, would receive elucidation in the course of
time. There of course still remained the wider questions—of the original source, and
of the distribution and circulation, of combined nitrogen, in the soil, in animal and
vegetable life on the earth’s surface, and in the atmosphere above it.

On the Action of Hard Waters upon Lead.
By W. Lauper Linpsay, I.D., FLAS.

It is, and has long been currently believed,—1. That where there is free access of
atmospheric air, pure or soft waters, that is waters absolutely or comparatively free
from saline ingredients, readily corrode or erode lead, and become impregnated, some-
times to a poisonous degree, with some of the salts thereof. 2. That the rapidity
and extent of this solvent or corrosive action are proportionate to the purity of the
water, that is, its freedom from neutral salts. 3. That impure or hard waters, that
is waters containing a considerable amount of neutral salts, do not so affect or become
impregnated with lead. 4. That such waters are prevented from acting on lead by,
or in virtue of, their saline constituents, which exert a sort of protective or preserva-
tive power in regard to the lead. 5. That if a given water does not within a short
period cause a white coating on freshly-burnished lead plates or rods, it may be
regarded as destitute of any corrosive action, and may therefore be safely allowed
to be kept in leaden cisterns and transmitted through leaden pipes.

The author’s experiments and inquiries have led him to the following somewhat
opposite conclusions :—1. That certain pure or soft waters do not act upon lead. 2.
That certain impure or hard waters, in some cases containing abundance of the very
salts which are generally regarded as most protective or preservative, do act upon lead.
3. That the rationale of the action in these anomalous or exceptional cases is very
imperfectly understood. 4. That experimentation on the small scale and for short
periods is most fallacious, and frequently dangerous, in regard to the conclusions
thence to be drawn. 5. That water may, under certain circumstances, and to cer-
tain extents, contain lead without necessarily being possessed of poisonous action
on the human system. 6. That water contaminated with lead may deleteriously
affect certain members or individuals only of a community, family, or household.
7. That the use of water so contaminated is the obscure cause of many anomalous
colic and paralytic affections.

One chief object of the paper is to illustrate the second of the latter propositions,
viz. that hard waters frequently do act upon lead. The author tabulates the various
theories or explanations that have been or that may be advanced to account for the
action of such waters upon lead, as follows :—

1, Galvanic action from the contact of different metals, or of different qualities of
the same metal, under water.

’ 2, Unusually small quantity of,—
a. The neutral salts generally, or in the aggregate.
bd. Particular neutral salts, such as the carbonates and sulphates.

3. Use of leaden covers to cisterns.

4. Long exposure of still water to the same surface of metal, as in the storing
up of water in lead cisterns.

5. Great extent of surface of metal exposed to the action of water.

6. Unusually large proportion of carbonic acid in the water.

7. Unusually large proportion of atmospheric air in the water.

8. Presence of nitrite of ammonia in the water. :

9. Presence of acids, derivable from decaying or dead animal or vegetable matter.

10. Presence of foreign bodies or accidental impurities.

11. Chemical or electro-chemical causes, with which we are at present unac-

_quainted.

The author refers to the first of these theories or explanations—galvanic agency

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 55

—as one of great importance, and he strongly commends it to the notice of chemists
and electricians as a subject still requiring to be worked out. It would appear that
the necessary use of solder,—the presence of portions of other metals than lead in
any form in contact with lead,—inequalities in the surface of the lead sheeting,—the
use of lead from different factories and of different composition (as lead made with
old solder, or containing silver unextracted),—may each and all determine galvanic
action, which facilitates, to a dangerous degree, the corrosive action of hard water
on lead. What renders galvanic action the more dangerous and the more important
is, that it is strongest in hard waters, that is, in those containing more or less neutral
salts, which, under other circumstances, would exert their usual protective influence
on the lead.

The paper contains several illustrations of,—1. corrosion or erosion, to such an
extent as to cause repeated leakage, of leaden cisterns, by waters of various degrees
and kinds of hardness, or containing various kinds and amounts of neutral salts ;
and 2. the poisonous action of such water, when impregnated with lead, on the
human body. It also contains a series of comparative chemical analyses, made with
a view to ascertain the condition as to hardness, or the nature and amount of the
saline constituents, as well as the action upon lead, of various waters used for culinary
and drinking purposes in and around Perth.

The author refers to the mechanical and chemical means of protecting the lead
of cisterns and pipes against the corrosive action of water. Of mechanical means,
he gives as illustrations the coating of the lead with compositions of rosin and tallow,
or similar substances ; and the patent processes of Mr. Davis of Lambeth, London,
for lining the interior of leaden pipes with tin, or with gutta percha, caoutchouc,
gum-lacs or bitumen. The substitution of other metals—of wood, glass, earthenware,
or gutta percha for lead—in the construction of cisterns and pipes, is also referred to.
Of chemical means, he instances the addition to the water of powerfully protective
salts, such as the phosphate of soda, or the iodide of potassium in minute propor-
tion.

The author believes that cases of lead poisoning, in a minor degree, are still con-
stantly occurring in all our large towns from the plumbeous impregnation of our
drinking waters; and he impresses the necessity of inquiring at once into the con-
dition of the water supply whenever obscure colic or paralytic complaints exhibit
themselves, otherwise inexplicable, especially if it be found that several persons are
simultaneously affected*.

On an improved Electric Lamp invented and manufactured by Mr, W1LL1AM
Hart, Edinburgh. (Communicated by Dr. StEvENSON MacapaAm,

RSE.)
- The relation which the several parts of this lamp bear to each other, will be better
understood by following the route which the electricity takes in its travels through
the lamp. The wire attached to one of the extremities of the battery is brought to
a binding-screw, which is in metallic connexion with the cylindrical base of the
arrangement and the lower charcoal rod. The latter is immoveable, and constitutes
one of the poles of the voltaic battery. The wire coming from the opposite end of
the battery is placed in a connecting screw (which is insulated from the cylindrical
base by the insertion of a ring of ivory), passes up the centre of a hollow stem (also
insulated from the cylindrical base by ivory), is led through a canal in the centre of
an arm placed at right angles to the stem, and is then wound round an electro-
magnet suspended in a vertical position from the arm. ‘Thus far the wire is covered
with silk, and hence does not come into metallic connexion with the other parts of
the lamp; but having completed its required course, it is soldered to the electro-
magnet, and thus becomes metallically connected with the upright stem and all its
appurtenances, including a file-like rod, grasping the upper charcoal rod, which is
moveable and forms the second electrode.

When the battery is not in action, the roughened or file-like rod, with its attached
upper carbon pole, is not upheld by any device, but simply reclines on the lower

* The paper will be found published at length in the “ Edinburgh New Philosophical Jour-
nal” for April, 1859. : :

56 REPORT—1858.

carbon rod; but whenever the voltaic current is allowed to circulate, the electro-

magnet is formed and its armature is drawn up; a ring connected with the armature

compresses the halves of a hollow wedge; the upper edges of the wedge fix into the

grooves in the file-like rod with its attached carbon, and in the general movement

upwards the latter is slightly raised from the lower carbon, and the light is instantly
roduced,

It will thus be observed, that the ring attached to the armature performs two offices
when drawn up towards the elecitro-magnet:—in the first place, rising from a narrower
part, where it loosely surrounds the hollow wedge, it tightly embraces, when half-
mast high, the wider part of the wedge, and compels it to set in tightly to the file-like
rod; and in the second place, having firm hold of the wedge, it drags up that part
with the now adherent roughened rod and upper carbon, and holds these suspended
at the proper distance. ‘The light continues to burn steadily till the charcoal points
by combustion and the transference of carbon have their proper distance from each
other increased to that point when the electricity ceases to flow; then the electro-
magnet loses its attracting power, the armature and the attached ring fall down; the
halves of the wedge, separate from each other, loose their hold of the file-like rod, and
allow the Jatter to descend by the force of gravitation, till the upper charcoal pencil
touches the lower carbon rod, when instantly the electrical current is re-established,
the magnet is reformed, and the upper carbon is again drawn up. So momentarily
does this extinguishing and relighting of the lamp occur, that the interval of darkness
is hardlybservable to the naked eye. In duration of time, as also in the convulsive
throb which the moveable parts of the apparatus then give, the phenomenon greatly
resembles the beat of the heart of an animal. The lamp may be accommodated to
any size of battery sufficient to show the light. By means of a series of screws in
connexion with the armature, and the supporting arm, the moveable and adjusting
part of the lamp may be lowered from the electro-magnet or raised towards it, If
the battery be small, then the lifting arrangement is screwed up near the magnet ;
whilst if the battery be large, and a corresponding amount of electricity at command,
the regulators are placed further from the lifting power, and when the voltaic cur-
rent traverses the arrangement, the moveable carbon is drawn up a greater distance,
more space is presented between the carbon poles, and necessarily a longer and more
dazzling arc of flame is formed.

On M. de Luca’s Claim to be the Discoverer of the Non-Presence of Iodine
in the Atmospheric Air, Rain-Water, and Snow. By Dr. Srevenson
Macapam.

Note on the Production of a Frosted Surface on Articles made of Aluminium.
By Stevenson Macapay, Ph.D., F.RSE., F.C.S., Lecturer on Che-
mistry, Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh.

The attention of the author was directed to this subject, on the occasion of pre-
paring several class medals from the rare metal aluminium. The metal was obtained
direct from Paris in small ingots. ‘The die-stamper in this country fused the bars of
aluminium and recast the metal in a form of ingot mould, more suitable for the after
operations. The metal bars thus obtained were subjected to rolling, then annealed,
and the medals struck. Every care was taken to have the die perfectly clean and
highly polished, and yet the medals were always obtained with a tarnished appear-
ance on the surface, which rendered still more unacceptable the blue xine hue which
the aluminium presents when most free from surface blemishes. An attempt was
made to get rid of the tarnished surface by friction or polishing, but this did not
sensibly remove the stains. It was then resolved to frost the medals in the same
way as silver articles are frosted, viz. by the employment of hydrochloric acid into
which the heated metal is dipped; but the action of acids on aluminium was so slow,
aes they failed to produce the requisite effect, and their employment was dispensed
with.

The author then introduced the aluminium articles into a solution of caustic potash
raised to a temperature above blood-heat, which immediately attacked the metal,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 57

hydrogen being disengaged, and very shortly the aluminium assumed a fine white
frosted appearance. The solution of caustic potash, when concentrated, acts very
violently upon the aluminium; and if the metal were not speedily rescued, it would
soon entirely disappear. Even a dilute potash solution at a blood-heat will slowly
produce the frosted appearance.

The author suggests that the process now indicated may be found of service in the
arts. Aluminium has hitherto proved itself to be unacceptable on account of its
similarity in appearance to zinc, but now a frosted surface may be communicated to
articles made of aluminium, which rivals that of frosted silver, and which possesses
this great advantage over silver, that it is not liable to be acted upon by sulphuretted
hydrogen, such as silver is, but continues to retain its fine white frosted appearance.

On the Combustibility and other Properties of the Rarer Metals.
By J. A. Marruiessen, Ph.D. FCS,

The author gave a description of the very beautiful metals obtained from the alkalies
and alkaline earths, which was illustrated by the exhibition of a variety of these metals,
as attractive as unusual. The specimens of sodium, lithium, potassium, calcium,
strontium, &c., were regarded with great interest, and their combustion in an intensely
brilliant white light elicited frequent expressions of admiration. Their extreme
lightness was dwelt on, lithium being lighter than any liquid, and possessing little
more than half the specific gravity of water. From magnesium the combustion ree
sulted in an ash hollow throughout.

On Chromatie Photographs. By Joun Mercer, F.R.S.

The author exhibited a number of coloured photographs, some on paper and others
on calico, which had been prepared by the following process :—34 ozs. of sulphate of
iron are converted into peroxalate ; this is diluted to two gallons, and will impregnate
200 square yards of paper, the paper being floated on the solution till fully wet in
the usual way. It is then exposed, and afterwards steeped in some solution which
only acts on that part where the iron has been reduced from the per- to the prot-oxide.
Red prussiate of potash and sulphuric acid act well, making the image blue, and
- leaving the ground white, Sulphocyanide of potassium and a salt of copper form
another bath ; the protoxide of the picture deoxidizes the copper, and the sulphocyanide
of the suboxide of copper is fixed in the paper or cambric. This may be converted
into the red copper prussiate. A vast number of colours may be obtained by re-
placing the iron or copper by other metals, such as lead, zinc, tin, mercury, silver,
gold, or manganese. With these bases may be used various dyes, as madder, co-
chineal, murexide, logwood, galls, or quercitron bark, besides the iodides, chromates,
prussiates, or oxides of the metals themselves and mixtures of these.

The author showed how the peroxalate paper might be used as a fair actinometer,
by placing a slip between the leaves of a book, and pulling it out by steps every
stated number of seconds, It is then easily converted into a graduated scale.

On the Relation of the Atomic Weights of the Families of the Elements.
By Joun Mercer, F.RS.

It is well known that where threc or more elements form a well-defined group or
family (such as lithium, sodium, and potassium), their atomic weights are found to
stand in some simple relation to one another. ‘The present paper pointed out many
of these numerical relations, and those which arise when the equivalents of one group
are subtracted from the equivalents of another group. Thus, for example, the lithium
group may be supposed to be constructed in a similar manner to the group of organic
radicals, hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, &c., as shown in the subjoined Table, where 6=1,

Lithium = L at.wt. 7 corresponding to H
Sodium., = 8, L, a 23 a » Hy
Potassium = 0, L, # 39 3 C, H;

Thus also, for example, if the atomic weights of the nitrogen group be subtracted
from those of the fluorine group, the residue is in each case 5.

58 REPORT—1858.

Carbon...=5 +1 6= ab+b corresponding to

Boron ...=5,4+1 = 11=2ab+6 As Methyle.
Silicon... =5,+1 = 21=4ab+6b “s Ethyle.
Zircon ...=5,+ l= 31=4ab+b 4 Propyle.

The following family was also included in Mr. Mercer's calculations :—
Fluorine =5+N = 19
Chlorine =5+P = 36
Bromine =5+As= 81
Jodine =5+S85=126
From the tables exhibiting the possible construction of elements, the following
may be taken as an example, introducing as it does two other families :—

4, = O.

4; = —— Mg.

4, = Ss.

a = Ca.

Ai) = Se.

4 = -—— Sr.

re Te.

47 — Ba.

4 4+3= L.
4,+3= —— Na.
4,+3= K.

It will be observed that each member of the magnesium group is 4 in advance of
the corresponding member of the oxygen group.

On the Atom of Tin. By Dr. W. Ovtine, F.C.S.

The author argued, from both original and recorded experiments, that the atomic
weight of tin was not 59, as usually accepted, but the double thereof, or 118; and,
consequently, that stannous salts were not protosalts, but bisalts; and stannic salts
not bisalts, but quadrisalts. This view was supported by the following considerations ;
namely, that stannous oxide has the property of expelling carbonic acid from fused
alkaline carbonates ; that stannous oxide does not form any combination with carbonic
acid; that stannous salts are completely decomposed by chalk and insoluble carbon-
ates, even at ordinary temperatures; that stannous chloride is readily fusible and
volatile, and is decomposed to a considerable extent by water; that stan-ethyl, or
stannous ethyl, has not the properties of a prot-ethylide, but of a per-ethylide, as in-
stanced by the facility with which it combines with oxygen and chlorine, and replaces
the basic hydrogen of different acids; that the vapour-density of stannic chloride
requires the existence of four atoms of chlorine in its molecule; and, lastly, that
stannic fluoride corresponds closely to silicic fluoride, the molecule of which, as shown
by its vapour-density, contains four atoms of fluorine.

On the Purple Dye obtained from Coal-Tar. By W. H. Perkin, P.CS.

This dye, a specimen of which was exhibited, is a product of the oxidation of ani-
line by bichromate of potash. It is a bronze-coloured substance, dissolving in alcohol
with a beautiful purple colour. It is difficultly soluble in water, but more soluble
in acidulated water. Like indigo, it is perfectly decolorized by the hydrated prot-
oxide of iron, the colour being restored again by exposure to the air. It dissolves in
concentrated sulphuric acid, forming a green solution, which, upon the addition of
water, precipitates the colour unchanged. It is not affected by digestion with an
alcoholic solution of potash. It decomposes slowly at 250°C. _ It is applicable for
dyeing and printing silk, cotton, or wool. Its colour is exceedingly intense, one
pound of the solid substance dyeing no less than 200 lbs. of cotton a moderately dark
lilac. The colours thus produced are very permanent, standing the action of light
and heat, acids and alkalies, Samples of silk dyed with it were exhibited.

On the Atomic Weights of the Elements of Six Chemical Families.
By Joun Mercer, #.R.S.

128. Atomic Parallels. 128.
124, 124.
120 120.
116 116.
112 112.
108 108.
104 104.
100 100.
96 96.
92 92.
88. 88.
84 84.
80. 80.
76. 76.
a2: 72.
68. 68.
64. 64,
60. 60.
56. 56.
52. 52,
48, 48.
44 44,
40. 40.
36. 36.
32 32.
28 28.
24, 24,
20 20.
16. 16.
12. 12,
8.
4, | 4.
0. 0.
7OMe* i N Clr a ae N CI§

* Oxygen and Magnesian Groups, showing the steps or difference between each member ;
they are parallel, except that Mg is raised up 4°. + This pair, Nitrogen and Chlorine
Groups, are the same, but Cl is raised up 5°. { Oxygen and Magnesian, full lengths,
Mg 4° longer. § Nitrogen and Chlorine Groups, full lengths, Chlorine 5° longer.

Carbon Group.

HoH 1

4dao's

+++4++4+
bet dd bt

ooo
CAS

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+4+4++

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oT an I wea I aoe

Hao

Cs oe: |
++4++

ot
1D 19 19 1D
Henn a
(=) Sy ets

anor
OND

Hue id

Si
Zr

Lithium Group.

H

+ H Methyle.
H + H Ethyle.

Oxygen and Magnesian Groups.

.Ca

. M
ae
Se
3
Oo w
| fee
OH
+ +
oO oO
lag |
3 HH
On
|
+ oH
+ +
o
TM RM
oO
wo
| |
ox
N —t
| ll
3
Ow
o wo
Pe eet |
ie 6) [e.@)
i zon
M RB

8
_
e E
oO
ro
2
&
ae
Ss 8 I
2 + +
aa &
| aT
MH HN
3
Sy
Bae
a a
mit +4
a
=
me: & &
= es
ae | il
SS
San 4
Oo o oo
es (HE
Bema
Sir Wl
~ 06 06
as x
a es
Bm 4
ay
eo
a 4

ae OO
N OO wx
ea eat GN
om i 'e
ao or
- + +
Soe
es
Ss a
anys
Gap (Co. oD
+ + +
Zieh
feed
aw
ell
eo a
ee
—
So Fis es

14
31

+ N = 166

N4+34+N

X = 2As8s

Bi = AsSb +. N = 211

N
rE

>?
be
37
27

or
>

14
31

76

+
+
Sb = 3Z+ N= 121

xX

47+ N= 166
5Z+ No= 211

Bi

tui due dl
oma ca of
++4+4+4++

s)

ui

by
OmAN

i=
Foo
‘Rm oe

Fn en Oe Oe Oe ee |

ad chk ste ot

Piped at aes Loe

LOSS SW id id Sid isas

oD 0 6 oD OO
+++++

Bae,

29
3”
”

= 45 or
— Sb = 45

Sh, — hater 95
As — P = 45
—N =17

P

Bi — X
big

x

76

rc
ar)

+ Ay Ay A AY

—N =17
—F=17
Br — Te = 17
N +3 =17
HO+ 0 =17

Cl

10 1 10 10
oe i il
Aude
b Pebol
moO mH

eodgy
|
ON 6d 00 on
+4+4++

2 Oo mn a
aripeatr

=p

=As, +Np=Sb, +Np=X, +Np

P+Np

4 Ay A Ay

oOo * 6 ©

Adah weteib ei

Hie dt ty

Hi i i tl

oo as es cs os’ 6 of 0D oD OD

++4++4+4+

paki Ja

eo * 8g Dio. yen
IMiaigiaidig AdRHA

' s|=g =8y —-tQ Bl = W—- Xx
13} =
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F Zg\|= 13) =
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16|=
at
6, =
7 =o — coy an 4
IPG, wasn e.= 1a}, =
Fr =9W- VW 14L =1ag— ag
0); = 1Z.| =
r= g- 2% 9¢ = %— sy 18
0|= Z4e\/= 66) =
+ = 0-5 6l =*sN— d 8g
66 =
| 6z
Go =qg- [ eg = tq —qg
0|= 13| =
Go = sy — 1g oe = Ig — sy |
= | 12} = 62 =
|) et se ag Il =%™-d | et
0) = . 6 |= T=
Gg = N--gd 6 =*8N—-— N | st
& 8 ee vB
zB B & B &
oO ee a £. a 2.
8 & a soa
g 8 $ 5 ° a

‘swapummulas a1) fo aouasaffip ayy Burmoys
‘Kyuuny poomayy sayjoun fo suaquayy wou uaynp ‘saywun gy poouay)

I
3
A
|
5

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cee ar ett

*aouaIayIT

aayf ay) fo auo fo suaquapy

‘siapuremlay rt =O}

Nd| =Sh = € + NE 8

1s 1 See
adj=1e = €+NZ@
41 =‘E+N
e+ N=etN|=ZI= I-11 CF ! Lg | 63 ! ie
cg = I
e+'N= dN|=or = 10-40 o|=
; z cg =ig— X
¢+°nN => dN|=cr =4qa— I 0 7 ress a9 =o — I
— _ 6|=
e+ N=etNI=41= N- d J gee OR - ge ae er
e+ ‘N= dN|=ct= ad—-svV : o= 3-1 LL = W- a
= 62 | =
@e+°n= dN|/=er = sy — 49 . Il = o-— @ : CFL = ®N'— X
wrF= I-Xx a=
@+°N= dN|=cr=a49- x 0 |= FIL= I-49
oF = Ag — 4g ee 2 Se TS
e+ °n= dNi-a= X-— 0 ¥ wit OE .
(25S 8 ee F = 1 —-‘8V | =
c| ¢ = 9 — og 82) = 93l = 9§—- X WZt=-U- X
: cL = ad- da Tzk= 6z| =
¢|] OL = oq — 1 - GOL’ = -.8:—- 48 F 36 = Ne 95) *
—; Z|) =
‘¢| Ol = W— az | 99 = QO-—-s8V 69 = 1—8V
*8|=91 = T—tN Pe ae see
zg Lg = IW — Ig
[Ol ON 1Z|= GOL = °9L — X = a
si=g = o- 9g alae =) — 10 12 is tee 6z 2° ae
: L =81- a 12} = Pe eae ree ie
8\=FG = G- 9g 09 <= —- 47 a= — J
& =7g = og — of Lg|=
——— 2 £6 O d pg!

64 REPORT—1858.

On a new Method for the Quantitative Estimation of Nitric Acid.
By Dr. Pucu.

The author found that the action of nitric acid upon protochloride of tin, in a solu-
tion strongly acidified with chlorhydric acid, produced perchloride of tin and am-
monia according to the formula (NO,+8SnCl+8HCI=NH,+ 8SnCl+5HO) ; but
that the reaction was not completed, at the boiling-point, under ordinary pressure,
even when maintained at this point for several hours. The results obtained at ordi-
nary pressure with long-continued boiling, presented no constant value, and the
maximum degree of oxidation afforded did not amount to quite three-fourths of the
whole quantity required by the formula given above.

But on heating the mixture in an oil-bath, in glass-stoppered bottles, or in herme-
tically sealed tubes, to 160° Centigrade, the reaction was completed in 10 minutes.
Upon this reaction he proposed to found two methods for the determination of nitric
acid, either one or both of which could be used with the same quantity taken for
analysis.

(a.) First Method.—This consists in ascertaining how much protochloride of tin is
converted into perchloride during the reaction.

(b.) Second Method.—This takes adyantage of the ammonia formed during the
reaction. It is separated by distillation with an excess of fixed alkali and the di-
stillate caught in a receiver, with a known quantity of acid, which is then treated
according to Peligot’s method for estimating nitrogen.

In the first method the amount of protochloride of tin converted into perchloride by
the nitric acid is ascertained by triturating equal quantities of the tin solution before
and after the reaction with the nitrate to be examined. This is done by ascertaining
how much of a solution of known strength of bichromate of potash will be converted
into the sesquioxide of chromium by a given quantity of the protochloride solution,
according to the formula

2(CrO,)+8HCl43'SnCl=Cr, O,4+3HO+3S5nCl,,
the point of complete chloridation being ascertained according to String’s method by
the intensely blue colour produced, on the liberation of free iodine, from iodide of
potassium, in the presence of starch, by the first trace of chromic acid over that re-
quired to chloridate the tin.

From the reactions

NO,+8(HCl]+SnCl)=NH,+8SnCl,4+5HO and
KO.(CrO,),+3(HCl+SnCl) = KO+ Cr,0,;+3(HO-+SnCl,),
we get
NO, corresponding to 2 (KO.(CrO,), ) ; :
and hence, without knowing the value of the strength of the protochloride solution, ex-
cept in terms of the bichromate used, we get the amount of nitric acid present. Thus
Let A=weight of bichromate in a unit of volume of the solution used ;
and N=the number of these units which corresponds to the whole tin solution
used in a determination ;
n=the number of the same units corresponding to the unoxidized portion
of the tin, after the reaction with the nitric acid ;
then N—n=the number of units of volume of the bichromate solution which cor-
respond to the nitric acid deoxidized ;

(N—n)a=weight of the bichromate corresponding to the nitric acid deoxidized ;
is NO,
s(N—2)4X 0 (G0,,

The quantity (a) may be taken so small in relation to the unit of volume in which
it is dissolved, that a quantity of that solution corresponding to *00005 grm. nitric
acid may be read off on the burette with ease. Such was the case with the five con-
secutive analyses below :—

Nitric acid taken..........-. °00539 grm.
Nitric acid found............ "00541

=NO, present.

” ” eveeseorese “00541
» 9 ee ee 00541
” ” eetenecee. ae °00532

”» ” seoeetrncceete 00546

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 65

- For these experiments, sealed glass tubes, about 4 an inch in diameter and 5 to 7
inches long, were used.

When large quantities of nitric acid are supposed to be present, (a) must be larger,
and consequently the extreme delicacy of the process is impaired ; yet for ‘078 grm.
it gave accurate results to tenths of millegrams.

In the second process.

Let a=weight of normal acid (SO,) used to absorb the ammonia given off in the
distillate from the products of the action of the nitric and upon the pro-
tochloride of tin ;

N=the number of volumes used in a single determination ;
N'=the number of volumes of an alkaline solution (of such strength as will
allow accurate reading) which neutralize N volumes of the acid solution;
n=the number of volumes of the alkaline solution necessary to complete the
neutralizing action after the absorption of the ammonia in question ;

NO,

50, =NO, present.

then (Nim) Sx ax

This gave in four consecutive analyses,—
Nitric acid used .........0.5.- °00539
Nitric acid found ...........+.. °0045
” ” sees te eeas eter “0049
” ” Ceee ee eeererae *0048
” (A Pistogennenc MoE
The second process is not quite so exact as the first, because of the want of delicacy
in the process for the determination of ammonia; yet it is true to two-tenths of a
millegram of the nitrogen present.
In order to use the first process, no easily deoxidizable substance should be present.
The author had not yet learned the full extent of the influence of such substances, but
he hoped to be able to find means of eliminating all possible errors from this source.

On Animal Ammonia, its Formation, Evolution, and Office.
By the Rev. J. B. Reape, M.A. FR.

Alluding to the essay on ‘The Cause of the Coagulation of the Blood,’ by Dr.
Richardson, to which the Astley Cooper Prize had been adjudged, the author pointed
out how nearly Raspail had approached to the same conclusions as the essayist. In
his treatise on Organic Chemistry, he says, “ the constant alkalescence of the blood,
newly drawn from the vessels, and the coagulation produced in it by a diluted acid,
do not leave room for a doubt that the menstruum of the albumen is an alkali,
This alkali is soda, but more especially ammonia, of which no notice has been taken by
the various authors, but the presence of whose salts in the blood may be distinctly
recognized by the microscope.” ‘If this principle,” he adds, “be admitted, the
spontaneous coagulation of the blood presents no inexplicable difficulty.” Raspail’s
additional remarks only led him further from the truth he so nearly approached, and
inconsistently he attributed coagulation to the evaporation of watery vapour only.

Many years since the author demonstrated before the Microscopical Society of
London, the presence of ammonia in the breath and tissues of animals, but his con-
clusions were received with much hesitation. Now that its office as a solvent of the
fibrine of the blood is generally admitted, he would proceed to inquire into its source.
An experiment, by which the presence of ammonia in the perspiration of man and
animals is shown, may be readily performed, but is not included in those given by
Dr. Richardson. A glass vessel is moistened upon its inner surface with hydrochloric
acid, and its aperture held against the skin after exercise has been taken. The fluid
will yield evidence of hydrochlorate of ammonia, when submitted to microscopic
examination.

Dr. Richardson has shown that the transmission of the vapour of blood through
another portion of that fluid arrests coagulation. The same effect occurs when the
breath is passed into blood.

Repeated experiments have shown that the ammonia eliminated in the breath
varies greatly in different individuals at the same time, and in the same person at

1858, 5

66 REPORT—1858.

different hours of the day, and under altered conditions of rest, exercise, or fatigue.
The small amount contained in the atmosphere inspired is quite inadequate to ac-
count for that excreted, and we must consequently regard it as produced within the
body. The albumen and fibrine of the blood suggest themselves as capable of sup-
plying the nitrogen and hydrogen requisite. If we may assume the blood to be the
source of animal ammonia, let us look at the exquisite balance of chemical forces in
its connexion with that fluid. Blood is feebly alkaline from fixed alkali or alkaline
salt; not sufficiently so to hold fibrine in solution by this agency, but to a degree which
ensures the volatile alkali being left free for this purpose, when formed in the closed
chambers of the circulation. This view harmonizes with the fact, that the formation
of ammonia is a continuous process; the portion which maintains fluidity at a given
moment does not remain to exercise this office for hours or days; but carrying the
fibrine to every part of the body to supply its waste, it is itself eliminated by the
excretory surfaces.

On the Practical Application of Aluminium. By R. Reynoxps, F.C.S,

The author presented for examination by the Section, a spoon made of this metal
by Messrs. Coulson and Co., Sheffield. In this form, its lightness, as compared with
the metals ordinarily used for such purposes, was very striking. A perfect polish
had been attained, but its zinc-like tinge of colour made it differ from silver in
appearance. The handles of a knife and fork by the same manufacturers were also
exhibited. They closely resembled gold in colour, and were composed of an alloy of
copper with 5 per cent. of aluminium. — By varying the per-centage of the last-named
metal from 5 to 10, any shade of gold colour is attainable.

On the Choice of Subject in Photography, and the Adaptation of different
Processes. By W. L. Smitu.

On a new Method of Determining the Quantity of Carbonic Acid contained
in the Air. By Dr. E. Smtru.

On some Double Salts formed with Bichromate of Potash.
By W. K. Sutxivan. ;

In the description given in Gmelin’s ‘ Handbuch,’ of Fritzsche’s process of pre-
paring chromic acid, it is recommended carefully to add a warm solution of bichromate
of potash to an excess of oil of vitriol, as any, excess of the salt would crystallize out
without being decomposed, and thus contaminate the chromic acid. It appeared to
me improbable that bichromate of potash would separate under such circumstances ;
and having had occasion recently to notice the salt which separates, I found that it
did not present the characters of bichromate, and that it contained sulphuric acid.

If a nearly boiling concentrated solution of bichromate of potash be treated with
sufficient oil of vitriol to convert the whole of the potash into bisulphate, but not to
precipitate the chromic acid, and be then set aside, an abundant crystallization of
anhydrous bisulphate of potash will be formed. The crystals thus formed are often of
considerable size, and beautifully exhibit the peculiar reaction of the anhydrous bi-
sulphate with water, namely, of swelling up and becoming opake. The crystals are
always coloured yellow by the adhering solution, but sometimes they appear to
contain some chromate in combination ; for even after having been repeatedly dried
between folds of filtering paper, they yielded a mixture of bisulphate of potash in
acicular needles and orange-red rhombic needles, when dissolved in water and
recrystallized.

When somewhat less oil of vitriol was employed than in the last case, a beautiful
salt composed of orange-red rhombic plates separated, which were readily decomposed
by water, exhibiting the same phenomenon as the anhydrous bisulphate, When a
quantity of the transparent crystals were placed upon a filter and washed with water,
they gradually became opake, swelled up and changed to a pale orange yellow mass.
When the washing was not carried too far, and the filter was placed upon a plate of
dry plaster of Paris, so as to absorb the moisture, the substance still exhibited the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 67

original form of the undecomposed salt, but the crystals were quite opake and
friable, This pseudomorphic residue, when dissolved in water and the solution set
aside to crystallize, yielded acicular crystals of bisulphate of potash and an orange-
red salt in rhombic needles.

This remarkable mode of decomposition can only be accounted for by supposing the
salt to contain bisulphate of potash. The determination of the sulphuric and chromic
acids gave numbers, which upon this view lead to the very simple formula

KO, HO, 2S0,+ KO, 2CrQ,.

The strangeness of such a combination (for I am not aware that any similar one
has been observed) makes me hesitate even to suggest it as an explanation of the
phenomena observed, especially as I have only very partially examined the subject
as yet.

There appears to be several other salts of the same class. I have obtained, for
example, compounds which, upon the supposition of their being double salts of bisul-
phate of potash, contained an amount of sulphuric acid and chromic acid respectively,
which would lead to the formula—

KO, HO, 280,+2(K0, CrO3)
KO, HO, 2S0,+3(KO, CrO,).

The formation of these salts, and indeed the action generally of oil of vitriol upon
a solution of bichromate of potash, affords a beautiful example of the influence of mass
upon chemical affinity.

When the first salt was dissolved in water and the solution evaporated and set
aside, a salt crystallized out which did not become opake in water, and which could
be recrystallized without change. Its analysis led to the formula

KO, SO,+3(KO, CrO,).

By using a slight excess of bichromate of potash in preparing chromic acid by
Fritzsche’s process, and dissolving the precipitated red acid in a small quantity of cold
water, Reinsch obtained a yellow salt as a residue, which crystallized in broad rhombic
needles united together in stellated masses. To this salt he assigned the formula
KO, SO,+KO2CrO,. This salt appears to me to have been a product of the action
of water upon one of the salts which are formed in concentrated solutions in which
bisulphate of potash can be formed. I obtained this compound among the products
of decomposition of one of the salts which I have suggested to contain bisulphate of

otash.
. I have obtained several other combinations which I have not yet examined, among
which I may mention the following :—

1. I added a considerable quantity of oil of vitriol to the mother-liquor from which
the salt KO, HO, 2S0,+ KO, 2CrO, had on one occasion separated, and then evapo-
rated it briskly and set it aside. While hot it was of a deep brown colour, and
crusts of chromic acid formed on the side of the vessel; as it cooled, it grew turbid,
and the colour gradually became paler and of a purer yellowish red, as if the whole
of the free chromic acid had again entered into combination*. After a short time,
small crystalline scales made their appearance in the liquid, having the lustre and
very much the appearance of spangles of metallic gold. ‘They floated upon the sur-
face of the liquid, and acting as nuclei, they shot out in fan-like masses, the borders
of which got covered with a delicate fringe of needles of chromic acid. They arranged
themselves on the bottom of the basin in warty masses about the size of a half-walnut.
They were of extreme delicacy, so that the moment the vessel was disturbed they got
detached and flouted in the liquid like scales of iodide of lead. ‘They were rapidly
filtered through a funnel stopped with broken glass; and as they continued to dissolve
during the filtration, they were put upon a plate of dry plaster of Paris. The dried
residue looked very much like chromic acid, except that it had a distinct orange
shade, and was foliated.

2. When the mother-liquor of one of the supposed bisulphate salts was mixed with
another portion in which the chromic acid had been reduced to the state of Cr,O, by
alcohol, and set aside, small crystals of chrome-alum separated, but mixed with another

* This change may be observed in all cases where sulphuric acid is mixed with bichromate
of potash,
5*

68 REPORT—1858.

salt in the form of brilliant bronze-coloured scales, strikingly resembling the bronze-
coloured mica of some granites. This salt contains sulphuric acid; but whether all
the chrome exists as chromic acid, J have not yet ascertained; I have failed in
reproducing it.

3. I treated a boiling concentrated solution of bichromate of potash with glacial
phosphoric acid and set it aside until the following day; a pale orange-red salt ery-
stallized out in small nacreous scales. A portion of this salt, dissolved in water and
set aside to crystallize, yielded a beautiful salt consisting of well-developed rectangu-
lar prisms of remarkable brilliancy. One feature of the action of phosphoric acid
was, that the solution, no matter how much of the glacial acid was added, did not
deepen in colour: it rather indeed became paler, and at no time did there appear to
exist any uncombined chromic acid in solution.

On the Constitution of the Mineral Portion of Bones, and the Analysis of
Common Bone-ash, Animal Charcoal, 5c. By Professor VoELCKER,
PAD. FCS.

Heintz of Berlin maintains the phosphate of lime to exist in a tribasic form, but
found in human and other bones an excess of lime, combined neither with PO® nor
CO?. This he regards as fluoride of calcium, and consequently records as much as
3°85 per cent. of that substance as existing in bones. This, however, is simply the
result of calculation from the excess of lime. The author had made many experi-
ments to determine fluoride of calcium in bones, but without success; although when
he added 1 per cent. of that substance to pure phosphate of lime, it could be readily
determined.

When a dilute acid solution of bone-ash is precipitated by ammonia, the author
has always found as much lime as is contained in the tribasic salt, and usually more,
as carbonate of lime will be found to fall down with the precipitate in spite of all
precaution; this is especially the case when the precipitation has been accompanied
by heat. When conducted in the cold, and reprecipitated, the result agrees very closely
with tribasic phosphate. In proof of the discrepancies of the process of precipitation,
are the following experiments :—

I. Il.
1. Bone-ash gave precipitated phosphates . 75°84 73°29
2s LS ene, ke 79°03

Animal charcoal gave—

Furst: precipitation 5 2s). <) 14.) ..ce, fh pCi
Dissolved and reprecipitated . . . . « 73°63
Re-dissolved a e fy ae he ie Pelae

The direct determination of phosphoric acid gave 33°34=tribasic phosphate 72°23
per cent. The author much regretted the discredit brought upon chemistry by the
great variations in commercial analyses of these substances, and alluded to a practice
adopted by some chemists of regarding the precipitate as 8Ca0+3PO', and after-
wards re-calculating the phosphoric acid into the tribasic salt, by which their results
became much too high. He considered it imperative to discard the precipitation pro-
cess altogether, and to state the amount of phosphoric acid actually found, giving the
per-centage of tribasic salt equivalent to this.

The author recommends the following plan for the commercial analysis of bone-ash,
animal charcoal, &c., and has employed it for some time in his own laboratory.
Moisture and organic matter are determined as usual. About 20 grains are dissolved
in nitric acid, and the solution evaporated on a water-bath to dryness, which effects
the conversion of any pyrophosphate into ordinary phosphate. The residue is taken
up by the smallest possible quantity of nitric acid, then diluted with water, the sand
removed and the solution filtered. This is precipitated by excess of oxalate of potash,
and before removing the resulting precipitate, the liberated oxalic acid is nearly neu-
tralized by potash, acetate of potash is added, and the whole boiled. By this means
the oxalate of lime held in solution by free acid is thrown down. Filter and wash the
precipitate, and concentrate the filtrate to a small bulk. Add a little tartaric acid to
keep in solution any iron or alumina, and precipitate the phosphoric acid by ammoniacal
sulphate of magnesia: after standing for twelve hours, filter, partially wash the preci-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69.

pitate, redissolve and throw down a second time. This precaution is necessary, as the
first product is contaminated with oxalate of magnesia. The lime precipitate con-
tains generally a variable quantity of phosphates of iron and alumina. To estimate
these, dissolve it in hydrochloric acid, add ammonia, wash precipitate, redissolve from
the jilter, and throw down a second time without heat. When washed and dried, as
burned, the weight is deducted from the first amount of which it is a part, and the re-
sult is pure carbonate of Jime. The phosphate of iron and alumina being dissolved in
hydrochloric acid, a little tartaric acid is added, and the phosphoric acid finally deter-
mined as phosphate of magnesia,

On the Carbonates of Alumina, Chromic Owide, and Ferric Oxide.
By W. Watrace, Ph.D., F.CS.

On Chloro-Arsenious Acid, and some of its Compounds.
By Witt1aAmM Watrace, Ph.D., F.CS.

In the course of a former series of experiments: on: the chloride of arsenic*, I
observed that arsenious acid dissolved freely in the-anhydrous chloride. Believing
that a definite combination was formed, I have recently-investigated the subject more
fully, and have succeeded in preparing a new and -highly interesting compound, to
which I have given the name of chloro-arsenious acid. My examination of the acid
and its compounds is still far from complete ; but I purpose in the mean time to sub-
mit a short abstract of my results to the members of the British Association.

1, Solution of Arsenious Acid in Chloride of Arsenic.—When chloride of arsenic
is heated to gentle ebullition in a small tubulated retort, the beak of which is inclined
upwards, and powdered arsenious acid is gradually introduced, the solution of the lat-
ter appears to cease when the liquid contains equal equivalents of the two compounds.
The readiest method of preparing this solution in quantity is to introduce a few ounces
of arsenious acid into a flask; and pass hydrochloric acid gas through it until all the
arsenious acid disappears. ‘The flask should be agitated occasionally, The action is
very violent, and is attended by the elimination of much heat. If the passage of the
hydrochloric acid gas is continued as long as absorption takes place, pure chloride of
arsenic is obtained. The nature of the reaction has been fully explained in the paper
already referred to.

2. Chloro-arsenious Acid.—When the solution of arsenious acid in chloride of
arsenic is gradually distilled until it begins to froth up, there separates, on cooling, a
pasty, viscid, semi-fluid mass, from which the more liquid portion may be poured off.
Analysis gave as follows :—

ATEONAG SKS Gili bie <5 1=/5 59°29
Chieriney oss aieattons: 241 =35:5 28-06
ORVEON gs oh medicwr iy (ay 2=16 12-65

. 126°5 100-00

The formula of this compound, therefore, is AsCl?4+2AsO* or AsClO2, that is,
arsenious acid in which one equivalent of oxygen is replaced by chlorine.

Anhydrous chloro-arsenious acid is a viscid fluid or a very soft solid, according to
the temperature to which it is exposed. It is transparent, but has a brown colour,
which does not appear to be owing to the presence of any impurity. It fumes slightly -
in the air, parting with a small portion of its chlorine as hydrochloric acid, and
absorbing oxygen. When strongly heated, it boils up with considerable frothing, and
affords a distillate of pure chloride of arsenic. When brought up to about the tempe-
rature at which arsenious acid sublimes, it leaves a glassy, hard, transparent substance,
which was found to contain 10°94 per cent. of chlorine, agreeing with the formula
2AsO°, AsCl0?.

The fluid poured off from the chloro-arsenious acid was found, on analysis, to con-
tain an amount of chlorine which corresponds with ‘the formula AsClI°, AsO*. It is
therefore similar to the solution prepared by adding arsenious acid to heated chloride
of arsenic. I do not believe, however, that this liquid is a compound of these two

* “ On Chloride of Arsenic,” by Penny and Wallace, Phil. Mag. vol. iv. p. 861.

70 REPORT—1858.

substances; if a definite combination at all, its constitution is probably 3AsO? Cl
AsCl.

Chloro-arsenious acid is also formed when chloride of arsenic is treated with a
quantity of water not quite sufficient to dissolve it. On adding small successive por-
tions of water to the chloride, the proportion of chlorine in the undissolved quantity
gradually diminishes, until the last globules consist chiefly of the compound acid.

3. Hydrated Chloro-arsenious Acid.—Chloride of arsenic is dissolved in the smallest
possible quantity of water (about 16 equivalents), and the solution set aside in a closed
flask. In two or three days minute nucleated crystals begin to form; and these gra-
dually increase until about one half of the liquid is occupied by them, A second crop
of crystals may be obtained by placing a fragment of rock-salt in the mother-liquor :
these take a long time to form, and are much larger and better defined than those
which result from the first operation, The crystals may be well pressed with a pla-
tinum spatula, and then dried by pressure between numerous folds of blotting-paper.
A portion was analysed which had been completely dried by powerful pressure, and
the following results were obtained :—

Arsenic . « « e« 91°80 1=75 51°90
Chlorine . « » »« 24:97 1=35°5 24°57
Oxygen « 6 «© © oe 2=16 11:07
Water « « «© «© « 12°35 2=18 12°46

144°5 100°00

The crystallized acid contains, therefore, two equivalents of water, and is repre-
sented by the formula 2HO, AsClO*. It becomes anhydrous over oil of vitriol, but
at the same time loses 2 or 3 per cent. of chlorine, The crystals are exceedingly
minute, and form in mammillated masses resembling the mineral Prehnite, ‘The
slowly-formed crystals are acicular, and collect in stellate groups, presenting, while
in the liquid, a very beautiful appearance. The smaller crystals have a dazzling white
colour, and emit a little hydrochloric acid on exposure to the air.

Chloro-arsenious acid combines with chlorides, as arsenious acid does with oxides.
It appears to be bibasic, the two equivalents of water being capable of being replaced
by two equivalents of an alkaline chloride. The ammonia-salt is the only one which
I have as yet succeeded in obtaining in a distinctly crystalline form, and of definite
composition. Potash and lime compounds have been obtained as white powders which
contain much less than two equivalents of alkaline chloride; so that these compounds
have probably only one equivalent of alkaline chloride, and one equivalent of basic
water.

Two interesting reactions of the solution of terchloride of arsenic in water may
here be mentioned: oil of vitriol immediately throws down the anhydrous compound,
while chloride of calcium causes the separation of the chloride mixed with a small
proportion of chloro-arsenious acid. ‘The same reactions occur with a saturated solu-
tion of arsenious acid in concentrated aqueous hydrochloric acid: indeed, an ounce or
two of chloride of arsenic may readily be prepared by adding an equal bulk of strong
oil of vitriol to such a solution, It is not so pure, however, as that obtained from
the aqueous solution of chloride of arsenic, and must be rectified if required in a state
of purity.

4. Chloro-arsenite of Ammonia.—The aqueous solution of chloride of arsenic is
mixed with strong liquid hydrochloric acid in sufficient quantity to prevent the form-
ation of chloro-arsenious acid, and a small lump of chloride of ammonium is intro-
duced. At first, small, hard, reddish-coloured, cubical crystals, consisting of almost
pure chloride of ammonium, make their appearance ; but after some days, long fibrous
needles of snow-white colour and pearly lustre begin to form, and gradually fill up
the liquid. These consist of the salt under consideration. ‘They are well-drained,
and dried by pressure between folds of blotting-paper. The following results were
obtained with the salt dried over oil of vitriol :—

Arsenic . . + « 82:23 I= 75 32°12
Ammonium . . . 15:23 2= 36 15°42
Chlorine «. . . . 44°78 3=106°5 45°61
Oxygen « « « + os 2= 16 6°85

233°5 100-00

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 71

The formula of the dry salt is therefore 2NH*Cl, AsClO*. The loss of water by
exposure over oil of vitriol amounted to 4-27 per cent.; one equivalent of water gives
3°71 per cent, During the desiccation, a little chlorine is evolved and replaced by
oxygen. ‘

I am still engaged in prosecuting the investigation of the compounds of chloro-
arsenious acid with the metallic chlorides, and in endeavouring to form corresponding
acids containing iodine and bromine.

Observations on Dry Collodion Processes. By W. 8. Wann, F.C.S.

On the Source of Ammonia in Volcanic Emanation.
By R. Warineton, F.C.S.

At the Meeting of the British Association at Liverpool, 1854, the author demon-
strated the existence, in the lavas of Vulcano, of nitride of boron, which by the action
of watery vapour is converted into boracic acid and ammonia. Adopting an analo~
gous reasoning, he considered that, in volcanic districts where hydrated silicic acid
and ammonia were the ordinary products, a similar compound of silicon and nitrogen
should be met with. On examining the Pelagonites from the Hecla district, the author
finds that they always contain nitrogen in combination, as he believes, with silicon as
a nitride of silicon, and that the source of ammonia in volcanic phenomena may be
principally attributed to the action of aqueous vapour, at high temperatures, on this
compound.

On an Instrument for maintaining a Water-Bath at constant Temperatures.
By Joun Warteruouse, F.RS.

' The author exhibited to the Chemical Section an instrument which he calied a
“ Thermostadt,” the object.of which he explained to be, to afford the means of keep-
ing a water-bath at a uniform and unvarying temperature for an indefinite period. In
the accompanying sketch, A B is a glass tube bent upon itself,
and when filled with spirit or other expansible fluid, forming a
thermometer of large dimensions: the two ends of this tube are
cemented into the brass cap and plate C, the end A being her-
metically closed, and B open; D is a stuffing-box (into which
the open end of the tube is cemented), through which the tube E,
open at both ends, passes, and which may be fixed in any required Dj) '|=
position by the tightening screw collar F; to the upper end of "yy ip
this tube is attached a flexible tube, which may be connected with |
an ordinary gas-pipe; G is a small tube screwed into the side of
the stuffing-box D, and communicating with the tube B or stem
of the thermometer, and serves as an attachment for another flex-
ible pipe which connects the apparatus with the burners which
are-placed under the water-bath. A small quantity of mercury,
M, is introduced to separate the spirit in A from the open stem
of the thermometer B. ‘The operation of the instrument is as
follows :—the whole being immersed to the plate C in the water-
bath, the gas passes through E into the tube B, and thence
through G to the burners; as the temperature rises, the spirit
expands, and causes the mercury to rise in B until it finally
closes the terminal aperture of the tube E, when the gas ceases
to flow; to prevent, however, the total extinction of the flame,
which would now take place, a small hole, N, is pierced with a
needle through the side of the tube E at about an inch from the
end, which allows a sufficiency of gas to pass to support a speck
of flame not larger than a large pin’s head. In operation the
flame soon acquires its appropriate dimensions to keep the bath <
at a perfectly steady temperature, the exact amount of which is determined by sliding
the tube E in its collar, and thus giving the mercury a greater or less range.

At first a difficulty presented itself in procuring a burner of sufficiently small aper-

72 .REPORT—1858.

ture for the jet, which would not be liable to be stopped up by the oily deposit from
common coal-gas; this, however, was completely removed by making burners of ordi-
nary pipeclay, piercing them with a fine needle, drying, and then making them red-
hot in a common fire.

The instrument in this state had been in constant use for seven or eight years,
during which it had been chiefly employed to regulate a small apparatus for carrying
on a series of experiments on incubation, and its steadiness of action had proved to be
all that could be desired. The author mentioned to the Section as one proof of its
utility in such investigations, that it had enabled him to prove clearly the evolution
of vital heat in the process of hatching eggs, which are shown to acquire a tempera~
ture for some days before the completion of their incubation, several degrees above
the atmosphere in which they are placed; a fact, which he believed had not been veri-
fied by actual experiment, though it would naturally be anticipated. The author
stated that the contrivance was the joint production of himself and Mr. $8. Smith of
Halifax.

GEOLOGY.
Address by Witi1AmM Hopkins, M.A., F.R.S., President of the Section.

Tuer President, in opening the Section, proceeded to observe :—the existence of
mammalian life in its earlier stages on the surface of our planet, the conditions of its
existence, and the period of its introduction, have always furnished questions of the
highest philosophical as well as palzeontological interest. You will be aware that some
geologists regard each new discovery of mammalian remains, in formations preceding
the older tertiaries, as a fresh indication of the probable existence of mammalia in
those earlier periods in which no positive proof of their existence has yet been obtained ;
while others regard such discoveries only as leading us to an ultimate limit, which will
hereafter define a period of the introduction of mammalia on the surface of the earth,
long posterior to that of the first introduction of animal life. Be this as it may, every
new discovery of the former existence of this highest class of animals must be a matter
of great geological interest. An important discovery of this kind has recently been
made, principally by the persevering exertions of Mr. Beckles, who has detected in
the Purbeck beds a considerable number of the remains of small mammals. The
whole of them are, I believe, in the hands of our President, Mr. Owen, for the deter-
mination of their generic and specific characters ; but Dr. Falconer seems already to
have recognized among them seven or eight distinct genera, some of them marsupial,
and others probably placental, of the insectivorous order. I may also notice, as a
matter of great palzontological interest, the recent discovery of a new ossiferous caye,
near Brixham, in Devonshire, of which some account is to be brought before us during
this meeting. The past year has been fruitful in paleontological researches, but it is
not my purpose to notice them in detail.

I proceed to one or two points of interest in the physical department of our science,
The internal structure of rock masses, with reference to joints, planes of cleavage, and
crystallization, is a subject of great interest to those who would study the operation
of physical causes in producing all the modifications of state through which the matter
now forming the outer crust of the globe must have passed in the lapse of geological
time. A considerable number of observations have been made by different geologists
respecting the positions of the planes of joints and of cleavage, but I confess myself
little satisfied with any laws of the phenomena unless deduced from observations of
far greater accuracy of detail than that by which these observations have generally
been characterized. I allude more particularly to this subject, because some progress
has, I think, been made in the mechanical explanation of a part of these phenomena,
those which relate to the laminated cleavage structure. Direct experiments have
been made by Mr. Sorby and Dr, Tyndall, which leave no doubt of the possibility of
producing this structure by direct pressure alone; and in certain simple cases, in
which the divisional planes form a system of parallel laminz, this mechanical cause
may be sufficient to account for the phenomena. But in many other cases in which

OO

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 73)

there appear to be several systems of these planes of structure, the positions of which
would seem to bear determinate relations to each other, it would appear extremely
difficult to account for the phenomena by the simple operation of pressure alone. It
is likely, I conceive, that more complicated causes have been at work, though press-
ure may have exercised an important influence. Again, it has been suggested that
what has been termed the force of shrinkage, or that internal tension which may be
produced in extended masses by their contraction from the loss of heat or moisture,
might be sufficient to account for the formation of joints, the positions of which, you
will recollect, approximate more or less to verticality. But there is one curious feature
in these phenomena, which appears to me inexplicable on this theory. It is well
known that in conglomerate formations in which large boulders are imbedded, the
joints pass completely through the boulders without any apparent interruption,
According to this theory, these boulders must have been pulled in two by the force
of shrinkage. It is in this that the difficulty I allude to consists; for it would appear,
I think, extremely difficult to conceive how the general matrix of such a conglo-
merate, wnatever may be the force with which it contracts, should obtain a sufficiently
powerful grasp on the two opposite halves of a smooth and rounded boulder, a few
inches in diameter, to pull them asunder. I suspect in all these phenomena the
working of some agencies more refined than those of simple compression and extension,

The subject of the motion of glaciers is one of interest to geologists; for unless we
understand the causes of such motion, it will be impossible for us to assign to former
glaciers their proper degree of efficiency in the transport of erratic blocks, and to di-
stinguish between the effects of glacial and of floating ice, and those of powerfuljeur-
rents. An important step has recently been made in this subject by the application
of a discovery made by Mr. Faraday a few years ago, that if one lump of ice be laid
upon another, the contiguous surfaces being sufficiently smooth to ensure perfect con-
tact, the two pieces in a short time will become firmly frozen together into one con-
tinuous transparent mass, although the temperature of the atmosphere in which they
are placed be many degrees above the freezing temperature. Dr. Tyndall has the
merit of applying this fact to the explanation of certain glacial phenomena. There
are two recognized ways in which the motion of a glacier takes place—one by the
sliding of the whole glacial mass over the bed of the valley in which it exists, and the
other by the whole mass changing its form in consequence of the pressures and ten-
sions to which it is subjected. The former mode of progression is that recognized by
the sliding theory; the second is that recognized by what has been termed the viscous
theory of Prof. Forbes. The viscous theory appeared to be generally recognized.
Still, to many persons it seemed difficult to reconcile the property of viscosity with
the fragility and apparent inflexibility and inextensibility of ice itself. On the other
hand, if this property of viscosity, or something of the kind, were denied, how could
we account for the fact of the different fragments into which a glacier is frequently
broken, becoming again united into one continuous mass? Dr. Tyndall has, I con-
ceive, solved the difficulty. Glacial ice, unlike a viscous mass, will bear very little
extension. It breaks and cracks suddenly; but the separate pieces, when subsequently
squeezed together, again become by regelation (as it is termed) one continuous mass.

After some general remarks on the cause of the laminar structure of glaciers,
he remarked that there was no doubt Dr. Tyndall was right in supposing the lamine
of blue and white ice to be perpendicular to the directions of maximum pressure,
He reminded the Section, that he had himself shown this fourteen years ago, by a
rigorous mathematical investigation of the internal pressures and tensions of the
glacial mass, resulting from the more rapid motion in its central than in its lateral
portions ; and the results of this investigation were entirely sanctioned by the experi-
mental elucidations which Dr. Tyndall had given of the nature of these internal press-
ures. The physical explanation of the formation of the veins could scarcely yet be
regarded as complete; but the actual perpendicularity of the lamin of ice to the
directions of maximum pressure within a glacier, and the probable perpendicularity
to those directions of the laminz in rock masses of laminated structure, would seem
to establish some relation between these structures in rocks and glacial ice, giving an
interest to this peculiar structure in the latter case, which it might not otherwise ap-
pear to possess for one who should regard it merely as a geologist.

He concluded his remarks by referring to the papers to be read before the Section,

74, REPORT—1858.

On the Fossil Fishes and Yellow Sandstone.
By the Rev. Dr. AnpERsoN, Newburgh.

Referring to his paper in the Report of the British Association of 1850, the author
remarked that much discussion had since occurred as to the true position and forma-
tion of the Yellow Sandstone of Dura Den, as well as of other localities. It was termed
the Yellow Sandstone, not simply because of the colour generally, but because of its
striking contrast with the other members of the Old Red Sandstone series*. In Ire-
land it seems to be regarded by Sir Richard Griffith, in his valuable communication
to the Section last year at Dublin, as holding a doubtful position, whether relatively
to the Old Red or to the Carboniferous system. Mr. Jukes declared, on the same
occasion, his conviction that “ the whole fish-beds of Scotland, and the similar rocks
in Glamorganshire and South Wales, might belong to the Carboniferous system.”
This confusion arose, the author was persuaded, from the confusion in the rocks
themselves in these localities, where, through means of the intrusive traps, they are
all upheaved and disturbed in their positions and relations to each other. But in
Dura Den the whole series are in the closest juxtaposition, and to be read off with
the ease of letter-press from sectional descriptions. He had further to add, upon the
question of age and position, that no Pterichthys nor Pamphractus had been found in
any of the rocks immediately above the yellow deposit of Dura Den, and he chal-
lenged the detection of one of either genus from any of the strata yielding Cephalaspis
or the grey sandstone beds with Pterygotus beneath, in Forfarshire, Perthshire, or
Caithness. Diplopteri weve likewise abundant in this deposit. Sir Roderick Murchison
and Lord Kinnaird had accompanied him, a few days ago, to Dura Den, and he was now
fortified in his conclusion by the high authority of Sir Roderick, who at this Sectional
Meeting has declared “ that there could be no doubt whatever that the yellow sand-
stones of Fifeshire pertain truly to the Old Red group, are entirely subjacent to the
lowest carboniferous sandstones, and are of the same age as the upper yellow sand-
stones of Elgin.”

“The sectional drawings on the wall exhibit in the closest relation the wonders of
the two geologic ages, the Carboniferous and the Old Red. A step carries you from
the one series of rocks to the other. A vast, universal, inconceivable change passes
over the surface of the globe; the seas in greater varieties and in multiplied forms of
marine life; the land all over abounding in trees and fern-forms of the amplest
dimensions; and leaping across the stream, in this narrow dell, you pass the shadowy
bourn which separates two of the oldest and most remarkable epochs in the world’s
history. The mighty operation is marked on a small scale, though recorded in the
most legible characters; a slight depression in the dip of the strata on the one side of
the rill, a few black lines interspersed among the stripes of white rock on the other
side; and this is the simple lithograph by which Nature tells of energies whose pro-
ducts are mountains and valleys, new teeming lands, seas swarming with the moving
thing that hath life, and mineral treasures enclosed for man’s use and comfort which
Time only can exhaust +!”

Passing from this point, now, he thought, completely established, the author of the
paper proceeded to a description of the fossils so abundant in the deposit, amounting
to four genera and seven or eight distinct species of fishes and crustacea. The beau-
tiful drawing of the large specimen before them was that of a [oloptychius nobilis-
simus, excavated last week from its stony bed of ages, and adding a new member to
the Dura Den family of the genus, and thus placing it higher in the series than the
rocks of Glashbennie, or those of Cromartie and other localities in the north. He
held in his hand a specimen of the two bones of the head termed the glosso-hyal
plates that supported the lower jaw, and which resembled very much the plates in
the existing Sudis gigas of the American rivers. The huge Megalichthys of our
Scottish coal-fields had three glosso-hyal supporters, as if Nature in her arrangements
had made size a condition of organic structure. Upon the whole, he concluded, we
have in Dura Den a classic field for geologists of the deepest interest ; much has
been obtained, much remains to be detected in future researches, For the general

* Course of Creation, by Dr. Anderson, p. 57. Longman, Brown and Co., London,
+ The author’s ‘ Geology of Scotland.’ Pictorial History. Virtue and Co., London,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 75

student, it was a chapter in the earth’s history, over which may be inscribed in the
most legible characters, ‘* Science made easy,” so well defined are the rocks of the
several systems, and so distinct and remarkable are the organic remains by which
they are classified and filled to repletion.

On the Volcanoes of Central Asia, commencing with the Baikal, in Oriental
Siberia, and extending into Mongolia and Chinese Tartary, illustrated
by a beautiful series of drawings of the principal volcanic scenes described.
By T. W. Atkinson, F.G.S.

The author said he did not intend to furnish a strictly geological account, describing
each stratum and mass of lava scientifically, his desire being only to point out and
describe volcanic regions passed through in his travels, commencing with that round
the Baikal in Oriental Siberia, and continuing to the Syan-shan ; extending over a
country lying between 80° and 110° east longitude, and from 41° to 55° north lati-
tude, and embracing a great variety of steppe and mountain, including a part of the
desert of Gobi.

The Baikal had by some persons been considered a vast crater, of which wonderful
stories were told by those who inhabit its shores, It was said to be nearly 600 miles
in length, varying from 30 to 40 miles in width. The northern shores of the Baikal
were rocky, and rose from 500 to 600 feet above the water, and, in a few places,
there were steppes or planes down to the water’s edge. The island of Olchon
stretches along the northern shore ; it is about 60 miles in length, and from 12 to 15
miles in breadth. ‘There was no appearance of volcanoes ever having been in action
either on the northern shore or on the island. On the southern shore, near Tour-
kniskaia and Bargouzin, volcanic action had most undoubtedly taken place.

He next described the Kosso-gol, a lake 75 miles in length and 22 in breadth,
bounded on the north and west by snow-capped mountains; on the lower slopes
were several volcanic domes from which lava had issued, Nearly in the middle of
the lake there was a conical-shaped island, probably 300 yards in diameter, and from
250 to 300 feet high. This he also believed to be volcanic.

In the valley of the Oka, which was 120 miles to the westward, he came upon a
bed of lava more than a mile in width, extending nearly across the valley. The lava
had a metallic appearance, and was very hard. As he proceeded along the valley,
the lava increased in thickness ; in some places it rose up like a wall 40 feet high, and
in others it was heaped into enormous masses, and with great chasms crossed the bed,
as if formed by the mass in cooling. He then detailed his exertions to discover the
source of this stream of lava, during which he found that there had been two other
eruptions ; the first had added to the old another stratum of lava 24 feet thick; the
second a bed of 35 feet thick and a mile in breadth. The description of what hap-
pened to the expedition in search of the source of the lava was exceedingly interesting.
After a five days’ journey the crater was reached; its length was 2 miles, and three-
quarters of a mile in width. It was after many long and weary rides, extending over
more than 500 miles, into Chinese Tartary, that he reached a singular dome-shaped
hill, near which he discovered a bed of lava. On examining the spot, he was assured that
the substance had gushed from several places on the side of the mount, and had run a
short distance down the ravine. He determined to ascend the dome and examine the
summit. The whole mass was of a dark purple-grey colour, with the appearance of
having been forced up ina soft or fluid state into the shape of an enormous air-bubble,
It was split and fractured in every direction, but not in regular strata, That this was
the commencement of a volcano was quite certain, but the molten matter must have
found an outlet elsewhere. ‘There was not a blade of grass or moss growing on the
dome, to the summit of which he and a Cossack scrambled with great toil and diffi-
culty. The distance from this place to Pe-shan, a volcano still in action, is about
450 miles,

On the Fructification of Cyclopteris Hibernica (Forbes), from the Upper
Devonian or Lower Carboniferous Strata at Kiltorkan Hill, County Kil-
kenny. By W.H. Batty, F.GS.

Mr. Baily in a few short notes alluded to this beautiful and well-preserved fossil

76 REPORT—1858.

fern, named by Prof, Edward Forbes Cyclopteris Hibernica*, and obtained in such
great profusion from the Upper Devonian or base of the Carboniferous system at Kil-
torkan Hill, County Kilkenny, as having received additional interest from the discovery
of several specimens exhibiting it in various stages of fructification, and illustrating
other parts of its structure, forming part of a large collection recently made by the
Geological Survey from that locality.

A diagram illustrating these particulars was exhibited and explained, including,
first, what was considered to be the base of the stem or rhizoma, having a rounded
expansion, apparently separating into scales, which continued upwards, fragments of
leaflets being attached to the stem at different intervals. The venation of a leaflet,
from one of the principal pinnules, presented longitudinally arranged striz which
were occasionally forked.

One of the fertile pinnules of a specimen showed the spores were aggregated int
clusters or sori, and that the indusium or protecting cover had been but little broken
up. A fertile pinnule from another specimen, however, appeared to be in a more
advanced stage, losing in a great measure the aggregated character of the sori, and
showing the protecting cases (which were granulated) to be much disturbed,

Other specimens in the collection were alluded to; one of which, with a length
of 16 inches, had twelve pinnules on each side of the rachis in full fructification,
without any appearance of leaflets, the spore-cases being scattered in all directions ;
another, of the same length, had about twenty pinnules on each side, the lower ones
being in full fructification, which decreased gradually towards the upper portion of
the frond, the leaflets taking its place.

Mr. Baily, having visited the locality, found the ferns to be most numerously distri-
buted through the beds which were composed of a fine-grained compact greenish
yellow sandstone, readily splitting into thin layers, some specimens presenting an
appearance of irregular venation and distortion as if from softening or maceration in
water: associated with them were many other plants and specimens of a large fresh-
water bivalve, Anodonta Jukesit (Forbes), having both valves united. About 3 feet
from the surface, in a much coarser and more irregular sandstone not splitting into
lamina, numerous fish remains were collected, believed to be the osseous plates of
Coccosteus (like C. decipiens), and with them asingle tooth of a Sauroid fish, probably
Dendrodus, being the second specimen of that kind obtained from this locality.

The beds were found to dip at a very slight angle, about four or five degrees
to the S.W., having angular joints, in the neighbourhood of which they were much
broken up.

The section exposed was stated to be as follows :—

No. 1. A superficial deposit from 18 inches to 2 feet, with broken fragments con-
taining the same plants as in the beds beneath.

No. 2, Fine-grained greenish shale with Cyclopteris and other plants, 1 foot,

No. 8, Coarser sandy bed not splitting into layers, with Coccostews, and few plants,
1 foot.

No. 4, Fine-grained sandy shale, with Cyclopteris and other plants, splitting into
layers, the lower beds being coarse, and the Cyclopteris large but not well-preserved.

On two new species of Crustacea (Bellinurus, Konig) from the Coal Measures
in Queen's County, Ireland ; and some Remarks on forms allied to them.
By W.H. Baty, £.G.S., and of the Geological Survey of Ireland.

The peculiar Coal-measure Crustacea, described by Mr. Baily, were first discovered
by Mr. George Henry Kinahan of the Geological Survey of Ireland, at the Bilboa
Colliery, Queen’s Co., in debris obtained from the three-foot bed of shale imme~
diately over the coal, associated with a few plants and numerous small bivalve shells
(Myacites) allied to Unio, together with others of the Mytiloid form (Myalina) ; the
deposits in which they occur, like those of Coalbrook Dale, from which the allied
forms were first obtained, being of freshwater or estuarine origin,

Mr, Baily alluded to a paper, previously read before the Geological Society of

.. * Exhibited by the late Professor Forbes at the Meeting of the British Association at Bel-
fast in 1852. ; He

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 77

Dubiin, on one of the specimens first discovered, which he proposed should, as well
as the allied and probably contemporaneous forms found in ironstone nodules from
the Penney stone of the lower coal-measures, Coalbrook Dale, hitherto included in
the genus Limulus, be removed from the recent genus, as presenting characters more
closely allied to Trilobites, and to which new genus the name of Steropis was given.
Since then, however, more perfect specimens and another species had been obtained
by himself and Mr. Kinahan, which had still further confirmed his views respecting
the necessity for a rearrangement of the genus; and as one of the most common
species was originally figured by Konig in his ‘ Icones Sectiles’ in 1825, by the name
of Bellinurus bellulus, he considered it but just to restore that generic name in pre-
ference to adding a new one. These Coal-measure Crustacea appearing to be the
commencement of the Limuloid type, it was thought advisable to consider them as a
subgenus of Limulus under the name of Bellinurus.
The nomenclature would therefore be the following :—

Order ENTOMOSTRACA,
Legion Pacitropopa, Order Xiphosura.

Genus Limulus, Miiller; subgenus Bellinurus, Konig.

Bellinurus (Limulus) anthrax, Prestwich, Geol. Trans, 2nd ser. 5, t. 41. f. 1-4. Coal-
measures, Coalbrook Dale.

Bellinurus (Limulus) rotundus, Prestwich, Geol. Trans. 2nd ser, 5. t. 41. f. 5-7. Coal-
measures, Coalbrook Dale.

Bellinurus (Limulus) trilobitoides, Prestwich, Geol. Trans. 2nd ser. 5. t.41. f.8; and
Buckland, Bridgw. Treat. p.396. t. 46”. f.3. Coal-measures, Coalbrook Dale,
Also Col. Portlock, Report on Londonderry, &c. t. 24. f. 11, doubtfully referred to

this species.

Synonyms of this species—(Entomolithus monoculus), Martin, Pet. Derb. t. 45. f. 4.
(Bellinurus bellulus), Konig, Icon. Sect. pl. 18. No. 230.

{In Parkinson’s ‘ Organic Remains,’ vol. iii. pl. 17, a similar fossil is said to be
figured from Dudley: vide Buckl. Bridgw. Treat. ]

Bellinurus Regina, Baily, u. sp. Coal-measures, Bilboa Colliery, Queen’s Co.

Bellinurus arcuatus, Baily, n. sp. Coal-measures, Bilboa Colliery, Queen’s Co.
Descriptions of these two new species were given by Mr. Baily ; Bellinurus Regina,

which was of small size, being remarkable for having had the cephalic shield and

thoracic rings extended into long spines; these diminished in regular gradation
towards the tail, which was small and bore a spine of great size and length, being
three times that of the animal.

Length 1 inch and 3th. Breadth } inch and 3,ths. Length of tail-spine “ths
of an inch.

The second species, Bellinurus arcuatus, was said to be allied to B. trilobitoides,
but differed in its general form and the greater spreading out of the spines at the
posterior angles of the cephalic shield; also in the development of two additional
spines from the ridge of the glabella extending over the body,

Several specimens of this species were obtained; one from a concretion in the shale
exhibited the form of the body, which was broadly ovate and acuminated posteriorly,
having a moderately developed tail-spine; it showed distinctly the division of each
thoracic ring into segments, having grooved lateral angles, as in the Trilobites.

Length l inch. Breadth 48ths of an inch. Length of tail-spine about $ an inch,

Mr, Baily then alluded to the great paleontological interest attached to the dis-
covery in Ireland of new forms of Coal-measure Crustacea so similar in character to
those found at Coalbrook Dale, Shropshire, by extending their distribution to corre-
sponding strata in that country, and indicating similar conditions to have been preva-
lent over a wide area,

On a comparison of these Coal-measure Crustacea with the more recent and living
forms, the wide gap in point of time corresponds with the great difference observable
in their structure, which exhibits a closer alliance with the Trilobites. On the con-
trary, there is a striking resemblance between the Upper Jurassic remains, which are
those of true Limuli and the living forms.

78 REPORT—1858.

On the Yorkshire Flagstones and their Fossils. By W. Batyes.

In illustration of the origin of this rock, the author relates the following observa-
tions. Ona bleak moor side, in the shelving formation of a fine sandstone, was a
hollow dammed across for the accumulation of rain-water for scouring purposes. In
a few years it was filled up by a gradual deposit of sand. When dug out, there were
presented finely laminated strata. In noticing other depositions, the author found
that each layer was the deposit of one shower; and in proportion to the quantity or
time of each succeeding rain, did the thickness of the deposit depend: each layer is
the effect of one flood, a time intervening when the sand was all accumulated at the
bottom, and the water had smoothed its surface by a very gentle action; so that the
smoothed bed would not allow of the next flood’s deposit to mix.

The laminz of the rock may be as thin as paper, or 1 inch thick for roofing-slate,
or 2 or 3 inches thick, which is the Yorkshire flag, or an uninterrupted deposition of
ages, when it becomes the cutting stone or ashlar, a number of square yards in one
mass without any cleavage. ‘This Yorkshire flag then is but the pond deposit above
noticed on a larger scale, and the deposit of some ancient estuary whose waters
washed the finer particles of the carboniferous sandstone from the Halifax and Tod-
morden districts ; but the deposition must have taken place, if not in deep water, cer-
tainly in still water; for the smallest, yea, the faintest breeze of wind, caused the
ripple-marks, as thousands of the freestone slabs show, in the strata overlying the flag
formation, and the uppermost strata must have been formed in shallow water, and at
times completely dry, as there are hundreds of acres which bear impressions of rain
or hail drops having impinged upon the strata in process of formation. There are
great quantities of the tracks and depositions of annelides, or, as they are locally
termed, the earthworm. It is a formation extremely barren of animal remains.

The Flora in the Yorkshire flag is not so numerous as in the ragged or crooked
stone above and below, simply from its being a quieter deposit than the other strata.
The most common fossil found in this formation and its kindred shale is the Calamite,
some shales between the different strata being literally composed of its impressions.
The next most common plant is the Stigmaria in profuse abundance, but very rarely
the trunk or Sigillaria. It is quite evident that the tuberous appendages denote it to
be a mud plant or roots. Some of the most magnificent and perfect specimens of the
Lepidodendron are found in this strata. There are also Pecopteris nervosa and Neu-
ropteris, &c.; as also a few fossil fruits, similar to T'’rigonocarpum ovatum,

Only two seams of coal, namely, Halifax soft and hard beds, lie under this stratum,
and above the great millstone grit base ; while thirty-three beds or bands of coal, with
hundreds of varying strata, overlie this deposit within twenty miles eastward to Old
Normanton, forming a series over 700 yards deep.

On the Atlas and Axis of the Plesiosaurus. By L. BArrett, F.G.S.

In a young specimen of Plesiosaurus presented to the Geological Museum of the
University of Cambridge by ‘Thomas Hawkins, Esq., the atlas and axis have not
coalesced, and are detached from the remainder of the cervical series. The axis is
nearly entire; but the atlas has lost part of its posterior articular surface, and the
whole of the second subvertebral wedge-bone. The interesting unanchylosed con-
dition of the four bones composing the atlantal cup is a sufficient excuse for occupying
a small portion of the time of the Section with a comparison of these bones with
those described by Prof. Owen in the ‘Annals of Natural History ’ for 1847, and the
corresponding parts of the skeleton of the new species of Plesiosaurus described by
Prof. Huxley in the last number of the Geological Journal.

We will first consider the structure of this specimen. The four bones composing
the atlantal cup have been slightly displaced; and its shape is a little altered. The
base of the neural canal is formed anteriorly partly by its centrum and partly by the
expanded bases of the neurapophyses ; posteriorly the centrum is much larger, and
forms the entire base of the canal. The upper thirds of the neurapophyses are
much expanded and bent backwards; their inner angles have not coalesced, and there
is no trace of a neural spine. The anterior surfaces of the lower part of the neur-
apophyses are concave, and form the antero-lateral segments of the articular cup for

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79

the occipital condyle ; laterally their inferior edges slightly overlap the first wedge-
bone; posteriorly they thin away, exposing the postero-lateral edges of the centrum.

That part of the centrum which forms the middle of the upper half of the atlantal
cup is hexagonal, and it has a small pit in its centre; posteriorly its articular face is
three times as great (nearly as large as the articular surface of the body of the axis),
and has a circular depression in the middle. The wedge-bone forms the lower half
of the articular cup, and has been produced behind into two long processes, the bases
of which only remain,

The neural spine of the axis is long, and much thicker than that of any of the
succeeding cervical vertebree ; the apex is broken off in this specimen. The neur-
apophyses are separated from the centrum by a distinct suture; and an oblique ridge
connects on each side the anterior with the posterior zygapophysis. The antero-inferior
edge of the axis is bevelled-off, forming an articular surface for the second wedge-
bone; and the basal portions of two cervical ribs remain attached to the anterior
lower part of the centrum: they must have partly articulated with the second wedge-
bone.

The axis of Plesiosaurus Etheridgii, lately examined by Prof. Huxley, agrees en-
tirely with that of this species; but there are some important modifications in the
structure of the atlas.

Prof. Huxley describes the atlantal cup in this species as being divided by a tri-
radiate mark into three portions—one inferior and two lateral and superior. The
inferior piece corresponds with the lower half of the atlantal cup, or the anterior sub-
vertebral wedge-bone; and the two supero-lateral pieces, with the neurapophyses in
the specimen first described; but their bases are much more developed.

There is a small circular bone in the centre, which Prof. Huxley considers to belong
to the os odontoideum; it is the anterior articular face of that bone, and corresponds
to the hexagonal bone in the middle of the upper half of the atlantal cup in the
former species,—the difference in position being caused in this species by the great
development of the supero-lateral pieces or bases of the neurapophyses.

The postero-lateral edges of this bone are greatly developed, forming a rounded
ridge on both sides of the posterior part of the atlas: the extraordinary development
of this part of the bone is the most remarkable feature in the atlas and axis of this
species.

: We now come to the species first described by Prof. Owen. We have two speci-
mens, in the Woodwardian Museum, of this species, both from the Kimmeridge Clay
of Haddenham, near Ely; the larger of the two was figured by Prof. Owen in the
* Annals of Natural History,’ vol. xx.

The neural arches in both specimens are broken away; and the bodies of the two
vertebrae have so coalesced, that the original line of separation is scarcely visible.
The neurapophyses and cervical ribs of the axis have become anchylosed to the bodies
of that vertebra. The posterior half of the bottom of the neural canal in the atlas is
formed by the true centrum of that vertebra; but in the anterior half the bases of the
neurapophyses have spread over the centrum, and have united at the medial line,
On the upper part of the atlantal cup, a groove indicates the position of the original
suture between the bases of the neurapophyses and the lower part of the atlantal cup.
In the larger specimen there is a trace of the suture which separated the anterior
subvertebral wedge-bone from the upper part of the atlas, but which is absent in the
smaller specimen.

In the atlas of the three species of Plesiosawrus we have now considered, the
anterior articular face of the atlas is made up of four bones: of these, the os odon-
toideum is the most variable in size. Prof. Owen correctly assigned to it a large share
in the formation of the atlantal cup in the Kimmeridge Clay species. It forms about
a third of the upper half of the cup in the young unanchylosed specimen, and in P,
Etheridgit is extremely small. Its position varies: in the young specimen it forms
the base of the neural canal of the atlas; in the Kimmeridge Clay species it is over-
lapped by the expanded bases of the neurapophyses ; and in P. Etheridgii it occupies
the centre of the cup. The bases of the neurapophyses of the atlas are most deve-
loped in this species, and least in the Kimmeridge Clay species; in all cases the an-
terior subvertebral wedge-bone forms a large portion of the atlantal cup. That the
suture between this bone and the os odontoideum, in the atlas of the species figured

80 REPORT—1858.

by Prof. Owen in the ‘Annals’ for 1847, is correct, we have abundant proof in the
structure of the atlas of Pliosaurus, where the os odontoideum is of exactly the same
shape, and the wedge-bone separated from it by a similar suture.

It is remarkable that the Kimmeridge Clay species approaches more nearly the
Ichthyosaurian type than the Lias species, not only in the greater development of the
os odontoideum and in its lateral edges forming the lateral margins of the atlas, but
in its supporting the neurapophyses; there is really no essential difference between
the atlas of this species and the atlas of Ichthyosaurus.

The atlas of P. Etheridgii and that above referred to, as figured by Prof. Owen,
show many Crocodilian affinities (the neurapophyses being supported both by the
wedge-bone and the centrum) ; but the posterior edge of the centrum does not sup-
port a pair of ribs (plurapophyses), and no trace of ribs articulating with the wedge-
bone has been discovered. ‘Ihe second vertebra of the same species supports cervical
ribs articulated to its body; but in all other respects it resembles that of the Crocodile.

On the Marine Shell Bed of the South Wales Coal Basin, showing the
presence of Vegetable Remains in the Upper Coal Measures of the District,
and of Shells and Fish in the Lower Coal Measures, and illustrating the
eee of forms of life in different stratifications. By G. P. Bevan,

D., F.G.S.

The South Wales basin occupies two great divisions—upper and lower measures
—chemically divided into bituminous and anthracite, the latter principally in Car-
marthenshire and Western Glamorganshire; Pennant rock series principally at
Swansea. Average thickness of lower beds of coal, 47 feet; total thickness of are-
naceous and argillaceous strata, 1500 feet. In this we have seven or eight zones of
animal life:—Ist. Farewell Rock, lying on the millstone grit, which I propose to
name Rosser Rock: there are thin seams of coal in this rock containing a bed of
marine shells, which I have traced for fifty miles; from this bed 1 have obtained
forty-three varieties. 2nd. Above this is the bottom vein of coal, containing fish
remains and Spirifer bisulcatus. 3rd. The blue vein, with Anthracosia, Modiolopsis
and Spirorbis. 4th. Red vein, with Cardiomorpha. Sth. Old coal, with Unio,
Modiola, and traces of Crustaceans. 6th. Daren Pins, with Myalina quadrata and
Unio centralis. 7th. Bydellog coal, with Athyris planosulcata, and at Pontypool, Pro-
ductus scabriculus. 8th. Three-quarter coal, with Terebratula hastata and Mountain
Limestone species at 700 feet above the Carboniferous Limestone. 9th, Ellid, ferns.
10th. Black Pins, Unio aquilinus. 11th. Soap vein, shell uncertain.

On the Vegetable Structure visible in the Coal of Nova Scotia.
By Professor Dawson, of Montreal.

Photographs of Quarries near Penrhyn, showing the structure of Granite.
By Joun S. Enys, F.G.S

Remarks on certain Vermiform Fossils found in the Mountain Limestone
Districts of the North of England. By Arpany Hancock.

After a full description of some peculiar crustacean tunnels or tracks observed
on the sandy shores of Northumberland and Durham, the author of this paper
examines in detail certain vermiform fossils obtained in the fine-grained, mica-
ceous sandstones of Haltwhistle, Wensleydale, and Pateley Bridge. ‘These curious
fossils, of which there are two principal forms, one grooved, the other nodulous, had
hitherto been considered to be the remains of worms, or of worm-tubes, or the casts
of worm-tracks ; but the author objects to this opinion, on account of their great size,
their dissimilarity to worms, or tubes or tracks of worms; and because certain cha-
racters exhibited by the fossils themselves preclude the idea of an organic origin.
He states, however, that they are undoubtedly tracks originally, as now, composed of
the same material as the slabs upon which they rest; and the high probability that
they were formed by Crustaceans is deduced from the remarkable correspondence of

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81

their characters to those of the runs or tunnels of these animals, as observed by him
on our northern shores.

Having arrived at this conclusion, it is then suggested that these fossil tracks may
have been produced by Trilobites, which agree very well in size with them. The
largest tracks of the grooved form are a little above an inch wide. The width of the
pygidium of Phillipsia truncatula, a carboniferous species, is 11 lines, that of the
cephalic shield would probably be a little more; therefore if allowance be made for
the thickness of the tunnel wall of the burrow or track, and the necessary enlargement
of the calibre beyond the width of the animal, it is evident that, so far as the size is
concerned, the largest tracks might be attributed to this species.

The nodulous tracks are stated to be not more than half an inch wide; there can
therefore, be no difficulty as to size with respect to this form, for several species of
Trilobites are described to be about that size. And in conclusion it is remarked that
the large cephalic shield with its anterior or head-tubercle (glabella) and projecting
** cover of the eyes,” appears well calculated to plough its way beneath tlie surface of
the sandy or muddy beach.

Burmeister, indeed, in his work on the ‘ Organization of Trilobites,’ published
by the Ray Society, expresses an opinion that their habits, like their structure, resem-
bled those of the Phyllopoda (a tribe of the Entomostraca), and that they ‘‘moved
only by swimming in an inverted position close beneath the surface of the water, and
did not creep about at the bottom as Kléden supposed.” ‘Though their habits may
have been similar to those of the Phyllopoda, there does not seem any good reason
for asserting that there was no deviation in this respect. In fact, the organization of
the two groups differs in so many particulars, that some variation in their modes of
life might naturally be looked for. The Trilobites may have occasionally swum at
the surface as supposed, and also have burrowed in the mud or sand at the bottom
of the water or on the beach. Season, too, may have modified their habits in these
respects.

On the Distortion of Fossils. By Professor Harkness, F.G.S.

On the Origin of the Breccias of the Southern Portion of the Valley of the
Nith, Scotland. By Professor Harkness, £.G.S.

The southern portion of the Vale of the Nith consists of deposits of the Permian
age, capable of being divided into three groups. The lowest is composed of sand-
stones which afford footprints, the middle of thick breccias, and the upper of red
sandstone. The middle member is for the most part made up of angular fragments,
which have been derived from the Silurian strata surrounding the Permian area,
Besides these angular Silurian fragments, portions of red porphyries also occur in
these breccias, and these portions of porphyries have an equally angular character
with the Silurian fragments.

The porphyritic pieces which are imbedded in these rocks have no representatives
in the form of rocks of porphyry nearer than about twenty miles from the localities
where they present themselves; and no ordinary action of water is able to account
for their occurrence in an angular condition among the constituents of the breccias
of this locality.

Professor Ramsay has described the angular transported fragments which form the
Permian breccias of Worcestershire and Shropshire (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xi.
p. 185 eé seq). In these breccias the fragments have their surfaces, in many in-
stances, well marked by grooves and striz, and they possess many features which
have induced Professor Ramsay to regard the breccias of these counties as having
resulted from the agency of ice, leading to the inference that Arctic conditions pre-
vailed during a portion of the Permian epoch,

The deposits which, in the southern portion of the Vale of the Nith, are composed
of angular fragments, do not bear about them the same features in the form of grooves
and strize which characterise the breccias described by Professor Ramsay. The
angular nature of the fragments, and the distance which some of them have been
transported, justify the conclusion that transport by water has not been the agent

1858. 6

82 REPORT—1858.

which gave rise to these breccias; and as no other force capable of transporting
angular fragments a considerable distance at present operates except ice, it becomes
necessary to refer the presence of these breccias to the same cause which gave rise to
those of Worcestershire and Shropshire. The absence of the grooves and striz from
the fragments which compose the Dumfriesshire breccias, indicates that the mode of
operation of the ice was somewhat different in these from those occurring in Wor-
cestershire and Shropshire. Glaciers seem to have had their influence in producing
the deposits in the latter areas, whilst in the former the ice seems to have acted prin-
cipally as a raft, transporting rocky fragments from one area to another. ‘The cir-
cumstances which the breccias of the southern portion of the Vale of the Nith present,
seem to justify the conclusion of Professor Ramsay, that glacial conditions obtained
during part of the Permian epoch.

Observations on the Genus Pteraspis, By Tuomas H. Huxtey, F.R.S.,
Professor of Natural History, Government School of Mines.

In a paper “ On Cephalaspis and Pteraspis,” recently read before the Geological
Society, and published in the ‘ Quarterly Journal’ for the present year, I endeavoured
to prove,—

fot. That the Cephalaspis Lloydit and Lewisit of the author of the ‘ Recherches
sur les Poissons Fossiles,’ subsequently united into a distinct genus, Péeraspis (Kner),
were rightly judged by Prof. Agassiz to be the remains of fish, and that they are not,
as had been imagined by other naturalists, either Crustacean or Molluscan.

2nd. That, as Prof. Agassiz had surmised, they are at once allied to Cephalaspis,
and generically distinct from it.

I grounded these conclusions almost wholly on histological evidence, or that afforded
by the microscopic structure of the bodies in question. Not having seen the Cepha-
laspis rostratus of Agassiz, I abstained from offering any opinion with regard to it.

Since the publication of my paper a great deal of new material has passed into my
hands, chiefly by the kindness of the zealous geologists and paleontologists who reside
in and about Ludlow, Messrs. Cocking, Crouch, Harley, Lightbody, Marston, and
Salwey, and I have thereby been enabled greatly to extend and confirm my conclu-
sions with regard to the nature and affinities of these remarkable extinct fishes. A
brief note of the results at which I have now arrived will perhaps be interesting to
the Section.

The oblong plates which have hitherto been the only discovered parts of Pteraspis,
form only a portion of the great shield which covered the anterior part of the dorsal
region of the body. Apparently anchylosed or continuous with the anterior edges of
some specimens of these plates, there is a bony disk, prolonged at its postero-lateral
angles into two long cornua, which pass into the edges of the oblong plate. The disk
exhibits the characteristic structure and the peculiar striated sculpture; it is prolonged
anteriorly into a sort of rostrum, whose length varies with the species of Pteraspis:
laterally it exhibits two well-marked nearly circular marginal apertures, which I
make no doubt are the orbits.

I conceive, therefore, that the part in question corresponds with the anterior part
of the cephalic disk of Cephalaspis, and that the oblong plate, which may well be
termed the occipito-nuchal plate, answers partly to the posterior moiety of the cephalic
disk of Cephalaspis, partly to that median backward prolongation of. the posterior
margin of the cephalic disk of Cephalaspis to which I have particularly directed at-
tention in my memoir. It is from this that the strong nuchal spine of the Cephalaspis
arises; and as if to render the resemblance complete, the most perfect specimens of
Pteraspis show that it had a like spine developed in a similar position.

There exists, indeed, a most interesting gradational series of forms between Cephal-
aspis Lyellit and Pteraspis.

The Auchenaspis of Sir Philip Egerton has a cephalic disk with the semicircular
anterior outline of that of Ceph, Lyellii, but the interspace between the cornua of the
disk is nearly filled up by the large nuchal plate, whose backward extent may have’
been greater than is exhibited by any of the specimens of Auchenaspis yet obtained.
Enlarge the nuchal plate of Auchenaspis and give the cephalic disk a more produced.
anterior outline, and the result is the form of Péeraspis. :

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83

Throughout all these gradations of form, however, it must be borne in mind that
the minute structure of the parts is such as at once to enable the observer to di-
stinguish Cephalaspis from Pteraspis.

I ventured in my paper read before the Geological Society, to say that the Ganoid
nature of Cephalaspis and Pteraspis appeared to me to be unproved, and to allude to
the relations between these genera and the great group of existing Siluroideit. With-
out at all wishing to push too far resemblances which, when we come to know more,
may turn out to be mere analogies, I must say that the new facts which I have brought
forward appear to point somewhat in the same direction. The siluroid fishes, in fact,
are especially characterized by the large bony nuchal plate which supports the great
dorsal spine, and is constantly anchylosed to the posterior margin of the skull. The
rostrum of the Péeraspis is not without its analogue in Loricaria.

On the other hand, that rostrum might be compared with the prolonged snout of
Acipenser; and the shield of Pteraspis presents many points of similarity with the
cephalic buckler of such fishes as Dipterus, Diplopterus, and Osteolepis.

On the Jointed Structure of Rocks, particularly as developed in several places
in Ireland. By Professor Witt1aAM Kine, F.G.S., Queen’s College,
Galway.

The author, adverting in the first place to the view which he advanced at the Dub-
lin Meeting on the so-called slaty cleavage in its perfect state, that it is the com-
bined effect of jointing, and of pressure exerted more or less perpendicularly to its
planes, stated, that he had since visited several localities in Mayo, Galway, Clare,
Limerick, Tipperary, Kerry, and Cork, and had obtained a number of important data
fully bearing out his view. His researches had also afforded him much insight into
jointing—a divisional structure of more importance in Physical Geology, he thinks,
than appears to be generally understood. The author then proceeded to describe
jointing as it occurs in the Carboniferous limestones of Galway and Clare. In these
counties there may be made out four distinct sets of joints, two of which, from being
east or west (the number of degrees varying) of compass north, he terms—one, east
meridional, and the other, west meridional; while the remaining two, which more or
less rectangle the former, he designates—one, east equatorial, and the other, south
equatorial. The east meridional set is the strongest and most regular: it runs in
an undeviating course for miles and miles, generally from N.N.E. to 8.S.W.; plains,
valleys and mountains being all alike affected by it. In many places it cuts the
limestone into plates from half an inch to little more than an inch in thickness; a
circumstance, favouring the idea, that, under proper conditions, jointing may be
developed to the utmost possible extent. None of the other three sets is so well
developed ; the south equatorial, which runs a few degrees south of west, is with
some difficulty made out. In consideration of the various phenomena which occurred
to him, he has formed the conclusion, that only horizontal or undisturbed beds ex-
hibit the original or normal direction of the joints with any certainty ; and consider-
ing that the beds which have the east meridional set running N.N.E. and 8.S8.W.
are horizontal, he concludes that such is the normal bearing of this set; and he fur-
ther assumes, that any deviation from such direction has been caused by disturbances
of the strata. Entertaining these views, he applies them in elucidating and reconciling
certain complicated and seeming discordant phenomena; showing that some highly
inclined beds, striking east and west, like the limestones of Cork, may have one of
their sets of equatorial jointing lying horizontally ; while in others, having only their
basset edges exposed on the surface, the vertical and not the horizontal direction of
the joints is exhibited. Assuming the principal jointing in Yorkshire, Derbyshire,
Devonshire, and other counties to run generally from N.N.W. to §.8.E., as stated
by Phillips, Hopkins, De la Beche and others, he regards the west meridional as the
dominant set in England. ‘This difference in direction between English and Irish
jointing is analogous to what occasionally obtains in the Dingle peninsula; and a dif-
ference still more striking occurs within a space of a few yards or so, in a (Silurian)
bed on the shore of Lough Mask. In connexion with the close approximation of
the joints, as rather frequently displayed in the Carboniferous limestone of the West
of Ireland, attention was directed to that form of divisional structure in coal, known

6*

84 REPORT—1858.

as cleat, and which has often been regarded as a sort of crystallization; the author,
however, from various facts and reasonings, is decidedly of opinion that it is nothing
but jointing in a state of extreme development. Notwithstanding cleat being some-
times, as in pure coal, apparently as illimitable as mineral cleavage is in calcite or
fluor-spar, the author contends, that in ordinary coal it is undistinguishable from
the approximate jointing of many ancient argillaceous deposits. The paper con-
cluded by some observations on the so-called slaty cleavage in the brown and purple
shales of Cork: Professor King considers it as highly developed or cleat-like joint-
ing, belonging to one of the equatorial sets, and having had its planes forced into a
nearly vertical position by pressure exerted in a particular direction when the beds
were thrown into their present anticlinal and synclinal rolls: he considers that the
pressure was not sufficient to produce any other structural modification, or in other
words, that it was insufficient to bring the divisional planes in immediate contact, as
in true slate rocks; hence the Cork shales generally are not illimitably cleavable, as
is the case with the former.

On the Geology of the Lake District, in reference especially to the Meta-
morphic and Igneous Rocks. By J. G. Marsnatt, F.G.S.

I propose in the present paper to confine my observations to the Cambrian and
older Silurian rocks of the Lake District, below the Coniston limestone ; consisting
of an alternating series of igneous and sedimentary strata, all of which have been
more or less acted upon by central heat.

I shall endeavour to show that the phenomena observed may be best explained
by the supposition, that the whole series of rocks, granites included, are metamor-
phic sedimentary strata, iv situ, or in their natural order of position ; and that the
slaty rocks alternating with the porphyries are to be accounted for on the supposition
that they are by chemical composition less fusible, less easily acted upon by heat,
than the porphyritic beds, and have therefore been only hardened, retaining their
cleavage and stratified structure, whilst the more fusible rocks have been changed
into porphyries.

The two oldest rock formations of the Lake District, the clay-slate of Skiddaw and
Saddleback, and the greenstone slate of Helvellyn and Scaw Fell, have, as is well
known, the usual north-east and south-west strike and south-east dip of the rocks of
the same age in Wales and Scotland. It is evident also that the district occupied by
them includes an anticlinal axis, for we find the greenstone slate on the northern
and north-west border of the clay-slate, as at Binsey, at the foot of Bassenthwaite,
dipping north or north-west, The first step in describing the physical structure of
the district will therefore be to ascertain the position of this anticlinal axis. I believe
that this point has not yet been completely or satisfactorily made out, and it was the
first object of my recent walks over this country to gain some fresh light on the sub-
ject. There is perhaps no great geological interest attached to the ascertainment of
this point, considered as an isolated fact ; but considered in reference to the inquiry
into the relation of the granites of this district to the sedimentary rocks, it is of
some importance.

This inquiry into the correlation of granite and its accompanying metamorphic
rocks with the sedimentary strata, whose age is known by their organic remains, has
only lately attracted much notice from geologists. The vast labour of ascertaining the
true age and order of superposition of the whole range of sedimentary rocks chiefly by
their organic remains, had to be first accomplished. Accordingly we find that Sedg-
wick, in his description of this district, has not entered into the question at length
or indetail. Inhis letters to Mr. Wordsworth, he gives a section, which he is careful,
however, to tell us is only an ideal or explanatory, not an actual section of the rocks
of the district, showing their order of superposition. Here the Skiddaw granite is
placed at the base of the series of rocks, and in the anticlinal axis of the district.
This, though professedly only a provisional section, is one remarkable instance,
with innumerable others, of the very general disposition amongst geologists, to
assume tacitly that the origin and position of granite in the order of superposition
of rocks is peculiar,—quite distinct from that of all sedimentary strata. Accordingly
the granite apparently at the base of the clay-slate would be assumed to be in its

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 85

normal position, or at any rate more nearly so than the Eskdale and Shap Fells
granites which appear amongst the higher beds of the greenstone slate. These
latter, together with the Ennerdale syenites, would be assumed to be eruptive,—to’
have had their origin far below their present position, and to have been forced up in
a melted state. It has been one principal object of my recent examination of this
district, to ascertain whether the facts bear out this prevailing conception as to the
origin and position of granite, or not.

It is of some importance, as one step in this inquiry, to ascertain whether or not
the Skiddaw granite is found in the anticlinal axis of the district.

At the last Meeting of this Association at Dublin, Prof. Harkness read a paper on
the geology of the Caldbeck Fells, and gave asection through Saddleback, the Syning-
Gill granite, and Caldbeck Fells, showing that the powerful greenstone dyke or
dykes which run through Caldbeck Fells, are the true anticlinal axis of this part of
the district, and not the granite. Both Prof. Phillips and the late Daniel Sharpe
have given sections through the whole range of Skiddaw to the foot of Bassen-
thwaite, showing a continued series of beds of clay-slate all dipping at about an
angle of 35° or 40° to the south-east. In all these particulars my own observations
agree with the descriptions previously given by these observers.

But though there seems to be no doubt that the Caldbeck Feils, running nearly
east and west, and having the greenstone slate strata on their northern bank plun-
ging down at high angles with a dip nearly north, but a little to the west of south,
is the actual anticlinal of the eastern portion of the Lake District, it cannot be con-
sidered as the normal anticlinal even of this portion of the district ; for the dip of the
strata of Skiddaw and Saddleback is uniformly to the south-east, agreeing with the
general dip and strike of the whole district, and not with the strike of Caldbeck Fells.
Hence we must conclude that the fracture of the strata and igneous outburst of
greenstone dykes which accompanied the elevation of Caldbeck Fells, was of later
date than the original elevation of the rocks of this district and the formation of the
anticlinal, which must have accompanied that elevation.

We must look then for the original or normal anticlinal in the western part of the
district. The dip of the clay-slate in Whinlatter and Wythop Fells is south-east
nearly as far as the foot of Bassenthwaite. Here the beds of clay-slate may be seen
thrown into arches and much contracted ; and in Sale Fell indications of a reversal
of dip to the north-west begin to appear. But the strata at this point are much con-
fused by the intrusion of greenstone dykes and the proximity of the line of the
Caldbeck fault, which runs westward to a point near Cockermouth, crossing the line
of the original anticlinal.

The clay-slate in the mountains about Crummock Water and to the east of the Vale
of Lorton, have all the south-easterly dip. But in the range of hills to the west of the
Vale of Lorton I found a decided and regular anticlinal or reversal of dip, which may
be seen distinctly on the northern shore of Loweswater and in Revelin on the southern
shore of Ennerdale Water: in both cases the dip is W.N.W., about 10° or 15°.
We may consider a line drawn from near the foot of Bassenthwaite through Lowes-
water and the foot of Ennerdale Water, as the original or true anticlinal of the Lake
District, and that the upheaval along the line of Caldbeck Fells which completes the
north-western boundary is of subsequent date.. The angle formed by the Caldbeck
fault with the Ennerdale and Loweswater anticlinal, is the first indication of the
action of those forces, which by their complicated action have so dislocated the strata
of the Lake District. If we look to its south-eastern border, which is so distinctly
marked by the Coniston limestone, we shall see that the line from the head of Win-
dermere to Shap Fells granite is nearly parallel to the Caldbeck Fells fault, and
makes a considerable angle with the direction of the western part of the southern
boundary, showing that the strike of the whole of the beds in the eastern part of the
district has been twisted out of its original direction. I shall have occasion to revert
_ to this fact when I am endeavouring to trace the nature and direction of the
elevating forces which have raised up the strata.

I now proceed to describe what appeared to me to be the relative position of the
granite to the overlying slate rocks at the three points where it is seen in the Lake
country.

The appearance of the grey granite of Skiddaw at Syning Gill in the valley of the

86 REPORT—1858.

Calder, between Saddleback and the Caldbeck Fells, and the gradual transition in
the beds above it from glossy clay-slate to chiastolite slate, hornblende slate and
gneiss immediately in contact with the granite, have been so often and so well
described, that I must not repeat what is already known. What was material to
my present purpose to observe was, that the granite seemed to me to comport itself
in all respects as if it were simply another term in the series of metamorphic
changes following the gneiss.

The general dip of the beds of clay-slate in Skiddaw and to the westward is about
40° to the south-east. In the northern flank of Saddleback, and near the point
where the granite appears, this dip has increased to 60°; in the bed of the Calder, at
the foot of Caldbeck Fells, I observed it about 80°; and in the hills above it seems
to have become nearly vertical where any dip or stratification can be made out.
The point in Syning Gill, on the northern slope of Saddleback where the granite
appears, is very little above the level of the bottom of the valley. The granite occu-
pies the bottom of the valley, and rises up the southern slope of the Caldbeck Fells
to a considerably higher elevation than that of Syning Gill,—perhaps 200 or 300
feet above the valley.

The upper boundary of the granite is therefore a line dipping to the south-east,
but at a lower angle than that of the beds of clay-slate, and cutting obliquely across
them. If we suppose the clay-slate to have had originally the general dip of 40°
before the elevation of the Caldbeck Fells fault tilted them up to a higher angle, then
the upper boundary of the granite would have been nearly horizontal, representing
the isothermal line of igneous fusion; and we should have the beds of clay-slate
dipping towards and into this line, and converted into granite as they passed below
it*. No veins of any importance have been observed penetrating from the granite
into the rocks above, nor did I see any other indication of this granite having been
eruptive or intrusive, or having in any way disturbed the overlying strata.

The Skiddaw granite is found, as we have seen, amongst the middle or lower beds
of the clay-slate formation. We next find granite amongst the lower beds of the
greenstone slate formation in Eskdale and Miterdale; and this is by much the most
extensive granitic region.

In order to explain the position of this Eskdale granite, I must first describe the
remarkable geological position of Black Comb and the range of hills forming the
eastern boundary of Eskdale. Black Comb is a huge isolated mass of clay-slate
2000 feet thick, heaved up amongst the highest of the greenstone slate series of
rocks, having the Coniston limestone immediately upon its south-eastern flank.
What is the relation of the clay-slate to the greenstone slate beds? Is it cut off
on all sides abruptly by great faults; or have the neighbouring greenstone beds
been raised along with it, and do they rest conformably upon it? What is the
relation of the clay-slate to the granite? Is there any evidence that the granite
either underlies the clay-slate or else is distinctly eruptive ?

It was my object, in a recent examination of the Black Comb range, to find an
answer to these questions. I found the central mass of Black Comb dipping nearly due
north about 20°. On the western and eastern flanks of the mountain the dip becomes
north-west and north-east respectively. I found the same dip in direction and amount
in the whole of the ridge of greenstone slate running continuous with Black Comb,
as far at least as Devock Water, to which point I more particularly observed it.
These greenstone slate beds seemed to me to be clearly the lower coarse conglomerate
slates and porphyries of that formation. The actual junction of these rocks with the
clay-slate is generally covered up; but the clay-slate and coarse greenstone slate
may be seen in the course of a stream crossing the road from Bootle over Stoneside
Fell, within 20 yards of each other and clearly quite conformable in dip, and the
character of each rock as perfectly distinct as if they had been found miles apart. I
found these lower greenstone slate beds completely wrapping round the north-
western border of the clay-slate as far as Bootle, as shown in Sedgwick’s map.
These rocks dip north-west or towards the granite, and distinctly separate it from the

* If this line is continued underneath Saddleback southwards, it will very nearly indicate
the position of the syenite at the foot of St. John’s Vale, an igneous rock appearing amongst
the higher beds of the clay-slate.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87

clay-slate. On the eastern flank of Black Comb I found the same beds of coarse
greenstone slate wrapping round the clay-slate, and separated from the upper beds
of finer roofing-slate by a line of fault running north and south, and nearly following
a road running from Beck Bank on to Stoneside Fell. On the south-western border
of Black Comb the new red sandstone comes up to the clay-slate.

It appears then, if my observations are correct, that the Black Comb range on the
east of Eskdale consists of an axis of elevation running north and south, and which
has elevated both the clay-slate and the lower beds of the greenstone slate in con-
formable position ; and that the latter have a north-westerly dip towards the granite
in the lower part of the valley. As we have the same lower beds of the greenstone
slate in the range of the Screes on the south-east of Wast Water dipping towards the
south-east, there seems good evidence to conclude that Eskdale and Miterdale, taken
together, may be considered as a broad synclinal valley subdivided by subordinate
anticlinal ridges. We must then consider this as a great valley of denudation,
exposing the granite in its lower parts, and Scaw Fell and the other lofty mountains
at its head, consisting of the setting on of the higher beds of the great greenstone
slate formation.

It remains to be ascertained whether the granite is eruptive and intrusive, or meta-
morphic, in the latter case consisting of the lower beds of the greenstone slate, which
lying at the bottom of a trough, have been more exposed than the neighbouring
strata to the central heat, and also have been more deeply covered up.

I think all the direct evidence on the spot is strongly in favour of the latter sup-
position. Sedgwick, who examined this district with great care many years ago,
states that the granite is everywhere bordered by a belt of transition metamorphic
rocks, by which it appears to graduate into the greenstone slate.

These transition beds between the greenstone slate and granite may be well
observed in the course of the stream running from Devock Water into the Esk, and
also under the Screes at the foot of Wast Water.

The unaltered rocks in the hills about Devock Water consist of a bluish grey
felstone porphyry, with small crystals of quartz or hornblende. The first change
on approaching the granite is that this rock loses its porphyritic character, and be-
comes a very dark, almost black compact greenstone. The next change is to a soft
crumbling rock, with an entire change of colour to various shades of red, yellow, or
pinkish grey ; after this, finally, a transition through several varieties of quartzoze
and crystalline rock to compact crystalline granite. In the Eskdale granite the mica
is very commonly wanting or replaced by hornblende.

The thickness of these transition beds is various. Under the Screes they did not
seem to me to occupy more than 60 or 80 feet; but near Devock Water between
200 and 300 feet.

An important point to be observed here is, whether the upper limit of the granite
is on the whole conformable to the dip of the greenstone strata above it. The whole
of the Screes is so hardened by heat and so shattered, that it is difficult to ascertain
the dip of small portions, though the whole mass evidently has an easterly dip. The
line of soft metamorphic rocks marking the upper limit of the granite is seen near
the foot of Wast Water, apparently running quite confermably under the beds of
greenstone slate of Screes. The position of the granite near Burnmoor Tarn, at the
foot of Scaw Fell, is also quite analogous to that at Devock Water.

I think I may be justified in saying that the direct evidence to be obtained on the
spot, in the case both of the Skiddaw and of the Eskdale granite, is in favour of their
metamorphic character. It will make my argument more clear and intelligible, if I
proceed to notice in the same manner the direct evidence to be obtained by observa-
tion upon the spot, as it appeared to me at the time, in the case of the other igneous
rocks of the district, the syenite of Ennerdale, and the granite of Shap Fells, before
I inquire what objections may be raised to this hypothesis, and what may be alleged
for or against the contrary hypothesis, that these igneous rocks are not metamorphic,
but eruptive and intrusive.

The syenite of Ennerdale occupies an intermediate position, as is seen upon the
map, between the clay-slate and the greenstone slate. Is it an intrusive eruptive
rock, or is it metamorphic, consisting of some of the upper beds of the clay-slate
changed into syenite?

88 REPORT—1858.

I followed its boundary from Seatoller under the mountain Hay Cock, Steeple, and
Pillar, to the point where it crosses the Liza river in Ennerdale.

The greenstone beds here consist of the coarse conglomerate slate similar to those
resting on the flanks of Black Comb: the general dip is to the south-east. There is
a similar border of transition rocks between the clay-slate and the syenite, to that
between the same rock and the granite, a nearly black greenstone and beds of softened
rock, but they are less regular and less considerable. I followed the upper limit of
the syenite as it descends the southern side of Ennerdale under Pillar, and it seemed
to me to be on the whole conformable to the beds of greenstone slate resting upon
it: so also on the northern side of the valley, the syenite is seen ranging under the
greenstone slate of High Stile. About half-way down Ennerdale Water the clay-
slate appears with a south-east dip underlying the syenite. In the western flank of
Revelin, the mountain on the southern bank at the foot of the lake, the dip of the
strata is distinctly W.N.W. at an angle of about 10°, whilst the dip on the eastern
flank of the same hill near the syenite is south-east ; thus the principal anticlinal of
the district is shown to pass through the middle of Revelin. I found the W.N.W.
dip also at acorresponding point on the south side of the lake, in a gill at Crosslands,
The strata on the northern side of Ennerdale, between Floutarn Tarn and Red Pike,
are much broken up and confused by faults and entanglements of masses of the clay-
slate in the syenite, as described by Sedgwick.

On the whole, the direct evidence to be obtained on the spot seemed to me to be
in favour of the supposition that the syenite is metamorphic, consisting of the upper
bed of the clay-slate. I may mention, as confirming this opinion, that the transition
beds of syenite in Ennerdale contain the same crystals of Chiastolite, which are such
a distinguishing mark of the transition beds immediately above the Skiddaw granite.
In support of this hypothesis, I may observe that syenite in mass is found near
Keswick in St. John’s Vale, in a position exactly similar to that of Ennerdale; that
is, immediately under the lowest beds of the greenstone slate. If this hypothesis is
correct, the syenite must lie below the Eskdale granite, which I suppose to consist of
the lower beds of the greenstone slate; and the position of the mass of syenite on
the northern bank of Wast Water is quite consistent with that supposition, as the
general dip of the strata is to the south-east.

The only remaining arga of igneous rock which I have to notice is that of the
Shap Fell granite. This granite is very limited in extent, though very decidedly
marked in character, and so well known by its boulders scattered far and wide by
the northern drift. It constitutes the end of a range of rough porphyritic rock
which immediately underlies the Coniston limestone through its entire course,
and which here passes under the mountain limestone belt which encircles the Lake
mountains on their eastern border. All the neighbouring rocks are much indurated
and altered by heat. In approaching the granite from the west, the Coniston lime-
stone is lost, and the flagstone above it much altered for some miles in extent. The
granite has evidently been in a highly fluid state, and has extensively penetrated the
adjoining slate rocks in ramifying veins. But I saw no evidence of any great faults
or other disturbance of the natural order of the strata; and in the absence of this
evidence, the only conclusion I could arrive at was, that this granite also is meta-
morphic, consisting of the highest bed of the greenstone slate, viz. the rough por-
phyry immediately underlying the Coniston lime.

I have now completed the direct evidence to be obtained on the spot as to the
relative position of the granites and slate rocks, and I must proceed to notice the
difficulties and objections which may be made to the metamorphic hypothesis. How
can we account for this metamorphic action of the central heat having been produced
at such verv different depths in the series of strata, from the lower beds of the
Skiddaw slate to the highest of the greenstone series ?

I think this may be explained on the simple supposition that the strata were
already inclined before the metamorphic change took place. We must take into
account also the much greater denudation of superincumbent strata which we know
takes place in some localities, than is observed in others. Combining these two pos-
tulates, I think we may arrive at a fair solution of the difficulty. If we look at the
map, we see that the Shap Fells granite occurs at the south-east corner of the di-
strict, just where the dip of the strata would carry the upper beds down the deepest,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

,

89

and where they would be most thickly covered by superincumbent strata, since de-
nuded. The Eskdale granite is next in order, then the syenite, and lastly the Skid-

daw granite.

X)
XQ
ne

PAS

A

/

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LL.

a

e

TEAS:

General Ideal Section.

(XoY //

Me TSS OMAE

is

a alse s Sula ee
Fi 3 |2) 4 Fe ge ie
e n sls]siS :| 2
Et ay Bin. |F 3 | 2
= =] sh 2 = axe =
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a te} =/|SIio}|om o
i) i] CO;/OfeR | ao 4
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‘ayeTG auoysuaaty | *aze[g AeIO

tradicts this supposition.

i

nee
ytar

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Gro
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IR
i

a

es

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a

We may fairly suppose the inclination of the strata to have been such,

that all these points may have been buried to
the same depth, and equally reached the line
of igneous fusion. I have endeavoured to illus-
trate this by a section.

Another objection may, however, be taken.
It may be said, ‘‘ Why is not the belt of syenite,
represented to be the upper beds of clay-slate,
become metamorphic, continuous along the
whole border of the clay-slate, instead of only
appearing at Ennerdale and at St. John’s Vale,
near Keswick?”

I think this difficulty may be fairly met by
the supposition that a cross line of elevation,
running along the high range of mountains be-
tween Crummock and Keswick lakes, may have
existed before the metamorphic action took
place, and thus the intervening rocks may have
been raised above the lines of igneous fusion.
In the same way we may, I think, fairly sup-
pose that the Black Comb axis of elevation
may have existed before the metamorphic
action which produced the Eskdale granite.
Again, it may be objected that the fragments
and masses of slate rocks entangled within the
adjacent igneous rocks, as in the case of the
clay-slate and syenite in Ennerdale, so graphi-
cally described by Sedgwick, is a proof of the
violent intrusion or eruptive character of the
syenite. But if it can be shown, as I shall
endeavour to do afterwards, that the fractures
and upheavals of the strata are due to general
causes quite distinct from and independent of
the presence of igneous rocks, then this entan-
glement of fragments simply proves the igne-
ous rock to have been fluid, and is no argument
against its metamorphic character.

I will now proceed to notice some of the
objections which may be made to the opposite
hypothesis to that I have been advocating, viz.
the supposition that these granites are eruptive
and intrusive, not metamorphic.

I exclude, of course, the supposition that
these different granitic areas can be portions of

| a granitic base common to all the stratified

rocks and irregularly exposed by denudation
only; for in that case we should have the
whole thickness of the clay-slate interposed
between the Eskdale granite and the greenstone
slate, whereas not a particle is to be seen.

If the granite has been erupted in a fluid
state, it is difficult to imagine how it could
occupy such broad spaces as in Eskdale, except
by flowing over the adjacent strata. I think
all the evidence of observation on the spot con-

If the granite, on the other hand, were brought up in a solid state in mass, then
it must be bounded by faults. I think no geologist can look at the sinuous irregular

90 REPORT—1858.

outline of these granitic areas, and suppose for a moment that these boundaries are
great faults lifting up the strata some 5000 or 10,000 feet.

Again, if these granites and syenites were all eruptive from some unknown depth
common to all of them, it would be difficult to account for the distinct and separate
type or character which each possesses.

I venture to come to the general conclusion, therefore, that both positive and
negative evidence favours the hypothesis, that the whole phenomena of the granitic
and igneous rocks of the Lake District are a grand and very interesting exhibition
of metamorphic action on a large scale. I feel that there is still a difficulty remain-
ing which will occur to most of us. We have been accustomed to look to the violent
eruption of those igneous masses as the cause of the upheaval, fractures, faults, and
contortions of these mountain regions. Take away this cause, and what adequate
causes have we left to which such effects can be attributed ?

This inquiry would lead me to enter upon a subject of very high interest, but so
wide and large in its bearings, that I feel it almost presumptuous in me to deal with
it at allin such a presence as that I see round me. I may venture to give a mere
outline of what has occurred to my own mind, which may serve as a starting-point
to those much more competent than I am to treat of such a subject, and may at least
afford some suggestions that may be worked out.

Since the time when Hutton and Playfair, Cuvier and Smith re-formed and re-
founded, as it were, the theory of geology, the exertions of geologists have been
chiefly directed to the completion of the vast labour of making out the stratigraphic
order of position, and the accompanying series of organic remains of the whole stra-
tified crust of the earth. It is only from time to time, and more especially of late
years, and by no one more than by our present President, that the study of the
Dynamics of Geology has occupied much attention.

It would seem that the progress of geology must shortly bring these questions
much more prominently forward. The point to which I wish at present to draw
attention, is the expansion and working out of some very remarkable and important
suggestions first made by Babbage in 1834, and illustrated by Sir John Herschel in
a letter to Sir C. Lyell, in 1836, on the causes which may have produced the eleva-
tion or submergence of continents. I must refer to the letter itself for a complete
exposition of Sir J. Herschel’s view; I can only now quote such portions as are
immediately necessary to my argument.

The results arrived at appear to be :—

1. The transference of solid matter by abrasion from continents, and its deposit
at the bottoms of oceans, disturb the equilibrium both of heat and pressure. The
isothermal lines of internal heat will rise under the bottom of the ocean and fall
under the continent ; the strata under the ocean will be heated and thereby expanded,
and thus the bottom will be raised. Again, the whole crust of the earth being sup-
posed to be floating upon a fluid ocean of melted rock, the increase of weight in
some parts and diminution in others will tend to crack or break the crust in its
weakest parts,

2. These cracks or fractures, produced by general and constantly acting causes,
will give rise to volcanic vents and earthquakes. Thus volcanic phenomena become
of secondary importance; they are not the causes of the elevation of continents and
mountain chains, but the consequence of such movements produced by far more
general and constantly acting forces.

I may remark, that in all these speculations on the effects which the expansion of
strata caused by the incursion of heat from below will produce, the expansion in a
vertical direction alone has been adverted to.

But I think it is evident that the expansion which will take place in the bottom of
an ocean 1000 or 2000 miles wide, will be very much greater in a horizontal or late-
ral direction than vertically, in the proportion which a length of 1000 miles bears to
the thickness of 20 or 30 miles.

The enormous lateral thrusts which will be thus produced, seem to me to consti-
tute an adequate dynamic force for producing those vast wave-like wrinkles and con-
volutions and tilting up and even inversion of strata which we see in mountain
chains: for on the supposition that the bottom of the sea, subject to tension by ex-
pansion from heat, would give way at the weakest points, we are enabled to explain

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91

why these contortions of the strata should be accumulated on particular lines, and
not generally distributed. They occur where the crust of the earth happens to have
been weakest; and thus the whole effects of the expansion of 1000 miles of strata
may be found within the compass of 100 or of 10 miles. If, then, we regard moun-
tain chains generally as the convoluted and upturned edges of strata produced by
enormous lateral_pressure, I venture to think we shall approach much nearer to a true
conception of the causes which have been at work, than in attributing such elevatory
movement to perfectly vague and arbitrary volcanic forces. Another and a distinct
cause has also been assigned for lateral pressure, which should throw the crust of the
earth into wave-like elevations and depressions; viz. the contraction of the internal
nucleus by cooling. The effects of the two causes would be similar, but the former
would appear, I think, to be the more energetic and important.

I think the application of the principle, that the elevatory forces which raise moun-
tain chains are to be looked for in Jateral thrusts, will assist in forming a true con-
ception of the forces which have dislocated the Lake District. Mr. Hopkins, our
present President, has shown how the conformation of this district, the tendency in
the valleys to converge towards a central point, may be in great part accounted for
by the supposition that an elevatory force has acted on a line running nearly east
and west from Shap Fells, through Helvellyn and Scaw Fell. The result would be
a series of cracks or faults in the directions in which the valleys now run. This
supposition I think accounts for a part of the phenomena, but not for the whole
of them. A simple vertical force acting on the line supposed would neither account,
I think, for the contortions of the strata in Shap Fells showing Jateral pressure, for
instance, nor for the fact that in all the valleys on the south of the line, the eastern
side of the fault should be elevated, the western depressed. But if we observe that
Shap Fells, the point where this line of elevation commences, is in the corner where
the two great lines of the Pennine and Cross Fell faults meet at an angle, and sup-
pose the elevatory force along this line to be the resultant of two lateral thrusts
at right angles to these two great faults, I think we shall approach a true solution
of the phenomena observed:

I cannot on the present occasion do more than dip into this most interesting and
important department of Dynamic Geology; but 1 may perhaps have said enough
to give a consistent meaning to my description of the geology of this portion of the
Lake District.

It only remains for me to give some reasons for the supposition that the beds of
porphyry interstratified in the greenstone slate series have been originally aqueous
deposits changed into porphyry by metamorphic heat, combined with pressure, and
the presence of water. It has been remarked long ago by Sedgwick, that the slaty
and porphyritic beds of the greenstone slate formation are not separated or distin-
guishable from each other by any constant or clear characteristics. They run into
each other almost indefinitely, both in passing across the strata from one bed to the
next, and even in following the same bed along its line of bearing. This is some-
times shown in a striking manner in the weathered surfaces of the rocks. These sur-
faces may show externally all the marks of a stratified bed, the bedding, the joints,
the cleavage, marked even by light-coloured stripes, and yet the first stroke of the
hammer dispels the illusion; the rock is found to be a compact porphyry, which will
not split according to the seeming external lines either of cleavage or joints. If any
rocks are metamorphic, then these porphyritic beds have, I think, every external mark
of being so.

I may here quote the words used by Sedgwick in his last work on Paleozoic
Rocks. Speaking of the Cambrian greenstone slate formation, he says, “The mo-
difications of the slate are first described, and it is shown that they pass on one
hand into compact felspathic slate, sometimes porphyritic; on the other into coarse
granular and concretionary slaty masses, and through them into breccias or pseudo-
breccias ; all these changes being effected without any change of strike or dip. In
like manner it is shown that the amorphous, and even semicolumnar prismatic por-
phyries, are not only arranged in directions parallel to the tabular masses of green
roofing-slate, but pass themselves into a slaty texture with a strike and dip parallel
to those of the true roofing-slates. From these facts, as well as from the negative
facts, that the porphyries. never penetrate the raofing-slates in the form of dykes, and

92 REPORT—1858.

produce no mineral change in the beds of limestone resting on them, it is inferred
that the whole group is one formation, which has originated in the simultaneous action
of aqueous and igneous causes long continued.” Again, he maintains, “that many
rocks, which now have a perfect porphyritic structure, were so far aqueous deposits,
that they had been spread out into beds by the action of the sea, and that their actual
structure (though certainly metamorphic) was not the effect of torrefaction or of
heat emanating from any eruptive or igneous centre. On the contrary, that the na-
tural temperature at great depths, combined with great pressure long continued, was
a cause quite sufficient to explain the phenomena of the old stratified plutonic rocks,”

The only important modification which I venture to propose in this statement is,
that we must distinguish between the aqueous causes really simultaneous with the
igneous ; viz. the water or steam present in the rock when undergoing metamorphic
changes at great depths by heat and pressure, and from the aqueous causes acting
long before, when these beds were deposited as true rudimentary strata at the bot-
tom of the ocean.

If the positive evidence, then, is strong in favour of these rocks being metamorphic,
I think the negative evidence is not lessso. In regions where igneous rocks abound
which are clearly eruptive, we have many characteristic marks of their origin.
They have a distinct mineral character and structure; they do not graduate into
slaty rocks. We have distinct evidence of their overflowing neighbouring strata.
We have distinct evidence of the manner of their eruption from below in the presence
of many vertical dykes.

None of these phenomena are observed in the Lake District, as regards the por-
phyries alternating with the slates. The only difficulty to be accounted for, I think,
is the great thickness of some of the slaty beds, which have remained unaltered whilst
other beds above them have been changed by the action of the same heat into por-

hyry.
‘ tt & evident, that if the different beds can be shown to be of different degrees of
fusibility, this cireumstance would be at once accounted for; and I have made some
experiments to test this point, and also on thie effects of fusion and slow cooling in
producing metamorphic effects upon rocks.

The first experiment was made for me by Mr. J. P. Wood, of Leeds, on clay-
slate, greenstone porphyry, and greenstone roofing-slate, all reduced to fine powder,
and about } 1b. of each placed in three crucibles; in a common air-furnace, and gra-
dually heated. At a good red heat the porphyry puffed up, fused, and ran over the
edge of the crucible in the shape of a brown glassy slag; at a white heat the clay-
slate fused into a grey glassy slag ; and, lastly, at a strong white heat, the roofing-
slate also fused into a black glassy slag. Thus the slate rocks appear to be decidedly
less fusible; less easily acted upon by heat than the porphyries. The same result
was obtained {in fusing clay-slate, Skiddaw granite, and greenstone porphyry in a
common reverberatory furnace; the stone being broken into pieces, about the size
of those used for road-making, a white heat was required to fuse them, but the
granite and porphyry melted much more readily and completely than the clay-slate.
These simple experiments may be sufficient to prove a difference in the fusibility of
the slaty and porphyritic beds, which would account for the latter undergoing changes
by the same heat which would merely harden the former.

I next endeavoured to ascertain the effect of pressure combined with heat on the
fusion of rocks, with the very able and zealous assistance of Messrs. Kitson and
Hewitson, of this town. These experiments, which are attended with great difficulty,
and require the patient endurance of a good many partial failures before a success-
ful result can be obtained, are as yet only in progress.

Some results, however, may be seen in the specimens on the table.

The powdered granite, clay-slate, and porphyry were enclosed in strong iron tubes,
well consolidated to begin with by hydraulic pressure, then screwed up and heated
to a red heat in an air-furnace, and then slowly cooled.

The result is a compact mass of distinctly stony texture approaching to slaty
greenstone, quite different from the porous glassy slags produced by fusion without
pressure. The fusion has taken place at a lower temperature under pressure,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93

I next tried the effect of fusion of a large mass of granite, in this case from the
Charnwood Forest in Leicestershire, which happened to be most easily procurable.
This was done ina reverberatory furnace constructed for the purpose by Messrs. Kit-
son and Hewitson, but the accidental failure of a portion of the furnace in the course
of the experiment partially spoiled the result. The specimens, however, show a di-
stinct passage from a perfectly glassy to a stony texture, and apparently even to a por-
phyritic structure by the development of crystals.

There are also specimens of the glassy texture, which by exposure to heat just
below fusion in close tubes for two or three weeks, are changed to a stony texture ;
also of the powdered rocks enclosed in a strong iron tube, and buried in the large
mass of granite when in a state of fusion in the reverberatory furnace.

The great desideratum, however, is the application of heat under high pressure
with the presence of water, which must have been the condition, as remarked by
Sedgwick, of the metamorphic rocks. My attempts in this direction have not yet
succeeded. It is no easy matter to construct any sort of vessel capable of keeping
red-hot water in safe custody.

Photographs of the Quarry of Rowley Rag at Ponk Hill, Walsail.
By Witt1aM Matuews, F.G.S.

The well-known basaltic capping of Ponk Hill in the South Staffordshire coal-
field is being so rapidly worked away, that it has seemed desirable that some record
of its structure should be preserved. With this view the photographs laid before
the Section have been taken ; they represent the whole of the face of rock now being
quarried, from which the original structure of the mass may be easily ascertained.
It formed when entire an irregular dome, communicating below with the extensive
horizontal sheet of basalt intruded between the coal-measures, and consisted of two
distinct sets of columns.

1st. An interior cylindrical group of very perfect vertical columns, rapidly thin-
ning and arching over at the top some distance below the vertex of the dome.

2nd. Another group originating at the summit of the first, dipping down over
their arched extremities, and then curving upwards so as to strike the exterior of the
dome nearly perpendicular to its surface.

The columns are all situated in vertical planes passing approximately through the
axis of the dome.

On Triassic Beds near Frome, and their Organic Remains.
By C. Moors, F.G.S.

The author stated he became aware of the probable presence of Triassic beds in
the neighbourhood of Frome, by finding a slab of conglomerate containing teeth of
Acrodus, Hybodus, and Saurichthys on a roadside heap of carboniferous limestone.
He at once examined the district for their discovery without success; but more
recently was fortunate enough to find fissures of the carboniferous limestone at
Holwell, filled with a similar conglomerate, the organic remains in which evidenced
its Triassic origin. .

In describing the physical features of the district, the author remarked that Frome
was situated on the extreme south-eastern boundary of the Somersetshire coal-field,
and that just north of that town the old red sandstone, with a narrow belt of car-
boniferous limestone lying on its side, might be seen emerging from beneath the
inferior oolite. To the west the carboniferous limestones again appear in several
pretty combs leading to Mells, Vallis, and Whatley, in the latter of which the
Holwell quarries are situated. In the quarry opposite this village the limestone
is worked to a depth of 35 feet. A fissure about a foot in breadth, commencing
under a thin capping of vegetable soil, may be here observed, taking an irregular
direction to the bottom of the quarry, where it increases to 10 feet in breadth. This
is in part filled with vertical laminz, of mottled yellow, grey and blue stone. A
quartzose sand also prevails, sometimes indurated, but often friable; in which case,
the imbedded organic remains may be readily detached.

First amongst these the Reptilia deserve notice, some of which belong to the The-

94 REPORT—1858.

codont order which includes the Thecodontosaurus and Paleosaurus. Of the former,
the author has obtained several teeth and vertebre, and also several bony scutes
or scales, which renders it probable one of the saurians of this period was covered
with a bony armour like the Teleosaurus of the lias. These genera were originally
described by Messrs. Riley and Stutchbury, from fragmentary specimens obtained
from a conglomerate near Bristol, which has hitherto been considered to belong to
the Permian period or to the dolomitic conglomerate, but from its precise litholo-
gical similarity to that of Holwell there can now be little doubt it belongs to the
Triassic period. - In referring to the absence of the Muschelkalk in this country, the
author stated he had the pleasure of announcing, that, although the precise equivalent
of that formation had not yet been satisfactorily made out, still in the presence of
the teeth of another saurian—the Placodus—he had obtained the first indications of
the fauna of that deposit being represented in England.

Important as were these indications of Reptilia, the fish remains from these con-
glomerates were probably of equal interest. They belong to the genera Acrodus,
Hybodus, Saurichthys, Lepidotus, Gyrolepis, probably the Ctenoptychius or Peta-
lodus of Owen, and some minute palates allied to Chomatodus, a genus not yet found
higher than the carboniferous limestone. Teeth of the Acrodus, of several species,
are very abundant, the next prevailing genus being the Hybodus. There are also
some very peculiar thorn-like spines of not less than ten distinct varieties, belonging
to some fish as yet undetermined, to the dermal coverings of which they were pro-
bably attached. So wonderfully preserved are some of these fish remains, that the
author had been enabled to extract a jaw from the matrix, which, taough not more
than the eighth of an inch in length, contains all its teeth, thirty-four in number ;
and in another instance, a palate a quarter of an inch in length still retains seventy-
four teeth, and shows blank spaces from which sixteen others had been lost.

The only evidence the author has yet obtained of regularly stratified Triassic beds
is in the Vallis Vale, where there are several large quarries of carboniferous lime-
stone, on the up-turned edges of which the inferior oolite lies horizontally, and is
usually in immediate contact. This, however, is not the case in one near Hapsford
Mills, where the following thin bands of Trias are found. Immediately on the
carboniferous limestone, which is here quarried to the depth of 20 feet, occurs a
bed of blue clay 4 inches in thickness, which yielded part of a Thecodont vertebra,
fish remains identical with some from the Holwell conglomerate, and the teeth of
several spines of Acrodi peculiar to this bed. It also yielded valves of Chiton and
Pollicipes, with spines of Pseudodiadema and stems of encrinites, together with
Ostrea, Lima, Avicula, and other shells. Succeeding this blue clay, is a bed of hori-
zontal conglomerate 2 feet thick, made up of rounded pebbles, from the size of an
egg downwards, and containing a few fish teeth and scales. Above is another band
of blue clay 4 inches in thickness, passing into a grey concretionary clay 12 inches
thick, neither of which has yielded any organic remains; and resting on these next
succeed rubbly beds of inferior oolite, having a thickness of 12 feet.

Various other Mollusca have been obtained by the author from the beds above
noticed, including Spirifer, Terebratula, Rhynchonella, Lingula, fragments of the
large Discina Townshendi, which the author believed to be a triassic shell, Pecten,
Belemnite, &c., and a single claw of a crustacean.

Note.—Since reading the above: paper, it has been the author’s good fortune to
discover three unmistakeable mammalian teeth identical with the Microlestes an-
tiquus of the Upper Trias of Wirtemberg, being the earliest evidence of mamma-
lian remains yet found in this country.

Some Results of recent Researches among the Older Rocks of the Highlands
of Scotland. By Sir R. 1. Murcuison, F.R.S.

The first part of the paper consisted chiefly of a confirmation and extension of views
which the author had laid before the Geological Society in the preceding session.
These views are, that the fundamental gneiss of the N.W. Highlands, being older than
any stratified rock of England and Wales, is overlaid unconformably by sandstones
and conglomerates of great thickness, which, occupying lofty mountains, represent the
Cambrian rocks of South Britain ; that these are surmounted transgressively by quartz

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95>

rocks and limestones containing Lower Silurian fossils, or that the last are suc-
ceeded by micaceous schists and flagstones often passing into a younger gneiss.

The second part of the communication related to the Old Red Sandstone, properly
so defined, as exhibited on the east coast, between the Orkney and Shetland Islands
on the north, and Banffshire and Morayshire on the south, various points of which
the author visited last summer. In Caithness and the Orkney Islands, accompanied
by Mr. Peach, the author made various interesting additions to his former knowledge,
and profited by the researches of Mr. Robert Dick of Thurso. His belief was sus-
tained that the ichthyolitic flagstones of Caithness and the Orkneys, with their
numerous fossil fishes, constitute the central member of the Old Red series, the lower
part of which is made up of powerful conglomerates and a very great thickness of
thin-bedded red sandstone, the whole being composed of the detritus of the more
ancient crystalline rocks. The central flagstones are surmounted by other sandstones,
rarely red, and usually of yellow colour, which occupy the promontories of Hoy Head,
Dunnet Head, &c.

The chief additional data which had been gained by Sir Roderick during his last
visit were owing, in the first instance, to a discovery by Mr. Martin of Elgin, of a
large bone in the same beds at Lossie Mouth, which had formerly afforded large
scales of the supposed fish, called Staganolepis by Agassiz. On visiting these quar-
ries with the Rev. G. Gordon, he was so fortunate as to discover other portions of
this large animal; so that comparative anatomists may determine whether it be, as
the author believed, really reptilian. The existence of reptiles during the forma-
tion of this deposit is, indeed, established beyond a doubt; since many slabs have
long been found in the coast quarries of Cummingston, in which are the footprints of
both large and small reptiles, each footprint having the impression of four or five
claws to it. A slab, transmitted by Capt. Brickenden, is in the Geological Society’s
Museum, and others have recently been sent to the Museum of Practical Geo-
logy, London, as contributions from Mr. P. Duff of Elgin, and other persons. The
presence of large reptiles, as well as of the little Telerpeton, in a deposit which all
geologists have hitherto considered to be an upper member of the Old Red Sandstone,
is therefore established.

After noting certain fossil fishes which occur in parts of the Duke of Richmond’s
estates in Banffshire, the author proceeded to review the relations of the great masses
of sedimentary deposit lying along the eastern and southern faces of the crystalline
rocks of the Grampians, which have been hitherto classed as pertaining to the Old
Red Sandstone, though he does not pretend as yet to be competent to describe their
detailed features. On these points, however, which Mr. D. Page is working out with
ability, he begs to offer the following suggestion. The true base of the-Old Red
Sandstone, properly so called, is seen in Shropshire and Herefordshire to be a red
rock, containing Cephalaspis and Pteraspis, which gradually passes down into the
grey Ludlow rock; and in both of these contiguous and united strata, remains of large
Pterygoti, but of different species in the two bands, are found. Now, although the

_ Arbroath paving-stone, and the grey rocks ranging to the north of Dundee, litholo-
gically much resemble the uppermost Ludlow rock, they contain the Cephalaspis
Lyellit as well as Pterygoti, and must, under every circumstance, be viewed as the
base of the Devonian rocks. In speaking of the lowest member of the Old Red Sand-
stone, as characterized by the Cephalaspis, the author expressed his conviction, that
in the north-eastern Highlands and Caithness that zone is represented as above men-
tioned, by the vast thickness of thin-bedded red sandstone and conglomerates, which
underlies the bituminous flags of Caithness.

The author, who had recently visited Dura Den, in Fifeshire, in the company of
Lord Kinnaird and the Rey. Dr. J. Anderson, whose work, ‘ The Course of Creation,’
is well known to geologists, declared that there could be no doubt that the yellow
sandstones, that tract in Fife which pertains truly to the Old Red group, are entirely
subjacent to the lowest carboniferous sandstones, and are probably of the same age as
the upper yellow sandstones of Elgin. A drawing, prepared by Lady Kinnaird (the
splendid specimen having been placed in the museum at Rossie Priory), of the fossil
fish Holoptychius*, nearly three feet in length, which was found on the occasion of
this visit on the property of Mrs. Dalgleish, was exhibited; and as this form abounds ;

* This large species has proved to be the H. Andersoni, Ag.

96 REPORT—1858.

in the lower and redp ortions of the deposit, and also occurs in the overlying yellow
sandstones, associated with other old red ichthyolites, the age of the deposit is clearly
substantiated.

In conclusion, Sir Roderick said that this communication must be considered as a
rehearsal only of what he hoped would be done with more effect next year at Aberdeen,
when further observations might lead hin: either to confirm or modify that portion
of his views which relates to the age of the Elgin sandstones. In the mean time, the
fundamental reform of the North Scottish series is above narrated, proving that the
ascent from rocks on the west coast, which are unquestionably older than any in
England and Wales, through Cambrian and Lower Silurian rocks to the much
younger ‘‘ Old Red Sandstone” of the east coast, is firmly established. ‘The commu-~
nication was illustrated by several geological maps, to indicate the successive steps in
knowledge, including an old one coloured by himself thirty-one years ago, the maps
of M‘Culloch, Nicol, and Knipe, and a map of Sutherland, which the author had
coloured during the summer. Besides large diagrams, there were sketches of the
mountains and lochs of the west of Sutherland by Miss Charlotte Dempster.

On the Age and Relations of the Geiss Rocks in the North of Scotland.
By James NIcou, F.RS.E., F.GS., Professor of Natural History in the
University of Aberdeen.

The author expressed his regret that in one point he was compelled to differ from
his distinguished friend Sir R. I. Murchison. He could not regard the entire gneiss
forming the central regions of Ross and Sutherland as of younger age than the red
sandstone and quartzite of the west coast (Cambrian and Silurian of Murchison). He
described a section from the Gairloch to the Moray Frith, and showed that the red
sandstone and quartzite resting on the gneiss of the west, were cut off by a mass
of felspar-porphyry and serpentine from the supposed overlying rocks on the east.
He had traced a band of similar igneous rocks at intervals for a hundred miles, from
Loch Eriboll to Skye, and had observed other indications of fracture and convulsion
along this line, as shown in the section exhibited. He therefore concluded that the
overlap of gneiss on quartzite might be occasioned by a slip or convolution of the
strata, and not mark the true order of superposition. He also stated, that the uncon-
formability of the quartzite tu the red sandstone (Cambrian) which he had described
at Assynt and on Loch Broom, did not seem to occur in Gairloch, where the two
deposits, as seen in great sections on the escarpments of the mountains, appear quite
conformable; the red sandstone, however, extending far beyond the quartzite on the
west. He further pointed out, that, in the central region of Scotland, from Aberdeen-
shire to Argyllshire, the great formation of gneiss, with limestone and quartz rock,
overlies the mica slate, and does not dip under it, as usually represented. In parti-
cular, the gneiss of the Black Mount and Breadalbane Highlands appears to form a
wide synclinal trough resting ou both sides on mica slate, and thus to be an overlying
and younger formation.

On the Comparative Geology of Hotham, near South Cave, Yorkshire.
By the Rev. T. W. Norwoon, of Cheltenham.

The village of Hotham is upon the lower lias; but all the secondary rocks of this
part of Yorkshire, from the new red sandstone to the chalk inclusive, may be seen in
its immediate neighbourhood. Their course is nearly N.N.W. At Hotham proper
we are only concerned with the lias and inferior oolite; to them therefore these
remarks are limited.

I. Between North Cave and South Cliff the lower lias “limestones and shales” pre-
sent to the plain their usual elevated outcrop, and exhibit plentifully their charac
teristic fossilsk—Gryphea incurva, Lima gigantea, Ostrea liassica, Modiola minima,
and many other familiar forms. ‘The ‘“ Bone-bed”’ and “ Insect-bed” appear to be
wanting. The lias passes conformably, and somewhat suddenly, into the sandy beds
below it.

A great destruction has happened to the lower lias in this locality, The north side

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97

of North Cave is built on a thick drift of the Modiola minima bed, excessively crowded
with a doubtful shell called provisionally a Posidonomya; and between North and
South Cave, in “ Sandy Lane,” is an extraordinary drift of Gryphea ineurva. These
two drifts are remarkably independent of each other.

II. There seems to be no facility for examining the upper beds of the lower lias,
though that formation is a mile across. The middle lias forms a beautiful bank on
the east side of Hotham Park, and sections can be seen near North Cave, in a marl-
pit and a road-side cutting. ‘The beds change upwards thus—from blue shales at the
bottom, through brown shales and sand with irregular broken bands of nodular clay~
ironstone, to a hard rock-bed of the true marlstone 2 or 3 feet in thickness, which
again is capped at the top of the ascent by a very rubbishy ferruginous rock, the
lowest member of the ironstone series. These ironstones contain a good many fossils ;
but are most distinguished by Belemnites and Rhynchonella tetraedra. Many fossils
also of the marlstone band have been found in drift between Hotham and Newbald,
In the same drift are shells of the upper lias and Oxford clay, though neither of
these rocks is yet known with certainty to exist in sttw near Hotham.

III. Between the middle lias and inferior oolite there is a remarkable thin band
of marly limestone, which is called at present the “ Ligniferous marl.” It has a very
freshwater appearance, and contains fragmentary remains of ferns and other land
plants. Its marine remains consist chiefly of two species of Urchins, with Pinne,
Pectens, and Modiolz, each of a single species, and always in good preservation.
This band seems never to have been described before in any locality.

IV. The oolite of ‘‘ Hotham Quarry” appears to be inferior oolite, and a distant
equivalent of the ‘‘Roestone” of Cheltenham. It is strange that this bed should have
been said to be wholly restricted to the vicinity of the town of Cheltenham, Its fos-
sils, and more or less of its structure, may be seen in other places; as at Haresfield
in Gloucestershire, and at Hotham. At Hotham perhaps the most common form is
Pygaster semisulcatus; which is at present supposed, on the best authority, to be
strictly confined to the inferior oolite. The fossils associated with it lead to the same
conclusion : they are most of them common at Cleeve and Crickley, near Cheltenham.

On a New Genus (Dimorphodon) of Pierodactyle, with remarks on the Geo-
logical Distribution of Flying Reptiles. By Professor Owen, M.D.,
ILD. PRS.

The author exhibited a drawing of the skull and some of the wing-bones and other
limb-bones of a Pterodactyle which he had obtained during a recent visit to Lyme
Regis, in Dorsetshire. The specimen in question was discovered in the lower lias
of that locality, and had been purchased for the British Museum. The fore-part of
the cranium was preserved, anterior to the orbit, measuring in length 6 inches.
This was peculiar for the vast expanse of the long nostril, which was oval, and
measured 3 inches by 14 inch; the antorbital vacuity, divided by a slender
oblique bar from the nostril, was triangular, 1 inch 5 lines in long diameter ;
the solid part of the premaxillary in advance of the nostril measured only 1 inch
9 lines in length, or little more than half the length of the nostril—proportions
which had not been previously observed in any Pterodactyle. The largest teeth
were implanted in this part of the upper jaw. One, which had been displaced and
showed the oblique basal cavity and depression, formed by a successional tooth,
measured more than an inch in length. The largest exserted crown of a premaxil-
lary tooth in place measured 7 lines. A tooth situated 3} inches behind the first
tooth, had a crown 5 lines in length; then followed three shorter teeth, and behind
these, and below the antorbital vacuity, were several small teeth, with intervals.
The dentary bones of the lower jaw were preserved, measuring 6} inches in length.
These exhibited a peculiarity of dentition not previously described or figured ; viz.
two long prehensile teeth at the fore-part of each ramus, separated by an interval of
half an inch, and followed, after a similar interval, by a series of much more minute
and close-set teeth, with straight, short, compressed, lancet-shaped crowns, none of
which exceeded a line in length. Forty-five of these teeth might be counted in aa
alveolar extent of 2 inches 9 lines, and in a part of the dentary bone averaging 8 lines
in en This character of dentition was such, that the figure published by Dr.

58. ri

98 REPORT—1858.

Buckland of the fragment of a jaw found in the same lias at Lyme Regis, with similar
minute serial teeth, “‘ like one another, flat, and shaped at the point like a lancet,”
and which he believed was ‘‘ probably that of our Pterodactyle,”” was deemed by
most palzontologists to have been rather a portion of the jaw of a fish. The Pée-
rodactylus Banthensis and Pterodactylus Gemmingi, distinguished by an edentulous
production (processus mentalis), from the fore-part of the jaw, had three or four large
teeth next behind that process, followed by several smaller teeth; and these Ptero-
dactyles formed the genus Ramphorhynchus of V. Meyer: but the hind-teeth were
not nearly so numerous and minute as in the specimen from the lower lias, and this
had no edentulous ‘ processus mentalis.”” So marked a difference from the dentition
of the species of the true Péerodactylus, represented by Péer. longirostris and Péer.
crassirostris, as well as from the mandibular and dental characters of the Rampho-
rhynchus of V. Meyer, appeared to call for the subgeneric separation of the Péer.
macronyx of Buckland from the later forms of Péerosawria : and Professor Owen pro-
posed the name Dimorphodon for this new subgenus, in reference to the two kinds
of teeth, or two features of dentition, one of them borrowed, as it were, from the
fish or batrachian, by this early form of flying dragon.’ Among the bones associated
with the skull, the author defined the lower half of a radius and ulna; four metacar-
pals, including the very thick and strong one of the wing-finger; the first, second,
and great part of the third phalanges of that finger; phalanges, including two un-
equal ones, of the short claw-bearing fingers; portions of the radius and ulna, and
the entire metacarpal of the wing-finger of the other fore-limb; a few vertebre and
ribs. Only three of these bones could be compared with the first specimen of a
Pterodactyle from Lyme Regis, described by Dr. Buckland: their respective lengths
were as follows :—
Pierodactylus (Dimorphodon) macronyx.

Ist Specimen. 2nd Specimen.

in. lines. in. lines.
Length of metacarpal of fifth or wing-finger....... ae BB abe 8
Length of first phalanx of fifth or wing-finger....... 3 9 ans «= 6
Length of second phalanx of fifth or wing-finger...... 4 9 oreect 4 9
Length of a claw-phalanx........, AMOI TL ORO Hod B O-.. 82 ssteay Oy 9

By this comparison it was shown that the second specimen was larger than the first,
but differed so slightly in the proportions of the first and second phalanges, as not,
in Professor Owen’s opinion, to justify a distinction of species: more particularly
since, on the supposition of the portion of jaw figured by Dr. Buckland having be-
longed to the same individual as the limb-bones figured by the same author, the first
specimen of Pterodactylus macronyx had the same subgeneric character of mandibular
teeth as the second specimen from the same formation and locality.

Some portions of thin-walled hollow bones from the upper beds of the Trias of
Wirtemberg might belong to the Pterodactyle genus; in which case they would in-
dicate the oldest examples known of the flying order of reptiles. The oldest cer-
tainly known Pterodactyles were, at present, the Pterodac/ylus macronyz, Bd., of the
lower lias, forming the type of the subgenus Dimorphodon; and bones of Pterodac-
tyle from the coeval lias in Wirtemberg. The next in point of age was the Pt. Ban-
thensis, from the ‘ Posidonomyenschiefer’ of Banz, in Bavaria, answering to the alum-
shale of our Whitby lias. ‘Then follows the Péter. Bucklandi, from the Stonesfield
oolite. Above this came the first-defined and numerous species of Pterodactyle from
the lithographic slates of the Middle Oolitic system; as at Solenhofen, Pappenheim,
and Nusplingen, in Germany, and from Cirin, on the Rhine. The Pterodactyles of
the Wealden were, as yet, known by only a few bones and bone-fragments; as had
hitherto been also those of the ‘ Greensand’ of Cambridgeshire. Finally, the Ptero-
dactyles of the Middle Chalk of Kent, so remarkable for their great size, constituted
the last forms of flying reptiles known in the history of the crust of this earth.

On Remains of New and Gigantic Species of Pterodactyle (Pter. Fittoni and
Pter. Sedgwickii) from the Upper Greensand, near Cambridge. By Pro-
fessor Owren, W.D., LL.D., F.R.S.

Professor Owen communicated the results of an examination of an extensive series

ae

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99

of fragmentary remains of Pterodactyles which had been discovered in the Upper
ees formations, now extensively worked for phosphatic nodules, near Cam-
ridge.

Among these were many more or less entire vertebrae demonstrating their pro-
ceelian type, as in modern Lizards; the Pterodactyles being the earliest known ver-
tebrate animals with ‘ cup-and-ball’ vertebra, and with the ‘cup’ at the fore-part of
the centrum. ‘The atlas consists of a centrum, two slender styliform neurapophyses,
and a neural spine, which is small and discoid. The centrum is a thin disc; flat
where it joins, and becomes anchy losed to, the axis; concave for the occipital tubercle.
The neurapophyses, resting on the upper part of the sides of the centrum of the atlas,
converge and articulate above with two tubercles on the fore-part of the neural arch
of the axis. The centrum of the axis is 8 lines longer than that of the atlas, which
was one line long in the specimen described. It expands posteriorly, where it ter-
minates, below, in a pair of short obtuse apophyses, above which is the convexity
for articulating with the third vertebra. At the middle of the under surface is a low
hypapophysial ridge. At the middle of the side of the centrum is the large pneu-
matic foramen. The neural arch is anchylosed with the centrum, and sends off
from each posterior angle the zygapophysis, which has a tubercle above and a flat
articular surface below looking downward, and a little outward and backward. The
neural canal expands at the posterior outlet. The neural spine is broken away.

In the ordinary neck-vertebre the centrum is oblong and subdepressed, slightly
compressed at the middle, subcarinate at the fore-part of the under surface, the back
part of which expands and is slightly produced into a short thick obtuse process on
each side. The anterior concavity is a long transverse oval ; beneath which, in most,
is a tuberosity terminating there the median keel. The posterior ball has a similar
transversely extended elliptical figure—the characteristic of the neck-vertebre of the
Pterodactyle, but tilted up by the curve of the under surface of the centrum, above
the level of the two terminal tuberous processes. A large pneumatic foramen, of an
elliptic form, opens upon the middle of each side of the centrum close to the anchy-
losed base of the neurapophysis. The texture of the centrum presents a few very
large cancelli, which doubtless received the air from the cervical air-cells. The sur-
face of the centrum is formed by a very thin compact layer of bone, a little thicker
where it forms the articular cup.

The neural arch, between the notches for the nerve-outlets, is not quite two-thirds
the length of the centrum; the hinder notch is the deepest ; the arch is low and
broad, less concave on each side than it is before and behind, with the four angles
rather produced, and supporting the articular surfaces, of which the two anterior
look upward and forward, the two posterior downward and backward. The sides of
the arch extend outward so as to overhang those of the centrum. The posterior
zygapophyses do not extend so far back as the articular ball of the centrum.

At the base of the neck, or beginning of the back, the vertebrae suddenly decrease
in length ; the hypapophysis disappears, or is represented only by a slight production
of the lower border of the anterior cup; the parapophyses are less produced, the
lower surface of the centrum is flattened, and presents a quadrate form. There is
now a considerable development from the fore-part of each side of the neural arch
and contiguous part of the centrum, and thereby the last cervical or first dorsal ver-
tebra of the Pterodactyle more resembles the corresponding vertebra of the bird.
The parapophysis, diapophysis, and rudimental rib coalesce around the vertebrarterial
foramen ; an oblique ridge is continued from the upper border of the anterior arti-
cular cup upon the parapophysis ; a parallel oblique ridge is continued from the an-
terior zygapophysis downward and outward upon the pleurapophysis; the diapo-
physis makes a low obtuse projection above the pleurapophysis and behind the
zygapophysis. Above these developments the neural arch contracts from before
backward, to an extent of 5 lines, as compared with a total vertebral breadth, ante-
riorly, of 1 inch 8 lines; it then rapidly expands, rising vertically at its fore part,
and developing at its back part the posterior zygapophyses, the articular facets of
which look more directly outward than in the long cervical vertebre ; the superin-
cumbent tubercle is more distinct from the facet; the posterior zygapophyses are
also much more approximated than in those vertebre; they are separated behind
by a semicircular concavity; the base of the neural spine in the martina here

100 REPORT—1858.

described measured 6 lines in length by 3 in breadth. The pneumatic foramina are at
the back part of the base of the diapophysis. The articular surfaces of the centrum
retain the transversely extended form, and are simply concave before and convex
behind, which at once distinguishes the Pterosaurian hind-cervical vertebra from
that of the bird.

In the dorsal region the vertebral centrum, retaining its shortness, gains in depth,
and presents the more usual proportions of cup-and-ball reptilian vertebra. The
under surface is smooth and even, very slightly concave lengthwise, convex trans-
versely. The parapophysis disappears, and the diapophysis, which alone supports
the rib, after the first or second dorsal, is sent off from a higher position in the
neural arch.

Sacrum.—The Woodwardian Museum contains a specimen of the bodies of three
anchylosed sacral vertebrz, the first being demonstrated by part of its anterior con-
cave articular surface for the last lumbar vertebra. The groove for the passage
of the nerve notches the back part of the parapophysis, close to the line of suture
with the second sacral. In this vertebra the corresponding nerve-notch is more
advanced, leaving a short sutural surface behind, indicative of a position of the neu-
ral arch crossing for a short extent the line of junction of the second with the third
sacral centrum. ‘The parapophyses of the second and third vertebra are sent off
almost on a level with the lower surface of the centrum, which is flattened.

The fore-part of the sacrum of a much larger Pterodactyle, from the Cambridge
Greensand, differing also in the less transverse convexity of the under part of the
first centrum, measures 11 lines across the shallow anterior articular concavity, and
14 lines from the lower part of the centrum to the fore-part of the base of the neural
spine. The neural canal is circular and 2 lines in diameter ; above it the neural arch
rises like a vertical wall for 5 lines, where the spine has been broken off.

Caudal Vertebre.—From the number of elongated caudal vertebre in the series of
fossils from the Cambridge Greensand submitted to the author—not fewer than
seven—he believes the large Pterodactyle from that formation to have had a long
tail, but moveable, not stiff through anchylosis of the vertebrie, as in Pier. (Rampho-
rhynchus) Gemmingi, V. Meyer.

PreropactyLus SEpGwickiI, Owen.—This species is founded on a specimen
of the fore-part of the upper jaw, containing the first seven sockets of the teeth, ina
few of the anterior of which the base of the tooth is retained. The first two sockets
open upon the obtuse extremity of the jaw, and have a direction showing that their
teeth projected obliquely forward, so as to prolong the prehensile reach of the jaw;
the second and third sockets are the largest, and cause a slight transverse swelling ;
the fourth is suddenly smaller, and the three following retain nearly the same size,
or show a slight increase as they pass backward. The apertures of the sockets are
elliptic, with the long axis extending obliquely from before outward and backward,
not parallel with the axis of the jaw. The interval between the two sockets is about
half the long diameter of each. The anterior termination of the jaw is obtuse; the
sides are smooth, flat, converging at an acute angle to what almost forms a ridge
above; the jaw gradually increases in vertical diameter as it proceeds backward,
the upper contour being straight as far as it can be traced in the fossil. The palatal
surface is entire, narrowest between the second sockets, suddenly broader and flat
between the third pair, retaining about the same breadth, but with a slight convexity
and feeble indication of a median ridge in the rest of its extent.

The Pterosaurian nature of this fossil is shown by the extreme thinness of the
compact bony wall of the jaw; its relation to the genus Péerodactylus, as contra-
distinguished from the Rhamphorhynchus, V. Meyer, is proved by the terminal posi-
tion of the sockets; and sufficient of the outer side-wall of the jaw is preserved to
show that the nostril did not advance so far forward as in Dimorphodon—the generic
form of Pterodactyle from the lower lias.

By its size and true or proper pterodactyle affinities, the present specimen most
resembles Péerodactylus Cuvieri, Owen, from the Chalk of Kent; but it offers the
following well-marked differences—a greater proportional size of the anterior sockets
with a corresponding expansion of the fore-part of the jaw; a greater number and
closer arrangement of the sockets; a greater depth of the jaw, in proportion to the
breadth of the palate. The extent of the jaw, e. g., containing the first seven sockets

» fo

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 101

in Péerodactylus Sedgwickii, is 2 inches 9 lines, but in Pterodactylus Cuvieri it is 3
inches 6 lines; the depth of the jaw, above the third socket, in Per. Sedgwickii is
14 lines, in Péter. Cuvieri it is 8 lines; whilst the breadth of the palate between
the third pair of sockets is only one line less in Pfer. Cuvieri than in Pter. Sedgwickit.
It needs only to compare the fore-part of the jaw of the great Chalk Pterodactyle with
the same part of the still larger species from the Greensand, to be convinced of their
specific distinction.

The difference is still more marked between Pterodactylus Sedgwickii and the
Pterodactylus compressirostris, Ow., from the Chalk. The rapid increase of depth as
the jaw extends backward, in Pter. giganteus, Bk., shows that that comparatively
small species cannot be the young of the present truly gigantic Pterodactyle of the
Upper Greensand. The author, therefore, has founded, on the above-described fossil,
a new species, at present the largest known in the order of Flying Saurians, which
he proposes to dedicate to the Woodwardian Professor of Geology in the University
of Cambridge, who for forty years has discharged the duties of that office with
exemplary zeal and a rare eloquence, has almost created the Museum still called
Woodwardian, and, during the same period, has enriched geological science by origi-
nal researches which have thrown light on its most obscure and difficult problems.

Preropacty tus Firron1, Owen.—This species is also founded on the fore-part
of the upper jaw of a Pterodactyle, with the first and second pairs of alveoli. In the
minor depth of the jaw compared with its basal breadth, in its more obtusely rounded
upper surface, and in the greater extent of space between the alveoli of the same size,
this maxillary fragment indicates a very distinct species from the Pterodactylus Sedg-
wickii, but one probably not much inferior in size. The author dedicates it to his
friend Dr. Fitton, F.R.S., one of the Founders of the Geological Society of London,
and who may be regarded as the discoverer of the system now called ‘ Neocomian,’
which includes the Greensand matrix of the Flying Reptiles under consideration.

The sockets in the present fragment may answer to the second and third in the
foregoing, though there scarcely seems room for a pair in advance of the foremost in
the present specimen; be that as it may, the distance between the first and second
socket in the specimen of Pterodactylus Fittoni is, relatively to the size of the socket,
greater than the interval between the second and third sockets in Pterodactylus Sedg-
wickii, and much greater than that between the second and third sockets. The outer
wall of the largest anterior socket in Péter. Fittoni is much less prominent than in Pter.
Sedgwickii, and the lateral expansion of the fore-part of the upper jaw must have
been relatively less: the form of the bony palate is different, there being a distinct
though shallow longitudinal groove on each side a low obtuse median ridge. The
diastema between the second and third tooth is shown to exceed the long diameter
of the second socket, recalling the proportion of the interspaces in Pterodactylus
Cuvieri ; but the jaw is broader in proportion to its height in Pterodactylus Fittoni.

PTERODACTYLUS, sp. inc.—This is represented by a portion of an upper jaw
including a part of two sockets, in one of which the root of the tooth remains.
The outer wall of the jaw is nearly flat, very slightly convex below, and as slightly
concave above, vertically ; the upper margin showing no indication of any bend or
inclination to the upper border of the jaw, the height or vertical diameter of which
remains conjectural: that it was, at least, one-third more than the portion preserved,
may be estimated from the extent of the socket of the tooth being equal with the
preserved part of the wall. A coat of roughish cement, one-third of a line thick, is
preserved upon the upper half of the tooth-root; below this is seen the smooth
dentine ; and, where it is broken, the pulp-cavity is exposed, filled by the greensand
matrix. The length of the implanted part of this tooth is 1 inch 4 lines; the long
diameter of the transverse fracture at the base of the crown is 3 an inch, the short
diameter is 4} lines. Estimating the length of the exserted enamelled crown to equal
that of the inserted cemented base of the tooth of a Pterodactyle,—and it is sometimes
greater in the long anterior laniariform teeth,—we may assign a length of 2 inches 8
lines to the teeth implanted in the part of the upper jaw here described. The interspace
between the two sockets is 34 lines, or half that of the long diameter of the socket :
the plane of the opening of the socket, and the interspace, present the same obliquity
as they do in Pterodactylus Sedgwickii; and, as the proportion of the interspace to
the socket is also the same, the present fragment has most probably belonged to a

102 REPORT—1858.

larger individual of the same species. Since the outer border of the sockets does not
swell out beyond the outer wall of the jaw, the fragment has been part of the jaw
situated behind the anterior swelling caused by the proportionally large prehensile
teeth; and as, from the analogy of known Pterodactyles, the teeth succeeding those
anterior ones are not of larger size, but are usually smaller, at any posterior part of the
jaw, we may therefore, with due moderation, frame an idea of the Pterodactyle to
which the present maxillary fragment belonged, as surpassing in size that to which the
portion of the jaw of Pter. Sedgwickii belonged, in the proportion in which the socket
in the present exceeds the last socket in that fragment. Such an idea impels to a
close scrutiny of every character or indication of the true generic relation of the pre-
sent fragment in the reptilian class: but the evidence of the large and obviously pneu-
matic vacuities, now filled by the matrix, and the demonstrable thin layer of compact
bone forming their outer wall, permit no reasonable doubt as to the pterosaurian
nature of this most remarkable and suggestive fossil.

All other parts of the flying reptile being in proportion, it must have appeared,
with outstretched pinions, like the soaring Roc of Arabian romance, but with the
demoniacal features of the leathern wings with crooked claws, and of the gaping
mouth with threatening teeth, superinduced.

Leeth of the large Pterodactyle.—Various teeth, but few quite entire, have been
rescued by the care and perseverance of Mr. Lucas Barrett, from the rubbish of frag-
mentary fossils accumulated during the diggings for phosphatic nodules in the
Greensand deposits near Cambridge. Guided by the proportions of length to breadth,
by the elliptic section, and the concordance of the minute markings on the crown
and base with those on the portions of teeth remaining in the above-described jaws
of Pterodactylus, many of the above-detached teeth can be satisfactorily referred to
that genus. ;

The base or implanted part of one of the largest of these teeth has belonged to a
Pterodactyle as large as that represented by the fragment of jaw last described ; it
presents the same elliptical transverse section as the implanted base of the tooth in
that fragment, shows a widely excavated pulp-cavity at the base, and gradually tapers
to the crown: the cement, about 4rd of a line in thickness, is roughened by longi-
tudinal grooves, not continuous for any great length, but uniting, or bifurcating, in an
irregular reticulate pattern, forming long and very narrow meshes, the raised inter-
spaces being equal in breadth to the grooves. In a few teeth the base shows an
oblique depression, evidently due to the pressure of a successional tooth; in these
the basal pulp-cavity is more or less filled up by ossification of the pulp. The
enamel of the crown seems smooth and polished; and, under the lens, shows only
extremely delicate, slightly and irregularly wavy, longitudinal, but often interrupted
or confluent ridges.

Portions of the scapular arch, the humerus, antibrachial and carpal bones were
next described. The distal end of the metacarpal of the fifth or winged finger is
trochlear ; but the pulley is more complex than in other animals with similar joints,
there being three convex ridges traversing the articular surface from behind forward,
and describing more than half a circle; the middle ridge less produced than the
lateral ones which form the sides of the pulley. The direction of the ridges is rather
oblique. The outer ridge is rather more produced and of a less regular curve than
the inner ridge. The outer ridge begins by arising at the middle of the fore-part of
the distal end of the shaft, which bends obliquely outward and meets the outer angle
of that part of the shaft where the outer trochlear ridge begins to be prominent; this
ridge then extends with a feeble convex curve to the back part of the trochlea, where
the convexity of the curve increases, and it terminates by projecting a little beyond
the level of the outer almost flattened side of the trochlea. The articular surface, as
it extends from the margin of this element of the trochlea inward, is first gently
convex, then sinks to a concave channel by the side of the low median convexity.
The inner ridge begins from the inner side of the fore-part of the bone, and describes
a pretty regular semicircular curve as it extends backward and a little outward, to
terminate near the middle of the back part of the distal end of the shaft ; thus, owing
their obliquity to a termination of the inner ridge near the middle of the back part,
and to the beginning of the outer ridge near the middle of the fore part, of the meta-
earpal bone, these principal ridges of the trochlear joint recede from each other at,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 103

the middle of the joint, and approximate at the fore and back ends of the joint. As
the back ends of the two lateral ridges are on the same transverse line, and the front
end of the inner ridge rises higher upon the shaft than that of the outer ridge, this
is by so much the shorter of the two. The low middle ridge is much shorter than
either of the lateral ones, being confined to the lower and middle part of the trochlea,
to which it gives an undulating transverse outline,

The portions of the wing-bones of the Pterodactyles of the Cambridge Greensand,
here described and figured, show the same superior proportions over those of the
great Pterodactyles from the Kentish Chalk, as do the portions of jaw-bones and
teeth.

The long diameter of the expanded end of the largest of the wing-bones of a
Pterodactyle from the Cambridge Greensand is 3 inches.

The transverse diameter of the distal end of the humerus of the Péerodactylus
grandis, Cuv., the largest species hitherto obtained from the Lithographic Slates of
Germany, is 1 inch 3 lines; neither the radius, ulna, nor metacarpal of the wing-bone
of the same species presents a diameter of its largest end equalling 1 inch.

The articular end of the long wing-bone, 3 inches thick, being most probably that
of an antibrachial bone, and the total length of the bone, whether radius or ulna,
being, according to the proportions of either of these bones in the Pterodactylus
suevicus, 16 inches, the following would be the length of the other large bones of the
wing in the large Pterodactyle to which the above-cited specimen belonged, according
to the proportions which the other wing-bones bear to the radius or ulna in the
Piterodactylus sucvicus :—

ft. in. lines.
FELUMETUS | chi ee ee endo LadiRete se tea 1.2 2
HaMiys) 6. (sce anes tes jib ets vere gees tol 49,0
Metacarpus or wing-finger ........ iy hoe cade LQ
First phalanx of wing-finger.,... fat tebe Sai O
Second phalanx of wing-finger,....,...... 1 9 O
Third phalanx of wing-finger ..........:. 1 5 0
Fourth phalanx of wing-finger,..... ark Spt ling

Total length of long bones of one wing.. 10 6 O

Supposing the breadth of the Pterodactyle between the two shoulder-joints to be
8 inches, and allowing 2 inches for the carpus and the cartilages of the joints of the
different bones in each wing, we may then calculate that a large Péerodactylus
Sedgwickii would be upborne on an expanse of wings of not less than 22 feet from
tip to tip.

"The pithor looks forward with confidence to future acquisitions of remains of the
truly gigantic Pterodactylus of the cretaceous periods, more especially from the
Greensand locality near Cambridge, as a means of throwing more light on the pecu-
liar osteology of the extinct flying reptiles.

For the opportunities at present afforded him, he expressed grateful acknowledg-
ments to his old and much esteemed friend the Rey. Professor Sedgwick, F.R.S.; to
the acute and active Curator of the Woodwardian Museum, Mr. Lucas Barrett,
F.G.S.; to James Carter, Esq., M.R.C.S., Cambridge; and to the Rev. G. D.
Liveing, M.A., of St. John’s College, Cambridge.

On the Skeleton of a Seal from the Pleistocene Clays of Stratheden, in
Fifeshire. By D. Pace, F.G.S.

The Springfield brick-works, where the only remains of the Seal family which had
yet been discovered in any of our post-tertiary deposits* were found, are about nine

* Since the meeting at Leeds, portions of the skulls of two seals have been found by Mr,
Jamieson in the Pleistocene beds of Aberdeenshire, and the pelvic bones of another in the
brick-clays of Kirkcaldy, Fifeshire. It would also appear from the Transactions of the Wer-
nerian Society of Edinburgh, that about thirty years ago ‘the remains of a quadruped, sup-
posed to be those of-a seal,’ were discovered in the brick-clays of Falkirk, in the upper basin
of the Forth,

104 REPORT—1858.

miles from the open sea of St. Andrew’s Bay, more than five from the highest influence
of the tide in the estuary of the Eden; and the clay hills rise from 120 to 150 feet above
the medium tide-level of the German Ocean. There are several well-marked ancient
sea-margins in the valley of the Eden, whose estuary, now only about three miles
long, and less than a mile in breadth, must have extended fully twenty-five miles
inland, and ranged from two to five miles in width. The most marked of these old
sea-levels are at 20, 40, 60, 90, 150, and 200 feet above the present sea—the lowest
yielding shells, &c. wholly of the existing shores, though overlying a well-marked
submerged forest of pine, oak, birch, hazel, alder, and other British trees; the second
containing bones of the whale, and several shells of boreal species; the third and
fourth rarely containing remains, and the fourth bones of whales and the skeleton
now in question. The clay in which the skeleton was imbedded is a bright red plastic
clay, evidently derived from the waste of the Old Red Sandstone of Upper Stratheden,
when the waves washed the bases of the present hills, and the streams brought down
from the Lower Ochils the débris of the same formation. It contains no boulders or
pebbles, and appears to have been a tranquil deposit in water of considerabie depth
and removed from the influence of drift, either vegetable or animal, from the adjacent
shores. It rests on the true boulder clay, which is there a dark blue tenacious mass
of great thickness, and replete with boulders of granite, syenite, greenstone, gneiss,
quartz, and other primary formations. The descending section shows—arable soil
and sandy clay 3 feet; laminated sand 1 foot; from 15 to 20 feet of red plastic clay,
in which the skeleton was imbedded at a depth of 12 feet—the whole being under-
laid by blue boulder clay of unknown depth. From the position of the red clay,
and the disposition of the associated gravel mounds, it is evident that it is younger
than the boulder bed on which it rests, and that it is as old at least as the 150-feet
beach, and greatly older than the silts and gravels which in the Forth, Clyde, and
Tay have yielded remains of whales, antlers of gigantic red deer, skulls of the Bos
longifrons, wolf, bear, and beaver, and shells, many of which are of boreal species.
How much younger than the boulder clay we have no direct means of determining,
though evidently much older than the human occupation of Britain, which must have
then been sunk toa depth of from 150 to 200 feet below its present level. As regards
the skeleton itself (which is that of a young animal, and in a wonderful state of pre-
servation), it seems to be a pretty widely divergent variety of the common seal
(Phoca vitulina), if not a distinct species ; a point, however, that yet awaits the precise
determinations of the comparative anatomist. If the same as the existing seal, then
it invests that creature with a high degree of antiquity; if of a different species
(boreal or more southerly), then it shows the high age of these brick-clays, and may
assist to identify their position in other localities.

Farther Contributions to the Paleontology of the Tilestones or Silurio-
Devonian Strata of Scotland. By D. Pacer, F.G.S.

Without entering on the stratigraphical relations of these tilestones (which would
be discussed at a subsequent meeting), he might simply mention, that part of them, as
in Lanarkshire, seemed to cap and form portion of the Upper Silurians, while the
larger portion, the Forfarshire flagstones, undoubtedly constituted the basis of the Old
Red Sandstone; hence, with a view to avoid all discussion in the mean time, he had
ranked the whole as “ Silurio-Devonian,” or ‘“ Pterygotan Beds.” Beginning with
the Lanarkshire beds, he had, since the Glasgow meeting, been enabled to add several
new forms to the fossil Fauna of that district, for as yet no trace of vegetation had
been detected in these strata. In addition to 7rochus helicites and Lingula cornea,
which were then known, he had now to add Pterinea, Orthonota, Nucula, Avicula,
Orthoceras, and other well-marked Ludlow or Upper Silurian shells. To the Crusta-
ceans then known, viz. Beyrichia, Ceratiocaris, and Himanthopterus, he had now to
add several discoveries which rendered the structure of these curious crustaceans more
apparent, besides the detection of two entirely new forms, which he would venture to
term provisionally Stylonurus spinipes and S. clavipes, in allusion to their pointed style-
shaped caudal termination, and to the characteristic form of their swimming paddles,
or third pair of organs which spring from the under side of their cephalo-thorax.
Turning to the Forfarshire beds, which in 1855 were known to yield little more than

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 105

obscure vegetable forms, Parka decipiens of Lyell, Plerygotus, and Cephalaspis, he
was now enabled to add several new and gigantic forms of Fucoids, a Cyclopteris, and
a Lepidodendroid stem, which was clearly of terrestrial origin. To the Fauna he has
added gigantic Foralites and Scolites, or annelid burrows and annelid tracks, and an
organism which appeared to be the remains of an annelid itself. © There had also been
discovered several new portions of Pterygotus, which rendered the true structure of
that gigantic crustacean much more apparent ; and he had also been enabled to de-
scribe and figure two new crustaceans under the names of Kampecaris and Stylonurus,
the latter closely related in structure to Eurypterus, and approaching the forms of
those found in the Lanarkshire strata. To Cephalaspis, of which little more was
known than the head and bony ring-plates of the body, he had now to add a well-
marked corneous eye-capsule, a pair of pectoral fins (or rather swimming paddles), a
subdorsal fin, and the true form of the large heterocercal tail;—so that, instead of
figuring this much-caricatured fish as had hitherto been the case, as a saddler’s knife
for the head, and a parsnip with a few radicles for the body, we could now restore it
as a legitimate and elegant fish, much resembling in general contour the armed bull-
head or Aspidophorus of our present shores. There had also been discovered a vast
number of fin-spines or Ichthyodorulites, which were yet undescribed; and a small
fish with fin spines and shagreen-like scales, to which he had given the name of Icti-
nocephalus granulatus, in allusion to its kite-shaped head and shagreen-covered body.
For the discovery and preservation of these new fossil forms, palzontologists were
mainly indebted to James Powrie, Esq., of Reswallie, Forfar, and to Mr. Simon, sur-
geon, Lismahagow.

On the Relations of the Metamorphic and Older Paleozoie Rocks in Scot-
land. By D. Pace, F.G.S.

As was well known, a large development of Silurian strata occurred in the south of
Scotland, dipping northward under the Old Red Sandstone, which in turn underlaid
the coal-fields of the Forth and Ciyde. On the northern side of the coal-basin, the
Old Red dipped southward, again underlying the coal-measures ; but between the
Old Red and the Grampians, no true representative of the Silurian system had as yet
been detected. What, then, were the relations of these rocks? He had made many
sections during the last two summers, and found that everywhere, from Stonehaven
on the east to Bute on the west, a thick mass of trappean conglomerate succeeded the
crystalline schists, that this was succeeded by the fissile grey strata of Perth and
Forfar, containing Pterygotus and Cephalaspis, these by the ‘Great Pebbly Conglo-
merate,” and then the middle Old Red with Holoptychius, and the upper yellow
beds with Holoptychius and Pterichthys. The Pterygotan beds, though evidently
approaching the upper Silurians of Lanarkshire in fossil characters, were still the
basis of the Old Red; and if Silurian strata did exist on the southern slopes of the
Grampians, geologists must seek for them either in the trap conglomerate and grits
below, or in the clay-slates and mica-schists which might be the metamorphosed
equivalents of the Silurians of Peebles, Roxburgh, and Dumfriesshire. Two con-
clusions thus presented themselves: either the physical geography of the north had
been such during the Silurian era, as not to admit the deposition of strata; or having
been deposited, as in the south, they had been subsequently metamorphosed and all
traces of organic life been obliterated in their crystalline structure. Whichever view
might be adopted, we had in the mean time no fossil evidence of Silurian strata on
the southern flanks of the Grampians, though in the south of Scotland, and on the
south side of the great basin of the Clyde and Forth, a vast development of lower,
middle and upper Silurians had been traced and pretty closely examined, Grouping,
therefore, the older rocks of Scotland according to the present state of our inform~
ation, we had something like the following succession :—

PERMIAN. ..+...+e. Breccia conglomerates of Annandale.
Upper and ‘lrue Coal Measures,
Millstone Grit (feebly indicated).
Carboniferous Limestone (Marine).
Lower Coal Series (Estuarine).

CARBONIFEROUS...

106 REPORT—1858.

Yellow Sandstone of Stratheden and Elgin.
[ Rea Pebbly Sandstones of Perth, Forfar, and Berwickshire,
| Dark Flagstones of Caithness and Orkney.
Otp Rep Sanpstone2 Great Conglomerates and Pebbly Sandstones.
| Greyish Red Flagstones of Forfar, Perth, &c.
Trappean Conglomerate and Gritstones (thick-bedded .
and fissile), flanking the South Grampians.
Upper Silurians of Lanarkshire.
ae es Middle Silurians of Ayrshire.
ese") Tower Siluriaus of Peebles and Roxburgh.
*,* Zone of unfossiliferous grauwacke.
Clay-Slates (with and without cleavage).
pepe pap teeth Chloritic and Micaceous Schists.
sdk ial “ts ) Hornblende Schist and Quartzitie Group.
Gneiss and Granitoid Schists.

On a recently-discovered Ossiferous Cavern at Brixham, near Torquay.
By W. Pencetty, F.G.S.

Notice of some Phenomena at the Junction of the Granite and Schistose
Rocks in West Cumberland. By Professor Puicuies, LL.D., PRS.

The author referred in the first place to some excellent observations—the only ones
he had met with—of Professor Sedgwick on the little visited region of slate and gra-
nite in the extreme south-west of Cumberland. Following in his steps, Prof. Phillips
had found an extremely interesting variety of phenomena, from which a few were
selected for the present communication, and illustrated by maps and sections,

He described three orders of phenomena, all due to some form of heat action,
observed by himself in the slate district of Black Comb, and on the north-west
border of that mountain. In the mountain of Black Comb, the black slates, much
contorted, are not in a metamorphic state. Several dykes or interposed bands
of granite (elvan) lie in the slates of the north-western part of Black Comb; they
very slightly affect the condition of the slates, Round a considerable part of Black
Comb the green slate series is metamorphic, and the series of changes is such, that
from unaltered slate at one end, new structures appear and augment (not very regu-
larly), so as at the other end to complete a green or black porphyry. Agate con-
cretions appear in some places in long pipes parallel to cleavage dip, This remark-
able series of changes is traced with great precision in a bold narrow ridge of rock
near Bootle, one end of which almost touches the black slate, the other is met by a
tongue of granite. Near the junction the granite is hornblendic (syenite) ; it enters
the metamorphic series in veins of fissure, and produces on that series further small
changes of colour and texture apparently proportioned to the mass of the introduced
rock. Thus in one district, possibly due to one general cause, the earth’s internal
heat, but operating through long time, under different conditions, three distinct orders
of phenomena appear, for each of which a special investigation is necessary, and to
which, when fully understood, a special explanation may be applied.

On the Hematite Ores of North Lancashire and West Cumberland.
By Professor Puituirs, LL.D., F.RS., and Mr. R. Barker, Jun.

Prof. Phillips embodied in his remarks on the iron-ores of North Lancashire, the
substance of a communication from Mr. R. Baker, jun., ‘On the Hematite Deposits
of West Cumberland.’ The districts of North Lancashire and West Cumberland, to
which reference was made, were rich in deposits of peroxidated iron ore, and were
now producing, probably, not less than one million of tons per annum. Notwith-
standing their value, they had not been carefully examined until a recent period, but
some interesting geological phenomena had now been observed, which threw consider-
able light on the age of the iron-ore formations of West Cumberland and North Lan-
cashire. ‘The iron ore of these districts was found in immediate connexion with

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. - OF

mountain limestones, and many persons had been in the habit of regarding the ore as
of the same age as the mountain limestone, and as being part of the limestone series ;
but a careful observation of the district of North Lancashire would go far to remove
this opinion. Running across the mountain limestone of that district were vast and
often devious hollows, and it was in these hollows that the ore is found, lying upon
the limestone, and resting on one side against what was evidently a great line of fault,
as well as in the fissures and hollows of the rock, with all the indications of a Jater
deposit. ‘The communication of Mr. Baker showed by very exact sections and de-
scriptions, that iron ore was not confined to limestone, but was also to be found in con-
nexion with the adjacent slate formations, showing that it was not a deposit peculiar to
the limestone. The opinion which Professor Phillips had formed on this subject he by
no means wished to be accepted as a positive conclusion; but the position of the ore,
upon the faults of the limestone as well as in the fissures and hollows of the rock, went
to prove that it was astbsequent formation. ‘The date to which it could with most pro-
bability be referred was that of some parts of the Permian deposits. He was inclined
to belicve that the lines of faults and fissures, and the sinuous hollows, sometimes
cayernous, in the limestone, which had been excavated or modified by water, were
due to the action of causes which preceded the period of the Permian system, and
that the iron formation might generally be referred to the age of the Permian rocks,
and occasionally to a still later date, namely, that of the New Red Sandstone, He
was satisfied that the iron ore of Lancashire and Cumberland could not with proba-
bility be referred to the period of the mountain limestone.

On a New Method of determining the Temperature and Pressure at which
various Rocks and Minerals were formed. By H.C. Sorsy, #.RS.

If a tube be filled with air at any particular temperature and pressure, and be after-
wards taken to a place where the temperature or pressure is different, the change in
the volume of the air would enable us to calculate the difference in the temperature,
if the difference in pressure were known, or to ascertain the difference in the press-
ure, if the difference in the temperature were known. Where crystals are artificially
formed from solution in water, they catch up and hermetically enclose in their solid
substance small quantities of that liquid, so as to produce fluid-eavities, which, from
the nature of the circumstances under which they originate, are just full of the liquid
at the temperature and pressure at which they are formed. This fluid is also affected
by changes in temperature and pressure, only that of course the actual amount of the
change of dimensions and the laws connecting it with the temperature and pressure
are not the same as in the case of air. If, then, a crystal be formed at an elevated
temperature, but under no very great pressure, when it cools down to the ordinary
heat of the atmosphere, the fluid in these cavities contracts, so as to leave a vacuity,
the relative size of which must of course depend upon the height of the original
temperature. Such fluid-cavities are easily seen with a suitable magnifying power,
and the relative size of the vacuity can be measured by means of the micrometer.
Applying these principles to the study of natural crystals, it is found that, whilst some
indicate a temperature not materially higher than that of the atmosphere, many must
have been formed at a heat rising upwards to that of dull redness, which is especially
the case with igneous and metamorphic rocks. If, however, the crystals were formed
under a very great pressure, of course the above conclusions would be invalidated,
and the calculated temperature would be too low; but if we could form some approxi-
mation to the actual temperature, we could deduce, from the relative size of the
vacuities in the fluid-cavities, the pressure under which the crystals were generated.
Where the fluid-cavities in granite rocks are studied in this manner, they lead us to
conclude that such rocks were formed under a very great pressure, varying in different
cases, but of such a magnitude, as clearly points to their deep-seated, plutonic origin,

On some Peculiariiies in the Arrangement of the Minerals in Igneous
Rocks. By H.C. Sorsy, &.RS.

In both recent and ancient igneous rocks, it is not at all unusual to find crystals of
a mineral that fuses at only a moderately high temperature, acting as the nuclei on

108 REPORT—1858.

‘which crystals of a far less fusible mineral have been formed. Thus, for instance, in
the lava of Vesuvius crystals of Jeucite have very often been deposited on nuclei of
augite. If it were supposed that the temperature at which the minerals crystallized
was the same as that of their own fusing-point when heated alone, this would appear
to be a very unintelligible circumstance, but can easily be explained by supposing
that the fused rock is simply a liquid melting at a high temperature, which is capable
of dissolving various minerals, in the same manner that the very fusible liquid water
dissolves various salts. If a solution of bichromate of potash, nearly saturated at the
freezing-point of water, be slowly frozen, small crystals of ice are formed, and on
these are deposited small erystals of bichromate of potash, which can no longer be held
in solution in the diminished quantity of liguad water. Here then, as in the above-
named instance of the arrangement of the crystals in lava, crystals of a very fusible
substance act as the nuclei on which far less fusible crystals are deposited; and if
we suppose that there is a perfect analogy between the two cases,—that both were
liquids holding various substances in solution,—the arrangement of the minerals in the
igneous rock no longer presents any special or exceptional peculiarity.

On the Currents present during the Deposition of the Carboniferous and
Permian Strata in South Yorkshire and North Derbyshire. By H.C.
Sorsy, F.R.S.

This was a continuation of a branch of geology on which the author has published
several papers, pointing out how the direction and characters of the currents present
during the deposition of stratified rocks can be determined (Report, 1855, p. 97).
The neighbourhood of Sheftield is extremely well fitted for this inquiry ; and fromre-
siding there the author has been able to examine minutely a large tract of country,
and lay down the direction of the current in many hundred localities on large maps,
which were exhibited. The chief conclusions derived from these are, that during the
period of the millstone-grit there was a very uniform general current from the north-
east, slightly interfered with by a tide setting from the north-west, and by the action
of surface-waves and wind-drift currents produced by the powerful westerly gales,
This general north-east current was also present during the deposition of the gritstone
beds in the lower part of the coal strata, in the shales associated with which genuine
marine shells are found, but ceased towards the central portion, more productive in
coal, where such marine shells do not occur, In that part of the series, in different
localities and beds, the currents were from all parts of the compass ; but on the whole
are chiefly from the west, as if in some way or other connected with the prevailing
westerly winds and wind-drift currents, which here prevailed independent of the tide
or general north-east current, on account of the connexion with the main sea having
been cut off. During the deposition of the magnesian limestone the sea appears to
have been subject to a very decided tide, rising and falling with great uniformity from
W.S.W. to E.N.E., amongst a number of shoals on which surface-waves stranded,
chiefly produced by easterly winds. The millstone-grit and lower coal-measures
therefore present us with an admirable example of the action of a simple current,
flowing only in one direction; whereas the magnesian limestone is a very excellent
illustration of the effect of oscillating currents moving backward and forward in a
particular line, like the currents produced by the rise and fall of the tide.

On the Geology of the Scilly Isles.
By the Rev. Francis F. Stratuam, B.A., F.G.S.

The author referred to the erroneous impressions which generally prevail with re-
gard to the size, number and character of the Scilly group, which he described as
presenting many features of interest independently of their curious geologic pheno-
mena, It consists of a cluster of small islands or rocks 145 in number, varying in
size from the mere solitary crag jutting out at low water from the surface of the ocean,
to the Isle of St. Mary, which is the largest, the most populous, and the most fertile
of the whole, measuring about 3 miles by 23, and containing an estimated area of
about 1640 acres. They lie in latitude 49° 57’ N., and in longitude 6° 43! W., bear-
ing W. by S, from Land’s End, and due W. from the Lizard, from the former of

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 109

which points they are distant little more than 27 miles in a straight line; though the
distance from Penzance Pier (the usual starting-place for vessels from the main land)
is about 40 miles to St. Mary’s Pool. So far from being mere rugged rocks, these
islands afford a pleasant home to between 2000 and 3000 inhabitants ; the total popu-
lation having been computed in 1851 at 2601 souls, the majority of whom dwell upon
St. Mary’s, though five of the other islands, viz. Tresco, St. Martin’s, St. Agnes,
Bryher, and Sampson, have a scattered population upon them nearly in proportion to
their relative size. As the character of the rocks (being almost exclusively granitic)
is very similar to that of the extreme promontory of Cornwall, it has been suggested
by some writers that they may have been originally united with the main land; and
traditions are not wanting of a very ancient date which might serve to confirm this
opinion, were there not many countervailing reasons to be alleged in opposition.
From the circumstance that the Gulf or Woolf Rock, which lies midway between
Scilly and Land’s End, is of greenstone and not of granite, and that in dredging the
sea-bottom between these two points, shells and sea-weeds have been occasionally
brought up clinging to greenstone or clay-slute, it is conceived that a tract of metamor-
phic rocks exists beneath the ocean between the mainland and the Scilly Isles, and
that they are thus outliers only of the great granitic range of Devonshire and Corn-
wall. Many circumstances tend to prove that the conformation of the islands is very
different now from what it has been even within historic times. Local tradition
asserts that in former days there was a narrow causeway by which persons could
pass across Crow Sound from St. Mary’s to St. Martin’s, and the ledge of rock which
is visible at low water a little below the surface in this part is still called “ the
Pavement.” ‘Then again the Gugh, which in the time of Borlase (about 100 years
ago) is described as “a part of Agnes and never divided from it but by high and
boisterous tides,” is now always an island at spring tides, and there is sufficient depth
of water in the mid-channel for a boat to shoot across, the bar. ‘These considera-
tions would seem to show that there has been a decided sinking of the land in these
islands, even during the last century ; and another fact which came to the author’s
knowledge while sojourning for a few weeks in the isles confirms this opinion. The
masons who had been engaged in laying the foundations of a large warehouse be-
longing to Mr, Edwards, a short distance from the Strand, in the Pool of St.
Mary’s, when they had dug down several feet below the surface, came across the
remains of former wooden buildings, which at one period must have been on a level
with, if not above the sea, although at that time considerably below it. Possibly at
no very remote period, geologically speaking, the whole of this group to the north,
including Bryher, T'resco, St. Martin’s, and the adjoining islets, have formed one con~
tinuous island, as the soundings even now between the contiguous portions are very
shallow, and several of them can be reached from the others by walking over the
bars at low water. With reference to the question of continuity at any former period
with the mainland, Mr. Statham gave some curious particulars of the tradition re-
specting a tract of country called the ‘“ Lionesse,” formerly alleged to have united
Scilly with Cornwall, and referred to the junction of the slate with the granite at
Marazion Bay, and also at a point immediately behind Penzance Pier. He had made
diligent search throughout several of the islands to try and discover any traces of a
similar collocation of rocks in Scilly; and although he had not found sufficient to
warrant him in asserting the fact of a former continuity, he had met with unmis-
takeable proofs of the existence of clay-slate both on the Garrison Hill and on the
top of Newford Down; which served to show that the Scillian group was more closely
allied in the structure of its rocks to the formations on the mainland than had pre-
viously been supposed. ‘Ihe position in which the traces of slate rock were found
were in a pit to the right of the path leading from the Star Fort on the Hugh, to the
two dismantled windmills on the summit of the Down; and similar indications had
presented themselves in a pit not far from the telegraph station at the summit of
Newford Down.

The author next adverted to the different aspect of the islands as visited from the
SW. or the N., where they are subjected to the wear and tear of the rough Atlantic
waves, and to their smooth and rounded appearance when approached from the main-
¥and. To the violence of the ocean, lashed into fury by the wintry gales, he attributed
the craggy and rugged appearance of the rocks, the existence of caverns, and of pro-

110 REPORT—1858,

inent headlands in these directions; and he gave a singular exemplification of the
power of water so agitated to alter the face of things by adverting to the fact, that in
the Greater Crebawethan large boulders of granite, from half a ton to two tons in
weight, have been lifted bodily out of the sea, and have been lodged in large heaps, as
though the ballast of a dozen vessels had been piled upon the top of the island, pro-
bably 18 or more feet above the surface of the ocean at the highest spring tides, As
the geologic features of St. Mary’s seemed to be reproduced on a smaller scale in the
other islands, the author next proceeded to give a detailed account of its most im-
portant characteristics. The various soils superimposed upon the granite in this
island he described as the following :—1. A black surface soil composed of decayed
vegetable matter, and in many places largely intermixed with sand, either blown up
from the adjoining beach, or derived from intermixture with the underlying stratum.
2. A fine white ash-coloured sand, in some places (as in the pit just below the Na-
tional Schools) containing fragments of shells imbedded in it. 38. A dark reddish
or chocolate-brown clay, in many parts of considerable thickness, and having angular
blocks of half-decomposed granite disseminated through it. 4, A stratum of loose
grit or rubbly granite locally called “ yam,” sometimes so comminuted as to look at
a short distance off like-a bed of cream-coloured lime or sandstone, but more fre-
quently coarse, and in the portions resting upon the granite mingled with large frag-
mentary masses of that rock; and finally, in the low and marshy ground, as at Holy
Vale, and in the neighbourhood of Carnfriars, traces of a band of whitish pipeclay,
the position of which ought most probably to be placed above the last-named deposit,
The best locality for seeing at one view these various beds is a pit immediately below
Mount Flagon, on the bridle-path leading towards Porthloo Bay. The beds here
seen are numbered 1 to 5, downward. Between Nos. 3 and 4 the road-path inter-
venes, and No. 5 constitutes the low cliffs at this part of Permellin Bay, The
stratum No. 2 seems to take its rise a little beyond Carn Morval Point, where it can
be seen capping the cliff, which is here much higher, and running along the line of
coast. It gradually thickens as it approaches St. Mary’s Bay, where it assumes the
greatest depth, forming in the neighbourhood of the National School, and in a section
nearly opposite the Church, sand-pits of considerable depth, from which large quantities
of sand are being continually carted for the purposes of ballast or manure. Other sec-
tions, precisely similar to the above, are to be found more inland, the mast interesting
of which is perhaps that in a pit by the side of the road at the Green leading towards
New Quay. The stratum of sand here is not, it is true, more than 6 inches thick ;
but lying as it does under about 8 inches of soil, upon one of the highest points in the
island, the section is valuable, as showing that in all probability, at one time the whole
of the surface of the island has been capped with sand which has been washed away
from those portions where it is now deficient, leaving the underlying stratum of brown
clay visible. But there is another very curious geologic feature which will tell the
same tale of the former submergence of the land, to allow of these arenaceous accu-
mulations upon its highest points. Immediately behind the Guard House, inside the
gateway of the garrison on the Hugh, is a kind of shallow cavern, which is now used
as a place for storing lumber. ‘The rough blocks of granite have fallen from the top
of the entrance, so as to form arude arch; and imbedded in the rock forming the
sides of the entrance, are to be seen several large round boulders of granite, almost as
regular as if they had been turned in a lathe, and compactly fixed in the matrix of
the rock. Now this spot is considerably above the present level of the sea (probably
from 150 to 180 feet), and the boulders of granite have all the marks of having been
long rolled on a rough sea-beach. Moreover, the author was assured by the same
masons as those referred to above (two brothers of the name of Williams), that they
had been engaged in repairing the Guard House floor, and in digging beneath it they
found other boulders of precisely the same character as those at the sides of the cave
firmly imbedded in the soil, It is manifest then that the spot now adjoining the
Guard House must once have been on a level with the surrounding sea, or at any rate
at no great elevation above it, in order to account for the presence of these rounded
boulders so deeply impacted in the solid rock. It becomes interesting therefore to
inquire whether there are any traces of volcanic or subterranean action still visible in
the islands, to which this upheaving of the land, after one, or it may have been fre-
quent submersions, may be attributed, Mr, Statham entered largely into this part of

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 11]

his subject, and showed that several trachytic veins exist, which will partly account
not only for the elevation of the land after its submergence beneath the ocean, but
for the innumerable cracks or joints which are almost universally traceable in the
anite of these islands. In the direction of the Causeway, which at low water joins
Taylor's Island to the main land of St. Mary’s, he had detected one such vein or
dyke about 12 feet wide, and having the granite materially altered in character on
each side of the erupted matter. To the existence of this dyke he attributed the
alteration in the character of the granite on Taylor's Island, which exhibits crystals
of tourmaline, replacing the mica, On the north side of Porthloo Bay likewise he
had found at low water portions of a porphyritic ridge running parallel with the line
of coast stretching out to Newford Island about N.W. by W. But by far the most
interesting relic of igneous action in St. Mary’s is to be found in the Elvan Course in
Watermill Bay, near New Quay, to the N.E. of the island; and the author fully de-
scribed it, and gave a detailed account of his theory for explaining the apparent stra~
tification of the granite in the immediate neighbourhood, A description of several
of the most striking groups of the rocks concluded the paper, with some curious
facts as to the wearing action of the atmosphere and moisture in the direction of the
joints in the granite, which had preduced some extraordinary configurations, particu-
larly at the Pulpit rock, the Tooth rock, Giant’s Castle, and in Porth Hellick Bay.

On the Superficial Deposits of the Valley of the Aire at Leeds.
By Tuomas P. Tears, F.L.S.

In 1852 numerous large bones were discovered in the brick-earth nearLeeds, which,
being taken to Mr. Denny, the able and zealous Curator of the Leeds Philosophical
and Literary Society, were identified by him as the bones of the Hippopotamus. A
fine collection of these bones, along with the remains of other mammalia, are now
preserved in the Museum of this Society in Leeds.

The geological age of the deposit in which the bones were found became a question
of great interest; and in the hope of contributing in some degree to its solution, I
venture to offer the following observations to the British Association.

I have no hesitation in stating that the Hippopotamus major is the particular species
found in the valley of the Aire. In this opinion I am confirmed by Mr, Woodward
of the British Museum, and by Dr. Falconer. Of this animal, the Leeds Museum
possesses the bones of at least four individuals of different ages and sizes. The
skeleton of one of these is nearly entire. The vertebree and cranium were found
lying in their proper relative position, the ribs also, and the bones of the extremities.
The bones had not the least appearance of being drifted or water-worn. Besides the
bones of Hippopotamus, the tibia and portion of tusk, and some other bones of an
elephant were found, but these are not sufficient to determine the specific form of
elephant. ‘he lower jaw of a gigantic ox, presumed to be the Urus, the jaws and
horn-cores of smaller oxen, the horns of a large round-antlered deer, of a smaller
deer, and the bones of a horse were also found in the same deposit. ‘To determine
the age of this fossiliferous deposit, it is necessary to take a survey of all those
materials which overlie the outbreak of the coal formation in the Vale of Leeds.

These may be arranged under three distinct heads, each of which requires separate
consideration :—Ist. ‘The blue clay, which is the oldest. 2ndly. The yellow clay.
3rdly. The warp, the newest in order of deposition in which the mammalian remains
were found.

1. The Blue Clay.—In many localities is found a clay of a more or less blue colour
on first being exposed, but becoming brownish or yellowish on exposure to the air.
Wherever this blue clay is found in the Leeds district, it immediately overlies the out-
break of the coal formation. It occurs in irregular and isolated patches, often abruptly
sloping off, and evidently showing that it owes the apparent irregularity of its distri-
bution to the operation of denuding causes. It is seen in the Vale of Leeds at 140 feet
above the sea-level ; on the north of the river it is found at various elevations, up to
the higher lands between the Aire and the Wharfe; for example, at Nether Green, at
175 feet of sea-level; at Woodhouse Moor, 300 feet; at Adel, 375 feet; at Yeadon
Colliery, 420 feet. On the south, between the Aire and Calder, it is found at various
elevations, and at Adwalton is seen at the elevation of 600 feet,

112 REPORT—1858.

The rocky contents of this blue clay are of considerable interest, as they consist of
rolled or far-travelled stones. At Nether Green, these are chiefly sandstones of great
hardness, and of polished surface. At Woodhouse Moor, these hard rolled sandstones
are in great numbers, and occasional masses of chertz from the mountain limestone.
The nearest locality for this chertz is 25 miles, but it may probably have travelled 50
or 80 miles. At Adel, along with the hard polished sandstones, boulders of chertz and
of mountain limestones occur. ‘These must have been drifted over the higher ranges
of land between the Aire and the Wharfe, and not swept down the valleys. Portions
of trap-rock have also been found in the blue clay at Adel, and also a piece of red
porphyry, which cannot have been derived from a nearer source than Westmoreland.
At Yeadon the hard polished sandstones occur with abundance of chertz from the
mountain limestone.

2. The Yellow Clay.—This clay is invariably found overlying the blue clay,
wherever they co-exist, and resting on the coal-measures only in the places where
they have been denuded of the blue clay. It is spread out more extensively than the
blue clay, but like the latter, its distribution is irregular from the effects of denudation.
It occurs low in the valley at Leeds, and ranges on the heights north and south of the
Aire, to the elevation of 300 feet at Woodhouse Moor, 375 feet at Adel, 420 feet at
Yeadon, and 600 feet at Adwalton ; in all these localities it may be seen overlying the
blue clay. At similar elevations it is often seen resting on the coal-measures, where
they have been denuded of the blue clay. The yellow clay has much influence in
modifying the features of the country near Leeds. It tends greatly to soften the
harshness of outline which the abrupt outbreaks of the member of the coal forma-
tion would have occasioned.

The rocky contents of the yellow clay are particularly deserving of notice. These
stones, often of large size, are for the most part angular or subangular, derived from
rocks in the neighbourhood. ‘These are not far-travelled stones, but still they are
travelled stones, and are not resulting from the mere disintegration of the rocks in
situ from aérial causes, This may be proved by an examination of such stones in the
yellow clay as can be identified with the parent rock. A good illustration of this
occurs at Headingley, in the grounds of Mr. Hewitson, who kindly directed diggings
to be made to assist me in these investigations. In one of these the yellow clay, 8 or
9 feet thick, rested on the sandstone shale of the coal formation. At this place the
clay contained great numbers of stones, known as “ calliards.” These are sandstones
of great hardness, occurring generally in masses of subrhomboidal form. The bed of
rock which furnished these calliards is well kuown in the district, and has its out-
break from a quarter to half a mile north of Mr, Hewitson’s diggings. The stones
therefore must have travelled this distance. These stones have had the sharpness of
their angles somewhat blunted; they vary in size from a few inches to 2 or 3 feet.
Along with these calliards, in the same clay occur great numbers of stones of millstone
grit, somewhat more rounded than the former, but not polished by long travel. ‘These
stones are easily recognized as being derived trom the parent rock at Weetwood,
where we find a bed of very coarse millstone grit, easily disintegrated, having its out-
break from half a mile to three-quarters of a mile north of Mr. Hewitson’s. Similar
observations might be made in reference to other known rocks of the district occurring
in the yellow clay.

3. The Warp.—Under the name of warp, I would describe the true valley deposit
of the Aire at Leeds. The deposit is familiarly known to the workpeople of the
district under this name.

In position, the warp overlies the yellow and the blue clays whenever the three
co-exist. It is frequently seen resting on the yellow clay, or resting on the blue clay
when it has been denuded of the yellow, or resting on the coal-measures where they
have been denuded both of the blue and yellow clays. At Dickens Street, New Wort-
ley, it occupies a trough formed by denudation, resting on the yellow and blue clay
ou each side, and on the coal-measures in the middle. At Beeston Vale it rests suc-
cessively on the yellow clay, the blue clay, and the coal-measures; a similar arrange-
ment is observed near Sheepscar Bar, and in other localities, The warp is spread
over the valley of the Aire, producing a flat-looking surface, gently sloping upwards
at the sides of the valley, and downwards towards the estuary, At the sides of the
Vale of Leeds, the warp shelves off a little below the sea-level of 150 feet, and is not

a

a

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 113

found higher than this level in the immediate neighbourhood of Leeds. Prolongation
of the warp may be traced up all the little tributaries of the Aire in this district as
high as to the level of 150 feet, or thereabouts.

The characters of the warp deposit are very variable. It sometimes approaches
to a tolerably pure blue or yellow clay, but generally it is much more earthy and
dirty-looking than the clays before described. In many localities it is very sandy,
and indeed passes into sand and gravel, more especially in the central parts of the
valley. It contains stones of very variable character, some angular and suban-
gular, derived from no great distance ; others rounded, polished, and far-travelled. It
contains much vegetable matter, as roots and fibres. Drifted wood, chiefly oak, is
found in great abundance in it; also the fir, the hazel, and abundance of leaves
and nuts. In the vestibule of the Leeds Museum is the trunk of a riven oak tree,
split as if by lightning. This portion of tree was found in the warp at New Wortley,
and bears evidence of the violence to which it had been subjected. The remaining
portion of the tree was not to be found in the neighbourhood.

In its composition, the warp appears to exhibit an irregular commixture of dis-
placed blue and yellow clays, with their peculiar rocky contents, and also of a surface
earth and its abundant vegetation.

If I may be allowed to speculate upon the cause of displacement and rearrange-
ment of these materials, I should attribute them to a gigantic land-flood, similar to
what we now occasionally witness, but more intense and more prolonged. By such a
flood, it may be presumed that the river was raised from its ordinary sea-level of 60
- feet to an elevation of 150 feet, displacing extensively within its range, the blue and
yellow clays, and surface earth, and vegetation ; bringing down from the upper parts
of the Valley of the Aire, abundance of sand and gravel, commingling and rear-
ranging these varied materials, forming a flattish valley surface shelving off at the
sides about the level of 150 feet, overlying the blue and the yellow clay where they
exist within its range, and overlying the coal-measures where they have been denuded
of the clays.

In this deposit were found the remains of Hippopotamus major, an elephant, a
gigantic ox, and a smaller ox, and other animals probably identical with existing
species.

Pithe inferences which I draw from the facts now recorded are,—

Ist. That the blue clay, overlying the outbreak of the coal formation, containing
far-travelled stones, and occurring at various elevations as high as 600 feet, is the
Glacial Drift of submergence.

2nd. That the yellow clay, overlying the blue, occurring at the same elevations,
containing travelled, but not far-travelled stones, is the Glacial Drift of emergence,

occurring under a gentler current than the former.

3rd, That the warp, overlying the blue and yellow clay when they co-exist, and
resting on the coal-measures when they are denuded of the clays, not ranging higher
than the sea-level of 150 feet, containing the bones of extinct mammalia, is a newer
deposit than the glacial drifts.

4th. That the Hippopotamus major and an elephant existed in these lands subse-

_ quently to the Glacial Age,

On the Fens and Submarine Forests of Lincolnshire and other Localities.
By the Rev. Enwarp TRrottore.

The author observed, that a great contest between the sea and land, leading to
frequent changes in their respective boundaries, had certainly been raging upon the
Lincolnshire coast for centuries before the arrival of the Romans in Britain, and
-that period when written records began to be kept. ‘The ocean had from time to
_ time swept far beyond its natural limits, and yet little by little it had, by its very
fury, aided to form a future barrier agaiast itself by the accumulation of the silt left
upon its retreat, in concert with the earthy deposits caused by the continual flow of
the inland waters. At one time the sea had lorded it over a considerable portion of
the Lincolnshire coast, but afterwards fresh water became in the ascendant, and had
left the mark of its reign behind it in the form of soapy blue clay, varying in tint, and
abounding in fresh-water shells. The ocean, however, occasionally gave battle to
1858.

114 REPORT—1858.

the fresh water, as was shown by the existence of channels filled with marine silt
running up into the blue clay. In this stratum grew up trees of various kinds, as
oaks of vast size, firs, alders, birch, and hazels, whose roots were yet firmly fixed in
the soil, while their innumerable trunks lay prostrate beneath the black peaty earth
composed of decayed vegetable matter. It might safely be assumed, that the period
of the growth of these trees lasted for five centuries. How long these fen districts
continued to be covered with stagnant fresh water after they had wrought such ter-
rible ruin upon thousands of acres of the finest forest lands, was not deducible from
any internal evidence; but they certainly were for the most part still prevalent when
the Romans appeared upon the scene. They proceeded to encircle the coast with a
vast sea bank, to deepen and defend the outfalls of the rivers, and to construct drains.
But besides the coastal line of fen-lands, there were vast tracts in the interior of
Lincolnshire of a similar character, forming in the aggregate 522,000 acres, lying
from 4 to 16 feet below high-water level. The largest of these extended from the
Trent, through the isle of Axholme, into Notts, and far into Yorkshire, in the direc-
tion of Doncaster, It might fairly be assumed, that during the Roman occupation,
this vast tract of fen-land bore quite a different character to what it had since done;
that it had a gravelly subsoil, and an ordinary earthy surface, covered with trees ;
not usually, if at all, subject to floods ; but that subsequently it became more or less
constantly submerged, so as to destroy its previous forest growth, and to cover the
bodies of the former vegetable giants of the district beneath an earthy deposit. This
great change had usually been attributed to the burning of the forests by the
Romans, on account of the covert which they afforded to swarms of suffering Britons.
There were apparent signs of burning about the stumps of some of the trees, but
others had clearly been cut down, and many had been torn up by the roots. The
felled trees would never so have impeded the flow of the inland waters as to convert
an immense district of previously dry land into a permanent swamp, as had been
suggested ; he would therefore endeayour to find another solution of this difficulty
in connexion with a still more remarkable fact, namely, the existence of the remains
of a submarine’ forest off the present Lincolnshire coast. Along the shore of that
county, from Sutton to Cleethorp, many banks or islands were from time to time
exposed to view. These were usually covered with silt, but when occasionally
stripped of that marine deposit, they were found to possess a substratum of moory
vegetable soil, filled with the roots and prostrate trees of very large size, accom-
panied by their berries, nuts, and leaves. Two questions arose in connexion with these
facts, namely, When were these districts severally submerged by fresh and salt
water? and by what agency? Various theories had been advanced for the purpose
of solving these problems, the principal of which were :—1st, the interference of the
Romans with the natural drainage; 2nd, a change in the coastal line through the
action of-the sea; 3rd, the agency of earthquakes causing subsidence of the earth.
The author examined in succession each of these theories, and gave his opinion in
favour of the last. He referred to the existence of other submarine forests at various
points of the shores of Scotland, England, and Wales. He observed that this theory
might seem to be more marvellous than the preceding ones, and therefore less likely
to be true in the opinion of those who were unacquainted with geology; but when,
from the study of that science, they found that certain strata, the undoubted deposit
of water, were now upheaved far abeve the reach of that element, and that large
tracts of land had sunk beneath it, they could only regard such changes as one of the
usual, but always wonderful operations of nature.

The author cited other instances of similar phenomena, and in conclusion said
that he was inclined to think that a slow upward movement had begun to take place
in large districts of Lincolnshire long ago, and that by means of carefully conducted
scientific observations this would hereafter be certainly proved and accurately mea-
sured. The filling up of channels and estuaries of large size that formerly existed,
and the rapid growth of its coast at various points, apparently indicated this; while
the known gradual but continually increasing elevation of the Danish coast and parts
of Norway greatly strengthened such a supposition.

ae

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 115

BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY, inctupinc PHYSIOLOGY.

Borany.

Mr. Barnas, of York, exhibited a bunch of grapes, which presented the peculiarity
of black and white grapes on the same bunch.

On the Geological Distribution of Plants in some Districts of Yorkshire.
By Dr. Carrincron.

The chief tract taken for illustration was that part of Craven included between
Gordale and Kingsdale, and cut off on the south by the magnificent line of scars
known as the Craven fault. The physical and geological peculiarities of the district
were minutely described. The origin of the present vegetation was referred to dif-
ferent periods; the more ancient portion, including plants of boreal type, being
probably a remnant of the Pre-Glacial Flora. The species found in Craven are 600
flowering plants, and about 500 mosses and lichens.

After considering the present state of our information as to the geognostic relations
of plants, the following classification of strata was recommended, each group being
characterized by a peculiar Flora :—ist, Calcareous formations, highly absorbent,
acted on by the elements chemically rather than mechanically (the carbonic acid in
water dissolving the lime), forming adry, scanty, but fertile soil; 2nd, arenaceous
formations, disintegrating freely, and producing an abundant sandy deposit, on a
large scale, forming absorbent, barren stations; 3rd, argillaceous formations, sub-
ject to rapid abrasion, forming clayey deposits, comparatively impermeable and
hygroscopic. In practice we find these often mingled together, e.g. shales with
sandstones; and the soils frequently differ in nature from the rocks they cover,
having been derived from distant sources. The practice of agriculture has especially
tended to mingle and equalize the soils of various districts.

The prevailing rock of Craven is the scar limestone. It supports the greenest of
pasturage, and most of the rare species are found on it, e. g. Acta spicata, Draba
incana and D. muralis, Cardamine impatiens, Hutchinsia petrea, Hippocrepis comosa,
Dryas octopetala, Saxifraga oppositifolia, Hieracium Gibsoni, Bartsia alpina, Primula
farinosa, Epipactis ovalis, Cypripedium calceolus, Lastrea rigida, and many character-
istic mosses and lichens ; the latter deserving especial notice from growing directly
on the rocks. The prevailing lichens are species of Collema, such as C. nigrum,
stygium, fluviatile, &c., Parmelia crassa, P. calcarea, Lecidea lwrida, candida, im-
mersa, saxatilis, calcarea, &c., Verrucaria immersa, Gagei, Dufourii, plumbea, and
epipolea. 'The sandstones are restricted to the millstone-grit, capping Ingleborough
and other summits, upwards of 2000 feet high. They are covered by a coarse brown
vegetation of ling, heath, crowberry, bilberry, Juncus squarrosus, &c. The lichens
are brown and golden coloured, e. g. species of Umbilicaria, Parmelia atra, olivacea,
saxicola, badia, murorum, Lecidea lapicida, confluens, prominula, fusco-atra, and
rupestris. The argillaceous rocks are represented by the Yoredale shales and Lower
Silurian slates, exposed in Ribblesdale and Chapeldale. They afford damp, dripping
stations, supporting a scanty glaucous vegetation of Equiseta, rushes, and Carices,
e. g. Sedum Rhodiola and 8. Telephium, Saxifraga aizoides, Carduus heterophyllus,
Equisetum hyemale and variegatum, Allosorus crispus, Hymenophyllum Wilsoni, Sco-
lopendrum ramosum, &c. Lichens: Parmelia conspersa, P. sulphurea, Sticta herbacea,
sylvatica, scrobiculata, Nephroma, Lecidea confervoides, yeoyraphica, polytropa, rivu-
losa, and many others.

Dr, Heaton exhibited to the Section a specimen of a plant, which bore on the
same branches the characteristic leaves of two distinct species of Cytisus.

Researches on the Colours of Leaves and Petals.
By W. E. C. Nourse, F.R.C.S.
In a paper published by the author in the ‘ Annals of Natural History’ for 1845,
g*

116 REPORT—1858.

it was shown that immediately beneath the cuticle of leaves and petals is a layer of
cells of small size, circular form, and variable colour, which is named the Refe. The
central layer of leaves and petals, consisting of veins and larger cells, is called the
Substance. In petals, the rete contains the colours, the substance being nearly or
quite colourless. In leaves, the substance contains the great mass of green colour,
the rete superadding the dark tints and marks. The present paper contains further
observations by the author.

1. Eight instances of leaves were examined during the autumnal change of tint.
The change invariably begins in the rete or layer of cells immediately beneath the
cuticle, whether upper or under ; and extends subsequently to the substance. ‘lhe
rete is thus the principal seat of the brilliant autumnal tints of leaves. When the
change begins on the upper surface of the leaf, it is first seen at the edges and in the
intervenous spaces; when on the under surface, it is first observed in the centre,
and in contact with the principal veins.

2. The examination of numerous kinds of variegated leaves showed that yariega-
tion is invariably thus produced: the young leaves are unfolded of one uniform tint ;
then, when they are about half-grown, a patch of some other tint is developed on the
upper surface, in the centre, and in contact with the principal veins. Variegation
thus obeys an opposite law to that which regulates the autumnal tints and the
accidental markings of leaves. It is, furthermore, of two different descriptions; in
one, the edges are white and the centre green, the young leaves having been unfolded
in a state of quasi-etiolation, and patches of green being afterwards developed in the
centre; in the other, the edges are green and the centre yellow, the young leaves
being green, and yellow patches being afterwards developed near the midrib. In
both descriptions, in the green parts of the leaves, the rete, or layer of cells just sub-
jacent to the cuticle, affords, as usual, the deepest green, the substance being of an
ordinary green all through ; and in the light-coloured parts, the rete contains what-
ever colour is presented, the substance being whitish all through.

The patch thus developed, in one case yellow, in the other case green, begins to
appear only when the leaf has attained some growth, and has consequently exercised
its vital functions for some little time in contact with the atmospheric air. Then,
not at the edges, like chance markings or the tints of incipient autumnal decay, but
in the centre of the leaf, and therefore in contact with the principal veins, appears
on the upper surface the patch, of either colour, and from those veins it spreads.
Hence it is inferred, that the colouring matter in these patches, whether green or
yellowish, is in a high and vigorous state of development, quite different from those
tints which approximate towards decay. An accurate microscopical and chemical
examination of the cells and their contents, both of rete and substance, in the light-
coloured portions of variegated leaves, as contrasted with the green parts, is a
desideratum.

3. Of the ordinary tints and markings of leaves, eight special instances were
examined ; proving that the substance is of a green colour which is very nearly uni-
form in all leaves, and that the rete is the seat of the extra tints and markings. In
regard to the veins and surfaces, these extra colours are invariably in one of two
situations ; either in contact with the principal veins, and in such case most con-
spicuous on the under surface of the leaf; or else quite away from the veins, occu-
pying the intervenous spaces and edges of the leaf, and then mostly seen upon the
upper surface. They thus obey the same law as the autumnal tints, and are probably
of similar nature ; contrasting remarkably with the law above stated which regulates
variegation.

4. Numerous specimens of petals were examined, showing the absence of colour
in the cuticle and substance, and the localization of the brilliant colours in the cells
lying just beneath the cuticle, here called the rete. The most highly coloured cells
are generally the smallest, always lie densely packed together, and are commonly
roundish, sometimes elongated.

5. The anomalous organs in half-double flowers, partly stamen and partly petal,
suggested to the author that the pollen seemed to take the place of the coloured cells
of the rete ; and that the cells of the rete in leaves and petals, became, in stamens,
the pollen-grains. Sundry specimens were therefore examined, to ascertain how far
the shape and size of the pollen-grains bore any relation to those of the cells in the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 117

rete ; but no resemblance could be made out. This theory has yet to be confirmed
or superseded by furtherresearch. The floral envelopes stand in mid-relation to two
other sets of organs. Without, we find their analogues in the bracts and leaves ;
within, they are represented by the stamens. We have thus, in an advancing order
of perfection and delicacy of organization, first the leaves; then the petals; finally the
stamens,—organs long known to be mutually analogous, and, within certain limits,
mutually convertible :—the leaves, the organs most concerned with the nutrition of
the individual ; the stamens, most concerned in reproducing the species; and the
petals, organs intermediate, both in place and in physiological relation, between the
two. In the leaves, the brightest colours, both in life and decay, obey like con-
ditions, and are alike contained in those subcuticular cells named the rete; while
the great mass of the ordinary green colouring of the leaf is contained in the cells of
the substance. But in petals the substance contributes very little to the colours,
and the rete assumes a more prominent importance, and stands out as a more distinct
structure. Here, more nearly approaching to the organs of reproduction, the cells
of the rete display every conceivable variety and vividness of colour, besides being
smaller and rounder than the cells of adjacent tissues. Now if it could be shown
that, in the stamens, the cells which in a petal would form the rete, take on a further
and more advanced development, with novel functions, and become the pollen, we
should then understand more clearly the meaning of the brilliant colours displayed
in the petals, and should recognize the rete-cells both in petals and leaves, as con-
stituting a more important structure than at first appeared. We should be reminded
of the connexion, in the animal kingdom, between brilliant colours (so connected
with the dynamic effects of light) and the function of reproduction; as wellas of
those instances in which the decay of the individual bore a relation to the perpetu-
ation of the species, or in which the latter function was held in abeyance by the over-
nutrition of the individual. So, it is at the commencement of decay that the leaves
most simulate the bright colours of petals. So, by cultivation we over-nourish a
plant, and bring about significant changes: first, the pollen disappears, and each
stamen becomes developed into a coloured petal, which increases as we continue to
nourish; then, as we proceed further, the plant refuses to flower at all, and instead
of petals, are produced leaves; and instead of flower-like whorls, tissue is developed
between them, and they stand apart as leaves.

Should this view be confirmed, it might be worth while to extend the examination
to Ferns, to see whether the coloured particles of the rete do not become spores, the
cuticle forming the covers. The highly coloured and organized cells of a rete, in
plants of that lower stamp, may pass directly from the condition of leaf-colour to
that of the seed-particles of the species, without requiring the complicated inter-
mediate states and processes necessary in higher organizations. On casual inspection
of fronds, in various stages of fructification, the opening covers certainly look like
the splitting cuticle, gaping at those parts to give exit to the swollen and changed
granules of the rete.

Finally, there remains to be investigated the nature of the changes in colour both
in leaves and petals which are wrought in contact with the veins, and the differences
between them and those which are produced apart from the veins ; the further con-
ditions affecting variegation, both in leaves and petals; and the nature of those
petal-colours which are produced in the unfolded bud, independently of the influence
of light, and the respects in which they differ from ordinary petal-colours.

Mr. 8. Smrru exhibited to the Section some balls about 3 inches in diameter, com-
posed of the hairs of a plant which he had picked up on the shores of the Mediter-
ranean.

On Suburban Gardens. By N. B. Warp, F.R.S.

_ The author commenced his paper by describing the impressions made upon him
in early youth, in a voyage to Jamaica, by the glorious aspects of the sea and sky,
—the dolphins playing about the bows of the vessel,—the flying fish alighting on
its deck, and the occasional sight of an albatros,—the tropical forms of vegetation
on the beach and the hills,—and the mighty world of wonders on the coral reefs.

118 REPORT—1858,

On his return to London he stated the great advantages he had received by accom-
panying the Professor of Botany, under the patronage of the Society of Apothecaries,
in repeated herborizations round London, which gave him a great insight into the
natural conditions of all the plants within twenty-five miles of London. On his
establishment in Wellclose Square, he endeavoured to fulfil these conditions in a
kind of terraced garden on the roof of his brewhouse, but with indifferent success.
This garden was destroyed by fire. A subsequent attempt to grow ferns and mosses
proved equally unsuccessful from the influence of smoke. An accident led him to
the employment of cases sufficiently close to exclude soot and other impurities, and
to retain the moisture. The first important application was the conveyance of plants
to and from distant countries, which proved so successful as to be universally
adopted. On his removal to Clapham he found that he was enabled to grow great
numbers of plants in the open ait by supplying them with proper food, &c.; and
therefore restricted the use of the closed cases to such plants as could not with all
his care be cultivated in the open ground. He expressed his belief that the cause of
failure in the cases arose, not, as had been stated, from the quiet condition of the
atmosphere, but from the much greater heat of the case when exposed to the
summer sun without a blind, the thermometer often rising from 20° to 25° higher
than in the open air. When the sun is obscured the temperature in the cases is not
more than from 2° to 15° higher. It is his firm opinion, that where the natural con-
ditions as regards heat, light, moisture, soil, and periods of rest are fulfilled, the un-
disturbed state of the air, so far from being prejudicial, is of great service. This
fact he has proved with numerous plants; and he will feel extremely obliged to
those who will kindly communicate instances to the contrary. What strengthens
his conviction that heat is the cause, is the fact that in the spring and early summer
months no cases of failure arose. He exhibited, among other plants, specimens of
two fairy roses, the one having been in a case for three or four years, and the other
above twenty.

On some Practical Results derivable from the Study of Botany.
By N. B. Warp.

The author commenced his paper by observing that Botany had not had fair play;
and that in many ways it might be rendered a much more attractive and useful
science. In the formation of an herbarium, for example, he considered that such a
collection might, in numerous instances, give a faithful, and if faithful, a beautiful
picture of nature. This position he illustrated by a series of specimens from the
Dovrefeldt range of mountains in Norway, and arranged in three different ways,—
all of them conveying useful information :—first, the association of such plants as
grow together, illustrated by a sheet containing forty or fifty species of plants from
the highest portion of the range—on the borders of eternal snow; secondly, the
grouping of plants belonging to one natural family, as the Ericacee; and thirdly,
the arrangement of one or more genera according to their elevation on the mountain
side, illustrated by four species of Saxifrage, one of which grew at 3000 feet elevation,
one at 4000; one at 5000, and one at 6000 feet, respectively.

He further remarked that the climate conditions of plants might be most unmis-
takeably shown by observing the spontaneous vegetation of hedge banks, &c., and
this was exemplified by a series of specimens from the banks surrounding the timber
plantations in the New Forest, and from a bank near Tintern Abbey, Monmouth-
shire, the former indicating a moderate, the latter an excessive amount of moisture.

He then proceeded to urge the importance of cultivating a taste for legitimate
horticultural pursuits among the members of the labouring population, as it was a
well-established fact, that ‘‘ whenever a pink, or a carnation, or rose was seen out-
side a cottage, there was a potato or a cabbage for the pot within ; thatif there were
not happiness, there was the nearest approach to it in this world, content.”

“Yes, in a poor man’s garden grow
Far more than herbs and flowers ;
Kind thoughts, contentment, peace of mind,
And joy for weary hours.”

He concluded by a communication he had received from the Bishop of Ripon on

ey

&.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 119

the preceding Sunday, and which was, indeed, his principal reason for again appear-
ing before them. The communication of the Bishop was to this effect :—*‘‘ The
parish of Arncliffe, near Skipton, in Yorkshire, situated in a very wild part of the
county, and inhabited by a wild and lawless tenantry, had been for many years with-
out a resident clergyman, the living being a very poor one—not above £30 a year.
The present incumbent, the Rev. Mr. Boyd, determined, however, to set himself
down among them and to use his utmost exertions in bettering their wretched con-
dition. To this end he surrounded his house with a fine garden, well-stocked with
lovely flowers, and induced his peasantry-—but with great reluctance—to come in
one by one to see and admire his flowers, and to take them home and cultivate them.
Now for the first time they had light in their dwellings, and ultimately, through the
kind and constant personal care which was bestowed upon them, have become the
most contented and happy set of villagers in all Yorkshire.”’

On the Epidermal Cells of the Petals of Plants. By Turren WEst.

The author, in working on microscopic subjects, generally had his attention arrested
by that well-known object the petal of the geranium, and being unable to recocilen
its appearance with the descriptions found in books, was led to the investigations
now communicated to the Section.

After detailing his observations on the epidermis of the petals and the hairs of a
variety of plants, he came to the following conclusions :—1. The prolongation of the
outer cell-wall of the cuticle of petals into mammillary protuberances is a usual con-
dition ; such elevations being, with rare exceptions, most marked on the iliner sur-
face, and being hairs in a more or less rudimentary condition. 2. That the markings
on the parts here named (which may be divided into two kinds, lines and dots,
though examples of an intermediate nature occur) are both caused by corrugation
of the cell-wall, and not by external secondary deposit upon it.

ZooLoey.

On the Reproductive Organs of Sertularia tamarisca.
By Professor Attman, M.D., F.RS.

Tue author called attention to the fact, that Serfularia tamarisca, which, like most
of the Hydroid Radiata, is strictly dicecious, presents the further remarkable cha-
racter of having its male and female gonophores (generative vesicles) totally different
in form,—an important fact, as regards the zoographical characterization of the
species.

The male gonophores appear to be those figured by Ellis in his description of this
species; they are compressed, somewhat obcordate bodies, with a short terminal
tubular aperture.

The female gonophores are far less simple in form; they are oval for about the
proximal half of their length, and then become trihedral with the sides diverging
upwards, while the whole is terminated by a three-sided pyramid. The sides of the
pyramid are cut into two or three short teeth along their edges, and each of their
basal angles is prolonged into a short spine.

The trihedral portion, with its pyramidal summit, is formed of three leaflets,
which merely touch one another by their edges without adhering, so that they may
be easily separated by the dissecting needle. They consist of the same chitinous
material as that which invests the rest of the gonophore, formed doubtless originally
on the surface of an ectodermal lamina.

The male gonophore is traversed by a fleshy axis (blastostyle), which gives origin
to one or more sporosacs containing the spermatogenous tissue surrounding a well-
developed spadix*. The spermatozoa have an elongated body of a cylindrical form,
with a long caudal filament. :

* The author proposed the term spadix to indicate the diverticulum from thé common
eavity of the ccenosarc, which in most of the Hydroid Zoophytes extends into the centre of
the sporosae, and round which the generative elements (ova or spermatozoa) are developed.

120 REPORT—1858.

On laying open the female gonophore, the oval portion of it is seen to be occupied
by a blastostyle, which gives origin to one or more sporosacs entirely resembling the
male sporosacs except in the nature of their contents, which are here ova instead
of spermatozoa.

The oval portion of the gonophore terminates upwards by closing round the re-
mote extremity of the blastostyle, where it forms a ring with tooth-like processes by
which the extremity of the blastostyle is encircled. This oval portion constitutes the
proper capsule of the gonophore, and is the only part developed in the male. From
the summit of the blastostyle several irregularly-branched cecal tubes, apparently
communicating with its cavity, are given off. They lie altogether external to the
proper capsule, and embrace a delicate sac, within which are one or two ova in an
advanced state of development, each in a delicate structureless sac of its own, which
is continued by a narrow neck towards the summit of the proper capsule, with
whose cavity it would seem to communicate; but the author did not succeed in
tracing its connexions beyond this point.

These ova, with their investing sacs, and the surrounding cecal tubes, would thus
lie entirely exposed, were it not that they are surrounded by the three leaflets already
mentioned as constituting the trihedral portion of the gonophore. These leaflets
are given off from the oval portion or proper capsule near its summit, and being in
contact by their edges, completely enclose a space which is occupied by the struc-
tures just described.

These structures are thus truly extra-capsular, and correspond with the extracap-
sular ovigerous sacs which occur inSertularia pumila, S. cupressina, and other species, ~
and into which the ova are conveyed from the interior, to undergo, as in a sort of
marsupium, a farther development previous to their final liberation as embryos.

With regard to the true import of the sporosacs and their relation to the Medu-
soid buds produced by other Hydroids, the author insisted on the necessity of bear-
ing in mind that the spadix has no ectodermal covering, and consists of endoderm
alone. He considered it to be homologous with the manubrium (‘“ peduncle”’) of a
Medusa separated from its ectoderm by the intervention of the generative elements,
which in the sporosac are always found between the entoderm and ectoderm of an
organ strictly homologous with the so-called “peduncle” of a Medusa. By the
continued growth of the generative elements, the ectoderm is separated more and
more from the endoderm, which now constitutes a diverticulum from the cavity of
the blastostyle, enveloped by the ova or spermatozoa; while the ectoderm forms the
walls of a sac which immediately confines these elements. The whole is enclosed in
an external sac, which seems to be an extension of the ectoderm of the blastostyle.

We have thus, in the sporosac of Sertularia tamarisca, an organ which easily
admits of comparison with the Medusoid buds of other Zoophytes ; it consists, in
fact, of a manubrium peculiarly modified, so as to constitute a sac for the retention
of the generative elements, and chiefly differs from the proper Medusoid buds in the
non-development of a swimming organ or umbrella. In other instances (Cordylo-
phora, &c.), as the author has elsewhere shown*, peculiar cecal tubes, generally
more or less branched, are developed from the base of the spadix, and thence extend,
along with the ova or spermatozoa, between the ectoderm and endoderm towards
the summit of the sporosac. ‘The author had already compared these tubes to the
radiating gastro-vascular canals of a Medusa; and if this comparison be just, they
remain in the sporosac as the sole representatives of the parts found in the umbrella
of a Medusat. A change of position, however, has taken place, and the radiating
canals, having withdrawn themselves from the covering of ectoderm which they pos-
sess when forming a constituent part of the developed umbrella, are now composed
of endoderm alone, and lie between the endoderm and ectoderm of the manubrium,

where they form cecal processes from the spadix or endodermal portion of the ma-
nubrium,

* Phil. Trans. 1853. -

t In a paper by the author on Cordylophora lacustris (Phil. Trans. 1853), he expressed his
belief that the umbrella of a Medusa had its representative in the walls of the sporosac;
subsequent examination, however, of the sporosacs in a great number of species had caused
him to modify this view and adopt that contained in the present communication.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 121

Remarks on the Migration of Birds.
By Curusert Cotiinewoon, M.B., M.A., P.LS., Lecturer on Botany at
the Liverpool School of Medicine.

The author began by remarking upon the extreme interest of the phenomena of
migration to the ornithologist, and the simplicity of the general plan, which had been
unnecessarily complicated by the supporters of the now exploded doctrines of hy-
bernation and submergence. The fact that those birds which wiater here (except
in those very rare cases which prove the rule) never breed with us, is the true key
to those phenomena. The fieldfare and redwing are impelled northward in April,
by the same impulse which brings the nightingale and blackcap to us from the South.
All retire from the advancing sun in spring; and all seek those spots where they
themselves first saw the light, there to rear their young. This business ended, they
again retire to regions more constitutionally fit for them in the dead season. The
sun, therefore, is the great moving power, and the equinoxes the signals for migra-
tion. A sexual impulse, arising from the development of the reproductive organs,
drives them before the advancing sun in spring,—a failure of temperature and food,
added to that of the reproductive stimulus, makes them follow, the retiring sun in
autumn, The author suggested, arguing from the analogy of the short internal mi-
grations of some British birds, that the period of time during which a bird remains
in this country in summer might be taken as an index of the distance southwards to
which he retires for the rest of the year,—that the chiff-chaff, for example, which
spends fully six months of the year with us, retires toa much less distance in winter
than the swift, which remains absent from us nine months out of the twelve. The
conditions under which birds exist in warmer latitudes in the winter season, are
probably the same as regulate those which remain, the only difference being one of
constitution or hardihood; that is, that our birds of passage require the higher tem-
perature, simply to keep them in the same state of active life which our indigenous
birds maintain under our wintry skies. As an example of these conditions, the fact
that, of our migratory birds, the males arrive usually a week or ten days in advance
of the females, seems to show that a separation of the sexes takes place with them,
such as is so common a phenomenon with our indigenous birds at that season.
That the migratory birds arrive in full song, the author was convinced from obser-
vation, it having frequently happened that a careful watch for their first appearance had
been rewarded at length by hearing just so much of their note as was sufficient for
one well-acquainted with it to recognize them ; but on the following day the woods
were resonant with the perfect notes of the very same bird. The recurrence of this
observation had convinced him that fatigue alone had been the cause of their muti-
lated song the previous day. Attention was next directed to the great discrepancy
which existed between the mean date of arrival of the summer birds of passage, as
given by different ornithologists. The mean dates given by White, Markwick, Jenyns
and another for twenty-five summer birds of passage were presented in a tabular
form, and exhibited a variation of as much as a month or six weeks for the same bird.
This arises probably from the fact, that the experience of a single individual is liable
to fallacy,—that he may not have the same opportunities of accurate investigation
in two consecutive years: consequently, certain dates in a series of observations are
much too late; and these, when reduced to a general mean, destroy the balance of
the whole. A comparison of the earliest dates given by seven ornithologists, for the
same twenty-five birds, gave much more equable results, because probably that
observation was made under the best circumstances, and therefore most in accord-
ance with truth. Still, however, there was something to be accounted for,—some
influence which in certain seasons somewhat accelerated them, and in others retarded
them. The question arises, whence does this influence arise? Surely not at the
point for which they are making, but rather at that from whence they are setting out.
We should not expect, therefore, that birds would necessarily arrive sooner in a for-
ward season, nor later in a backward one; and experience proves, what reason would
suggest, that the actual temperature of our spring is not intimately connected with
the earlier or later appearance of the migratory birds. The author, however, pur-
posed making a more careful comparison between the records of the arrival of the
birds, and the meteorological indications, than he had been able to do hitherto, with

122 REPORT—1858.

a view to elucidate this subject. With regard to the destination of our summer birds
in winter, a large series of direct experiments was necessary to the proper compre-
hension of the length and direction of the lines which they followed.

Some Observations on the Fishes of the Lake District.
By J. Davy, MD. ERS.

In this paper the author referred,—Ist. To the species of fish hitherto known in
the district. 2nd. To their habitats, remarking that one of them, the vendace, till
recently supposed to be peculiar to Scotland, had been found in Derwentwater.
3rd. On the causes of the distribution of fishes; taking the vendace in its limited
range as an example, two theories in explanation were offered as most probable,—
one, the transportation of its ova by birds, the other by floating ice,—their vitality
not being destroyed at the freezing-point of water. 4th. The growth of fish, of
which remarkable instances were recorded, under the influence of unstinted and
fitting food. 5th, Of variations in the species, occasioned by different agencies.
The paper concluded by pointing out the necessity of legislative interference to pre-
vent the destruction of fish. ‘They are now taken in largest quantities at the season
when they are about to deposit their ova, and when least fit for food. A closed
season should be instituted throughout the country, and parr and smolts should
never be taken.

On the Cause of the Instinctive Tendency of Bees to form Hexagonal Cells.
By R.L. Ex.is.

The author supposed that bees were led to the exercise of this instiict by the use of
their organs of sight. It was well known that, in addition to their facetted eyes,
they had three single eyes; and he supposed that these eyes were placed in such a
position as to enable them to work within a range sufficient to give the walls of their
cells dihedral angles of 120 degrees.

On the Arrangement of Birds. By T. C. Evroy, F.L.S.

The mode in which birds obtain their prey is subject to considerable variation :
adapted to this variation are the various members and organs of the class. ‘The
principal modes in which birds obtain their prey are the following :—By the power
of flight or direct chase; by the power of approaching their prey unobserved; by
the power of climbing; by the power of scratching and running; by the power of
wading, and by the power of swimming. Ifa division of birds is made strietly ac-
cording to the above qualities, there will be many that will not conform strictly to
the greatest perfection of development adapted to each mode of living, but are
endowed with a modification or mixture of two or more of them. Mr. Eyton pro-
poses to divide birds into the following orders :—1. Raptores, or birds of prey; con-
taining the families Vulturide, Falconide, and Strigide ; 2. Noctivores, or night-
feeding birds, containing the Caprimulgide, Trogonide, and Coracinide ; 3. Volitores,
or flyers, containing the Trochilidz and Cypsilide ; 4. Lapsatores, or gliders, con-
taining the Alcedinide, Buceride, and Upupide.

Prehensores or Parrots. Cursores or Runners.
Scansores or Woodpeckers. Rasores or Scratchers.
Erucivores or Cuckoos. Littoreals or Shore-birds.
Insessores or Perchers. Grallatores or Waders.
Bipositores or Pigeons. Natatores or Swimmers.

Mr. Eyton called the attention of the meeting to the peculiar mode in which the
coracoid bone is articulated to the sternum among the humming-birds, and exhibited
a drawing and specimens of those parts.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 123

On the Oyster. By T. C. Eyton, F.L.S.

At the Cheltenham miceting the author exhibited the young oystertaken from the beard
of the parent. He now traced the young oyster from the embryo state in the ovary
to its perfection at five years old; and exhibited a series of drawings on the history
of the oyster, the mode of preserving the beds and increasing their productiveness.

On the Anatomy of the Brain in some small Quadrupeds.
By Rosert Garner, #.L.S.

The comparative anatomy of the brain, little studied in Great Britain (Professor
Owen having been one of the few labourers in the field), has on the continent met
with more attention, witness the accurate researches of Tiedemann, Desmoulins, and
Leuret. As the importance of the subject in regard to zoology and physiology
cannot be doubted, the writer offers the description of the brain in a few small but
interesting quadrupeds dissected by himself.

The two genera constituting the great family of quadrupeds, called Monotremata,
similar in some respects, as far as the brain is concerned, are in others remarkably
different. The Echidna Histrix has well-developed convolutions to its brain, that
of the Ornithorhynchus paradoxus is only marked by the rather deep grooves of its
vessels ; it has, too, a bony lamina between the hemispheres, which is wanting in the
other. The former has the olfactory bulbs very large, the latter much less. The
Echidna has not the little side lobules of the cerebellum, which in the Ornitho-
rhynchus are remarkable, occupying cavities in the temporal bone, and encircled by
the three semicircular auditory canals ; in the Echidna these last also exist, but deep
in the solid bone. The Ornithorhynchus has the two posterior prominences of the
corpora quadrigemina very little developed, less than in any other quadruped, if we
are not mistaken, making therefore a gradation to their disposition in birds. Both
have the peculiarity (general, it would appear, in the Marsupialia and Monotremata)
of the absence of the corpus callosum. The two principal commissures are the an-
terior and the fornix, both well-developed, the latter being continuous behind with
the hippocampus major; itself very large in such animals as have large olfactory
bulbs and tracts, with which it is connected. The remaining parts do not much
differ from other quadrupeds.

With respeet to the organs of sense, and the cerebral nerves supplying them, we
may commence (having already noticed that the olfactory organs are enormously
developed in the Echidna) by observing that the eye of the aquatic species, the Or-
nithorhynchus, has a supplementary valvular lid, the lens also being more convex
than in the Echidna. There is a lacrymal apparatus and duct in the usual place.
The cerebral nerves generally are upon the normal plan, but the duck-billed creature
has the fifth nerve very greatly developed to supply its curious mandible, which must
possess extraordinary sensibility, though of a subdued kind, from its leathery cover-
ing; similar to that of a hand with fine touch enveloped in a closely-fitting glove.
The large nasal branch of the first or ophthalmic division of this fifth nerve, running
in a peculiar canal, and the second division, of course, supply the upper mandible,
and the third the lower. Six fascie of nerves, generally very large, are dis-
tributed to the former, and four to the latter, on each side. The author is not
sure whether mention is made in authors of the little saccular organs with
papillz, situated on the front of the palate, immediately under the nostrils, the latter
situated, of course, above, on the upper surface of the bill. Home does mention four
rudimentary anterior teeth in addition to those commonly enumerated: The origin
of the gieat fifth nerve is evidently below the pons from the medulla oblongata.
The external ear-canal is long and sinuous in the Ornithorhynchus, with a wider
opening and more regularly curved in the Echidna. The drum of the ear looks
downwards in this last, a little forwards and outwards in the first, and here too it is
smaller and longer. In both, the membrane is stretched on a separate rim of bone
like a tambourin. Home and Blainville give only two bones, but there is a loose
quadrate bone attached to the malleus, and on which the trumpet-shaped stapes
rests; this must be the incus. The malleus is large and connected with the bony
circle, and also, as usual, with the membrane. In the Echidna the narrow Eusta-

124 REPORT—1858.

chian tube opens just within the posterior extremity of the nares, whence a bristle
may be passed into the cavity of the tympanum. In the Ornithorhynchus it appears
to be wider. In the Echidna the Vidian nerve, with another twig or two, is seen in
the roof of the cavity, and may be traced to the portio dura; there is also a very
distinct tensor tympani muscle. The cochlea only makes one imperfect turn in
both animals, but the semicircular canals are completely formed. In the Ornitho-
rhynchus one surrounds the opening of the side cavity in the cranium, and gives origin
to one end of another which descends just outside the condyle, the third lying hori-
zontally round the floor of the said cavity. In this animal there is one large opening
for the passage of the eighth and ninth nerves, partly closed by a membrane and
situated before the large occipital foramen; the Hchidna has openings for them in
the temporal bone.

Whilst the Ornithorhynchus is a sort of quadrupedic wingless duck, the Echidna
is, as is well known, an ant-eater, having a very extensible tongue, without teeth,
and its mouth situated at the end of a callous tubular muzzle. Of course, however,
such a muzzle must present a great difference in its nerves. In this animal the
nasal portion of the ophthalmic, for instance, is small (this nerve being scarcely
related to the nose as an organ of smell), and the other branches of the fifth are
also moderate in size. The two specimens of Echidna examined by the author
had evidently been amongst the ants, and the friend who forwarded them observed
that the animal’s’ strength is enormous, that it burrowed in banks, and could roll
itself up into a ball, How beautifully the Ornithorhynchus or Platypus is adapted
to obtain its food, insects and mollusks found at the bottom of rivers, must strike
any observer.

In three or four species of marsupial animals, Phalangista and Petauri, the brain
was principally remarkable for the peculiarity mentioned above, the absence of the
corpus callosum, the fornix taking its place somewhat, and having in front four pro-
longations, two going forwards above the anterior commissure, and two downwards
behind it. The cerebrum in all was perfectly smooth, whilst the cerebellum in all
the animals described in this paper is divided into lamelle. There are moderate
olfactory bulbs in front, the cerebellum has the ‘ flocks” or small side lobules, the
corpora quadrigemina are well-marked and their tubercles equal, a little exposed, and
the hippocampus large. Indeed, with the exception of the peculiar absence of the
corpus callosum, leaving the third ventricle exposed between the hemispheres, the
brain in all these animals may well be compared to that of a hare or rabbit.

These remarks were closed with a few words on the encephalon of those curious
animals the moles, two or three species of which have been examined, including the
Condylura with a curious star-like snout, to supply which enigmatical part, the
supermaxillary nerves are greatly developed. Generally there was no difference
between the brains of foreign species and that of the common European species.
This creature, admirably furnished with an acute organ of smell, and a very perfect
internal ear (opening by a very wide orifice on the shoulder in the Condylura), has,
as is well known, a very small rudimentary eye, a mere dot in fact. Nevertheless
this eye has undoubtedly a true optic nerve, as was maintained by Treviranus and
Carus; in fact, the figure given by the latter appears to me to be correct; at any
rate, an optic nerve may be seen (by the lens) to whiten by the action of spirit,
when examined at its commissure. The brain of this little creature, in some respects
like that of the Echidna, has nevertheless a well-marked corpus callosum. The
olfactory bulbs and tracts are ample, and connected through the hippocampus with
the fornix, disposed as mentioned above. ‘The anterior commissure is bifurcate on
each side, with extensive connexions. The optic lobes, or corpora quadrigemina,
are fairly developed, though the posterior one is certainly not so well marked; but
still both are more so than could be the case if the sole relation of these parts were
to the organs of vision, so rudimentary in the mole. The circle of Willis and other
vessels are as regular and complicated as in the largest of the Mammalia,

On the Death of the Common Hive Bee, supposed to be occasioned by a
Parasitic Fungus. By the Rev. H. H. Hieerns.

On the 18th of March last a gentleman of Liverpool communicated to me some

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 125

circumstances respecting the death of a hive of bees in his possession, which induced
me to request from him a full statement of particulars, He gave me the following
account :—‘‘In October last I had three hives of bees, which I received into my
house. The doorway of each hive was closed, and the hive was placed upon a piece
of calico; the corners were brought over the top, leaving a loop, by which the hive
was suspended from the ceiling. The hives were taken down about the 14th of
March; two were healthy, but all the bees in the third were dead. There was a
gallon of bees. The two hives containing live bees were much smaller; but in each
there were dead ones. Under whatever circumstances you preserve bees through
the winter, dead ones are found at the bottom of the hive in the spring. The room,
an attic, was dry; and I had preserved the same hives in the same way during the
winter of 1856. In what I may call the dead hive there was abundance of honey
when it was opened; and it is clear that its inmates did not die from want. It is
not a frequent occurrence for bees so to die; but I have known another instance.
In that case the hive was left out in the ordinary way, and probably cold was the
cause of death. I think it probable that my bees died about a month before the
14th of March, merely from the circumstance that some one remarked about that
time that there was no noise in the hive. They might have died earlier, but there
were certainly live bees in the hive in January. I understand there was an appear-
ance of mould on some of the comb. There was, I think, ample ventilation ; indeed,
as the hives were suspended, they had more air than through the summer when
placed on a stand. When the occurrence was first made known to me, I suggested
that the bees might probably have died from the growth of a fungus, and requested
some of the dead bees might be sent to me for examination. They were transmitted
to me in a very dry state, and a careful inspection with a lens afforded no indication
of vegetable growth. I then broke up a specimen and examined the portions with a
compound microscope, using a Nachet, No.4. The head and thorax were clean,
but on a portion of the sternum were innumerable very minute linear slightly curved
bodies, which, when immersed in water, showed the well-known oscillating or
swarming motion. Notwithstanding the agreement of these minute bodies with the
characters of the genus Bacterium of the Vibrionia, I regarded them as spermatia,
having frequently seen others indistinguishable from them under circumstances in-
consistent with the presence of conferve, as in the immature peridia and sporangia
of fungi. In the specimen first examined were no other indications of the growth
of any parasite ; but from the interior of the abdomen of another bee I obtained an
abundance of well-defined globular bodies resembling the spores of a fungus, ‘0001 2—
-00016 inch in diameter. Three out of four specimens, subsequently examined, con-
tained within the abdomen similar spores. No traces of mycelium were visible;
the plants apparently had come to maturity and withered, leaving only the spores.
The chief question then remaining to be solved was, as to the time when the spores
were developed, whether before or after the death of the bees. In order, if possible,
to determine this, I placed four of the dead bees in circumstances favourable for the
germination of the spores, and in about ten days I submitted them again to examina-
tion. They were covered with mould consisting chiefly of a species of Mucor, and
one also of Botrytis or Botryosporium. These fungi were clearly extraneous, cover-
ing indifferently all parts of the insects, and spreading on the wood on which they
were lying. On the abdomen of all the specimens, and on the clypeus of one of
them, grew a fungus wholly unlike the surrounding mould. It was white and very
short, and apparently consisted wholly of spores arranged in a moniliform manner
‘like the filaments of a penicillum, These spores resembled those first found in the
abdomen of the bees, and did, I think, proceed from them. The filaments were
most numerous at the junction of the segments of the abdomen. The spores did
not resemble the globules in Sporendonema musce. The Rev. M. T. Berkeley, to
-whom I sent some of the bees, found, by scraping the interior of the abdomen witha
‘lancet, very minute curved linear bodies which he compared to vibriones. He found
mixed with them globular bodies, but no visible stratum of mould. From the pecu-
‘liar position of the spores within the abdomen of the bees, and from the growth of
a fungus from them unlike any of our common forms of Mucedines, I think it pro-
bable that the death of the bees was occasioned by the presence of a parasitic
fungus.”

126 ’ REPORT—1858.

On a New Species of Laomedea ; with Remarks on the Genera Campanularia
and Laomedea. By the Rev. T. Hincxs, B.A. '

A new British species of Laomedea was described under the name of L. angulata,
which is remarkable as being the only member of this genus yet discovered, in which
the reproductive capsules are not axillary, but originate from the creeping fibres.
Mr. Hincks also described a remarkable variety of Campanularia Johnstoni (Alder),
which is branched, and bears capsules on the pedicle as well as on the fibre. In
these two forms, the supposed distinctive characters of Laomedea and Campanularia
are intermingled. ‘There was not, indeed, a single constant character that could be
relied upon for the separation of the two genera, and he therefore proposed, with
Van Beneden, to range both branched and simple forms under Campanularia, aban-
doning the genus Laomedea. One section, however, of Campanularia seemed to him
entitled to distinct generic rank ; that which includes the small and (for the most part)
sessile species, and for this he proposed the name Calicella.

On three New Species of Sertularian Zoophytes. By Josuua AupER, of
Newcastle-on- Tyne. Communicated by the Rev. Toomas Hincxs.

The first was a Plumularia of well-marked characters, discovered by Mr. Alder,
near low-water mark, at Cullercoats, on the Northumberland coast : in habit it very
much resembled a Halecium, but with ovicapsules similar to those of Campanularia
Johnstoni. It was named Plumularia halecioides. The second species described was
a Haleciwm from deep water on the same coast, for which the name of H. labrosum
was proposed. The third, a foreign species, was found parasitic on gulf-weed from
the Atlantic, and was named Halecium nanum. The paper was illustrated by draw- -
ings of the several species.

On the Homology of the Skeleton.
By G. M. Humpnry, Surgeon to Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge.

Having lately been engaged in lecturing and writing upon the Human Skeleton,
the author has carefully investigated the whole subject of its homology, in relation to
the skeletons of the various vertebrate classes, and in relation to its development and
connexion with the nervous system. ‘Ihe conclusions at which he arrives differ, in
some particulars, from those of Prof. Owen, more especially with regard to certain

. bones of the skull, such as the temporal bone, and the components of the anterior
or nasal vertebra. His views, and the arrangement he proposes, are set forth in the
accompanying Table I. In Table II. the bones are placed according to the plan of
Prof. Owen; the differences between the two being indicated by italics. He consi-
ders that the pelvis consists of the hemal elements of two sacral yertebrz ; that the
scapular arch consists of the hemal elements of two cervical vertebre ; and that the
limbs are appendages diverging from the points of junction of the hemal spines with
the hemal ale. The key to the comparison of the fore limbs with the hinder—a
subject of much difficulty to anatomists—is furnished by the fact that the limbs are
placed at the anterior and posterior ends of the trunk; and that consequently the
opposed surfaces of their upper segments, as well as of the pelvis and scapula, are
made to correspond ; that is, the anterior aspect of the hinder limb corresponds with
the posterior aspect of the fore limb. This disposition of the parts takes place du-
ring development. At first, each limb is nearly straight; the hands and feet bud out
from the sides of the trunk; the palms and soles look downwards ; and the thumb
and the great toe look forward. Subsequently, each limb undergoes a quarter turn,
but in opposite directions, The anterior limb is rotated, on its axis, backwards; the
posterior limb is rotated, on its axis, forwards; the ilium and femur slant, forwards,
from the hip; and the scapula and humerus slant, backwards, from the shoulder ;
the knee bends forwards; and the elbow bends backwards. In the anterior limb,
however, a rotation of the distal segments takes place, when the hand is pronated, in
an opposite direction to that which has occurred in the proximal segments; and pro-
nation is the easiest position to man, and is the ordinary position with most other
animals.

127

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

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128 REPORT—1858.

On the Liability of Shells to Injury from the Growth of a Fungus.
By the Rev. H. H. Hicerns.

It has often been observed that shells kept for a considerable time in cabinets are
apt to lose much of their original freshness and beauty of appearance. This kind
of injury chiefly affects such specimens as have a bright enamelled surface, which at
length becomes dull and less pleasant to the touch. Several suggestions have been
made with reference to the probable cause of the change, which has often been at-
tributed to the efflorescence of saline matter absorbed by the shell. But, so far asI
have observed, the specimens most liable to injury from saline incrustation belong to
genera in which the shells are without enamel, as Littorina, Turritella, &c., and many
collectors are in the habit of steeping their specimens in fresh water for some days
before placing them in their cabinets—a process which is said to be an effectual pre-
servative from injury by saline efflorescence. Mr. Dennison, of Woolton, attributed
the loss of lustre in enamelled shells to the ravages of a minute insect, but had not
been able to detect the depredator. ‘‘ Many of the shells in my own cabinet suffered
such serious injury during last winter that I was led to investigate the cause,
which, indeed, became obvious enough by the use of a microscope. An ordinary
lens showed the enamel of the shell to be beset with small bristly points, and when
a portion of the surface was scraped off and submitted to a higher magnifying power,
the forms of at least two species of Fungi became apparent, one resembling an or-
dinary Mucor with a globose sporangium ; the other, and much more common form,
exhibited both simple and moniliform filaments, with an abundance of minute spores,
seemingly quite free. After having been carefully washed, the surface of the shell
was found to be as if it were engraved in some places with stellular marks, in others
with striz forming irregular reticulations, caused no doubt in each instance by the
spreading mycelium of the fungus. It is scarcely necessary to add, that attacks of
this nature need not be apprehended where shells are kept in a perfectly dry or well-
ventilated place. A slight deposition of moisture does, however, frequently occur
upon their surfaces whilst shells are undergoing examination, in which case it would
be a safe precaution to allow them for awhile to remain exposed to the air before re-
turning the drawer to the cabinet.”

On some new and interesting Forms of British Zoophytes.
By the Rev. T. Hincxs, B.A.

A new species of Plumularia was characterized under the name of P. similis, closely
allied to the P. echinulata of Peach. Two new species of Polyzoa were also described :
one as Avenella dilatata ; the other, which exhibits a new generic type, as Arachnidia
Hippothéoides, a delicate Ctenostomatous Polyzoon, curiously resembling in general
appearance the well-known Hippothoa. Mr. Hincks also drew attention to the re-
markable difference in the form of the male and female capsule in Halecium Beanii
and 7. halecinum, and suggested the importance of inquiring how far this difference
prevails amongst true Hydroida.

On some Peculiar Forms of Spines found on two Species of the Spinigrade
Starfishes. By C. W. Peacu.

The author stated, that having discovered a long slit on the under spines of Ophio-
coma neglecta?, he was induced to examine other species; and that on Ophiocoma
rosula, in addition to those mentioned by Forbes, he found jaw-like ones on the under
sides of the rays, armed with hooked teeth—much like one of the claws of a lobster
—and likewise a hook on the tips of the lower straight spines, all directed towards
the disk. Similar jaw-like spines occur on the arm of an Ophiocoma minuta sent by
Dr. Dickie from the collection of the late Mr. Thompson of Belfast; and as the author
found several specimens, in all stages of growth, at Wick, N.B., in every respect like
the Irish one, he thinks that the latter is only the young of the former. From not
finding these noticed by Forbes, or any other writer on Starfishes, he has thought it
right to lay this before the Association.

‘

; TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 129
Notice of a number of Earth-worms and Larva of an undeseribed Species
found in draining a field upon his Estate. By Henry Peckirt.

These worms were exhibited with a view to ascertain whether they were really
foreign worms, or the common worms rendered energetic from some particular state
of the soil. The working of the worm was first noticed about sixty years since on
the site of a stick or rubbish heap at the Old Hall of Thirkleby Park; it has now
spread over the gardens and park, and covers a surface of 200 acres. The casts are
so large and numerous as to render the eatage impracticable within 4 inches of the
ground. The workings are seen again at Baldersby Park, a distance of 8 miles,
the Swale intervening. About five years since a small beginning was discovered in
a field 3 miles from Thirkleby, which has now spread to an acre. The worms are
subsoiling the land, and the land is enriching from the great quantity of grass
yearly (wasted to the occupier) trodden down uneaten. From the site on which
they first appeared, it has been suggested that it may have been an imported worm
thrown from some garden pot.

It was also supposed that the destruction of the rooks at one time at the park
allowed the worms to get a-head, but it is doubtful whether rooks take a worm
when other food is to be had. The field has a Rookery at the end of it. In collect-
ing worms for the Meeting, it was noticed that the rooks had torn up the grass in
various parts of the field, and on examination it was found they were after the larve,
which were exhibited. This field was drained two years since 4 feet 6 inches deep as
a check upon the worm, but no effect is yet observable.

Notes on Myrmecophilous Coleoptera. By Dr. J. A. PowER.

I imagine that the interest of the entomologists of the Association may possibly
be excited by a tolerably complete collection of the known British Myrmecophilous
insects. It is a group which until recently has been almost unknown to our natu-
ralists, and embraces a considerable number of creatures which had hitherto escaped
their researches. Most of these singular animals appear to spend their lives, some-
times in the immediate vicinity of the ants’ nests, sometimes in the very heart of
them ; and although endowed with ample powers of flight, wander but little from
their quarters. Hence it has happened, that only a casual specimen has now and
then fallen to the lot of the collector, whilst the greater part have been unknown, or
known only as unique, or nearly unique examples, and even their authenticity sus-
pected. Messrs. Janson and Waterhouse acting as pioneers, Messrs. Reading, Ed-
win Sheppard, Douglas, myself, and sundry others, have, within the last few years,
by carrying on the war in and about the nests themselves, brought to light many new
species, or found others to be abundant which were previously almost unknown.
Mr. Janson has, in the ‘ Entomologist’s Annual’ of last year, published a most
valuable account of the habits of these insects, and the mode of searching for them.
I must say, however, that I cannot sympathize with him in his tender feelings to-
wards these voracious hosts of our coleopterous favourites. According to my own
experience, the spring, 7. e. about April and May, is the most productive season for
examining the nests of Formica rufa (which affords much the greatest number of in-
sects), before the ants have actively begun their labours: the Coleoptera then seem
to be accumulated in their immediate neighbourhood, instead of being scattered over
a large extent of ground as they subsequently are. Soon after this period we often
see the ants commence the process of gradually deserting an old and inconvenient
nest, and taking up new quarters close by. I have found these old nests afford by
far the best harvest of insects, which in the appetite for formic acid or its odour,
(apparently necessary to their constitution), congregate amongst the few remaining
ants. If a few showers of rain should then fall and wash away the acid, the beetles
entirely desert the nest. The most efficient plan of search with this nest, is to place
a few handfulls of the material taken from near the ants, upon a somewhat fine cab-
bage-net, laid on a sheet of brown paper. Saprini, Dendrophili, &c. have a tendency,
when disturbed, to make their way downwards, and if, after a short time, you lift
the net to another part of the paper, you remove the débris, and leave the insects
eae The outskirts of the nests should also be well examined, as Mr. Janson

58. 9

130 | REPORT—1858.

describes, looking under stones, &c. ‘The nests of Formica fuliginosa are more pro-
ductive rather later, when the ants are in activity ; but the investigation is to be car-
ried on chiefly in the neighbourhood of the nest, in damp places around it, and where
the antsrun. The ground being stirred up, the insects will appear if you watch for
them. Little is usually to be obtained in the nest, which is generally in the trunk
of an old tree. The nests of F. fusca, F. flava, and Myrmica rubra afford but few
species, and these are chiefly to be found in the galleries, under stones, &c, which
may lie upon the nests, It is reasonable to expect that more species may be obtained
by the examination of the nests of other ants, especially as the denizens of one kind
appear seldom to associate with those of others. Formica fusca and F’, flava seem to
be the most convertible, i, e. you often find the same insects in both. In the nests
of F. fuliginosa you almost invariably find something. As to those of F. rufa, you
get many in some, but in very many nothing. Of those of F. flava, F, fusca, and
Myrmica rubra, you may examine hundreds and get nothing, As yet we have obtained
results from only a few species, viz. Formica sanguinolenta, F. flava, F. fusca, F,
fuliginosa, F. rufa, and Myrmica rubra. The author illustrated his paper by speci-
mens of the ants, and under each placed the genera and species of Coleoptera usually
associated witl them, and which may be expected to be found in their nests. He
also subjoined to the Catalogue remarks on the localities and habits of the individual
species.

On the Occurrence of Bombyx mori ix @ wild state in this Country.
By the Rev. F. F. Sratuam, Incumbent of St. Peter’s, Walworth.

The author referred to the many costly attempts which have been made during
the last two centuries to domesticate the Bombyx mori, or common silkworm, in this
country, all of which kad proved unsuccessful hitherto from the rigour of the climate
and other causes. He then instanced the following curious fact, as an illustration of
the power of instinct in enabling the insect to adapt itself to circumstances, and
argued the possibility of rearing a more hardy species of Bombyx, which might
hereafter be made useful for commercial purposes, giving, as his authority for the
statements, the Rev. W. Fox, curate of West Malling, Kent, to whom he had been
indebted for them. On the 10th of July, in the present year, a number of silk-
worms, estimated at from 80 to 100, were found under a hedge in a place called
Banksfield, near West Malling, not far from Maidstone, Kent. There was no ap-
pearance of the insects having been scattered accidentally in the place; but, on the
contrary, every indication of their having been hatched and sustained for some time
in the spot where they were discovered. The leaves of several plants in the imme-
diate vicinity were much jagged and eaten, showing plainly that the insects had for
some time been feeding upon them. A bush of the Rubus fruticosus, the common
bramble, among others, had been partially despoiled of its leaves. When discovered,
about three-fourths of the whole number had spun their cocoons, which were
hanging in all directions upon the weeds and the bramble referred to. Some were
just commencing the spinning process, while others were yet in the larva state, and
were feeding quietly or roving about in quest of suitable places in which to construct
their silken cells. Both the silk cocoons and the remaining larve were subjected to
a close examination by the aid of a microscope, and were compared with other silk-
worms and cocoons, which had been bred or formed under the shelter of a house,
but no perceptible difference of species could be discovered by those who conducted
the examination. ‘The reverend gentleman expressed his dissent from the opinion
which prevailed in the neighbourhood of the occurrence, that the insects had been
the produce of a moth which might have fluttered away from the town during the
preceding summer, and accounted for their appearance by imagining that some piece
of paper having the ova deposited on it had been blown from a window-sill or other
lofty spot, where it had been exposed to the rays of the sun, and had gradually been
swept by currents of wind into the locality where the insects were found, where,
having been favourably settled as regards warmth and shelter, the young larve had
emerged from their eggs, and sought congenial nourishment amidst the surround-
ing vegetation, ‘The author alluded to the recent failure in the breed of silkworms
in France, as announced in the Times of the 9th of September, and argued the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 131

utility of trying a series of experiments to ascertain whether (as apparently indicated
by the Town Malling discovery) the Bombyx mori could not be reared upon plants of
indigenous growth, and without that amount of care and expense which have hitherto
been considered indispensable.

On the British Wild Geese. By A. StrRicKLAND.

Geese are a natural group of birds possessing several strongly marked characters ;
some of them are so alike in plumage that that important character can hardly be
taken as an element to assist in discriminating the species; the form and colour of
their bills and legs, and the habits of the birds in a state of nature being all we can
safely rely upon : besides this, from their shy nature, they are the most difficult birds
_ to study; from these circumstances the authors of British Birds seem not to have

duly examined the characters of the species they describe. Mr. Gould has given us
but three species of British Wild Geese, confusing two species under the mysterious
name of Segetum, or Bean Goose.

Anas albifrons, White-fronted Goose.—The plumage will mark this species; it is
not, or probably never was, a regular migratory species in this country, but is found
in hard weather frequenting running streams and swampy ground singly, or in small
groups; but is stated to be found in large migratory flocks on the continents of
Europe and America.

Anas ferus or Anger, neyer was a migratory species in this country, but per-
manently resided and bred in the Carrs of Yorkshire, and probably the fens of Lin-
colnshire; but it has long since been banished from these places, but still breeds
sparingly in the Western Islands of Scotland. This bird displays the same delicate
pink colour in its bill when young, as the Bean Goose does in its legs, and which
has eroneously been considered a distinct species, under the name of Pink-footed
Goose.

From time immemorial one of the features of the north and east of England has been
the regular periodical appearance of countless flocks of wild geese which arrive about
the end of harvest, and which received the name of Bean Goose as coming in the time of
bean harvest, and when the bean stubbles were ready for them. This species is the
only one that hus any claims to the name of Bean Goose (or Segetum), the only migratory
species in this country, and the only abundant and common species we have. Unaccounte
able as the case may appear, this bird is not figured or characterized in any workot
Natural History I am acquainted with, and is not mentioned in the works of Mr. Yar-
rell, Mr. Gould, or Morris, further than ascribing the habits of this bird to one given
by these authors under the figure and description of an entire different species under
the erroneous name of Segetum, or Bean Goose. Some years ago, Mr. Bartlet, struck
with the difference between the geese he met with in the market and the descrip-
tions and drawings given of the Bean Goose, was induced to constitute a new species
under the name of Pink-footed Goose; but this was an erroneous view of the matter,
being in fact the young or immature bird of the true Bean Goose. This bird, the
true Segetum, or Bean Goose, or Short-biiled Goose, is distinguished by its short and
strong bill, its depth at the base being nearly two-thirds of its length, and by its
migratory habits differing in that respect from all our other geese arriving every
autumn, spreading during the day time over the stubbles and clover fields on the
Wolds and other open districts, rising like clock-work in the evening, and winging
its way in long strings to the sand-bank in the Humber, and other safe retreats for
the night, returning as punctually in the morning to its feeding-grounds. This bird
differs from the Pink-footed Goose in being larger, having a stronger bill and lighter
plumage; but these differences are the result of age, not of species, and due exami-
nation will confirm this. The next bird to be considered is the Long-billed Goose,
figured and described by Mr. Yarrell, Mr. Gould, and Mr. Morris under the name of
Segeium, or Bean Goose. This is distinguished by having the bill exactly twice the
length of the depth at the base, a proportion quite different from the Short-billed
Goose. Before the beginning of this century, when the Carrs of Yorkshire were the
resort of countless numbers of wild-fowl, it was stated that there were two species
of geese frequenting and breeding in the Carrs, known to the fowlers by the name

- of the Carr Lag and the Grey Lag. What the Grey Lag was is well known. The
Q*

132 REPORT—1858.

Carr Lag is not now easy to identify, but the author thinks it was this Long-billed
Goose, a bird that resided and bred in the Carrs along with the Grey Lag, and like
that bird is no longer to be found in these districts, and is now one of our scarcest
British birds, or almost a lost species. This bird is distinguished from the Bean
Goose by its long bill, and its entirely different habits.

The following is a list of the species :—

Anas albifrons, White-fronted Goose.—Face white, bill flesh-coloured (Gould,
No. 349) ; an occasional winter visitor in this country in small groups.

Anas ferus, or Anser, Grey Lag Wild Goose.—Breeds sparingly in this country,
and is not a migratory species. Bill pink, nail white.

Anas Segetum, Bean Goose, Short billed or Migratory Goose.— Bill short, strong,
the depth at the base being nearly two-thirds that of the length, pale red in the
middle, black at the extremities, but varies much in the proportions of these colours.
Old birds as large and pale coloured as a Grey Lag Goose. Pink-footed Goose,
smaller bird, less and darker; the young of the last.

Anas paludosus, Carr Lag, or Long-billed Goose.—Bill long and weak, being
exactly twice the length of the depth at the base, being 2? in. long and 13 in. deep
at the base. Bill strongly toothed, a groove running the length of the lower man-
dible; colour same as last. Gould, plate 348, but not the description: not a mi-
gratory species.

On the Formation of the Cells of Bees. By W. B. TEGETMEIER.

Having recently been engaged in making a series of experiments with a view to
determine the typical form of the cells of bees, and having arrived at some interest-
ing results, I am desirous of bringing them before the members of the British Asso-
ciation. My first experiment consisted in placing a flat parallel-sided block of wax
in a hive containing a recent swarm. In this, cells were excavated by the bees at
irregular distances. In every case where the excavation was isolated it was hemt-
spherical, and the wax excavated was added at the margin so as to constitute a:
cylindrical cell. As other excavations were made in contact with those previously
formed, the cells became flat-sided, but from the irregularity of their arrangement
not necessarily hexagonal. When the block was coloured with vermilion, the em-
ployment of the excavated wax in the formation of the sides of the cells was rendered
more evident. The experiment has been repeated with various modifications as to
the size and form of the block of wax, but always with the same results,—namely,
that the excavations were in all cases hemispherical,—that the wax excavated was
always used to raise the walls of the cells, and that the cells themselves, before
others were formed in contact with them, were always cylindrical. Mr. Charles
Darwin, to whom I communicated these facts, has repeated the experiments with
similar results. When these experiments are taken into consideration, in connexion
with the facts that in the commencement of a comb the rudiments of the first-formed
cells are always hemispherical, and that in a small extending comb the outer sides
of the bases of the external cells are always circular, they appear to lead to the con-
clusion, that the typical form of a single cell is cylindrical, with a hemispherical base ;
but that, when the cells are raised up in contact with one another, they necessarily
become polygonal, and if regularly built, hexagonal. On this supposition alone can
those numerous cases be accounted for in which one side of a cell is cylindrical, the
other polygonal. In all such cases it will be found that, in the cell adjacent to the
cylindrical side, there is not room (owing to some irregularity of the comb) for a
bee to work,—consequently the cylindrical development is not interfered with. The
formation of the small cylindrical cells surrounding the queen cell appear to admit
of no other explanation. The mode in which the circular bases, situated at the thin
edge of a comb in the process of enlargement, become converted into polygonal cells
as new bases are formed on their outer sides, has been beautifully shown by Mr.
Darwin. In repeating, with many ingenious modifications, my original experiments,
he coloured, with vermilion and wax, the circular edges of the bases of the external
cells in a small comb. On replacing this in the hive, he found that the walls of the
cells were not raised directly upon these circular bases, but that, as other cells were
built external to them, the coloured wax was remasticated and worked up into the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 133

polygonal sides of the cells; consequently the colour, instead of remaining as a
narrow line, became diffused over a considerable portion of the sides of the cells.
These observations have been much facilitated by the employment of a hive having
each side formed of four parallel plates of glass, with thin strata of air between. As
thus formed, the escape of heat is so effectually prevented that the bees work with-
out the necessity of covering the hive with any opaque material, and thus they are
always open to observation without being disturbed by the sudden admission of light
into a hive previously dark. Crude and imperfect as these experiments may be, they
appear to me to have an important bearing on the theory of the formation of cells,
and my desire that they may be repeated and extended by other observers must plead
my excuse for bringing them before the notice of the Association.

On Aquaria. By N. B. Warp, F.R.S.

The author proceeded to consider the application of those principles whieh had
proved so successful with plants to the subjects of the animal kingdom. At the
meeting of the British Association at Liverpool in 1838, he directed the attention of
the members to the extension of his principle to animals. He felt quite certain that
a great number of animals would live and thrive under the same treatment, and he
could see no reason why, at the same time that our stoves were ornamented with
Rafflesias, they might not be illuminated with Fulgoras and Candelarias. In the
same year he addressed a letter to Sir W. Hooker, in which he expressed his belief
that animals as well as plants might be imported in the case, and these views were
stated by Prof. Faraday at the Royal Institution. In 1841 he established the first
aquarium for fish and plants in his fern-house in Wellclose Square, his object being
not to determine the counterbalancing influence of plants and animals in water,—that
having been ascertained long before by Priestley ;—but to determine whether the
limited quantity of air in the fern-house would be sufficient for the well-being of the
fish. This plan was shortly followed by Dr. Bowerbank in a large glass jar, which,
yan seen by Mr. Mitchell, occasioned the construction of the Vivaria in the Regent’s

ark.

Mr. Ward read a communication from Mr. Mummery, detailing his experi-
ments on marine animals and plants during his residence at Dover, illustrated by
some very beautiful representations of some of the animals which were living in his
aquarium. Of the permanent inhabitants were the following :—Actinia crassicornis,
A. gemmaria, A. anguicoma, A. Dianthus, A. miniata, A. bellis, A. nivea, A. mesem-
bryanthemum, Sertularia planula, Bowerbankia densa, Pedicellina belgica, Tubularia
indivisa (in various states), Aphrodite aculeata, Serpula contortuplicata, Pagurus Bern-
hardi, Portunus puber, Balanus balanoides, Buccinum undatum, Patella, Aolis lineata,
Palemon. The three following could only be kept for a very few days: Lepas ana-
tifer, Cydippe pileus, Lucernaria auricula.

r. Ward gave a glowing description of the coral reefs of Rottenset Island,
Western Australia, by Dr. Harvey, of Dublin, and strongly advocated the importa-
tion from thence of some of the beautiful forms of vegetable life, such as Caulerpa,
Bryopsis, &c.

, The paper was illustrated by a collection of cultivable sea-weeds from the herba-
rium of Dr. Harvey, of Cork, and a series of coloured diagrams of animals inhabit-
ing aquaria, by Mrs. Mummery.

On the Multiplication of Actinie in Aquaria. By R.WantncTon, F.C.S.

The author described the several processes of reproduction occurring amongst these
creatures : the first, in which a portion of the base or foot becoming separated from
the Actinia, split up into three or four portions, each giving rise to a new Actinia;
the second, in which the body of Actinia was fissured or divided into two distinct
individuals ; and the third, when the perfect young are developed from the mouth. *
The author called the attention of Naturalists to these points as being of use in
classifying the species, and gave the names of the many varieties in each of these
sections which had come under his notice since 1851.

134 f REPORT—1858.

PuHysioLoey.

On some Observations connected with the Anatomy and Functions of the third,
sixth, and seventh pairs of Nerves and the Medulla oblongata. By Dr.
ACHILLE FouLLe.

On the Sensational, Emotional, Intellectual, and Instinctive Capacities of the
Lower Animals compared with those of Man. By Ricuarp Fow Ler;
M.D.; of Salisbury.

The author submitted that the Deity had formed all animals, both mentally and
corporeally, on one type. All had like sensations. All vertebrated animals had like
conceptions of persons and of places; the constituents of memory, like the re-trans-
missions from conceptions to adjusting muscles of the functions of actions, as might
be observed by the barking of dogs and their efforts to run in their sleep. They had
like memory of persons and things ; like powers of comparing those with their con-
ceptions after long absence; and like volition for the gratification of their appetites.
But they had not, as man had, such perception of objects and theit relations as en-
abled them to form new combinations, and thus to be the source, by a sort of crea-
tive power, of new ideas. There was no instance of a physical force having been
used instrumentally by any of the lower animals. No monkeys, however ofteii they
might have seen a fire lighted and been comforted by its warmth, had ever been
known to light a fire. They appeared to have like conceptions of objects, but not of
their qualities or relations to each other. The instinctive functions seemed to be
actuated by the forces of mind and vitality, by appropriate and limited structures,
with adjustible muscles analogous to the different organs of sense ; and this instinct-
ive apparatus, with like analogy to the organs of sense, had affinity for the objects.

The lower animals had one decided advantage over man in an uneducated state—
their comfort was not disturbed by false notions of religions Man was the highest
being to whom the thoughts of animals were directed, and their attachments to him
appeared quite as strong as those of men to each other. Animals had equal attach-
ments to home, and the nostalgia which a continued absence inflicts was perhaps as
painful as any that men suffer. ;

Evils were common both to men and animals. The greater part of the evils in-
flicted on men proceeded from their own misconduct. But there were other evils
evidently intended to impel us to cultivate our intellect and our talents by searching
for the means to remove them. Thus the scurvy was an evil, and our search lad
removed it by lemon-juice; malaria was removeable by ventilation and drainage ;
distance of time and space science had removed by our railways and télegraphs; the
dangers of navigation had been reduced by harbours of refuge, recent obsefvation
of currents, and the rotations of storm ; small-pox had been antagonized by vaccina-
tion; pain by chloroform; famine, the herald of pestilence, had been prevented by
agricultural improvements ; might it not be hoped that the mind would be equally
successful in diminishing the remainder of our evils? Ignorance was perhaps our
greatest evil, the source of so many others ; crime the greatest of all, by the misery
which it inflicted. But how, as to the evils to which animals were liable, without
the mental means of subverting them? Toman this life might perhaps be considered
as a school of conduct, in which evils were our schoolmasters to urge u8 to “seek
that we may find;” to ‘‘ knock that it may be opened unto us.” Even our mental
evils were lessons, when they were antagonized by thoughts and actions that tended
to the comfort of others, or the progressive advancement of our own minds, Was
not that a proof of the benevolence of the moral law by which we were governed?
But animals had no such resource. Was not that an argument which should induce
man to act towards them as the Governor of the Universe deals with man ?

No anitnal inferior to man has ever been known to create a work of art, discover
a law of nature, and comprehend or apply it when produced by man. But man
creates works of art, discovers laws of nature, and applies them to advance his rank
in the scale of being. It may be therefore true of animals, that nothing enters the
intellect but the single objects which pass through their senses Without perception

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 135

of the relations which they bear to each other ; but it is not true of man, who does
create new phenomena.

Notes of Experiments on Digestion.
By G. Harty, M.D., F.CS., FRCP...

The communication was illustrated by numerous experiments showing the pro-
perties of the saliva, the gastric juice, the bile, and the pancreatic secretion.

The author stated that, contrary to an opinion lately published by Bernard, the
distinguished French physiologist, he had found that the human saliva contains both
sulphocyanide of potassium and iron. The latter substance, however, can only be
detected after the organic matters contained in the secretion are destroyed by burn-
ing. He had ascertained that a person of nine stone secreted between one and two
pounds of saliva in twenty-four hours. 100 parts of mixed saliva yielded on analysis,—

Wiathinet! coin ete! go idint eae adie 99881
OCG Ateusigmy 0 s.derinique ow'ao 1OG69
Ferment . 5
sock re f ‘ ts uae TOAGECE. ds bp oar aa oo &
Mucus and epithelium J
Chloride of sodium . .
Sulphate of potash . . |
Sulphocyanide of potassium
Phosphate of lime. . .
A magnesia . |
and iron ¢ 2
The gastric juice, the author said, does not destroy the power possessed by the
saliva of transforming starch into sugar; consequently the digestion of amylaceous
food is continued in the stomach. The gastric juice has the property of changing
cane- into grape-sugar. 100 parts of pure filtered gastric juice, obtained through a
fistulous opening in a dog’s stomach, yielded on analysis,—
Re ea ve teeh ede a SE aa
SL ei erreage la nesipepeare tae slr
Organic matter, chiefly pepsin. . . + - 2°247
Chloride of sodium . . )
‘ potassium .
Phosphate of lime . . eee! matter oe) «) 2°247
3 magnesia . .
Baw eGR 2k epee vy itary)

The author made some remarks upon the cause of the gastric juice not digesting
the living stomach; and said that his experiments showed that it is not so much the
epithelium lining the organ which prevented its being digested, as the layer of thick
mucus which covered its walls. When the latter substance is absent, the gastric
juice attacks the walls of the living stomach and digests them, causing perforation
and death. As regards the bile, it seems that this secretion takes an active part in
rendering the fatty matters of our food capable of being absorbed into the system.
The most curious of all the digestive fluids, however, is the pancreatic secretion, for
it appears to unite in itself the properties of all the others. It not only transforms
starch and other such substances into sugar, but it emulsions fats, and even toa
limited extent, as first pointed out by Pappenheim and Purkinje, digests proteine
compounds.

inorganic matter . . . 0°'278

The Spinal Chord a Sensational and Volitional Centre.
By G. H. Lewes.

The spinal chord, the author stated, was formerly believed to be nothing but a
great nerve-trunk ; and even now its functions have been limited to the transmission
and reflexion of impressions. That it can conduct impressions to the sensorium and
reflect them on the motor nerves, producing muscular contraction, is all that physio-

136 REPORT—1858.

logists are willing to allow. Doubts having long rested on his mind upon this point,
the author had made a series of experiments, which, together with those of Pfliiger,
had led him to a clear conviction.

Before detailing the evidence for the sensorial functions of the chord, it will be
necessary to fix on some broad and palpable signs, such as unequivocally indicate the
presence of volition. We have such signs in spontaneity of actions and choice of
actions. It will scarcely be disputed that an animal manifests volition—and its act
is voluntary—when the act occurs spontaneously. By “spontaneously,” I mean
prompted by some inward impulse, and not excited by an outward stimulus. Spon-
taneity and choice are two palpable characteristics of sensation and volition, and it
is these we must seek in our experiments. Those who for the first time perform, or
witness, experiments on decapitated animals, find it very difficult to believe that these
animals have no sensation ; but their doubts are generally settled by a reference to
the admitted hypothesis of the brain being the exclusive seat. of consciousness. On
the strength of this hypothesis, the striking facts recorded by Legallois, Prochaska,
Volkmann, and others, have been explained as simple cases of the reflex action of the
chord. Against this hypothesis of the brain being the exclusive seat of conscious-
ness, I have for some years gathered increasing strength of conviction, preferring the
hypothesis of the sensorium being co-extensive with the whole of the nervous centres.
From the mass of evidence furnished by experiments, all bearing on the same point,
the sensational function of the chord acquires in my mind the force almost of a
demonstrated truth. From that mass a few cardinal cases may be selected. If they
do not carry conviction, there can be little hope in any accumulation of such cases.

Placea child of two or three years old on his back, and tickle his right cheek with
a feather, he will probably first move his head aside, and then, on the tickling being
continued, he will raise his right hand, push away the feather, and rub the tickled
spot. So long as his right hand remains free he will never use the left hand when
the right cheek is tickled, or vice versd. But if you hold his right hand, he will rub
with the left. The voluntary character of these actions is indisputable, in spite of
their uniformity ; they are prompted by sensation, and determined by volition.

Let us now contrast the actions of the sleeping child under similar circumstances,
and we shall find them to be precisely similar. ‘ Children,” says Pfluger, “sleep
more soundly than adults, and seem to be more sensitive in sleep. I tickled the right
nostril of a three-year old boy. He at once raised his right hand to push me away,
and then rubbed the place. * When I tickled his left nostril he raised the left hand.
I then softly drew both arms down, and laid them close to the body, imbedding the
left arm in the clothes, and placing on it a pillow, by gentle pressure on which I
could keep the arm down without awakening him. Having done this I tickled his
left nostril. He at once began to move the imprisoned arm, but could not reach his
face with it, because I held it firmly though gently down. He now drew his head
aside, and I continued tickling, whereupon he raised the right hand, and with it
rubbed the left nostril, an action he never performed when the left hand was free.”’

This simple and ingenious experiment of Pfliiger establishes one important point,
namely, that the so-called reflex actions in sleep are not unaccompanied by sensation
and volition. The sleeping child behaves precisely as the waking child behaves, ex-
cept that his actions are less energetic; and we are forced to assume the presence of
dim cerebral consciousness to escape the conclusion that the spinal chord is also a
seat of consciousness. The actions of the sleeping and the waking child are so
similar, that both must be credited with sensation and volition (and if not both, then
neither must be so credited) ; in like manner I.shal] show that the actions of animals
before and after decapitation exhibit no more difference, as respects sensibility, than
the actions of the waking and the sleeping child; so that here again, unless both
actions are credited with sensation and volition, neither of them can put in a claim.

Experiment leads decisively to this alternative, namely, either animals are uncon-
scious machines, or decapitated animals manifest sensibility and will. [Having
detailed a series of experiments with a water newt, to show that the animal’s actions
were precisely the same before and after decapitation, and arguing that they dis-
played spontaneity of action—the paper proceeded. ]—After allowing a quarter of
an hour to elapse, in order to a more complete reinstatement of vigour, I touched
the flank as before, with acetic acid. The movements at first were very disorderlys

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 137

The animal ran about in great uneasiness, just as it had done before its head was
off. In vain I waited for it to rub itself against the side of the box ; it curled itself
up, and seemed about to die. Some time afterwards I again touched it with the
acid; it again became disorderly, and I then pushed it towards the side of the box ;
but it did not move until [ pushed it slowly forwards so that its flank might come in
contact with the wood; this succeeded: this seemed to supply the very remedy it
wanted, for it continued crawling slowly and with intervals of rest, its body curved
outwards so as to continue in contact with the wood, and its hind leg pressed close
to the tail, and thus, as before, it rubbed away the acid. There are two points
noticeable here :—first, the readiness with which a sensation of contact suggested a
means of relief; secondly, that this was the only newt which, in my experiments,
ever hit upon this plan, and this one did so as well without its head as with it. The
repetition of the act precludes the idea of its being an accident.

It is unnecessary to trespass on your time by citing the observations of numerous
physiologists testifying to the spontaneity of decapitated animals—all remember
such cases. I divided the chord of a newt between the fifth and sixth cervical
vertebre. The convulsions which followed were almost as severe as those which
follow decapitation. After a few minutes it tried to rise, but failed. Bubbles of
carbonic acid were constantly expired. After fifteen minutes it turned completely
round, and crawled five steps forward, dragging the hinder segment after it like a log,
the hinder legs not moving at all. This was repeated several times. In fifteen
minutes more sensibility was detected in the hinder segment. Here was a case which
would have been pronounced very simple :—Division of the chord had seemingly
destroyed all power of voluntary movement in the limbs below the section. The
hind legs seemed paralysed. When the anterior segment was irritated, the animal
crawled away dragging the posterior segment motionless after it. When this pos-
terior segment was irritated, the animal did not crawl, but simply withdrew the limb
or tail. If I touched the tail, or hinder leg, with acetic acid, the whole of the
posterior segment (in which volition was said to be destroyed) began to move, and
the legs set up the crawling action, attempting to push the whole body forward,
which could not be effected, because the anterior segment was perfectly motionless.
The hind legs, which never moved when the anterior segment was irritated, moved
now in obedience to the spinal volition; and the anterior segment, which before
seemed so energetic in its voluntary movements, was now perfectly unmoved. Each
centre rules its own segment. If the cessation of motion of the hind legs, when the
animal crawled, is a proof that voluntary power was destroyed in those legs, the cessa-
tion of motion of the fore legs, when the hind legs moved, is equally a proof that
voluntary power was destroyed in the fore legs. The real truth seems to be that each
segment has its own volitional centre. [Pfliiger’s experiments, which the author had
repeated and varied, were here detailed, in evidence of the choice manifested by de-
capitated frogs.] I have at this moment a newt with the chord divided near the centre
of the back. The operation was performed four days ago, and the animal has so far
recovered from it that no spectator could distinguish between the voluntary power of
its two segments. When the flame of a wax match is brought near the cerebral seg-
ment, the fore legs set to work, and the animal crawls away, dragging the hinder
segment along. When the flame is brought near the spinal segment, the hind legs
set to work, and the body moves sideways, the anterior segment remaining perfectly
quiescent. All other stimuli produce similar results. I venture to submit that the
explanation proposed to meet this case, namely, that division of the chord produces
two independent volitional centres, is far more consistent with the phenomena, than
the explanation offered by the reflex theory : unless the actions of the posterior seg-
ment of the newt are evidences of sensation and volition, I know of no kind of evi-
dence for the existence of such properties in the cerebral segment. * * * *

I will not occupy the attention of this Meeting with the recital of other experi-
ments. Those already cited suffice to indicate the nature of the evidence on which
I found my positions. And indeed I might rest on one simple fact as proof that the
spinal chord is a sensational centre, namely, the fact that whenever sensibility is
destroyed all actions cease to be co-ordinated. Every one knows how greatly our
muscular sensibility aids us in the performance of actions; but it has apparently
been forgotten, that if sensibility be destroyed in a limb, by section of the posterior

138 - REPORT—1858.

roots which supply that limb, the power of movement will be retained so long as the
anterior roots are intact; but the power of co-ordinated movement will be altogether
destroyed. With diminishing sensibility we see diminishing power of co-ordination,
the movements become less and less orderly ; and with the destruction of sensibility
the movements cease to have their co-ordinated harmony. Now in the cases I have
cited it is clear that this power of co-ordinating movements—sometimes very complex
movements—was nearly, if not quite, perfect in the decapitated animal ; therefore if
co-ordination implies sensibility, the conclusion seems inevitable that the spinal
chord is a centre of sensibility. The whole case may be summed up thus :—l1st.
Positive evidence proves that in decapitated animals the actions are truly sensorial.
Qnd. Positive evidence, on the other hand, seems to show that in human beings with
injured spines the actions are not sensorial, but reflex. 3rd. Butas the whole science
of physiology presupposes that between vertebrate animals there is such a general
concordance, that whatever is demonstrable of the organs in one animal will be true
of similar organs in another—and inasmuch as it is barely conceivable that the spinal
chord of a frog, a pigeon, and a rabbit should have a sensorial function, while that
of man has none—we must conclude that the seeming contradiction afforded by
human pathology admits of reconcilement. No fact really invalidates any other fact.
If the animal is such an organized machine that an external impression will produce
the same actions as would have been produced by sensation and volition, we have
absolutely no ground for believing in the sensibility of animals at all, and we may as
well at once accept the bold hypothesis of Descartes that they are mere automata.
If the frog is so organized, that when he cannot defend himself in one way, the in-
ternal mechanism will set going several other ways—if he can perform, unconsciously,
all those actions which he performs consciously, it is surely superfluous to assign any
consciousness at all. His organism may be called a self-adjusting mechanism, in
which consciousness finds no more room than in the mechanism of a watch.

On the Pressure of the Atmosphere, and its Power in modifying and deter-
mining Hemorrhagic Disease. By Joun Miruican, M.R.CS.B.

The chief object of this paper appeared to be to show that hemorrhage was in
many cases produted by extraordinary atmospheric pressure, numerous cases being
adduced in which bleeding occurred coincidentally with the fall of the barometer,
and for which no other cause was discernible. In order to obtain a more complete
elucidation of the subject, Mr. Milligan recommended the establishment of a system
of medical meteorology, to which medical men might contribute by constructing
tables presenting all the meteorological elements involved in or affecting cases
occurring within their own practice. . oe 19!

After explaining the nature and kind of the periodic variations of the barometer,
Mr. Milligan stated that the superficies of a human body of the average size would
measure nearly 2000 square inches, and consequently sustain a pressure from the
atmosphere amounting to 30,000 pounds, or nearly 15 tons, and that this weight
would vary from a ton to a ton and a half, according to the pressure of the atmo-
sphere, as indicated by the mercurial gauge. It was the peculiar relations that this
pressure bore to hemorrhagic disease that Mr. Milligan proposed to investigate; and
from numerous well-authenticated cases it was proved that a great number of attacks
of epistaxis and hemoptysis occurred simultaneously with a depression of the mer-
curial column : moreover, that as a general rule hemorrhagic attacks may be anti-
cipated at the periods that mark the horary oscillations of the barometer, and more
especially those that are accompanied by a fall of the mercurial column. In support
of these opinions Mr. Milligan adduced several striking facts, and from a registration
of 184 cases of various kinds of hemorrhagic disease, the attacks commenced at the
following hours :—From 1 to 2 a.m., 15 cases; from 3 to 4, 7 cases; from 4 to 5,
32 cases; from 5 to 6, 43 cases ; from 6 to 7, 70 cases; from 7 to 8, 9 cases; from
8 to 9,7 cases. Mr. Milligan concluded by calling upon his medical brethren to
keep records of barometrical measurements and hemorrhagic diseases, as it was only
by a well-directed and systematic course of inquiry that the true bearings of meteo-
rological phenomena to mortality and disease could be understood, and the per-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 189

plexities and contradictions that invest correlative results could be satisfactorily
enunciated.

On the Influence of various Circumstances in causing Loss or Gain in
the Weight of the Prisoners in Wakefield Convict Prison. By W. R.
MILNER.

The observations on which this paper were founded were made in the convict
prison at Wakefield on prisoners between the ages of 16 and 50, confined in sepa-
rate cells:

The cells have a cubic content of about 900 feet, and from 30 to 35 cubic feet of
air is passed through each cell per minute.

The air is warmed in winter; the mean temperature of the cells for the year is
61° Fahr.; the highest monthly mean, 66°5, was in August; the lowest, 56°9, in

arch,

The diet is uniform, subject only to such alterations or additions as may be ordered
by the medical officer in individual cases.

“The prisoners are all clothed and exercised alike, and they are all kept at work ;
the greater part make mats and matting of cocoa-fibre ; some work at tailoring and
shoemaking, and a few are engaged in other employments,

The prisoners are all weighed on admission, and at the latter end of every month
during their stay.

The observations extended over ten years; the number of men under observation
was 4000. The average number weighed monthly 372, and the total number of
weighings 44°004.

The results of these weighings were grouped with a view to exhibit the effect of a
number of variable conditions, viz. season of the year, period of imprisonment, em-
ployment in prison, age, and height.

It was found that during the summer months the prisoners gained, and during
the winter months, lost weight.

The change from loss to gain took place in March, and from gain to loss in Sep-
tember: these changes were not gradual, but abrupt.

During the first two months of their stay at Wakefield the prisoners gained weight,
during the second two months there was a large loss of weight; a small loss oc-
curred in the third period of two months; subsequently to this there was a steadily
increasing gain, owing probably in a great measure to the extra diet given to those
who were falling off the most.

The effect of muscular exertion was very clearly shown; as it appeared that while
the men employed at sedentary work, such as tailors and shoemakers, gained on the
average nearly two pounds per man during their stay, those who worked at coirs
matting weaving, which is a very laborious employment, lost nearly seven pounds.
Of the former it had been found necessary to give extra food to 26 per cent., while
60 per cent. of the coir-matting weavers had extra food given to them.

In the groups formed according to age, it at the first glance appeared that the
younger and older prisoners gained weight, and that the middle-aged lost ; but when
the numbers were corrected for the quantity which each group ought to have gained
by development, it was seen that the younger men, although heavier when they left
the prison than when they entered it, really sustained a virtual loss of weight,
gradually varying from nearly 5 pounds in those under 18 to half a pound in those
between 25 and 40: the men above 40 gained weight.

The influence of height was, that the men below the average height gained weight,
‘those about the average remained stationary, and those who were above it lost,

On the Form of the Eyeball, and the relative position of the Entrance of the
Optic Nerve inte it in different Animals. By T. NUNNELEY.

The author observed, that the orbits are much larger than the eyeballs, and
that their axes diverge considerably in an outward direction, while those of the two
eyes are perfectly parallel. The eyeballs lie in the fore-part of the orbits, and acs
cording as they are more or less prominent, and more or less covered with the lids,

-

140 REPORT—1858.

do they appear to be larger or smaller. The eye of the infant is larger, in propor-
tion to the size of the body, than that of the adult; but it is by no means certain
that the eye of the male is larger proportionately to the size of the body than the
eye of the female. By some anatomists the human eye is described as a spheroid,
the diameter of which, from before to behind, is greater than in any other direction.
He had measured a great number of eyes, of the human subject as well as of animals ;
and he found that, wherever there was a departure from the spherical figure, it was
in the direction contrary to that which had been commonly stated. In some in-
stances the difference between the two diameters was scarcely perceptible; in all,
where a distinction was observed, the transverse was the greatest. He had pre-
pared a set of tables (which were printed), containing the result of the measurement
of 200 eyes of various creatures. In conclusion, Mr. Nunneley said—‘ The measure-
ments, I think, clearly prove that whatever part the fibres of the optic nerve play in
the phenomena of vision,—and they, in all probability, only convey to the sensorium
the impression received by the true retinal elements,—the greatest number of them
are distributed on that part of the eyeball where there is the greatest range of vision,
and that the largest expanse of retina is on that part of the ball opposite to where
objects are placed, and consequently it is where the visual images of them must fall.
Thus the extent of vision is always in conformity with the space of retina on that
side of the optic nerve; and as the rods and cellules appear always to correspond in
abundance with the fibres, that side of the retina which receives the greatest number
of images is most exercised ; or where the range of vision is the greatest, is always
the largest. That this is a fact I think a careful comparison of the position of the
eyes in the head, the size of the eyeball, and the exact position of the entrance of
the nerve into it, with the mode of life and habits of various creatures, will render
more obvious than a casual glance would do. To mention only a few instances as
illustrations :—Man, from the erect position of his body, the horizontal placing of
his eyes, and his habits, has a more panoptic range than any other creature (of
course in this consideration all motions of the head, neck, and body of the animal
must be excluded, and those of the eyeballs alone admitted). In him the optic nerve
enters the ball not far from the centre, leaving, however, a somewhat shorter space
on the inner and lower parts of the retina than on the upper and outer. Now, while
man enjoys a free range of vision above the horizontal line, there are far more occa-
sions for him to look at objects below than above this line, and thus mere visual
images are projected to the upper and outer sides of the entrance of the optic nerve
oftener than to the inner and lower sides of this spot. In the pig, who sees at no
great range before him, and who seeks his food with the snout almost always in the
ground, whose head and eyes are consequently for the most part downwards and
near to the ground, the nerve enters the ball more outwardly and much lower than
it does in man. The pig wants not to see far before him, but he does require while
grubbing to look behind him, from whence danger comes. So with the timid herbi-
vorous animals; look at the entrance of the nerve in the bullock and sheep, who
pass so much time with the head in a dependent position near to the ground with
the eye directed upon the surface, in open plains, where danger usually comes from
behind; in them the upper and inner sides of the retina are much larger than the
lower and outer portions, while in the deer who live in more wooded places, where
danger is also from the front, but who, like the bullock, has the head downwards in
feeding, though the inner or anterior side of the retina is still larger than the pos-
terior, it is so to a much less extent than it is in the bullock—while the upper por-
tion still continues as proportionately large as it is in sheep and bullocks. On the
contrary, in the horse, who is not so preyed upon, who carries the head erect, and
observes all around, the nerve enters the eye more nearly in the axis. In birds,
with few exceptions, the upper portion of the retina is much more considerable than
the lower parts, but the anterior and posterior portions vary much in different genera.
Those whose locomotion is performed principally by the feet, and whose range of
habitation is very small, as the common fowl and turkey, have the inner or anterior
portion very considerably greater than the outer or posterior. Those birds whose
range is greater and who use the wings for progression, but do not wander very far,
as the grouse and partridge, have much less difference in the two portions of the
retina; while in those birds whose flight is far and prolonged, as the crow, rook,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. _ 141

swan, goose, and duck, the entrance of the nerve is very nearly in the centre of the
ball. So in reptiles :—in the turtle, who only requires to see immediately before
and under him, the outer and upper portions of the retina are very much the larger.
In the more active alligator, frog, toad, and chameleon, while the upper portion
maintains its size, the outer and inner parts are more nearly equal. In those crea-
tures whose habitation is for the most part underground, as the shrew and the
mole, the eyes are so small as to have led Majendie to assert that the mole is without
the organ altogether, which is not the fact; for I have found all the essentials of an
eye, even true retinal elements, optic nerve, and a well-developed choroid. Yet the
organ is so minute and concealed by the skin and hair, as probably only enables the
creature to discern the light, which is all that it requires; for, living underground,
where it seeks its prey, it obviously must depend upon the acuteness of other senses
than of sight for its living. ‘Though in the individual there is usually some propor-
tion between the size of the eye and the body, taking different classes and genera,
the size of the animal is a very little guide to that of the eye, the proportions between
the two being determined by other considerations than that of the bulk alone of the
creature ; for though, as a whole, the eye in fish bears a larger proportion to the
whole body than it does in other divisions of the animal kingdom, and the eyes of
birds are, as a class, much larger than those of mammalia or reptiles ; yet amongst
the different genera of all these classes there are very great differences, determined,
apparently, by the following considerations, amongst others not so obvious. When
the creature lives in feeble light, yet moves actively about, and is guided in its loco-
motion by the sense of sight, as in nocturnal birds and animals and fish, the eye is
very large, apparently to take in a large quantity of the feeble light; on the con-
_ trary, where the creature is guided in its movements by other senses, then the eye
is very small, as in the bat, the mole, the shrew, and the eel. Where vision pene-
trates to a long distance, and where the eye enjoys great power of overcoming the
aberration of parallax, the eye is large, as in rapacious birds. When the brain and
intellect are more developed, the size of the eye diminishes, and the two eyes become
more parallel, as in man and the higher mammalia. Where animals are feeble,
timid, have but little defensive power, and are preyed upon, the eye is usually very
large,—as in the hare, the conies, the whole deer tribe, and many of the other rumi-
nants. Where the animal is not predaceous, and its size and strength are such as
to protect it from being preyed upon, the eyes are commonly small,—as in the whale
and the elephant: in the latter the eye is even smaller than it is in the horse, and
searcely larger than in the eagle.

On the Structure of the Retina at the Punctum Centrale, or Foramen of
Semmering. By T. NuNNELEy.

The author defined this punctum centrale retina as a small dark circular spot, ,};th
of an inch large, situated exactly in the axis of the eye, and ;',th of an inch external
to the entrance of the optic nerve in the living human eye; after which he proceeded
in great detail to give what he considered to be the correct anatomy of this part of
the retina.

On the Structure of the Choroid Coat of the Eye, and more particularly on
the Character and Arrangement of the Pigmentary Matter. By T.
NuNNELEY.

The choroid coat is the dark tissue interposed between the delicate sentient retina
and the hard, dense sclerotic, anil co-extensive with the latter. It begins at the
entrance of the optic nerve by a round aperture, with a distinct edge, in close appo-
sition with the nerve, but not organically connected with it, and passing forward as
far as the junction of the sclerotic and cornea, where, as choroid proper, it termi-
nates. It there comes in connexion with the ciliary circle or muscle, the ciliary body
and the iris. The choroid is essentially a vascular membrane, being made up of
blood-vessels, colouring matter, and a modified white fibrous tissue. The choroid
universally pervades the pigmentary nigrum, and is of a deep bronze colour, ap-
proaching to black, The pigment was described as consisting of two distinct forms

142 r REPORT—1858.

of cells; on the inner surface the choroid, of true hexagonal cells; and in the tissue,
and on the posterior surface, of stellate cells. The use of these cells was to destroy
the light as soon as it had acted on the retina; and they were the most perfect
absorbers of light of any substance in Nature that he knew of. From the account
he gave of the arrangement of the pigment, it afforded what he considered a satis-
factory anatomical explanation of an abnormal condition of the eye which had
hitherto not been understood, viz. AZusce volitantes. The figures of those motes he
believed to resemble exactly portions of the choroid coat when teazed out; and they
might be expected to appear and disappear with the varying condition of the vessels
arising from disordered stomach or the cerebral circulation, and be cured by what-
ever corrects those conditions; or the muscz might result from different organic
changes in the choroid coat, which are incapable of being removed.

On the Results obtained from an Extended Inquiry into the Quantity of
Carbonic Acid evolved from the Lungs under the Influence of various
Agents, By Dr. E. Smiru.

The author gave a general account of a large series of experiments in which he had
sought to determine the true amount of carbonic acid expired and of air inspired, with
the rate of pulsation and respiration under numerous conditions, as, for example, in
the twenty-four hours with the ordinary meals, during sleep, with different and de-
finite kinds of exertion, during a prolonged fast, at various periods of the year, and
under the influence of all ordinary kinds of food when taken separately and alone,
He had collected all the carbonic acid expired during eighteen consecutive hours,
with short intervals for meals, and had determined the amount expired in profound
sleep in the night, viz. one-half of the average quantity of the day, There was a
very slight and gradual increase after 3 a.m. until the hour of breakfast, and during
the day there was always a rapid increase after each meal, and particularly after
breakfast and tea, followed by a subsidence to the original amount before the next
meal, if the meals were not too frequent. Whilst fasting (twenty-seven hours),
the quantity was uniform throughout the whole period.

He found that the quantity of carbonic acid expired varied most materially under
the influence of different kinds of food, states of the atmosphere, season, &c. During
the summer the respiration is }th less than during the colder months of the year;
and although the skin exercised most important functions, he found that it was not
vicarious of the action of the lungs in the expiration of carbonic acid; for while
the lungs expired 600 grains, the skin threw off only 6 grains. The increase in the
quantity of carbonic acid after partaking of arrow-root was yery small, but it was
much greater after eating oatmeal and rice; whilst wheat flour produced the greatest
quantity, though the increase was less enduring than with oatmeal and rice. Tea,
coffee, cocoa, and chickory were found to be respiratory exciters, and consequently
increased the waste of the system, and could not be classed as food. As tea also’
induced perspiration, it was most valuable as a remedy against the action of heat,
and would also be useful in cases of drowning and interrupted respiration. Tea
caused the evolution of much more carbon than it supplied. Brandy, sometimes ad-
ministered in cases of drowning, had the very opposite effect to that desired, since
it lessened respiration; whereas tea increased the action both of the lungs and skin,
If the object were to prevent the waste of the system, then alcohol might be useful,
and tea would be improper. Both sugar and milk greatly increased the respiratory
functions. The experiments made showed that those who were more susceptible of
the influence of heat, were the least able to bear change to hot climates; and if this
were borne in mind, it would be found of service to those who might contemplate
going abroad.

On the Methods hitherto adopted for the Determination of the Carbonic Acid
contained in the Expired Air, with the Description of a new Method. By
Dr, E. Smiru.

The author gave a brief account of the various methods which have been employed
since the time of Lavoisier, and particularly those of Prout, Vierordt and Bocker ;

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 148

of Andral and Gavarret, and of Scharling, and explained the particulars in which he
regarded them as defective for physiological inquiries. He then described the appa-
ratus and method which he had devised for the prosecution of his researches, and
which he considered to supply some of the deficiencies which he has pointed out.
It enabled the author to absorb the whole of the carbonic acid from any volume of
expired air, however large or small, during the period of expiration, and to measure
the inspired air for any period, however long or short. All the air admitted was
inspired and none was respired twice; and it was applicable to experiments with
the body at rest, or in active exertion, and during sleep or wakefulness.

The spirometer is a small dry gas meter of improved manufacture and registra-
tion, and moves with an inverted action. It was connected with a mask, which was
just large enough to cover the nose, mouth and chin, and had valves suitably
arranged to prevent a retrograde current, and to direct the expired air into the ana-
lytical apparatus. ‘The analytical apparatus consisted of a ‘‘ potass box,”’ made
of gutta percha, and divided into chambers and cells; so that a column of air of
2 in. X4 in. was directed over 700 superficial inches of a strong solution of caustic
potass, and remained in so close and prolonged contact with it as to be entirely
absorbed during each expiration, There were the usual desiccators of sulphuric
acid of large capacity, and the balances employed weighed to the z}pth of a grain
with 7lbs. in each pan.

MicroscoricaL APPARATUS.

Mr. C. Brooxz exhibited a microscope and case very completely fitted up, but
having a stand of so simple and light a character as to render it very portable and
convenient for use in the open air, at the seaside or elsewhere. It has a new and
simple contrivance for the fine adjustment, and also for the rectangular adjustment
of the secondary stage. A tourmaline inserted in one of the holes in the revolving
diaphragm of a Powell’s condenser, permits the use of polarized light, without any
change of illuminating apparatus.

Mr. Brooke’s instrument was fitted with a double lens, so that the power could
be changed from a high to a low one without unscrewing the glass.

Mr. Lapp exhibited a microscope with an improved magnetic stage. The adjust-
ments are effected by means of a steel chain; a moveable lever attached to the milled
head gives a very efficient fine adjustment ; and the facility of moving objects deli-
cately by the hand afforded by the magnetic stage was remarked upon as a great
advantage.

Mr. Wartneron described some additions which he had made to his portable
microscope, by which living objects, as Polyzoa, &c., contained in glass bottles or
small aquaria, could be examined with greater ease, over lengthened periods of time,
and without disturbing them from their naturalized position.

GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY,

The business of the Section was opened by Sir RopERick Murcuison,
the President of the Section, in these words :—

Lapies and Genrtemen,—Let me first congratulate our old members and adherents
who are present upon having once more assembled in the great and flourishing
county in which this Association had its origin. Twenty-seven years have elapsed
since a small band of men, of whom I was one, met together in the city of York to
establish the British Association for the Advancement of Science, and I rejoice to s

that it was under the presidency of a virtuous and patriotic nobleman, the justly

144 REPORT—1858.

esteemed Lord-Lieutenant of the West Riding, the late Earl Fitzwilliam, and through
the skilful arrangements of the Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt and Professor John Phillips,
aided, indeed, by the eloquence of a fourth Yorkshireman, the Earl of Carlisle, then
Lord Morpeth, that we gained our first position. Few as were our members, yet,
even then, so heartily were we bound together in the good cause of the search after
the truths of science, that we felt confident of ultimate success.

Holding our second meeting in the University of Oxford, the Association was then
divided into six Sections; and to these another Section, or that of Statistics, was
added at our third meeting in the University of Cambridge.

At that time and for some years afterwards Section E was appropriated to Medi-
~ cine; but the cultivators of the healing art, justly perceiving that they had materials
wherewithal to occupy a much wider field of research on subjects of national import-
ance, felt compelled to leave us and establish their own Association. The number
of medical men who have since annually met in large towns, to compare notes
and evolve new discoveries, have indeed proved the soundness of the views of the
seceders, who still left to us the cultivation of Physiology, which science thence-
forward became attached to the Section of Natural History. ]

Thus abandoned, the symbol E remained for several years a dead letter, when
it occurred to me that, the sciences of Geography and Ethnology having been hitherto
very imperfectly represented in our Institution, it would be right to induce my asso-
ciates who composed the General Committee assembled at Ipswich in 1849, then and
there to fill up the blank by constituting a Section of Geography and Ethnology under
this letter E; and of the new Section which was thus formed I had the honour to be the
first President. In truth, the geographers and travellers who had been previously
tacked on to the Geological Section, finding that they had no chance of a patient
hearing among their associates the geologists, were dissatisfied ; and, having myself a
real love of both sciences, I felt assured that their separation, followed by this new
amalgamation, would be highly conducive to the best interests of each. Then, again,
the ethnologists were discontented at having no local habitation, and at being
compelled to form at several meetings a sub-section, seeking for a meeting-room
where they best could find it.

The union of geography and ethnology was indeed so natural, the subjects of which
they severally treat are each so engaging and instructive, as well as popular, that the
result has proved most satisfactory. In short, this Section has been, and I trust will
continue to be, well-thronged by votaries, who rejoicing in the spirit of foreign re-
search, come here to gather knowledge from the lips and writings of distant voyagers
and travellers by sea and by land.

As President of the Royal Geographical Society I have truly good cause to be
proud of the extraordinarily rapid increase in its members, and also in their quality
and character; for we reckon among them nearly all leading public men, as well as
the most distinguished explorers of foreign parts.

This success is indeed the natural result of the very constitution of the body politic
of Britain and her extensive colonies; and, as there is no branchof science which is
more intimately connected with the best interests of commerce and manufactures than
that which makes us acquainted with the products and inhabitants of distant lands,
so I confidently expect that in this rich and prosperous seat of industry, the me-
moirs and descriptions to be read will be duly appreciated ; for, although we cannot
expect to be every year honoured by the presence of such an explorer as my dear
friend Livingstone, I know that you will be well satisfied with the communications
which other distinguished men are about to make to you.

Lastly,—Gentlemen, I hope that your discussions will be carried on with that
desire to elicit the truth, and that absence of any acrimonious feeling among amicable
disputants, which has characterized in preceding years the proceedings of this
flourishing Section of the British Association.

Notes of a Journey through parts of the Alatou, in Chinese Tartary.
By T. W. Arxinson, F.G.S.

During my wanderings in Central Asia I came upon several large river-beds, in
some of which there was no water; in others the streams were so small, that I found

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 145

it difficult to account for their formation. I shall therefore commence abruptly with
an account of a singular geological phenomenon—the evident trace of the sudden dis-
ruption of a mountain lake by a fearful earthquake at some distant period. Travelling
along the steppe, near the foot of the Alatou mountains, I came to the brink of one
of the dry river-beds frequently found in these regions, This was a large one, being
not less than a mile anda half in width, and 130 feet deep, and the banks being nearly
perpendicular. We succeeded in descending down a track made by deer and other
animals. All the party, save two, had reached the bottom. As we stood watching
these, the sand suddenly gave way under the feet of the last horse, and both man and
animal rolled to the bottom, clear of each other, from a height of about 40 feet. We
thought both were killed, but, on hastening to their aid, they rose to their feet; the horse
gave himself a shake and began to kick and plunge furiously, and the man burst into
a fit of laughter. All hope of returning by this track was now at an end, and we
rode on, making vain guesses as to what had become of the torrents which had scooped
out this formidable hollow. Sand and pebbles covered the greater part of the surface ;
near the middle we found several pools of fresh water, surrounded by beds of fine
sand, on which were the footprints of many animals of the deer tribe, and among
them the huge paws of the tiger. A little further we found a broad bed covered with
large stones, over which a stream was running rapidly, rendering it difficult to ford.
The opposite bank proved as high and as abrupt as the one we had descended, and
gave us much trouble.

After riding about eight miles along the steppe, we reached the great ravine; having
passed some rocky masses, the rugged mountain jaws burst upon us in all their
grandeur. This was a terrific rent; the dark purple slate rocks had been riven
asunder by the granite, and heaped up into craggy precipices of enormous height. In
some parts the rocks were broken into sharp points, in others they were piled up like
huge towers, overhanging the base of these mighty cliffs. To add to the wildness of
the view, three large eagles were soaring far above our heads, and several others were
perched on the crags. Far up in this pass we found that part of a tribe had pitched
their yourts on some grassy slopes, at a point where the gorge branched off in two
directions. We slept here, and darkness prevented me seeing the objects around.
On turning out in the morning, I stood gazing.in silent wonder at the scene before
me. Immediately opposite, and about 300 yards from me, rose up a mighty mass
of dark basaltic rocks to a much greater height than the distance from me to them.
They were pillared and split into most curious forms—some of them like watch-towers
guarding the pass. These rocks divide the gorge, which branches off to the south and
east. Looking up the southern branch, the eye rested on the snowy peaks near the
source of the Actou, and up the other were seen the dazzling peaks among which the
Bascan has its source; while near me shrubs and flowers were hanging from the
clefts, showing that spring was adorning these rugged forms in all her beauty.

I found difficulties in the way of obtaining a guide; the danger that beset the route
I proposed to take were so great that the only man who knew the country refused to
accompany me, but on showing him as a reward a flask of gunpowder and a few balls,
his eyes sparkled with delight and his objections vanished. Shortly all were pre-
pared, and we rode up the southern branch, passing the base of the basaltic cliffs, from
whence the view down the gorge was savagely grand. After riding two hours we
arrived at a part of the pass so abrupt that we could not ascend on horseback; even
on foot it was difficult to scramble up. At last we reached a level space about 20
yards long and 4 yards in width, A scene was now before us that few could look
down upon without a shudder. We were standing on the brink of a precipice, and
looking into a fearful chasm. The rocks were dark purple slate, with a few shrubs
hanging from the clefts ; yellow and green moss covered the ledges, and at the bottom
was a small lake, the water appearing of inky blackness, while to the south the
mountain was so steep that it seemed impossible to ascend.

We began our ascent, going in slanting lines, gaining but little at each tack, and
turning our horses with difficulty. As we ascended higher, each turning gave us a
deeper view into the terrible abyss, with nothing to stop either man or horse should
either slip. After great toil and no little anxiety, we reached the top. Our ride was
along a rocky ridge for several miles, from whence we obtained a splendid view of the
snowy chain of the Actou stretching to the east and west, Its vast glaciers and high

185 8. => é

146 ; REPORT—1858.

peaks were sparkling like rubies in the setting sun; just at dusk we reached some
large picta trees, and encamped for the night. Early in the morning we proceeded
onward, when I saw, near the source of the Bascan, a very high peak, which had
evidently been conical in form, and this had been torn asunder. One-half only was
standing; the rent was curved, and the upper part overhanging. No snow could rest
on this precipitous face, and the rocks appeared a dark purple. The snow that had
been accumulating on this mountain for thousands of ages, was riven into perpen-
dicular cliffs, 700 or 800 feet high, appearing like pentelic marble. We had now
ascended about 1000 feet above the valley in which we had slept, and instead of rich
grass we were on mossy turf, with the rhododendron and chrysanthemum creeping
among the rocks, and covered with large bunches of beautiful yellow flowers. At
length we reached enormous masses of green slate shooting up into high pinnacles;
passing round these, we came upon a scene of terrible disruption and desolation, where
rocks had been uprooted and hurled down into one chaotic mass, of a most fearful
effect; extending to the brink of a vast rent that had cut the mountain asunder. A
terrible convulsion must have taken place here. I had felt the heaving of the ground
during an earthquake when in a valley to the westward, and had listened to the awful
sound as it approached, deep in the bowels of the earth, and had apparently passed
beneath me. I had heard the appalling subterraneous thunder as it rolled through
the mountain,—now I beheld the terrific effects of one of these fearful visitations.
Beyond this point the horses could not go; we dined, and our friends returned to
their aoul.

The guide, two Cossacks, and myself began to descend, clinging as well as we
could to the projecting points, till we gained a narrow ledge extending along a pre-
cipice : the guide led the way to a break in the rocks. Here a part of the cliffs had
fallen, forming a stony slope, both steep and dangerous. After some slips and bruises
we reached another small terrace, covered with bushes and plants. Continuing our
way downward, and scrambling over many difficulties, we reached tne bottom of the
gorge, whose sides were 1000 to 1200 feet high. Following this ravine we reached
a deep valley, about fifteen miles long and four miles wide, surrounded by mountains
varying from 5000 to 7000 feet in height. This had been a deep mountain lake,
proved beyond all doubt by the sand and shells spread over its bed. I also found the
water line on the cliffs, showing that the depth was 560 feet.

Nearly opposite to the gorge by which we had entered there was another in the
mountains to the north. On reaching it I found this was also a deep and narrow
yavine, and no doubt formed by the earthquake ; through this the water had rushed,
draining the lake, and had formed the great water-course on the plain. We shortly
entered the chasm, which I found was about 120 yards wide, covered with fallen
rocks, among which a torrent was foaming with great fury. Our way was a rough
and dangerous one; sometimes several hundred feet above the stream, and then
descending nearly to the level of the water. At last we reached a spot beyond which
to all appearance we could not proceed. We were now a little above the torrent,
which was hidden from our view, and close in front of us the rocks rose up like a walk
to an enormous height. A loud roaring of the water was heard, which induced me
to suppose it was rolling over a deep fall. The old guide told me it was Shaitan’s
cavern swallowing up the river. ‘The mouth of the cavern was formed by a rugged
arch about 50 feet wide and 70 feet high. The river entered this opening in a chan~
nel cut into the solid rock ; it was about 30 feet wide and 10 feet deep. A ledge of
rocks, about 12 feet wide, formed a terrace along the edge of the stream, and just above
the level of the water. When my astonishment had somewhat subsided, I prepared
to explore the cavern by placing my packet of baggage and my rifle on a rock, and
the two Cossacks followed my example. The guide watched these proceedings with
great interest, but when he beheld us enter the cavern he was horrified. Having pro-
ceeded about twenty paces the noise caused by the falling water was fearful, and a
cold chilling blast met us. From this point the cavern extended both im width and
height, but I could form no idea of its dimensions. We cautiously groped our way
on in the gloom for about eighty yards from the entrance, when we could see the river
bound into: a terrifie abyss— black, as Erebus,”—while some white vapour came:
wreathing up, giving the spot 2. most supernatural appearance. Few persons could
stand on the brink of this gulf without a shudder ; the roaring of the.water was dread-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 147

ful.as it echoed in the lofty dome. It was impossible to hear a word spoken: nor
could this scene be contemplated long,—there was something too fearful for the strong-
est nerves, when trying to peer into these horrible depths. We turned away and
looked towards the entrance; for a short distance the sides and arch were lighted up,
but the great space and vast dome were lost in darkness. I sat down about fifty yards
from the entrance, and in the twilight made a sketch ofthe scene. On leaving the
cavern we passed round some jutting rocks, and then entered the narrow chasm
beyond. Its bed was covered with large and small rounded stones—proving that
water had once flowed through this part of the gorge, and I have no doubt it still
does during the great storms in the mountains. As we proceeded onward, the ravine
narrowed ifito 4 mere rent, with overhanging crags, rendering the place dark and
gloomy. Our progress was slow and difficult, and we encountered many real dangers.
Having emerged from the ravine, we looked down on the last low ridge; this appeared
about three miles across, and at a short distance beyond we saw the fire of our com-
panions blazing brightly. From this place the descent was steep ; we hurried on, and
shortly afterwards I was sitting at our camp fire, not sorry at having safely concluded
an adventurous day’s journey of sixteen hours; but the toil was not unrewarded: I
liad convinced myself that the watet which had burst from the lake had formed the
enormous channel through the plain.

Notes on the Russo-Chinese Frontier and the Amoor River.
By W. G. Buackts, Ph. D., F.R.GS.

The author remarked that the river Amoor claimed attention in consequence of
the command of its navigation having passed into the hands of the Russians, by
whom it had been opened to commerce and employed as a means of transporting
provisions, munitions of war, and supplies of troops to her forts on the Pacific. It
wis one of the largest rivers in Asia, being only exceeded in length by the Yangtze
in China, and the Yenessei and Lena in Siberia. From having direct communica-
tion with the North Pacific Ocean, it was superior as a commercial highway for con-
ducting imtercourse with foreign countries to the other rivers of Northern Asia, all
of which flowed into the almost inaccessible parts of the Arctic Sea. After descri-
bing briefly the origin and general course of the river, which is navigable for steamers
throughout its whole course to the junction of the Shilka and the Argun, a distance
of probably 1500 statute miles, the paper proceeded to give a sketch of the history
of the Russian settlements in the Amoorland, and their relations with China from
the middle of the 17th century to the opening of the Amoor to Russian navigation,
ceded by the Chinese in 1847, and the subsequent establishment of the fort of Niko-
lajéwsk, at the mouth of the river. The advantages thus gained by Russia were
made apparent in 1854 and 1855, when large stores of munitions of war were trans-
ported from Siberia to Shilkinsk and thence down the Shilka and Amoor to the
North Pacific, at a saving of nearly 3000 miles of land carriage. A more detailed
account then followed of the chief features of the river, the territory through which
it runs, and the native tribes inhabiting its banks. In regard to the suitableness of
the district for colonization, the genial climate prevailing at the southern bend of the
Amoor was adverted to, as evinced by the existence of the wild-vine, and the pro-
duétion of an excellent quality of tobacco. The season duting which the river is open
for navigation from the ocean was stated to be from about the middle of June to the
commencement of October. At Kisi, however, the Amoor is free of ice for six months,
while the Bay of Castries is open for eight months ; and to ensure a longer season fot
navigation than is attainable from Nikolajewsk, the construction of a railway is said
to bé contemplated between Kisi and the Bay of Castries.- The author remarked tike-
Wise otf the great advantage likely to acerué to Russia from the facilities afforded by’
this river to East Siberia for sending her mineral and othér riches to the ocean, and
receiving foreign articles in return at a much lower price than formerly. In regard
to the trade with China also, it was observed that a portion of the merchandise, now
annually sent overland to Siberia by Kiachta, might in future be transported by sea
to the mouth of the Amo?, atid therice up the river fo the interior of the country.
Attention was directed to the cireumstance of an active trade being already carried
on by the United States with the Russian station at Nikolajewsk, and the inference

10*

148 REPORT—1858.

drawn that such a commerce must be equally advantageous to Great Britain, the
voyage from London, Liverpool, and Glasgow to Nikolajewsk being as short as from
New York; while from Singapore, Hong-Kong or Vancouver’s Island, it is shorter
than from San Francisco.

Notice of the Kanikars, a Hill-Side Tribe in the Kingdom of Travancore.
By Astronomer Broun, F.R.S.

On the Extension of Communications to Distant Places by means of Electric
Wires. By Major-General Cursney, R.A., D.C.L., PRS.

The special object of his paper, he said, was to urge the necessity of multiplying
the telegraphic communications of this country with all parts of the globe, and espe-
cially to propose a new electric route between England and America. He regarded
electric wires as the pioneers of vast social changes; and if this view were correct,
those which at present existed would form but a small portion of that great network
of ‘‘ swift messengers,” which, if Great Britain desired to maintain her present mer-
cantile supremacy, must speedily connect the principal parts of the world. This
country, in fact, must follow the example of other countries ; for, if it were content
to see one portion of the Anglo-Saxon race far in advance of itself, and America en-
joying the lightning-like intercourse with every portion of her vast continent, it would
probably not remain equally satisfied to see Russia turning her vast means to such
an account as might secure to her in future what she had in the case of the late treaty
with China—priority by fully a fortnight of the most important commercial intelli-
gence. After pointing out the many respects in which a country derived advantages
from being able instantly to send communications to distant places, the writer gave
a summary of some of the principal lines of telegraph which have been made in
various parts of the world, or are in the course of construction. When addressing
this Section of the British Association last year, on the importance of railway
communication with India, he endeavoured to show that one line of electric
telegraph might be laid down from headland to headland, along the Red Sea, and
another through Arabia, partly in the bed of the Tigris. Both had been commenced,
and each would probably meet with difficulties, and even interruptions, but only
for a time, as the Porte was prepared to give the necessary protection. Ere long,
he hoped, both would be in full operation, and, by having a double line, the com-
munication would be kept up by one set of wires, in case of any accident to the
other. He suggested, that for still greater security, a third line should be carried to
the Persian Gulf. The latter would cross the Black Sea either from the Danube or
Varna to Trebizond, which is shorter than the former line to Balaklava. It would
pass without any difficulty or danger by Erzeroum, Tabriz, Teheran, and Ispahan to
the Persian Gulf at Bushire. Moreover, the Shah is ready, and even anxious to do
the Persian portion of this line himself. He thought that, independent of the ad-
vantages of having three lines, in case of any interruption, sufficient employment
would be found for all three. It was evident that it was equally important that
electric messages from this country to America should not depend upon a single
cable. Full employment would be given at all times to several sets of wires ; and as
it was now certain that submarine communications with America were quite prac-
ticable, at least two additional cables should be laid down across the Atlantic. He
thought that the difficulty caused by the distance between Iceland and Newfound-
land might be greatly lessened by taking another route to the latter; namely, that
of Iceland and Greenland, as by this line the greatest distance from land to land

would not exceed 430 miles. The ice and the icebergs appeared to be the only diffi- .

culties likely to be encountered, and he thought they would not prove to be very
serious. But as the latter when floated do not, and in fact cannot touch the bottom,
it is the opinion of Sir Roderick Murchison, and other eminent men also, that the
proposed line is eminently practicable.

On Dr. Prichard’s Identification of the Russians with the Roxolani.
By Ricuarp Cuut.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 149

On the Physical Geography of the Neighbourhood of Bombay, as affecting
the Desiyn of the Works recently erected for the Water Supply of that City.
By H. Conyseare, C.F, F.GS.

The water is collected in an immense reservoir, the largest in the world, about
fourteen miles from Bombay. This reservoir is made by damming up a portion of
the valley of the Ghoper, and the full extent of it is 1394 acres. As the rains fall
only once in a year, it is necessary to have a store of water for a twelvemonth’s con-
sumption, and this is now supplied. There were both engineering difficulties and
facilities in the work undertaken, and these were described by the author. The
700,000 inhabitants of Bombay were now well supplied with water. There were
self-closing public conduits in the streets for the supply of the poor. In these works
it had been necessary to guard against offending the feelings or prejudices of the
native inhabitants ; hence in the valves and other appliances requisite in the distribu-
tion of the water neither leather nor animal fat could be used.

On the Effects of Commixture, Locality, Climate, and Food on the Races of
Man. By J. Crawrourp, F.G.S.

The writer gave a review of the commixture of various nations, its effects on the
mental faculties of the different populations, their physical characteristics, and Jan-
guage. He glanced at the effects of a change of climate upon any particular race.
It did not appear, he said, that colour and the more prominent physical attributes,
or mental capacity, had any necessary connexion with climate ; nor did he think that
climate altered the physical form and mental faculties of a race transferred from its
original locality to a new one. He then pointed out, at some length, that the
varieties of climate had a great influence upon the mental powers of a people; and
proceeded to consider, under the last head of his paper, the question of diet in rela-
tion to the physical and mental character of a people... The physical character of a
race, he said, did not seem to be in any respect altered by the nature of the vegetable
diet of which it partook, provided the quantity were sufficient and the quality whole-
some ; but when the question of the diet of a people related to mental development,
the quality assumed an important aspect. No race of man, it might be safely asserted,
ever acquired any respectable amount of civilization that had not some cereal for a
portion of its food.

Observations on the Lake District. By J. Davy, M.D. F.RS.

In this paper the physical geography of the Lake District was chiefly treated of
in relation to the varied beauty of its scenery, the peculiarities of its climate, and the
character of its native population. Its beauty was referred to several circumstances,
such as the admirable intermixture of the wild and cultivated, of lake, mountain and
meadow ; the graceful forms of the lower hills (attributable to glacial action) con-
trasted with the asperities of the higher, the mountain ridges and peaks; the youth-
ful freshness of the woodlands, chiefly coppice, carefully attended to and regularly
cut, not without admixture of ornamental planting. Its climate was described as
most remarkable for summer coolness and winter mildness, for the large amount of
rain (partly the cause of both) without unusual frequency of showers, and with
moderate dryness of air, connected with absence of clay and a rapid drainage.
The people of the district, chiefly pastoral in their occupation, of robust make, and
of Norse origin, were made mention of as marked for good sense, and for thrift in
their dealings, rather than for imaginative power. In concluding, attention was
called to the influence of localities on health, and to the beneficial effects of residen-
cies at certain heights, approaching 1000 feet above the level of the sea. In proof
of the salubrity of the climate (apart from the ill-drained towns and villages), the
aa hitherto of its dales from cholera was adduced, and the longevity of its

esmen.

On Pacific Railway Schemes, as communicated by the Earl of Malmesbury
to the President of the Royal Geographical Society. By Consul Dononoe.

150 REPORT—1858.

On the Configuration of the Surface of the Earth.
By the Rev. J. Dincie.

Assuming, on the usual grounds, that the earth is a body that has cooled down
from a state of incandescence, the author pointed out how the natural consequences
of that hypothesis are distinctly traceable in the present configuration of the earth,
so as to afford a general sketch of its history. From the relations which the moun-
tain systems bear to each other and to the land, he inferred that the germs of them
had originated about the same time in the earliest period of the earth’s crust, The
currents of a primitive ocean, as determined by known physical laws and modified by
the mountain systems already formed, appeared to him necessarily to have led to the
formation of the great continents in their present position, and when taken in con-
nexion with the yertical forces operating from beneath, to account for all their geo-
graphical and geological features so far as they have hitherto been investigated,

Language no Test of Race. By the Rey. G. C. GELDART.

First, in a negative point of view, it was attempted to show that language is too
uncertain an ethnological test to be of any practical value. This was instanced by
the complete discrepancy which exists at this moment between the races and the
languages of the British Isles. Cumberland and Cornwall, for example, in language,
agree with London, and disagree with Wales; while, as to race, it is directly the
reverse. Also, by the agreement in speech, notwithstanding the wide disconnexion
of race between the Israelites and the Canaanites—the genuine Arabs and the Arabic-
speaking populations in Asia and Africa—the Turks and the Greek-Christians in
Anatolia—the Romans and their subjects in Spain, Gaul, Etruria, &c.—the Germans
and the Sclayonians now absorbed by them in Prussia and North Germany—the
Bulgarians and the Sclavonians,—the Magyars and the Ckomanians—and by many
similar examples; the accumulative evidence of all amounted to this, that since in
so many cases where the ethnological indications of language can be compared with
the actual testimony of history, the latter completely contradicts the former, ‘‘a
common language is’? not even “prima facie evidence in favour of a common
lineage,”

It iis remarked that the probability of language being a fallacious test of race
must increase in direct proportion to the complexity of the particular race’s expe-
riences. But since it is plain that without the aid of history we can never calcu-
late the degree of this complexity (from the fact that all barbarous nations show
signs of decadence from a lost civilization), there is no more ground in the case of
the most savage than of the most civilized race, to assume that the existing language
is the original one. In Australia, e. g., the native languages are radically one; but
this forms no conclusive proof of the unity of the races, in the absence of historical
evidence of this one language having been in primitive times common to them all.
Its diffusion may very possibly be the result of artificial influences of which no re-
cord exists.

Secondly, in a positive point of view, it was shown that in all the instances above
cited, there had taken place between the races, a close assimilation of (1) Political,
(2) Religious, (3) Intellectual, or (4) general Social relations, or of any, or all of
these combined; and it was suggested that it is such an assimilation, and not unity
of race, that unity in language rightly typifies. The principle was applied in detail.
Thus, in Cumberland and Cornwall, the assimilation in language with London was
exhibited as the result of a loss of that national feeling, the permanence of which in
Wales has preserved the provincial Celtic; and not as the sign of a greater com-
mixture of races in the two former districts than in the last. The community of
language between the Abrahamide and the Canaanites was referred to their social
intercourse from the time of Abraham’s migration into Canaan, until Jacob’s descent
into Egypt. The prevalence of Arabic or Turkish, in countries where Islam is domi-
nant, represented the extent to which the Mahometan conquest has affected the
habits and institutions of its subjects. The existence of the Neo-Latin languages
was interpreted as a mark of the eagerness of the Roman provincial to obtain the
‘ civitas,” and with it to adopt the ‘ Latinitas.” The Teutonic speech which has

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 151

overwhelmed the Wendish and Prussian languages in North Germany was the mea-
sure of the military and political force of the Teutonic Order and the “‘ Rémische
Reich.”? The Sclavonic of modern Bulgaria was attributed to the action of that
church of which Cyril and Methodius were the founders; and the Magyar language
in the Ckomanian districts of Hungary was accounted for by the contented adhesion
of the Ckomans to the Hungarian constitution.

The sum of the whole was, that it is not safe to infer from affinity between the
language of two nations more than this, that there was a time when there existed
between them civil, religious, or some sort of social relations. Language was the
product and token of a nation’s political, moral, or intellectual, but not of its phy-
sical constitution. It would not reveal a people’s genealogy, but its mental and
social history. Should it ever be proved that all languages were derived from one
original, the sole valid inference would be, that at some time one sovereign race had
imposed upon all the rest its own political or social institutions, while the great
question of the number of races would remain just where it stood.

A Short Notice of the People of Oude, and of their leading Characteristies.
By H. M. Greennow.

The Sepoys of the late Bengal army deserve a short notice. Drawn principally
from respectable agricultural families in Oude, they were often the younger sons of
such families. Fine, tall, athletic men, with handsome features generally, and well-
knit frames, they were the very flower of the youth of Oude. Fond of their homes,
and having occasional furlough—even if serving in the distant stations of the Bom-
bay Presidency, or in Burmah—for the purpose of visiting them ; enjoying sufficient
pay, and the prospect of pension after faithful service ; having, too, certain privi-
leges of their own, more especially at the Court of Lucknow, before that Court was
abolished, the Sepoys of Oude were a set of men honoured by their own people and
trusted by their officers. When led in battle by the latter they were brave and faith-
ful; on the march or in cantonments they were orderly and obedient; in private
intercourse they were gentle and polite. Ignorant, bigoted, and prejudiced they
always were; and to ignorance, bigotry, and prejudice may be in a great measure
ascribed the ease with which, in the hour of trial, their ears were opened to the voice
of treason, and they forgot their honour aud their oaths. The author added, that
the treachery and cruelty which seem to be inherent in the Asiatic nature, and which
no extent of education had as yet even modified in the natives of India, showed itself
in the Sepoy character during the late mutiny in an unmistakeable and repulsive
form. The paper gave various details in connexion with the characteristics of Oude
and its inhabitants.

On the Geometrical Projection of two-thirds of the Surface of the Sphere. By
Colonel H. James, R.Z., F.R.S., Superintendent of the Ordnance Survey.

Two maps were exhibited which were drawn on this projection, and described by
Colonel James. The hemisphere was first projected by Hipparchus 200 years before
Christ, but this is the first time that a geometrical projection of more than a hemi-
sphere has been made. One of the maps exhibited contained the North circumpolar
regions, and all Europe, Asia, Africa, and America; the other contained the South
polar regions and the Pacific Ocean, with a large portion of North and South Ame-
rica and of Asia. The peculiar advantage of the projection consists in the accurate
representation which it gives of the relative position of all parts of the earth to each
other, an advantage which no other projection possesses, and which cannot be ob-
tained even from the inspection of a globe.

On the General Distribution of the Varieties of Language and Physical Con-
formation, with remarks upon the Nature of Ethnological Groups. By
R. G. Latuam, /.D., F.RS.

The principle which he held was that, in ethnological investigations, the method
which ought to be pursued was that of the geologist rather than the historian—the

152 REPORT—1858.

geologist, arguing back from effects to cause, rather than the historian, who trusts
to testimony in preference to facts. He also especially urged that it was important
to bear in mind what was a true principle in zoology and the natural history sciences,
and not to trust too exclusively to one characteristic. He did not, he said, believe
that in ethnology any great discovery would be made, and he thought it was better
not to attempt to give any opinion as to the question of the unity or the non-unity
of the human race.

On the Yang-tse-Keang and the Hwang-ho, or Yellow River. By WiLtiAM
Locxuanrt, F.R.G.S. Communicated by Dr. Norton Suaw.

This river, it appeared, was called by the Chinese “ The Girdle of China,” and it
traversed the whole of the centre of the empire, rolling its flood of water to the sea,
through the richest and most fertile part of the country. Its importance to China
could not be too highly estimated, and it might be safely asserted that there was no
river in the world which had on its banks so numerous a population, amounting to
at least one hundred millions of people, who were sustained by its waters in the
pursuits of commerce and agriculture. There were more than 100 cities of the first,
second, and third classes, and 200 towns and villages which could be approached
directly from its water-way. From its origin in Tibet to its outlet at the sea, its
course was about 3000 miles, the points being distant in a direct line 1850 miles,
and the basin drained by its channel being nearly 800,000 square miles. The com-
merce of many of the places situate on the borders of the river was very important.
Persons engaged in every variety of trade resorted to Han-Khow for the exchange of
their respective commodities ; men from the north and west, from Mongolia to Tibet
and Sze-chuen, brought their wheat, rice, dried and salted vegetables of every kind,
bamboo sprouts, horses, sheep, furs, skins, coal, lead, jade or nephrite, gold in large
quantities, rhubarb, musk, wax, and various drugs of northern growth, and exchanged
them for tea, silk, camphor, opium, various southern drugs, and above all, for very
large quantities of Manchester and Leeds goods. The quantity of long cloth and
cotton goods that passed through Han-Khow was probably more than half of the
whole brought to China, and access to this spot was of great importance. It had
long been much desired by merchants that they should be able to inspect personally
the trade of this place and take part in it, as, from the accounts brought by native
traders, it would appear to be one of the most important—if not the most important
—mart in all Asia. The paper referred to other places situate on the river, and de-
scribed their principal features.

Extracts from a Letter by Mr. Witt1aM Russetu ¢o the President.

The President gave some particulars, contained in a letter dated Simla, 24th of
July, which he had received from Mr. William Russell, the well-known correspond-
ent of the Zimes, confirming the rumours of the death of M. Adolphe Schlagintweit,
at Yarkand. He (the Chairman) regretted to say that there was no longer any doubt
of the death of this adventurous traveller. After penetrating as far as Yarkand,
where no European had ever been before, he was living in the suburbs of that city
at a period when a war broke out between the Yarkandese and the Chinese, and he
was slain by a number of the former, who surrounded his house in the night-time.
Fortunately the chief portion of his papers would be saved, M. Schlagintweit having
left them, before proceeding to Yarkand, at a place within the range of British in-
fluence. His travels were of much importance, as no region so far to the north-
west of India as Yarkand had been previously visited by a European. M. Schlagint-
weit and his two brothers had travelled by the authority and at the expense of the
East India Company. The brothers Hermann and Robert did not penetrate as far
as Yarkand, and had since returned to Europe; a sketch of their adventurous travels
across the Karakorum and Kuen Luen chains to the North of the Himalaya having
been given by Sir Roderick Murchison in his last Anniversary Address to the Royal
Geographical Society.

~ oe

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 153

On the Navigation of the Ucayali, an Affluent of the Amazons.
By C. R. Marxuam. .

A Geognostic Sketch of the Western Position of Timor.
By Dr. S. MutueEr.

Reports to Her Majesty's Government on the Physical Geography of the
Country examined by the Expedition exploring the South-Western Regions
of British North America, By Capt. J. PALLIsER and Dr. Hector.

The communications alluded principally to the investigation which had been made
with a view of forming a communication through the British dominions. ‘The
reports considered it very important that a route should be established through the
British territory, for the encouragement of emigration, and the transport of the future
produce from Red River and the Great Western plains to Canada, The Canadian
Government had offered £5000 for the establishment of a route between Lake Supe-
rior and Red River, and an engineering party had already commenced a portion of it.

On the Geography of British North America, more particularly British
Columbia, Frazer River, $e. By Norton Suaw, M.D., Secretary
to the Royal Geographical Society of London.

Dr. Shaw gave an account of the various discoveries which have been made in North
America, alluding minutely to those made prior to, as well as since the cession of
Canada by France to Great Britain in the year 1763, and then proceeded to describe
the geographical position of the Frazer River, the boundaries and limits of British
North America, the mountains of the coast, called the Cascade Mountains; the
Rocky Mountains, and British Columbia. He attributed the earlier exploration of
the interior to the French, rather than to the English settlers, the latter having con-
fined their attention chiefly to agricultural pursuits. Dr. Shaw then referred to the
rewards offered by Parliament for the discovery of a north-west passage, and to the
explorations made by an organized association of the traders of Canada, under the
name of the ‘‘ North-West Company,” whose right of trading they had not un-
reasonably supposed to be independent of the Charter of the Hudson Bay Company,
since it had existed before the cession of Canadatc England. Speaking of British
Columbia, he said that the face of the country presented a succession of mountain
ridges, valleys, and plains, the more fertile districts lying, for the most part, between
the Cascade Mountains and the Pacific. That portion of the country which lay be-
tween the Cascade Mountains and the Pacific was subject to a remarkably equal tempe-
rature, the mean being about 54° Fahr. There was only about four months of winter,
and all fruits and vegetables were as early asin Canada. In several respects the climate
of the middle section was less favourable: it was subject to droughts, and was warmer
in summer and colder in winter. The air, however, was pure and healthy. The
eastern section, amid the snows of the Rocky Mountains, could not be praised for
its climate. The western section was well adapted for agricultural and horticultural
operations. The middle section was favourably mentioned ; and in the course of his
remarks about the Frazer River, Dr. Shaw stated that it abounded in fish, as also did
the other rivers in the district. Geese, ducks, and water fowl were plentiful in the
spring and summer. In the eastern section of the country wild animals of various
kinds were met with in great numbers. After having mentioned the auriferous
deposits lately discovered on the Frazer River, Dr. Shaw dilated upon the probable
communication by water and rail through British North America via the Passes of
the Rocky Mountains, connecting thus in future the dense populations of Western
Europe with those of Eastern Asia.

Leiter to Sir R. I. Murchison on the Project of a Canal across the Isthmus of
Keraw, which divides the Gulf of Bengal from that of Siam. By Sir R.
ScHOMBURGK.

Tn this letter, Sir R. Schomburgk, Her Majesty’s Consul at the Court of Siam,

154 ; REPORT—1858.

announces his intention of personally examining the nature of the ground which
occupies the narrow Isthmus of Kraw, and separates the Gulf of Bengal from that
of Siam.

On a Method for the Spherical Printing of G'lobes.
By M.1. Josreru SILBERMANN.

The merit claimed for M, Silbermann’s invention was, that by it globes could be
made more cheaply, rapidly, and accurately than upon the usual plan. Two copper
hemispheres are employed, in which small globes are cast entire, and large ones by
partially filling them with a kind of pulp, and introducing an India rubber bag, which
is inflated by powerful pressure; and in that way the pulp is forced into the crevices
of the mould,

On the Lacustrine Homes of the Ancient Swiss. By M. Troyon.

The object of the paper was to direct attention to the remains of ancient cabins or
houses built on piles on the banks and in many of the lakes of Switzerland. These
dwelling-places had been erected so that they might be surrounded by water as a pro-
tection from wild beasts and the enemies of the inhabitants. Remains of flint arrow-
heads, stone axes, flint knives, and other rude articles were found, and were some
indication of the state of civilization and knowledge to which the inhabitants had

attained.

On the Formation of a Railway from the Atlantie to the Pacifie Ocean,
through the British Possessions of North America. By A. Wuttney, of
New York.

The writer commenced his paper by explaining at some length the reasons why
he was convinced that the United States would never attempt the construction of
any such line of railway, and then observed that, had his plan been adopted, the
work could have been commenced on the western shore of Lake Michigan, where
there were timber, materials, and easy communication with settlement and civili-
zation, and everything to facilitate settlement on its line the lines: to connect with
it from the Atlantic, passing through but two States, could from necessity haye
been made tributary to its operation and management from the Lake to the Pacific.
Congress then had power over it, and all the streams could have been bridged ;
so that an uninterrupted communication from ocean to ocean would haye been
for ever after. A cargo of merchandise could have passed from the Atlantic to the
Pacific without transhipment, and as the road from the Lake to the Pacific would
have been free, except tolls necessary for operations and repairs, the charge for
transit would have been so low, together with the great saving in time, that the
commerce of Europe with Asia would have been forced over it. This was now all
lost to the United States. The author of the paper continued by saying, he had
never believed that a railroad to the Pacific could ultimately benefit either Europe or
the Atlantic slope of America, unless the commerce of Europe with Asia could be
made to pass over it, leaving England with her present manufacturing and commer-
cial position and relations, and augmenting her power over both. The immense
business which the commerce and intercourse between Europe and Asia would give
to the road must, as a natural result, form a foundation for the employment of a
densely populated belt from ocean to ocean, and as far as the soil and climate might
suit, mostly an agricultural people. This belt would take the surplus population
from Europe, and make the producers of food to exchange for English manufactures
on one side and Asiatic products on the other, thus benefiting to a vast extent the
population of both Europe and Asia, by giving to each the means to consume more
largely of the other’s products. If these great results could not be attained, what
benefit to England, or to the United States even, could be looked for from a railroad
to the Pacific? When he was last in England (in 1851) he found many warm
advocates for the construction of a railway over British territory. It was then, as
now, his firm belief that this work could not be accomplished through a wilderness
so vast, except by a system of settlement and civilization to be connected with the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 155

work. He then found that on a line so far north the climate and lands would not
be as well snited to settlement and culture as further south, on territory of the
United States; but he had since examined the subject more thoroughly, and found
a large extent of country on the British side well adapted to settlement and culture.
At the Selkirk settlement, further north even than necessary for the line of the road,
wheat, rye, barley, oats, potatoes, and even Indian corn, were cultivated to perfec-
tion, the yield large and grain fine, and almost the entire line on this side would be
a good grass country. The Pacific side for some parallels was 10° milder. The
British side was far the most favourable for constructing a railroad with much lower
grades. From Lake Superior to the Rocky Mountain Range was almost a level
country. Near 50° parallel the stream divided, running north-easterly and south-
easterly, and north of 45° parallel the mountains sloped to the Arctic Ocean, and
nowhere north of 50° did they elevate their peaks above 5500 feet, with many de-
pressions peneticaip for a railway. Was not this, then, the route for the commerce
between Europe and Asia? Mr. Whitney pointed out that there was excellent
harbour accommodation at Halifax, on the Atlantic side, and Puget Sound on the
Pacific side, and observed that these two places would form excellent depdts for the
commerce of Europe, Asia, the American continent, and indeed the whole world.
A cargo of merchandise might then pass from the Atlantic to the Pacific without
transhipment or delay, and the actual distance from England to China was some 2000
miles less than any route likely to be fixed upon by the United States. Panama
Railway and the projected railway across Mexico were truly great enterprises, but
people were mistaken as to their probable results. They would certainly facilitate
travel and intercourse with California, Oregon, and the Sandwich Islands, but not
so with Australia, the other islands, China, and India; because the sailing distance
from England and Australia, China, India, &c., was less round the Cape of Good
Hope than via Panama. The distance from Canton to London via the Cape of Good
Hope was 2000 miles less than via Panama. The writer said that the Panama rail-
way had not in any way changed the position of the people of Europe or Asia, nor
in any way given to each the means of consuming more of the other’s products,
The result of it, however, he believed would inevitably be the hastening of the great
changes consequent upon the encircling of the globe with civilization and Christi-
anity, and building upon the Pacific slope a nation which must control the com-
merce of all Asia. Let England, then, he concluded by urging, put forth her whole
strength and build a great highway for the world over her own soil. It could be
accomplished in ten or fifteen years, and, with modifications, on the plan proposed
by him to the United States. It could be accomplished nominally without outlay of
money by the nation, creating by its connexion with the settlement of its line the
means for its own construction: it would add millions ‘of wealth to the nation,
and give to it the control, not only of the commerce of all Asia, but of that of the
world also. With steam, the distance from London to China could then be per-
jarred in twenty-eight days; merchandise even could be taken in thirty or thirty-
ive days.

Notes on the Physical Geography of North-Western Australia.
By J.8.Wiison, Geologist to the North-Western Australian Expedition.
The paper described the climate of that part of Australia as being hot for six
months in the year, but not injurious to health. The country, it said, was fertile,
and a large variety of luxurious grasses was found growing, one species of which
was a kind of wild oats, from 3 to 6 feet high. The indigenous plants were more
numerous and superior to those of Southern Australia. The characteristics of the
natives were similar to those of the aborigines of the south of the country, and the
writer was glad to say that, in Lower Victoria, at all events, there was no unfavour-

able impression upon the minds of the native population against the settlement of
the English.

On the General and Gradual Desiccation of the Earth and Atmosphere.
By J. Spotswoop Wixson.
The writer drew attention to the fact, that those who had travelled in continental

156 REPORT—1858,.

lands, especially in or near the tropics, had been forced to reflect on the changes of
climate that appeared to have occurred. There were parched and barren lands, dry
river channels, and waterless lakes, and not unfrequently traces of ancient human
habitations, where large populations had been supported, but where all was now
desolate, dry, and barren. He had been first led to a consideration of the subject by
phenomena of this nature that had come under his own observation, particularly in
Australia, and he soon discovered that desiccation, so very observable there, was
too extensive and permanent to be explained by occurrences of an irregular nature.
Remembering also that similar appearances had been observed in other parts of the
world, for which no satisfactory cause was assigned, he had collected the observa-
tions of travellers in regard to various countries, and endeavoured, by the evidence
they afforded in the failing of the water systems, to establish the theory of a general
and continuous decline of the humidity supported by the atmosphere, and then to
discover in the operation of some law of our terrestrial system the cause of desicca-
tion in both land and atmosphere. After quoting largely from the works of various
travellers and writers (amongst the latest of whom were Dr. Livingstone), and
giving interesting descriptions of dried-up rivers and desolated tracts of country in
Australia, Africa, Mexico, and Peru, which had formerly been inhabited by man,
Mr. Wilson proceeded to give his own theory as to the cause of this desiccation, con-
tending that the upheaval of the land, the waste by irrigation, and the destruction
of forests, all of which had been put forward as the cause, were insufficient to
account for what had been described. He remarked that the amount of aqueous
vapours that can be borne by the atmosphere at any time must be in proportion to
the mass of the atmosphere itself, from which it followed that a reduction in the
mass of the atmosphere would produce a corresponding decline in the amount of
hydrous vapours absorbed and supported. If, therefore, a physical operation, in-
volving a waste of the atmosphere, could be discovered, it might be concluded that
at least one cause had been found for its declining humidity. Agreeably with these
conditions, it was learnt that a vast amount of the atmosphere, and of the ocean like-
wise, had been solidified. The rocks, in the history of their own formation, bore
witness to the tendency to transmutation in the character of both. The elements of
water were hydrogen and oxygen, and the atmosphere was composed of oxygen,
nitrogen, and carbonic acid, in which hydrous vapours mingled in varying quantities,
all of which had entered largely into the formation of rocks and minerals. The coal
plants had absorbed largely all the elements of air and water, but particularly of
carbon, of which coal contains on an average from 80 to 90 per cent. Carbon united
with oxygen formed carbonic acid, which, combined with lime and solidified, formed
more than two-fifths of all limestone rocks. Oxygen was said to form half of what
is known of the material of the globe. Besides existing in air and water, it formed
a part of most earthy substances, and of nearly all the productions of the animal
and vegetable kingdom. The oxygen of the atmosphere was also gradually absorbed
by all animal and vegetable productions, and by almost all mineral masses exposed
to the open air. From such facts as he had adduced and others he could produce,
Mr. Wilson concluded that there was a gradual solidifying of the atmosphere and
water on the face of this terrestrial world, which he inferred was, in the usual course
of geological changes, slowly approaching a state in which it will be impossible for
man to continue an inhabitant ; and remarked that as inferior races preceded man
and enjoyed existence before the earth had arrived at a state suitable to his consti-
tution, it is more than probable others will succeed him when the conditions neces-
sary for his existence have passed away.

Notice of the Opening of a Sepulchral Tumulus in East Yorkshire.
By Tuomas Wricut, M.A.

Setting aside the vague speculations on a pre-Celtic population of the island, the
first Roman known to have visited it, Julius Cxsar, who appears to have been
personally acquainted only with the latter settlers in the maritime district of the
south-east, informs us that the interior was inhabited by a people much inferior
in cultivation, who were reputed to be the original inhabitants of the island. This
people, we learn from later writers, were called the Brigantes, who held a very

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 157

large portion of the interior of Britain, including the whole of Yorkshire. There
were Brigantes also in Ireland, and Mr. Wright adduced arguments to show
that the British population of Yorkshire belonged probably to the Gaelic branch of
the Celtic race, and not to the Cymric. He described what were known of the
peculiar characteristics of this British population of the Roman occupation of Bri-
tain, and of the establishment of the Anglo-Saxons, and he pointed out the interest-
ing characteristics of many of the supposed British interments in East Yorkshire, as
belonging, he suspected, to the period of the independence of the British towns pre-
ceding the Saxon invasion.

He then read an account of the opening of an ancient sepulchral tumulus in the
township of Bridlington, by Mr. Edward Tindall of that place. A skeleton was
found, laid on its back, in a trench or grave cut in the chalk, with a rude urn which
had been turned on the Jathe. A flint spear-head was found, according to the de-
scription, in the skull, as though it had penetrated from the back of the neck to the
jaw. Mr. Wright concluded by pointing out circumstances in this interment which
were rather of a Teutonic character, than Celtic or Roman.

STATISTICAL SCIENCE.

Address by the President, Enwarp Batnes, Esq., on opening the Section.

Ir the British Association were a theatre for intellectual display, I should shrink
from occupying a chair in which I have had such distinguished predecessors. But if
I understand the spirit of this Association, it is the simple, honest, earnest pursuit of
truth; first, of truth in facts, and secondly, of truth in principles; and it would be
quite foreign to that spirit either to attempt anything of display or to apologize for
its absence. I shall be permitted, however, to welcome the disciples of economical
and statistical science on their visit to this important centre of industry, where prac-
tical illustrations may be found of many branches of their subject, and where, I hope,
there are many who can value their inquiries. After the remarks made last night by
the President of the Association, it may seem superfluous to say anything further on
the claims of that science which he prononnced to ‘“ bear more immediately than any
others on the prosperity of nations and the well-being of mankind.” We must all
have felt how unanswerably the President proved the value of economical and statis-
tical science, when he referred to the department of vital statistics, and showed what
terrific losses had been sustained by our army and navy and the army of France, from
the neglect of sanitary rules, But I may just remark that what gave to the recent
report of Mr. Sidney Herbert’s commission on the health of our troops in barracks its
resistless force, was the certainty and precision with which statistical researches
enabled it to measure the amount of loss sustained, by comparison with the mortality
in other classes of the population at the same ages. The report might have dwelt on
sickness, on injudicious diet, on defective ventilation, on want of drainage, and so
forth, and all such statements would have been pronounced to be exaggerations or
errors; but when it applied the ascertained scale of mortality so as to prove that there
were so many deaths in the thousand when there ought only to have been half that
number, the definiteness of the figures and facts defied evasion, fastened on the public
mind and conscience, and compelled immediate measures of reform. Those persons
who have ignorantly charged upon political economy and statistics a disregard of
moral considerations and of humanity, may now see how egregiously they were mis-
taken, and how the arithmetic which they thought so heartless is rising up as the
most powerful advocate of the value of human life, of health, of domestic comfort, of
temperance, of virtue, of proper leisure, of education, and of all that can purify and
elevate society. Iam glad to know that we shall have one or more papers on im-
portant points of vital statistics laid before this meeting. May I for a moment refer
to another reproach thrown upon statistics, namely, that they may be so used as to
prove anything? I hardly need say that it is unfair to argue from the abuse of a thing
against its proper use. But it may be admitted, that there is sufficient ground for

158 REPORT—1858.

this reproach, in the negligent or dishonest use sometimes miade of statistics, to call
upon us for the exercise of great caution, so that in the first place we may be stre we
have got all the facts that are essential, and in the next place that we draw from them
sound and accurate conclusions. The statist ought to remember how liable are loose
and defective masses of figures to be used by both sides in contioversy, each picking
up such as suit hit wherewith to pelt his antagonist. It is valuable to collect facts,
but it is still more useful to ascertain that they are exact and complete, and then so
to arrange them that they may serve to build up some useful structure. A statist
ought to lay a charge upon his conscience, as though he were sworn ii the form of
our old oath to speak “the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth.” Nor
can we be too careful to reason fairly and soundly from the facts we may amass; fot
it is the facts of the statist and the doctrines founded upon them by the economist,
which, to a great extent, guide our practical legislation, and thus affect the great in-
terests of society. I cannot refrain from expressing my conviction, that as the science
we cultivate has been shown to be favourable to humanity, so it is no less favourable
to freedom. Within the last quarter of a century how busy has it been in knocking
off all sorts of fetters from human energies !

It is, indeed, opposed by the interests which restrictions have created, sometimes
manufacturing, sometimes agricultural; but in England at least its march in the path
of freedom has been rapid and steady; and we may say of it, vestigia nulla retror-
sum,

On the Woollen Manufacture of England, with special reference to the Leeds
Clothing District. By Enwarp Bains.

The author commenced his paper by observing that it was suitable, when the British
Association honoured Leeds with a visit, that its members should receive some account
of the great branch of manufacturing industry of which Leeds was the ancient seat,
and which prevailed here on a larger scale than in any other part of England or of
the world. It was peculiarly desirable that such an account should be rendered to
this Section, because, notwithstanding the an tiquity of the manufacture, its economy and
statistics were by no means well ascertained. Though a large part of the raw mate~
rial was grown at home, we had absolutely no reliable statistics of the amount of this
famous product of the British Isles. It was hoped, therefore, that the present attempt
to ascertain the facts connected with the woollen manufacture might not bewithout
its use; and also that it. might derive some additional interest from indicating re-"
markable modern changes in this department of industty, and explaining some pecu-
liarities which at first sight perplexed the political economist. The woollen manufac-
ture of Yorkshire was prosperous and advaneing; but it could not fail to have been
noticed that its progress was less rapid and extraordinary than that of other textile
manufactures; and it might be well to show that this was to be ascribed to circum-
stances inherent in the nature of the fabric, and not to indifference and apathy on the
part of those engaged in this branch of industry. The difference between the
woollen and the worsted fabrics consisted chiefly in the woollen yarn being very
slightly twisted, so as to leave the fibres at liberty for the process of felting, whilst the
worsted yarn was hard spun and made into a much sfronger thread. The feebleness
of the woollen yarn made it more difficult to be woven by the power-loom than either
worsted, cotton, linen, or silk, none of which was susceptible of being felted. The
processes of the woollen manufacture are more numerous and complex than those of any
other of our fextile manufactures, and are performed by a much greater variety of ma-
chines and of workpeople. It was pretty obvious, the author remarked, that there must
be proportionate difficulty in effecting improvements which would tell materially on the
quantity or the price of the goods produced. There was still another fact which re-
tarded the advance of the woollen as compared with other manufactures, namely, the
higher price of the raw material, wool being about three times the market price of
cotton and flax. Nor could sheep’s wool be augmented in quantity so rapidly as raw
materials which merely required the cultivation of the soil. But the economist might
inquire how is it that the wotsted manufacture has of late years increaséd so much
more rapidly than the woollen, seeing that if uses the same raw material, sheep's

wool? It was to be ascribed in part fo very remarkable improvements made within

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 159

these few years in the process of combing, which was now performed by machinery
instead of by hand, and the cost of the process reduced almost to nothing,—in part to
the greater simplicity of the other processes, admitting of their being carried on almost
entirely in large factories,—but more than all to the introduction of cotton warps into
the manufacture, which had not only cheapened the raw material, but had introduced
a vast variety of new descriptions of goods, light, beautiful, cheap, and adapted both
for dress and furniture. According to the last Factory Return made by the Factory
Inspectors in 1856, and printed by the House of Commons in 1857, there were in
Yorkshire 445 worsted factories and 806 woollen factories; but the number of opera-
tives was 78,994 in the former, and only 42,982 in the latter. The average number
of operatives in the worsted factories, therefore, was 177, whilst in the woollen facto-
ries it was only 53. The whole number of operatives returned in the census of 1851,
as employed in these two manufactures in the county of York, was 97,147 in the
worsted manufacture, and 81,128 in the woollen. Four-fifths of all the hands em-
ployed in the worsted trade were in factories, whilst only about half of those in the
woollen trade were in factories. Everything tended to show that the worsted ma-
nufacture, like those of cotton and linen, had become an employment carried on
by the machinery of large factories; and as mechanical improvements were con-
stantly speeding the power-loom and the spindle, so that in worsted factories the
power-loom had increased 67 per cent. in speed within the last fen years, and the
spindle 114 per cent., manufactures thus situated must advance more rapidiy than
those which, like the woollen, were more dependent on manual labour. The woollen
manufacture was surpassed in extent by the cotton manufacture at the beginning of
the present century. It still held the second place in regard to the number of opera-
tives employed, though not to the number employed in factories, in which it was sur-
passed both by the worsted and the flax or linen trades. In the woollen mills, between
1838 and 1856, the number of operatives increased 44 per cent., the horse-power
employed increased 25 per cent., and the number of power-looms increased 572 per
cent.; but still the other manufactures advanced with greater strides in almost all
these respects. The author next referred te the sources from which the raw material,
sheep’s wool, is drawn, and to the remarkable changes which the present century has
witnessed with regard to it. The wool was English, foreign, and colonial, and came
from all quarters of the globe. Our largest supply was from the United Kingdom,
but nearly half of the domestic wools was consumed in the worsted manufacture, and
the other half was used for the lower kinds of woollen goods. Within living memory
Yorkshire cloth was made exclusively of English wool, though Spanish wool had lon
been used for the finer cloths of the West of England. Now, however, English wool,
from its comparative coarseness, was entirely disused in the making of broad-cloth.
In the last half of the 18th century the import of foreign wool fluctuated from a little
under to a little over two million pounds weight a year. In 1799 it was 2,263,666 lbs.
But in the year 1857 the quantity of foreign and colonial wool imported was 127,390,885
Ibs., of which 90,903,666 lbs. was retained for home consumption. As the exports of
woollen goods did not increase in any proportion whatever to these figures, it was
evident that the character of the cloth, both that worn at home and that exported,
must have changed by the substitution of foreign and colonial for English wool. The
foreign wool first used when this improvement in the quality of the cloth began, was
that of Spain, the native country of the merino sheep. The total import of wool
sprang up suddenly from 2,263,666 lbs. in the year 1799, to 8,609,368 Ibs. in 1800;
and of the latter quantity, 6,062,824 lbs., or more than two-thirds, was Spanish. After
the French invasion of Spain and the long Peninsular wars, the quality of Spanish
wool degenerated, and the quantity fell off; and its place in our manufacture was
graduaily filled by the wool of Saxony and Silesia, into which country the merino
breed of sheep had been introduced in 1765. The German wool was still by much
the finest used in any country; but as the merino flocks were introduced by Mr.
Maearthur into our great Australian colonies, and were found toincrease there immensely
without any very great degeneracy in the quality of the fleece, German wool had in
its turn to a very considerable extent been superseded by Australian. The following
Table showed the imports and exports of foreign and colonial wool, at intervals of
about ten years, for the last century :-—

160 REPORT—1858.
Foreign and Colonial Wool Imported and Exported.
Foreign and

Y Foreign wool | Colonial wool Total colonial woo] | Left for home

eer imported. imported. imported, exported. consumption.
1766 | 1,926,000 1,926,000 voce 1,926,000
1799 | 2,263,666 olor 2,263,666 soroe 2,263,666
1800 | 8,609,368 S00 8,609,368 2A 8,609,368
1820 | 9,653,366 122,239 9,775,605 64,585 9,711,020
1840 | 36,585,522 12,850,762 | 49,436,284 1,014,625 | 48,421,659
1850 | 26,102,466 | 48,224,312 | 74,326,778 | 14,888,674 | 59,938,104
1857 | 44,522,661 82,868,224 {127,390,885 | 36,487,219 | 90,903,666

The changes which had taken place in the sources of supply were shown in the

following Table :—

Imports of Wool from the Principal Countries.

Year, Spain. Germany. Australia. South Africa. | East Indies,
Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs.
1800 6,062,824 412,394 jae vee
1810 5,952,407 778,835 167 Pishalls sees
1816 2,958,607 2,816,655 13,611 9,623 ae
1820 3,936,229 5,113,442 99,415 29,717 ee
1830 1,643,515 26,073,882 1,967,279 33,407 tee
1834 2,343,915 22,634,615 3,558,091 141,707 67,763
1840 1,266,905 21,812,099 9,721,243 751,741 2,441,370
1850 440,751 9,166,731 39,018,221 5,709,529 3,473,252
1857 383,129 5,993,380 | 49,209,655 14,287,828 19,370,741

Here we see the decline in the quantity of Spanish wool imported from 6,062,824
Ibs. in 1800, to 383,129 lbs, in 1857 ; the increase of German wool from 412,394 lbs,
in 1800, to 26,073,882 lbs. in 1830; and its subsequent decline to 5,993,380 Ibs. in
1857; the increase of Australian wool from 167 Ibs. in 1810, to 49,209,655 Ibs. in
1857; the increase in South African or Cape wool from 9623 lbs, in 1816, to 14,287,828
Ibs. in 1857; and the increase in East India wool from 67,763 lbs. in 1834, to 19,370,741
Ibs. in 1857. These were remarkable commercial changes, and they warranted the
hope that we might ere long find in the East Indies, Australia, and Africa, sources
of supply for the still more important raw material of cotton, produced by the labour
of freemen, instead of being so dangerously and perniciously dependent on the slave-
raised cotton of the United States. ‘The imports of German wool had fallen off even
to a greater extent than appeared from the above Table, inasmuch as there was now
a large quantity of rag-wool, called shoddy and mungo, imported from Germany; and
he was assured by Mr. Fonblanque, of the Statistical department of the Board of
Trade, that no distinction was made at the Custom-house between the entries of the
finest Saxon wool, which was of the value of 3s. per Ib., and those of shoddy, which
was only worth a few pence per Ib. Since this paper was written, the Hon. Stephen
Rice, Deputy-chairman of the Board of Customs, had assured him that shoddy should
in future be entered separately from wool. Of the annual production of wool in the
United Kingdom, there were, as had been said, no reliable statistics whatever, and
the judgment of those engaged in the trade varied very widely. The balance of
authority would dispose us to conclude that the annual produce of domestic wool must

be between 150,000,000 Ibs. and 200,000,000 Ibs. If we took the medium, namely,
* 175,000,000 Ibs. at 1s. 3d. per lb., which was about the average price of the last thirty
years, the value of this great raw material produced at home would be £10,937,500.
The judgment thus formed from a comparison of authorities had been exactly and
unexpectedly confirmed by the result of careful inquiries and calculations, founded
on the number of hands employed, the power of the machinery, and the estimated
value of the goods manufactured. That result was that 160,000,000 lbs. is used by the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 161

woollen and worsted manufacturers, whilst the quantity exported in 1857 was 15,142,881
Ibs., making an aggregate of 175,142,881 lbs. of English wool. The exports of
English wool, both in the raw state and in the first stage of manufacture, namely,
yarn, were great and rapidly increasing. Thus the farmer was deriving benefit from
the freedom of trade, and English wool was resuming its flow through channels which
legislation had closed for five centuries. It was for our manufacturers to take care
that no other country made a better use of their native raw material than themselves.

The author then glanced at the history of this ancient manufacture up to our own
times, and observed that they ought not in that Association and in that Section to
withhold the honour due to the high intelligence, manly spirit, and wonderful disin-
terestedness of Lord Milton, afterwards Earl Fitzwilliam, who, whilst representing
the great seat of the woollen manufacture, Yorkshire, advocated the removal of pro-
tection from the manufacturers, and, although one of the largest landowners, contended
for the removal of protection from agriculture. It was a matter of just pride for this
Association and for Yorkshire to remember that that enlightened and high-minded
nobleman was the first president of the British Association. The woollen manufac-
ture, in its various branches, was very extensively diffused. According to the last
Factory Return, it prevailed in twenty-two counties of England, ten of Wales, twenty-
four of Scotland, and six of Ireland. More than one-half of the operatives employed
in the woollen factories were in the county of York, namely, 42,992 out of 79,081.
The worsted manufacture, on the other hand, though for some centuries it had its
chief seat in Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex, had now obtained a remarkable concentra-
tion in the West Riding of Yorkshire, Out of 87,994 factory operatives in the worsted
trade of the United Kingdom, 78,994 were in Yorkshire. The chief seat of the ma-
nufacture of superfine broad-cloth had for centuries been, and still was, the West of
England, and especially the counties of Gloucester and Wilts. The population, and
doubtless also the trade of the West Riding of Yorkshire, had increased much more
rapidly both in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries than those of Gloucestershire,
Wiltshire, and Norfolk. Between the years 1801 and 1851 the population of Leeds
increased 224 per cent. ; Bradford 682 per cent. ; Huddersfield 325 per cent.; Halifax
179 per cent. ; and Norwich 88 per cent. The author apprehended that the principal
advantages of the West Riding over Gloucestershire, Wiltshire, and Norfolk consisted,
first, in the greater cheapness of coal and iron; secondly, in the larger body of men
skilled in the making and working of machinery ; and thirdly, in the facility of access
to the great ports of Liverpool and Hull. But he inclined to think that the mere fact
of Yorkshire haying devoted itself to the manufacture of cheap goods had been as
influential as any other cause.

The author next spoke of the general statistics of the woollen manufacture, and first

Woollen and Worsted Goods and Yarn Exported.

Years. Manufactured goods. Yarn. Total Exports.

——— | ———_

—

wane

From 1718 to

£ £ £

1724—yearly | (Official value)
average .... 2,962,881 cone 2,962,881
a 3,056,720 it 3,056,720
Lo aoe 4,320,006 eee 4,320,006
AGO ict sess 5,453,172 vee 5,453,172
1 4,113,583 toes 4,113,583
DSO. cae 2,589,109 seve 2,589,109
cl ere 5,190,637 baad 5,190,637
1800...... by 6,917,583 vo 6,917,583
te ae 5,773,719 salen 5,773,719

(Declared value)
S20, 5... sss 5,586,138 ee 5,586,138
BSG0. soe oc vie 4,728,666 122,430 4,851,096
MAO. oo sis 5,327,853 452,957 5,780,810
TB50.. cca, 8,588,690 1,451,642 10,040,332
mettle! bis 'e-ha'g 10,703,375 2,941,800 13,645,175

——— ——$.

1858. 1]

162. °°. REPORT—1858.

of our exports to foreign countries. The earlier tables made no distinction between
the woollen and worsted goods exported, and the later tables made the distinction
imperfectly. Up to the year 1815 we had only the official value of the exports, which,
however, probably did not vary much from the real value; from 1815 downwards we
had the real or declared value. Before the year 1820 also, the tables included the ex-
ports to Ireland, though this fact was overlooked by most writers on the subject.

- The experienced eye would see at a glance how for the last ninety years the natural
progress of the woollen manufacture had been checked by the introduction of the
cheaper material, cotton, and the unparalleled extension of its manufactures ; of which
we last year exported to the value of £29,597,316 manufactured goods and £8,691,853
yarn, making a total of £38,289,169.

Woollen and Worsted Goods and Yarn Exported from 1820 to 1857, distinguishing
the classes of goods; with the declared value for 1857.

In 1857.
Total de-
In 1820. | In 1850. Guat: | Declared Met tie
ties. value. ,
Woollen Manufactures :— £ £
Cloth of all kinds .... pieces| 288,700) 608,926) 695,063)2,956,491
Napped coatings, Duffels, &c.
pieces} 58,644 3,035 829 3,693
Kerseymeres,....... * 78,944 15,626 3,777| 19,587
Baizes sss .ssbe03: Pky 37,183 23,727 15,474| 51,017
Flannel...3.3...7.. yards 2,569,105) 2,833,898] 4,892,442] 283,750
Blankets and Blanketings ..|1,288,499} 6,461,224] 3,118,596] 576,489
Hosiery (otherthan stockings)| .. os 232,076
Small ASG (ineluding rugs) 5% } £249,757 { ‘3 90,659
Shawls..i:...% TEES “s as a5 5 194,756
Total Woollen Goods ...... e3 “i a t's 4,408,528
Worsted and Mixed Stuffs :— ——__ ——
Worsted stuffs,..... pieces; 828,901) 2,122,397) 2,568,482/3,325,564
Mixed stuffs (worsted, cotton,
and silk) eh eee & ... yards) 407,716/52,573,636|57,715,819|2,225,839
Carpets and carpeting.. ,, 526,124] 1,668,675] 4,452,428] 613,246
Stockings...... doxen pairs| .. 120,185] 193,957] 130,198
Total Worsted Goods...... A ah on hs 6,294,847
Woollen and Worsted Yarn, —_——-
lbs. = 13,794,225/23,980,704/2,752,386
Do. do., mixed with other
materials .....% saa vdba: a .% 723,744) 189,414
Lota War nny thine cco aes be A ae 2,941,800

Total Exports of Woollen and Worsted Goods and Yarn,... £13,645,175

It would be remembered that the year 1857 was one of great overtrading, and, as
far as could be judged from the seven months of the present year, there would be a
considerable falling-off in the woollen exports and a still greater in the worsted exports.
The combined woollen and worsted exports formed about one-ninth of the entire ex-
port trade of the country. The woollen goods exported were of the value of £4,408,528,
the worsted goods £6,294,847 ; and, as the yarn was nearly all worsted, the total
worsted exports would be £9,236,647. These figures of course did not indicate the
respective or proportionate values of the whole production of these two branches of
the manufacture of wool, but only of the quantities exported. Including the domestic
consumption, there was reason to think that the woollen manufacture somewhat ex-
ceeded that of worsted; but the figures of the table just given, especially combined
with the considerations mentioned in an earlier part of this paper, would lead to the
belief that the worsted manufacture would ere long exceed the woollen, In the
attempt to estimate the entire annual value of the woollen manufacture, he had found
difficulties on every side. All the elements for calculating the number of. persons

TRANSAOTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 163

employed and the value of the goods produced were uncertain and defective. As to
the number of persons employed, the census of 1851 made an approach to the truth,
and was the best evidence we had; but it was not altogether trustworthy. He was
disposed to think that we might estimate the earnings of each person employed in the
woollen manufacture to support three-and-a-half persons, including himself, and in the
worsted manufacture two-and-a-half; and at this rate the numbers supported in the
respective branches would be as follows :—

~ Individual Workers in the Woollen and Worsted Manufactures, and estimated
number of persons supported by them :—

Individual workers. Persons supported.
In the woollen manufacture,. 150,000 x 38% = 525,000
In the worsted manufacture., 125,000 xX 25 = 312,500
Ngtal gs siasaceysvaist> iniaies 0,000 837,500

It must also be remarked that a larger proportion of persons in auxiliary occupations
was connected with the manufactures of wool than with any other textile manufacture,
owing to more than one-half of the raw material being raised at home, whilst the cotton
and silk were wholly dependent on importation, and the linen almost wholly. The
wages earned by the operatives in the woollen manufacture were good, and such as
must afford the means of great comfort to their families, besides indicating a pros-
perous condition of the trade. He had been favoured with several tables of wages
from houses of eminence in this neighbourhood, and he had the pleasure to know
that they would be received by the statist as of great value. The following general
statement might be received with entire confidence :—

Average Wages of Operatives in the Manufacture and Dressing of Woollen Cloth in
‘the Leeds Clothing District. Supplied by Messrs. Gott.

Description of Operatives. Sex, &c. Wages per week.

Wool sorters @oerecicesos Men ee ee 24s.
Wool scourers, dyers, &c...| Men ..........] 16s. to 20s.
SHADBETS ccs ceccncvceser|) MON seecedecsct 208:

% overlookers,.....| Men ..........]| 39s. to 40s,
Servers or fillers..........| Girls or boys—
a 7 eg atare for 1 machine 5s.

” 9 Moe ote for 2 machines 9s,
Billy piecers............. | Children.....,..] 4s.; half-timers 2s.
Cleaners and willyers..,...| Young men .,..] 12s. to 14s,
Mule spinners..........0.| Men ..........] 28s.
»» Plecers ............| Girls or boys....| 6s.
DWaAEpErS 22. on..0.20...-| WOMORve......| 125.
Weavers, hand-loom ..,...| Men .........+.| 15s.

a power-loom......| Women........] 10s. to 12s.
Overlookers and tuners....} Men ..........| 21s. to 28s,
MDA EE hgh < sro\ sia: s-d.ere’aisios| NVOMMEM et ots areca len 08. OU.
Barlerg [yey cei yeep vcies co] WOMEN .5 evasind | Bes t068:

ERI rs vein, eels aes of DL es sues pak att Las to 20s.
ee OUCKIOOKers: ...-. 05.) MeN... 0040 cece | GUS: tO.40z,
Dyers ...... Pete seas | MEM gist sas wer], Wane COnOn.

SEM AOTEMNC! kee s eel MICH! wos ee sane | O08. tO OOS:
SPrecRerse See tees Pe a) DEEN oh sc ssir css | 205 to 228;

. etuswiea nest eace.sT LOUND Ment... 1 des: to 165.

+ by gh Sop ct PRAT SOW. cs ciste ae eas fun ey LO OR:
Dressed cloth burlers...,..| Women........] 6s. to 7s.
PE VERS oben Men... i et oOs. tp 408,
PPEMECKPIS tos eet cseeecce re) MEN sees dees. | 208: t0.803.
Mrese-Rettere’. cot stent eat Men s,s... st 1 Ons. to 405;
Bammemien > ....0, 0.5.05) Men... .... 2s] 24s.

LL

164 -- REPORT—1858,

He felt justified in estimating the wages of operatives in the woollen manufacture
at not less than 12s. 6d. per week on the average for men, women, and children; and
this for 150,000 workers, would give an aggregate of £4,875,000 per annum. Mr.
Baines then explained some circumstances relative to the Leeds clothing district,
especially the great quantity of low woollens made in the Batley district, chiefly from
shoddy or mungo, which was wool made from tearing up woollen rags and also from
the waste of the woollen mills. He said that in drawing to a conclusion he must
endeavour to estimate the annual value of the woollen manufacture of the kingdom.
Uncertain as were several of the important elements in the calculation, he felt con-
siderable confidence, arising out of the abundance of the materials before him, the care
with which he had tested them, and the coincidence of several methods of calculation
in bringing about the same result. The constituent parts of the value of the woollens
manufactured in the United Kingdom were, Ist., the value of the raw material; 2nd,
the value of other articles essential to the manufacture; 3rd, the wages paid to the
workpeople ; and 4th, the sum left to the capitalist for rent, repairs, wear and tear of
machinery, interest of capital, and profit. His estimate was as follows :—

Value of the Woollen Manufacture.

1. Raw material—

Ibs. £
75,903,666 Foreign and Colonial wool.........e.ceeeees CVO RE Ag?
80,000,000 British wool, at 1s. 3d. per Ib. ......cecececeeseceecese 5,000,000
45,000,000 Shoddy and Mungo—

50/000 000'Tbs, UEBIa! 14 hey. wee
15,000,000 Ibs. at 42d. ........... ale ot } 809,970
Cotton warps, 1-50th of the wool ........ Bassdeidions Fen los weesee 206,537
2. Dye wares, oil, and soap ........ecesgescsccecees veeveeee 1,500,000
3. Wages—
150,000 workpeople, at 12s. 6d. per week ......... . 4,875,000

4, Rent, wear and tear of machinery, coal, repairs, interest on capital,
and profit—20 per CONti is ccsiec svcd es ccaecuss cnn skha site MOeyBeIgGRD

Dotaleun ye chee ere cua tes Oe

He would only, in conclusion, recommend the members of the British Association
to inspect the Exhibition of Local Industry now open in this town, where they would
be able in some measure to judge of the industry and skill of our manufacturers; and
would express a hope that those manufacturers would never rest satisfied with any
position they might have attained, but, stimulated and warned by what they had seen
in the Great Exhibitions of London and Paris, would remember that they only held
their prosperity on the condition of unceasing improvement.

On the Rate of Mortality in the Metropolitan Improved Dwellings for the
Industrial Classes. By Joseru Bateman, LL.D.

On the Sanitary and Industrial Economy of the Borough of Leeds.
By R. Baxer, Factory Inspector.

In the year 1080, Leeds proper was a farming village, with an estimated population
of somewhat less than 300, including 27 villeins and four soke men; and the manor
consisted of about 1000 acres. In 1081, it had a priest, a church, and a mill, of the
yearly value of 4s., and ten acres of meadow. In 1858, it has a population of 112,945
souls, engaged in more varied works than, perhaps, those of any other town in the
kingdom. Bede, in 735, calls Leeds, Leodys, and the Domesday Survey, Leedes;
and Thoresby says it was one of the 28 cities of ancient Britain mentioned by
Nennius, and called the city of ‘ Loid in the Wood.” The out-townships, as they
are called, are said to derive their names ;—Ist. Hunslet, from ‘ Hunde” a dog,
and “Slet” a house, because of the number of dogs which were formerly kept there.
Its population is employed in the manufacture of flax, woollens, iron, glass, wire, glue,

os we ve use cea nen ee20,290;079

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 165

earthenware, chemicals, locomotive engines, carriages, steam-boilers, and the getting
of coal. 2nd. Holbeck derives its name from the Saxon word “ Hol,” a low place,
and “beck,” or the brook which flows through it. It is described by a recent histo-
rian, as “ one of the most crowded, one of the most filthy, one of the most unpleasant,
and one of the most unhealthy villages of the county of York.” But still, the de-
scription which this historian gives is greatly exaggerated. Holbeck is, and Hunslet
is nearly now, united to Leeds in unbroken continuity. It possesses a large supply
of sulphureous water, once celebrated for medicinal virtues, but now required for and
applied to manufacturing purposes. Its population is employed in the manufacture
of flax machines, and woollens, 3rd. Bramley.—Its population is mainly employed
in the woollen manufacture, agriculture, and the getting of the celebrated Bramley
Fall stone of millstone grit. 4th, Wortley, situated about a mile from Leeds, is said
to derive its name from its herbage. Armley, from one “ Arm” or “Orm,” and
‘tley,” a field. 5th. Headingley, from ‘‘ Hedde” a Dane, “ing,” a patronymic
added to his fathers, and “ley,” a field, Headingley-with-Burley is full of the
suburban residences of our merchants and manufacturers ; whilst Kirkstall, which
forms part of the same township, contains woollen, worsted, and flax factories, There
is, just without the borough, and at a short distynce from the Abbey, one of the largest
iron forges of the neighbourhood, which in Thoresby’s time (1658) was so extensive,
that he declared it might serve Vulcan and his Cyclops to work in. The fulling-mills
of Armley and Kirkstall are perhaps the most ancient in this part of Yorkshire. 6th.
Chapel-Allerton, two miles from Leeds (north), is said to derive its name from four
adjoining hamlets, called the Alder hills. It is mainly composed of suburban resi-
dences. Its poor population is employed in agriculture and the getting of stone.
7th, Beeston, two miles and a-half from Leeds, though now an agricultural and
mining village, was once celebrated for the manufacture of bone,-lace, and straw hats,
Coal mines have long been worked here, and iron is also now obtained of a peculiarly
fine quality. 8th. Farnley, about two miles from Leeds, derives its name from the
ferns which formerly grew here in great abundance, and which to this day flourish in
many parts of it. Its population is employed in the woollen manufacture, the get-
ting of coal of rather an inferior quality, of clay, particularly for sanitary pipes, and
in the manufacture of iron. 9th. Potternewton, about two miles from Leeds (north),
is said to derive its name from its being a new town, in which potteries and brick
kilns existed, contiguous to a Roman station, It possesses. many suburban resi-
dences; its industrial population is mainly employed in agriculture and getting of stone.
Of the remaining small hamlets within the borough there is not much to be said.
Their populations amount to 237, who are mainly employed in iron and coal mines,
and in agriculture. For municipal purposes these out-townships are divided into
wards, which send representatives to the Borough Council chamber. In the following
Table the superficial area in statute acres and the population in each ward are given.
Leeds proper is also divided into wards, the superficial area of each of which is also
given in statute acres, in order that both within and without the town the density of
the population upon the acre may be seen. Thus, for instance, in the out-townships :—

Area Inhabited Population Pop. to Populn,

Out-Townships. in Houses. in a per
acres. 1851. house, acre.
aenGyever.ccy.csn2 A990) 26., -, S00" ss. L722. GAD! 55), 08

Potternewton..,.. 1657 ... 282 ... 1385. sve 1c 4:Di | vey > 088

Chapeltown. ........ 2747 .... G12... ° 2842 se) 46. 95. iA;

Beesion......... Peiiew ER penne ian AR) - ded. LOG Sep shmeng SB) rege | 1°S
Headingley........ ODS tye yp 122i aes eB LOB pu svgnud DO) tevars:! bP
Bramley ........... BGG 1 ss: a5.19 VOGL: ciare, 9 894M © ogni Ad) Leos (08'8
Armley ...,:..s00s 907... 13803 ... 6190 .. 47 .. 6:7
Wortley 28..c.85 05 NOSE 61672) 9 010 T89C.A «AEs web oh
Hunslet,........... 1100Gns) -4216 |: 02.) 19,466...) 4°G,. dais 146
Holbeck ’,,...,.:.,) 760 ... 3099: .., 14,152. 145 4:5 ay 186

-__ TT

17,121 15,059 70,680

166 i? REPORT—1858.

Wards. LEEDS PROPER,
North-West ...... SOB 82698! ee? 1B 270 1934 ae
ASteee ess estes 657°. S7BR 39 T7481 © oS ae es
Wests yet F228 560 eh 428T 4A QO 176 2 SO” EGS
North-East ........ 541 ee 4G E2301 a S69 O See
Mill-Hill........... 127 ox 969 <.s SALAS gus BS ey.
Sotiths: 5. 20808088 123° 33 1868-3 6677 as 49S AS
Kirkgate ........036 oy ae GBB! “ot S877?) cc) FSR. PAMOS
NGfL. § 02) 2002828" 4, 14yptee OP oer

2672 ~—-21,061 101,090

Out-townships.... 17,121 15,059 70;680

19,790 36,120 171,770

293 military.

172,063
We thus see that over the whole borough the population toa house varies, so to speak,
from 44 to 54, the density on the acre being from 0°8 to 157. In all the townships
of the borough, with the exception of one (Beeston), and in all the wards of the town
proper, with the exception of Kirkgate, this density increased in the decennial period
between 1841 and 1851, and it has gone on increasing up to the present period, with
the exception of the Mill Hill Ward, in addition to Kirkgate, in which, since 1851, it
has also decreased. At the present day the population of Leeds proper is 112,945—
of the out-townships, 77,748. ‘The number jor Leeds is calculated on the proportion
of persons to a house in each ward in 1851, the multiplicand being the number of in-
habited houses in July, 1858, correctly ascertained in wards from the rate-books,
That for the out-townships is based on the per-centage increase of Leeds proper. The
superficial area of the town of Leeds is thus shown to be in the aggregate of the
wards 2672 acres and 2 roods, of which, in 1840, 695 acres were occupied by build-

ings.

Ward. Land. Buildings. Total.

, Ai Es te: 4. i mse? A. R. P

Blast tstsee. eceetel.s 546) 5 3°" 0. tactesk 11d, Ox O aaeess 657 3 0
North-East ......... 466 0 O ...... 13) 13) Osiatee? 541 3 0
North-West ........ 456 0 0 ..:... B21) On! thes 5388 1 0
Went. ives tuveretht SRE) Ol ieee ve 176 Oe Ot izeesee 560 0 0
South ......... Se SBo Le OB) saesee SF AO). Rake 123 2 0
Worth sii...csesbke ZB ik: YO Saneseds 60GB eB LO neteest 92 0 0
Mall. Fildes wdencactes 26:4). paréses 10D DO! isi. i127. 380
Kirkgate..........0. 4 0 0 ete PDT. Bu O- sivas i290
1977 2 0 695 0 0 2672 2 0

The inhabited houses of each ward, with the population and its increase and de-
crease, stand as follow: —

1841. 1851. | Per cent. 1858.

Se a eee ed 6 | Se

fo) oO i=} oO Oo

Bon) Bion peso | ee | a | oe ee
East......, 3436 | 15,530) 3781 |17,421/10-3| 0) 4038 | 6-7| 0 118,570] 6-7] 0
N. East..| 3959 | 17,887) 4564 |21,301/19°1| 0) 5174 |13-3| 0 |23,798/11-6! 0
N. West.) 2237 | 10,669) 2693 |12,270! 15-6 0] 3441 |27:7| © | 15,484/26+1| 0
West:....| 3475 | 16,616, 4231 |20,176\ 21-4) 0) 4906 | 15-9} 0 | 24,530) 21-5] 0
South....| 1273 | 6210) 1363 | 6677) 7-5) 0) 1502 |10-2) 0} 7358/1160
North....| 2711 | 13,001} 2828 |14,454/ 11-1) 0| 2891 | 2-2] 0 | 15,744] 8-9, 0
Mill Hill] 996 | 5222) 969| 5414) 3-6, 0| 940| 0] 3] 5170} 013-9
Kirkgate] 656 3411] 632] 3337) | 22) 621] 0/1:7| 3291] 0] 1:4

| / | | > [23513

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 167

by which we gather, that, of late years, the tide of population in Leeds has steadily
flowed towards improved ventilation and surface condition : since the increases in seven
years, from 1851 to 1858, in the West and North-west Wards, exceed the per centage
decennial increases of the ten years between 184) and 1851, There has been a gra-
dual decrease in the number of inhabitants in the Mill Hill Ward, which is in the
centre of the town, and mainly composed of wide and well-ventilated streets; but
here the population has given way to warehouses, shops, and offices. And in the
Kirkgate Ward there has also been a continued decrease which we can understand ;—
for though it is also in the centre of the town, as it were, and mainly occupied by
shops and warehouses, yet its dense courts and yards lie contiguous to a river, which,
though a trout stream within the last seventy years, having footways clothed with
avenues of trees, is now nothing but an open sewer, containing the sewerage of Brad-
ford, Shipley, and all the mills, houses, dyehouses, tanneries, and workshops, which
erowd its western banks; and cannot, therefore, be healthy or pleasant to those who
have not the means of removing elsewhere. We see, in fact, towards the less densely
populated wards, a gradual movement made from the old localities, as well as a steady
increase of a new population. Mr. Baker proceeded to exhibit the diminution in the
rate of mortality resulting from the sanitary improvements effected by the Local Im-
provement Act and the Burial Act. In the north districts, for example, in the seven
years from 1851 to 1858 the deaths decreased 25 per cent., the population meanwhile
increasing in density, and the ratio of births to the population remaining the same,
So also in the south-east district, with an increased population, the deaths decreased
16 per cent., and in the west district the mortality diminished 5 per cent. He con-
sidered that other ameliorating influences had been at work within the period in
question, such as compulsory vaccination, the decrease of cellar occupancies, emigra-
tion to better-ventilated districts, improved regulatiens as to hours of labour, improved
wages, temperance societies, a higher social and intellectual state brought about by
lectures, cheap publications, and institutes for mutual improvement, all of which re-
medial elements Leeds possesses in an eminent degree, The importance of sanitary
measures at Leeds could scarcely be over-rated, considering that 18 per cent. only of
all its houses exceed £10 annual rent—a fact which showed how largely the popula-
tion was composed of the working classes, Referring to some of the larger trades
conducted in the town proper, he mentioned the following as being the staple :—
Woollen, worsted, flax, silk, dyeing, machine-making, leather, paper, tobacco, sanitary
pipe and fire-brick, glass, earthenware, glue, and chemicals, coal, stone, railway ter-
minals, and making garments for exportation. He doubted whether the prevailing
manufacture of Leeds was at the present time woollen, or the fabrication of machinery.
The interests engaged in the woollen trade were—the manufacturer, the finisher, and
the rag-grinder ; and, as illustrative of the condition of this important branch of trade,
he introduced these statistics :-—

f , Nominal First process : Power
First process. Firms, horse power. spinning. : Gigs, looms.
Mabiacddudedsse ose 68 bop 1936 vat 8640 ons — 952

PUD sossppdencdo0r 48 a 860 ae — PPP S110) —

0 (es 12 oes 128 Pm — 2 — =
128 2924 8640 860 952

Total number of persons employed, 10,193.
The wages of these processes are as follows :—

Annually. Weekly. Per person
ae £ 8. Bae) Sena weekly
First process, manufacture,..,......110,120 8 0 2117 14 6 ia 7
Second, finishing..................... 254,215 0 0 4888 15 0 15 62
MMI, Tags. ese cij sii veoess. dee ees 5760 16 0 110 15 0 6 Of

Potal vrsiwielimeneiicies £370,096 4 0 7117 4 0 10 O}

Mr, Baker presented a mass of information relating to other branches of industry car-
ried on to a large extent in the town, and employing 45,829 persons, whose wages he
computed at £1,752,689 per annum, or £33,734 a-week. Speaking of the poverty

168 REPORT—1858.

or improvidence of the working population, he said that in 1857 there were relieved
out of the rates 2238 men, 4862 women, 5653 children, and 4864 vagrants; in all
17,437 persons supported out of the savings of the industrious, notwithstanding all
that was done by charity, by secret orders, and benefit societies. To his mind this
pauperism was the result of sheer improvidence, and it would have to be dealt with
by social science. He trusted that the day was dawning when morality would be a
lesson taught with labour, and when as a people we might be wiser and better for our
abundant benefits,

On the Degree of Education of Persons tried at the Middlesex Sessions.
By Joseru Bateman, LL.D., F.R.A.S.

During the year 1856 there were 1717 persons charged with offences at these Ses-
sions. Of these, 880 (or more than one half) could not write; viz. 379 could not
read, and 50! could read but not write. Of these 880 persons who could not write,
579 (out of 1262 committed or bailed, being almost one-half) were males, and 301 (out
of 455, being two-thirds) were females. Besides these, 401 were returned as able to
read and write imperfectly ; viz. 74 males and 27 females. On the other hand, there
were 677 out of the 1717 charged (being more than one-third) who were stated to be
able to read and write well; viz. 561 males out of 1262 charged, and 116 females
out of 455 charged, and 18 (all males) reported to possess a superior education,
This amount was so considerable as to give a colour to the opinion which still prevails
to some extent, that the imparting of the mere elements of education does not neces-
sarily improve the morals of the people. But there is one circumstance connected
with these statistics which is usually overlooked, and which it is the chief object
of the present paper to point out:—it is this. Middlesex, to which these returns
relate, is a county in which elementary education is more generally diffused than it is
throughout the country at large. It appears by the Registrar-General’s Report that
in 1854 the proportion of men who, in the metropolis, wrote their names in the Marriage
Register was 88 out of every 100, and the like proportion of women was 79 out of -
every 100. It may be inferred therefore that there are in the metropolis only about
12 men in 100, and 21 women in 100 who cannot write; and consequently that the
criminals in that part of the country are not taken from the entire community indis-
criminately, but that full one-half of them are taken from the class of extremely igno-
rant, consisting of one-sixth of the population, thus reducing the criminals among the
educated classes to a very small proportion indeed : and, if we confine our observa-
tions to the case of women alone, we shall find that the extremely ignorant class,
consisting of one-fifth only of the whole female population of the county, furnishes
two-thirds of its female criminals.—See Report of Mr. Pashley, Q.C., to the Middle-
sex Magistrates,

On the Investments of the Industrial Classes.
By Josrru BateMAN, LL.D., F.R.AS.

The investments of the industrial classes are chiefly made in Friendly Societies and
Savings Banks. The number of friendly societies enrolled and certified, and now in
existence in England and Wales, is about 20,000, and the number of members belong-
ing to them exceeds 2,000,000, with funds exceeding £9,000,000, of which the sum
of £1,431,543 is in English and Welsh savings banks, and the sum of £1,944,991 in-
vested with the Commissioners for the Reduction of the National Debt, making a total
of £3,376,534 so invested. The number of individual depositors in savings banks on
the 29th November, 1857, was 1,241,752, and the sum due to them was £32,984,923.
It thus appears that the members of these societies and depositors in savings banks
possess funds amounting to nearly £42,000,000, and that the average investment of
each member of the friendly societies is £4 10s., and of each depositor in the savings
bank about £26 lls. 3d. It appears that the number of depositors in savings banks
is five times more than the number of persons entitled to dividends on the public
funded debt; and that of those so entitled to dividends, by far the greater number are
for very small amounts, such as may be supposed to belong to the humbler classes ;
whilst the total number of persons receiving dividends exceeding £4000 per annum
amounted only in the year 1856 to 227 in the United Kingdom, Another class of

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 169

investments open to the working classes, but which was too little known to be acted
upon, was the purchase of deferred and other annuities of the Commissioners for the
Reduction of the National Debt, who were empowered to grant such annuities (not
exceeding £30 per annum to one person) on very advantageous terms to the pur-
chaser. The number and value of these annuities purchased up to 5th January, 1857,
were—immediate, deferred, and life annuities, number 10,864; purchase-money
£2,071,831 18s. 1]d.; for terms of years, number 373; purchase-money £53,081
17s. 6d. Referring to the antiquity of friendly societies, it was remarked that Mr.
Kenrick, the learned author of ‘The Roman Sepulchral Inscriptions,’ had shown
that burial clubs were in existence among the Romans, and he had actually discovered
a copy of the rules of such a society inscribed in marble. At the present moment
there were more friendly societies of one kind or another in England and Wales than
were to be found in the whole of the rest of Europe, or perhaps elsewhere. No less
than 26,000 had been established according to law in England and Wales between
1793 and 1857, besides immense numbers of trade societies and “ orders,”’ some of
them numbering their members by hundreds of thousands, and many of which no
account was returned to the Registrar. Of the friendly societies properly so called,
and which had come to the knowledge of the Registrar, there were, as has been said,
20,000, by which, in the aggregate, no less a sum than £1,000,000 per annum was
expended for affording relief insicknessalone. In the year 1857, the friendly societies
in Leeds raised, in round numbers, £25,000, and distributed £20,000, The author
proceeded to notice the various other classes of friendly societies and modes of invest-
ment for the industrial portion of the population; the recent improvement of the law
relating to those institutions ; and, as another pleasing fact, the increasing confidence
in savings banks, notwithstanding the failure at Rochdale and a few other places;
and he expressed a hope that such failures would be prevented in future by the
Government taking upon itself the responsibility of the funds. If the savings laid
out by the working classes in the various other modes besides benefit societies and
sayings banks could be usccrtained and added to the sums disclosed by the official
accounts, they would swell the total to a sum that would astonish some persons by its
vastness; and, though he did-not think it would prove that the industrious classes were
all as thoughtful and prudent as they ought to be, it would show that they were not
so thoroughly dissipated and careless as some persons had represented; and they were
entitled to every encouragement and assistance in carrying out their habits of prudence
and economy.

Trade and Commerce the Auxiliaries of Civilization and Comfort.
By T. Baziry, M.P., Manchester.

Mr. Bazley sketched the rise and progress of the cotton trade, as confirming and
supporting the views enunciated in the title of this paper. In 1758 the imports of
cotton and its consumption by domestic labour might be three millions of pounds
weight for the entire year, but in the present year, a century afterwards, the quantity
consumed would be one thousand millions of pounds, of which the United States sup-
plied three-fifths, the other two-fifths being obtained from the East Indies, South
America, Egypt, and the West Indies. For the last year, by the return made by the
Board of Trade, the exports of cotton manufactures sent to every part of the world
amounted to upwards of thirty-nine million pounds sterling. Hence this large sum
became the agent of payment to a corresponding extent of imports; but in thus largely
aiding in procuring increased supplies of foreign products, whether in gold, silver,
yaw materials, food, wines, sugar, fruits, or luxuries of distant growth which are re-
ceived into the United Kingdom, there was the satisfaction that our cotton industry
had contributed clothing comforts to the benefit alike of the savage and civilized in
every region of the earth. In this current year the exports of cotton manufactures
would perhaps amount to forty millions value, and the portion left for home consump-
tion might be twenty millions, or equal to 17s. per head for the population of this
country; but, as the cotton trade of Great Britain is not half its magnitude in the
entire world, including the domestic and semi-domestic manufacture still extensively
carried on in the East, the manufacture of the world at large could not be less than
the annual value of one hundred and forty millions, and therefore this industry afforded

170 REPORT—1858,

to the world’s population 3s. worth each of cotton clothing, or, represented in calico,
fourteen yards per annum for every man, woman, and child in existence. Presuming
the cotton industry of this country to amount to sixty-four millions in value for the
current year, and the cost of the raw material to be twenty-four millions, then the sum
remaining for wages, interest of capital, rent, taxes, fuel, freight, carriage, and other
requisites, would be forty millions, The population employed in this trade exceeds
half a million, and, as every worker is said to be connected in his family with three
non-workers, who depend upon the single worker for subsistence, two millions of peo-
ple are therefore supported by it. Engineers, founders, machine-makers, and other
auxiliary traders employ vast numbers of well-paid workmen, who are constantly en-
gaged and sustained at the cost of the capital invested in the constructive department
of the cotton trade; hence these further sources of support increase the total number
of people dependent upon this extraordinary industry. Viewing Lancashire as the
chief seat of this industry, if we refer to its population a hundred years ago, we
find it to have been about 300,000, whilst now it was 2,300,000, making an increase
greatly in excess of any of the old trading and agricultural communities of this or any
other country. After noticing the numerous other places in different counties of Eng-
land and Scotland in which the manufacture of cotton has become the great support
of labour, Mr. Bazley proceeded to discuss the question of increasing the supplies of
the foreign raw material, and urged the importance of opening up new fields for its
cultivation, Africa and Asia could grow more cotton than the most sanguine could
contemplate the demand of the whole world would ever require; and to extend its
production in those two quarters of the globe would be at the same time to extend
civilization and to diffuse the comforts of life. Workpeople, manufacturers, merchants,
statesmen, and philanthropists had all the deepest interest in this vital question,
which hitherto had been shrouded in almost fatal apathy. At home and abroad the
wonder was that the British East and West Indies had not supplied the largest por-
tion of the cotton needed in this country. For much of the unproductiveness of those
portions of the British empire misgovernment was responsible. Roused, however, by
the salutary influences of public opinion, the legislature of our country had given to
the East Indies a new existence. No intermediate spoiler would hereafter prevent
the queen and a direct executive from developing the resources of India. An en-
lightened and just policy applied to every British colony would yield the benefits of
an extended commerce, blessing, like charity, those who gave and those who received.

Notes on Self-supporting Dispensaries, with some Statistics of the Coventry
Provident Dispensary. By Cuarves H. BRAcCEBRIDGE,

The statistics of the self-supporting Dispensary at Coventry are offered to this
Section as an example of those institutions projected by Mr. H. L, Smith, of Southam,
Warwickshire, which, when supported by a sufficient number of members, have been
successful. ‘The statistics of that at Northampton are fully as favourable, though not
carried over so long a period; this latter having been instituted in 1845, and the for-
mer in 1831*, The queen’s visit to Warwick gave occasion to the formation of a
Central Society for the promulgation of the principle, to whom application might be
made for information as to rules, books, and other details, by the possession of which
the founders might proceed safely, and without danger of failing in their objects, pro-

* The following are the statistics for 1857 of the Dispensaries at Coventry and North-
ampton :—

Paid to | Paid by

Place, | Members| atrended,| Cases.” | Drugs. | Medical | Pree

pr len So AG ea eIO NT dot ee &

w"ounded 1682)...f| 4500 | 2927 | 48 | 251 | an” | 7a

Nefownded 1843).,, }) S420t | 14960 | 222- | 166 578 | 761
+ In 1851.

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172 REPORT—1858.

vided always the one necessity of all insurance against risks, and sufficient numbers,
be supplied. This little Society was founded at Warwick in July Jast (1858), the Lord
Lieutenant, the High Sheriff, Lord Warwick, Lord Willoughby, and several magi-
strates and gentlemen of the county, as well as two or three gentlemen from Coventry
and Northampton, being present, and vouching for the working of the Coventry and
Northampton Dispensaries for more than twenty years. To this Society the follow-
ing towns have already applied for information :—Bath, Bradford, Conway, Hereford,
Southend, and Tadcaster. It is called the “Society for promoting the principles of
Royal Victoria Self-supporting Dispensaries.” Honorary Secretary.—H. S. Smith,
Esq., Southam; Bankers—Messrs. Greaves, Greenway, and Smith, Warwick. The
committee meets at the Warwick Arms, at Warwick.

The advantages to members are, that the Dispensaries are founded on the princi-
ple of Provident Insurance. Practice is afforded to medical men, and emulation ex-
cited. Many cases, no doubt, are brought under their notice which would otherwise
have been neglected, till too late for remedies to be applied; to say nothing of the
great facilities afforded by these institutions for obtaining statistics of disease, and of
their tendency to promote sanitary improvements.

Clubs can be taken in en masse, and cholera cases are attended gratis. The pay-
ments to medical men, when divided by the number of cases, appear to be about 1s,
at Northampton, but are considerably higher, about 3s. 4d¢., at Coventry; the other
expenses are salaries to Dispenser and a boy, and the purchase of drugs, leeches, and
instruments. The variation arises from calculating attendance on every child in one
instance, and not in the other. In each case the medical men have divided £750*,
[Coventry £1 less, Northampton £1 more, ] and are satisfied. The number of visits
made at patients’ abodes in severe cases is not mentioned.

At Coventry each family selects its medical man for the year; so that it becomes
unnecessary to enter every slight case among the children for a proportional division
among the medical men at the end of the year.

On the Financial Prospects of British Railways.
By Samue. Brown, £.R.G.S., FSS,

Mr. Brown gave a summary of the leading facts showing the extension and present
position of the railway system of the country. In doing so he confined himself prin-
cipally to the reports presented by Captain Galton to the Board of Trade, which re-
ports bring down the information to the end of 1856. He also quoted from a Par-
liamentary document which has recently appeared, showing that the total amount of
capital and loans for railways in the United Kingdom, authorized by Acts of Parlia-
ment previous to 31st December, 1857, was £387,051,735, of which £7,732,496 was
authorized to be raised by shares and £2,614,316 by loan last year. Previous to the
year 1857, £281,114,152 was to be raised by shares and £96,458,773 by loans. On

the 31st of December last—
Dividend on Interest

Capital raised. in 1857. Per cent.
Ordinary share .... ....000 £178,624,394 ote 6,391,746 oae 3°579
Preference share.........+ , 58,126,627 ae 2,706,157 55 4°655
MiQANMS teegsneasecues cacoeess a 78,406,237 wee 3,240,683 awe 4°133
Potalesiedsisvecersts 315,157,258 12,338,586 3°915

The companies then retained power to raise £72,194,678 by existing shares, by new
shares, and by loans, £283,957,225 was the ainount stated to be expended in the
construction of railway works. The length of line open for traffic on 31st December
last was 9447 miles (2681 miles single and 6356 double lines); 993 miles of railroad
were being constructed at the end of the year, and 3554 miles of line were authorized,
but not then commenced. ‘The total length of lines for which companies had obtained
powers prior to 31st December, 1857, was stated at 13,562. In reference to the im-
portant consideration of the relative amount of loans, preference and ordinary share
capital, Mr. Brown remarked that it was evident that whatever the state of the money

* Less the sum paid for drugs—at Coventry, £251; Northampton, £166,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 173

market, the lowest rate of interest for the time being would always be upon those in-
vestments which afforded the largest margin for the certain payment of the interest
and the repayment of the principal at the periodsfagreed on. Of £308,775,894,
which was the total amount of money raised up to the end of 1856 for the construc-
tion of railways, £77,359,419, or 25 per cent., formed, in the shape of loans, a first
charge on the profits of the companies, At the end of 1857, £78,406,237 out of
£315,147,260, or 24-88 per cent., was similarly advanced. The total profits from all
railways in 1856 appeared to have been £12,277,712, and the interest upon deben-
tures and loans £3,607,072; thus leaving a margin of £8,670,640, or 70°62 per cent.
of net profits, to secure the punctual payment of this interest. Under such circum-
stances, what could be the cause that the average rate of interest on loans so secured
should be as high as 4°66 per cent. in 1856, and that in the most favourable year,
1858, it never fell below an average of 4:14 per cent.? What, again, could be
the cause that the rate of interest on these securities had gone on increasing in
successive years till 1856, though the rate of interest on ordinary share capital had
diminished? In 1857 it was true the rate of interest on this class of securities
seemed considerably less, but it was still 4°133 per cent., whilst the rate of dividend
on ordinary share capital had increased to 3°579 per cent. Looking at the very large
surplus which remained, and the ample security thereby afforded for punctual pay-
ment of the interest, there seemed no reason to doubt that such loans should be con-
sidered nearly equal to’government securities. A suggestion had been recently made
that all such bonds and obligations should be made payable to the bearer, and trans-
missible from hand to hand without expense or trouble. The suggestion was well
worthy of notice, and the effect would be, no doubt, to diminish the rate of interest at
which such advances were made, and ultimately this class of loans would probably not
differ much in value, nor fluctuate much more in market price, than the public funds.
A difference of one-half per cent. interest on the existing loans of £78,000,000 would
amount to £390,000 per annum—no mean advantage to the ordinary shareholders.
Passing to the question of the preference shares, Mr. Brown pointed out that in 1857,
if there had been no preference shareholders, but all had shared alike, the average
dividend would have been 3-915 per cent. The truth was, that the raising of money,
either by debentures or preference shares, was a false system, and always acted pre-
judicially to the ordinary shareholders, unless their annual dividends amounted to, at
least, the same rate per cent. on their capital as they had to give on debentures or
preference shares. After remarking upon questions of the reduction of the working
expenses of railways, the increase of traffic receipts (which, notwithstanding periods
of commercial depression, had made steady progress for several years), Mr. Brown
said, in conclusion, that some of the evils from which railway shareholders were now
_ suffering, though recognized, could not be remedied. Mr. Stephenson computed that
no less than £14,000,000 had been spent in law proceedings. Yet, for all this, if the
loan, preference and ordinary share capital were considered as one interest, the re-
sults, though falling far short of the expectations entertained, gave no occasion to
despair of the future. A net profit of £12,338,586 in 1857 on a capital paid up of
£315,157,258 (share and loan), yielded 3-915 per cent., and was a fair vantage-ground
for further progress. With a diminution in the rate of interest when the debenture
and preference share capital was better understood, under improved management;
with a revision and a reduction in some of the various sources of expenditure; with
constantly augmenting traffic receipts; with a cessation of the fatal and senseless
competition which had so long prevailed; with a tribunal for arbitration which would
save both legal expenses and the reckless opposition of the companies amongst each
other; with more regard to the convenience of the public in the arrangement of the
trains; with more attention to the comfort of third-class passengers; and with some
system to check the construction of unnecessary lines, and to develop the commerce
of districts by officials thoroughly versed in the resources they afforded, there could
be no reason for railway shareholders to give way to despondency, but rather to look
with pride and satisfaction on a branch of commercial enterprise, the capital em-
barked in which fell little short of £400,000,000 sterling, and of which the net profits
on the amount paid up exceeded last year half the interest upon the permanent Na-
tional Debt.

174 os REPORT—1858.

On the Laws, aceording to which a Depreciation of the Precious Metals con-
sequent upon an Increase of Supply takes place, considered in connexion
with the Recent Gold Discoveries. By Professor CAIRNES.

Prof. Cairnes referred to the discussions occasioned by the recent gold discoveries
as exhibiting, on the part of a large number of those who engage in them, a strange
unwillingness to recognize, amongst the inevitable consequences of those events, a
fall in the value of money. He said a strange unwillingness, because similar doubts
were not found to exist in any corresponding case. With respect to all other com-
modities, it was not denied that whatever facilitated production promoted cheapness,
that less would be given for objects when they could be attained with less tronble and
sacrifice, It was not denied by any one pretending to economic knowledge that the
enlarged production of gold now taking place had a tendency to lower its value; but
it seemed to be very generally supposed that the same cause-—the increased gold
production—had the effect, through its influence on trade, of calling into operation so
many tendencies of a contrary nature, that, on the whole, the depreciation must pro-
ceed with extreme slowness, the results being dispersed over a period so great as to
take from them any practical importance, and that at all events up to the present time
no sensible effect upon prices had thence arisen. The existence of this opinion amongst
economists was, he apprehended, to be attributed in some degree to the circumstance
that so few had taken the pains to compare the actual prices of the present time with
those of the period previous to the gold discoveries; but much more to the fact that
the character of the new agency and the mode of its operation were not in general
correctly conceived. The most general opinion with reference to the action of an
increased supply of money upon its value was, that a depreciation of money, so far as
it arises from this cause, is uniform, that is to say, takes place in the same degree in
relation tofall commodities ; and that therefore prices, so far as they are influenced by
an increase of money, must exhibit a uniform advance; and, no such uniformity being
observed in the actual movements of prices, the inference had not unnaturally been
made, that the enhancement, so far as it has taken place, is not due to this cause—
that it is not money which has fallen, but commodities which have risen in value.
With respect to this doctrine of the uniform action of an increased supply of money
upon its value in relation to commodities, he was quite prepared to admit its sound-
ness, provided sufficient time were allowed for the disturbances introduced by the new
additions to be corrected. He conceived, however, that these disturbances, when the
augmentations took place upon the scale which we were at present witnessing, were
of a kind which did not admit of speedy correction, but might continue throughout
the whole period of progressive depreciation ; a period, which, if he might venture to
express an opinion on the subject, would probably extend over some thirty or forty
years. The mode in which an increased production of gold operated in depreciating
its value, and thus raising general prices, appeared to him to be twofold, and to take
place, first, directly, through the medium of an enlarged money demand; and secondly,
indirectly, through a contraction of supply. Prof. Cairnes then stated in detail the
considerations from which he arrived at the following general conclusions :—First,
that the commodities, the price of which may first be expected to rise under the influ-.
ence of the new money, are those which fall most extensively within the consumption
of the productive classes, but more particularly within the consumption of the labour-
ing and artisan section of these. Secondly, that of such commodities, that portion
which consists of finished manufactures, though their price may in the first instance
be rapidly raised, cannot continue long in advance of the general level, owing to the
facilities available for rapidly extending the supply; whereas, should the production,
from over-estimation of the increasing requirements, be once carried to excess, their
price, in consequence of the difficulty of contracting the supply, may be kept for some
considerabie time below the general level. Thirdly, that such raw products as fall
within the consumption of the classes indicated, not being susceptible of the same
rapid extension as manufactures, may continue for some time in advance of the gene-
ral movement, and that among raw products the effects will be more marked in those
derived from the animal than in those derived from the vegetable kingdom. And,
fourthly, that the commodities last to feel the effects of the new money, and which
may be expected to rise most slowly under its influence, are those articles of finished

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SEOTIONS. 175

manufacture which do not happen to fall within the range of the new expenditure ;
such articles being affected only by its indirect action, that is to say, through its action
upon wages, and this action being in their case obstructed by the impediments to the
contraction of supply. Up to this point, Prof. Cairnes said, he found his conclusions
corroborated by the independent investigations of an eminent French economist, M,
Levasseur. ‘There was, however, another principle which it appeared to him must
exercise a powerful influence on the course of the movement, namely, that efficacy
which resides in the currency of each country into which any portion of the new
money may be received for determining the effect of this infusion on the range of
local prices, using the words ‘local prices” with reference to commodities in the
locality in which they are produced, not to that in which they are sold. According to
this principle, the advance foliowed the locality in which the commodity was produced.
Thus the rise in price had been most rapid in commodities produced in the gold coun-
tries, having in these at one bound reached its utmost limit—that, namely, which is
set by the cost of producing gold. After the commodities produced in the gold re-

ions, the advance, he conceived, would proceed most rapidly in the productions of

ingland and the United States; after these, at no great interval, in the productions
of the Continent of Europe; while the commodities the last to feel the effects of the
new money, and which would advance most slowly under its influence, were the pro-
ductions of India and China, and, he might add, of tropical countries generally, so far
as their economic conditions correspond with those of these countries, Prof. Cairnes
submitted to the Section some statistical tables which he had drawn up, with a view
to compare the conclusions at which he had arrived as to a depreciation of the pre-
cious metals under the action of an increased supply with the actual progress of prices
up to the present time. He remarked that, considering the propitiousness of the
seasons, the action of free trade, the absence of war, the contraction of credit, and the
general tendencies to a reduction of cost proceeding from the progress of knowledge,
were there no other cause in operation, we should have reason to look for a very con-
siderable fall of prices at the present time, as compared with, say eight or ten years
ago. Prices, however, had very decidedly risen, and the advance had, moreover,
proceeded in conformity with the principles which he had in his paper endeavoured to
establish. This was his ground for asserting that the depreciation of our standard
money was already, under the action of new gold, an accomplished fact.

On the Progress of the Principle of Open Competitive Examinations.
By Enwin CHapwick.

On the Registry of Deeds in the West Riding. By J. E. Diss.

The West-Riding Registry, he stated, was established on the 29th of September,
1704, the first object being to facilitate the borrowing of money by honest traders, who
found it difficult to give security to the satisfaction of the money-lenders, although
the securities they offered were really good. The second object was, to remedy the
evils which might be produced by secret conveyances of freehold property, by means
of which the ill-disposed had it in their power to commit fraud. ‘That registry which
the Jaw thus permitted had, for a long series of years, become the ordinary practice ;
and it would, perhaps, scarcely be possible at this time to find a frechold estate in the
West Riding which is not affected by a registered document. Passing by 1704 to1710
as exceptional, it might be noted that while the yearly average of the registries from
1711 to 1720 was only 838, the average from 1791 to 1800 had risen to 2355; and
taking the average from 1841 to 1850, it rose to 5138, having more than doubled itself
in the first half of this century. This increase of transactions in landed property was
nearly in proportion to the increase in the population of the West Riding, which was,
in 1801, 572,168; 1811, 662,875; 1821, 809,863; 1831, 984,609; 1841, 1,163,580;
1851, 1,325,495. In 1851, however, the gradual increase of previous years was
changed for a much more rapid rise; far greater in proportion than the increase of
the population. ‘The previous year, 1850, had shown the largest number of deeds
registered, viz. 5950; the year 1851, however, reached 8009, and, in 1853, the largest
number of all was attained, viz. 9910. This large accession of transactions in real
estate at this period arose, Mr, Dibb stated, from the fact that in October 1850, the

176 REPORT—1858.

new Stamp Act came into operation, by which the duties payable on conveyances:and
mortgages were very largely reduced. Beginning with the year 1843, the operations
of building societies have gradually assumed some importance. The number of deeds
registered in connexion with these societies had risen from 31 in the year 1843, to
637 in 1857, the largest number being 682 in 1855. The total for the last fifteen years
was 4608. A system of registry which enabled a vendor or mortgagor to show readily
that he had a satisfactory title, and which secured the purchaser or mortgagee against
secret and fraudulent conveyances, must be a benefit, provided the cost of its attain-
ment be not too great. The distinctive feature of the West Riding Registry was, that
while anyone might search and inspect its records, there was, nevertheless, no expo-
sure of private affairs. In conclusion, Mr. Dibb suggested that a consideration of the
statistics of the West Riding Register would afford many very useful suggestions to-
wards the establishment of a general register, as well in those particulars which it
might be desirable to adopt, as in those which it might be prudent to avoid.

Mr. Donnetty, Registrar-General of Ireland, gave an account of the manner in
which agricultural statistics are collected in that country. About 4000 enumerators,
selected from the constabulary force for their intelligence, were employed last year.
The names of all occupiers, nearly 600,000, are obtained, and, so far as could be ascer-
tained, not a single tenant farmer, however small his holding, refused to give the
required information. This success he attributed mainly to the assistance afforded by
the landed proprietors, magistracy, and clergy of all denominations, and by the press, in
removing prejudices against these inquiries; but particularly to the gratuitous distri-
bution, annually, of about 10,000 copies of ‘General Abstracts*,’ which show, by
counties, the number of live stock, and the acreage under each crop, all reference to
the property of any individual being carefully avoided. Tables of the estimated pro-
duce of the various crops, and of the size of the holdings, in nine classes, by baronies,
and Poor Law Unions, are also subsequently published, so that these statistics are be-
coming more perfect each year, and are now very popular in Ireland,

On Public Service, Academic, and Teachers’ Examinations.
By James Heywoon, F.A#.S.

English public service examinations are of two kinds; comprising a special adap-
tation to the business of each respective office in the case of candidates nominated by
private influence; and a more general range of examination, so as to admit candidates
from public schools or the ancient universities, in the case of competitive examinations,
without nomination.

For the civil service of the Government at home, a nomination by private influence
is the first requisite; candidates thus obtain a place on the list for examination in the
department to which they desire to belong ; the examinations vary according to the
requirements of the different offices of state, and are frequently special.

Under the Committee of Council of Education, the preliminary examination for
clerkships includes, writing from dictation, arithmetic, bookkeeping, the précis and
digest of forms into summaries, making fair copies from rough notes, and the calcus
lation of per-centages.

A competitive examination follows, which comprises English composition, geography,
history, mathematics, and natural science.

The organization of competitive examinations for the Royal Military Academy,
Woolwich, was carried into effect with the aid of the Right Hon. W. Monsell, M.P.,
Sir Benjamin Hawes, and the Rev. H. Moseley. Age in the candidates is limited to
between seventeen and twenty years; a certificate of good character is required from
each candidate, and an inspection by military surgeons is ordered, to prove the bodily
fitness of the candidates for the performance of military duties. No nomination is
requisite, but the examination is conducted on the basis of the general education of
the country, and is intended to admit the competition of candidates educated in the
public schools, so that candidates for the Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers may,
have secured the acknowledged advantages of the training of these schools, which are
connected quite as much with the large open play-grounds, and bold athletic games.

* These Abstracts cost One Penny each.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 177

of the boys, as with the scholastic system, in which the number of masters does not
always suffice for the complete superintendence of daily instruction.

Of the thirty young men who were selected in June 1857, for the Woolwich Aca-
demy, ten had been educated in the University of Dublin, one was a member of
Merton College, Oxford, one came from Rugby School, two from Marlborough College,
one from King’s Cullege School, London, one from Ipswich School, one from Chelt-
enham College, one from Kensington Proprietary School, one from Clapham Grammar
School, and the remaining eleven had been educated privately,

Candidates for the Indian civil service are required to be between the ages of eighteen
and twenty-three; and a medical certificate of the absence of any physical infirmity,
with a satisfactory testimonial of good moral character, is the principal introduction
requisite to admit a candidate to the examination for entrance. The business of re-
gulating the examination has been entrusted to the Civil Service Commissioners, the
Right Hon. Sir Edward Ryan, and Sir John Shaw Lefevre, whose central office is at
Dean’s Yard, near Westminster Abbey; in the month of July, in the present year
1858, the candidates were examined in the large rooms of Burlington House, Piccadilly,
London, Sixty-five candidates were arranged in order of merit after this examination,
of whom the first twenty were appointed to the Indian civil service. An Irish news-
paper-writer, on looking over the list, noticed at once that the largest number of suc-
cessful candidates had come from classical Oxford, nine out of the twenty having been
Oxonians; six successful candidates were members of the University of Dublin, and of
these, five were holders of classical scholarships in Trinity College. Altogether, of
the twenty who succeeded, there were sixteen classical men elected to the Indian
civil service.

Two memorials have been recently presented to the Senate of the University of
London, from various eminent scientific gentlemen, requesting that degrees in science
may be conferred in that university. A committee of the Senate, consisting of the
chancellor (Earl Granville), the vice-chancellor (Sir John Shaw Lefevre), Dr. Arnott,
Mr. Brande, Sir James Clark, Dr. Faraday, Mr. Grote, and Mr. Walker, was conse-
quently appointed to consider the propriety of establishing a degree or degrees in
science, and the conditions on which such degree or degrees should be conferred.

Many of the memoralists have kindly contributed evidence on scientific degrees to
the committee, and the preliminary report of the committee recommends the consti-
tution of one or more degrees expressly attesting scientific proficiency and eminence.

A considerable number of training colleges for the education of schoolmasters and
schoolmistresses have been established under the Committee of Council in connexion
with different religious denominations, and to these institutions, between the years
1837 and 1857 inclusive, the Committee of Council awarded grants amounting alto-
gether to £347,000.

Many of the English Normal Schools are connected with the Church of England,
but the plan of instruction includes a variety of subjects equally valuable and inter-
esting to the members of all religious denominations.

The training institution for teachers, in connexion with the British and Foreign
School Society in the Borough Road, Southwark, has outgrown the accommodation
afforded by the original design. Mr. Bowstead, in his report on this institution, dated
January 1858, observes, that “several candidates who successfully passed the recent
examination for Queen’s scholarships have been unable to obtain admittance.”

On the Importance of a Colonial Penny Postage, viewed in relation to the
advancement of Science and Christian Civilization. By Mrs. Wu. Fison.

Beneficial influence of the Penny Postage.—If the history of the penny postage in
this country were investigated, it would be found to have been a most important pro-
moter of scientific progress, of education, commerce, religion, and the principles of
good government.

_ To the poorer classes its benefits have been incalculable in stimulating them to
quire the power of writing.
‘When the penny postage was first given to this country, many were the fears ex-
_ pressed as to the result, none of which have been realized ; and its extension to the
colonies is now advocated on grounds of high importance.

1858. 12

178 ' REPORT—1858.

In a religious and moral point of view, the benefits of a colonial penny postage would
be inconceivably great to our fellow-countrymen in the colonies. It must be remem-
bered that the tide of emigration is rolling on at a rate that exceeds every ecclesiastical
resource, and baffles every endeavour adequately to influence it by ordinary means of
evangelization.

The important measure now advocated would prove one great means of remedy for
these evils. It would penetrate to the most remote districts of our colonies, entering
the scattered dwellings of emigrants, too far removed perhaps from civilized life for
any other outward medium of religious and intellectual progress.

Another most important consideration in favour of a colonial penny postage, is the
influence it would exercise upon emigration.

From the increase of education in Great Britain, emigration has assumed a new
feature within the last ten or twelve years, and a much larger proportion of the emi-
grants can read and write.

Nothing is more needed for the full development of this important means of colo-
nization than free interchange of thought between those who have emigrated and
friends at home.

In this way would a penny postage be constantly pouring correct and unbiassed
information into the mother country, preventing many mistakes made by persons emi-
grating to the wrong place and at the wrong time, thus avoiding much misery and
suffering.

Free correspondence would form a cord binding the colonies to the mother country
in ties scarcely possible to dissolve. The effect of distance would be practically anni-
hilated, while the character of the colonists would continue to improve.

In the prosecution of scientific research unrestricted communication between men
of science is an important condition of progress. Observers at meteorological, mag-
netic or astronomical stations, will often have occasion to communicate with others
similarly engaged, and it is much to be desired that all such intercourse should be
promoted by every possible means.

Nor should the claims of commerce be forgotten in the enumeration of the con-
siderations which favour a colonial penny postage. Let it be remembered that the
benefits of free trade can by no means be considered as fully enjoyed while there is any
thing like a heavy charge of postage.

It would be difficult duly to estimate the bearing a penny postage to Canada would
have upon our Anglo-Saxon brethren in America.

Its action upon the United States would be immediate and powerful, and most pro-
bably would quickly induce them to arrange a similar rate of postage to England.

Who can calculate the beneficial results to the human race of such an intercourse
between the two great Protestant nations of the world, both sprung from one parent
stock, and destined probably to be again united in carrying out the designs of an over-
ruling Providence for the Christian civilization of the world?

On the Causes of the Fall in Price of Manufactured Cottons.
By J. Porn Hennessy, M.P., of the Inner Temple.

The author commenced by observing that, apart from its practical importance to
men of business, the accurate determination of the causes which regulate the price of
cotton is a subject of much interest to the student of political economy. On that
accurate determination must to a great extent depend, in the present state of the
science, the value we attach to the arguments of the modern school of British econo-
mists with reference to one of their fundamental principles. Mr. Stuart Mill regards
the principle in question as the most important in political economy. He states it
thus :—The law of production from the soil is a law of diminishing return in propor-
tion to the increased application of labour and capital; whilst in manufactures the
very contrary is the case. Mr, Nassau Senior is still more explicit. He says :—Ad-
ditional labour and capital when employed in manufactures are more, when em-
ployed in agriculture are Jess, efficient in-proportion. At a former meeting of the
British Association, Mr. Hennessy pointed out that this principle was not sound in
theory. He now proceeded to deal with the great practical illustration—the price of

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 179

cotton—with which it had been invariably supported. He quoted the principal wri-
ters of the modern school ; and called particular attention to the following passage
from Mr. Senior’s ‘ Elements of Political-Economy’:—“A century ago,” says Mr.
Senior, “‘ the average annual import of cotton wool into Great Britain was about
1,200,000 Ibs. The amount now annually manufactured in Great Britain exceeds
240,000,000 lbs. But, though the materials now manufactured are increased at least
200 times, it is obvious that the labour necessary to manufacture them has not in-
creased 200 times. The whole number of families in Great Britain, exclusively of
those employed in agriculture, amounted, at the enumeration in 1831, to 2,453,041.
If we suppose the transport, manufacture and sale of cotton to employ about one-’
eighth of them, or about 300,000 families, it is a large allowance. But with the in-
efficient machinery in use a century ago, the annual manufacture of 1,200,000 lbs. of
cotton could not have required the annual labour of less than 10,000 families, It
probably required many more. The result has been that, although we now require
200 times as much of the raw material as was required a century ago, and although
that additional quantity of raw material is probably obtained from the soil by more
than 200 times the labour that was necessary to obtain the smaller quantity, yet,
in consequence of the diminution of the labour necessary to manufacture a given
amount, the price of the manufactured commodity (a price which exhibits the sum
of the labour necessary both for obtaining the materials and working them up) has
constantly diminished. In 1786, when our annual import was about 20,000,000 lbs.
of cotton wool, the price of the yarn denominated 100 was 38s. a pound. In 1792,
when the import amounted to 34,000,000 lbs., the price of the same yarn was 16s.
the pound. In 1806, when the import amounted to 60,000,000 lbs., the price of
the yarn had fallen to 7s. 2d. a pound; and, with the increased quantity manufac-
tured, it has now (1845) fallen below 3s. a pound. Every increase in the quan-
tity manufactured has been accompanied by improvements in machinery and an
increased division of labour, and their effects have much more than balanced any
increase which may have.taken place in the proportionate labour necessary to pro-
duce the raw material.”” Mr. Hennessy remarked that any one acquainted with
the history of the cotton manufacture of Great Britain would at once see a fallacy
which somewhat damages Mr. Senior’s illustration. The yarn No. 100, though
it had the same denomination, was not of the same quality from 1786 to 1845. With
the increase in the production there was a diminution in the fineness of the yarn.
This appears to have been owing to popular caprice, and not to any defect inherent
in the process of manufacture. The people did not care to get the yarn so fine, and
accordingly it was not so expensively manufactured. But there is another fallacy in
oe statement, which is far more important. During all the periods specified by

r. Senior there was a continuous fall, instead of a rise, in the price of raw cotton,
The extent of this may be judged from the fact, that from 1786, when 19,475,020 lbs,
were imported, to 1845, when the annualjimport was 721,979,953 lbs., the fall in the
price of the agricultural product was over 9°33 per cent. From 1806 to 1845—another
of the periods selected by Mr. Senior—the fall in the price of the raw material was
4°78 per cent. The precise nature and value of Mr. Senior’s mistake will be seen by
taking a particular case, and going somewhat deeper into statistics than he has done,
In 1812, 63,026,936 lbs. of raw cotton were imported, and the price of the manufac-
tured yarn No. 100 was 5s. 2d. a-pound. In 1830, when the annual import was
263,961,452 lbs., the price of the same sort of yarn was 3s. 41d.—that is, there was
a fall in price of 1s. 93d. According to Mr. Senior, this was owing to the extension
of the manufacture—an extension which more than balanced, he says, the rise in price
consequent on the increased production of the raw material. A table in Mr, Baines’s
work, on the ‘ History of the Cotton Trade,’ shows that this difference in price was
made up of twoitems. One of these was the result of the skill consequent, if Mr.
Senior must have it so, on the increased manufacture. But this, instead of being
more than 1s. 93d., was only 73d., and the other amounted to 1s. 23d. Now it ap-
pears that this other item, 70 per cent. of the reduced price of the manufactured
goods, was solely owing to the reduction in the price of the raw produce, though the
amount of that produce had increased 400 per cent.

128

180 REPORT—1858.

On some of the Results of the Society of Arts’ Examinations.
By Joun Pore Hennessy, M.P., of the Inner Temple, London.

Statistics of an interesting and useful kind have at various times been published
with reference to the primary education of the working classes. Such statistical
tables, however, referred to the period of school life; to the number of years spent at
school and the age at which children left school. The results of the Society of Arts’
examination furnish a new class of educational facts. ‘They deal with persons who
have left the school for the workshop. They enable us to estimate the relative
effects of different periods of school-life. They enable us to estimate the effect which
early removal from school has on that portion of the working population with which
the system deals. In one of the printed forms of inquiry which each candidate at
the final portion of the late examination was requested to fill up, the following ques-
tions were asked: ‘‘ How many years were you at school?” ‘ How many years have
elapsed since you left school?” The total number of candidates examined this year
was 1107, but, as some were rejected at the preliminary examination, as others did
not offer themselves for the final examination, and as some of the forms, as far as the
mere educational statistics were concerned, were imperfectly filled, not more than 310
supplied the requisite information. I have to thank the Council of the Society of
Arts for having placed at my disposal all the documents referring to the examination.
Neither the Council, however, nor any of the officers of the Society are answerable
either for the statements of fact or the expressions of opinion which this paper con-
tains. The first result at which I arrived was that the average period of the school
life of the candidates was under that usually regarded by educationists as the normal
and necessary period. Some of Her Majesty’s Inspectors of Schools have asserted
that the normal period of school life is 12 years. Other educationists have estimated
this period at nine or ten years; that being in fact the average duration of school life
on the Continent,—in Bavaria, Holland, Switzerland, Sweden, and many other coun-
tries. It will be seen from the following table that the great majority of the candi-
dates were at school for a much shorter period.

Under 1 year at school .......cessceeeee 13 | Q years at SChOOl......sscseseseeceeeee 2I

1 year at School........sscsecesesesseeee 12 | 10 ,, 3) SRO TR Gaten oteea ee 1S
Z years at schoOles.....scseccseeeeeeeeee LL | 11 yy og) | edtenettee shearncorectaa meal
E hae Femme WE ore LER ED ga SOUR ein hn mL,
awe: Te ee ee REND AN Ra Ye og Habahg de eee eee
Tess 59, spetdn sere tetenicecctoee TO a MLS: kes, $y deesNeeeaccdwenteenccmieen TL
Growisce | lag, céastenicencceeuaecccsvasn ds —
erie phase selina Rakes, a Ce 310
8 »” 7 Coeerrereseeesescesesees 40

The average period was therefore 6016 years, or less than 6 years and 6 days. Al-
though this period is much less than that which we are told should be the minimum
duration of school life, nevertheless it is somewhat over the average in this country.
Mr. Horace Mann proves that the average school-time of all the children in England
and Wales is, as nearly as possible, 5 years. I have found, contrary to a common
opinion, that in this apparently too short period much benefit is acquired by the pupils.
Taking all the candidates who only attended at school for 5 years, 4 years, 3 years,
2 years, 1 year, or less than one year, and calling them Class I.; and taking all the
candidates who attended school for 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 14 years, and calling
them Class II., I find that 129 candidates belong to Class I., and that 181 candidates
are included in Class II. These candidates were each examined in a certain number
of subjects, chosen from a specified list of 25 different branches of science and litera-
ture. ‘There were therefore 25 candidates who obtained highest places; and 14 of
these 25 were awarded first prizes. I find that the highest places in fifteen subjects
were obtained by the candidates in Class I1.—that is, those who had attended school
only 5 years, or under, carried off two-thirds of the first places. Of the fourteen first
prizes, eight were taken by candidates in the first class; and only six were left for
those who had spent six years or more at school. In estimating the practical value
of this result, it is necessary to remember that Class I. was numerically smaller than
Ciass II.; the two classes being in the proportion of seven to ten, It therefore ap-

TRANSAOTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 181

pears that, in proportion to the number of candidates in each class, those whose ave-
rage period of school life was only 3 years 7 months, obtained more than twice as
many of the highest places as those whose average school time was 7 years 8 months.
Although this result is a fact, and, as such, is probably worth volumes of speculations
on the theoretical aspect of the question, yet I do not think it can justify any positive
conclusion of much value. Should it be confirmed by the experience of future years,
and by a still more widely-extended inquiry, it may become a question whether insti-
tutional education—to which, as a matter of course, it is almost altogether owing—
ought not to be regarded as a system of popular instruction coming as fairly within
the scope of Parliamentary support as the elementary education in the schools under
inspection. Without, however, at present justifying a positive conclusion of any
great importance, it indicates the necessity of extreme caution in discussing the edu-
cation question. It would appear to show, for instance, that no fair analogy exists
between the school-period of a country like England, where Mechanics’ Institutions
are established in every town, and countries like most of those on the Continent, where
such institutions are not to be found. It would appear to show that youthful labour
and early intercourse with the world may enlarge the mind and give additional force
to intellectual exertion ; and it would even appear to throw a doubt over all schemes
—whether compulsory enactments ,or prize schemes—by which children would be kept
at school and prevented from proceeding to work,

The average duration of the candidates’ school-life, in various parts of the country,
is exhibited in the following table. In the districts marked with an asterisk special
prizes were awarded to Local Boards of Examiners and Institutions, in addition to
those given to the candidates :—

Name of District. Average School-period.

*Banbury ..sseseseeeeeee Seasinenence ..| 5 years 9 months.
Berkhampstead ......sscsecseseeee
Blackburn .......... weevereseseecne
Bradford......s...cssccsoveeses oeenes
Brighton........+. ccigoori3deen0 nage

SUESTAREOL 5 duckeay ave sess ecectcs sates

” ”

~
-
—

WOARMARAWDWAWDOWONNOMOMOWONO

*Eastern District of London....
Western District of London....

Macclesfield........ccsccseesseeeees
Manchester .......scseseeees aetna:
Oldham ...... suedesd Sas uaes oes
*Portsmouth (Portsea).........0..
Selby..... Fatesses orceceeces Revitsaete
*Sheffield ...... Wdostosiieeve tara
Stockport .....sceccccccccersssevs eee
Wakefield .........2.000. Hae teeaby
WHOA asesdsucccosceacscsessesers

RYON Kin esisvcctocececacts Caiedvtese ak i

lv

: Mineral Produce of Yorkshire in 1857.
te By Rozert Hunt, F.R.S., Keeper of Mining Records.

»' The produce of the lead mines had been 12,405 tons 19 cwt. of lead ore and 7875
tons 12 cwt. of lead, being an increase of 231 tons 12 cwt. on the ore, and a decrease
on the quantity of lead produced of 1110 tons 10 cwt., as compared with the year
1856, proving that the ores raised were less metalliferous than in the previous year.

Of iron ore the remarkable district of the North Riding yielded 1,414,155 tons in 1857,

182 REPORT—1858.

showing an inerease of 216,738 tons as compared with the preceding year. The
quantity of clay ironstone raised in the West Riding, as far as returns had been ob-
tained, was 207,500 tons. The cold-blast furnaces of the West Riding appeared to
have produced 63,000 tons of pig iron. The total produce of pig iron of the West
Riding was estimated at 117,000 tons; the North Riding, 179,838 tons; the total
produce of pig iron in Yorkshire being 296,838 tons, against 275,600 tons in 1856.
The production of coals from the different districts of the West Riding, in which there
are 374 collieries, had been 8,875,440 tons, showing a falling off of 208,185 tons as
compared with 1856, in which year the coal production of the West Riding amounted
to 9,083,625 tons. From returns received from 102 quarries in Yorkshire, producing
stone of various kinds, the value of the stone raised in 1857 was estimated at £105,374.
Adopting the market value of the metals raised, and making this addition to the sum,
the following would represent the amount added to our national wealth last year by
the mining and metallurgical industries of Yorkshire :—Lead, £173,250; pig iron,
£1,013,142; iron pyrites, £1572; coals, £2,168,860; stone, £105,374: making a
total of £3,462,198.

On the Worsted Manufactures of Yorkshire. By Joun James, F.S.A.

The worsted manufacture was originally established in Yorkshire from two causes
—Ist, The high rate of wages at Norwich, which led to the employment of the wea-
vers of the West Riding in producing the coarser kinds of worsted, such as shalloons,
towards the close of the seventeenth century; 2nd, the introduction of the factory
system at Bradford, about the year 1800, when it was neglected by the manufacturers
of Norwich, whereby, after a time, one by one of its staple fabrics was transferred to
the North. The author referred to the care with which the worsted manufacturers
had improved their machinery, so that where formerly 250 revolutions of the cylinder
a minute were considered a fair velocity in spinning frames, now 360 is about the num-
ber. Likewise the quantity of work from power-looms is very much greater than

_ some time ago, being now 160 to 180 picks a minute, whereas sixty and eighty were
not long since the ordinary speed. The consequence of this excellence and velocity
of machinery had resulted in the production of worsted pieces of good quality at ex-
ceedingly low rates. A mighty revolution had been effected in the worsted industry
by the use of cotton warps. In this branch (the worsted) there-have been four great
epochs; Ist, the original use of spinning machinery; 2nd, the application of the power-
loom to the weaving of stuffs about 1824; 3rd, the use of cotton warps in 1835; and
lastly, the combing of wool by machines, Mr, James referred at length to the changes
that had been effected in the trade by the use of cotton warps. He noticed the de-
fects in the designs of the worsted manufacturers, and their tendency to pirate those
of their neighbours; and, after paying a high compliment to the worsted dyers, and
noticing the difficulties they had surmounted in dyeing goods woven of cotton and
wool, he alluded to the taste for alpaca and lustrous stuffs, and the great demand for
the bright lustre wools‘of Yorkshire, Notts, and Lincolnshire. He proceeded to re-
mark on the limited supply of wool and the competition of the Belgians and French
in our wool markets, whereby the price and supply had been affected,—but the quan-
tity exported, and the extra consumption of our manufacturers would, he thought, be
more than compensated by the increased import from our Colonial possessions, whence °
the supply was yearly increasing. Nor did he fear the rivalry of the Belgian and
French manufacturers in the markets of the world, for, although we might lose them
as customers, they were not heavy ones, and China and other channels would be
opened, so that the balance would still be in our favour. ‘I'hese nations were import-
ing vast quantities of spinning and weaving machinery from the best makers at Brad-
ford and Keighley; but with all their efforts it would be long before they could com-
pete with us in producing an Orleans or Coburg cloth at English prices. - Yet it
behoved us to be watchful lest from the high price of labour in England they tread
too closely on our footsteps. To show the immense importance of the Yorkshire
manufacture, he mentioned that there were 1,212,587 worsted spindles, consuming
93,120,740 lbs. of wool, or about 98 per cent. of that consumed in the whole of the
worsted manufacture of England, These Yorkshire spindles would produce yearly
70,734,000 Ibs, of worsted yarns of average quality, say thirty-sixes, that is where
thirty-six hanks make the lb. The number of persons employed in the worsted factories

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 183

of Yorkshire were 78,994, namely 26,750 males, and 52,244 females. Within the last
few years the worsted industry had attained the proud position of being the second of
the textile manufactures of the kingdom, ranking after that of cotton; but in York-
shire it was predominant. There the cotton branch was insignificant, and that of
woollen only employs in its factories 42,982 persons, In the worsted trade of York~-
shire there are 35,298 power-looms, and in woollen only 6275, Mr. James objected
to any estimate which would raise the woollen manufacture above that of worsted in
value; and claimed for Bradford the high honour of being the metropolis of the second
manufacture in the kingdom. He alluded to the present tendency to employ adult
labour in worsted factories. Formerly one-fourth of the factory hands were children ;
now the proportion is one-eighth. Notwithstanding the panic of last year, which
caused such disastrous effects in the worsted districts of the North, and paralysed its
trade, it had wonderfully recovered from the shock, and, like a sick man who in a
fever had thrown off his morbific humours, now appeared to be in a sound and healthy
state. He estimated the whole of the worsted manufactures of England to be of the
yearly value (inclusive of materials) of £18,000,000. Of this, the Yorkshire portion
is at least £13,000,000, made up thus :—

Worsted pieces of all descriptions..........0+..6. bs aed erate £10,000,000
Yarns—for export, and for the Glasgow, Manchester, Nor-
wich, and other markets ...... nv eedih ares Besides eile e's 3,000,000

Mr. James spoke highly of the worsted operatives, whom he described as superior in
condition to those in any other manufacture, whether physically, morally, or intellec-
tually. ‘The worsted factory girls were, he thought, much superior in cleanliness and
appearance, and orderly habits, to those in cotton factories; he remarked on the
elegance and respectability of their attire on Sundays, and concluded by expressing
an opinion that the worsted manufacture was destined to furnish a large portion of
female dress for the whole of the civilized globe, suitable alike for all climes, whether
cold or hot, and for all classes, whether grave or gay.

On the Iron Trade of Leeds.
By James Kitson, jun., of Monk Bridge Iron Works, Leeds.

The iron trade of Leeds is at once the most ancient and most modern of the
branches of industry carried on in the borough; the most ancient, because it can be
proved, by the remains of the scoriz of ancient iron works, that this metal was manu-
factured here hundreds of years ago; the most modern, as it has attained its present
ment within the last thirty years, before which time it existed on a very limited
scale.

Extensive beds of scoriz and other remains have been found at Horsforth, within
the borough, and near to the old Roman town at Adel. Four branches of the iron trade
flourish in Leeds; the manufacture of—1. Iron; 2. Cut Nails; 3. Textile machinery
and machine tools; 4, Locomotive engines and railway plant generally.

1. There are six smelting furnaces manufacturing iron on the cold-blast system, for
the production of the highest qualities of Yorkshire iron. Four were in blast last
year, which made 12,745 tons of pig iron. The hands employed in this branch are
2120. The average amount of weekly wages £2540. Total wages paid during 1857,
£132,080. Total consumption of coals, 198,122 tons, Total production of malleable
iron, 41,734tons. Average price of pig iron sold, £5 1s.; total annual value, £30,426.
Average price of malleable iron, £15 4s.; total annual value, £634,356. Capital
vested in plant, buildings, &c. £348,500,

The average price of the malleable iron is double that of ordinary Staffordshire
iron, which is a sure indication of the esteem in which it is held; it is used principally
for the highest engineering purposes.

2, Cut nails are manufactured extensively. The number of hands employed in
this branch is 188, Total wages paid in 1857, £6188, Total production of nails,
3452 tons. Average price, £14 13s. Total annual value, £50,575. For those curious

_ In numbers, it has been calculated that about seventy millions of nails are cut in Leeds
every week.

3. Fenton, Murray and Co. were the founders of the machine trade in Leeds;

184 REPORT—1858.

they commenced in 1798, and constructed engines and flax machinery for the mills
in the neighbourhood. Machine tools for engineers and others are also extensively
manufactured here. ‘Che number of hands employed in the trade is 4578. Average
amount of weekly wages, £3961. Total amount paid in 1857, £205,972. Total con-
sumption of pig iron in foundries, 13,924 tons. Total value of products, £545,217.
Capital invested in plant and buildings, £346,475.

4. Stationary and locomotive engines, wheels and axles, railway bridges, &c., have
been largely manufactured here of late. The number of hands employed in this trade
is 4023. Average amount of weekly wages, £4151. Total amount paid in 1857,
£215,852. Total consumption of pig iron in foundries, 12,862 tons. ‘Total value of
products, £672,600. Capital invested in plant, buildings, &c., £283,500. In addi-
tion to these, we have about 3000 miners engaged in raising iron-stone and coal for
iron manufacturing at an average of £1 per head per week.

The totals of all the four branches are—hands employed, 10,909. Weekly wages,
£10,771. Paid in 1857, £560,092. Value of products, £1,933,174. Capital invested
in plant, &c. £990,975. ‘The total consumption of pig iron in the!forges and foun-
dries of the district is about 75,000 tons annually, or nearly one-third of the annual
production of Great Britain only fifty years ago. ‘The greater portion of the goods
manufactured is exported to foreign countries, Leeds iron is sent to all quarters and
countries of the globe; with Leeds nails the emigrant fastens together his first rude
habitation ; Leeds machinery is spinning and Leeds tools are working in every seat
of industry on the Continent; and Leeds locomotives are drawing their burdens, in-
different whether it be on the fertile plains of India, or on the sides of the snowy
Andes. The central position of Leeds, abundance of labour, cheapness of fuel, facility
of access to the sources of the raw material, and easy transit to the ports on the east
or west coast, are the principal causes of the flourishing state of the iron trade in this
town. A branch of commerce which has extended so rapidly, and fixed so large a
capital in the town, must contain within itself sound and permanent elements, and
the fact that nearly one million sterling is actually invested so as to be practically
immoveable is a guarantee that it will be followed with continued energy.

On Free Trade in Belgium. By M.Corranaver Mzren, of Brussels,
Chairman of the International Free Trade Association.

In Belgium, the Government was looking forward anxiously to the reform of the
tariff, and a new law had been proposed to reduce the duties on cotton 12 or 15 per
cent. This measure, however, would meet with much opposition ; the seven mem-
bers for Ghent would vote against any change in the present duties on manufactured
cottons. ‘The Belgian tariff had in several instances been modified in a liberal point
of view. The French Government, according to M. C. Mzren, seems anxious to give
a liberal turn to the tariff; but, notwithstanding their strength, the present rulers of
France were obliged to withdraw their liberal intentions, in presence of the powerful
industrial coalition of the northern departments and the deplorable ignorance of the
principles of political economy throughout the whole population. ‘The writer then
stated that the Belgian Free Trade movement was progressing satisfactorily ; that all
the attention of its advocates was directed to the enlightening of the public mind on
the question ; that great results had been obtained already ; and that, owing to the
freedom they enjoyed, they confidently hoped for full success.

Sketch of the History of Flax Spinning in England, especially as developed
in the Town of Leeds. By J. G. MarsHatt, F.G.S.

There is, perhaps, no branch of our principal manufactures, except that of cotton,
in which the introduction of machinery and the factory system has produced more re-
markable changes than in that of flax spinning; and, as the town of Leeds is the place
where this new branch of industry first took root in England, and was successfully
carried out upon a considerable scale, and the place which has hitherto taken the lead
in the successive improvements introduced into the trade, it may be interesting to the
Section to have a short sketch of the origin and progress of flax spinning brought
before them whilst they are here.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 185

The first essay in flax spinning in Leeds was made at a small mill driven by water,
called Scotland Mill, about four miles from Leeds, by my late father, J ohn Marshall,
in partnership with Samuel Fenton of Leeds, and Ralph Dearlove of Knaresborough.
This was in 1788 and 1789.

The wonderful success and large profits attending the introduction of Arkwright’s
invention into cotton spinning had about this time attracted general attention to me-
chanical improvements applied to manufacturing purposes. ‘The spinning of flax by
machinery was a thing much wished for by linen manufacturers. It attracted the
attention, amongst others, of Mr. Marshall, who was so strongly impressed with the
advantageous field for invention and enterprise offered by flax spinning, that he de-
voted himself entirely to the new enterprise.
~ It appears that some attempts at flax spinning had already been made on a small
scale at Darlington, and some other places, as the first spinning machines used at
Scotland Mill were on a patent plan of Kendrew and Co. of Darlington. This did
not answer; experiments were made, and a patent taken out for a plan of Matthew
Murray’s, then foreman of mechanics with Mr. Marshall.

In 1791 a mill was built in Holbeck, Leeds, and at first driven by one of Savery’s
steam engines, in combination with a water-wheel, but in 1792 one of Boulton and
Watt’s steam engines of twenty-eight horse power was put down. In 1793 there were
900 spinning spindles at work. We may take this small item as our first statistical
datum of flax spinning in Leeds.

I may here describe an important difference between the state in which the raw
material flax is presented to the spinner and that in which cotton, wool, or silk is
found previous to being manufactured. The fibres of cotton, wool, and silk are sup-
plied by nature already in their finest state of subdivision ; they require merely to be
straightened and formed into a continuous thread. In raw flax, on the other hand,
the ultimate fibres, which are very fine, are united by a gummy matter into broad strips
or ribands, and a very operose process, called heckling, is required to subdivide the
material into finer fibres before the spinning process can begin.

In the earlier stages of flax spinning this preparatory process was performed entirely
by adult men, called hecklers.

As soon as the flax spinning by machinery began to increase considerably, the de-
mand for the labour of the hecklers enabled them to obtain high wages (as much as
two guineas a week, if they worked), and, as they were combined in Trades Unions,
and enforced the old limitations on the number of apprentices, they became possessed
of a species of monopoly, extremely troublesome and prejudicial to the progress of
the trade. In fact no large extension or well-organized system was practicable so
long as this barrier remained on the threshold. A patent for a heckling machine by
which this process could be performed without the assistance of adult labour was taken
out in the name of Matthew Murray, about 1805. Its introduction was resisted at
first by the men with much violence and intimidation, but, being firmly persevered in,
it became an established portion of the system. It was introduced gradually into
general use in the trade, and had the effect of neutralizing the monopoly of the hand
hecklers, without any sudden displacement of labour.

The next step was the establishment, by Mr. Murray, of a good machine-making
shop for flax machines, which became the parent or precursor of many others, until
Leeds became the seat of a very important branch of business in machine-making,
chiefly for flax spinning.

The system of flax spinning had now become firmly established and well-organized,
and made steady progress; but as yet was only applicable to the production of the
coarser description of yarns, up to No. 16, or 16 lea yarn, which was manufactured at
Barnsley into the coarser description of linens. The material employed was almost
entirely Baltic flax.

_ An improvement was next introduced into the processes, called preparing, prece-
ding the actual twisting of the fibres into a thread in the spinning machine; this im-
provement consisted in drawing the fibres through fine heckles or gills instead of roll-
ers, thus giving the means of producing a much evener and finer thread, that is
up to 40 or 50 leas, and for these yarns the finer flax of Flanders and Holland began
to be used. ‘This was about the year 1820, when the finer description of yarn came
into very extensive use in the manufacture of the finer and better sorts of drills—an
important branch of the Barnsley linen trade.

186 REPORT—1858.

We now come to the introduction of a very important improvement in the spin-
ning process as applied to flax. I have adverted to the gummy matter which in raw
flax unites or glues together the fine ultimate fibres into much coarser ones, and which
it is the object of the heckling process to subdivide by mechanical means. The divi-
sion so effected can only be imperfect ; and it was found that the fibres could be more
completely separated by saturating the material with water, which dissolves or softens
the gummy matter in the spinning machine itself, when in the actual process of being
drawn out and spun.

There is a somewhat singular history attached to the origin and progress of this
invention of wet spinning. During the great war between England and the first
Napoleon, it became a leading object of his policy to exclude English manufactures,
and to encourage those of France. England had taken a decided lead in the cotton
manufacture, but at that time, about the beginning of the present century, little had
been done in England in applying machines to the linen trade. The linen trade of
France has always been a very important branch of industry, linen being more ex-
tensively used by the bulk of the population in France than in England. Napoleon
therefore wished, by encouraging the application of machinery to the linen trade in
France, to make it a rival to the cotton trade of England. He offered a reward of
a million francs for the successful application of machinery to the spinning of flax.
This inducement brought forward Girard, who produced designs for a series of
machines for preparing and spinning flax of great ingenuity and originality, inclu-
ding this plan of wet spinning. But what was the result so far as the linen trade of
France was concerned? Girard could find no one in France with the enterprise and
capital requisite to perfect and apply his invention. He had to come to England,—he
had to come to the town of Leeds. A patent was taken out for his inventions in
England, especially for the wet spinning, under the name of Hall, in 1816, and was
taken up by Robert Busk of Leeds. Mr. Busk put up a considerable quantity of
machinery on this plan, and produced by it yarn much finer than that usually spun.
But he kept the new plan to himself; it was not tried by others; the improvements
in the preparatory processes were not then sufficiently advanced to make fine spinning
advantageous; the plan did not answer commercially, and was given up and forgotten.
In 1826, however, it was revived in the shape of a new patent, with some modifica-
tions by Mr. Kay of Manchester. The validity of the claim to a new patent was
disputed by the body of flax spinners, and finally set aside. The first spinning ma-
chine on this plan was put up at the works of Messrs. Hives and Atkinson of Leeds,
and by them and by Messrs. Marshall chiefly the whole plan of wet spinning, with
the requisite improvements in the preparing processes, was soon perfected and carried
out.

A very wide horizon for the extension of flax spinning was now opened; yarns
could now be spun much finer than before (from 50 up to 200 leas), and also cheaper,
so as effectually to exclude hand-spun yarns from the whole range of linen manufac-
tures except those of the finest cambrics and lace. For a time large quantities of these
wet-spun yarns were sent from Leeds and Lancashire to the north of Ireland, and to
France.

But the new mode of spinning soon spread into Scotland, Ireland, and finally into
France, where it is now carried on (under the stimulus of a protective tariff, however)
to a large extent.

Thus the object of the first Napoleon was at length accomplished, but not in the
way that he intended; the result was a benefit to France, but only as the consequence
of a still greater benefit to England. The present Emperor not long since rewarded
the descendants of Girard for his invention, the fruits of which were so long post-

oned.
? The later improvements which have followed the wet spinning have consisted in
the application of the combing machinery, which has done so much for the worsted
manufacturer, to flax-tow, so that a material capable of being spun to the finest yarn
can be obtained from what is otherwise only of small value; and various processes
have been tried for cleansing and softening the raw flax previous to its being spun.

The manufacture of sewing thread from flax commenced not long after the intro-
duction of flax spinning by machinery, and has since increased and been a branch of
the linen trade of considerable importance, a large proportion of the thread manufac-
ture being carried on at Leeds.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 187

The application of the power-loom to the weaving of linens has of late years been
considerably on the increase, but to a much less extent than in the cotton and wor-
sted manufactures, as the greater part of the linens made in the United Kingdom
are still woven by hand labour.

I have thought it necessary to give this account of the nature of the successive im-
provements introduced into flax spinning, in order to make the statistical figures I
shall now quote more intelligible.

The sources from whence the statistics of the lineu and flax spinning trades may
be derived are somewhat scanty, but, perhaps, enough may be stated to indicate the
progress of the manufacture,

Imports of Flax into the United Kingdom.

Average of 5 Years. Tons. | Average of 5 Years. Tons.
1820 to 1824 ....... 27,875 / 1845 to 1849 ...... 68,879
1825 ,, 1829 ....... 44,491 1850 5; 1@aeheneee 76,254
1830 ,, 1834 ....... 48,044 Year 1855/0 38.205 64,672
1835 ,, 1839 ....... 61,213 33 1850" Sova 84,352
1840 ,, 1844 ....... 67,718

Previous to 1820 the import of flax had increased but slowly, but from that time
we see that the increase has been rapid, having more than trebled between that date
and 1856—or from 27,875 to 84,352. We must add to this the home growth, which
is, for Ireland about 22,000 tons yearly, on the average of the last ten years; for Eng-
land and Scotland a small quantity, probably not exceeding 600 or 700 tons.

On the whole the annual consumption of flax in the United Kingdom will be about
100,000 tons, which, at an average price of £59, will make the yearly value of the raw
material of the linen manufactures about £5,000,000.

From a Parliamentary Return we obtain the following particulars respecting the
flax spinning of the United Kingdom.

Flax Spinning, 1850.

1850 Facto- Sriadion Power Horse
F ries P . Looms. Power.
England and Wales ........ 135 365,568 1083 4487 19,001
PPC Caverteccsvescssecreseocs 189 303,125 2529 6425 28,312
Treland .........+.+.0 eouaces bo 69 326,008 58 3380 21,121
393 994,701 3670 14,292 68,434
1856.
England and Wales..........) 139 441,759 1987 4644 19,787
DEERE) cas c0.0 cs sees execs cae 168 278,304 5011 6346 31,722
Treland ............. ivedeedeuevel kG 567,980 1871 7332 28,753
417 |1,288,043 8869 18,322 80,262
1856.
WNMPRISEIEWEE 2 occ. coraecccccesss
Spinning only..... ree, CE 37 149,201

Spinning and Weaving..... 9 65,346 411

46 214,547 411

1858,
SCY: | Aenea ee ee deenegnesens 11 160,300 510

Here we see that the increase has been much the most rapid in Ireland, and that
in Scotland there was during this period a small diminution. There are several cir-

188 REPORT—1858.

cumstances to account for the rapid increase in flax spinning in Ireland. The North
of Ireland is an old-established seat of the linen manufacture, chiefly of the lighter
fabrics suited for the export markets, and especially for those of the United States of
America, which since 1846 have so largely increased.. Again, when the spinning by
machinery was introduced into the North of Ireland, all the other branches of the ma-
nufacture were already established there—the weaving, the bleaching, the commercial
establishments; and besides this, the flax, the raw material, was grown at their own
doors. In England the linens manufactured have been more of the heavier and
higher priced description, and suited more for the home market than for export. In
Scotland the manufacture has consisted chiefly of the coarser and cheaper description
of linens and of yarns, and the export of the latter has been materially affected by
the high protective tariffs of the Continent, especially of France.

Much attention has of late been attracted to the object of encouraging and increa-
sing the home growth of flax in England and Scotland; but the introduction of this
species of agricultural produce into districts where it is entirely new is attended with
many difficulties, and but little has yet been effected in that direction. Many attempts
have also been made to introduce new fibrous materials from our Colonies and foreign
countries for use in the linen manufacture ; and the new material, jute, imported from
India, and used chiefly in Scotland, has been of valuable service to the manufacturer
of that country, I may now draw attention to the following Table, showing the ex-
ports of the linen manufacture of the United Kingdom :—

Linen Manufactures.

Thread, Tapes Linen Yarn.
ettin Entered by the Yard, and a all
Yards. Value. Wares. Ibs. Value.

— ee | Se ee | PS

1831 to 1835 | 65,571,770 | £2,292,906 £74,883 1,297,603 £108,415

1836 ,, 1840 | 78,468,192 2,901,296 97,723 | 12,383,825 637,121
1841 ,, 1845 | 84,682,490 2,733,160 178,580 | 25,465,785 1,001,618
1846 ,, 1850 | 99,346,562 2,957,491 249,301 | 15,876,004 726,425

1850 ,, 1855 | 125,226,539 | 3,924,807] 342,327 | 20,307,571 | 1,024,488

We see from this Table that the export of linens has nearly doubled in quantity and
value between the years 1831 and 1855. The export of thread has increased more
than fourfold. The export of yarns increased with very great rapidity up to the year
1845, since which time it has been nearly stationary, being checked by the high tariffs
on the Continent before spoken of.

The next Table gives a comparative view, so far as can be made out from returns
and the most reliable estimates, of the total extent of flax spinning in foreign countries,
as well as in the United Kingdom, in the year 1852 :—

Spindles. Spindles.

England..........+6+. 391,568 Rassias, ities tie seres 50,000
Scotland... .....e.e0. 295,125 ANISH aiszoiawp asiee estes 30,000
Treland.......2.+2++. 456,000 United States..,..... 14,550
——. Switzerland ......... 8000

United Kingdom... 1,142,693 Holland 3). 21 sateen eis 6000
France ...s.eeeeees. 300,000 - Palio see's cotele tietere 6040
Belgium....ceseess.- 100,000 —
Germany.....s.ese00 80,000 1,713,283

There are now engaged in flax spinning at Leeds 8772 persons.

I must now conclude my sketch of the remarkable rise and growth of flax spinning
in England, a manufacture of which the town of Leeds has been to so large an extent
the birth-place and centre of improvement, and which has since spread so widely,
not only over the three divisions of the United Kingdom, but into all quarters of the
world. If the extension of flax spinning has of late been more rapid in other quar-
ters than in the town of Leeds, we must accept this fact as being at once a warning,
and a friendly challenge to the renewal of the exertions by which Leeds was distin-
guished in former years.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 189

On Phthisis in the Army. By F. G. P. Netson, F.S.S.

The Royal Commission appointed to inquire into the sanitary condition of the
British army, the state of the hospitals, &c., published early in the present year an
elaborate and most valuable Report, the result of an exceedingly comprehensive
amount of varied and diversified evidence taken before them. As is already well
known to the public through the medium of the press, a frightful rate of mortality
takes place in the ranks of the army while stationed in the United Kingdom; but I
shall here seek to engage your attention by only a brief recapitulation of the general
results.

Asstract A.

Deaths which would have happened according
to the mortality in

England Labourers in

Actual number of deaths d Out-door the 1
ae: Wales. occupations. Senta,
Differ. Differ. Differ.
No. per cent. No. per cent. No per cent.
Household Cavalry = 134 | 122 10'1 95 | 40°8 75 77°9

Dragoon Guards \ _ 705 | 512 37°6 408 79-7 321 | 119°3
and Dragoons

Foot Guards = 820 393 | 108°6 314 | 161°1 246 | 233°3
Infantry of the Line= 2823 | 1472 | 91°8 | 1208 | 133°6 958 | 194°7

eee

These figures are certainly very remarkable, and afford a succinct view of the
relation in which the different results stand to each other.

In the War-office Report itself a comparison is instituted between the actual
mortality of the army and that which prevails in twenty-four large towns of England
and Wales; but such a comparison is obviously at fault, for, as I have elsewhere
fully shown, the gross mortality, not only of the whole kingdom, but of individual
towns and districts, is greatly increased by the inclusion of the destitute, the disso-
lute, and the intemperate, as well as by the presence of many persons following
occupations and trades of an unusually unhealthy character. Even in the rural
districts of this country it will be seen, on referring to pp. 53-59 of ‘ Contributions
to Vital Statistics,’ that the mortality of the sixteen trades referred to in page 58 of
that work is greatly in excess of the residue of the same districts.

The military are certainly free from the noxious influences peculiar to many trades
and occupations. They do not suffer from destitution, nor can they be classed as a
body with the notoriously intemperate. Every just comparison must, therefore, be
made with some suck classes as those forming the two last sections of the preceding
abstract ; but if the comparison be made with the general mortality of England and
Wales (for the male sex), it will be found that the infantry of the line are subject
to an increased ratio of mortality of no less than 91°752 per cent.

If the out-door occupations be made the standard of comparison, per cent.

there is an excess AMOUNLINE tO .......seeceeeeeeeee Peo phooodtadarnor bese 133°620
And in respect to labourers in the rural districts, the excess is no less
POADeatenscnanaedes <cscesae ccccevecececcssecs secveceevecee steaueteetsecesestease? "1'O4- ODS

being nearly three times the rate of mortality in this branch of the service that is
found to take place amongst labourers in the rural districts at the corresponding ages.
_ In Appendix LXXI. of the Report of the Commissioners, as well as in the body
of the Report itself, it is shown that among various classes exposed to severe night
duty in the open air, such as the Metropolitan Police Force, and the railway em-
ployés, and also as otherwise since established in the London Fire Brigade, the rate
of mortality is somewhat less than that for the country generally at the correspond-
ing ages. In the same Appendix it is also conclusively shown, as admitted in the
Report of the Commissioners, that the high rate of mortality in the army cannot be

190 REPORT—1 858.

accounted for by the prevalence of intemperance. It further appears in the same
Appendix, that whatever may be the primary cause of the greatly augmented mor-
tality in the army, the immediate cause of it is the prevalence of consumption to an
extent entirely unprecedented, and quite unknown in connexion with any other series
of observations in the whole range of vital statistics ; and without a corresponding
increase from other causes, taking all branches of the army, the deaths from disease
of the respiratory organs form about 60 per cent. of the deaths from all causes. The
following abstract, however, places the results in a very distinct light :—
Asstract B.

Number of Deaths from diseases of the
respiratory organs.

England and Difference

Vales. Actual. per cent.

Household Cavalry... 62°870 79 +25°656
Dragoon Guards, &c. . 251°112 400 +59:291
Infaitity.t.222 2. .0.s6 or 760°005 1641 +115°902
Foot Guards ..........6+ 203°560 555 +172°647
MD Otal iis teccewse wees stan 1:277°547 2675 +109°387

The Commissioners, finding that the enormous mortality from consumption was
the great scourge of the army, and that it was impossible to account for its preva-
lence from any of the causes already described, have, as most readers of the news-
paper press are no doubt fully aware, attributed it mainly to overcrowding of the
barracks.

In my examination before the Commission, and in the papers submitted by me,
and forming the Appendix already quoted from, the effect of various employments
on health, the influence of different forms of physical exercises, and the manner in
which intemperate and irregular habits show themselves in the immediate cause of
death, are very fully discussed. None of the questions, however, submitted for my
consideration by the Commission, involved, I regret to say, the consideration of the
influence of overcrowding or bad ventilation on the development of diseases of the
lungs, or I should have been glad at the time to have submitted the hypothesis to
whatever statistical tests were available. Nor has any other witness, nor the Com-
missioners themselves, supplied any facts or numerical evidence leading to the con-
clusion at which they have arrived in their Report, that overcrowding in ill-condi-
tioned barracks is the main cause of the great destruction of life by inducing phthisis
in the army.

From the deserved importance attached by the public to the deliberation of the
Commission, it is in every way most necessary that such means as are available
should be employed to test the practical value of the empirical opinions on which
the overcrowding hypothesis is founded. The still imperfect returns made by the
Registrar-General, however, prevent this from being done in that complete manner
which is desirable, but they contain much available evidence, which can, although
only by a considerable amount of labour, be brought to bear on the question.

Having devoted the necessary time for that purpose, I now beg to submit to this
Section the results at which I have arrived.

That a sufficiently broad basis might be taken on which to found or establish a
reliable test, I have taken the returns of the mortality for the whole of England and
Wales, and the various districts thereof, for the seven years 1848-54.

As shown in details in Tables I., II., III., [V., V., and VI. inclusive, the mor-
tality per cent. has been determined for the different terms of life, and for the various
classes of diseases.

Ist. For the whole of England and Wales.

2nd. For London.

3rd. For those districts of the kingdom in which the density of population varies
from *28—*72 per hectar (the hectar equals nearly 2} acres).

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 191

4th. For districts in which the density varies from *84—"99.

5th. For Lancashire (‘28 or jth acres); and

6th. For the residue of the population of England and Wales.

If it be true that increasing density of population, particularly in the sense in
which it is understood in regard to barracks’ sleeping accommodation, has a tendency
to augment diseases of the lungs more than all other diseases, then it is evident that
districts in which the sleeping accommodation differs so widely must show a marked
difference in the ratio of deaths taking place from phthisical causes. No doubt the
results of the influence of a uniformly and generally increased density of population
in a district which is not, in any considerable portion of it, highly intensified in its
overcrowding, would be unfairly compared with the results of a district or section of
population which is throughout overcrowded; but in London or Lancashire, and in
the third district of England now under consideration, we have been long accustomed
to hear reports through the “ Health of Towns Commission,” of great, and, in many
instanees, of major portions of them being overcrowded to a degree which shocks
morality and the ordinary notions of common decency.

Into these details it is now unnecessary to enter; they are patent to all giving
attention to questions affecting the public health. Although, therefore, there is no
one district of the kingdom in which there is a uniform system of overcrowding,
still there are many—and among them those now under review—in which the over-
crowding of the large portions of them is such, that if the hypothesis be of any value,
there must be at the least a slightly augmented ratio of death from consumption
compared with the general ratio of increase from all causes. Let us see how far this
is in agreement with recorded facts.

It must be clearly understood that the hypothesis on which the Commissioners
rest their conclusions is not simply that overcrowding may induce phthisis in an in-
creased ratio—that would probably be denied by no one.

In the army, the deaths from diseases of the lungs are absolutely, as well as rela-
tively, to the deaths from all other causes, in a ratio so high, beyond all precedent
and example, as to form a new and important problem for solution in vital statistics.

The hypothesis, therefore, of the Commissioners resolves itself into the following :—-
“That ‘overcrowding,’ although it increases the general mortality, has the peculiar
characteristic of intensifying the deaths from diseases of the lungs greatly beyond
those from all other causes.”

It will be found that the total excess of deaths above the average for England and
Wales is 1981°57, while at the same ages, in diseases of the ‘‘ respiratory organs”
only, it will be seen, on referring to Abstract B. preceding, that there is an excess of
no less than 1397°45 deaths, or at about 70 per cent. of the whole increase.

This result deserves the most careful and patient consideration. According to the
mortality of England and Wales, the normal ratio of deaths from diseases of the
“respiratory organs” is 44°48 per cent.; and yet of the whole excess of deaths
from all causes, no less than 70 per cent., as appears by Abstract B., is due to the
organs of respiration. ©

The full importance of this result will be perhaps better appreciated by the fol-
lowing illustration :—

Actual number of deaths from diseases of the re-
BIMBO Y, ULPUNS casdsidsccdccocceccccsccevancers Acti Air dibds,
Normal number of deaths .......csecceeenee bake cake tes =1277°6

Difference of eXcesS...ssssscseseesecescesseseeeees == 1397°4==109 per cent.
If the residue of the deaths from all other causes whatever be viewed in this man-
ner, the results are—

Actual number of deaths from all other causes....=1807‘0
Normal number of deaths...,......s.ssecccscsesseveees = 12118

Difference or excess.......s..s00e+ sesgeseveccceese = 595°2= 49 per cent.

These results conclusively show that the condition of the army is such as to in-
duce an excess of diseases of the organs of respiration, with a much higher intensity

192 REPORT—1858.

than all other diseases collectively ; in fact, the excess of deaths from diseases of the
organs of respiration, is considerably more than double that from all other causes.

This peculiar feature in the mortality of the army has not been observed in any
other series of observations, and it is of the utmost importance to determine whether
the solution of it offered by the Commissioners be the correct one.

Should their hypothesis be found not in accordance with facts and experience,
then the most serious consequences must result from it to the sanitary state of the
army ; as, without the true solution, there is little chance of effectual remedies being
applied.

In Tables I. to VI. inclusive, appended, are given the ratio of mortality per cent.
from all specified causes at the different terms of life; but I shall now refer simply
to the results for the soldiers’ ages as given in the following abstract of the tables.

Asstract C.

Ratio of Deaths from each Cause to the total Deaths from all Causes in the
following Districts.

(SoiprErs’ AGEs.)

England : -
§ Lanca- Density|Density| Least
easrieh eee yind | London. | ‘shire. -28--72,/84~99,| Dense.
Tes dP REHISIS ies cee cogs eco’ meer Nis 7640) 35°2 36°0 | 35°4 | 36°2 | 43°7
2. Residue of tubercula
diseases, and diseases : : : f 5
of the respiratory or- "8 a8 a ace v2 Bes
ZADS sececcccenccsccsevecee AGS 44°8 46°3 45°6 45°4 52°1
3. Zymotic diseases ......0. 191 22°6 21°4 | 20°3 | 17°6 | 11°6
4. Diseases of the nervous
system and digestive 12°6 12°5 12°5 | 13°5 | 13°3 | 10°7
y &
Geer se Ape osrdocockadtc
5. Sudden and external : ; : ; A eT ik
CAUSES seeee whom ne 8°2 10°7 | 10°9 | 11-7 | 15°.

6. Other diseases .......e0e22-| 10°8 11°9 gl 9'7 | 12°0 | 10:3

7. All causes ....ssecessseeeeee| 100°0 100°0 |100°0 | 100-0 | 100°0 | 100°0

A careful examination of the results given in this abstract, leads to a conclusion
quite at variance with the hypothesis of the Commissioners. In fact, in the densest
districts, the mortality from diseases of the lungs is relatively to the deaths from all
causes much less than in the more thinly-peopled districts.

In London the deaths are.........seeee. cccceseccccseecseseseceseee 44°8 per Cent.
In England and Wales ...........00++ rac cUUnanaenoans ese see enae ia 46°5 ie
And in the residue of the country, after deducting the di-

stricts enumerated in Abstract C, .....s.seseeees aa ee: | 2

It will be seen that the effect of density and overcrowding is not to intensify pul-
monary disease so much as the class of zymotic diseases. The third line of this
abstract gives a striking illustration of this ; reading from the last column toward the
first, it will appear that the relative amount of zymotic diseases to those from all
causes increases gradually, and almost uniformly, with the ratio of density, from
11°6 per cent. in the least dense districts to 22°6 per cent. in London, the most closely-
packed district ; the results for England and Wales, which include all the districts,
being of course intermediate. The diseases of the nervous system and digestive or-
gans exhibit a somewhat remarkable uniformity throughout all the groups.

It is when the results of the mortality in the army are given in the particular form,

of expression adopted in the preceding abstract, that they appear anomalous, the
mortality from diseases of the lungs being among the most fatal.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 193

.- Household Cavalry.........ccccssessssesssssecseeeeeee 59°O Of the whole deaths.
Dragoon Guards, &Cs...cccssccscssececeees sda 53°9 do.
Infantry of the Line.......... Baap ab¥edcudswaccestes 57°3 do.
Foot Guards...... seabadaneieedge cscs eee saeeheeens 67°7 do.

These results are very singular, and will appear still more so if it be kept in view—
throwing out of comparison the Household Cavalry, a very small body, and there-
fore subject to marked fluctuations—that as the general mortality increases so does
the ratio of deaths from diseases of the lungs increase. If, therefore, overcrowding
were the main cause of developing so inordinate an amount of consumption, the
barrack accommodation for the different branches of the service should be found con-
tracting in the order in which the general mortality, as well as that from consump-
tion, increases ; but it happens to be quite otherwise. A careful examination of the
preceding facts, it is believed, does anything but support the hypothesis of the Com-
missioners now under consideration.

There is, however, another and in some respects a more simple, and in unskilful
hands a safer, way of solving this question, and that is, instead of taking the ratio
of the mortality from ‘one cause” to the mortality from “all causes,” to deter-
mine the actual rate of mortality from ‘ each cause,” and I have accordingly placed
all the preceding results in that form. The detailed Tables hereto appended give the
results for various terms of life; but in the abstract to which I ask the attention of
the Section, reference will be made to the results for the soldiers’ ages only. In the
preparation of the following abstract, the actual mortality per cent. at the given
ages was in the first place determined, and then the differences per cent. between
these results and the corresponding ones for England and Wales were found; and
the abstract will therefore show, for each cause of death in the army, whether it is
in greater or less activity than in the country generally.

Asstract D.

Differences between the Mortality per cent. in the following districts, and that for
England and Wales.

-(SoupiErs’ AGES.)
eR | RP OS OE EI) Ae

: Lanea- | Density | Density Least
Group of diseases. London. shire. | -28—-72, | +g fh Senet
PRSEOEDISIS....0scce0s ee ecccecees +140) +19°6| + 4°8 | —12:4 | — 14:8

diseases and diseases
of the respiratory or-
Peres siacsessecseeses

2. Residue of 1 diseases |
+ 19°38 | +32°3 | +17°7 | —13°5 | —36°5

—_e———e—ee—_—ea———— SS OO | | |

3. Zymotic diseases .........) + 41:7 | +38°0 | +167 | — 17:2 | — 56°3
4, Disease of the nervous

system and digestive +19°8 | + 22:2 | +16°7| — 4:8 | ~38°9
ESE ch alas. oso serece
5. Sudden and external : : ; n
CAUSES ....ecccceee bea ei pe AO aha AON) 29 OG bE ool
6. Other diseases ............ +321! + 3°7| — 1:8] — 0-9 | —31°2
| 7. All causes ...... ssseeseseee] + 19°9 | +23°1 | + 9°6 | — 10-2 | — 27°8

_ In viewing the preceding abstract, it is right to explain that the results in the first
line are of the most importance, as in the army phthisis pulmonalis constitutes about
80 per cent. of the deaths from diseases of the lungs, and about 50 per cent. of the
deaths from all causes. This being explained, the results in Abstract D are, as bear-
ing on the applicability of the hypothesis in question on the causes of the mortality
in the army, even more remarkable than those in Abstract C. In every instance,
pos the differences between the mortality per cent. in the respective districts

194 REPORT—1858.

from phthisis, and that for England and Wales, are less than the differences between
the mortality from all causes, showing that death from phthisis is more positive in its
determination—in other words, less subject to fluctuation, and less affected by
external causes, than the other diseases in the aggregate.

In London, the densest of the districts, the increase beyond that of the country
generally from death by phthisis is 14 per cent., while the increase from all causes
is about 20 per cent.; but in the least dense portion of the kingdom, as shown in
the last column of Abstract D, the decrease from phthisis is precisely 14°8 per cent.,
but that from all causes 27°8 per cent., reversing exactly the positions held by these
diseases in the army, as already pointed out, in which it was shown that the deaths
from diseases of the lungs were in excess of the normal number 109 per cent.; but
the deaths from other causes were in excess only 49 per cent. There appears, there-
fore, no relation between the hypothesis advanced by the Royal Commission and
the causes of the actual increase of mortality which has taken place. If the great
havoc made in the ranks of the British army while at home had been occasioned
through deaths from zymotic causes, then the hypothesis under discussion would, if
applied to that class of diseases, have held good, and the conclusion they have arrived
at might have been suggestive of ulterior proceedings, beneficial to the brave men
who have to fight our battles, improving to their moral conditions and physical power,
thereby enhancing the financial resources of the empire.

The results in the third line of Abstract D are exactly confirmatory of those in
Abstract C, showing that density of population is only powerful in developing
zymotic diseases. It is somewhat remarkable that the results of the two abstracts,
in which the mode of expressing the relation of the facts recorded is so decidedly
different, should agree precisely, showing, in both instances, that the only diseases
which follow the order of density in their development is the zymotic class.

If in Abstract D the results for the deaths from the whole class of diseases of the
‘* respiratory organs ”’ be taken into consideration instead of those from phthisis pul-
monalis, only the same reasoning and argument will be found to apply, the deaths
from consumption being always more constant, less affected by external circum-
stances, and showing less disturbance in their development in the different districts
than the remaining diseases. In fact, compare in any considerable portion of the
population, which is either more or less crowded than the average of the kingdom,
the deaths from phthisis and diseases of the respiratory organs, and the ratio will be
found always subject to less perturbation than the residue of all other diseases.

If the hypothesis of the Commissioners were therefore well-founded, this would
not be so, for districts in which there was a large amount of overcrowding would,
when compared with those thinly populated, show, to a lesser or greater extent, the
well-marked peculiarity of the mortality in the army of intensifying deaths from
consumption more than those from other causes. The present investigation, how-
ever, shows that overcrowding produces the very opposite effect, and that deaths
from consumption are increased in a much less ratio than the deaths from other
causes.

If the methods followed in this communication, and the various conclusions thence
deduced, be thoroughly reliable, then it is obvious that many of the recommendations
made by the Royal Commission on the sanitary state of the army, however valuable
they may be on other grounds, will not, if carried out, produce the intended effect of -
reducing the ratio of deaths from diseases of the respiratory organs among our sol-
diers to the normal conditions of the country generally.

It was proposed to discuss in this paper the statistical value of the Commissioners’
hypothesis only, and not to enter on the consideration of the real cause of the high
ratio of deaths from consumption in the army. Enough, it is believed, has been
already adduced in Appendix LXXI. of the Report to indicate the chief cause of not
only the general high rate of mortality, but also of the very unprecedented and fright-
ful destruction of life by diseases of the lungs.

On the History of Prices of 1857 and 1858. By Witt1amM NewMarcu.

On the recent History of the Crédit Mobilier. By Witt1am NewMArcu.

bey.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 195

On the Race and Language of the Gipsies.
By the Rev. T. W. Norwoop, £.G.S.

The Gipsies are said to have been first seen in Europe about the year 1417 ; before
which time their history is involved in very great obscurity.

A wide-spread and persistent tradition amongst themselves declares them to be
Egyptians; which they certainly are not, however that denomination arose, and
whatever credit may seem due to its very general circulation. Many attempts have
been made to account for this tradition, but without any success.

They arrived in England some time in the end of the fifteenth century. Polydore
Virgil seems to be the first author that mentions the English Gipsies: he speaks of
them as “‘ Assyrians” or “‘ Egyptians,” in terms of strong reprobation. Wherever
they went, they early made themselves detestable by their vices and cunning; and
consequently they have been persecuted throughout Europe in a way which makes
us wonder that they were not all exterminated. It remained long unknown whence
the Gipsies came, and to what race of men they ought to be referred; but it was at
length discovered that they are an emigration from India, by researches into their
strange unwritten language. This disclosure is due to the scholars of Germany;
and particularly to Grellman, who wrote his “‘ Dissertation’”’ in the last century.
The same conclusion might have been suggested from considerations of figure, feature,
and colour; but the best criterion, upon the whole, that we haye at present in such
aaa.” is the internal testimony of language. Language is the best test of race,

itherto.

Grellman arrived at the decision, by a limited comparison of “ Gipsy” with
**Hindustani,”’ that at least twelve Gipsy words out of every thirty were Indian.
We know now, after a wider examination, that this proportion has been almost
doubled ; and also that the Indian words in Gipsy are nearly all of “ Sanskrit” origin.
“Gipsy” is now, in fact, proved to be a dialect of ‘‘ Sanskrit,” very much overlaid
with foreign words, such as a wandering nation would be sure to adopt; and also
considerably differing, in original character, from any other known dialect of the
Sanskrit speech. :

We do not despair of finding, in the East, an idiom more closely allied to Gipsy
than any with which we are yet acquainted. At what time, or from what motives,
the Gipsies left India, no one has been able to determine.

The author of this paper read to the Section a list of sixty words (out of a large
vocabulary collected orally from the Gipsies by himself), each of which is a genuine
Sanskrit word, and common at the present day to the Gipsy and Hindustani dialects
of that language. These were names of numerals, elementary ideas, and familiar
natural objects, such as he judged likely to have been brought from the original
settlement of the race.

Doubtful words in “Gipsy,” not yet traced to any language, are their names for
coins, articles of clothing, and things connected with religious worship. A list of these
was also read. They may have been changed in travel. It was shown that Gipsy
has much more in common with Greek and Latin (especially with Greek) than with
any other European languages. In some of its suffixes it closely resembles the very
ancient Islandic and Lithuanian dialects. It has great facility, like Greek and Ger-
man, for coining new words by compounding old roots. This is a sign and property
of yery ancient languages. Many specimens of Gipsy conversation, orally collected,
were read, with their exact pronunciation, to the Section. ‘‘ Gipsy”? and Gipsyism
are fast declining and dying out in England; meanwhile we remember the words of
Dr. Johnson speaking on the whole subject of language :—‘‘I am not very willing
that any language should be totally extinguished. The similitude and derivation of
languages afford the most indubitable proof of the traduction of nations, and the
genealogy of mankind. They add often physical certainty to historical evidence of
ancient migrations, and of the revolutions of ages which left no written monuments
behind them.”

Notes on Indian Fibres, illustrated by prepared Specimens.
By J. H. Savier. (Communicated by Colonel Sykes.)
’ The natives of India were at an early period acquainted with the art of spinning
13*

196 _ REPORT—1858.

and weaving, and described as weaving cloth made of fibres from trees more beautiful
than from sheep’s wool; and in the Institutes of Menu, written before the Christian
era, we learn that the sacrificial thread of a Brahmin must be made of cotton; that
of a Cshatriya, of Sana thread only; that of a Vaisya, of woollen thread. It is sup-
posed, that the Sana thread was most probably that of the Sunn (Crotalaria juncea).
Buddha, in his sermons preached 600 years before Christ, interdicted to women the
use of certain muslins because they were too fine for decent concealment.

The Ambaree (Hibiscus cannabinus), or Mesta plant of Bengal and Palungo of
Madras and Ambaree of Western India, is very generally cultivated all over India;
it grows from three to seven feet in height, the stem straight and simple; it is usually
called Indian Hemp, or one of the Brown Hemps of Bombay.

Bandikai of Madras, and Bendy of Bombay (Hibiscus longifolius), grows to a great
height and very straight, with a few branches, and with pyramidal pods, which, when
young, are filled with a large proportion of mucilage, and are gathered and cooked as
a vegetable; the fruit is also used to thicken soups, and the seeds added like barley
to it; they may be also roasted as a substitute for coffee.

The Deckanee Hemp, Ambaree, grows with astraight clear stem from four to seven
feet in height; its leaves are in general used as an esculent vegetable by the natives,
and taste something like sorrel.

Rouselle (Hibiscus Sabdariffa) is cultivated in most gardens, because its calices as
they ripen become fleshy, and are of a pleasant acid taste, and are employed for making
tarts, as well as an excellent jelly.

Marool of Madras, or Bowstring Hemp (Sanseviera).—The leaves when cultivated
are from three to four feet long; the fibre extends their whole length; from these
fibres the ancient Hindoos made a very tough elastic thread, of which they made their
bowstrings.

The Naroo and the Naroo T fibres being both new ones, no description is yet given,
except that they are natives of Malabar.

The Bunochra (Urena lobata), and the Kungio (Urena sinuata), are from two
weeds common in most parts of India.

The Mudar, or Mudder, is met with in both the southern as well as the northern
parts of India, in considerable quantities in all uncultivated lands, and encroaches
even on cultivated grounds. It is a plant with broad, fleshy, glaucous-coloured leaves,
and which, when pierced, gives out a milky juice from every part; this is called Ak
and Mudar in northern, and Yercum in southern India. It is the Asclepias gigantea
of botanists. Its juice and the powdered bark of its roots are employed medicinally
by the natives of India in cases of leprosy and other cutaneous affections; lately its
milky juice has been collected by making incisions into the plant, and preparing it as
a substitute for caoutchouc and gutta percha.

The pods of the Mudar are full of a beautiful glossy silk down, which the natives
spin into a beautiful soft thread; from intimation given, this article will soon come
into great use in the trade of this town (Leeds). The native mode of separating the
fibres of the Mudar is tedious, rude, and injurious; notwithstanding it is one of the
strongest fibres known, as, from experiments made by Dr. Wight, it bore 552 lbs.,
when Crotalaria juncea bore only 404 lbs., and a small cord bore 3 ewt., without
showing the least symptom of distress; yet by the samples now produced it certainly
seems better adapted for purposes of flax than hemp; and well will it be for both
housewives and servants if ever it should be brought into general domestic use instead
of flax, for common washing with soap and water will bleach the fibre a perfect white,
beautiful and glossy.

The Bromelia Ananas, and Bromelia Pigna, also the Karatto fibres, are all of the
different qualities of Bromeliacee, or the pine-apple tribe. It appears the pine-apple
was first introduced into India by the Portuguese ; it has now become so naturalized
as to appear indigenous: it grows in enormous quantities in various parts of India;
indeed so plentiful, that a boat load of the fruit has been sold for one rupee, or two
shillings, at Sincapoor and Malacca.

The Perida fetida, or the Vegetable Silk: there can be no doubt but that this
extraordinarily beautiful article will ere long enter largely into every description of.
ladies’ apparel.

The Neilgherry Nettle (Urtica heterophylla), or the Vegetable Wool: indeed so

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 197

greatly does this wool resemble the sheep’s wool, as to deceive some of the best judges
in England.

The. fibre is long in staple, and by the two sticks now shown, and which were hackled
by the Messrs. Marshalls and Messrs. Hives and Atkinson, proof is afforded how well it
is adapted for flax-spinning machinery ; and when flax spinners shall provide warps of
this material, cotton warps might be dispensed with, and a warp of great strength be
introduced, which so corresponds with all the essentials of real wool, that when mixed
with wool, they will both take the same dyes, mill and dress together, and will certainly
manufacture a good cloth.

The flax of India, according to Dr. Roxburgh, is mostly cultivated on account of
its seed, and the part which in most other countries is most valued, is there thrown
away. The Belfast Chamber of Commerce observes, that as India annually exports
nearly 100,000 quarters of seed to Great Britain and Ireland, it has been calculated
that the plants producing this quantity of seed would yield annually at least 12,000
tons of fibre, value say £500,000, all of which now goes to waste. ‘There can be no
doubt, therefore, that the question is one of immense importance not only to this
country, which requires such immense quantities of flax fibre, but to India, which
produces such enormous supplies of seeds, and is supposed to waste so much of valuable
exportable material. ‘There can be no doubt that the very best flax may be produced
in India, and always at a remunerating price; for labour there is so plentiful and
cheap, that whatever may be the extent of cultivation entered into, there need be no
fear of being undersold by any nation upon earth. It has been said, that if any party
in India could supply this kingdom with 100,000 tons of Indian flax at this time, he
might go on shipping as fast as he could, and never feel the least fear of overstocking
the market. Instructions have been given for a considerable supply of four of the
different India fibres.

The silk of the wild silk-worm ought to be noticed, as the fibre or thread is fifteen
times stronger than that of the common silk. No doubt it will be of importance to
manufacturers of what is called spun silk, as by proper looking after, an immense
quantity, now completely neglected, might be collected and brought to be of great
advantage to them. ;

India produces some 200 varieties of fibres for examination, and it is to be hoped
for future use in Europe. The India House Museum contains specimens, not only of
these, but of every article of raw and cultivated produce of India,—minerals, gums,
dyes, woods, and cereals, and specimens of all the textile fabrics and works of art and
taste: the whole are open to the inspection of the public, and manufacturers can
obtain any desired information upon application.

Mr. Dickson of Leeds has a case of prepared Indian fibres in the Exhibition of
Local Industry.

For elaborate, complete, and instructive papers upon India fibres, reference may be
made to vol. ii. of the Transactions of the Society of Arts, p. 366, and to vol. v. p. 17,
where the lamented Dr. Royle will be found to have nearly exhausted the subject.

An Essay on Distinctions between Money and Capital, Interest and Discount,
Currency and Circulating Medium, essential to be observed in the Reform
of our Monetary Laws. By Hamer STANSFELD.

The author sets out by stating that his ideas are not offered as the speculations of
a profound political economist, but as the attempt of a merchant (retired from busi-
ness on the ground of health) to account for monetary convulsions, and to find, if
possible, some means of mitigating their frequency and severity. The conclusions at
which he arrives as to the distinctions between money and capital, and between in-
terest and discount, are thus summed up :—That money is a certificate of value, and
may be the product of either capital or credit. That capital is the product of labour
along, That money is a security for obtaining and transferring at all times its equi-
valent specified value in capital or in any kind of wealth. That capital is that portion
of wealth which is used in reproduction, and is the object of transfer through the
medium of money. ‘That debts are contracted in money, and not in capital. That
interest is, in a great degree, a charge made for the risk of lending money on credit.

198 REPORT—1858,

That discount is the allowance made for paying off that charge for credit with ready
money.

That interest may be given either as a remuneration for the use of the capital trans-
ferred by the money, or for the use of money itself.

That discount is given only for the use of moncy itself.

That the rate of interest depends on the demand and supply of capital, and on the
degree of risk incurred.

That the rate of discount depends on the supply and demand of ready money, and
and on the degree of risk incurred; and as in this country provincial bank notes are
convertible on demand into legal tender money, the rate of discount here fundament-
ally depends at present on the demand and supply of legal tender money.

To the question, What is currency? the writer replies, ‘Coin and bank notes ;” but he
points out that these form only a small portion of the great wheel of circulating medium,
which embraces credit and every thing that is a medium for circulating value. ‘The
amount o% Currency in circulation in the wholesale trade is, in relation to the aggre-
gate of circulating medium, but as a drop in the ocean of credit on which it is carried.”
Hence the writer asks, ‘‘ Must not the attempt by law to adjust the circulating medium
and prices, by regulating the amount of bank notes, be as futile as the endeavour to
regulate the ocean and its tide by damming up the streams?” ‘The final conclusion
at which Mr, Stansfeild arrives is, ‘‘ That were the laws of nature not counteracted by
the laws of man, but left as free in their action on money as on capital; and were the
duty of the legislature confined to the taking care of the quality of the currency, by
ensuring the convertibility of the bank note, leaving the quantity to take care of itself,
the enormous disproportion between the amount of credit liabilities and ready money
would be diminished, and the frequency and severity of monetary panics would be
mitigated, if not entirely averted.”

On the Sewing Machine in Glasgow, and its Effects on Production, Prices,
and Wages. By Joun Strane, LL.D.

Dr. Strang mentioned the different kinds of sewing machines, with the various
improvements that had been effected in those implements. The cost of the best
machines now in use varied from £25 to £30 each, and some were produced of an
inferior kind in America so low as 10s, each. The better class of machines now in
use were calculated to make almost everything formerly executed by the needle or
even awl, and it was affirmed that the finer or more difficult the work, the more benefit
from the machine. One of the latest improved machines would complete a thousand
stitches in a minute, and the use of the instrument was becoming more and more
general throughout the great manufacturing marts of the world. The important
question then arose, had the introduction of sewing machines interfered with hand
labour, and if so, to what extent? Limiting the inquiry to Glasgow, where the
introduction of sewing machines has been recent and their adoption rapid, there being
at present about 900 at work in that city, Dr. Strang stated that while these machines
had greatly increased the power and facility of production, and consequently lowered
the price of the manufactured article, they had only displaced the most unprofitable
portion of hand needle-work, and had indeed tended rather to increase than to diminish
the wages of those engaged in this sphere of labour. Among other instances of this
he stated that the wages of a handy female attending each machine were from 7s. to
10s, per week, whereas a mere sempstress could scarcely earn half that sum, and
that, too, through long protracted labour.

Water Supply to Great Towns—its Extent, Cost, Uses, and Abuses.
By Joun Strano, LL.D.

Dr. Strang showed by an elaborate array of statistical facts, the present and pro-
jected water supply of some of the leading towns of tae Western world, with, the
extent and cost of such supply. He glanced at some of the social disadvantages, and
even evils, which have arisen, or may still further arise, from rendering water the too
easy agent for the removal of impurities which should be transported otherwise, and
thus converting many once pellucid streams, upon which cities ave founded, into

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 199

deleterious and noxious common sewers, detrimental to comfort and hostile to healthe
The amount of the water supply, and its cost, for the several cities and towns h
enumerated, were given in the following tabulated form :—

Population Daily Dail Prospective
Sawne, within Daily supply for Conn Sata supply
bounds of supply. each ‘abial every £ daily in
supply. inhabitant, B expended. | addition.
Gallons. Gallons. £ Gallons. Gallons.
London ..|2,667,917 | 81,025,842 30°3 7,102,823 11°4 2
Paris ....|1,100,000 | 26,350,000] 24: 800,000 33° 20,000,000
Hamburg..| 160,000 | 5,000,000 31°25 170,000 29°50 Haid
New York 713,000 | 28,000,000 89°27 {1,800,000 15'S oe
Manchester| 500,000 | 11,000,000 22° 1,300,000 85 14,000,000
Liverpool..| 500,000 |} 1 1,000,000 22° 1,640,000 ’ ni
Leeds ....| 153,000 | 1,850,000; 12° 283,871 (ige Sc
Edinburgh 215,000 | 4,800,000 22°3 456,000 10°5 2,000,003
Aberdeen .. 65,000 | 1,200,000 18°4 50,000 24° a
Dundee.... 96,000 | 1,750,000 18°2 139,000 12°5 An
Greenock .. 40,000 | 2,112,500 52°8 90,000 23°4 A
Paisley.... 48,450 | 1,021,452 21° 60,000 ays

Glasgow ..| 420,000 |16,710,000| 39°8 651,199 26° 20,000,000

In conclusion, Dr. Strang stated, that from the statistical figures he had brought
forward the following results might be drawn :—

lst. The fact of a present prevailing anxiety for an abundant and pure supply of
water, irrespective of every difficulty, and at any cost.

2nd. The fact of a growing consumption of water on the part of those who have
had it at command, and the necessity of limiting as far as possible the quantity
allowed to run to waste. ,

3rd. That while the increasing abundance of water has necessarily added to the
comfort and health of the people, by enabling them to have baths and other conve-
niences easily and cheaply, it has at the same time tended to encourage city and
house impurities being improperly carried away, and that too in a manner cal-
culated rather to transfer than to abolish nuisances.
- 4th. That an abundance of water brought within every house, without due attention
being paid to the carrying off to a distance, or otherwise separating, the solid sewage
from the water before it falls into any stream, is a serious and growing evil which
ought to be forthwith remedied, particularly on the part of those towns and villages
which line rivers from which other towns are deriving their supply of water.

5th. That an abundant supply of water is, in short, a limited benefit, unless pro-
vision be at the same time made for a perfect and profitable riddance of the increased
sewage which it invariably creates.

On Subjects connected with Crime and Punishment.
By W.M. Tarrt, FSS.

After noticing how much there was still to be done towards carrying into effect the
improvements connected with our criminal legislation, Mr. Tartt briefly adverted to
the anomalies in prison discipline, and went on to suggest that there are discre-
pancies as much opposed to any established principle in some of our preliminary
proceedings. He took as one of his examples the administration of the Criminal Justice
Act of 1855. Asa measure of economy, it was allowed that it had been eminently
successful. A table which he had compiled from the accounts of a single county,
for the last five years, gave the average cost of trials at Quarter Sessions, at £9 2s. 3d.
each, while the summary convictions under the Criminal Justice Act had only cost

_£13s.4d. each (for the whole kingdom they were £1 13s.) ; and the saving during
two years, in one county alone, had been £2806. But he dwelt at some length
upon the uncertainty and total absence of classification, with which the different

200 REPORT—1858.

periods of imprisonment are inflicted, and the frequency with which previous con-
victions are overlooked ; and though high authorities have seen insuperable difficul-
ties in the way of establishing any fixed rule, he insisted upon the possibility of some
better system being devised. At present it is a lottery of punishments, which ought
not to exist. He then took up the Juvenile Offenders’ Acts. For the administration
of these, he showed that we have the guidance of principles carefully and rationally
defined by Mr. Barwick Baker of Hardwicke, whose experience and unwearied
attention to the subject give him the weight of authority. The course Mr. Baker
proposes is, with rare exceptions, to inflict for a first offence 7 days’ imprisonment ;
for a second offence 14 days, with (invariably) the Reformatory. Should it fail in
its effect, he recommends that, on a relapse into crime, the offender should be sent
to the quarter sessions, where he may be sentenced to penal servitude; and for this
mode of treatment satisfactory reasons are adduced. Yet what is the practice?
The terms of imprisonment, coupled with a sentence to reformatory discipline (which
is often reserved for a third or even a fourth offence), vary from a week up to the
maximum of three months, frequently without any perceptible reason; juvenile offenders
are dealt with, both at petty sessions and at the police courts, as though the Acts
had no existence ; and when reformatory discipline has failed, and fresh crimes have
been committed, instead of sending the offender to be treated as Mr. Baker recom-
mends, the mischievous system of repeated short imprisonments is, too often, again
resorted to. In proof of it, several examples were cited. Returns were also referred
to in evidence of the partial manner in which the law had hitherto been carried into
effect as respects the contributions to be levied upon parents towards the support of
their children while under detention. It was inferred from official papers, that the
number of parents actually contributing was not a third of those who might be com-
pelled to do so.

But whatever may have been the errors committed in applying the law, it is will-
ingly allowed that there can be no doubt as to the beneficial effects of the reformatory
system in the diminution of crime. Mr. Tartt gave sufficient facts to prove that, out
of 100 boys, 50 may be considered as reclaimed; 25 only as certainly bad; and the
remainder are either middling, doubtful, or lost sight of. As regards its individual
effects, all this (he observed) is very satisfactory ; indeed it would be so if we reduced
our estimate of the successes by one half; and, in other respects, the good effects
were equally shown. When it was the practice to sentence juvenile offenders to two
or three weeks’ imprisonment, they were, on the expiration of their terms, usually
met or welcomed by their former companions, and were reconducted to the haunts
and habits from which they would, often, have been willingly freed. The conse-
quence was a continued course of petty crime, followed by punishments repeated
with more or less frequency, according to the degree of vigilance in the police or of
dexterity in the criminal. Since it has been permitted to send them toareformatory,
society is relieved from their depredations during the time of their detention; the
schools and associations for crime are broken up; and even if the individual is not
reclaimed, he is generally removed from the scene of his former pursuits; or is
relieved by employment, either at home or abroad, from immediate temptation. That
the aggregate of crime has thus been lessened there cannot be a doubt. The Judi-
cial Statistics, prepared at the Home Office, and several other returns, were cited in
evidence. In connexion with his subject, Mr. Tartt referred to the ‘ Report on
Criminal Returns,’ which he presented to the Section at last year’s meeting. The
introduction of changes (he observed) is slowly admitted, partly on account of the
difficulty they present in comparing previous with succeeding years, and partly on
account of the official arrangements not being sufficiently extensive for the superin-
tendence of more extensive work; but he again urged the adoption of two of the
suggestions contained in the Report; one of them, the careful distinction between
resident and non-resident offenders ; the other, the establishment of something similar
to the Casters Judiciaires in France, for acquiring better knowledge than we can obtain
at present of a criminal’s antecedents. Whatever tended to an improved knowledge
and classification of the criminal, would assist in the suppression of crime.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 201

Brief Review of the Operations in the Bank of England in 1857.
By R. Vary.

On the Results of Free Trade. By H. WALKER.

MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
On the Progress of Mechanical Science. Address by the President.

In opening the business of the Section, I have to congratulate you upon the en-
couraging prospects which our meeting in this great mart of industry is calculated to
afford. This large and important district is only just recovering from a state of
intense excitement and a burst of loyalty that has reverberated from one extremity of
the Riding to the other. In these rejoicings I have naturally taken a deep interest,
and, now that the royal visit is over, a meeting for the extension of science and use-
ful art is probably the most appropriate conclusion of the festivities which have
occupied the attention of this town for the last two weeks.

On a former occasion, when I had the honour of occupying this chair, I endeavoured
to combine in a condensed form a review of such improvements in mechanical science
as had been effected during the successive intervals between the Annual Meetings of
this Association, and, conceiving that a short account of what has taken place during
the last few years may not be unacceptable, I have on this, as on previous occasions,
ventured to direct your attention to a succinct retrospect of what I consider new and
valuable in mechanical art.

In Mechanical Science and General Engineering this country continues to main-
tain its high position in new developments and continued progress, and the almost
innumerable patents weekly taken out under the new law are remarkable indications
of the activity and inventive powers of this country. It is not yet thirty years since
the introduction of malleable iron as a material for ship-building took place, and
a much shorter time has elapsed since it was first applied to the construction of
bridges. We have all of us heard of the Tubular system so successfully applied to
the bridges across the Conway and Menai Straits ; now it is extensively employed in
every quarter of the globe, and there is no span within the limit of one thousand feet
but what might be compassed by the hollow girder bridge with security and effect.
These discoveries are of immense importance to mankind, and where they are carried
out with skill and a strict adherence to sound principles of economy and science, they
give to the engineer of the present day a power which in former times it was impos-
sible to realize.

Steam Navigation.—In this department of practical science, although much has
been done, yet much remains to be accomplished in giving to the iron ship uniformity
of strength and security of construction. With respect to vessels of such complex form,
bounded by such a variety of curved surfaces, we are yet much uninformed as to the
precise points of application of the material, in order to attain the maximum of
strength combined with lightness and economy in the distribution of the material.
These are data yet to be ascertained, and it will require long and laborious experimental
researches before the facts are clearly known and established ; much has, however,
been accomplished in the absence of these data, and I may safely refer to that noble
structure the Leviathan, which, with all her misfortunes, is nevertheless a most mag-
nificent specimen of naval architecture. The Cellular system, so judiciously introduced
ty Mr. Brunel, is her great source of strength, and [ am persuaded that she will stand

e test (which I have recommended in other cases) of being suspended upon the two

_ extreme points of stern and stern with all her machinery on board; or, these conditions
being reversed, I believe she may be poised upon a point in the middle like a scale-
beam, without fracture or injury to the material of which she is composed; her cellular
construction and double sheathing round the hull, and the same formation on the
upper deck, give to the vessel enormous power of resistance, and her division and
subdivision by bulkheads ensures a large margin of security in whateyer circumstances

202 REPORT—1858.

she may be placed. In fact, she may be considered as a large hollow girder requiring
a load of nearly 10,000 tons suspended from the centre to break her. I mention this
to show that her want of success is not due to any fault in the ship herself, but to the
magnitude of the speculation as a commercial transaction, and her unmanageable
character in regard to the shipment of cargo, and similar difficulties which she may
be called upon to encounter. I hope, however, that the necessary funds will be
forthcoming to complete her equipment, and that we shall yet see her dashing aside
the surge of the Atlantic at a speed of 18 to 20 knots an hour.

Railways.—The magnitude of this great Republic (as it is called) of speculation
and industry is scarcely, if ever, appreciated by the public. We look at the locomotive
of the present day, or glide by its means over the surface of the earth, without once
thinking of the amount of skill and capital expended in the production of such vast
and important results. At the present moment we learn, from returns recently pub-
lished, that we have in this country alone 9500 miles of railway, executed and in
actual operation, and taking at a rough calculation one locomotive engine with a
force of 200 horses’ power to every three miles of railway, and assuming each to run
120 miles a day, we thence calculate the distance travelled over by railway trains to
be equal to 380,000 miles per diem, or the enormous distance of 138 millions of miles
per annum, a space measuring the distance of the planets, and beyond the conception
of those unacquainted with the measurements of the astronomer. To transport en-
gines and trains this distance, requires a force equivalent to that of upwards of 200,000
horses in constant operation throughout the year.

As regards the commercial value of railways, it will not be necessary to enlarge
upon it in this place; suffice it to observe, that a clear revenue of 12 millions is left
after all expenses are paid, for distribution amongst shareholders and creditors. This
amounts to 33 per cent. per annum, a small return upon 320 millions, the original
cost of 9500 miles of railway, or an average of £34,000 per mile.

In the locomotive engine there has been no improvement of importance during the
last two years, excepting only its adaptation to the burning of coal instead of coke
without the production of smoke ; to a certain extent this has been successfully accom-
plished, but the process is still far from perfect. Superior training is wanted for
engineers and stokers before we can look forward with certainty to the time when
the use of coal will become general, with increased economy and with the suppression
of the nuisance of smoke.

In the formation of the permanent way considerable improvements haye been
effected, especially in the joining of the rails by what is technically termed the fish
joint, which secures a more perfect union of the rails, produces a smoother surface,
and diminishes the wear and tear of the rolling stock, when compared with the old
system of joining so sensibly felt in carriages running over the line at great velo-
cities.

Manufactures.—For the last twelve months great depression has existed in this
department of the national industry, and, notwithstanding the attempts to cheapen
the production of the staple articles of manufacture by the introduction of improved
machinery, there exists a considerable depression in many of the great marts of
industry. This is probably to be attributed to the disturbed state of India and China ;
but, looking at the activity of the manufacturing population, and the amount of
capital employed, there has been no serious diminution in the production of manu-
factured articles, nor any stagnation in the demand for labour. On the contrary, I
believe, with the exception of the causes just alluded to, that the manufactures of
this country generally were never in a more flourishing condition.

In the iron trade, with which this Section is more immediately connected, there has
been a similar but slight depression, the manufacture of pig, plates and bars being
as great as in any former year; and, taking into account the improved process by
which malleable iron and steel are now produced, there is reason to hope for a greatly
increased demand and an enlarged production. In fact, such have been the improve-
ments since Mr. Bessemer first announced his new process of boiling the crude iron
direct from the smelting furnace, and dispensing with the puddling process, that we
appear to be now in a state of transition from the old system of smelting, refining,
and puddling, to a more direct, continuous, and improved process of manufacture, —

: Steel bars and plates are now made without the intervention of an intermediate ,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 2038

and tedious process, and we may reasonably look forward to the introduction of an
entirely new article of manufacture of greatly increased powers of resistance to strain.
Although hitherto Mr. Bessemer has not succeeded in producing malleable iron by his
new process, he has made excellent refined iron, and has stimulated others to attempts
at improvement in the same direction. His discoveries, first given to the world through
this Section, have already proved of great value to the community, and we look for-
ward with confidence to the introduction of still greater improvements—improve-
ments by which steel plates and bars will be produced at almost the same price as
that for which we can now obtain the best manufactured iron.

The Machinery of Agriculture.—This is a branch of mechanical art which requires
the careful consideration of the mechanician and the engineer. ‘The time appears to
have arrived when the introduction of machinery, combined with the wide diffusion
of education, is absolutely required amongst our agricultural population; andin my
opinion, increased intelligence, together with new machinery, will double the produc-
tion of the soil and improve the climate in which we live. Much has already been done,
yet very much is yet to be accomplished. We must persevere in the new process of
deep draining and subsoil ploughing, and in the substitution of steam power in
place of horse and manual labour, before we can realize such large and important
advantages as are now before us. Great changes and improvements have been
effected in my own time by the introduction of new implements to relieve the labours
of the farm. Everything, cannot, however be done by the mechanician and engineer ;
much has yet to be accomplished by the farmer in the preparation of the land to ren-

. der it suitable for machine culture, and a willing heart as well as a steady hand is
required of the agriculturist before he can work for the public good in concert with
the engineer, ‘The reaping machine has now attained such a degree of perfection as
to bring it into general use on lands prepared for its reception; and the steam plough
is making rapid strides towards perfection, and is likely to take the place of horses,
and effect a change as beneficial to the farmer as it will be advantageous to the publie
at large.

Electric Telegraphs.—The consummation of telegraphic communication between
the old and new world is thecrowning triumph of the age, and I hail in common with
every lover of science the immense benefits which the successful laying of the Atlantic
Cable is calculated to secure for mankind; it is another step forwards in the great
march of civilization, and the time is not far distant when we shall see individuals as
well as nations united in social intercourse through the medium of the slender wire
and the electric current. These are blessings which the most sanguine philosophers
of the past never dreamed of ; they are the realizations of the age in which we live ; and
I have to congratulate the Section on what has already been done in the wide, and
to some extent unexplored field of this wonderful discovery.

On a new Method of constructing the Permanent Way and Wheels of
Railways. By W. Brivces ADAMS.

The object of the improvement about to be described is to obtain all the advantages
of both the bridge-rail and the double T-rail, while avoiding their disadvantages ;
that is, the horizontal stiffness of the bridge-rail with more than the vertical stiffness
of the double T-rail, with a lowered elevation, without any chairs or loose contact of
iron with iron, and with the firmest joint yet produced, making the line of rails a
continuous yet expansive and contractile bar, on a continuous bearing,

In this new construction the ordinary double-headed rail is not placed in chairs
on cross sleepers, but is bolted be¢ween longitudinal sleepers of small scantling, which
supply the place of cast chairs, by continuous wooden supports. The bolts are either
ordinary screw-bolts or pieces of flat bar, with keys and washers passing through both
rails and timbers at 3-{eet spaces. The rail is thus supported by the upper table
without resting on the lower, and the bearing surface on the timber is in a yard length
equal to 54 inches, the chair in the same length being only equal to 48 inches; the
former being continuous, the latter discontinuous. The bearing surface on the bal-
last is equal to that of the cross-sleeper rail with the sleepers 3 feet apart, The
height of the rail above the ballast is only 5 inches, while that of the ordinary cross-
sleeper way is 12 inches, There is, therefore, a saving of half the ballast. The rail

204 REPORT—1858.

are connected by brackets of angle-iron, which are bolted to and through both rails
and brackets at the joints, the brackets being bolted down on cross sleepers at the
joints; thus securing the gauge.

The advantages of the system are,—Ist, a maximum depth of rail, with a minimum
elevation; 2nd, a continuous bearing on timber ; 3rd, great lateral stiffness; 4th, a
really reversible rail without risk of damage or crystallization, with the lower table
perfect, when the upper is worn out; 5th, great safety, by reason of the rail being
secured without chairs and keys; 6th, diminished cost of maintenance, and rapid
shifting of rails.

As to the wheel, practically, a driving wheel, at 50 miles per hour, is equivalent
to a large Nasmyth’s hammer, wherever any inequality exists between rails and
wheel: the incessant leap of the wheel from point to point is a heavy blow.

To obviate this disadvantage, it is desirable to render the wheel elastic. The im-
proved wheel is so constructed, that a continuous hollow in the internal periphery of
the tire is overlapped by a continuous hoop-spring, on which the wheel rests in such
a mode that the only dead-weight is in the tire. The tire is formed with an internal
front rib ; and when the wheel is forced in upon the spring by cold pressure, a false
rib is fixed at the back, and the wheel is secure. The wheel thus treads on an elastic
cushion all round the periphery. It cannot be strained on mischievously tight, as by
shrinking hot; and the metal is in a state of rust.

The advantage in saving wear of tire is found to be considerable, and it is obvious
the saving must extend to the rails also.

The commercial advantages are considerable. In the permanent way the cost of
the whole of the chairs is saved, and a portion of the timber, while the fastenings are
about the same cost in either case. The saving of labour, and heating, and tools in
the construction of the wheels is considerable ; and the quantity of material is dimi-
nished. Both permanent way and wheels have now been a considerable time in
practical use, which is extending as the system becomes known.

On a few Facts connected with the Manufacture of Pig Iron in the neighbour-
hood of Leeds. By W. J. ARMITAGE.

The author first quoted an extract from the ‘Geological Survey,’ in reference to the
peculiarities of the coal-fields of Yorkshire, and then proceeded to point out the posi-
tion occupied by the valuable seam of coal in the districts of Bradford and Leeds.
The superficial seams of coals worked in the immediate neighbourhood of Leeds he
gave in the various orders in which they occur :—

lst. The stone or cannel bed. 2nd. The Middleton bed.
3rd. The Beeston thin bed. 4th. The Beeston thick bed.
5th. The Crow coal.
Below the latter seam, that portion of the strata especially connected with the
manufacture of iron in the North Yorkshire district was arrived at. A section of
this part of the strata gave the following results :—
1st. Loose vein of sandstone, 9 to 18 feet thick.
2nd. Black bed ironstone, lying in a bed of shale, 3 to 4 feet thick.
3rd. Black bed coal, 2 feet thick.
4th. Various measures of shale and stone, roof of better bed coal, consisting of
black shale, with numerous fish remains, and small white nodules of
ironstone, 120 feet.
5th. Better bed coal, 1 to 2 feet.
6th. Floor of indurated fire-clay, 2 to 3 feet.
From this portion of the strata, comprised within the short space of forty yards, the
materials employed in the manufacture of the iron were derived. The black bed
ironstone furnished the ore, the better bed coal the fuel, the black bed was used for
the engines, and from the valuable bed of fire-clay were made the fire-bricks and
blast-furnace linings. The ironstone occurred in detached nodules of various sizes,
deposited in five distinct layers, which were designated top balls, flat stone, upper
rough measure, middle balls, and lower rough measure. In some localities their
course was difficult to trace in the surrounding shale; in others, where the seam.
was termed good, the ore produced 1000 tons of stone per acre, and this was about

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 205

the average yield at Farnley. The fracture of this stone showed a blackish grey tint,
and yielded by analysis—

Metallic iron ........+ese0++444 39°4 per cent.
Silica and alumina........... .+» 14°9 per cent.
Sulphur ........ afeleisisis «ss aie etal mmOnCEECOIGs

Oxygen, carbonic acid, &c. ...... 44°9 per cent.
A singular affinity seems to exist between the ore and the better bed coal in this
district. The results obtained from other descriptions of stone have not been satis-
factory. With respect to the fuel employed, the better bed coal burnt free from
sulphur, and, as this was one of the chief obstacles in the manufacture of iron in this
country, such a coal was a great desideratum. Mr. Wood, of Leeds, had lately
analysed one sample of this coal, and the following were the results :—

Carbon ....... Speteabiaheieasicia’ et olein «sufi. 100

EVVOrOgen\6esinies cee sissiswiiess ss . 2000

SSCL T aaa ola folaiyieitorats Shsvavshavalebe sory *196 (very small),

UNG liftetelats at aisieie/sia)eistal sist tivist sia sin eA OU

Oxygen and nitrogen............ 15°404

100°000
Other analyses would have to be made on different samples of the coal before the
average amount of sulphur could be determined with precision, but this first essay
was satisfactory, inasmuch as it placed the better bed coal of this district in the
foremost rank amongst the pure coals of England; and it was to the excellence of
this fuel, as observed in the memoir of the Geological Survey already referred to,
that the good quality of the iron manufactured at Low Moor, Bowling, and Farnley,
was mainly attributable. In conclusion, he referred to the points of importance in
connexion with the process of refining the pig metal at the Farnley Iron Works,
which were peculiar to that establishment. The first had reference to the introduc-
tion of steam into the refinery along with the blast; the second was the introduc-
tion of steel into the refineries in conjunction with the pig metal. The refined metal
thus produced presented a pure silvery fracture, and a perfectly homogeneous texture.

On Steam Tugs employed on the Aire and Calder Navigation.
By W. H. Bartruotomew, MLC.

The navigation to which the subject matter of this paper refers is a combination of
natural and artificial : throughout it has a navigable depth of 7 feet. The canals, or
artificial portion, have bottom and surface widths respectively of 25 to 30 feet, and 60
to 66 feet; the sectional area of water-way varying from 350 to 380 superficial feet.
The locks, which occur at varying distances of from 9 to 2 miles, admit vessels of
dimensions not exceeding 64 feet long and 18 feet beam.

An improved system of haulage was introduced in 1853 by the construction of a
steam tug (which had been followed by several others), designed with the combined
object of providing motive power for a train of boats and capability for carriage of
cargo. These tugs were in length 63 feet 6 inches, having beam respectively of 11 feet
and 12 feet 6 inches, depth of hold 7 feet 3 inches, immersed midship sections 64 and
72 square feet respectively, displacement with such immersion 40 tons for cargo, and 8
to 10 tons for machinery and stores. The engines and boilers were fixed in the after
portion of the boats, and occupied 20 feet of their length; and 30 feet were devoted
to cargo and 12 feet 6 inches to accommodation for the crew. The remainder of the
length was taken up by bulkheads, stores, &c. The peculiar machinery of these boats
was next illustrated by a technical description and plans; and the author then pro-
ceeded to show that by a new arrangement of the screw, adopted in other more recent
tugs, there was a considerably lower per-centage of “slip.” This screw consisted of
two ordinary screws fixed on the same shaft at right angles, or otherwise, to each
other, having an intervening space of six or more inches between them, and conse-
quently their planes of rotation were different; their pitches also varied, the after
screw having the greater. This application had proved to be most successful. In
working these tugs the pressure of steam was regulated to the duty to be performed,
and had varied from 100 Ibs. to 220 lbs., but did not often exceed 160 lbs. per square
inch, The general speed of the engines was 180 revolutions, or 360 feet speed of

206 REPORT—1858.

piston per minute. This speed of piston, when working at full pressure, gave 100
effective horse-power for the larger, and 50 horse-power for tugs of less power. The
former, under such circumstances, took a load of 500 tons of cargo, or a gross load of
650 tons at a speed of 3 miles per hour in the canals and 43 miles in the river portion
of the navigation. The latter hauled a load of 220 tons of cargo, or a gross load of
325 tons at the same speed in the canals, and 3} miles per hour in the river. On an
experiment with one of the more powerful tugs, twelve vessels, containing with the
cargo in the tug 832 tons, or a gross tonnage moved of 1222 tons, were taken in the
river portion of the navigation a distance of 44 miles in 1} hour, or, allowing for cur-
rent, 21 miles per hour. On another occasion the same tug took nine vessels, con-
taining with the tug 552 tons of cargo, or 852 tons gross, over the same portion of
the river (allowing for current), a speed of 4-87 miles per bour. The dynamical effect
on the tow-rope in the former case varied from 28 to 34 ewt., and in the latter ave-
raged about 271 ewt. These tugs were also very useful for breaking up and contending
against ice; and there was also a diminished consumption of fuel as compared with
the previous tugs employed,—which were paddle-boats. The commercial results were
as follows :—9d. per boat per mile by the paddle tugs; 7d. by horse haulage, &c. ;
and 4:15d. by screw tugs. The economic proportionals were consequently 1, 1°68
and 2:15. The trip of 36 miles was thereby accelerated two hours, and increased
certainty was obtained.

Description of a Floating Dry Dock. By G. BAYLry.

The dock in question was designed in 1836 for a South American Government ;
it was intended to be moored in deep water, and ride with a ship of war in it with
safety during ordinary gales.

The port, or rather open roadstead, in which it was proposed to place the floating
dock, had arise of tide of about 6 feet. To meet the peculiarities of the place, it was
proposed to construct the dock so that it could be immersed or sunk down to any
depth that might be required to admit the ships of various classes, and be strong
enough to ride with them, without straining the ship.

Three things had to be combined—strength, rigidity, and buoyancy. The needful
strength and rigidity were to be secured by a very simple system of bracing and
trussing, and the whole framing covered with planking well secured and made water-
tight. This space was subdivided longitudinally and transversely, so as to obviate
any risk from the rushing of the water from side to side or from end to end of the
dock; and at the same time, these longitudinal and transverse partitions would add
to the strength and rigidity of the entire fabric.

A transverse section of the dock would show that the floor of the dock is a framed
beam, consisting of two tie pieces about 4 feet apart, with queen posts in the centre,
under the ground or lower tier of keel blocks, with tie bolts introduced where neces-
sary. The sectional area must be proportioned to the entire weight of the dock with
the ship, so that, if desired, it may float with its upper internal surface above the
level of its external waters. The angular or rectangular space between the outer
and inner planking of the sides must be of sufficient volume to allow the dock to be
sunk to any required depth to receive the ship.

The dock itself must be ballasted with sufficient weight to render it specifically
heavier than water, in order that it may be readily sunk to the required depth,

It was proposed to have an engine fixed on the deck forward, to pump out the
water from the subdivisions, and also to drive saws and any other tools required
for carrying on the repairs*.

It would be desirable to construct such docks of iron, which is peculiarly suited
to meet all the requirements of such structures as to strength, rigidity, and buoyancy,
at less cost than timber under almost every combination of circumstances.

The peculiar advantage of the kind of dock now suggested is its adaptation to
places, where, from local circumstances, it is difficult, if not impossible, to build
secure and substantial dry docks on the shore.

* The paper was illustrated by a model, showing the general construction and proposed
arrangement of the engine, pump, &c.

Seem

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 207

On an Instrument for describing Spirals.
By the Rev. James Bootnu, LL.D., F.R.S.

This is the invention of Mr. Henry Johnson of Crutched Friars, and is called by
him a yolutor, with reference to its practical use.

It admits of several varieties ; and the earliest form affords a simple illustration of
the principle of the spiral line,—that is, of a line revolving round a point at one end,
as round a centre, while a marking point travels, during the revolution, from the
inner end or centre to the outer end of the line. It consists of a vertical axis resting
on a horizontal plane, and retained on it by a metal point to prevent slipping or
lateral motion. To this upright axis is attached one extremity of the horizontal
arm or bar. The vertical axis passes through the extreme end of the horizontal
arm, or a block attached to the end of it, in such a way that the horizontal arm
may freely revolve round the vertical axis. The remote extremity of the horizontal
bar is furnished with a drum or pulley, over which a chain or band passes.

One end of this band is fixed to the centre upon a level with the pulley; and
the other end of the chain or band, after passing over the pulley at the outer end of
the horizontal rod, returns and is fastened to a slide upon the horizontal bar,
which carries a pencil or pen, and is placed at the inner extremity of the bar, close to
the vertical axis.

The horizontal bar is caused to revolve; and the band is thus wound round the
centre, and the slide, with its pencil, is drawn along the bar from the centre towards
the pulley,—the spiral curve traced upon the horizontal plane by the pencil being
the result of the compound motion of the point travelling along the revolving line.
The form of the centre, if cylindrical, would lead to a regular increase in the radius
of the spiral; but by the substitution of grooved cones, any required ratio of increase
may be obtained.

A recent form of the instrument is even more simple than the one described,—the
slide being dispensed with, and the pencil being attached to the horizontal bar,
which glides through a horizontal tube fixed to the lower part of the vertical centre.
The upper part of the vertical centre being a cone, with its handle is held stationary
by the hand, while motion is given to the lower part with the horizontal tube by a
small winch handle fixed on a wire descending through the cone and its handle.
The end of the bar bearing the marking pencil recedes from the centre as the outer
end is drawn towards the centre by the band wound round the vertical axis.

To the horizontal tube and to the outer end of the bar are attached series of
pulleys ; and a variety of curves may be obtained by passing the band over two or
more pulleys, and thus dividing among several lines the effect of the band wound
round the centre.

On the Roof of the New Town Hall at Leeds. By C. Bropricx, Architect.

The principal points which are worthy of notice in this roof are the absence of tie
beams, which allows of the ceiling of the hall being brought nearer to the exterior
of the roof than is usually the case. The roof consists of eight sets of principals
framed together. Each principal consists of a semicircular laminated rib, formed of
twelve 11-inch planks, 9 inches wide, nailed together and fastened with wrought iron
bolts and straps. They are placed in couples, and stand immediately over each of
the columns in the hall. They are respectively 4 feet and 18 feet apart, The width
of the room is 71 feet, and the springing of the ribs 53 feet from the ground. The
entire height to the top of the roof is 99 feet, the hall being 73 feet high in the clere.
This system of roofs has been adopted more frequently in France than in England, the
only one with which Mr. B. was acquainted of any considerable size being the station of
the Great Northern Railway, at King’s Cross, The laminated rib is the invention of a
French engineer. It was at first suggested for a bridge over the Rhine, in the year 1811,
Several years later, M. Emy constructed several roofs on this plan; but all his roofs,
as well as the one at King’s Cross, being very near to the ground at their springing,
and without ceilings, are consequently much more manageable than the roof of the
Town Hall, which has a very elaborate plaster ceiling attached to it, and the spring-
ing is at aconsiderable distance from the ground: he had taken the precaution to in-
sert several additional struts and braces as a preventive against any change of form

208 REPORT—1858.

or outward thrust. Both these points had been attended with the most complete
success, there being not the least perceptible outward thrust or change of form since
they were put up. The latter fact was proved very satisfactorily by the plasterers,
who were enabled to run the mouldings on the ceiling from the centre. The brackets
for these mouldings were not gauged from a centre, but fastened to the ribs accord-
ing to their sizes. In constructing these semicircular ribs, he was much struck with
the small amount of springing or alteration of form. If the principle of these lami-
native ribs were better understood, he was of opinion that many of our church-
building architects would adopt it, instead of depending on three or four over-strained
joints for one tie.

Notice of some of the Articles shown in the Mechanical Section of the Leeds
Exhibition of Local Industry. By J. Bucxton.

The following are some of the chief articles exhibited :—

A fine collection of malleable iron, boiler plates, and angle-iron as used in ship-
building, locomotive crank and other axles, and wheel tires in various forms.

A model of a weighing crane, designed for raising and weighing heavy goods at
one operation.

Naylor’s double steam hammer. A collection of engineers’ tools.

A lathe for turning irregularly-formed pieces of wood, and an endless tape-saw ;
also the adaptation of Comb’s expanding pulley to a drilling machine.

Kemp’s woollen cloth dressing machinery.

Taylor’s corn mill, with the upper stone stationary and the lower one revolving.
The stones are 2 feet 8 inches and 3 feet in diameter, weighing 3 cwt. to 5 cwt. each,
versus 15 cwt. to 20 cwt., the weight of ordinary millstones. The work is found to
be done much more effectually, at a reduced cost of masonry and building.

Carrett, Marshall, and Co. stationary pumping and other engines.

Comb’s and Smallpage’s new double cam power-loom. In this power-loom all
the movements for plain weaving are obtained from-one shaft perfectly balanced in
itself and revolving at half the speed of the crank shaft of the old loom. In the
shuttle used in the loom, the weft is packed into the shuttle in the form of a hollow
roll, and drawn from the interna! surface.

Holmes’ loom for working ladies’ corsets without a seam; it differs from the
ordinary way of weaving, by the yarn being on several pulleys in small quantities,
instead of all being on one beam.

Miller’s card-setting machine.

Haste’s new self-acting apparatus for preventing the explosion of steam boilers.

A working model of Donnisthorpe’s wool-combing machine.

On some modern Appliances for Raising Water. By W.E.CARRETT.

The author, after alluding to the various kinds of pumps in use, proceeds to describe
two combinations of the steam engine and pump in direct action. In each case the
steam cylinder is directly over and in immediate communication with the pump
beneath. A comparatively slight transposition of detail would arrange these hori-
zontally, if required. ‘The first described was a steam pump of the high pressure
transportable class, having a fly wheel and connecting rods to the crank shaft; also
a modification of this for especial cases, where lightness and portability are requisite :
the other was a compound high and low pressure condensing steam engine, also
in direct communication with its pump, and of much larger proportions, used as a
water-lift.

The chief object in view is simplicity and durability of parts, a quiet and noiseless
action, and, as far as possible, a superior duty effected with a minimum expenditure
of power. One important feature to be observed is the application of the suctional
and compressive air vessels in close proximity to the pumps, by which it is able to
fetch the water from any distance (of course within the limits determined by the friction
in the pipes), or from a depth not exceeding 29 feet, and to force it any required
height or distance.

The author then, by the aid of diagrams, explained these several machines,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 209

Some Account of Lewis Paul and his Invention of the Machine for Spinning
Cotton and Wool by Rollers, and his claim to such invention, to the exclu-
sion of Jolin Wyatt. By Roserr Core, S.A.

On an Apparatus for laying down Submarine Telegraphic Cables.
By H. Conyzearg, CLE.

This invention consists in the construction of machinery composed of a resilient and
articulated series of segments or frames, which extend from the stern of a vessel
employed in the submerging of submarine telegraph cables, and over which machine
the cable is to be paid out, being delivered from a trumpet-mouth shaped congeries
of friction rollers, situated at the outer extremity of the frame furthest from the stern,
in which machinery the resiliency decreases gradually from that part of the apparatus
next to the stern, to the extreme outer end thereof. The articulated joints or seg-
ments of the apparatus are formed of frames, each frame, starting from the stern,
being smaller than that supporting it. Strong springs, such as coach-springs, fixed
to one frame and linked to the farther extremity of the vessel, are employed to give
resiliency to the articulations between each frame and that next to it, and the frame
furthest from the stern terminates in a semi-conoidal ur trumpet-mouth shaped
debouchure, consisting of rings of friction rollers breaking joint with each other, and
so arranged as to present a rolling surface of moderate curvature to the escaping
cable, at whatever angle with the course of the ship it is compelled by side currents
or Jee way to quit the apparatus.

Over this resilient and articulated series of frames is a rigid spur of wood or metal,
having suspended from it, outward, as many pulleys as there are joints in the appa-
ratus last described. An equal number of pulleys is provided inboard. A rope or
chain is connected to the extremity furthest from the stave of each joint, then toa
spring, or not, as deemed necessary ; and then, passing over one of the outboard pul-
leys and one of the inboard, in the rigid beam is attached to a spring apparatus, so
arranged as to give a resiliency- graduated according to the position of such particular
piece in the series.

This spring apparatus consists of a series of wheels and axles. The resilient springs
act on the axles in each case, and the ropes or chains leading to the various parts of
the laying apparatus are attached to the wheels. The ratio of the diameter of the
wheel to the axle varies in each case, according to the amount of resiliency re-
quired by the particular joint or frame of the fishing-rod apparatus, with which such
wheel and axle are connected. Thus, as the delivery extremity of the apparatus is
required to be moved through a comparatively large space by the exertion of a com-
paratively small strain, the ratio of the wheel to the axle in the resilient apparatus
pertaining to this end frame is consequently greater than in that pertaining to any
of the frames nearer the stern; and thus a graduated resilience is obtained.

On Expanding Pulleys. By Mr. Coomse.

This paper has been prepared at the request of Mr. Fairbairn, the President of the
Section, the pulley itself having been carefully examined by Prince Albert at the time
of his visit to the Exhibition of Local Industry, and by him warmly approved. A
pretty correct idea of these pulleys may be formed by supposing two cones cut with
radial spaces alternating with solid parts, so that the solid parts in one may slide
freely into corresponding spaces in the other, in the direction of a common axis.
The sizes of these radial sections are so regulated, that when the two cones are put
together they form a grooved or V-pulley, the diameter of which varies according to
the position they occupy with regard to each other. The expanding pulleys were
first designed for the purpose of giving the varying motion to the bobbins in flax and
tow roving frames, to which it is applicable with great advantage from the accuracy
of its action and the small space which it occupies.

On Reaping Machinery. By Avrrep Crosski1t, of Beverley.

After alluding to a paper read on this subject in the year 1853, which contained an

210 REPORT—1858.

account of all theinventions for reapingupon record up tothattime, Mr. Crosskill stated
that there were then three reaping machines capable of doing practical work : the two
American reapers known as Hussey’s and McCormack’s, which came over to the
Great Exhibition of 1851; and the Scotch machine called Bell’s (after its originator,
a minister in Fifeshire), which was brought into general notice, and subsequently
into practical operation, by Mr. William Crosskill, of Beverley. Since the year
1853 these three machines have been greatly improved, to adapt them to the require-
ments of British agriculture; Hussey’s by Messrs. W. Dray and Co., McCormack’s
by Messrs. Burgess and Key, and Bell’s at Beverley, under the direction of the
reader of the paper; and, by means of numerous working models and drawings, the
construction and peculiarities of these three machines were fully explained and illus-
trated. With reference to the cutting apparatus, it was remarked that numerous
endeavours have been made from time to time to supersede the reciprocating motion
given to the knives of the reaper, as it is a considerable source of loss of power, and
causes a tremulous vibration, resulting in excessive wear and tear. All attempts
have, however, hitherto failed to produce an efficient cutter, with a continuous
motion, and in his (Mr. Crosskill’s) opinion they were not likely to succeed, as actual
experience in the harvest field seemed to prove that the reciprocating or reverse
motion is necessary to prevent the guards and knives from being choked with short
straw, grass, weeds, and similar substances. The convenient disposal or delivery of the
cut corn has been the greatest difficulty to encounter in bringing the reapers into
general use in this country. Two of them are, however, made to deliver the crop in
swathes, ready for taking up and binding ; and from the third the corn is removed in
sheaves by aman who rides onthe machine. Various ingenious plans have from time
to time been brought forward for delivering the cut corn. Of these an excellent model,
from Messrs. Ransome and Sims, Ipswich, was exhibited of Atkin’s automaton self-
acting rake, and a description given of the Britannia reaper, which was sent over
from America this summer, to Mr. Samuelson, of Banbury. The different methods
of attaching the horses, either by making them follow the machine, or walking by
the side of the corn to be cut, were fully pointed out, and the advantages of each
plan stated in detail. Makers and users of reaping machines are divided in opinion
as to which is the best way; both have many warm advocates, and will probably
continue to be used according to the different circumstances under which the ma-
chines are employed. In offering some remarks on the practical use of reaping
machinery, Mr. Crosskill said it was necessary to direct attention to the variable and
uncertain nature of the work it has to perform. A week of heavy rain before har-
vest will lay the corn in some districts so that it can scarcely be mown with the
scythe, and is rendered quite unfit for the action of machinery ; in moderately favour-
able seasons, however, the reapers, as at present constructed, are capable of render-
ing important assistance to the farmer. The use of both reaping machines with self-
acting delivery is steadily extending, and, as agriculturists and their men become
more accustomed to them, their introduction is likely to become still more rapid, for,
owing to the high price of labour during the harvest, they effect a considerable saving
in the cost of cutting the crop, and enable the farmer to take more advantage of
favourable weather than he can do by the uncertain aid of the limited number of men
that are to be procured at that period of the year. It was also worthy of a remark
in connexion with this part of the subject, that, excepting the locomotive engine,
there is no machine in use which requires to be manufactured with so much care and
regard to durability as the reaper. Almost all other machines used either in agriculture
or manufactures do their work when at rest, and secured to substantial foundations.
Even those constructed to move from place to place are, before being putin motion,
fastened down, to prevent as far as possible the destructive consequences of oscilla-
tion and vibration. The reaper is, on the contrary, not only exposed to all the strains
consequent on passing over every description of uneven ground with its machinery
in action, but is also subject to the effects of a continual tremulous vibration, caused.
by the quick reciprocating motion of the knives. It was therefore not surprising
that the introduction of reaping machines has been attended with considerable
difficulties, especially as they have had to be worked by men but little accustomed to
the use of machinery ; in this respect, however, the last few years had witnessed a
great change. The assistance of the steam-engine was already felt by most farmers
to bea necessity in carrying out all extensive operations with efficiency and economy ;

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 211

and the general use of improved machinery would not fail to produce a corresponding
improvement in the condition of the agricultural labourer, and to accelerate the com-
pletion of that progressive revolution, which, since the abrogation of legislative pro-
tection, has been rapidly taking place in every department of practical agriculture.

On Double Cylinder Expansion Marine Engines.
By J. ELDER.

These engines are constructed with the view of getting the greatest amount of
power from a given quantity of steam at a given pressure, with less total weight of
engines, boilers, and water, and occupying less total space than that occupied by the
ordinary class of steam engines on board steam-ships ; these engines are therefore
expected to have the following properties :—

1.—That with these engines a steam-ship can steam the greatest distance pos-
sible with a given quantity of coals.

2.—That a given distance can be performed in the shortest time, on account of the
small weight of coals necessary to be carried.

3.—That the greatest amount of cargo and passenger accommodation is obtained,
from the small room occupied by the boilers and coals.

4.—That where a given capacity of cargo and passenger accommodation is re-
quired, a smaller and consequently less expensive ship is necessary.

5.—The boilers, being less than the usual proportion, are less expensive to replace
when required.

6.—The number of firemen and stokers is reduced, and, consequently, the space
occupied by them can be otherwise engaged, and their wages saved.

To accomplish these objects, the constructors of these engines have followed the
course we now describe. The cylinder capacity is so great as to admit of the steam
being expanded to within two pounds of the pressure in the condenser, at the end of
the stroke, while the engines are working full power. In order to reduce the shock
of high pressure on such a large piston, a cylinder with a piston one third the size is
placed close to it. This small cylinder receives the steam direct from the boiler during
one-third of its stroke, and is then cut off; this steam is consequently reduced to one-
third of its original pressure at the end of its stroke, and then enters the second
cylinder, where it is expanded three times more: thus 36lbs. steam is expanded to
Albs., viz. from 36 to 12 in the first, it then enters the second at 12 and is expanded
to 4ibs. ; but, as the second piston is three times the size of the first, the load will be
the same on both pistons, and the piston rods, cross heads, and connexion rods may
be duplicates of each other. The steam and eduction slide valves are wrought with
eccentrics. The steam valve is a gridiron with large flap ; the eduction valve, which
serves for both cylinders, has no lap, and the eduction ports remain open during the
entire stroke of the piston, thereby giving a free egress for the steam, and ample
escape for water, should it form.

In reversing the engines the eccentrics are made to overrun the shaft till they arrive
at the backing catch—a plan which is less likely to cause accident than the ordinary
methods, The cylinders are steam-jacketed completely, and then covered with felt
and wood. There is a small engine pump for forcing the distilled fresh water from
the jackets into the boilers, or to the fresh-water tanks, if necessary.

The boilers now being made for such engines are tubular, with three large super-
heating uptakes, 2 feet in diameter and 15 feet high, leading up through an oval
steam chest to the funnel; this makes a strong form of take-up, where it joins the
tube plate, especially in boilers firing across the ship. The feed-pipe of the boilers
has twelve spiral conyolutions inside the funnel to heat the feed-water. This may
be shut off when desirable.

The author then mentions the various vessels in which these engines have been
fitted, and shows by comparison with other engines the great saving of expense,
combined with greater efficiency.

A Description of a Hand Heliostat. By F. Gatton, S.G@.S.
; By this simple instrument the rays of the sun could be flashed with ease and pre-
cision upon any required spot, The appearance it produced was that of a brilliant
14*

212 REPORT—1858.

and glistering star, and its power was sufficient to arrest the notice of the most care-
less person at ten miles’ distance. No sky line was necessary to the distinctness of
this remarkable signal, as is the case with semaphores and flags; indeed it was
visible to the greatest advantage in front of a dark or hazy background. It could
be used with equal facility from any spot where the sun’s rays reached it, as from
between the trees of a forest or from a boat, as well as from a mast-head or a hill-top.
It had another peculiarity, in being enabled to flash its messages in perfect secrecy,
except to those who happened to be stationed in the narrow path along which they
were sent. Many occasions would arise, especially in war time, where this invention
would be of use. If the signaller was ignorant of the whereabouts of his correspond-
ent, he must sweep the horizon with his flash until it had been seen, and a response
elicited. For a more detailed description of this instrument, see the Proceedings of
Section A.

On the Economy of Water-Power. By Josrru Giynvn, F.R.S.

In this part of England, and in other manufacturing districts where coal is found, the
steam engine will generally be preferred to all other kinds of motive power ; but in
many parts of the British empire, more especially in Scotland and Ireland, coal is
scarce and water is abundant, and is now too often allowed to run to waste where
its application to turn mills and to work machinery for farming purposes might save
both time and money.

Those machines produced at the Paris Exhibition, to which the writer would more
particularly allude, are the horizontal water-wheels, some of which were wrongly
named Turbines, whereas they were really substitutes for the machines so called.

The Turbine is a machine of re-action, from which the water issues in jets, and
the unbalanced pressure opposite the orifice impels the machine and causes it to re-
volve in the opposite direction. It requires considerable skill in its construction,
and careful attention when in use; but the horizontal water-wheel is a much more
simple machine, and much less liable to derangement. The water drives round a
fan with curved vanes, having a vertical axis and revolving in an iron case, the water
escaping at the centre.

The horizontal water-wheels in the French Exhibition consisted of two parts, or
wheels, placed horizontally on a vertical axis, one wheel immediately above the other.
The upper part or wheel is fixed, and serves to direct the water into the buckets of
the lower one,—that is to say, the real water-wheel,—which revolves, and the axle
or spindle revolves with it.

The regulators, which determine the quantity of water and the speed of the wheel,
may vary in almost every instance, some being mere wooden sluices, some being metal
plates pierced with apertures like a ventilator, and some of stout leather strengthened :
with iron plates, fitting on conical rollers and radiating from the axis. Some of these
wheels are very powerful, and carry a spur-wheel upon the vertical axis, surrounded
by six pairs of millstones for grinding corn, driven by pinions in the usual way ;
other wheels, of smaller size and greater speed, drive a single pair of millstones, with-
out the intervention of other mechanism, the axis of the water wheel being also the
spindle of the mill-stone.

The mechanical effect of these machines, when carefully made, is said to equal
that of an over-shot or breast wheel. Some realize 75 per cent.

On the Cause of Steam-boiler Explosions, and Means of Prevention.
By J. Hopkinson.

The author in this paper shows the necessity of increased attention to the form and
construction of steam boilers. After noticing the hay-stack, waggon, Cornish, and
Butterly boilers, he very fully describes the want of safety in the double fire-box boiler,
and states the various causes of boiler explosions. He then says: ‘‘ I now propose to
show you the patent compound safety-valve, which is a prevention against explosions
from the causes before enumerated, and the explosions which have taken place from
all causes excepting that of a defective boiler, as under all other circumstances steam
boiler explosions are rendered impossible.”

The patent compound safety-valve comprises two distinct valves, a large 5} inch
diameter valve with flat face anda spherical or ball-faced valve 3 inches in diameter ;

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 213

the smaller or ball valve sits upon the centre of the larger one. The larger valve is
weighted by means of a lever and ball, as in the common safety-valve ; there is an
iron bridge or cover casting, which fits to the large valve and forms the centre for the
centre pin to give pressure upon the valve enclosed: and resting upon the centre of
the large valve is the ball valve, which is weighted bya dead- weight inside the boiler,
the dead weight being comprised of iron plate castings. When the steam exceeds the
pressure this ball-valve is weighted to, it escapes through the openings in the bridge
casting into the dome or shell and out into the atmosphere. As soon as the ball-valve
lifts from its seat, the large one also lifts from its seat ; and thus a double discharge is
given to the excessive steam. The feature here presented is of importance, inasmuch
as we find a valve possessing an opening or discharging area equal to an ordinary
safety-valve 81 inches diameter. The valve cannot be weighted beyond its working
pressure whilst the boiler is at work, as it will be seen; should an attempt be made
to weight the lever or even press upon it with all force, that would be useless so long
as the ball-valve was there ; and even should the ball-valve be weighted intentionally
whilst the boiler is standing for cleaning, &c., it may instantly be detected by placing
the ball on the lever in its ordinary working place; and by getting up the steam you
will discover such tamperings and to what extent, by the marks on the lever. Yet
when the boiler is at work it defies any tamperings.

With respect to its improved arrangement for deficiency of water,—there is
a lever suspended in the boiler; the rod which bears the weight for the ball-
valve passes through a large hole in’ the centre of this lever. On this rod is fixed
a collar, which is arranged so as to allow the Ings of the lever to come in contact
with it as before mentioned. There is a lever or beam suspended in the boiler, one
end of which bears a large float, the opposite end a balance weight, to counteract the
buoyancy of the float when immersed in the water, and to keep the lip of the lever
up against the under side of the top of the boiler ; the float is immersed in the water
to such a depth as is called low water mark. When the water begins to leave the
float, the specific gravity of the float is then brought upon the end of the lever, which
turns upon a centre; the lugs then are brought into contact with the collar on the
rod, and the valve is raised from its seat.

Should the water still get lower, the valve continues to rise, and will do so until
the water be again at its proper height : should the warning be disregarded, the steam

will all be discharged from the boiler and stop all working, and render explosion

impossible.

On the Drainage of the Metropolis. By E. Jones.

The author proposes to place portable tanks within cesspools constructed in the
sewers, each capable of holding about one ton weight of solid sewage matter. A
bar or grating to be fixed within the sewer, at one side of the tank, so constructed as
to act as a coarse filter to check the solids which will then be precipitated into the
tanks. The tanks when full to be lifted out by a portable crane, a lid being first
securely fixed thereon, so as to prevent the escape of the least smell. Previous to the
act of removal the communication with the sewers will be cut off, by doors or flood-
gates, made to slide in a grooved frame, by which the water in the sewer will be
arrested and the effluvia prevented from escaping into the streets during the removal.
The author suggests that a series of these tanks be placed at a quarter of a mile
distant from each other within the sewers, and that thus the drains could beeffec-
tually scoured. He estimates that the cost would not exceed one and a half million :
also, that the Thames should be embanked; within which embankment it is pro-
posed to construct, at the end of each main sewer, three reservoirs, to be divided into
compartments and fitted with moveable tanks to collect the sediment produced by
deodorizing with lime. Ornamental chimney shafts with furnaces to be constructed
near the mouths of the main sewers for the purpose of drawing off the noxious gases,
_ and also for the purpose of consuming refuse vegetable matter. The resulting ashes

may be used for deodorizing the sewage.

On the Application of Mechanical Power to the Bellows of Organs.
By D. Joy.

To work the feeders of an organ, a reciprocating motion alone is required ; but it

214 REPORT—1858.

must be capable of perfect regulation down to an infinitesimally slow speed, and
without impairing its certainty of action at thatslow speed. Hence it cannot depend
upon momentum to pass the dead points at the top and bottom of the stroke, as in a
steam engine; and for simplicity it must only consist of one cylinder. It must also
be absolutely independent of attention or lubrication, and be always ready for use.

The author, after detailing the results of a number of experiments, described an
engine which he illustrated with drawings. For some time the engine continued to
work perfectly; but afterwards difficulty was experienced in lubricating the valve upon
its face, this requiring attention varying from once per month to once in three or
six months. Various metals were tried relatively for the valve and face; but all after
a time squeezed out the lubricating material from between them, and cut into each
other. Glass was tried with no better success. Lastly, a lignum vite valve was
put in: this stood every test, and, though taking a little more power to drive when
originally put in, it was found to need no lubrication of any kind, the water acting
in the place of it.

The peculiarities of the engine as it now stands are—Ist. A machine giving out a
reciprocating motion by the pressure of a non-elastic fluid, and capable of being re-
gulated to the lowest possible speed without the possibility of failing at the return
stroke, that return stroke depending upon a movement completed by the previous
stroke. 2nd. The adaptability of this machine to work under any pressure of the
afore-named non-elastic fluid, entirely free from the shocks usually attending such
machines from the necessity of suddenly changing the direction of the moving column,
which may be changed as slowly as requisite, by retarding the valve, or diminishing
the outlet. 3rd. The entire independence of attention or lubrication.

The organ of the Leeds Town Hall is blown by five of these engines. They are
calculated to be able to supply 50 cubic feet of air per second, at a pressure equal to
a column of water of 6 inches, and when working at full speed to develope a power
equal to about 8 horses, as calculated by Watt’s rule.

On the Application of Combustible Compounds to be used in War.
By Joun MaAckInTosH. .

This paper relates to the use of coal-tar, naphtha, or other hydro-carbons, alone or in
combination with other materials, to be used as an agent in attack and defence; also
to the application of hydro-carbons mixed with gunpowder, and brought to a plastic
state by means of Indian rubber or other gums, and fibrous materials, introduced into
shells and other missiles ; also in filling shells with coal-tar, naphtha containing po-
tassium, for igniting when used injwater, and in filling shells with coal-tar, naphtha
mixed with phosphorus and bisulphuret of carbon, with bursting powder sufficient to
open the shells.

To attack fortresses from seaward, the author would generate an artificial dense
and dark fog, capable of being prolonged at pleasure, in front of the batteries to be
attacked, which would render them untenable, enabling the attacking vessels to
approach and destroy the works unmolested by any hostile fire.

The diaphragm shells filled with naphtha, phosphorus, and bisulphuret of carbon,
may be used with great effect against cavalry and troops, as the bursting of the shell
scatters the contents in all directions. ; :

When a shell containing the combustible material bursts in earthworks, the earth,
being porous and incombustible, prevents the combustion from spreading rapidly,
but allows the black vapour to ooze out gradually, causing most serious annoyance
to the enemy, who are unable to extinguish the suffocating fog, and are hindered
from carrying on their operations.

It may be brought to bear with most satisfactory results against an enemy en-
camped in tents.

On Constructing and Laying Telegraph Cables.
By Joun MackinTosu.

In the ordinary process of expressing the gutta percha through dies in a fluid state,
the covered wire, as it issues from the die, is caused to pass into a long trough con-
taining water, for the purpose of setting it, but great difficulty is found in causing
the perfect union of the different coatings, which renders the insulation liable to

ae

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 215

leakage. In order to obviate this difficulty, the wire is coated with gutta percha by
means of rollers mounted on parallel axes, and revolving in contact with each other.
Each of these rollers is grooved in its periphery, and these grooves meet to form an
eye, the sizes of the covering desired. Against these rollers are placed hoppers, in
which gutta percha or Indian rubber is placed, in the state in which it comes from
the masticator. This Indian rubber or gutta percha enters and fills yp the grooves
of the rollers; and where they come together, the gutta percha or India rubber in the
grooves is brought together in one piece enclosing the conducting wire. The longi-
tudinal strength and obtension are obtained hy imbedding fibres of hemp, flax, or
cotton in an outer layer of insulating material; this is done with great pressure.
The covering is subsequently subjected to treatment which enables it to resist tropical
heat, and affords quite sufficient protection against ill usage. The shore ends of the
cable, or for shallow water, are protected with strong wire. In place of sulphuric
acid, Mr. Mackintosh recommends the use of chloride of sulphur, mixed with a sol-
vent by sulphuret of carbon. Add to this from 2 to 4 per cent. of chloride of sul-
phur, and then pass the wire through it. The speed at which the covered wire
passes through the liquid is so regulated as to allow of its remaining therein for
about three seconds, and this process closes up the pores thoroughly, and renders
the wire much less likely to be injured by heat or abrasion. The method of sub-
merging cables prepared by the author was to pass them through an apparatus con-
taining water and hard-wood balls, which would allow of the accomplishment of the
work without injuring the electrical condition of the ropes.

On the Submersion of Electric Cables. By J. MACLEAN.

The author proposes a plan stated to possess the following advantages :—

1. That any amount of slackable cable, from a few feet to several hundred feet,
might be obtained by adopting the plan proposed, so as to meet the pitching of the
vessel in a heavy sea, or any sudden stoppage in the paying-out machinery.

2. By conducting a lever, upon which the spiral springs impinge, to the paying-
out machine, the rate at which the cable ought to be paid-out might be self-
regulated. :

3. Or this lever might have an indicator such as a dial-plate, by which the person
who superintends the paying-out machine could see that a strain is upon the cable,
and that more is instantly wanted ;—the slackable cable in the apparatus giving him
time to accelerate his machine, before the strain reaches a fixed point.

4. The plan might be wrought nearly as well with the apparatus lying in a hori-
zontal position,—of course allowing the compensation weights to work perpen-
dicularly.

5. The strain upon a cabie, equal to one ton each mile, could never, under
ordinary circumstances, by the plan proposed, exceed 3000 lbs., which is only one
half of the strain caused by the pitching of the vessel during the late experiments in
the Bay of Biscay.

6. By passing the cable under and over grooved wheels, an amount of friction
would be created, which might be an advantage rather than a disadvantage ; because,
in the late experiment, it was found that the cable ran too swiftly, and that it was
necessary toapply breaks. By adopting the plan described above, the increasing and
decreasing friction, according to the amount of strain, would act as a self-regulating

break.

On the Performance of Steam Vessels, the Functions of the Screw, and the
Relations of its Diameter and Pitch to the form of the Vessel. By Vice-
Admiral Moorsom.

The author proposed to furnish the Association with such further information on
the performance of vessels at the measured mile as may induce them to appoint a
Committee with the specific object of procuring experiments to be made at sea, the
records of which shall be kept in such form as will enable competent persons to
calculate from them the characteristics of vessels’ engines and screw propellers, so
that the performance of each may be duly apportioned.

216 REPORT—1858.

To this paper are appended Forms of Returns intended to further this object.
2

Considering the formula R = AW x = to be the foundation of all sound induc-
tion on the question of resistances, the author considers also that at present its
limit of application is to the mid-section only, irrespective of hull, masts, and rig-
ging, and to the resistance in smooth water with calm weather.

There are modifications of this equation to meet the increased resistance arising
from hull, masts and rigging, wind and sea, and the form of the vessel.

But these modifications embrace only a very small range of the additional elements,
because no properly-conducted experiments have been made under varied conditions
at sea.

The resistances of sections which have come within the author’s observation are
comprised within the expressions—

SV? SV?

—— and

3582 3219,
and the specific resistances due to the forms of vessels lie within 6 and 13 per cent.
of R.

The following are the results of performance at the measured mile of the Duke of
Sutherland's yacht, Undine, in July 1856, and July 1858 :—

1856. 1858.
Ft. In. Ft. In.

Screw diameter .......+.. dee tee eters ale Gel eae 7 10
Ses ee as ee eee 1 Eee
“p wa Onan aisherpeticres ae & atigvahat seers = Laos 1 4
Dratt forwards. .c..jics wats sieeve waters thew St Scleas ote 8 6
Jo dedltrele siete sas cis sie hansacks vee cher cd B- a soe tO
Sq. ft Sq. ft

Mid-section...... tatty au Oieisksioie siete : 148. 154
Indicator Horse-power mace Sistas 162 157
Knots. Knots.

Peed! sis sejas b1.0% 45 Aoi Dome asteiel ee BOO meres 9°26
INo.vof revolations x. Aiotclerisrereresrevels -. 108°00 .... 108°74
Lip per CENteee psn, aspale stele iagh ais, olstoteia ors 20°52 22.08 17°9

Now, the first observation that may be made is, that the larger diameter of course
produced a greater thrust, and so a better result. But this does not follow.

It will be observed that the pitch is considerably less in proportion to the diameter
in the new screw.

The slip was calculated beforehand, and was given to Lord Stafford, a fortnight
before the trial, as about 173".

It will be seen that the mean average at the trials was 17°9 per cent. On the
same grounds, then, that he calculated the slip of the Undine, the author expressed
the opinion respecting the Ratiler.

The mean of trials in Yarmouth Roads, under favourable conditions, gives a slip
of 15°798 per cent. when the Raétler’s draft of water was about 12 feet 4 inches,
her section 300 square feet, and speed 8:8 knots. A trial in the Thames, in October
1851, with a mean draft of 13°94 inches, a section of 338 square feet, and a
speed of 9°141 knots, gives a slip of 17°18 per cent.

The screw duly adjusted to the form of the Ratéler would make a slip of about
12 per cent.

The nature of the slip of the screw may be illustrated by the apparent effect upon
it when the vessel is moving in a tide-way.

Out of the seven trips made by the Undine, at the measured mile, the two greatest
extremes are selected, viz. :—

Against Tide. With Tide,
Knots. Knots.
Speed of screw........... Si blaticucaithc 10°94 .... 10°64
Dos vessel s scwibngt hectare oe cle ee 7°32- see 10°24
Slip pex/centsiieuhin siewie ae ate silt ie othe dlc: pS OD iaiiatennn ann
Revolutions: 2% Jai e wisicleeie's tamcnede . /698"°6)' ¥ .. ann) 90:89

seleels lett LAG32 he sae okiod:

217

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

ml ols *xayjod | , 4 ‘lated | ,
g Ai g iS ' F; ‘ "eas *1OVBM “Old PSSA “Old PSS2A
g|sieig vas 19}0A vos +1990 qe | yjoows
: =. | & s. ‘asinoo | ‘spavd |-q003 "bs 32) qjoours 48 y0ouWs Asan a
g Y |Buysay| s,diqs | yar ut Arvurpig | uryeuy, | Areurpig | urpeuL | pz a “Bas *JaqTAL
j > jo WqUa pura | jas [res 310 | [PHL ye Areurpi9 YjOows ut yey,
ajzuy |spavfyo| jo jo
ajzuy | aauy vary
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"BIg *puUlAA SoTTU 93N7"78 peads aq} Jutar *sq] UI [Te0o Jo
ur paadg *d ‘H i0qeorpuy uoydumsuo9 SayIUI 9yn7v7s UI paadg
“IIVS UAaNQ ‘WVHLg 2TaNQ
“TIT ON WIAVL
eS ee ee a ee Sis Tee oe
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ul uaats) -vudp |raqnumm| jo yends| 8] 3 | B | 2 Actas a -* 2 *OATCA zad god |e 3 os! s
yeap ye} fq ‘sad suoy) vase e me) Bes aad | -saqng, | &.| § g Agayes | ssqz ur | ssqrut |SS|-on | 392] 2 | -soyezy
uols ysniyy | -njpoaeyt | = 9a3 apuy | ar ies a z B (=) uo ‘zajtog | ‘uoystg | 2 Bg Re jo
-ramuy | jue ayy "lo & | & jqour-bs) uy “uo |s5 “S| * | omen
-aynsay g: Rist = sod ‘
5 *SOVAROS | 2) B |audea
“aa T1ad0ug * | onmvanao |, | 2] 8 Ngpciee ! *SUAQNITAO
vauy ed |i W
‘IT ON WIAVL
*q73u2] JO | 5) srenb ST *uny ‘souujug | ‘[29y °xe
app.aos | A oy | asuod | TOA rac swpprorg | ‘yyBu07
“suf, UT SB U04ISOg : : — uveyt
quamsorjdsiq *so[suy “omen
*NOILOSS-AIJT ‘HLAVaag 40 LHDIVaIg *ANI'T-MALV AA AVO'T
eee tne

‘I ON QIAVL
— 'BCRT Aopr pag ‘uebo pun ‘Logt saquarag #81

218 ~ REPORT—1858.

The mean rate of the tide, therefore, was about 1°46 knot, the speed of the vessel
through the water about 8°78 knots, and the mean slip about 18°42 per cent. From
these data may be deduced the following relations, viz. :—

That the direct thrust of the screw against the tide is 6877 lbs., and the resultant
4429, and the slip, being the difference of the ratio of the square roots of these
quantities, is therefore 19°75 per cent.

That the direct thrust with the tide is 6498 lbs., and the resultant, as before, 4429 ;
the slip is 17°44 per cent.

The mean slip is, consequently, 18°59, which is sufficiently near the former calcu-
lation of 18°42.

A further deduction is—that the resultant, 4429 lbs., is at least equal to, or
greater than, the specific resistance; for, if not, the slip would not have approached
so close to the theoretic ratio which, as before stated, was calculated before the
trial took place.

This principle of the slip may be used to correct the speed of the Undine in her
run from Holyhead to the Mull of Cantire, when, with smooth water and light airs,
she had the tide with her the greater part of the time.

The results were as under, viz, :—

Indicator horse-power .........sesceecrears 158°77

‘Revalatans nent cles paeteve ce okt a7 ercasdtiged, ccotale Wlons ‘ 98°40

Speed of yessel......... A sie ratner ia Mee eeR Lets 9°97 knots (by land).
i screw ..... Bice ten lnts MEMO a areal ste ae 11°06

SiN crash oid pRetirse SDA Recs Seca ain ie at 9°24 per cent.

Assuming the standard ratio of slip, as before determined, at about 18 per cent.,
the tide appears to have advanced the speed of the vessel about a mean rate of 0°87
of a knot per hour, and therefore reducing the speed through the water to 9°] knots,
or 0'16 of a knot slower than at the measured mile, the indicator horse-power being
1°68 greater.

' The Undine was, it is believed, deeper in the water on this last occasion.

The following questions arise for solution by means of the experiments which it is
my object to procure to be conducted at sea :—

In any given vessel, what relations obtain between the resistance due to her sec-
tion in smooth water and calm weather, and the resistances the vessel herself
experiences under various conditions, when under sail, under the screw, and under
both? ae

' What are the relations in any giyen engine of absorbed power at different speeds ?

In any given screw, what are the relations between its length and its speed of
rotation, so that a continuous disc shall be maintained ? and what immersion in rela-
tion to the diameter is necessary to this result ?

What are the relations between the direct thrust of any given disc and its resultant,
and the consequent effective area and pitch and ratio of slip ?

Researches of this nature, if carefully conducted, will show that the screw is
capable of more accurate application, and more extended use, than has yet been
made of it. Its slip is a calculable element, provided the periphery be so immersed,
and the rotation such that a continuous disc is maintained.

The limits of immersion and rotation are yet to be determined.

On a proposed Floating Lighthouse. By Josrrn Joun Murpuy.

On a new Double-acting Steam Hammer. By Witt1am Naytor, late of
Norwich, now of 3 New Broad Street, London, E.C.

In considering the principle of the double-action steam hammer, we may draw
some analogy with the steam gun for throwing projectiles, and assume the cylinder
to be as the gun, and the piston and hammer attached as the ball. Let us assume
the cylinder as one foot in length, with the top cover off, and the relative force of
steam to the weight of the hammer such as by the time the piston reached the top
of the cylinder, and should be moving at a velocity of 32 feet per second, it would
ascend above the cylinder 16 feet, and when it had returned 16 feet by gravity it

.
vw

ay ee

ee

-

> wl

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 219

would have acquired a velocity of 32 feet per second. Let us place the cover on the
cylinder, and lift up the hammer as before, only, instead of allowing it to rise up into
the atmosphere until its velocity and force were counteracted by gravity, let the steam
be entirely withdrawn from below the piston, and a supply introduced upon it.
That which has the power of putting it in motion has also the power of stopping it,
and of causing it to return with the same velocity, aided also by that which is due
to its gravity ; and it will be evident that, by the time it has reached the object it is
intended to strike, it must have acquired more than 32 feet per second, although the
space moved through is only one foot. So much for the effect of the blow. Now
for time. We have assumed that, when the retarding force was employed upon the
piston, it was moving with a velocity that would have carried it 16 feet, and it was
returned with a still greater velocity by having the weight of the hammer with it
instead of against it; so that the time must be considered as that which it would take
to rise one foot at such a velocity as would, if the motive power were withdrawn,
have sufficient momentum to carry or throw it 16 feet, and the time in returning
could not be more than the difference in time of a body falling 16 and 17 feet. The
double-acting steam hammer, working with such relative force and weight, would
give the same effect as the single-acting hammer of 16 feet range; but as to time,
there would be about 30 blows of the double-acting hammer to one of the single.
This hammer is also capable of giving very light blows as well as very heavy ones ;
and it can be made either single or double acting by the circular valve, which works
longitudinally in its chamber. A double hammer of 20 cwt. at work in Sheffield,
has attained 200 blows per minute ; and hammers of 10 cwt. have given 250 blows
per minute. These hammers are under the most perfect control of the workmen,
and can be worked as slow as necessary.

On a Plan for giving Alarms in Passenger Trains.
By J. O'NEILL.

This invention consists of an iron bar extending under each carriage, and suspended
on a pin a little from the centre, so as to make one end heavier than the other.

The heavy end is securely held in a bridle, by a hanging latch at the end of the
carriage.

The light end also passes through a bridle at the other end, and has a tongue
which draws out from the bar and reaches under the latch fixed on the next carriage.

By disengaging any of the latches, the heavy end falls; and the light end, in
rising, throws up the next latch, and so on to the guard’s van, where it rings an
alarum.

A chain or wire, fixed to the latch and brought into the carriage, gives each pas-
senger, in the event of danger, the means of giving a signal to the guard; anda
duplicate set of bars, on the other side of the carriage, enables him instantly to com-
municate with the driver, if necessary. 5

The end of each tongue has a rising point, riveted loose ; so that the porter, when
coupling the carriages, could put it in position for disengaging the latch, in case the
carriages should become detached by the breaking of the coupling chains.

As the bars are not connected, any number of carriages can be taken off or put
on at a station by merely turning the loose point on the end of the tongue up or
down.

On the Gresham Buoy, for recording the Loss of Missing Ships at Sea.
By James Otpuam, C.E., Hull.

The object of this paper is to point out a mode by which a record of the loss of
ships at sea may be attempted, where otherwise no account would ever be obtained.
It is proposed that every sea-going ship, of whatever description, and particularly
those carrying passengers, shall be provided with one or more copper buoys, bearing
the name of the vessel and the port to which she belongs; that they shall have an
Admiralty mark, and a Board of Trade number.

The “Gresham Record Buoy” (so-called from having been suggested by John
Gresham, Esq., of Hull) would be provided with a chamber, and a small spring valve

220 REPORT—1858.

in the upper part, made to open outwards, and capable of resisting any ordinary
pressure. Within this hollow space or chamber it is proposed to insert a slip of paper
or card, or any other document, and even property, if made large enough, when all
hope of safety and rescue shall fail ; and at the final sinking or breaking up of the
ship the buoy would float off, with the probability of being picked up at some time.

The ‘‘ Record Buoy” is intended to be made of strong copper, of sufficient size to
be applicable to the purpose, painted in bright-red and white stripes, and fitted with
a small bell and flag on the upper part.

Three important advantages are to be derived from the use of this buoy, viz. :—
Ist. The mournful satisfaction to surviving friends and relations, of being informed
of what has befallen the ship andcrew; 2ndly. Satisfaction to Insurance Companies
and insured, that the ship and cargo are really and for ever lost; and 3rdly. The
light which may be thrown on science, as such records would probably explain the
cause of accidents, and the circumstances attending them,—for instance, whether
owing to the build and want of strength in a ship, failure of machinery (in case of
a steam vessel), or having struck on a rock, or otherwise.

On the Construction of Floating and Fixed Batteries.
By G. Reuniz, F.R.S.

The author observed, it was now some years since the covering of the exterior of
vessels of war with plates of iron was proposed by General Paixhans, of the French
Artillery. This he exposed in his work, and stated that, to enable a plate to resist a
32 lb. shot, it would require a thickness of several inches, and that from the great
weight of plates it was only applicable to ships of the line, and that at a cost of
£24,000. On the commencement of the late Russian war, the Emperor of the
French, who had paid much attention to the subject, brought it before our Govern-
ment. He considered that it would very much facilitate the operations then about
to take place against the Russian fortresses of Bomarsund, Helsingfors, Sweaborg,
and Cronstadt. Vessels of great burden and strength were therefore constructed
and covered with massive wrought-iron plates of four and five inches in thickness.
The results of the few trials which were made with these iron-plated batteries were
published in the journals of the day, but their success was considered to be doubtful.
Many experiments of solid and hollow shot, fired from 68-lb. guns, have been made
recently at Woolwich and Portsmouth, with unfavourable results. These results
led the author to think that little or no success had hitherto been attained. He
therefore proposed to use inclined or curved surfaces, instead of flat or point blank
surfaces, as was illustrated in the models exhibited. One of these was a floating
battery, or man-of-war, having its sides cased with iron plates with curved surfaces ;
the other a fixed or floating battery, also with curved surfaces. He claimed no
other originality for this idea than in the curved forms of the plates. Mr. Rennie
also exhibited various specimens of felt which had been handed to him by General
Sir Charles Shaw, and several of which had been penetrated to a limited extent by
rifle balls.

On a Universal Printing Press. By T. J. SILBERMAN.

In this paper the author describes a new method of printing by applying the
pressure of a fluid to a yielding surface, Jaid upon an unyielding engraved surface,
and this whether the surface printed be that of the vessel itself, which thus becomes
the press, or whether it be communicated to another interposed yielding surface
from the pliable and elastic side of the vessel, so as to print plane, curved, or
angular surfaces—or whether the material to be printed be paper, felt, textile fabric,
caoutchouc, leather, bladder, ceramic paste, or glass, crystal, or enamel, softened
by heat ; or whether it be used for the purpose of peripheric printing, as in the
printing of terrestrial and celestial globes, of vessels of glass or earthenware, or asa
modification of the presses in use for other kinds of printing.

The pressure, being that of a fluid communicated through a uniformly yielding
surface, will be absolutely equal at every point of the surface; consequently there
will be no danger of partial pressure on the plate, nor need there be a pressure

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 221

upon any part of the plate beyond merely what is necessary; so that the maximum
result is obtainable with the minimum of pressure. Convex or concave surfaces can
be as easily printed as plane surfaces. :

The author describes very fully the different methods in use for the practical
application of the principle. One great advantage is its extremely simple construc-
tion, and the small space it occupies relatively to other presses; moreover, a much
greater number of impressions can be taken in a given time than was possible here-
tofore.

As to the sort of pressure to be used; steam, or expanded or condensed air, the
hydraulic press, the screw, the cam, or the eccentric or knee lever lock. If steam
is used, the waste heat will warm the plates in copperplate engraving, and will
thus get rid of the charcoal dust, which is so injurious to the health of the workmen.

Water, on the whole, appears to be the most desirable agent on account of its
non-compressibility, and of the small quantity required in order to produce very
considerable pressure; as also on account of its non-expansibility, which prevents

the possibility of an explosion; for if any breakage takes place, the water simply
runs out. ;

On a Universal Cock. By T. J. S1nBERMAN.

On a Wreck Intelligencer. By Kt. Smivu.

It was constructed for the purpose of being thrown overboard in case of wreck
or any other serious accident. Formed of copper in the shape of a ball, it consisted
of two hemispherically-shaped shells, coupled together and water-tight, and in-
tended to contain the ship’s log or other information or valuables. It was painted
in brilliant colours, and surmounted by a glass ball cut into facets at the top, so as
to shine in the rays of the sun.

Remarks on-the Bursting of Guns and Cannon.
By 8. Smita, FRCS.

About sixty years ago, the Government sent down to Leeds 1,500 heavy Prussian
muskets for the volunteers of that day: they were proved by the late Mr. Calvert,
in a place near School Close. He (Mr. Smith) was then a school Jad, and he and
his fellow-scholars used to go and see the muskets proved, and they were sadly
disappointed if some of these old arms did not burst during the trial. When they
did burst, the barrels used to rise many feet, and describe many somersaults, and
then he and his fellow-scholars were delighted. From this fact, the conclusion
would naturally be come to, that where the gun burst at the breech, the force of
the explosion would be materially diminished, and the aim of the shot altered also.
His object was to prove that this theory was not correct. Fifty years ago, the
gardener of Mr. Elam of Sheepscar was brought into the Leeds Infirmary to have
his arm taken off, and he told this story of his accident:—He (the gardener) said he
was shooting small birds in the garden, and after firing the last time, he observed
he had killed two birds. He went to pick them up, and it was only on stooping
down to do so that he discovered that his hand was hanging down by two or three
tendons, and that the gun barrel had burst. He (Mr. Smith) made some observa-
tions about the accident. In the first place, it was singular that the man should
have his arm blown off, and not know it; and secondly, it struck him as being also
singular that the birds should be killed, although the gun had burst. Ten or twelve
years afterwards, when he (Mr. S.) became surgeon at the infirmary, a man em-
ployed as watchman at Mr. Benyon’s mill, in Meadow-lane, was brought in for
treatment. The man stated that he was coming off duty about five o’clock in the
morning, when he saw a crow at the top of a tree seventy yards off. He fired at it,
saw it drop, and found he had killed it, but the most singular part of the business
was that his gun had also burst, and evidently after the shot had left it. In 1855,
a cannon was fired at Woolwich, and the ball was seen to pass from the muzzle of
the gun, and to strike the butt. The gun afterwards screwed round, burst into

222 REPORT—1858.

several fragments, and injured several men in the neighbourhood In this
latter case an appreciable amount of time elapsed between the ball leaving the
muzzle of the gun and the bursting of the gun at the breech. His theory conse-
quently was, that a ball discharged from a gun was not altered in its force and aim
by the bursting of the arm, but that the bursting occurred at a subsequent period
to the discharge of the ball. Mr. Smith has seen many other cases proving the
same fact.

On Combined Steam. By the Hon. J. WEATHERED.

Being convinced that ordinary steam was objectionable because it was too much
saturated with water, and that surcharged steam was also objectionable for an
exactly contrary reason, it being too dry, the author conceived the idea of com-
bining the two, and discovered in practice not only that the objections to both were
removed, but that in combined steam a new power was produced—an effective and
economical combination of fire and water, applicable to all purposes for which
steam is employed.

In order to apply this new system, a pipe, in addition to the usual steam pipe
which conveys the ordinary steam away from the boiler, carrying with it more or
less water in a liquid state, is employed to convey part of the steam from the boiler
through pipes which are conyoluted, or otherwise placed in any convenient form in
the uptake or chimney of the boiler, and is joined to the ordinary steam pipe at or
near its entrance into the cylinder. In its passage through these pipes this steam
is more or less heated to a temperature of 500° or 600° Fahr. by the waste heat
which is passing up the chimney: this heat, thus arrested, is conveyed to and
utilized in the cylinder at temperatures varying between 300° and 400°, instead of
at the low temperatures at which it is now employed.

From various experiments which have been made by the British, French, and
United States Governments, all of which were attended with the most satisfactory
results, which are fully detailed in the paper, the author deduces the following
general inferences :—

I. That the mixed steam participates at the same time of the qualities of steam
proper, and of gas, or superheated steam,—the elasticity of the one, and the increased
temperature derived from the other.

Il. That saturated steam contains too much vesicular water, and that super-
heated steam has too much the nature of gas, is a bad conductor of heat, and gives
with difficulty the heat necessary to transform it into mechanical power.

III. That, in all the experiments which have been made of the mixed steam, the
difference in the temperature of the steam in entering and leaving the cylinder was
greater than when saturated or surcharged steam alone was used; consequently, as
more heat was utilized, greater mechanical force was generated. iat

IV. It seems evident, therefore, that the mixture contains more latent caloric,
which is rendered sensible, and consequently converted into mechanical power.

The advantages which it possesses over the use of ordinary steam are :—

ist. One-third of the wear and tear of boilers prevented, inasmuch as only two-
thirds of the usual quantity of heat’ is required; and, as only two-thirds of the
usual quantity of water is needed, one-third of the deposit in boilers is prevented.

2nd. For the same speed smaller boilers can be used.

3rd. Increased power when required in cases of emergency.

4th. Priming effectually prevented.

5th. Less danger from explosion, as the increased power is exerted in the cylinder,
and not in the boiler.

6th. The system can be employed to any boiler now in use.

7th, One-third of the space now occupied by coal can be used for freight, or
steamers may go one-third farther with the same coal.

8th. Fewer strokes are required.

9th. The desired pressure readily maintained at all times.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 223

On Recent Improvements in Railway Signals. By C. F. Wurrwortu.

The recent improvements in railway signals, known as Whitworth and Gibson’s
combined patent, consist of the following provisions :—

Ist. The improved releaser for auxiliary or distant signals, which operates to
protect stations, junctions, opening bridges, and other parts where men are posted
in constant charge.

2nd. Continuous signals, adapted for the protection of intermediate places
between distant stations, and especially where there are tunnels or curved cuttings
or inclines.

3rd. Announcing bells, which may be only mechanical or operated upon
magnetically, acting either in advance or in rear of the train, so as to indicate,
as may be required, the position of trains in progress.

4th. The air vessel or cushion, to regulate the motion of the signal under an
excess of weight advisable to ensure the due action of the danger signal.

5th. The compensation, which acts as a perpetual adjusting screw on the
wires ; so that, whatever the temperature, the tension will always be equal.

6th. The engine fog signal, which is so arranged as to operate under the plat-
form of the engine whenever a signal, at danger, is unobserved, either through
carelessness or impenetrable mists.

The peculiarities of these inventions are, that the motion of the signal is totally
irrespective of the velocity or impetus of the train effecting it; also that the first
wheel which passes the signal-post acts on the lever completely, and so depresses
the lever in contact as to prevent its rising against any subsequent wheel in the
train.

The author then described by the aid of diagrams and models these various im-
provements, and also illustrated in addition a method of signaling by telegraph,
which could be attached to the previously-described machinery, when required,
when the same depression of the lever before referred to in connexion with the
first signal-post brings into contact a small lever and stud, thereby completing the
electric current, and acting upon an electro-magnetic bell placed in any suitable
situation in advance or in rear of the moving train,—the bell ringing continuously
until the second signal apparatus be reached, when the second lever breaks the
current simultaneously with releasing the first signal and setting the second to

danger.

On an Instrument for setting out Curve Lines. By R. P. Wittsams.

APPENDIX.

GEOLOGY.

On some remarkable Yorkshire Fossils, including the unique Plesiosauri in
the Museum at York, with pictorial restorations by Mr. Waterhouse
Hawkins. By Enwarp Cuartesworth, F.G.S.

On an Ichthyolite found in the Devonian Slates of East Cornwall.
By W. Pencetty, F.G.S.

124 REPORT—1858,

On the Trilobite found at the Knoll Hill, Newton Abbott.
By W. Pencetty, F.G.S.

On the discovery of Strata of supposed Permian Age, in the interior of North
America, by Mr. Meek and other American Geologists. By Professor
RoGERs.

Observations on the Arrangement of small Stones on certain bare Levels in

Northern Localities. By Joun Wottey, Jun., M.A.

BOTANY.
On the Plants of the Oolitic Moorlands. By J. H. Davis.

INDEX I.

TO

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

OBJECTS and rules of the Association,
xvii.

Places and times of meeting, with names
of officers from commencement, xx.

Treasurer’s account, xxiii.

Members of Council from commence-
ment, xxiv.

Officers and Council for 1858-59, xxvi.

Officers of Sectional Committees, xxvii.

Corresponding members, xxviii.

Report of Council to General Committee
at Leeds, xxviii.

Report of Kew Committee, xxxiii.

Report of Parliamentary Committee,

* XXXVi.

Accounts of Kew Committee, xxxvii.

Recommendations adopted by General
Committee at Leeds: — involving
grants of money, xxxix; involving
applications to Government or public
institutions, xli; applications for re-
ports and researches, xlii; communi-
cations to be printed entire among the
Reports, xliii.

Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific objects, xliii.

General statement of sums paid on ac-
oe of grants for scientific purposes,
xliv.

Extracts from resolutions of the General
Committee, xlviii.

‘Arrangement of general meetings, xlviii.

Address of Professor Owen, F.R.S., xlix.

Anemometer, description of a self-re-
cording, 306.
Animal, vegetable, and mineral products

imported from foreign countries into
the Clyde, 185.

Araneidea, on some points in the anatomy
of the, 157.

Atherton (Charles) on shipping statistics,
239.

Beckley (R.), description of a self-re-
cording anemometer, 306.

Belfast, meteor seen at, 156; report of
the dredging committee of, 282.

Bridges, suspension, adaptation of, to
eae the passage of railway trains,

Clyde, on animal, vegetable, and mineral
substances importedfrom foreign coun-
tries into the, in 1853 to 1857, 185.

Connal (Michael), report on animal, vege-
table, and mineral substances imported
from foreign countries into the Clyde
in the years 1853 to 1857, 185.

Crustacea, report on, of Dublin district,
ae list of, inhabiting Belfast Bay,

Crustacea Podophthalmia, tabular view
of genera of British, 265,

Decapoda Podophthalmata, 262.

Dredging committee, report of the Dub-
lin, 262; Belfast, 282.

Dublin district, report on Crustacea of,
262

Dublin dredging committee, report of
the, 262.

Earthquake phenomena, fourth report
on the facts and theory of, 1.
15

226

Echinodermata, list of, from the coast of
Ireland, 179.

Eddy (Stephen) on the lead-mining dis-
tricts of Yorkshire, 167.

Fairbairn (William) on the patent laws,
164; on the collapse of glass globes
and cylinders, 174; on shipping sta-
tistics, 239.

Fauna, marine, of the S. and W. coasts
of Ireland, 176.

Gladstone (Dr. J. H.), meteors observed
by, 195.

Glass globes and cylinders, on the col-
lapse of, 174.

Great Britain, on the magnetic survey
of, 185.

Greene (Prof. J. Reay), report on the
marine fauna of the south and west
coasts of Ireland, 176.

Henderson (Andrew) on shipping statis-
tics, 239; on river steamers, their
form, construction, and fittings, with
reference to the necessity for improv-
ing the present means of shallow water
navigation on the rivers of British
India, 268.

Hincks (Rev. Thomas), additional list of
Polyzoa from Belfast Bay, 293.

Hyndman (G. C.), report of the Belfast
dredging committee, 282.

India, British, on the necessity for im-
proving the shallow water navigation
of, 268.

Ireland, on the marine fauna of the 8S.
and W. coasts of, 176; on the instru-
ments employed in the magnetic sur-
vey of, 260.

Jeffreys (J.G.), list of Testacea found in
dredged sand from the Turbot Bank,
near Belfast Bay, 287.

Keddie (William), report on animal,
vegetable, and mineral substances im-
ported from foreign countries into the
Clyde in the years 1853 to 1857, 185.

Kinahan (Dr. J. R.), report of Dublin
dredging committee, 262; report on
Crustacea of Dublin district, 7b. ; list of
Crustacea inhabiting Belfast Bay, 291.

Lead-mining districts of Yorkshire, on
the, 167.
Lloyd (Rev. H.) on the instruments em-
loyed in the magnetic survey of Ire-
and, with some of the results, 260,

INDEX I.

Lowe (E. J.), meteors observed by, 147.

Mallet (Robert), fourth report on the
facts and theory of earthquake phzeno-
mena, l.

Magnetic and meteorological observa-
tions, report of the jomt committee of
the Royal Society and the British As.
sociation, for the continuance of, 295.

Magnetic Survey of Great Britain, report
of the committee on the, 185.

Magnetic Survey of Ireland, on the in-
struments employed in the, 260.

poh rag (J. E.) on shipping statistics,
239,

Meade (R. H.) on some points in the
anatomy of the Araneidea, or true
spiders, especially on the internal
structure of their spinning organs, 157.

Meteorites, on, 152.

Meteors, luminous, 137 ; list of, observed
by G. J. Symons, 7b.; table of, pass-
ing from and to the respective constel-
lations, 144; list of, observed by Dr.
J, H. Gladstone, 145; by E. J. Lowe,
147 ; by various observers, 151,

Moorsom (Admiral) on shipping statis-
tics, 239.

Patent laws, report on the, 164.

Perry (James) on shipping statistics, 239.

Polyzoa from Belfast Bay, additional list
of, 293.

Powell (Rev. Baden), report on observa-
He: of luminous meteors, 1857-58,

Railway trains, adaptation of suspension
bridges to sustain the passage of, 293.
Royal Society and British Association,
report of the jomt committee of the,
for procuring a continuance of the
magnetic and meteorological observa-
Gone 295 ; letter from General Sabine,
a (J. Scott) on shipping statistics,

Sabine (Major-General) report of the
committee on the magnetic survey of
Great Britain, 185; letter from, to the
Committee of Royal Society and British
Association for procuring a continu-
ance of the magnetic and meteorologi-
cal observations, 303.

Shipping statistics, on, 239.

Steamers, river, 268

Stevelly (Prof.) on a meteor seen at Bel-
fast in Oct. 1840, 156.

Symons (G. J.) meteors observed by, 137.

Testacea, list of, fouud in dredged sand
from the Turbot bank, near Belfast
Bay, 287.

Thomson (Prof. James) report on experi-

ments on the measurement of water by
triangular notches in weir boards, 181.

INDEX II,

Vaughan (Daniel) on meteorites, 152.

Vignoles (C.), appendix to his paper on
the adaptation of suspension bridges
to sustain the passage of railway trains,
293,

Water, on the measurement of, by tri-
angular notches in weir boards, 181.

227

Weir boards, on experiments on the
measurement of water by triangular
notches in, 181.

Wright (E. Percival), report on the ma-
rine fauna of the south and west
coasts of Ireland, 176.

Wright (Henry) on shipping statistics,
239.

Yorkshire, on the lead-mining districts
of, 167.

Zoantharia, list of, from the coast of
Treland, 180.

INDEX II.

TO

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE
SECTIONS.

Acip, new method for the quantitative
estimation of nitric, 64; new method
of determining the quantity of carbonic,
contained in the air, 66; on chloro-
arsenious, and some of its compounds,

Actiniz, on the multiplication of, in

aquaria, 133

-Actinism, on the estimation of, 47.

Adams (W. Bridges) on a new method of
constructing the permanent way and
wheels of railways, 203.

Air, on the construction of a portable
self-registering anemometer for record~
ing the direction and amount of hori-

_ zontal motion of the, 38.
Ajire, valley of the, on the superficial de-
posits of the, 111.

Alarms in passenger trains, on a plan for

giving, 219.
in Chinese Tartary, notes of a

__ journey through parts of the, 144,

Alder (Joshua) on three new species of
Sertularian Zoophytes, 126.

Alkaline waters of Leeds, on the, 51.

Allman (Prof.) on the reproductive organs
of Sertularia tamarisea, 119.

Alloys, on the expansion of, 46.

Alumina, on the carbonates of, 69,

Aluminium, on the production of a frosted
surface on articles made of, 56; on the
practical application of, 66.

America, British North, physical geogra-
phy of the country examined by the
expedition exploring the S. W. regions
of, 153; on the formation of a railway
from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean,
through, 154; on the discovery of
strata of supposed Permian age, in the
interior of, 224.

Amethyst plates, on the use of, in expe-
riments on the polarization of light, 13.

Ammonia, animal, 65; on the source of,
in voleanic emanation, 71.

Amoor river, on the Russo-Chinese fron-
tier and the, 147.

Anderson (Rev. Dr.) on the fossil fishes
and yellow sandstone, 74.

Anemometer, on the construction of a
portabie self-registering, for perording

15

228

the direction and amount of horizontal
motion of the air, 38.

Animals, on certain abnormal structures
in the crystalline lenses of, 7.

Antimony, on the heating effect by me-
chanical operations on a peculiar form
of, 26.

Armitage (W. J.) on a few facts con-
nected with the manufacture of pig iron
in the neighbourhood of Leeds, 204.

Army, on phthisis in the, 189.

Aquaria, on, 133; multiplication of Ac-
tiniz in, 2b.

Asia, central, on the volcanoes of, 75.

Astronomy, 27.

Atkinson (T, W.) on the volcanoes of
Central Asia, 75; on a journey through
parts of the Alatou, in Chinese Tar-
tary, 144.

Atmosphere, on the heating of the, by
contact with the earth’s surface, 36;
on the pressure of the, and its power in
modifying and determining hzmor-
rhagic disease, 138; on the general
and gradual desiccation of the earth
and, 155.

Australia, North-western, on the physical
geography of, 155.

Baily (W. H.) on the fructification of
Cyclopteris Hibernica (/orbes) from
the Upper Devonian or Lower Carbon-
iferous strata at Kiltorkan Hill, Kil-
kenny, 75; on two new species of
Crustacea (Bellinurus, Xdnig) from the
coal measures in Queen’s County, Ire-
land, 76.

Baines (Edward) address to the Statistical
Section, 157; on the woollen manu-
facture of England, with special refer-
ence to the Leeds clothing district,
158.

Baines (W.) on the Yorkshire flagstones
and their fossils, 78.

Baker (R.) on the sanitary and industrial
economy of the borough of Leeds, 164.

Balloon ascents in England for meteoro-
logical objects, on the desirableness of,
39,

Bank of England, brief review of the ope-
rations in the, in 1857, 201.

Barker (R. jun.) on the hematite ores of
N. Lancashire and West Cumberland,
106.

Barometer, aneroid, on the daily compa-
rison of an, with a Board of Trade
barometer by captains of ships at sea,
38.

Barometers, on a new construction of
standard portable mountain, 39.

INDEX II.

Barrett (L.) on the atlas and axis of the
Plesiosaurus, 78.

Bartholomew (W. H.) on steam-tugs em-
ployed on the Aire and Calder nayiga-
tion, 205.

Bateman (Joseph) on the rate of mortality
in the Metropolitan improved dwellings
for the industrial classes, 164; on the
investments of the industrial classes,
168; on the degree of education of
persons tried at the Middlesex Ses-
sions, 2b.

Batteries, on the construction of floating
and fixed, 220,

Bayley (G.) on a floating dry dock, 206.

Bazley (T.), trade and commerce the
auxiliaries of civilization and comfort,
169.

Bedford (J.) on calorific lichens, 45,

Bees, on the cause of the instinctive ten-
dency of, to form hexagonal cells, 122 ;
on the death of the common hive, 124;
on the formation of the cells of, 132.

Belgium, on free trade in, 184,

Bevan (Dr. G. P.) on the marine shell
bed of the South Wales coal basin,
showing the presence of vegetable re-
mains in the upper coal measures of
the district, 80.

Bingley (C. W.) on the peculiar action of
mud and water on glass, as more espe-
cially illustrated by some specimens of
glass found in the lake at Walton Hall,
near Wakefield, the residence of Charles
Waterton, Esq., 45.

Birds, on the migration of, 121; on the
arrangement of, 122.

Blackie (W. G.) on the Russo-Chinese
frontier and the Amoor River, 147,

Blindness, moon, 19.

Bombay, on the physical geography of
the neighbourhood of, 149.

Bombyx mori, on the occurrence of, in a
wild state in this country, 130.

Bones, on the constitution of the mineral
portion of, 68.

Booth (Rey. J.) on a general method of
deriving the properties of umbilical
surfaces of the second order, having
three unequal axes, from the properties
of the sphere, 2; on the mutual rela-
tions of inverse curves ‘and inverse
curved surfaces, 8; on an instrument
for describing spirals, 207.

Botany, 115, 224.

Bracebridge (Charles H.) on self-support-
ing dispensaries, with statistics of the
Coventry Provident Dispensary, 170.

Brain, on the anatomy of the, in some
small quadrupeds, 123,

INDEX II. 229

Breccias, on the origin of the, of the
southern frontier of the valley of the
Nith, Scotland, 81.

Brewster (Sir David) on the duration of
luminous impressions on certain points
of the retina, 6; on vision through the
foramen centrale of the retina, 7; on
certain abnormal structures in the cry-
stalline lenses of animals, and in the
human crystalline, 7; on the crystal-
line lens of the cuttle-fish, 10 ; on Prof,
Petzval’s new combination lens, 13;
on the use of amethyst plates in expe-
riments on the polarization of light, 75,

Brixham, ossiferous cavern at, 106.

Brodrick (C.) on the roof of the new
Town Hall, Leeds, 207.

Brooke (C.) on additions to the micro-
scope, 143.

Broun (Mr.) on the successful establish-
ment of a meteorological and magnet-
ical observatory at Travancore, and
results of magnetical observations at
Trevandrum, 30; notice of the Kani-
kars, a hill-side tribe in the kingdom
of Travancore, 148.

Brown (Samuel) on the financial pro.
spects of British railways, 172.

Buckton, (J.) on the articles shown in
the Mechanical Section of the Leeds
exhibition of local industry, 208.

Buoy, Gresham, for recording the loss of
missing ships at sea, 219,

Cables, on constructing and laying tele-
graph, 214; apparatus for laying down
submarine telegraph, 73.; on the sub-
mersion of electric, 215.

Cairnes (Prof.) on the laws according to
which a depreciation of the precious
metals consequent upon an increase of
supply takes place, considered in con-
nexion with the recent gold discoveries,
174.

Calvert (F. Crace) on the expansion of
metals, alloys, and salts, 46.

Cambridge, on remai:s of new and gi-
gantic species of Pterodactyle from the
upper greensand, near, 98,

Cannon, on the bursting of, 221.

Carlile (Warrand) on dials which give the
latitude, the line of north and south,
and chronometer time, 41.

Carrett (W. E.) on some modern ap-
pliances for raising water, 208.

Carrington (Dr.) on the geological distri-
bution of plants in some districts of
Yorkshire, 115.

Cavern, ossiferous, at Brixham, 106.

Cayley (A.) on the notion of distance in
analytical geometry, 3.

Chadwick (Edwin) on the progress of the
principle of open competitive examina-
tions, 175.

Charlesworth (Edward) on some remark-
able Yorkshire fossils, including the
unique Plesiosauri in the Museum at
York, with pictorial restorations by
Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins, 223,

Chemical elements, on the relation of the
atomic weights of the families of the,
57, 59.

Chemistry, 41 ; address to the Section by
Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., id.

Chesney (Maj.-Gen.) on the extension of
communications to distant places by
means of electric wires, 148.

Civilization and comfort, trade and com-
merce the auxiliaries of, 169.

Coal, on the vegetable structure visible in
the, of Nova Scotia, 80.

Coal-basin, on the marine shell bed of
the S. Wales, 80.

Coal-measures, on two new species of
Crustacea from the, in Queen’s County,
76.

Coal-tar, on the purple dye obtained
from, 58.

Cock, on a universal, 221.

Cole (Robert), account of Lewis Paul and
his invention of the machine for spin-
ning cotton and wool by rollers, and
his claim to such invention, to the ex-
clusion of John Wyatt, 208.

Coleoptera, myrmecophilous, 129.

Collingwood (Cuthbert) on the migration
of birds, 121.

Collodion processes, on dry, 71.

Comets, on the constitution of, 30.

Conybeare (H.) on the physical geogra-
phy of the neighbourhood of Bombay,
as affecting the design of the works
recently erected for the water-supply
of that city, 149; on an apparatus for
laying down submarine telegraphic
cables, 208.

Coombe (Mr.) on expanding pulleys, 209.

Cooper (E. J.) on the perihelia and as-
cending nodes of the planets, 27,

Cottons, on the causes of the fall in price
of manufactured, 178.

Coventry provident dispensary, some
statistics of the, 170.

Crawfurd (J.) on the effects of commix-
ture, locality, climate, and food on the
races of man, 149.

Crédit mobilier, recent history of the, 194.

Crime and punishment, on subjects con-
nected with, 199.

230

Crops, on the annual yield of nitrogen
per acre in different, 52.

Crosskill (Alfred) on reaping machinery
209.

Crustacea (Bellinurus, Kénig) from the
coal measures in Queen’s County, on
two new species of, 76.

Crystallization, on a fresh form of, which
takes place in the particles of fallen
snow under intense cold, 40.

Cull (Richard) on Dr. Prichard’s identi-
fication of the Russians with the Rox-
olani, 148.

Cumberland, West, on some phenomena
at the junction of the granite and schis-
tose rocks in, 106; on the hematite
ores of, 2b.

Curve lines, on an instrument for setting
out, 223.

Curves and curved surfaces, on the mutual

_ relations of inverse, 3.

Cuttle-fish, on the crystalline lens of the,

10.
Cyclopteris Hibernica (Forbes), on the
fructification of, 75.

Dale (Rev. T. P.) on some optical pro-

- perties of phosphorus, 15.

Davis (J. H.) on the plants of the oolitic
moorlands, 224.

Davy (Dr. J.) on the fishes of the Lake
District, 122 ; observations on the Lake
District, 149.

Dawson (Prof.) on the vegetable structure
visible in the coal of Nova Scotia, 80.

Deeds, registry of, in the West Riding,
175

De Luca (M.), on his claim to be the dis-
coverer of the non-presence of iodine
in the atmospheric air, rain-water, and
snow, 56.

Dials which give the latitude, the line of
north and south, and chronometer time,
AN

Dibb (J. E.) on registry of deeds in the
West Riding, 175.

Digestion, experiments on, 135.

Dimorphodon, 97.

Dingle (Rev. G.) on a new case of bino-
cular vision, 15; on the configuration
of the surface of the Earth, 150.

Dircks (Henry) on an apparatus for ex-
hibiting optical illusions of spectral
phenomena, 14.

Dispensaries, notes on self-supporting,
170.

Donati’s cont, on, 28.

Donnelly (Mr.), manner in which agricul-
tural statistics are collected in Ireland,
176.

INDEX II.

Donohoe (Consul) on Pacific railway
schemes, 149,

Dorsetshire, on a remarkable deposit of
carbonate of lime about fossils in the
lower lias of, 51.

Drainage of the metropolis, on the, 213.

Draper (C. L.) on electro-magnetism, 25.

Drummond (J.) on the development of a
physical theory of terrestrial magnet-
ism, 25; on the intensity of the ter-
restrial magnetic force, 24.

Dry dock, on a floating, 206.

Dye, on the purple, obtained from coal-
tar, 58.

Earnshaw (Rev. 5.) on the mathematical
theory of sound, 34.

Earth, on the distribution of heat in the
interior of the, 23; on the configura-
tion of the surface of the, 150; on
the general and gradual desiccation
of the, and atmosphere, 155.

Earthworms and larve of an undescribed
species, on, 129.

Education, degree of, of persons tried at
the Middlesex Sessions, 168.

Edwards (J. Baker) on nitro-glycerine
and other xyloids, 47.

Elder (J. J.) on double cylinder expan-
sion marine engines, 210.

Electric cables, on the submersion of,
215.

Electric lamp, on an improved, 55.

Electric wires, extension of communica-
tion to distant places by means of, 148.

Electrical discharges, on induced, taken
in aqueous vapour, 25; observed in
highly rarefied carbonic acid in contact
with potash, 50.

Electricity, 24,

Electrodes, on the influence of light o
polarized, 17. :

Electro-magnetism, on, 25.

Elementary bodies, on the indestructi-
bility of, 6.

Ellis (R. L.).on the cause of the instine-
tive tendency of bees to form hexagonal
cells, 122.

England, woollen manufacture of, 158 ; on
the history of flax-spinning in, 184.

Entomostraca, 77.

Enys (J. S,), photographs of quarries
near Penrhyn, showing the structure
of granite, 80.

Equilibrium, on the conditions of, in a
rotating spheroid, 5.

Ethnology, 148.

Examinations, on the progress of the prin-
ciple of open competitive, 175; on

2 |

INDEX II.

public service, academic, and teachers’,
176.

Eye, on the structure of the choroid coat
of the, 141.

Eye-ball, on the form of the, 139.

Eyton (T. C.) on the arrangement of birds,
122; on the oyster, 123.

Fens of Lincolnshire, on the, 113.

Fibres, Indian, 195.

Fishes, on the fossil, and yellow sand-
stone, 74; of the lake district, 122.
Fison (Mrs. W.) on the importance of a
colonial penny postage, viewed in rela-
tion to the advancement of science and

» Christian civilization, 177.

Flagstones, Yorkshire, and their fossils, 78.

Flax-spinning in England, on the history
of, 184.

Foramen centrale of the retina, on vision
through the, 7.

Fossils, on a remarkable deposit of car-
bonate of lime about, in the lower lias
of Dorsetshire, 51; of the Yorkshire
flagstones, 78; on certain vermiform,
found in the mountain limestone dis-
tricts of the N. of England, 80; on the
distortion of, 81; on some remarkable
Yorkshire, 223.

Foulle (Dr.) on some observations con-
nected with the anatomy and functions
of the third, sixth, and seventh pairs of
nerves and the medulla oblongata, 134.

Fowler (Richard) on the sensational,
emotional, intellectual, and instinctive
capacities of the lower animals com-
pared with those of man, 134.

Fowler (R. J.) on the estimation of acti-
nism, 47.

Free trade, in Belgium, 184; on the re-
sults of, 201.

Frome, on triassic beds near, 93.

Gages (Alphonse) on a method of ob-
servation applied to the study of some
metamorphic rocks, and on some mole-
cular changes exhibited by the action
of acids upon them, 48; on a new va-
riety of pyro-electric wavellite, 49.

Galton (F.) on a hand heliostat for the
purpose of flashing sun signals from
on board ship or on Jand in sunny cli-
mates, 15; on a hand heliostat, 211.

Gamma Virginis, on the results of the
measures of, for the epoch 1858, 29.

Gardens, suburban, 117.

Garner (Robert) on the anatomy of the

_ brain in some small quadrupeds, 123.

Gassiot (J. P.) on induced electrical dis-
charges taken in aqueous vapour, 25 ;

231

on the phosphorescent appearance of
electrical discharges in a vacuum made
in flint and potash glass, 26; on elec-
trical discharges as observed in highly
rarefied carbonic acid in contact with
potash, 50.

Geese, on the British wild, 131.

Geldart (Rev. G. C.), language no test of
race, 150.

Geography, 143.

Geology, 72, 223. ;

Geometry, on the notion of distance in
analytical, 3.

Gilbert (J. H.) on the annual yield of
nitrogen per acre in different crops, 52.

Gipsies, on the race and language of the,
195,

Gladstone (Dr.) on some optical proper-
ties of phosphorus, 15; on the fixed
lines of the solar spectrum, 17; on re-
ciprocal decomposition between salts
and their acid solvents, 50.

Gladstone (George) on a remarkable de-
posit of carbonate of lime about fossils
in the lower lias of Dorsetshire, 51.

Glass, flint, and potash, on the phospho-
rescent appearance of electrical dis-
charges in a vacuum made in, 26; on
the peculiar action of mud and water
on, 45.

Globes, on the special printing of, 154.

Glynn (Joseph) on the economy of water
power, 212.

Gneiss rocks in the N. of Scotland, on the
age and relations of the, 96.

Gold discoveries the cause of a deprecia-
tion of the precious metals, 174.

Gore (George), apparatus showing the
correlation of forces, and heating ef-
fects, by mechanical operations, on a
peculiar form of antimony, 26.

Greenhow (H. M.) on the people of Oude,
and of their leading characteristics, 151,

Grove (W. R.) on the influence of light
on polarized electrodes, 17,

Guns and cannons, on the bursting of,
221.

Hail, on the formation of, 35.

Hammer, steam, on a new double acting,
218.

Hancock (Albany) on certain vermiform
fossils found in the mountain limestone
districts of the N. of England, 80.

Harkness (Prof.) on the distortion of fos-
sils, 81; on the origin of the breccias
of the southern portion of the valley of
the Nith, Scotland, 2.

Harley (Dr.G.), experiments on digestion,
135.

232

Harrison (J. Park) on lunar influence on
temperature, 36.

Hart (William), on an improved electric
lamp invented and manufactured by,
55.

Hartwell House Observatory, on a new
variable star (R. Sagittarii) discovered
at, 29.

Heat, 6; on the distribution of, in the
interior of the earth, 23; on some ex-
periments on radiant, involving an
extension of Prévost’s theory of ex-
changes, ib.

Heliostat for the purpose of flashing
sun signals, from on board ship or
on land, in sunny climates, 15; on a
hand, 211.

Hennessy (J. Pope) on Dr. Whewell’s
views respecting the nature and value
of mathematical definitions, 3; on
some properties of a series of the
powers of the same number, 4; on
the causes of the fall in price of manu-
factured cottons, 178; on some of the
results of the Society of Arts’ Examin-
tions, 180.

Hennessy (Prof.) on the heating of the
atmosphere by contact with the earth’s
surface, 36 ; on the decrease of tempe-
rature over elevated ground, 7b.

Herschel (Sir J. F. M., Bart.), address to
the Chemical Section, 21,

Heywood (James) on public service, aca-
demic, and teachers’ examinations, 176.

Higgins (Rev. H. H.) on the death of the
common hive bee, supposed to be oc-
casioned by a parasitic fungus, 124;
on the liability of shells to injury from
the growth of a fungus, 128,

Hincks (Rev. 'T.) on a new species of
Laomedea, 126; on some new and in-
teresting forms of British zoophytes,
128.

Hopkins (William), address to the Geolo-
gical Section, 72.

Hopkinson (J.) on the cause of steam-
boiler explosions, and means of pre-
vention, 212.

Hotham, on the comparative geology of,
96.

Huggate, on meteorological observations
at, for 1857, 38.

Huggon ({V.) on the alkaline waters of
Leeds, 51.

Humphry (G. M.) on the homology of
the skeleton, 126.

Hunt (Robert) on the mineral produce of
Yorkshire in 1857, 181.

Huxley (Prof. T. H.) on the genus Pte-
raspis, 82,

INDEX II.

Hwang-ho, on the, 152.
Hyperbola, on a mode of constructing the
rectangular, by points, 5.

Ichthyolite found in the Devonian slates
of East Cornwall, 228.

Induction coil, on an improved, 26.

Industrial classes, on the investments of
the, 168.

Investments of the industrial classes, on
the, 168.

Todine, on M. de Luca’s claim to be the
discoverer of the non-presence of, in
the atmospheric air, rain-water, and
snow, 56.

Ireland, manner in which agricultural
statistics are collected in, 176.

Iron, pig, on the manufacture of, in the
neighbourhood of Leeds, 204.

Iron trade of Leeds, 183.

James (Colonel) on refraction, 38; on the
geometrical projection of two-thirds of
the surface of the sphere, 151.

James (James) on the worsted manufac-
tures of Yorkshire, 182.

Jones (#.) on the drainage of the metro-
polis, 213.

Jones (H. Bence) on Prof. Schénbein’s
latest experiments on the allotropic
conditions of oxygen, 52.

Joy (D.) on the application of mechani-
cal power to the bellows of organs,
213.

Kanikars, a hill-side tribe in Travancore,
notice of the, 148.

King (Prof. W.) on the jointed structure
of rocks, particularly as developed in
several places in Ireland, 83.

Kitson (James, jun.) on the iron trade
of Leeds, 183.

Kraw, on the project of a canal across the
isthmus of, 153.

Ladd (W.) on av improved induction
coil, 26; on improvements in micro-
scopes, 143.

Lake district, on the fishes of the, 122;
observations on the, 149.

Lamp, on an improved electric, 55.

Lancashire, north, on the hematite ores
of, 106.

Language :—no test of race, 150; on the
general distribution of the varieties of,
and physical conformation, 151; on
the race and, of the gipsies, 195.

Lankester (Dr. FE.) on an instrument for
measuring the constant intensity of
ozone, 52,

INDEX II.

Laomedea, new species of, 126.

Latham (Dr.) on the general distribution
of the varieties of language and physical
conformation, with remarks upon the
nature of ethnological groups, 151.

Lawes (J. B.) on the animal yield of ni-
trogen per acre in different crops, 52.

Lead, on the action of hard waters upon,
54.

Leaves, on the colours of, 115.

Lee (Dr.) on the results of the measures
of Gamma Virginis for the epoch, 1858,
as determined by Admiral Smyth, 29;
on the daily comparison of an aneroid
barometer with a Board of Trade baro-
meter by captains of ships at sea, 38.

Leeds, on the alkaline waters of, 51; on
the sanitary and industrial economy of
the borough of, 164; on the iron trade
of, 183; on the manufacture of pig
iron in the neighbourhood of, 204;
on the roof of the new Town Hall at,
207.

Lens, on certain abnormal structures in
thehuman crystalline, and of animals, 7;
on the crystalline, of the cuttle-fish,
10; on Prof. Petzval’s new combina-
tion, 13.

Lewes (G. H.) on the spinal chord a sen-
sational and volitional centre, 135,

Lichens, on calorific, 45.

Light, 6; on the use of amethyst plates
in experiments on the polarization of,
18; on the influence of, on polarized
electrodes, 17.

Lighthouse, floating, on a proposed,
218.

Limestone districts of the N. of England,
on certain vermiform fossils found in
the, 80.

Lincolnshire, on the fens and submarine
forests of, 113.

Lindsay (Dr. W. Lauder) on the action
of hard water upon lead, 54.

Local Industry, on some of the articles
shown in the mechanical section of the
Leeds exhibition of, 206.

Lockhart (William) on the Yang-tse-keang
and the Hwang-ho, or Yellow River,
352.

Lungs, on the quantity of carbonic acid
evolved from the, under the influence
of various agents, 142,

Macadam (Dr. Stevenson) on M. de
Luca’s claim to be the discoverer of the
non-presence of iodine in the atmo-
spheric air, rain-water, and snow, 56;
on the production of a frosted surface
on articles made of aluminium, 7.

233

Macintosh (John) on the application of
combustible compounds to be used in
war, 214; on constructing and laying
telegraph cables, 7b.

Maclean (J.) on the submersion of electric
cables, 215.

Meeren (M, Corranader) on free trade in
3elgium, 184.

Magnetic dip at Stockholm, on the, 27.

Magnetic force, on the intensity of the
terrestrial, 24,

Magnetism, 24; on the development of a
physical theory of terrestrial, 25.

Man, on the sensational, emotional, in-
tellectual, and instinctive capacities of
the lower animals, compared with those
of, 134; on the effects of commixture,
locality, climate, and food on the races
of, 149,

Marine engines, on double cylinder ex-
pansion, 210.

Markham (C.R.) on the navigation of the
Ucayali, an affluent of the Amazons,
153.

Marshall (J.G.) on the geology of the
Lake District in reference especially to
the metamorphic and igneous rocks,
84; on the history of flax-spinning in
England, especially as developed in the
town of Leeds, 184.

Mathematical definitions, on Dr. Whe-
well’s views respecting the nature and
value of, 3.

Mathematics, 1.

Matthews (William), photograph of the
quarry of Rowley Rag at Ponk Hill,
Walsall, 93.

Matthiessen (J.A.) on the combustibility
and other properties of the rarer metals,
57.

M‘Craw (W.) on a new, cheap, and per-
manent process in photography, 18.
Mechanical Science, on the progress of,

201.

Medulla oblongata, on the anatomy and
functions of the third, sixth, and seventh
pairs of nerves of the, 134.

Mercer (John) on chromatic photographs,
57; on the relation of the atomic
weights of the families of the elements,
ib.; on the atomic weights of the ele-
ments of six chemical families, 59.

Metals, on the expansion of, 46; on the
combustibility and other properties of
the rarer, 57.

Meteorological observations at Huggate
for 1857, 38.

Meteorology, 35.

Micrometer, on the ocular crystal, 19.

Microscopical apparatus, 143.

234

Middlesex Sessions, on the. degree of
education of persons tried at the, 168.
Milligan (John) on the pressure of the
atmosphere, and its power in modifying
and determining haemorrhagic disease,

138.

Milner (W.R.) on the influence of various
circumstances in causing gain or lossin
the weight of prisoners in Wakefield
convict prison, 139.

Mineral produce of Yorkshire in 1857,
181.

Minerals, on determining the temperature
and pressure at which various, were
formed, 107; on some peculiarities in
the arrangement of the, in igneous
rocks, ib.

Monetary laws, on distinctions between
money and capital, interest and dis-
count, currency and circulating me-
dium, to be observed in the reform of
our, 197.

Mont Blane, on an ascent of, 39.

Moon blindness, 19.

Moore (C.) on triassic beds near Frome,
and their organic remains, 93.

Moorsom (Vice-admiral) on the perform-
ance of steam vessels, the functions of
the screw, and the relations of its dia-
meter and pitch to the form of the
vessel, 215.

Mortality, rate of, in the metropolitan
improved dwellings for the industrial
classes, 164.

Miiller (Dr. S.), a geognostic sketch of
the western position of Timor, 153.

Murchison (Sir R. I.) on recent researches
among the older rocks of the Highlands
of Scotland, 94; address to the geogra-
phical and ethnological section, 143;
letter to, on the project of a canal across
the isthmus of Kraw, which divides the
gulf of Bengal from that of Siam, 153.

Murphy (J. J.) on a proposed floating
lighthouse, 218.

Naylor (William) on a new double acting
steam hammer, 218.

Neison (F. G. P.) on phthisis in the
army, 189. .

Newmarch (William) on the history of
prices of 1857 and 1858, 194; on the re-
cent history of the Crédit mobilier, 7b.

Nicol (Professor James) on the age and
relations of the gneiss rocks in the N.
of Scotland, 96,

Nith, on the origin of the breccias of the
southern portion of the valley of the, 81.

Nitrogen, on the annual yield of, per
acre, in different crops, 52.

INDEX II.

Nitroglycerine, on, 47.

Norwood (Rev. T. W.) on the compara~
tive geology of Hotham, near South
Cave, Yorkshire, 96; on the race and
language of the gipsies, 195.

Nourse (W.E.C.) on the colours of leaves
and petals, 115.

Nova Scotia, on the vegetable structure
visible in the coal of, 80.

Number, on some properties of a series
of the powers of the same, 4,

Nunneley (T.) on the form of the eye-
ball, and the relative position of the
entrance of the optic nerve into it in
different animals, 139; on the structure
of the retina at the punctum centrale, or
foramen of Scemmering, 141; on the
structure of the choroid coat of the eye,
and more particularly on the character
and arrangement of the pigmentary
matter, 2b.

Odling (Dr. W.) on the atom of tin, 58.

Oldham (James) on the Gresham buoy,
for recording the loss of missing ships
at sea, 219.

O’Neill (J.) on a plan for giving alarms
in passenger trains, 219.

Optical illusions of spectral phenomena,
on an apparatus for exhibiting, 14.

Ores, hematite, of North Lancashire and
West Cumberland, 106.

Organs, on the application of mechanical
power to the bellows of, 213.

Osler (F'.) on the construction of a portable
self-registering anemometer for record-
ing the direction and amount of hori-
zontal motion of the air, 38.

Oude, on the people of, and their leading
characteristics, 151.

Owen (Prof.) on a new genus (Dimorpho~-
don) of Pterodactyle, with remarks on
the geological distribution of flying rep-
tiles, 97 ; on remains of new and gigan-
tic species of Pterodactyle (Pter. Fittoni
and Pter. Sedgwickii) from the Upper
Greensand near Cambridge, 98.

Oxide, chromic and ferric, on the car-
bonate of, 69.

Oxygen, on Prof. Schénbein’s latest ex-
periments on the allotropic conditions
of, 52.

Oyster, on the, 123.

Ozone, on an instrument for measuring
the constant intensity of, 52.

Page (D.) on the skeleton of a seal from
the Pleistocene clays of Stratheden, in
Fifeshire, 103; on the paleontology of
the tilestones or Silurio-Devonian strata

a

INDEX I.

of Scotland, 104; on the relations of

the metamorphic and older palzozoic

rocks in Scotland, 105.

- Palliser (Capt. J.) on the physical geo-
graphy of the country examined by
the expedition exploring the south-
western regions of British North Ame-
rica, 153.

Paul (Lewis), account of, and his invention

of the machine for spinning cotton and
wool by rollers, 208.

Peach (C. W.) on some peculiar forms of
spines found on two species of the spini-
grade starfishes, 128.

Peckitt (Henry) on earthworms and larvee
of an undescribed species found in
draining a field upon his estate, 129,

Pengelly (W.) on .a recently discovered
ossiferous cavern at Brixham, near
Torquay, 106; on an ichthyolite found
in the Devonian Slates of LE, Cornwall,
223 ; on the trilobite found at the Knoll
Hill, Newton Abbott, 224,

Penny postage, on the importance of a
colonial, 177.

Penrhyn, photographs of quarries near,
showing the structure of granite, 80.

Perihelia, on the, 27.

Perkin (W. H.) on the purple dye ob-
tained from coal-tar, 58.

Petals, on the colours of, 115.

Petzval (Prof.) on his new combination
lens, 13.

Phillips (Prof.) on some phzenomena at
the junction of the granite and schistose
rocks in West Cumberland, 106; on the
hematite ores of North Lancashire and
West Cumberland, ib.

Phosphorus, on some optical properties of,
15.

Photographs:—chromatic, 57; of quarries
near Penrhyn, showing the structure of
granite, 80; of the Quarry of Rowley
Rag, at Park Hill, Walsall, 93.

Photography, on a new, cheap, and per-
manent process in, 18; on the choice
of subject in, 66.

Phthisis in the army, on, 189.

Physiology, 134.

Planets, on the ascending nodes of the,
27.

Plants, on the geological distribution of,
in some districts of Yorkshire, 115; on
the epidermal cells of the petals of,
119; of the oolitic moorlands, on the,
224,

5 le on the atlas and axis of the,

8.

Pogson (Norman) on the ocular crystal

micrometer, 19; on a new variable star

235

(R, Sagittarii) discovered with the five.
foot Smythian telescope of the Hart-
well House Observatory, 29.

Potash, on electrical discharges as ob-
served in highly rarefied carbonic acid
in contact with, 50; on some double
salts formed with bichromate of, 66.

Power (Dr. J. A.) on myrmecophilous
Coleoptera, 129. :

Prévost’s theory of exchanges, on experi-
ments on radiant heat involving an
extension of, 23.

Prices, on the history of, of 1857 and
1858, 194.

Printing press, on a universal, 220.

Pteraspis, on the genus, 82,

Pterodactyle, on a new genus of, 97, 98,

Pugh (Dr.) on a new method for the
quantitative estimation of nitric acid,
64,

Pulleys, expanding, 209.

Punctum centrale, on the structure of
the retina at the, 141.

Quadrupeds, on the anatomy of the brain
in some small, 128,

Railways:—on the formation of a, from
the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean,
through British N. America, 154; fi-
nancial prospects of British, 172; ona
new method of constructing the per-
manent way and wheels of, 203; on
recent improvements in signals, 223,

Rankin (Rev. T.), meteorological obser-
vations at Huggate for 1857, 38; on
animal ammonia, its formation, eyo-
lution, and office, 65.

Reaping machine, 209.

Refraction, on, 38.

Rennie (G.) on the construction of floating
and fixed batteries, 220.

Retina, on the duration of luminous im-
pressions on certain points of the, 6 ; on
vision through the foramen centrale of
the, 7; on the structure of the, at the
punctum centrale, 141.

Reynolds (R.) on the practical applica-
tion of aluminium, 66,

Robinson (Sir G.) on moon blindness,
19;

Rocks, on a method of observation ap-
plied to the study of some metamorphic,
48; on the jointed structure of, 83;
on the geology of the Lake District, in
reference especially to the metamorphic
and igneous, 84; on recent researches
among the older, of the highlands of
Scotland, 94; on the age and relations
of the gneiss, in the N, of Scotland, 96;

236

on the relations of the metamorphic
and older palozoic, in Scotland, 100 ;
on some phznomena at the junction of
the granite and schistose, in W. Cum-
berland, 106; on some peculiarities in
the arrangement of the minerals in
igneous, 107 ; on determining the tem-
perature and pressure at which various,
were formed, ib.

Rogers (Prof.) on the discovery of strata
of supposed Permian age, in the inte-
rior of N. America, by Mr. Meek and
other American geologists, 224.

Rowley Rag quarry, photograph of the,
93

(R. Sagittarii), a new variable star, 29,

Russians, identification of the, with the
Roxolani, 148.

Russo-Chinese frontier and the Amoor
river, on the, 147.

Sadler (J. H.) on Indian fibres, illustrated
by prepared specimens, 195. }
Salts, on the expansion of, 46; on reci-
procal decomposition between, and their

acid solvents, 50.

Samuel (Mr.) on an early form of the
lenticular stereoscope constructed for
the use of schools, 19.

Sandstone, on the yellow, 74.

Sanitary and industrial economy of the
borough of Leeds, on the, 164.

Schlagintweit (Adolphe), his death con-
firmed, 152.

Schomburgk (Sir R.) on the project of a
canal across the isthmus of Kraw, 153.

Schénbein’s (Prof.) account of his latest
experiments on the allotropic conditions
of oxygen, 52.

Scilly Isles, on the geology of the, 109.

Scotland, on recent researches among the
older rocks of the highlands of, 94 ; on
the age and relations of the gneiss
rocks in the N. of, 96; paleontology
of the tilestones or Silurio-Devonian
strata of, 104; on the relations of the
metamorphic and older palzeozoic rocks
in, 105.

Screw, functions of the, in steam vessels,
215.

Seal, on the skeleton of a, from the
pleistocene clays of Stratheden, 1038.
Sertularia tamarisca, on the reproductive

organs of, 119.

Sewing machine in Glasgow, on the,
198.

Shaw (Dr. Norton) on the geography of
British N. America, more particularly
British Columbia, Frazer River, &c.,
153,

INDEX II.

Shells, on the liability to injury of, from
the growth of a fungus, 128.

Shell bed of the S. Wales coal basin, on
the marine, 80.

Silbermann (M., I. Joseph) on a method
for the spherical printing of globes,
154; on a universal printing press,
220; on a universal cock, 221.

Siljestrém (Dr. F. A.) on the conditions of
equilibrium in a rotating spheroid, 5 ;
on the distribution of heat in the inte-
rior of the earth, 23; on the magnetic
dip at Stockholm, 27; on the constitu-
tion of comets, 80; on observations of
temperature, 39.

Silurio-Devonian strata of Scotland, on
the, 104.

Skeleton, on the homology of the, 126.

Smith (Dr. KE.) on a new method of de-
termining the quantity of carbonic acid
contained in the air, 66; on the results
obtained from an extended inquiry into
the quantity of carbonic acid evolved
from the lungs under the influence of
various agents, 142; on the methods
hitherto adopted for the determination
of the carbonic acid contained in the
expired air, with the description of a
new method, 7d.

Smith (R.) on a wreck intelligencer, 221.

Smith (S.) on the bursting of guns and
cannons, 221.

Smith (W. L.) on the choice of subject
in photography, and the adaptation of
different processes, 66.

Smyth (Admiral), on the results of the
measures of Gamma Virginis for the
epoch 1858, as determined by, 29.

Snow, on a fresh form of crystallization
which takes place in the particles of
fallen, under intense cold, 40.

Society of Arts’ Examinations, on some
of the results of the, 180.

Scemmering, on the structure of the retina
at the foramen of, 141.

Sorby (H. C.) on a new method of deter-
mining the temperature and pressure
at which various rocks and minerals
were formed, 107; on some peculiar-
ities in the arrangement of the minerals
in igneous rocks, ib.; on the currents
present during the deposition of the
carboniferous and permian strata in
South Yorkshire and North Derby-
shire, 108.

Sound, on the mathematical theory of, 34,

Spectrum, solar, on the fixed lines of the,
17.

Sphere, on the geometrical projection of
two-thirds of the surface of the, 151.

INDEX II,

Spinal chord, on the, a sensational and
volitional centre, 135.

Spines, on some peculiar forms of, found
in two species of the spinigrade star-
fishes, 128.

Spirals, on an instrument for describing,
297,

Squares and cubes, on a mode of con-
structing tables of, 6.

Stansfeld (Hamer) on distinctions be-
tween money and capital, interest and
discount, currency and circulating me-
dium, essential to be observed in the
reform of our monetary laws, 197.

Star (Rt. Sagittarii), a new variable, 29.

Star-fishes, on some peculiar forms of
spines found on two species of the spi-
nigrade, 128.

Statham (Rev. F. F.) on the geology of
the Scilly Isles, 108; on the occurrence
of Bombyx mori in a wild state in this
country, 130.

Statistical Science, address by the Presi-
dent, E. Baines, Esq., 157.

Steam, on combined, 222.

Steam boiler explosions, on the cause of,
and means of prevention, 212.

Steam hammer, on a new double acting,
218.

Steam tugs employed in the Aire and
Calder navigation, 205.

Steam-vessels, on the performance of,
215.

Stereoscope, on an early form of the len-
ticular, constructed for the use of schools,
19. :

Stewart (B.) on experiments on radiant
heat, involving an extension of Prévost’s
theory of exchanges, 23.

Stockholm, on the magnetic dip at, 27.

Storms, on the formation of, as illustrated
by local, 35.

Strang (Dr. John) on the water supply to
great towns—its extent, cost, uses, and
abuses, 198; on the sewing machine in
Glasgow, and its effects on production,
prices, and wages, 2b.

Strata, carboniferous and permian, on the
currents present during the deposition
of the, in S. Yorkshire and N. Derby-
shire, 108.

Stratheden, on the skeleton of a seal from
the pleistocene clays of, 103.

Strickland (A.) on the British wild geese,
131.

Sullivan (W. K.) on some double salts
formed with bichromate of potash, 66.

Swiss, on the lacustrine homes of the
ancient, 154,

Sykes (Colonel) on the successful esta-

237

blishment of a meteorological and mag-
netical observatory at Travancore by
Mr. Broun, 30; on the desirableness
of renewing balloon ascents in England
for meteorological objects, 39.

Symons (G. J.) on a new construction of
standard portable mountain barometers,
39.

Tartt (W. M.) on subjects connected with
crime and punishment, 199.

Teale (T. R.) on the superficial deposits
of the valley of the Aire at Leeds,
111.

Tegetmeier (W. B.) on the formation of
the cells of bees, 132.

Telegraph, on the submarine, 25.

Telegraphic cables, submarine, on an ap-
paratus for laying down, 208; on con-
structing and laying, 214.

Temperature, on lunar influence on, 36;
on the decrease of, over elevated
ground, ib.; on observations of, 39.

Thurnell (G.) on a mode of constructing
the rectangular hyperbola by points, 5.

Timor, geognostic sketch of the western
position of, 153.

Tin, on the atom of, 58.

Trade and commerce the auxiliaries of
civilization and comfort, 169.

Travancore, on the successful establish-
ment of a meteorological and magnet-
ical observatory at, 30.

Trevandrum, on magnetical observation
at, 30.

Triassic beds near Frome, and their or-
ganic remains, 93.

Trilobite found at the Knoll Hill, New-
ton Abbott, on the, 224.

Trollope (Rev. Edward) on the fens and
submarine forests of Lincolnshire and
other localities, 113.

Troyon (M.) on the lacustrine homes of
the ancient Swiss, 154,

Tumulus, sepulchral, on the opening of a,
in East Yorkshire, 156.

Tyndall (Professor) on an ascent of Mont
Blanc, 39.

Ucayali, on the navigation of the, 153.

Valpy (R.), brief review of the operations
in the Bank of England in 1857, 201.
Vapour, aqueous, on induced electrical

discharges taken in, 26,

Vision, on, through the foramen centrale
of the retina, 7; on a new case of bi-
nocular, 14.

Voelcker (Prof.) on the constitution of the
mineral portion of bones, and the ana-

238

lysis of common bone-ash, animal char-
coal, &c., 68.

Volcanic emanation, on the source of am-
monia in, 71.

Volcanoes of central Asia, on the, 75.

Wakefield convict prison, influence of
various circumstances in causing loss
or gain in the weight of the prisoners
in, 139.

Walker (H.) on the results of free trade,
201.

Wallace (W.) on chloro-arsenious acid
and some of its compounds, 69 ; on the
carbonates of alumina, chromic oxide,
and ferric oxide, 76.

War, application of combustible com-

ounds to be used in, 214.
Ward (N. B.) on suburban gardens, 117 ;
- on some practical results derivable from
the study of botany, 118; on aquaria,
132.

Ward (W. 8.) on dry collodion processes,
71.

Warington (R.) on the source of ammonia
in voleanic emanation, 71; on the mul-
tiplication of Actiniz in aquaria, 133 ;
on additions to the microscope, 143.

Water, on the action of hard, upon lead,
54; on some modern appliances for
raising, 208.

Water-bath, on an instrument for main-
taining a, at constant temperatures, 71.

Waterhouse (John) on an instrument for
maintaining a water-bath at constant
temperatures, 71.

Water power, on the economy of, 212.

Water-supply to great towns, on the, 198.

Wavellite, on a new variety of pyro-elec-
tric, 49.

Weathered (The Hon. J.) on combined
steam, 222.

West (Tuffen) on the epidermal cells of
the petals of plants, 119,

West Riding, registry of deeds in the, 175.

Whewell (Rev. W.), address by, to the
Mathematical and Physical Section, 1 ;
on his views respecting the nature and
value of mathematical definitions, 3.

Whitehouse (Wildman) on the submarine
telegraph, 25.

INDEX II.

Whitney (A.) on the formation of a rail-
way from the Atlantic to the Pacific
ocean, through the British possessions
of N. America, 154.

Whitworth (C. F.) on recent improve-
ments in railway signals, 223.

Williams (R. P.) on an instrument for
setting out curve lines, 228,

Willich (C. M.) on a mode of construct-
ing tables of squares and cubes, 6.

Wilson (J. Spotswood) on the physical
geography of N. W. Australia, 155 ;
on the general and gradual desiccation
of the earth and atmosphere, 70.

Wolley (J.) on a fresh form of erystalliza-
tion which takes place in the particles
of fallen snow under intense cold, 40;
on the arrangement of small stones on
certain bare levels in Northern locali-
ties, 224.

Wood (J. P.), experiments on clay-slate,
greenstone porphyry, and greenstone
roofing slate, 92.

Woollen manufactures of England, on
the, 158.

Worsted manufactures of Yorkshire, on
the, 182.

Wreck intelligencer, on a, 221.

Wright (Thomas) on the opening of a
sepulchral tumulus in east Yorkshire,
156.

Xyloids, on, 47.

Yang-tse-Keang, on the, 152.

Yorkshire, on the comparative geology of
Hotham, near South Cave, in, 96; on
the geological distribution of plants in
some districts of, 115; on the mineral
produce of, in 1857, 181; on the
worsted manufactures of, 182; on some
remarkable fossils of, 2238.

Zoology, 119.

Zoophytes, on three new species of ser-
tularian, 126; on some new and inter-
esting forms of British, 128.

Zornlin (Miss Rosina) on heat, and on the
indestructibility of elementary bodies,
6.

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PROCEEDINGS or tHe FOURTH MEETING, at Edinburgh, 1834,

PROCEEDINGS or rue FIFTH MEETING, at Dublin, 1835, Pub-
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ConTENTS :—Rev. W. Whewell, on the Recent Progress and Present Condition of the
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nomena of Terrestrial Magnetism.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Sir W. Hamilton’s Address, and Re-
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PROCEEDINGS or tHe SIXTH MEETING, at Bristol, 1836, Pub-
lished at 12s.

ConTENTs :—Prof. Daubeny, on the Present State of our Knowledge with respect to Mine-
ral and Thermal Waters ;—Major E. Sabine, on the Direction and Intensity of the Terrestrial
Magnetic Force in Scotland ;—J. Richardson, on North American Zoology ;—Rev. J. Challis,
on the Mathematical Theory of Fluids ;—J. T. Mackay, a Comparative View of the more
remarkable Plants which characterize the neighbourhood of Dublin and Edinburgh, and the
South-west of Scotland, &c.;—J. T. Mackay, Comparative Geographical Notices of the
more remarkable Plants which characterize Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of the London Sub-
Committee of the Medical Section on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart;—Second Report
of the Dublin Sub-Committee on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;—Report of the Dublin
Committee on the Pathology of the Brain and Nervous System ;—J. W. Lubbock, Account
of the Recent Discussions of Observations of the Tides ;—Rev. B. Powell, on determining the
Refractive Indices for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in various media;—Dr. Hodgkin,
on the Communication between the Arteries and Absorbents;—Prof. Phillips, Report of Experi-
ments on Subterranean Temperature ;—Prof. Hamilton, on the Validity of a Method recently
proposed by G. B. Jerrard, for Transforming and Resolving Equations of Elevated Degrees.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Daubeny’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or true SEVENTH MEETING, at Liverpool, 1837,
Published at 16s. 6d.

ConTENTS :—Major E. Sabine, on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at dif-
ferent points of the Earth’s Surface ;—Rev. W. Taylor, on the various modes of Printing for
the Use of the Blind ;—J. W. Lubbock, on the Discussions of Observations of the Tides ;—
Prof. T. Thomson, on the Difference between the Composition of Cast Iron produced by the
Cold and Hot Blast ;—Rev. T. R. Robinson, on the Determination of the Constant of Nutation
by the Greenwich Observations ;—R. W. Fox, Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic
Veins, and the Temperature of Mines ;—Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical
Section of the British Association, appointed to investigate the Composition of Secretions, and
the Organs producing them ;—Dr. G. O. Rees, Report from the Committee for inquiring into
the Analysis of the Glands, &c. of the Human Body ;—Second Report of the London Sub-Com-
mittee of the British Association Medical Section, on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;—
Prof. Johnston, on the Present State of our Knowledge in regard to Dimorphous Bodies ;—
Lt.-Col. Sykes, on the Statistics of the Four Collectorates of Dukhun, under the British Go-
vernment ;—E. Hodgkinson, on the relative Strength and other Mechanical Properties of Iron
obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Strength and other Properties
of Tron obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast;—Sir J. Robison, and J. 8. Russell, Report of
the Committee on Waves ;—Note by Major Sabine, being an Appendix to his Report on the
Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at different Points of the Earth’s Surface ;—
J. Yates, on the Growth of Plants under Glass, and without any free communication with the
outward Air, on the Plan of Mr. N. J. Ward, of London.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Traill’s Address and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees. ;

-. PROCEEDINGS or roe EIGHTH MEETING, at Newcastle, 1838,
Published at 15s.

ConTENTs :—Rev. W. Whewell, Account of a Level Line, measured from the Bristol Chan-
nel to the English Channel, by Mr. Bunt ;—Report on the Discussions of Tides, prepared
under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell ;—W. S. Harris, Account of the Progress and
State of the Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Major E. Sabine, on the Magnetic
Isoclinal and Isodynamic Lines in the British Islands ;— D. Lardner, LL.D., on the Determi-
nation of the Mean Numerical Values of Railway Constants ;—R. Mallet, First Report upon
Experiments upon the Action of Sea and River Water upon Cast and Wrought lron ;—R.
Mallet, on the Action of a Heat of 212° Fahr., when long continued, on Inorganic and Or-
ganic Substances.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe NINTH MEETING, at Birmingham, 1839,
Published at 13s. 6d.

ConTENTS :—Rev. B. Powell, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Refractive
Indices, for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in different media ;—Report on the Ap-
plication of the Sum assigned for Tide Calculations to Rev. W. Whewell, in a Letter from T. G.
Bunt, Esq. ;—H. L. Pattinson, on some Galvanic Experiments to determine the Existence or
Non-Existence of Electrical Currents among Stratified Rocks, particularly those of the Moun-
tain Limestone formation, constituting the Lead Measures of Alston Moor ;—Sir D. Brewster,
Reports respecting the two series of Hourly Meteorological Observations kept in Scotland ;—
Report on the subject of a series of Resolutions adopted by the British Association at their
Meeting in August 1838, at Newcastle ;—R. Owen, Report on British Fossil Reptiles ;—E.
Forbes, Report on the Distribution of Pulmoniferous Mollusca in the British Isles ;—W. S.
Harris, Third Report on the Progress of the Hourly Meteorological Register at the Plymouth
Dockyard.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tute TENTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 1840,
Published at 15s.

ConTEnTs :—Rev. B. Powell, Report on the recent Progress of discovery relative to Radiant
Heat, supplementary to a former Report on the same subject inserted in the first volume of the
Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of Science ;—J. D. Forbes, Supple-
mentary Report on Meteorology ;—W. S. Harris, Report on Prof. Whewell’s Anemometer,
now in operation at Plymouth ;—Report on ‘‘ The Motions and Sounds of the Heart,” by the
London Committee of the British Association, for 1839-40 ;—Prof. Schonbein, an Account of
Researches in Electro-Chemistry ;—R. Mallet, Second Report upon the Action of Air and
Water, whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at various temperatures, upon Cast Iron,
Wrought Iron and Steel ;—R. W. Fox, Report on some Observations on Subterranean Tem-
perature ;—A. F. Osler, Report on the Observations recorded during the years 1837, 1838, 1839
and 1840, by the Self-registering Anemometer erected at the Philosophical Institution, Bir-
mingham ;—Sir D. brewster, Report respecting the two Series of Hourly Meteorological Ob-
servations kept at Inverness and Kingussie, from Nov. Ist, 1838 to Nov. ist, 1839 ;—W.
Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Vertebrata ;—C. J. B. Williams, M.D.,
Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs and Air-Tubes ;—Kev. J. S. Henslow,
Report of the Committee on the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison and Major E, Sabine’s
Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue ELEVENTH MEETING, at Plymouth,
1841, Published at 13s. 6d.

ConTENTs :—Rev. P. Kelland, on the Present state of our Theoretical and Experimental
Knowledge of the Laws of Conduction of Heat ;—G. L. Roupell, M. D., Report on Poisons ;—
T. G. Bunt, Report on Discussions of Bristol Tides, under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell;
—D. Ross, Report on the Discussions of Leith Tide Observations, under the direction of the
Rev. W. Whewell ;—W. S. Harris, upon the working of Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth
during the past year ;—Report of a Committee appointed for the purpose of superintend-
ing the scientific co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Obser-
vations in Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology ;—Reports of Committees appointed to pro- ~
vide Meteorological Instruments for the use of M. Agassiz and Mr. M‘Cord ;—Report of a Com-
mittee to superintend the reduction of Meteorological Observations ;—Report of a Com-
mittee for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Report of a Committee for obtaining In-
struments and Registers to record Shocks and Earthquakes in Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of

a Committee on the Preservation of Vegetative Powers in Seeds s—Dr. Hodgkin, on Inquiries
into the Races of Man ;—Report of the Committee appointed to report how far the Desiderata
in our knowledge of the Condition of the Upper Strata of the Atmosphere may be supplied by
means of Ascents in Balloons or otherwise, to ascertain the probable expense of such Experi-
ments, and to draw up Directions for Observers in such circumstances ;—R. Owen, Report
on British Fossil Reptiles; Reports on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway
Constants ;-—D. Lardner, LL.D., Second and concluding Report on the Determination of the
Mean Value of Railway Constants;—-E. Woods, Report on Railway Constants ;—Report of a
Committee on the Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-Engines.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Whewell’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWELFTH MEETING, at Manchester,
1842, Published at 10s. 6d.

ConTENTS :—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the British
Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—
J. Richardson, M.D., Report on the present State of the Ichthyology of New Zealand ;—
W.S. Harris, Report on the Progress of Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Second
Report of a Committee appointed to make Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;
—C. Vignoles, Keport of the Committee on Railway Sections ;—Report of the Committee
for the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances ;—Lyon Playfair, M.D., Abstract
of Prof. Liebig’s Report on Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pathology ;—
R. Owen, Report on the British Fossil Mammalia, Part I.;—R. Hunt, Researches on the
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—L. Agassiz, Report
on the Fossil Fishes of the Devonian System or Old Red Sandstone ;—W. Fairbairn, Ap-
pendix to a Report on the Strength and other Properties of Cast Iron obtained from the Hot
and Cold Blast ;—D. Milne, Report of the Committee for Registering Shocks of Earthquakes
in Great Britain ;—Report of a Committee on the construction of a Constant Indicator for
Steam-Engines, and for the determination of the Velocity of the Piston of the Self-acting En-
gine at different periods of the Stroke ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Committee on the Form of
Ships ;—Report of a Committee appointed ‘to consider of the Rules by which the Nomencla-
ture of Zoology may be established on a uniform and permanent basis ;’””"—Report of a Com-
mittee on the Vital Statistics of large Towns in Scotland ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices
of Progress in special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals,

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Francis Egerton’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTEENTH MEETING, at Cork,
1843, Published at 12s.

ConTENTS:—Robert Mallet, Third Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether
fresh or salt, clear or foul, and of Various Temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and
Steel ;—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the British As-
sociation in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Sir
J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., Report of the Committee appointed for the Reduction of Meteoro-
logical Observations;—Report of the Committee appointed for Experiments on Steam-
Engines ;—Report of the Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality
of Seeds ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Series of Observations on the Tides of the Frith of
Forth and the East Coast of Scotland ;—J. S. Russell, Notice of a Report of the Committee
on the Form of Ships;—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines;—Report
of the Committee on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report of the Committee for Registering
the Shocks of Earthquakes, and making such Meteorological Observations as may appear to
them desirable ;—Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Captive Balloons;
—Prof. Wheatstone, Appendix to the Report ;—Report of the Committee for the Translation
and Publication of Foreign Scientific Memoirs ;—C. W. Peach on the Habits of the Marine
Testacea ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the #Zgean Sea, and on their
distribution, considered as bearing on Geology ;—L. Agassiz, Synoptical Table of British
Fossil Fishes, arranged in the order of the Geological Formations ;—R,. Owen, Report on the
British Fossil Mammalia, Part II.;—E. W. Binney, Report on the excavation made at the
junction of the Lower New Red Sandstone with the Coal Measures at Collyhurst ;—W.
Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Invertebrata ;—Provisional Reports, and
Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Earl of Rosse’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.

' PROCEEDINGS or tnt FOURTEENTH MEETING, at York, 1844,
Published at £1.

ContTEnts :—W. B. Carpenter, on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—J. Alder and A.
Hancock, Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusea;—R. Hunt, Researches on the
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—Report of a
Committee appointed by the British Association in 1840, for revising the Nomenclature of the
Stars ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on the Meteorology of Toronto in Canada ;—J. Blackwall, Report
On some recent researches into the Structure, Functions, and Ciconomy of the Araneidea
made in Great Britain ;—Earl of Rosse, on the Construction of large Reflecting Telescopes ;
—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on a Gas-furnace for Experiments on Vitrifaction and other
Applications of High Heat in the Laboratory ;—Report of the Committee for Registering
Earthquake Shocks in Scotland ;—Report of a Committee for Experiments on Steam-Engines;
—Report of the Committee to investigate the Varieties of the Human Race ;—Fourth Report
of a Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds ;—W. Fair-
bairn, on the Consumption of Fuel and the Prevention of Smoke ;—F. Ronalds, Report con-
cerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew ;—Sixth Report of the Committee
appointed to conduct the Co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simulta-
neous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Prof. Forchhammer on the influence
of Fucoidal Plants upon the Formations of the Earth, on Metamorphism in general, and par-
ticularly the Metamorphosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate ;-—H. E. Strickland, Report on
the recent Progress and Present State of Ornithology ;—T. Oldham, Report of Committee
appointed to conduct Observations on Subterranean Temperature in Ireland ;—Prof. Owen,
Report on the Extinct Mammals of Australia, with descriptions of certain Fossils indicative
of the former existence in that continent of large Marsupial Representatives of the Order
Pachydermata ;—W. S. Harris, Report on the working of Whewell and Osler’s Anemometers
at Plymouth, for the years 1841, 1842, 1843 ;—W. R. Birt, Report on Atmospheric Waves;
—L. Agassiz, Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles de l’Agile de Londres, with translation ;—J,
S. Russell, Report on Waves ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Re«
searches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dean of Ely’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue FIFTEENTH MEETING, at Cambridge,
1845, Published at 12s.

ConTENTs :—Seventh Report of a Committee appointed to conduct the Co-operation of the
British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observa-
tions ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on some points in the Meteorology of Bombay ;—J. Blake, Report
on the Physiological Actions of Medicines ;—Dr. Von Boguslawski, on the Comet of 1843;
—R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—Prof. Schénbein, on Ozone ;—Prof, Erman, on
the Influence of Friction upon Thermo-Electricity;—Baron Senftenberg, on the Self-
Registering Meteorological Instruments employed in the Observatory at Senftenberg ;—
W. R. Birt, Second Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress and Pre-
sent Extent of Savings’ Banks in the United Kingdom ;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr, Playfair,
Report on the Gases evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the Theory of Smelting
of Iron ;—Dr. Richardson, Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan ;—
Report of the Committee on the Registration of Periodical Pheenomena of Animals and Vege-
tables ;—Fifth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Appendix, &c.

' Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir J. F. W. Herschel’s Address, and Re-~
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tur SIXTEENTH MEETING, at Southampton,
1846, Published at 15s.

ConTENTS:—G,. G. Stokes, Report on Recent Researches in Hydrodynamics ;—Sixth
Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. Schunck on the Colouring Matters of
Madder ;—J. Blake, on the Physiological Action of Medicines ;—R. Hunt, Report on the Ac-
tinograph ;—R. Hunt, Notices on the Influence of Light on the Growth of Plants ;—R. L.
Ellis, on the Recent Progress of Analysis ;—Prof. Forchhammer, on Comparative Analytical
Researches on Sea Water ;—A. Erman, on the Calculation of the Gaussian Constants for
1829;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress, present Amount, and probable future Condition of the
Tron Manufacture in Great Britain ;—W. R. Birt, Third Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—
Prof. Owen, Report on the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton ;—
J. Phillips, on Anemometry ;—J. Percy, M.D., Report on the Crystalline Flags;—Addenda
to Mr. Birt’s Report on Atmospheric Waves.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir R. I. Murchison’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or toe SEVENTEENTH MEETING, at Oxford,
1847, Published at 18s. é :

CoNnTENTS :—Prof. Langberg, on the Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid at different de-
grees of dilution, and on the relation which exists between the Development of Heat and the
coincident contraction of Volume in Sulphuric Acid when mixed with Water :—R. Hunt,
Researches on the Influence of the Solar Rays on the Growth of Plants ;—R. Mallet, on
the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Prof. Nilsson, on the Primitive Inhabitants of Scans
dinavia ;—W. Hopkins, Report on the Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes;
—Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Report on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—Rev. W. Whewell and
Sir James C. Ross, Report upon the Recommendation of an Expedition for the purpose of
completing our knowledge of the Tides ;—Dr. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—Seventh Re-
port of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. Glynn, on the Turbine or Horizontal
Water-Wheel of France and Germany ;—Dr. R. G. Latham, on the present state and recent
progress of Ethnographical Philology ;—Dr. J. C. Prichard, on the various methods of Research
which contribute to the Advancement of Ethnology, and of the relations of that Science to
other branches of Knowledge ;—Dr. C. C. J. Bunsen, on the results of the recent Egyptian
researches in reference to Asiatic and African Ethnology, and the Classification of Languages ;
—Dr. C. Meyer, on the Importance of the Study of the Celtic Language as exhibited by the
Modern Celtic Dialects still extant;—Dr. Max Miiller, on the Relation of the Bengali to the
Arian and Aboriginal Languages of India;—W. R. Birt, Fourth Report on Atmospheric
Waves ;—Prof. W. H. Dove, Temperature Tables; with Introductory Remarks by Lieut.-Col.
E. Sabine ;—A. Erman and H. Petersen, Third Report on the Calculation of the Gaussian Con-
stants for 1829.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Robert Harry Inglis’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue EIGHTEENTH MEETING, at Swansea,
1848, Published at 9s.

Contents :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—
J. Glynn on Water-pressure Engines ;—R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns ;—Eighth
Report of Committee on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—W. R. Birt, Fifth Report on At-
mospheric Waves ;—E. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—J. P. Budd, on the advantageous use
made of the gaseous escape from the Blast Furnaces at the Ystalyfera Iron Works;—R. Hunt,
Report of progress in the investigation of the Action of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of
Plants allied to those of the Coal Formations ;—Prof. H. W. Dove, Supplement to the Tem-
perature Tables printed in the Report of the British Association for 1847 ;—Remarks by Prof.
Dove on his recently constructed Maps of the Monthly Isothermal Lines of the Globe, and on
some of the principal Conclusions in regard to Climatology deducible from them; with an in-
troductory Notice by Lt.-Col. E. Sabine ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the progress of the investigation
on the Influence of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Ferns ;—J. Phillips, Notice of further
progress in Anemometrical Researches ;—Mr. Mallet’s Letter to the Assistant-General Secre-
tary ;—A. Erman, Second Report on the Gaussian Constants ;—Report of a Committee
relative to the expediency of recommending the continuance of the Toronto Magnetical and
Meteorological Observatory until December 1850.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Marquis of Northampton’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tuzE NINETEENTH MEETING, at Birmingham,
1849, Published at 10s. :

ConTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Earl
of Rosse, Notice of Nebulz lately observed in the Six-feet Reflector ;—Prof. Daubeny, on the
Influence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants, especially of those allied to the Fossil
Remains found in the Coal Formation ;—Dr. Andrews, Report on the Heat of Combination ;
—Report of the Committee on the Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants and
Animals ;—Ninth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;
—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from
Aug. 9, 1848 to Sept. 12, 1849 ;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experimental Inquiry on Railway
Bar Corrosion;—W. R. Birt, Report on the Discussion of the Electrical Observations at Kew.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. T. R. Robinson’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTIETH MEETING, at Edinburgh,
1850, Published at 15s.

- Contents :—R. Mallet, First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Rev. Prof.
Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors;—Dr. T. Williams, on the Structure and

‘History of the British Annelida :—T. C. Hunt, Results of Meteorological Observations taken
at St. Michael’s from the Ist of January, 1840, to the 31st of December, 1849;—R. Hunt, on
-the present State of our Knowledge of the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Tenth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Major-Gen.
Briggs, Report on the Aboriginal Tribes of India;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Ob-
servatory of the British Association at Kew ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Investigation of British
Marine Zoology by means of the Dredge ;—R. MacAndrew, Notes on the Distribution and
Range in depth of Mollusca and other Marine Animals, observed on the coasts of Spain, Por-
tugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849 ;—Prof. Allman, on the Present State of
our Knowledge of the Freshwater Polyzoa ;—Registration of the Periodical Phenomena of
Plants and Animals ;—Suggestions to Astronomers for the Observation of the Total Eclipse
of the Sun on July 28, 1851.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir David Brewster’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTY-FIRST MEETING, at Ipswich,
1851, Published at 16s. 6d.

Contents :—Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Eleventh Re-
port of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. J. Drew, on
the Climate of Southampton ;—Dr. R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns: Action of
Porous Strata, Water and Organic Matter ;—Report of the Committee appointed to consider
the probable Effects in an Gconomical and Physical Point of View of the Destruction of Tro-
pical Forests ;—A. Henfrey, on the Reproduction and supposed Existence of Sexual Organs
in the Higher Cryptogamous Plants;—Dr. Daubeny, on the Nomenclature of Organic Com-
zounis ;—Rev. Dr. Donaldson, on two unsolved Problems in Indo-German Philology ;—

r. T. Williams, Report on the British Annelida;—R. Mallet, Second Report on the Facts of
Earthquake Phenomena ;—Letter from Prof. Henry to Col. Sabine, on the System of Meteoro-
logical Observations proposed to be established in the United States ;—Col. Sabine, Report
on the Kew Magnetographs ;—J. Welsh, Report on the Performance of his three Magneto-
graphs during the Experimental Trial at the Kew Observatory ;—F. Ronalds, Report concern-
ing the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from September 12, 1850, to July 31,
1851 ;—Ordnance Survey of Scotland.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Airy’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHE TWENTY-SECOND MEETING, at Belfast,
1852, Published at 15s.

ConTENTs :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Twelfth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. Prof.
Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1851-52 ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the In-
fluence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants;—A Manual of Ethnological
Inquiry ;—Col. Sykes, Mean Temperature of the Day, and Monthly Fall of Rain at 127 Sta-
tions under the Bengal Presidency ;—Prof. J. D. Forbes, on Experiments on the Laws of the
Conduction of Heat;—R. Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Dr. Hodges,
on the Composition and Ciconomy of the Flax Plant;—W. Thompson, on the Freshwater
Fishes of Ulster; —W. Thompson, Supplementary Report on the Fauna of Ireland;—W. Wills,
onthe Meteorology of Birmingham ;—J. Thomson, on the Vortex-Water- Wheel ;—J. B. Lawes
and Dr. Gilbert, on the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and the Feeding of
Animals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Colonel Sabine’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-THIRD MEETING, at Hull,
1853, Published at 10s. 6d.

Contents :—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1852-53 ;
—James Oldham, on the Physical Features of the Humber ;—James Oldham, on the Rise,
Progress, and Present Position of Steam Navigation in Hull;—William Fairbairn, Experi-
mental Researches to determine the Strength of Locomotive Boilers, and the causes which
lead to Explosion ;—J. J. Sylvester, Provisional Report on the Theory of Determinants ;—
Professor Hodges, M.D., Report on the Gases evolved in Steeping Flax, and on the Composition
and (Economy of the Flax Plant ;—Thirteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the
Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Robert Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations;

~ —John P. Bell, M.D., Observations on the Character and Measurements of Degradation of the
Yorkshire Coast; First Report of Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Sur-
face, as compared with that of the Earth;—R. Mallet, Provisional Report on Earthquake

Wave-Transits; and on Seismometrical Instruments ;=William Fairbaitn, on the Mechanical
Properties of Metals as derived from repeated Meltings, exhibiting the maximum point of
strength and the causes of deterioration ;—Robert Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Harth-
quake Phzenomena (continued).

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Hopkins’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHE TWENTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Liver-
pool, 1854, Published at 18s.

Contents:—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena (continued) ;
—Major-General Chesney, on the Construction and General Use of Efficient Life-Boats;—Rev.
Prof. Powell, Third Report on the present State of our Knowledge of Radiant Heat ;—Colonel
Sabine, on some of the results obtained at the British Colonial Magnetic Observatories ;—
Colonel Portlock, Report of the Committee on Earthquakes, with their proceedings respecting
Seismometers ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers
of Plants, Part 2;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1853-54;
—Second Report of the Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Surface ;—W. G.
Armstrong, on the Application of Water-Pressure Machinery ;—J. B. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert,
on the Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food ;—Archibald Smith, on the Deviations of the
Compass in Wooden and Iron Ships; Fourteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on
the Growth and Vitality of Seeds.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Harrowby’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Glasgow,
1855, Published at 15s.

ConTENTs :—T. Dobson, Report on the Relation between Explosions in Coal-Mines and
Revolving Storms;—Dr. Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers
of Plants growing under different Agmospheric Conditions, Part 3;—C. Spence Bate, on the
British Edriophthalma ;—J. F, Bateman, on the present state of our knowledge on the Supply
of Water to Towns ;—Fifteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and
Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1854—55 ;
—Report of Committee appointed to inquire into the best means of ascertaining those pro
perties of Metals and effects of various modes of treating them which are of importance to the
durability and efficiency of Artillery ;—Rev. Prof. Henslow, Report on Typical Objects in
Natural History ;—A. Follett Osler, Account of the Self-Registering Anemometer and Rain-
Gauge at the Liverpool Observatory ;—Provisional Reports.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Duke of Argyll’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHE TWENTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Chel-
tenham, 1856, Published at 18s.

Contents ;—Report from the Committee appointed to investigate and report upon the
effects produced upon the Channels of the Mersey by the alterations which within the last
fifty years have been made in its Banks; —J. Thomson, Interim Report on progress in Re-
searches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;—Dredging Report, Frith of Clyde,
1856 ;—Rev. B. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous, Meteors, 1855-1856 ;—Prof.
Bunsen and Dr. H. E. Roscoe, Photochemical Researches ;—Rev. James Booth, on the Trigo-
nometry of the Parabola, and the Geometrical Origin of Logarithms ;—R. MacAndrew, Report
on the Marine Testaceous Mollusca of the North-east Atlantic and Neighbouring Seas, and
the physical conditions affecting their development ;—P. P. Carpenter, Report on the present
state of our knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North America ;-—
T. C. Eyton, Abstract of First Report on the Oyster Beds and Oysters of the British Shores;
——Prof. Phillips, Report on Cleavage and Foliation in Rocks, and on the Theoretical Expla-
nations of these Phenomena: Part I. ;--Dr. T. Wright on the Stratigraphical Distribution of
the Oolitic Echinodermata ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Tensile Strength of Wrought Iron at various
Temperatures ;——C, Atherton, on Mercantile Steam Transport Economy ;—J. 8. Bowerbank, on
the Vital Powers of the Spongiade;—-Report of a Committee upon the Experiments conducted
at Stormontfield, near Perth, for the artificial propagation of Salmon ;—Provisional Report on
the Measurement of Ships for Tonnage ;—On Typical Forms of Minerals, Plants and Animals
for Museums ;——J. Thomson, Interim Report on Progress in Researches on the Measure-
ment of Water by Weir Boards;—-R. Mallet, on Observations with the Seismometer ;—A,.
Cayley, on the Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Report of a Committee appointed to con-
sider the formation of a Catalogue of Philosophical Memoirs.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Daubeny’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees. ?

_ PROCEEDINGS or tote TWENTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at Dub.
lin, 1857, Published at 15s.

ConTENTs :—A. Cayley, Report on the Recent Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Six-
teenth and final Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;
—James Oldham, C.E., continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull;—Report of a
Committee on the Defects of the present methods of Measuring and Registering the Tonnage
of Shipping, as also of Marine Engine-Power, and to frame more perfect rules, in order that
a correct and uniform principle may be adopted to estimate the Actual Carrying Capabilities
and Working-Power of Steam Ships;—Robert Were Fox, Report on the Temperature of
some Deep Mines in Cornwall;—Dr. G. Plarr, De quelques Transformations de la Somme

—Hqilt1 pelt pel+1 : : hon!

4 ja# ya atv a étant entier négatif, et de quelques cas dans lesquels cette somme

est exprimable par une combinaison de factorielles, la notation atl+1 désignant le produit des
t facteurs a (a+1) (a+2) &c....(a+¢—1);—G. Dickie, M.D., Report on the Marine Zoology
of Strangford Lough, County Down, and corresponding part of the Irish Channel ;—Charles
Atherton, Suggestions for Statistical Inquiry into the extent to which Mercantile Steam Trans-
port Economy is affected by the Constructive Type of Shipping, as respects the Proportions of
Length, Breadth, and Depth ;—J. S. Bowerbank, Further Report on the Vitality of the Spon-
giadz ;—John P. Hodges, M.D., on Flax ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of the Committee
on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of
Luminous Meteors, 1856-57 ;—C. Vignoles, C.E., on the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to
sustain the passage of Railway Trains ;—Professor W, A. Miller, M.D., on Electro-Chemistry ;
—dJohn Simpson, R.N., Results of Thermometrical Observations made at the ‘ Plover’s’
Wintering-place, Point Barrow, latitude 71° 21’ N., long. 156° 17’ W., in 1852~54 ;—Charles
James Hargrave, LL.D., on the Algebraic Couple; and on the Equivalents of Indeterminate
Expressions;—Thomas Grubb, Report on the Improvement of Telescope and Equatorial
Mountings ;—Professor James Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots in the Botanical
Garden of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester; William Fairbairn on the Resistance
of Tubes to Collapse ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Proceedings of the Belfast Dredging
Committee ;—Peter W. Barlow, on the Mechanical Effect of combining Girders and Suspen-
sion Chains, and a Comparison of the Weight of Metal in Ordinary and Suspension Girders,
to produce equal deflections with a given load ;—J. Park Harrison, M.A., Evidences of Lunar
Influence on Temperature ;—Report on the Animal and Vegetable Products imported into
Liverpool from the year 1851 to 1855 (inclusive) ;—Andrew Henderson, Report on the Sta:
tistics of Life-boats and Fishing-boats on the Coasts of the United Kingdom.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Owen’s Address, and Recommenda-

tions of the Association and its Commitees. ;

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List of those Members of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science, to whom Copies of this Volume [for 1858] are supplied
gratuitously, in conformity with the Regulations adopted by the General

Committee.

[See pp. xvii. & xviii. ]

HONORARY MEMBER.

HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS

THE PRINCE CONSORT.

LIFE MEMBERS.

Adair, Lt.-Col. Robert A. Shafto, F.R.S.,
7 Audley Square, London.

Adams, John Couch, M.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Lowndsean Professor
of Astronomy and Geometry in the
University of Cambridge; Pembroke
College, Cambridge.

Ainsworth, Thomas, The Flosh, Egremont,
Cumberland.

Aldam, William, Frickley Hall near Don-
caster,

Allecock, Samuel, Rushulme Place near
Manchester.

Allen, William J. C., Secretary to the
Royal Belfast Academical Institution ;
8 Wellington Place, Belfast.

Allis, Thomas, Osbaldwick Hall, York.

Ambler, Henry, Watkinson Hall, Oven-
den near Halifax.

Amery, John, F.S.A., Park House,
Stourbridge.

Anderson, William (Yr.). Glentarkie by
Strathmiglo, Fife.

Andrews, Thos., M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA.,
Vice-President of, and Professor of
Chemistry in, Queen’s College, Belfast.

Ansted, David Thomas, M.A., F.R.S.,

* Lecturer on Geology at the H.E.I.C.’s
Military Academy, Addiscombe ; Athe-
num Club, and Bon Air, St. Martin,
Guernsey.

Appold, John George, F.R.S., 23 Wilson
Street, Finsbury Square, London.

Archer, T. C., Professor of Botany in |

Queen’s College, Liverpool; Higher
Tranmere, Cheshire.

Armstrong, Sir William George, Bart.,
F.R.S., Elswick Engine Works, New-
custle-upon-Tyne.

Arthur, Rev. William, M.A., 26 Campden
Grove, Kensington, London.

Ashton, Thomas, M.D., 81 Mosley St.,
Manchester.

Ashworth, Edmund, Egerton Hall, Turton
near Bolton.

| Atkinson, John Hastings, 14 East Parade,
Leeds.

Atkinson, Joseph B., Cotham, Bristol.

Atkinson, J. R. W., Hundill Hall, Ponte-
fract.

Atkinson, Richard, jun.,31 College Green,
Dublin.

Auldjo, John, F.R.S., Noel House, Ken-
sington, London; and _ Penighael,
Argyleshire.

Ayrton, W.S., F.S.A., Harehills, Leeds.

Babbage, Charles, M.A., F.R.S., 1 Dorset
Street, Manchester Square, London.
Babington, Charles Cardale, M.A.,F.R.S.,
(Local Treasurer), St. John’s College,

Cambridge.

Backhouse, John Church, Blackwell,
Darlington.

Baddeley, Captain Frederick H., R.E.,
Ceylon.

Bain, Richard, Gwennap near Truro.

Bainbridge, Robert Walton, Middleton
House near Barnard Castle, Durham.

Baines, Edward, Headingley Lodge,
Leeds.

Baines, Rt. Hon. M. T., M.A., M.P., 13
Queen Square, Westminster, and Lan-
caster.

Baines, Samuel, Victoria Mills, Brig-
house, Yorkshire.

Baker, Henry Granville, Bellevue, Hors-
forth near Leeds.

| Baker, Johu, Dodge Hill, Stockport.

Baker, William, 63 Gloucester Place,
Hyde Park, London.

Baldwin, The Hon. Robert, H.M. Attor-
ney-General, Spadina, Co. York, Upper
Canada.

Balfour, John Hutton, M.D., Professor of
Botany in the University of Edinburgh,
F.R.S. L. & E., F.L.S.; Edinburgh.

Ball, William, Rydall, Ambleside, West-
moreland.

{It is requested that any inaccuracy in the Names and Residences of the Members may be communicated to
Messrs, Taylor and Francis, Printers, Red Lion Court, Flect Street, London.]

2 MEMBERS

Barbour, Robert, Portland Street, Man-
chester.

Barclay, J.Gurney, Walthamstow, Essex.

Barnes, Thomas, M.D., F.R.S.E., Car-
lisle.

Burnett, Richard, M.R.C.S., 11 Victoria
Square, Reading.

Zartholomew, Charles, Rotherham.

Bartholomew, William Hamond, 5 Grove
Terrace, Leeds.

Barton, John, Bank of Ireland, Dublin.

Barwick, John Marshall, (Solicitor,)
Albion Street, Leeds.

Bashforth, Rev. Francis, B.D., Minting
near Horncastle, Lincolnshire.

Bateman, Joseph, LL.D., F.R.A.S., J.P.
for Middlesex, &c., 24 Bedford Place,
Kensington, London.

Bayldon, John, Horbury near Wakefield.

Bayley, George, 2 Cowper’s Court, Corn-
hill, London.

Beamish, Richard, F.R.S., 2 Suffolk
Square, Cheltenham.

Beatson, William, Rotherham.

Beaufort, William Morris, 11 Gloucester
Place, Portman Square, London.

Beckett, William, Kirkstall Grange, Leeds.

Belcher, Capt. Sir Edw., R.N., F.R.A.S.,
22 Thurloe Square, Brompton, London.

Bell, Matthew P., 245 St. Vincent Street,
Glasgow.

Bennoch, Francis, Blackheath Park, Kent.

Bergin, Thomas Francis, M.R.LA., 49
Westland Row, Dublin.

Berryman, William Richard, 6 Tamar
Terrace, Stoke, Devonport.

Bickerdike, Rev. John, M.A., Leeds.

Binyon, Thomas, St. Ann’s Square, Man-
chester.

Bird, William, 9 South Castle Street, Li-
verpool. :

Birks, Rev. Thomas Rawson, Kelshall
Rectory, Royston.

Birley, Richard, Sedgley,
Manchester.

Birt, W. Radcliff, F.R.A.S., lla, Wel-
lington Street, Victoria Park, London.

Blackie, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S., 10 Kew
Terrace, Glasgow.

Blackwall, John, F.L.S., Hendre House
near Llanrwst, Denbighshire.

Blackwell, Thomas Evans, F.G.S., The
Grove, Clifton, Bristol.

Blake, Henry Wollaston, F.R.S., 8 Devon-
shire Place, Portland Place, London.
Blake, William, Bishop’s Hull, Taunton.
Blakiston, Peyton, M.D:, F.R.S., St.

Leonard’s-on-Sea.
Bland, Rev. Miles, D.D., F.R.S., 5 Royal
Crescent, Ramsgate.

Prestwich,

TO WHOM

Blythe, William, Holland Bank, Church
near Accrington.

Bodley, Thomas, F.G.S., Anlaby House,
Pittville, Cheltenham. —

Boileau, Sir John Peter, Bart., F.R.S.,
20 Upper Brook Street, London; and
Ketteringham Hall, Norfolk.

Bond, Walter M., The Argory, Moy,
Ireland.

Bossey, Francis, M.D., Woolwich.

Bowerbank, James Scott, LL.D., F.R.S.,
3 Highbury Grove, London.

Bowlby, Miss F. E,, 27 Lansdown Cres-
cent, Cheltenham.

Brady, Antonio, Maryland Point, Essex.

Brady, Cheyne, M.R.I.A., 54 Upper
Leeson Street, Dublin.

Brakenridge, John, Bretton Lodge,
Wakefield.

Brett, John Watkins, 2 Hanover Square,
London.

Briggs, Major-General John, E.I.C.S.,
F.R.S., 2 Tenterden Street, London.
Brisbane, General Sir Thos. Makdougall,
Bart., K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L., Pre-
sident of the Royal Society of Edin-

burgh, F.R.S.; Brisbane, Greenock.

Brodie, Sir Benjamin Collins, Bart.,
D.C.L., President of the Royal Society;
14 Savile Row, Londen, and Broome
Park, Betchworth, Surrey.

Brooke, Charles, M.B., F.R.S., 29 Keppel
Street, Russell Square, London.

Brooks, Samuel, King Street, Manches-
ter.

Brooks, Thomas, (Messrs. Butterworth
and Brooks), Manchester.

Broun, John Allan, F.R.S., Astronomer
to His Highness the Rajah of Tra-
vancore; Observatory, Trevandrum,
India.

Brown, Samuel, F.S.S., The Elms, Lark-
hall Rise, Clapham, London.

Brown, Thomas, Ebbw Vale Iron Works,
Abergavenny.

Brown, William, Docks, Sunderland.

Bruce, Alexander John, Kilmarnock.

Brunel, Isambart Kingdom, D.C.L.,
F.R.S., 18 Duke Street, Westminster.

Buck, George Watson, Ramsay, Isle of
Man.

Buckman, James, F.G.S., Professor of
Botany, Royal Agricultural College,
Cirencester.

Buckton, G. Bowdler, F.R.S., 55 Queen’s
Gardens, Hyde Park, London.

Budd, James Palmer, Ystalyfera Iron
Works, Swansea.

Buller, Sir Antony, Pound near Tavistock,
Devon,

BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 3

Bulman, John, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Burd, John, jun., Mount Sion, Radcliffe,
Manchester.

Busk, George, F.R.S., Professor of Com-
parative Anatomy and Physiology to the
Royal College of Surgeons of England ;
15 Harley Street, Cavendish Square,
London,

Butlery, Alexander W., Monkland Iron
and Steel Company, Cardarroch near
Airdrie.

Caine, Rev. William, M.A., Greenheys,
Manchester.

Caird, James T., Greenock.

Campbell, Dugald, 7 Quality Court,
Chancery Lane, London.

Campbell, Sir James, Glasgow.

Campbell, William, 34 Candlerigg Street,
Glasgow.

Carew, William Henry Pole, Antony
House near Devonport.

Carpenter, Philip Pearsall, B.A., Academy
Place, Warrington.

Carr, William, Blackheath.

Cartmell, Rev. James, B.D., F.G.S.,
Master of Christ’s College, Cambridge.

Cassels, Rev. Andrew, M.A., Batley Vi-
carage near Leeds.

Chadwick, Charles, M.D., 35 Park Square,
Leeds.

Challis, Rev. James, M.A., F.R.S., Plu-
mian Professor of Astronomy in the
University of Cambridge ; Observatory,
Cambridge. ~

Chambers, Robert, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.,
1 Doune Terrace, Edinburgh.

Champney, Henry Nelson, St. Paul’s
Square, York.

Chanter, John, 2 Arnold Terrace, Bow
Road, Bromley.

Cheetham, David, Staleybridge, Man-
chester. i

Chesney, Major-General Francis Rawdon,
R.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Ballyardle, Kil-
keel, Co. Down, Ireland.

Chevallier, Rev. Temple, B.D., F.R.A.S.,
Professor of Mathematics and Astro-
nomy in the University of Durham.

Chichester, Ashhurst Turner Gilbert, D.D.,
Lord Bishop of, 43 Queen Ann Street,
Cavendish Square, London, and The
Palace, Chichester.

Chiswell, Thomas, 2 Lincoln Grove, Man-
chester.

Christie, Samuel Hunter, M.A., F.R.S.,
Ailsa Villas, St. Margaret’s, ‘Twick-

_ -enham,

Clark, Rev. Charles, M.A., Queen’s Col-
lege, Cambridge.

Clark, Henry, M.D., 74 Marland Place,
Southampton.

Clay, Joseph Travis, F.G.S,, Rastrick,
Yorkshire,

Clay, William, 4 Park Hill Road, Liver-

pool.

Clayton, David Shaw, Norbury, Stock-
port, Cheshire,

Coathupe, Charles Thornton, 3 Park Row,
Bristol.

Coats, George, 6 Woodlands Terrace,
Glasgow.

Coats, Peter, Woodside, Paisley.

Coats, Thomas, Fergeslie House, Paisley.

Cobbold, John Chevallier, M.P., Tower
Street, Ipswich.

Cocker, Jonathan, Higher Broughton,
Manchester.

Colfox, William, B.A., Bridport, Dorset-
shire,

Compton, Lord Alwyne, Castle Ashby,
Northamptonshire.

Compton, Lord William, 145 Piccadilly,
London,

Conway, Charles, Pontnwydd Works,
Newport, Monmouthshire.

Cooke, Arthur B., 6 Berkeley Place, Con-
naught Square, London.

Cooke, William Fothergill, Kidbrooke
near Blackheath.
Corbet, Richard, Adderley, Market Dray-
ton, Shropshire.
Cotton, Alexander,
bridgeshire.

Cotton, Rev. William Charles, M.A., New
Zealand.

Courtney, Henry, M.R.1.A., 34 Fitz-
william Place, Dublin.

Cox, Joseph, F.G,.S., Wisbeach, Cam-
bridgeshire.

Crampton, The HonourableJustice, LL.D.,,
M.R.1.A., 3 Kildare Place, Dublin.
Crewdson, Thomas D., Dacca Mills, Man-

chester,
Crichton, William, 1 West India Street,
Glasgow.
Crompton, Rev. Joseph, Norwich.
Cropper, Rev. John, Stand near Man«
chester.
Curtis, John Wright, Alton, Hants.
Cuthbert, J. R.

Landwade,: Cam-

Dalby, Rev. William, M.A., Rector of
Compton Basset near Calne, Wilts.

Dalton, Rev. James Edward, B.D., Sea-
grove, Loughborough.

Danson, Joseph, 6 Shaw Street, Liver
pool.

Darbishire, Samuel D., Pendyffryn near
Conway.

4 MEMBERS TO WHOM

Daubeny, Charles Giles Bridle, M.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S., Regius Professor of
Botany in the University of Oxford.

Davis, Sir John Francis, Bart., K.C.B.,

_ F.R.S., Hollywood, Compton Green-
field near Bristol.

Dawbarn, William, Wisbeach.

Dawes, Rev. William Rutter, F,R.A.S.,
Wateringbury near Maidstone, Kent.
Dawson, Christopher H., Low Moor,

Bradford, Yorkshire.

Dawson, Henry, 14 St. James’s Road,
Liverpool,

Deane, Sir Thomas, Dundanion Castle,
Cork.

De la Rue, Warren, Ph.D., F.R.S., Ob-
servatory, Cranford, Middlesex; and
110 Bunhill Row, London.

Dent, Joseph, Ribston Hall, Wetherby,
York,

Devonshire, William, Duke of, K.G.,
M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Devonshire
House, Piccadilly, London; and Chats-
worth, Derbyshire.

Dickinson, Joseph, M.D., F.R.S., Great
George Square, Liverpool.

Dikes, William Hey, F.G.S., Wakefield.

Dilke, C. Wentworth, F.G.S., 76 Sloane
Street, London.

Dobbin, Leonard, jun., M.R.1.A.,27 Gar-
diner’s Place, Dublin.

Dodsworth, Benjamin, St. Leonard’sPlace,
York.

Dodsworth, George, Fulford near York.

Donaldson, John, Professor of the Theory
of Music in the University of Edin-
burgh; Edinburgh.

Donisthorpe, George Edmund, Holly
Bank, Moortown, Leeds.

Donnelly, William, C.B., Auburn, Mala-
hide, Ireland.

Dowden, Richard, Sunday’s Well, Cork.
Downie, Alexander, 3 Upper Hamilton
Terrace, St. John’s Wood, London.
Ducie, Henry, Earl of, F.R.S., 80 Eaton
Place, London; and Tortworth Court,

Wootton-under-Edge,

Duncan, James, M.D., Farnham House,
Finglass, Co. Dublin.

Dunlop, William Henry, Annan Hill,
Kilmarnock.

Dunraven, Edwin, Earl of, F.R.S., Adare
Manor, Co. Limerick; and Dunraven
Castle, Glamorganshire.

Earnshaw, Rev. Samuel, M.A., Sheffield.

Eddison, Edwin, Headingley Hill, Leeds.

Eddison, Francis, Headingley Hill, Leeds,

Eddy, James R., Carleton Grange, Skip-
ton.

Edmondston, Rev. John, Ashkirk near
Selkirk.

Edwards, J. Baker, Ph.D., Royal Insti-
tution Laboratory, Liverpool.

Egerton, Sir Philip de MalpasGrey, Bart.,
M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S., Oulton Park,
Tarporley, Cheshire.

Ellis, Rev. Robert, A.M., Grimstone
House near Malton, Yorkshire.

Ellis, ‘Mhomas Flower, M.A., F.R.S., At-
torney-General of the Duchy of Lan-
caster; 15 Bedford Place, London.

Enys, John S., F.G.S., Enys, Cornwall.

Erle, Rev. Christopher, M.A., F.G.S.,
Hardwick Rectory near Aylesbury.

Evans, George Fabian, M.D., Waterloo
Street, Birmingham.

Ewing, William, 209 Brandon Place,
West George Street, Glasgow.

Eyre, George Edward, F.G.S,, Warrens
near Lyndhurst, Hants.

Fairbairn, William, C.E., F.R.S., Man-
chester,

Faraday, Michael, D.C.L., F.R.S., Ful-
lerian Professor of Chemistry in the
Royal Institution of Great Britain; 21
Albemarle Street, London.

Farren, Edwin James, Hanover Cham-

_ bers, Buckingham Street, Strand, Lon-

on.

Fellows, Sir Charles, F.R.G.S.,4Montagu
Place, Russell Square, London,

Fischer, William L. F., M.A., F.R.S.,
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
University of St. Andrew’s, Scotland.

Fleming, William, M.D., Manchester.

Fletcher, Samuel, Ardwick Place, Man-
chester.

Forbes, David, F.R.S., F.G.S., A.I.C.E.,
7 Calthorpe Street, Birmingham.

Forbes, James David, LL.D., Professor
of Natural Philosophy in the Univer-
sity of Edinburgh, Sec.R.S.E., F.R.S.
Edinburgh.

Forbes, Sir John, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,,
12 Old Burlington Street, London,

Forrest, William Hutton, Stirling.

Forster, Thomas Emerson, 7 Ellison Place,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Forster, William, Ballynure, Clones, Ire-
land.

Fort, Richard, Read Hall, Whalley, Lan-
cashire.

Fortescue, Hugh, Earl, K.P., F.R.S., 17
Grosvenor Square, London; and Castle
Hill, Southmolton.

Foster, Charles Finch, Mill Lane, Cam-

-bridge.
Foster, H. S., Cambridge.

BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 5

Foster, John, M.A., The Oaks Parsonage,
Loughborough, Leicestershire.

Fowler, Robert, 23 Rutland Sq., Dublin.

Fox, Charles, Trebah, Falmouth.

Fox, Joseph Hayland, Wellington, So-
merset.

Fox, Robert Barclay, Falmouth.

Fox, Samuel Lindoe, Tottenham.

Frankland, Rev. Marmaduke Charles,
Chowbent near Manchester.

Freeland, Humphrey William, F.G.S.,
The Athenzum Club, Pall Mall, Lon-
don. :

Frerichs, John Andrew, 1 Keynsham
Bank, Cheltenham.

Frith, Richard Hastings, C.E., Terenure
Terrace, Co. Dublin.

Fullarton, Allan, 19 Woodside Place,
Glasgow.

Fulton, Alexander, 7 Woodside Crescent,
Glasgow.

Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A.,
Leigh House, Lower Tooting, Surrey.

Garrett, Henry, Belfast.

Gaskell, Samuel, 19 Whitehall Place,
London,

Gething, George Barkley, Springfield,
Newport, Monmouthshire.

Gibson, George Stacey, Saffron Walden.

Gilbart, James William, F.R.S., London
and Westminster Bank, Lothbury, Lon-
don.

Gladstone, George,
Common, London.

Gladstone, John Hall, Ph.D., F.R.S., 28
Leinster Gardens, Hyde Park, London.

Goodman, John, M.D., The Promenade,
Southport.

Goodsir, John, F.R.S. L. & E., Professor
of Anatomy in the University of Edin-
burgh.

Gordon, James, 16 Bridge Street, Inver-
ness,

Gordon, Rev. James Crawford, M.A., De-
lamont, Downpatrick, Downshire.

Gotch, Rey. Frederick William, B.A., 1
Cave Street, Bristol.

Gotch, Thomas Henry, Kettering.

Graham, Thomas, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
Master of the Mint, London.

Grahame, Major Duncan, Irvine, Scot-
land.

Grainger, John, Rose Villa, Belfast.
Gratton, Joseph, 32 Gower Street, Bed-
ford Square, London.
Graves, Rev. Charles, D.D, Professor of
Mathematics in the University of
Dublin, M.R.I,A.; 2 Trinity College,

Dublin.

F.C.S., Clapham

Graves, Rev. Richard Hastings, D.D.,
Brigown Glebe, Michelstown, Co.
Cork.

Gray, John, Greenock.

Gray, John Edward, Ph.D., F.R.S., Keep-
er of the Zoological Collections of the
British Museum; british Museum.

Gray, William, F.G.S. (Local Treasurer),
Minster Yard, York,

Grazebrook, Henry, jun., 87 Falkner
Square, Liverpool.

Greenaway, Edward, 40 Kensington
Park Gardens, Notting Hill, London.
Greenhalgh, Thomas, Astley House near

Bolton-le-Moors.

Greswell, Rev. Richard, B.D., F.R.S.,
Beaumont Street, Oxford.

Griffin, John Joseph, 119 Bunhill Row,
London.

Griffith, Sir Richard, Bart., LL.D.,
M.R.I.A., I.G.S., Fitzwilliam Place,
Dublin.

Griffiths, 8. Y., Oxford.

Guinness, Rev. William Smyth, M.A.,
Beaumont, Drumcondra, Co. Dublin.

Gutch, John James, 88 Micklegate, York.

Hall, T. B., Coggeshall, Essex.

Hailstone, Edward, Horton Hall, Brad-
ford, Yorkshire.

Hambly, C. H. B., 55 Gell Street, Shef-
field.

Hamilton, Mathie, M.D., Warwick Street,
Glasgow.

Hamilton, Sir William Rowan, LL.D.,
Astronomer Royal of Ireland, and
Andrews’ Professor of Astronomy in
the University of Dublin, M.R.I.A.,
F.R.A.S.; Observatory near Dublin.

Hamilton, William John, F.R.S., For.
Sec.G.8., 23 Chesham Place, Belgrave
Square, London.

Hamlin, Captain Thomas, Greenock,

Harcourt, Rev. William V.Vernon, M.A.,
F.R.S., Bolton Percy, Tadcaster.

Hardy, Charles, Odsall House, Brad-
ford, Yorkshire.

Hare, Charles John, M.D., 41 Brook
Street, Grosvenor Square, London.
Harley, John, Ross Hall near Shrewsbury,
Harris, Alfred, Ryshworth Hall near

Bingley, Yorkshire.

Harris, Alfred, jun., Bradford, Yorkshire.

Harris, George William.

Harris, Henry, Heaton Hallnear Bradford.

Harrison, James Park, M.A., Garlands,
Ewhurst, Surrey.

Harrison, William, Galligreaves House
near Blackburn.

Harter, William, Hope Hall, Manchester.

6 MEMBERS TO WHOM

Hartley, Jesse, Trentham St., Liverpool.

Harvey, Joseph Charles, Cork,

Hatton, James, Richmond House, Higher
Broughton, Manchester.

Haughton, William, 28 City Quay, Dublin.

Hawkins, Thomas, F.G.S., Down Court,
Isle of Wight.

Hawkshaw, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., 43
Eaton Place, London.

Hawthorn, Robert, C.E., Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

Hayward, Robert Baldwin, M.A., Uni-
versity College, Durham.

Hemans, Geo, William, C.E., M.R.1.A.,
32 Leinster Gardens, Hyde Park, Lon-

don.

Henry, Alexander, Portland Street, Man-
chester.

Henry, William Charles, M.D., F.R.S.,
Haffield near Ledbury, Herefordshire.

Henslow, Rev. John Stevens, M.A.,
F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Uni-
versity of Cambridge, and Examiner in
Botany in the University of London;
Hitcham, Bildeston, Suffolk.

Hepburn, J. Gotch, Clapham Common,
Surrey.

Herbert, Thomas, Nottingham.

Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., F.R.S.,
9 Hyde Park Gardens, London; and
Claremont, Manchester.

Heywood, James, F.R.S., 26 Palace Gar-
dens, Kensington, London.

Heywood, Robert, Bolton.

Higgin, Edward, Liverpool.

Higson, Peter, Irwill Terrace, Lower
Broughton, Manchester.

Hill, Rev. Edward,M.A.,F.G.S.,Sheering
Rectory, Harlow.

Hill, Rowland, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Secre-
tary to the Post Office, London,

Hindmatsh, Frederick, F.G.S., 17 Buck-
lersbury, London.

Hindmarsh, Luke, Alnwick.

Hoare, Rev. George Tooker, Tandridge,
Godstone.

Hobiyn, Thomas, F.R.S., White Barnes,
Buntingford, Herts.

Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D., F.R.G.S., 35
Bedford Square, London.

Hodgkinson, Eaton, F.R.S., Hon.
M.R.I.A., Professor of the Mechanical
Principles of Engineering in University
College, London; 44 Drayton Grove,
Brompton, London.

Hodgson, Adam, Everton, Liverpool.

Holden, Moses, 13 Jordan Street, Pres-
ton.

Holditch, Rev. Hamnet, M.A., Caius
College, Cambridge.

Holland, P, H.

Hollingsworth, John, Londen Street,
Greenwich.

Hone, Nathaniel, M.R.I.A., Doloughs
Park, Co. Dublin.

Hopkins, William, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
Cambridge.

Horner, Leonard, F.R.S., V.P.G.5.,
17 Queen’s Road West, Regent’s Park,
London.

Horsfall, Abraham, Leeds.

Horsfield, George, Brampton Grove,
Smedley Lane, Cheetham, Manches-
ter.

Houldsworth, Henry, Newton Street,
Manchester.

Houldsworth, John, 196 Athol Place,
Bath Street, Glasgow.

Hoyle, John, Brown Street, Manchester.

Hudson, Henry, M.D., M.R.I.A., 28
Stephens Green, Dublin.

Hull, William Darley, F.G.S., 49 Milner
Square, Islington, London.

Hulse, Edward, D.C.L., All-Souls Col-
lege, Oxford.

Hunter, Thomas C., Greenock.

Hutton, Robert, M.R.LA., F.G.S., Put-
ney Park, Surrey.

Hutton, William, North Terrace, West
Hartlepool.

Ibbetson, Captain Levett Landen Bos-
cawen, K. H®., K.R.E., F.R.S., 51
Hans Place, Sloane Street, London.

Ingram, Hugo Francis Meynell, Temple
Newsam, Leeds.

Inman, Thomas, M.D., Rodney Street,
Liverpool.

Jackson, James Eyre, Tullydory, Black-
water Town, Co. Armagh,

Jacob, John, M.D., Maryborough.

Jardine, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.E.,
Jardine Hall, Applegarth by Lockerby,
Dumfriesshire.

Jarratt, Rev. John, M.A., North Cave
near Brough, Yorkshire.

Jee, Alfred S., 6 John Street, Adelphi,
London.

Jeffray, John, 137 Sauchiehall Street,
Glasgow.

Jenkyns, Rev. Henry, D.D., Professor of
Divinity and Ecclesiastical History in
the University of Durham; Durham.

Jenyns, Rev. Leonard, M.A., F.L.S.,
Upper Swainswick near Bath.

Jerram, Rev. S. John, M.A., Witney,
Oxfordshire.

Jerrard, George Birch, B.A., Long Strat-
ton, Norfolk.

BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 7

Johnson, Thomas, 9 Lime Grove, Oxford |

Road, Manchester.

Johnstone, James, Alva near Alloa, Stir-
lingshire.

Johnstone, Sir John Vanden Bempde,
Bart., M.P., M.A., F.G.8., 27 Gros-
venor Square, London.

Jones, Christopher Hird, 2 Castle Street,
Liverpool.

Jones, Major Edward.

Jones, Josiah, 2 Castle Street, Liver-

ool.

Jones, Robert, 2 Castle Street, Liverpool.

Jones, R. L., Great George Square,
Liverpool.

Joule, Benjamin, jun., New Bailey Street,
Salford, Manchester.

Joule, James Prescott, LL.D., F.R.S.,
Oakfield, Moss-side near Manchester,

Joy, Rev. Charles Ashfield, Hopwas, Tam-
worth, Staffordshire.

Jubb, Abraham, Halifax.

Kay, John Robinson, Boss Lane House,
Bury, Lancashire.

Kay, Rev. William, D.D.,'Lincoln Col-
lege, Oxford.

Kelsall, Henry, Rochdale, Lancashire.

Ker, Robert, Auchinraith, Glasgow.

Knowles, Edward R. J., 23 George Street,
Ryde, Isle of Wight.

Knowles, William, Newport, Monmouth-
shire.

Knox, G. James, 2 Finchley New Road,
St. John’s Wood, London.

Laming, Richard, Hazelgrove, Hayward’s
Heath, Sussex.

Langton, William, Manchester.

Lansdowne, Henry, Marquis of, K.G.,
D.C.L., F.R.S., Trust. Brit. Mus., 54
Berkeley Square, London; and Bo-
wood Park, Wiltshire.

Larcom, Colonel ThomasA., R.E., LL.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.1.A., Phoenix Park, Dub-

La Touche, David Charles, M.R.I.A.,
Castle Street, Dublin.

Laurie, James, Langholm near Carlisle.

Leatham, Charles Albert, Wakefield.

Leatham, Edward Aldam, Wakefield.

Leather, John Towlerton, Leventhorpe
Hall near Leeds. .

Le Cappelain, John, Highgate, London.

Lee, John, LL.D., F.R.5., 5 College,
Doctors Commons, London; and
Hartwell House near Aylesbury.

Lee, John Edward, Caerleon, Monmouth-
shire.

Lees, Joseph, jun., Glenfield, Altrincham.

Leeson, Henry B., M.A., M.D., F.R.S.,
The Maples, Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.

Lefroy, Lt.-Colonel John Heury, R.A.,
F.R.S., War Office.

Legh, George Cornwall, M.P., High
Legh, Cheshire.

Leinster, Augustus Frederick, Duke of,
M.R.I.A., 6 Carlton House Terrace,
London.

Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., F.R.S., Car-
clew near Falmouth.

Lindsay, Charles, 10} Addle Hill, Upper
Thames Street, London.

Lindsay, John H., 317 Bath Street, Glas-

gow.

Lingard, John R., F.G.S., Stockport,
Cheshire.

Lister, John, M.D., F.G.S., Shibden
Hall near Halifax.

Lister, Joseph Jackson, F.R.S., Upton,
Essex.

Lloyd, George, M.D., F.G.S., Stank Hill
near Warwick.

Lloyd, Rev. Humphrey, D.D., LL.D.,
F.R.S. L. and E., V.P.R.1.A., Trinity
College, Dublin.

Lloyd, John Buck, Liverpool.

Lobley, James Logan, 87 Brunswick
Road, Liverpool.

Locke, John, Sandford Terrace, Ranelagh,
Dublin.

Lockey, Rev. Francis, Swainswick near
Bath.

Loftus, William Kennett, F.G.S.,Calcutta.

Logan, Rev. Thomas, M.A., Rutherglen,
Glasgow.

Logan, Sir William Edmond, F.R.S.,
F.G.S., Director of the Geological Sur-
vey of Canada; Montreal, Canada.

Londesborough, Albert Denison, Lord,
K.C.H., F.R.S., 8 Carlton House Ter-
race, London; and Grimstone Park,
Tadcaster, Yorkshire.

Lubbock, Sir John William, Bart., M.A.,
F.R.S., Mansion House Street, Lon-
don; and High Elms, Farnborough.

Lubbock, John, F.R.S., 11 Mansion
House Street, City, London; and High
Elms, Farnborough,

Luckcock, Howard, Oak Hill, Edgbaston,
Birmingham,

Lundie, Cornelius, Percy Main, Newcas-
tle-upon-Tyne.

Lupton, Arthur, Newton Hall, Leeds.

Lyell, Sir Charles, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.G.S., 53 Harley Street,
Cavendish Square, London.

Macadam, Stevensen, Ph.D., Surgeons’
Hall, Edinburgh.

8 MEMBERS

McAll, Rev. Edward, Rector of Brigh-
stone, Newport, Isle of Wight.

M°Andrew, Robert, F.R.S., Isleworth
House, Isleworth, Middlesex.

Mac Brayne, Robert, 8 Woodside Crescent,
Glasgow.

McConnel, James, Manchester.

Mackenzie, James, Glentore, Scotland.

Macrory, Adam John, Duncairn, Bel-
fast.

Macrory, Edmund, 7 Fig Tree Cowt,
Temple, London.

McCulloch, George, M.D., Cincinnati,
United States.

MacDonnell, Rev. Richard, D.D., Provost
of Trinity College, Dublin, M.R.1.A.;
Dublin.

‘M‘Ewan, John, Glasgow.

Macfie, R. A., 72 Upper Parliament
Street, Liverpool.

MGee, William, M.D., 10 Donegall
Square East, Belfast.

Maclver, Charles, Abercromby Square,
Liverpool.

Mackinlay, David, Pollockshields, Glas-

gow.

Malcolm, Frederick, 4 Sion College, Lon-
don Wall, London.

Mallet, Robert, F.R.S., M.R.LA., 11
Bridge Street, Westminster; and Del-
ville near Dublin.

Manchester, James Prince Lee, D.D.,
Lord Bishop of, F.R.S., Palace, Man-
chester,

Marshall, James Garth, M.A., F.G.S.,
Headingley near Leeds.

Martin, Francis P. Brouncker, 14 Bruton
Street, Berkeley Square, London.

Martindale, Nicholas, Peter Lane, Ha-
nover Street, Liverpool.

Martineau, Rev. James.

Mason, Thomas, York.

Mather, Daniel, 58 Mount Pleasant, Liver-

pool.
Mather, John, 58 Mount Pleasant, Liver-

pool.

Matthews, William, jun., F.G.S., Edg-
baston House, Birmingham.

Maxwell, James C., Professor of Natural
Philosophy, Marischal College, Aber:
deen.

Maxwell, Sir John, Bart., F.R.S., Pollok
House, Renfrewshire.

Maxwell, Robert Percival, Finnebrogue,
Downpatrick, Ireland.

Mayne, Rev. Charles, M.R.I.A.,22 Upper
Metrion Street, Dublin.

Meadows, James, York Place, Rusholme
near Manchester.

Meynell, Thomas, Yarm, Yorkshire.

TO WHOM

Michell, Rev. Richard, B.D., Przlector
of Logic, Lincoln College, Oxford.

Miller, Patrick, M.D., Exeter.

Miller, William Allen, M.D., F.R.S.,
Professor of Chemistry in King’s Col-
lege, London.

Mills, John Robert, Bootham, York.

Milne, David, M.A., F.R.S.E., Edinburgh.

Milner, W. Ralph, Wakefield, Yorkshire.

Milner, William, Liverpool.

Moffat, John, C.E., Ardrossan,

Moore, John Carrick, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.G.S., 4 Hyde Park Gate, Kensington
Gore, London; and Corswall, Wigton-
shire,

Moore, Rev. William Prior, The College,
Cavan, Ireland.

More, John Schank, LL.D., F.R.S.E.,
Professor of Law in the University of
Edinburgh; 19 Great King Street,
Edinburgh.

Morris, Rev. Francis Orpen, B.A., Nune
burvholme Rectory, Hayton, York.
Morton, Francis, Hermitage, Oxton,

Cheshire.

Morton, Henry Joseph, Basinghall Street,
Leeds.

Moss, W. H., Kingston Terrace, Hull.

Murchison, Sir Roderick Impey,G.C.St.S.,
M.A., D.C.L., V.P.R.S., V.P.G.S.,
F.R.G.S., Director-General of the Geo-
logical Survey of the United Kingdom ;
16 Belgrave Square, London.

Murchison, J. H., 117 Bishopsgate Street
Within, London.

Murray, John, C.E., 11 Great Queen
Street, Westminster, London.

Muspratt, James Sheridan, Ph.D., Col-
lege of Chemistry, Liverpool.

Napier, Captain Johnstone.

Nasmyth, James, F.R.A.S., Patricroft
near Manchester.

Newall, Robert Stirling, Gateshead-upon-
Tyne.

Newlands, James, 2 Clare Terrace, Liver-
pool.

Newman, Francis William, Professor of
Latin in University College, London ;
7 Park Village East, Regent’s Park,
London.

Newman, William, Darley Hall, near
Barnsley, Yorkshire.

Nicholls, John Ashton, F.R.A.S., Ard
wick Place, Manchester.

Nicholson, Cornelius, F.G.S., Wellfield,
Muswell Hill, London.

Nicholson, John A., A.M., M.B., Lic.
Med., M.R.I.A., Balrath, Kells, Co,
Meath.

BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 9

Nicholson, William Nicholson, Roundhay
Park, Leeds.

O'Callaghan, Patrick, B.A., Cookridge
Hall, Leeds.

Odling, William, M.B., F.C.S., Ken-
nington Road, London.

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Manchester.

Jones, John, 28 Chapel Street, Liverpool.

Jowitt, John, jun., Leeds,

ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 15

Kay, Alexander, Atherton Grange, Wim-
bledon Park, Surrey.

Kaye, Robert, Mill Brae, Moodies Burn
by Glasgow.

Kemplay, Christopher, Leeds.

Kennie, C. G. Colleton, 5a Spring Gar-
dens, London.

Kenworth, J. Ryley, 7 Pembroke Place,
Liverpool.

Ker, A. A. Murray, D.L., Newbliss House,
Newbliss, Ireland.

Kinahan, John R., M.D., Sea View Ter-
race, Donnybrook, Dublin.

Kincaid, Henry Ellis, M.A., 9 Lyddon
Terrace, Leeds.

Kirkwood, Anderson, 246 Sauchiehall
Street, Glasgow.

Kitson, James, Leeds.

Lace, Francis John, Stone Gappe, Cross
Hills, Leeds.

Lankester, Edwin, M.D., F.R.S.,8 Savile
Row, London.

Latham, R. G., M.D., F.R.S., Greenford,
Middlesex.

Lawson, Samuel, Kirkstall near Leeds.

Leather, George, Knostrop near Leeds.

Leather, John William, Newton Green
near Leeds.

Ledgard, William, Potternewton near

Lister, John, M.D., F.G.S., Shibden
Hall near Halifax.

Liveing, G. D., St. John’s College, Cam-
bridge.

Lord, Edward, York Street, Todmorden.

Low, Professor David, F.R.S.E., Mayfield
by Trinity, Edinburgh.

McConnell, —, Wolverton Park, Buck-
inghamshire. R

Maclaren, Charles, Moreland Cottage,
Grange Loan, Edinburgh.

M‘Laren, John, Spring Bank, Dunoon.

Malahide, Talbot de, Lord, Malahide
Castle, Malahide, Ireland.

Marriott, William, Leeds Road, Hudders-
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Marriott, William Thomas, Wakefield.

Marshall, Reginald Dykes, Adel near
Leeds.

Matthews, F. C., jun., Driffield, York-
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May, Charles, F.R.S., 3 Great George
Street, Westminster.

Melly, Charles Pierre, Riversley, Liver-

pool.

Miles, Rev. C. P., M.D., Principal of the
Malta Protestant College, St, Julian’s,
Malta.

Mirrlees, J. Buchanan, 128 West Street,
Tradeston, Glasgow.

Moffat, T., M.D., F.R.A.S., Hawarden,
Chester.

Moir, James, 174 Gallowgate, Glasgow.

Moore, Arthur, Monkstown House, Co.
Dublin, Ireland.

soe Admiral, Highfield, Birming-

am.

Morton, George H., F.G.S., 9 London
Road, Liverpool.

Muir, William, Britannia Works, Man-
chester.

Murgatroyd, William, Bank Field, Bing-
ley.

Neild, William, Ollerenshaw, Whaley
Bridge near Stockport.

Newmarch, William, Secretary to the
Globe Insurance, Cornhill, London.

Newsome, Thomas, Leeds.

Nolloth, Captain, R.N., Peckham, Lon-
don.

Nunneley, Thomas, Leeds.

Ogilvie, George, Marischal College, Aber-
deen.

Oldham, James, C.E., Austrian Cham-
bers, Hull.

Ormerod, T. T., Brighouse near Halifax,
Yorkshire.

Outram, Thomas, Greetland near Halifax.

Peach, Charles W., Custom House, Wick.

Pengelly, William, F.G.S., Lamorna,
Torquay.

Percy, John, M.D., F.R.S., Museum of
Practical Geology, Jermyn St., London.

Petrie, William, Ecclesbourne Cottage,
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Pochin, Henry Davis, Quay St., Salford.

Potchett, Rev. William, M.A., The Vi-
carage, Grantham.

Procter, William, 24 Petergate, York.

Ramsay, Andrew C., F.R.S., Local Di-
rector of the Geological Survey of
Great Britain; Museum of Practical
Geology, Jermyn Street, London.

Rankin, Kev. Thos., Huggate, Yorkshire.

Rankine, W. J. Macquorn, C.E., LL.D.,
F.R.S.L. & E., 59 St. Vincent Street,
Glasgow.

Ratcliff, Charles, F.S.A., Wyddring-
ton, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

Read, William Henry, Chapel Allerton
near Leeds.

Render, Miss.

Reynolds, Richard, F.C,S., 13 Briggate,
Leeds.

16

Gorbals

James, Foundry,

Roberton,
Glasgow.

Roberts, John, 101 Upper Parliament
Street, Liverpool.

Robinson, C. B., The Shrubbery, Lei-
cester.

Ronalds, Francis, F.R.S.

Round, Daniel George, Hange Colliery
near Tipton, Staffordshire.

Scott, Robert H., Trinity College, Dublin.

Scott, William (Surgeon), Holbeck near
Leeds.

Shaw, Edward W., 3 Albion Place, Leeds.

Shaw, John Hope, Headingley near
Leeds.

Shaw, Norton, M.D., Secretary to the
Royal Geographical Society, London,
15 Whitehall Place, London.

Shewell, John T., Rushmere, Ipswich.

Siemens, C. William, 1 Kensington Ter-
race, Kensington, London.

Sleddon, Francis, 2 Kingston Terrace,
Hull.

Sloper, George Elgar, jun., Devizes.

Smeeton, G. H.,Commercial Street, Leeds.

Smith, Robert Angus, Ph.D., 20 Gros-
venor Square, Manchester.

Smith, William, C. E.,10 Salisbury Street,
Adelphi, London.

Sorby, Henry Clifton, F.G.S., Broom-
field, Sheffield.

Spence, Peter, Pendleton Alum Works,
Newton Heath, Manchester.

Spence, William, F.R.S., V.P.L.S., 18
Lower Seymour Street, Portman Sq.,
London.

Spence, W. B.,18 Lower Seymour Street,
Portman Square, London.

Stafford, The Marquis of, Tarbot House,
Ross-shire.

Stanfield, Alfred W., Wakefield.

Stephenson, Robert, D.C.L., M.P.,
F.R.S., 34 Gloucester Square, London.

Stevelly, John, LL.D., Professor of Na-
tural Philosophy in Queen’s College,
Belfast.

Stewart, Balfour, 5 Alva Street, Edin-
burgh.

Stoney, Bindon B., M.R.I.A., 89 Wa-
terloo Road, Dublin.

Stuart, William, 1 Rumford Place, Liver-
pool.

Stubs, Joseph, Park Place, Frodsham,
Cheshire.

Talbot, William Hawkshead, Wrighting-
ton near Wigan.

Tartt, W. Macdowal,- Sandford Place,
Cheltenham. ae

FC OTN
BSP!

ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS.

Taylor, William Edward, Enfield near
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Teal, Joseph, M.D., Leeds.

Teale, Thomas Pridgin, jun., Leeds.

Terry, John, 15 Albion Street, Hull.

Teschemacher, E. F., 1 Highbury Park
North, London.

Thorburn, Rev. William Reid, M.A.,
Starkies, Bury, Lancashire.

Turnbull, John, 276 George Street,
Glasgow.

Tuton, Edward S., LimeStreet, Liverpool.

Varley, Cornelius, 7 York Place, High .
Road, Kentish Town, London.

Voelcker, J. Ch. Augustus, Ph.D., F.C.S.,
Professor of Agricultural Chemistry,
Royal Agricultural College, Ciren-
cester.

Walker, Charles V., F.R.S., Fernside
Villa, Red Hill near Reigate.

Ward, John 8., Lisburn, Ireland.

Wardle, Thomas, Leek Brook, Leek,
Staffordshire.

Warington, Robert, F.C.S., Apothe-
caries’ Hall, London.

Watson, Wm., Bilton House, Harrogate.

Watts, John King, F.R.G.S., St. Ives,
Huntingdonshire.

Waud, Major E., Manston Hallnear Leeds.

Webster, John, Convent Walk, Sheffied.

West, F. H., Chapeltown near Leeds.

Weston, William, Clarendon Place, Leeds.

Whitehead, J. H., Southsyde, Saddle-
worth.

Wight, Robert, M.D., F.L.S., Grazeley
Lodge, Reading.

Wolley, John, Beeston, Nottingham.

Woodall, Captain John Woodall, F.G.S.,
St. Nicholas House, Scarborough.

Woolley, Thomas Smith, South Colling-
ham, Newark.

Wornell, George, 2 Park Crescent, Oxford.

Worthy, G.5., St. James’ Barton, Bristol.

Wright, Edward Perceval, A.M., M.B.,
M.R.I.A., F.L.S., Director of the
Museum and Lecturer on Zoology in
the University of Dublin, Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin.

Wright, Henry, Erith, Kent.

Wright, Thomas, F.S.A., 14 Sydney St.,
Brompton, London.

Yates, Edward, 30 Compton Terrace,
Islington, London,

Yeats, John, LL.D., F.R.G.S., Leicester
House, Peckham, London.

Young, John, Hope Villa, Woodhouse
Lane, Leeds.

Bristol.
MB,

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Disteibuti

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Distribution wu Time.

Gurves of Monthy Seismic Energy
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Mensual Gurves of Seismic Energy

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i. 28" Report Brit. Assoc.1858. PL. X bis.

SEGMENTS APPARENTLY CUT OFF BY SOME GREAT EARTHQUAKES.

|
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Su mato ———$_$___——____— Suma ave 1815

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Plate XI.

2 sprit 1b

BEFERESCE
| showing the surface distribution te space

OF EARTHQUAKES,

| as discussed front the British Assocration (italoque

ace se poste rats ww earl tecl |

@ Velcanace, Fumarelcs, SeVataras.nsw active ar presitped: 50 | |
| |
witlan kistoric or recent. Geologie periods |
DY NOBERT MALLET, ERS. MUKLA. MEALINS CIV. BNO?
and.

= -+-——--++——] DOCTOR, JO1N, WILLIAM, MALLET,

35,

Sa

Protessor of Chemustry. University of Mabama, U.S
1867.

Se ee ae See]

PART OF FRANCE.
{ = ‘ DIVIDED INTO, DEPARTMENTS, ©
Referring to the Earthquake: of F'Tuly ISH.

.

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REFERENCE

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