REPORT OF THE THIRTIETH MEETING Vie ' Rieti foN OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; HELD AT OXFORD IN JUNE AND JULY 1860. LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1861. PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. CONTENTS. Onwmeers and Rules of the Association”. 25.2... .ceccscacc ccs ccouee'ees as Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement ..........+00+00 Treasurer's Account Table of Council from commencement ...........0.eescesescocccecccene ves Page XVii XX Xxiv XXV eee ema LACT CIN! bate ek cecetccidea¥odiae cbals coc caanegucednere +’ eccewececsaes KEVIIL Officers of Sectional Committees Corresponding Members.. siahdioale Su Uvabaiiationick Report of the Council to the Gentstal Cendaitibe Senay asacWet clasp aet sat Report of the Kew Committee weahes Report of the Parliamentary Committee .......ssceeceeceeeeseeeseecee ees Recommendations for Additional Reports and Researches in Science XX1x Xxx XXX Xxxi xliv xlv PrmmmmPT ONG. GATES 5. uc cau ads cacao ceacaressaceessovevas ves ecchvsses XIVIIL General Statement of Sums paid for Scientific Purcases Reena teen Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee Arrangement of the General Meetings Raneke(canane ney atte REESE FODUICW nu pass onicins-nnacis axeikns acandhebn sos seeson den aus seh soe REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1859-60. By a Com- mittee, consisting of James GLAIsHER, Esq., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Secretary to the British Meteorological Society, &c.; J. H. Giap- STONE, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. &c.;. R. P. Ga a: BGS... &e. ; and I. J. Lowe, Esq., F.R.A.S., M.B.MLS. &c. Report of the Committee appointed to dredge Dublin aay ‘By ue R. Kinauan, M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology, Government School of Science applied to Mining Aue the Arts: si..5s05s Report on the Excavations in Dura Den. oy fis: Rey eas PMRMBISTS (NaMNE) oP ss re eig ee ccs creclelh asic nciriee\dee's odoatcdaeee secs ssdeccterces Report on the Experimental Plots in the Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. By James Buckxmay, F.LS., F.S.A., F.G.S. &c., Professor of el and whe 4 mechs Agri cultural Coles e: ep casgetoes cos vee 27 34 vi CONTENTS. Page Report of the Committee requested “to report to the Meeting at Oxford as to the Scientific Objects to be sought for by continuing the Balloon Ascents formerly undertaken to great Altitudes.” By the Rev. Roserr Wacker, M.A.,, F.R.S., Reader in ee Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Ae PPer oacesce ys Report of Committee appointed to prepare a " Self-Recording Meee spheric Electrometer tor Kew, and Portable Apparatus for observing Atmospheric Electricity. By Professor W. Tomson, F.R.S. ...... 44 Experiments to determine the Effect of Vibratory Action and long- continued Changes of Load upon ae iron Girders. ee Wit- LIAM FairBalrn, Esq., LLD., F.R.S.. a ddgetsnscavees ee A eT of Meteorites and Fireballs, coe A.D. 2 to A.D. 1860. By R. P. Gree, Esq., F.G.S8 cw sale «=, 48 Report on the Theory of ates Spare I “By y. 1 Boe Smitu, M.A., F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry in the Uni- versity of Oxford aiudssisseisensocieeeceesewess soe yas qeuseesanstn=: Meester 120 On the Performance of Steam- Vessels, the Functions of the Screw, and the Relations of its Diameter and Pitch to the Form of the Vesssel. By Vice-Admiral MGORSOM 1060. c0ssecsoscasacersdvexoes sefaatbeaeeame eu teaae Report on the Effects of long-continued Heat, illustrative of Geological Phenomena. By the Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S., F.G.S. 175 Second Report of the Committee on Steam-ship Performance............ 193 Interim Report on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches List of the British Marine Invertebrate Fauna ...,.....sscccccsseeeceneenees CONTENTS. vil NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. MaTHEMATICS. Page Address by the Rev. Professor Price, President of the Section s.secseesseeres L Dr. BRENNECKE on some Solutions of the Problem of Tactions of Apollonius of Perga by means of modern Geometry ...scereseseceerereeerersennens aves waaceses Rev. James Booru on a New General Method for establishing the Theory of CWONIC SECHONS....050..0sccsecescceseccesceserevcncsos aoenoscec0c1-bechnAneesan Sacneaces we ——____-—____—— on the Relations between Hyperconic Sections and Elliptic Integrals...,..... A eee saat oa tede aa acene tactic reddeveverneet soles stasiionrastsneteraceccses wn Mr. A. Cayxey on Curves of the Fourth Order having Three Double Points... 4 Mr. Parricx Copy on the Trisection of an Angle .....sscseseeseseenereeeeerecneusens 4 Rev. T. P. Kirkman on the Roots of Substitutions .....+...ssesereeee Soenenensne ap 4 Rey. T. Rennrson on a new Proof of Pascal’s Theorem ....s.seseesseseserreenes aa 8 Professor H. J. SrepHEeN Smit on Systems of Indeterminate Linear Equations 6 Professor SyLvEsTER on a Generalization of Poncelet’s Theorems for the Linear Representation of Quadratic Radicals ....sseeeese0 sseesevsenes Gaeressspcevasecege> Paes Lieut, Heat. Sir Davip Brewster on the Influence of very small Apertures on Telescopic IWIBIOH cess ccencccscccacascnesssncassevacceccssecascccseses atvacsdepeesreedddnacsresnes hoes 2 if ——-—-—— on some Optical Illusions connected with the Inversion of Perspective......+. ad sieacamanadanslisesrewedesa sf Goan detsmaeeaisesaicaine aaiwarpsawene sa desis 7 on Microscopic Vision, and a New Form of Microscope 8 ———_——— on the decomposed Glass found at Nineveh and other PIACES ......500c0esescnesessarssceseesscosees Se dndins ns coisidel ta cshesowandqanesttanease<¥ayieqse¢ 9 Dr. J. H. Guapsrone on his own Perception of Colours ......ssseseee caosvgeecceee 12 —________—_—- on the Chromatic Properties of the Electric Light of Mercury ..e.csccsscseeeecesccscesccarecnscnccesetesencuscnssansesenenssasensceeesseuesegses hepeete Professor JeLLerr on a New Instrument for determining the Plane of Polariza- TLOT wovecccceeecrereeeess eeeeenee wevenecconecsorne ssnaupigedace cette tis sleepin Gealsnniecnelelo's oS Professor L. L. Linpesiér on the Caustics produced by Reflexion .s.ssseseseeeee 14 Professor Maxwe tt on the Results of Bernoulli’s Theory of Gases as applied to their Internal Friction, their Diffusion, and their Conductivity for Heat... 15 _ ——__________ on an Instrument for Exhibiting any Mixture of the Co- ) lours of the Spectrum......+. bsp eenes SCOREUED CrarSehao canoes seaeinaesasese eaauclensane 14 viii CONTENTS. Mr. Munao Ponron’s Further Researches regarding the Laws of Chromatic Dispersion .....ccccccssscscccscccscccscccotssccsscsascesrcrsaccccsss ssn decneestis ie: ne Professor Witt1am B, Rocers’s Experiments and Conclusions on Binocular WiISIONS. cevsrensseccte(erscsensaanecciureccees eonvseeroest ss -ssesaesesasessesaameemeecnen sce M. Serrin, Régulateur Automatique de Lumiére Electrique ...+++seesesseseeeere Mr. Batrour Stewart on some Recent Extensions of Prevost’s Theory of Ex- CHANG CS 2200 5dc46 casctagdcadvs dace act clvatsds vat lesedec1seds ckdebecatescdseatadeenesstel wiees Mr. G. Jounstone Stoney on Rings seen in viewing a Light through Fibrous Specimens of Calc-spar......-sseseeeeee Sused decbouscuesiecssseaseuenteusettamadatclcsmiacs Mr. R. Tuomas on Thin Films of Decomposed Glass found near Oxford ....... ELecrricity, MAGNETISM. Mr. Joun Atxan Brown on certain Results of Observations in the Observa- tory of His Highness the Rajah of Travancore ....sscsseseeceseeeeeees = debdoae ate — on the Diurnal Variations of the Magnetic Declina- tion at the Magnetic Equator, and the Decennial Period .........:ccsssseeeeeeeees Sas — on a New Induction Dip-Circle ......0...ccsasessesnsanc — ——_—_____.__. on Magnetic Rocks in South India........s.esseeeseeee on a Magnetic Survey of the West Coast of India... — on the Velocity of Earthquake Shocks in the Late- PRE OF DG cies cost as age? va 8i vadsacusates ik cedaths sad satsestesanahtnugaxcdeiees tiers ‘ Mr. A. Crarke on a Mode of correcting the Errors of the Compass in Iron Ships ..... Sasowoerese cesses scdusoscausaviaspessrssdavessceeeccseacacite setovedesispameeeenennnd Sir W. Svow Harris on Electrical Force ....ssssssesscccseeceeee javeatacensaeeeaesses Rev. T. RANKIN on the different Motions of Electric Fluid ...s.....ceseees Soa otvek Professor W. B. Rocers on the Phenomena of Electrical Vacuum Tubes, ina letter to Mr. Gassiot ...... seeGaecevaesSis rach s cueteseelasecehe ee eec eee eee epee Sastaces M. H. von ScutaGintwerr’s General Abstract of the Results of Messrs. de Schlagintweit’s Magnetic Survey of India, with three Charts .....ssscesseeees & M. Werner and Mr. C, W. Siemens, Outline of the Principles and Prac- tice involved in dealing with the Electrical Conditions of Submarine Electric Telégraphs POOP cee tere tneeesesdbeseos oer ——S —_— POCO Pere ee meee Eee ee RE R OHHH EEE E HEH OEE DEES SEES ASTRONOMY. Mr. W. R. Birt on the Forms of certain Lunar Craters indicative of the Ope- ration of a peculiar degrading Force ...s0..0... itegevesecancacee osceetebelawenececss Professor Hennessy on the Possibility of Studying the Earth’s Internal Struc- ture from Phenomena observed at its Surface Rev. Epwarp Hrincxs on some Recorded Observations of the Planet Venus in the Seventh Century before Christ Mr. R. Hopeson on the brilliant Eruption on the Sun’s Surface, 1st Septem- berstS5Ou.n smear eee ccercenccencctsersceseene Dr. Jonn Lex’s Prospectus of the Hartwell Variable Star Atlas, with six Speci- men Proofs.........4; : POPPE ee reer ee ee Peeresens Cee eeereeesnees Peete eeetee Professor B. Pierce on the Physical Constitution of Comets...ssssesssssseeseeees een niencmeenes On the Dynamic Condition of Saturn’s BIBUB ascbeoseenene Page 16 17 19 19 19 19 20 21 23 24 27 28 28 28 30 30 32 32 CONTENTS. Professor B. Pierce on the Motion of a Pendulum in a Vertical Plane when the point of suspension moves uniformly on a circumference in the same LIFE aadcdcaicoruucecarcotrdscctadcveccsilccecscdsssaetenvecMMes topernerssdsectandaseqssens MerrEOROLOGY. Mr. Jouw Baz on a Plan for Systematic Observations of Temperature in Mountain Countries.........sseseereeeee Sdoetidococta semenneanenisesnd wiatecesaeces pease Mr. W. R. Bret on Atmospheric Waves ....++.+se++++ -eridnnncce Kepsseenesis Stee casnt M. Du Bovutay’s Observations on the Meteorological Phenomena of the Vernal Equinoctial Week ..........++4++ Raeaece see nadi te sesh ane sPaneen Rae semaseehiee.s sachs “ce Mr. R. DowpeEn on the Effect of a Rapid Current of Air ....+.eeesseeeess yanekaesis Admiral FrrzRoy on British Storms, illustrated with Diagrams and Charts... Mr. J. Park Harrrson on the Similarity of the Lunar Curves of Minimum Temperature at Greenwich and Utrecht in the Year 1859. ticussscessansperarcsst Professor Hennessy on the Principles of Meteorology ......... = pesoonncentearodee : Captain Maury on Antarctic Expeditions .c.......--.++++ Rancentenpcsscasacsms ss acoso on the Climates of the Antarctic Regions, as indicated by Ob- servations upon the Height of the Barometer and Direction of the Winds at Sea........ Be cates TEC Cn SLE PCR CORO EEET Cor ceeeeee Scere Lcocedent pecs seneanendees er Rev. Henry Mosetey on the Cause of the Descent of Glaciers .....+--++++..+0+ : Rev. T. Ranxtn on Meteorological Observations for 1859, made at Hugagate, Yorkshire, East Riding ...... Ht SPREE tronat ss ceeset tas sieberetene ere M. R. pe Scuracintweir on Thermo-barometers, compared with Barometers at great Heights ............+ beattcnaecetarcctebe dese Reaack vets shee parte eeVab cues seek is Captain W. Parker Snow on Practical Experience of the Law of Storms in each Quarter of the Globe... ..csecsseeeceeceeeeseees eeseresasas att qaeeaease Onsen ens eee Mr. G. J. Symons’s Results of an Investigation into the Phenomena of English Thunder-storms during the years 1857—59.........- puacavene Sev saetseneescae ee eeeeee Professor Witt1am THomson’s Notes on Atmospheric Electricity ....... Banduthie M. Verpet’s Note on the Dispersion of the Planes of Polarization of the Coloured Rays produced by the Action of Magnetism* ....... pcb daWaouehaavege vee Mr. E. Vivian’s Results of Self-registering Hygrometers...secsssseseereserereees re Rev. A. WELD’s Results of Ten Years’ Meteorological Observations at Stony- PARSE Peacisccccoscccccccscccctccccccceccccccecesansecccccncesravoccvecttnessverovessvesstoseve GENERAL Puysics. Mr. J. 8. Sruarr GLenniz, Physics as a Branch of the Science of Motion ... a General Law of Rotation applied to the Planets el SounD. Rev. S. Earnsnaw on the Velocity of the Sound of Thunder......seeceseeeseesane on the Triplicity of Sound ...-..sceseesecersereeeeeeeeeeeeeneeeens INSTRUMENTS. Mr. Parrick Aptz’s Description of an Instrument for Measuring Actual MIBTATICES ccccccceccecccccdsccecececacccecseascasceccocesccccssccnsrncansocoresccccensncecsres * This should haye been placed in an earlier division. 56 58 58 58 59 > he CONTENTS. Mr. Parrtck Apte’s Description of a New Reflecting Instrument for Angular Measurement pcr deneauacseceaes ss saeeenet saaeeienges saveeumnsr sass tenes 212 Mr. S. W. Srtver on the Character and Comparative Value of Gutta Percha . and India-rubber employed as Insulators for Subaqueous Telegraphic Wires. 212 Mr. W. Simons on Improvements in Iron Shipbuilding ........-2+...ccceeeseseeeaes 212 Admiral Tayztor’s Novel Means to lessen the frightful Loss of Life round our exposed Coasts by rendering the Element itself an Inert Barrier against the Power of the Sea; also a Permanent Deep-water Harbour of Refuge by Artificial Bars........... apie exp tie «codes eccipaess lessens ces as ae see dniincesse sae es ana. anaes 215 Mr. G. F. Train on Street Railways as used in the United States, illustrated by a Model of a Tramway and Car, or Omnibus capable of conveying sixty DETSODS ..000.cscccseseusccesss acaideswusiaselcmavelcchenictsncedae’sveasian anes esac usanvetusanees 215 Messrs. WERNER and C. W. S1emEens on a Mode of covering Wires with India-ribber... 0. sscccesse jap teaweasssdaneeas pastes anecanes Rasen sGece Nene Catone spaeh pce, ua APPENDIX. PHYSIOLOGY. / Professor J. H. Consett on the Deglutition of Alimentary Fluids ....00000. 21°» / / OBJECTS AND RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. — i OBJECTS. Tue Assocration contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by other Institutions. Its objects are,—To give a stronger impulse and a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an- other, and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress. RULES, ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES. All Persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be- come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to con- form to its Rules. The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So- cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Members of the Association. The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem- bers of the Association. All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Council or Managing Committee, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem- bers of the Association. Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Association, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the approval of a General Meeting. COMPOSITIONS, SUBSCRIPTIONS, AND PRIVILEGES. Lire Memprrs shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be pub- lished after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the offices of the Association. Anwnuat Susscrisrrs shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds, and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this Subscription in any particu- lar year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and all _ future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association gratis : but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any sub- sequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association. Associates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound. They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office. i 1860. XVIil RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. The Association consists of the following classes :— 1, Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid on admission Five Pounds as a composition. 2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on ad- mission Ten Pounds as a composition. _8. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to the payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership after in- termission of Annual Payment. | 4. Annual Members admitted in any year since 1859, subject to the pay- ment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of Annual Pay- ment. ] 5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound. 6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council. And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’) price, according to the following specification, viz. :— 1. Gratis.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo- sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845, a further sum of Five Pounds. New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a com- position. Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub- scription. 2. At reduced or Members’ Prices, viz. two-thirds of the Publication Price.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a composition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a Book Subscription. : Arnual Members, who have intermitted their Annual Subscrip- tion. Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for that year only. ] 3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any of the first seventeen volumes of Transactions of the Associa- tion, and of which more than 100 copies remain, at one-third of the Publication Price. Application to be made (by letter) to Messrs. Taylor & Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet St., London. Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries. MEETINGS. The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee at the pre- vious Meeting; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Offi- cers of the Association, GENERAL COMMITTEE. The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the following persons :— 1. Presidents and Officers for the present and preceding years, with authors of Reports in the Transactions of the Association. 2. Members who have communicated any Paper to a Philosophical Society, which has been printed in its Transactions, and which relates to such subjects as are taken into consideration at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. X1X 3. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, altogether not exceed- ing three in number, from any Philosophical Society publishing Transactions. 4, Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, not exceeding three, from Philosophical Institutions established in the place of Meeting, or in any place where the Association has formerly met. 5, Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who are specially nominated in writing for the Meeting of the year by the Presi- dent and General Secretaries. 6. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections are ex-officio members of the General Committee for the time being. SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Committees, con- sisting severally of the Members most conversant with the several branches of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof. _ The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation they would particularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and brought under consideration at the next Meeting. The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of particular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons, for the information of the Annual Meetings. : COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS. The General Committee shali appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science. All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re- searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects, shall be submitted to the Com- mittee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General Committee, unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recom- mendations. LOCAL COMMITTEES. Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings. Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire. OFFICERS. A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the General Committee. : COUNCIL. In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. - The Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the Meeting. PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS. The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve his right of property therein. ACCOUNTS. The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors appointed by the Meeting. ae ‘aw ‘Burma "A eeeeee "SU “an ‘Kuo yy 9 “A ‘SW foment f Bynes} ag’ "AO tin arate wakivete Te wei PEAR RAEI eto Seip HIG a NUBEEGAA tase pee Cogs, Pe ett Mero eCEAGIOR S'D'd ‘NOLUADA SIONVUA CUOT ML +bsq “unt ‘xopfeg, preyonr “DSoT (KO DION WOqoyy (cies sees ese ss setee estes eeeeeeeeeeesereeeesseeqauer ‘puLpoy “T 'd Us . rg sug 9 2 seceeaeeeeerscessaceeas sgmUEr CODINT ‘DJG b vecessoae Cqugeg & TeBt ‘65 Ane “HL OONATE Sie, eterap bin asi SOuR aA ststebecasoreves exer Gone piOT . *AoMOpT Jo WEG OL R “S'U'd ‘VIAMAHA UOSSAAOUd ‘ATU WL mor £ 18 } "ATT TOON ‘ae AO “bsg ‘TpPYI Meapuy L's ya “toysMorg pravd 4s ‘H'S'W'A Yoousay pro7y perouon-soleyy J sees SUA “ANVATVAVAUE TO SINDLVW OL “bsg ‘19180 H910N *S"A'A “bsq ‘uosdpoyy ydosor { oe #o"r in « nN SERRE EOE EER EHH HHH HEHEHE EES « s'u'a “bsq ‘poomAoy isa qaeg ‘pooasazy urmrefuog mu “zpel ‘ez UNE “UALSTHONV IY eee eweee ‘6sst ‘oz gsndny ‘WVHONINUIG oy “Sad “VW SL ROOUVH NONUGA ‘A ‘ATU MLL Sra “bso ferro uyor ‘ad ‘wosurqoy “wt AE *A0IT UL ‘a'w *uoysTAB uo0yhog oees CRSP pee is 8 9 SIMON AY T0126 uoj;duiey{10 Ny Jo smbavyy Tee eee eT eee eee eee eee eee dUBLILOVYT jediung "AO AIDA "S'u'a “bsq ‘sexivg od1005 } ‘SW oN *uojsuyor nar sat] eee eee ‘TSW “bso *kq1ag uyor xunapita | “OST Oe asndny (AN J-NO-UTLSVOMIN som Sgrpa UOSMIUpY UYor | ireteeeerecesseeeeeeeeeere gE GST Mung Jo dousig ayy | 28 SA'S U's CNVIVAGNAHLUON 40 TANG ML TIOAUT ‘aounaysuy pesowy ‘s0%q “OHTVAN *N ydosops trrrtttt tt tteteeer essen Soar oqaug ‘uojedgy Aon op dyiya ag bette 87 wopuory Jo Ayisr9atuy) ayy JO x0T]99 “bsg ‘awan9 d\0 jie thtep reese ese eengureg Gautry & ‘EN “Moowy oUopoQ-“mary t. ae aaa saa | PUBLOAT JO qehoy rMOUONSY “S'W'A'A “CTT “UopLUIEH "Y WeNTLAA Tg ¢ ¢ F (TT SYOOOUCH WOSTION SMA | i.e cet ec ee cere ew eec eset ees Qeeee es is Zg8I ‘92 jsngny NITAAG OL MOUEL JOG "AOS Loos Lec esse usoeasecusconseedvasens se PgR NOMBRE HID BIST SUL Uso. sssecsveeceseessatet stents Wma AE “bag “e900 APUNT | soos sapRTUTBRE aPIOTET PIOT | PeaUpLO go eobreE ORE | ‘SUA “T'O'd “dG ‘GAOT AAMHANA “AME OUD i i a ears o. “ulqna ‘adaqIo9 Ayuuuy, JO JSOAOIg OTL rs Hee ewes myquq jo roAR IAT pi07 ayy aTqzinouo WBN auL f p “bs ‘1ayeg pAoyy yormaeg semoyy, ‘ “bsg TeSny 39M wyor] ... SCN, SECLO STORIE SASH OTs ‘gest ‘g 3sndny ‘NWVHNaLIaHO ‘S'wia “bsg ‘ystueag payors ...... ala reta faye teresa nei steed SI ELD Wate Geis SF oat a rede 2 **** PIOFXO JO Aqre19AT0 0) ay} ut Auejog 50 1ossay ‘ T z= & ‘ 6 “SoG U EE GOODY sree wivians Sremdionwaneocancle mbes ‘SD “SMe BON wer OnE) “Od “SWAT “CW ANAGNAVE “d “D SATAVHO ween Peete eee eee Siew iesi¢ern aS i “a oye W ‘HOSUIOTLT, WLIT|TA\ IOssajorg BPS Meal sae I eo jury [edo ay} Jo Ise “Sa CV ie WLYyRIy seuIoy,T, “bsg ‘arpmoy wenqtAy ‘Saad “bsg ‘uunip sa77e AA : “C'I ‘Wosiapuy semoyy, ‘Jorg f eae Gs ae Sn Oc OR) oP ee z ara sae a aero moAdtoaiie ahh ahah ‘Sa “OTT “VW TMT sopEYD wg i wa ADUV AO AMAA UL see eee i ‘Tsw'd Saree § aUurIpler Ue AA ug wee . rs a0 uB[Iejoe Ty jedoung ‘aay 419A AML, a ‘e ‘wa “wsdl ‘bsg ‘saqU syoorg qdasor I; i: Ghai te: ia Sar a “bsg ‘oaeer Came Be ga 8 eaencboncbostas enacecae obomacunsscsiG: aspuqmn ‘eBoq|09 Au, she QW “wemuy semoyy,) 1, ace “ ° ne) are PEST ‘0s Ieqmajdag “1ooaum ATT ‘wa “CW ‘wosunjaig ydasor yo misen “s'9'a OM STA ea Br ee hey Rn eertuiceseentes Se KEMOUAVH AO THVE OUL 2 ee Nace Ss’ ‘9° ce SW CaN “Meg ‘uoqesq Aang sedyepy ap dyrmyg ag outed racscanbadoonre: SaIVOCHl "Git ay ease dar erann Aeeecey i iris eer eeecccne tr ttererese cure r QuojsyVay AA 1OSsajorlg ‘q8U] ,SorURIaW [MH ‘serg “bsg ‘sqooer cI oy etek “SU “Soyks “foO-mary—*S'u'ad “bsg ‘oouads wert, "gest ‘2 raquiajdag “110 xy *ar0g ‘soptyd pue yr] [NH 24} Jo ‘sarg “y'g'g “bsg “sorg sapreyD 6 **°*** Boe ee sbireie sei Aya00g ‘Md ‘qmeg ‘sag . te ‘ di Aaw0g "Wd 2B °3VT WMH ‘dA “WW ‘xedoo9 OPH 6 ‘Wa “VW “YomMSpag ‘Jorg “soy *S'A "A “'T'O'd ‘Avpraey toa [9 RoS'ou “Sw'a'A “WI “bsa ‘SNIMGOH WVITTIM sereeee sgn ‘ySno1oqsapuoy pi0'y "S'U'A “O[stpVD Jo [eq oy, SOOSED OG GD St gry TT “ATeA218 IOSsajolg ‘S'u'a Lely *£) *4) LOSSOJOIg are “SV Wa SWE "Sad “CC WOsUTqoN “YL “Aeu “UOSTIMA “d “AA Jossajorg | ***"** migrate lets *"98ey19E ‘a3al[09 S,maant) "sold * ‘aa ‘hua *s ‘d “ACT ‘ES8I “1 taquiajdag ‘usvatag ‘an 20D, 1 UNBITIAAS Ostet treet ete cee ese eee WIW W ‘ ‘aa ‘syOUuIET thea Wagner t oDGUGOTEDS LG GRD SCO SSID Ajawo0g qesoy 23 JO'd'A Dae OaIty EOE ANG sere ermpgee ene arty yan ae Sarg opeagepd ‘1, Atuay wg | 29 ‘svar, ‘Arzy [eAow ‘ANIGVS CUVMGH 'THNOTOO tence tree eregey “song “ww | assoy jo [vq oT, Oe eee eeas ecw ese esses esas Na ae usTTTsIuuy Jo [leq sy, A Re eet oie oe eth ne) Ei wlele Si id *bsq *U19989 A. “7 ‘a’ “bsq § oqqog ‘O°r S'T'a “bsg ‘omosuey af1099 “L Pr | “Teste Amp “HOTASay a5 3 “weg “uO32TPPUAL AA MOUM SS Ud “Heg ‘neaplog ‘A uyor 1s a “Teppia gain Sia eh nartag ape “ST “WIT ‘MOTSUHT LOssapoIg “AI b= => Pe a ne es SO jedoy sourou gee hae ls ‘SW “WW mSpag sossoyorg soy | -oysy “sad “T'O'd “bsa ‘AUIV TIAACId ADUOAD SV WA “bag “keYT HO[TEYD | osenanane * OTM NT s icine pioy ayy, ‘d'W ‘weysaypuey pioy oy, "SalNVLAYDIS 1VD07 “SLNAGIS3SYd-JASIA *SLNAGISaud [ RQ IUDIT OO IUCR TA SADE "TOT “saa “bsa Ei ategg iW oes # vresereeseress ss OTH SWAN “S'a'd ‘uosuryspor *g IOSssajoig SrA raha ain» wimrwlotonstelerstaleionete exexecieree peste vet teceeweteeeees tees enee uengaagoa “y'g ooosoy ‘a "Hy ‘Jorg | “UP [908 “Md 8 “VT “serd “SLA “ATT “bsg ‘omor 33008arg some bsg WT SOMOsUB HT myyiy “bs ‘PION payTy: "s'D'a “y'd “bsg ‘orrysiqieg ‘qd "YH saree ‘a W “bsq ‘soumy, yeurdsy somes . ee re . BP W “bsg ‘Kae SVuOy.T, TOS We oc ae" feed ae ES Wa Swed ‘poomsary urmelueg 1g sod “Sud Cat “weg ‘uowesq fern "Ty ep dipyg 1g eee eee eee ee ‘Sd “ow . a “a'q ‘te3saqouryy Jo doystg pio'y au.L v's ie wa “TO “a “Aelueyg priory on, Fee JTeetes oguyeqrear “O1IUISOT[A JO UA OTL *TQ8T ‘p raquiajdag “AHLSTHONV W “sar "Oa" “Osa ‘NUIVANIVA NVITILA 'S'W'" ASU ac" WUryWod Jossajorg "SUA CA" PULpy 1ossajorg stew ee ee eee "3 xy" as" T" a“s’ AY i ao Se Ba! W ‘Auaqneq 1ossojorg serotag Syn & ‘ 5 POO “qoinyg st1qD Jo vac, “ad ‘TPPYT ‘DH A0y A190 A OL oe eat caulk eae ifaYnie slalars (ohaiaiay he (o'afee tarot ches yehee ‘S'H'a “Cd ‘p10sx¢ Jo doyster pxo0T] OU, ‘ogst ‘4g eng ‘ax0axo ST a “Cy ‘woqsaToy aBi0eg ) sw Ss ad OW d'M ‘essoy Jo ed AML ( °° SW “SUA OVW ‘AD ISALLOUM CUOT UL DTLYSPIOFXO JO yuBMOINAVT pIOT “G*O'A “'T'O'C ‘YSnor0gi rey Jo ayn ONL ** plojxg Jo AzIs19AIUL) OY} JO AOT[a0ULYH-sdI,A “T'O' ‘auNIL *y *AIY OUT *“plOFXO JO “ATU 94} Jo IOTJaOURYD “T"O'd “O'd “ON'M ‘Aqued jo Weg OUL *“*ugapiaqy jo Ayunog 949 Jo 19UaATOD “Saad “a1 “bsg ‘uosmoxy, *y Sewer eee eee eee a teat eeee ee eeee ‘SW “aC ‘wosuiqoy "WL AOU SOUL pretesssesecesseeeceareg Cowen GimooIeH "A ‘AL ACW OWL eee ee ‘SU “T'9°d."S'3S'O'D ‘aostyom fT if YOWIpoy ag Sn rir “-onpa “TORE “H Mw ‘JaIsMAIG PIAvq Jig Settee ween ee? ““ony" a oI: ‘0° a ye W ‘qieg § Pyesi9H “AA A UYyor Ig Ce Se ee “uaapasaqy jo A190 94} JO JSOAOIg ploy 9UL bsg ‘aT AA ‘a ayor , ‘VW “1OTIMA "JOld ‘SOA “A'S'W'A “TOON "£ JOld ‘6S8I ‘FI toqmiajdeg ‘Nagauaay ““ LUOSNOO FONIYd AHL SSANHYIH TVAOU SIH ~ Seles \alofe ais rin ele cea rr ay “Ty oD Mw ra fl TT ‘uaapiaqy jo [1eq oy, sinisiejeleieteie btoge iRshain foto e 275ie" shehsianok inslo ws Feniny a iy “ory ‘puowyory jo axnq 24. ‘Syma “aw “TO'a * ‘bet ‘sou, WOZHIUO PT ' trreeessenouyeg Swen “bso Teqsivyy yey sour OO rece cece enone sesecseccosnene adpuquiey ‘adaqjop AquL4y, JO 1038e WT SY Wa 'S'0'd CV UW WOH “Sad “a'd “TeMoq AA “AA *A9X ODL sores eau Gonna Say oqueg ‘uoqwesa fern sedyeyy ap dy ag eager Ma LOU RN AR “LW ‘voy 4g3ny oq, sete wees * “Sou a “aM ‘WauMepoy yunodst, pi07T ayy, Peer reer en ee eres ereeeneseseresesreeses ‘SW ‘Svaquoyy pro] oyL, "SSSI ‘Zz raquiajdag ‘saga Vitteeeeeeeeeeeseeresecesessoee= TOMOSMpL USGUG 9y3 jo syuounredog A10jsty7 TeIN;eENY 217} Jo quapuezuiiadng “S'O'U°S'TA'S'U'd'A“T'0'd “C'W ‘NEMO CUVHOIU wit “bsq ‘WOSTEAN SVUIOTT, "s'O'a “bs “pre soxds +4 ‘Vy’ q ‘sxoury sewoyy, ‘Ady Z LI s6cer @ LI soccer ial OL ee Pape masa ZF OG eeetttesesteseseeeeereeeeeee gromevaly, [LOO] pues JaInseary, je1aUIy oY} Jo pury ut 0771 9 GL BOOK Teer srasueg ony ye oouRlEg streversrensreeeeeeererens CAUNOIOW WOOL aannde: 0 90UR)2 I : puss sosecv eee er enc SOANUBIALO ahaha aun ie ipigavan a : ; ‘LOISSVD ‘d‘f 0g seereeeee sae Jo AqrTIqntog ay} Uo sayoavasary stoupnys) |= “MVHS NOLYON OL *"S]UB[q JO YIMOID OY} WO satpvasay NOLLOH LUddou GZ TT S[RAVUIT, PUL syooy Jo siskteay [eoruvyoout-oormey) 0@ oc Ua BANG Jo oUOyspug MOT[AX 944 UL sUORIO[AXT *ZOITI0D PUNOF PUB PIULUULX trresereceseess STOSSOA-TUBIYS JO VOULUILOJIIG JY} OJUT Aummbuy ecwuoocooeoccocecoes onowocoocooooos = N _ Ch ig ae ae ae “Avg urpqud ut Sur8poiq 91 PO meee ee eee eee eee eee eme ee ee aeareseeseee 4seypog eau Surspoaig 00G ‘7 * AropVAIESGO MOY Jo yuourYsT{qeIsq oy Sururezurepy PLP SOR t ewer e ates ee eaeaene s[osuoy *yu90 rod ¢ 00Ss jo aseyoind (6 Sa Dyietr 690 eres 0 OT iirttetttesteseseeeseersereeseeeee tootnr ooh AN 0 € ZE “** SoUry s,aaoq pur ‘sivjzg Jo sanFojeyw9 O O Tere rsttteseeeerrsees — Quo_spepy SeULOU, IIS T GL get ct suaazy Jo sytoday tog *ztA — [loundgD vq} JO WoTNjosay rod sv pournyox suotdiosqns F —SUOTVoT[qng JO avg aya wor 0 0 oce weeee Spee neat? oo eo mecrmencsseccetrtcscsss ses SU OUOUL ZL ‘SOLle]es 6 Za FL A uvapleq Fy qe yurg WOous yseg uo 48o103Uy 6? S19 9% GB TTT" -Yoo}g Fue. Jad ¢ QOO9F uo spuaprarq syzuopy g O IL Th ‘* Suysayy qyuiu-Aquomy, oy Jo ‘ow ‘Suravisugq OrnObRGReaie cachet eee o1;Ip 0941p ‘SJOOLL, SOlpe'T 6 €L FLOR BuysoWw yyYS10-Aquomy, ayy Jo yr0dey Suyuug OF OMI0C Eis sae 0731p = 0741p ‘sJayoL], Soyvloossy 6 L GOR vt stainstary, [e007 943 pure Jaimsvary, [etoues 0 &@ 009 ° op op ‘suodiosqng jenuay - ayy Aq squoudeg jeyuepiouy pue ‘Suisytaapy ‘syodayy 0 0 663 "TTT QUIS pus Uaap.laqy yw suoNIsodmMoD oyr'T Supug Suguiug Aipung ‘Juyoayy uaapsoqy jo sosuadxg Aq | OL 4 GOL CT qunODoY 4sv] Mody premsoy yYSnOIq GoULTLg OJ, “p *$ F ‘Pp *s F "SINAWAVd “SLd FOTN ‘(AUOAXO 3%) OVST MUNE 49Zz 0} (ONILATN NAACUALYV Jo yWoweousum0s) gegy roquiajydeg wyFT Woy TNOOOOV SMANASVAWL IVUANAD AHL <2 ORR Ee MS SOA ls ORR Cee Ne aR cea ae la mea ee Be MONADOS FO LNANAYONVAGV FHL YOA NOLLVIOOSSV HSLLIUG MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. XXV II. Table showing the Names of Members of the British Association who have served on the Council in former years. Aberdeen, Earl of, LL.D., K.G., K.T., F.R.S. (dec‘). Acland, Sir Thomas D., Bart., F.R.S. Acland, Professor H. W., M.D., F.R.S. Adams, J. Couch, M.A., F.R.S. Adamson, John, Esq., F.L.S. Ainslie, Rev. Gilbert, D.D., Master of Pem- broke Hall, Cambridge. Airy,G.B.,D.C.L.,F.R.S.,Astronomer Royal. Alison, Professor W. P.,M.D.,F.R.S.E.(dec*). Allen, W. J. C., Esq. Anderson, Prof. Thomas, M.D. Ansted, Professor D. T., M.A., F.R.S. Argyll, George Douglas, Duke of, F.R.S. Arnott, Neil, M.D., F.R.S. Ashburton, William Bingham, Lord, D.C.L, Atkinson, Rt. Hon. R.,Lord Mayor of Dublin. Babbage, Charles, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. Babington, Professor CO. C., M.A., F.R.S. Baily, Francis, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). Baines, Rt. Hon. M.T., M.A., M.P. (dec*). Baker, Thomas Barwick Lloyd, Esq. Balfour, Professor John H., M.D., F.B.S. Barker, George, Hsq., F.R.S. (deceased). Beamish, Richard, Hsq., F.R.8. Bell, Professor Thomas, Pres. L.S., F.R.S. Beechey, Rear-Admiral, F.R.S. (deceased). Bengough, George, Esq. Bentham, George, Esq., F.LS. Biddell, George Arthur, Esq. Bigge, Charles, Esq. Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.8. Boileau, Sir John P., Bart., F.R.S. Boyle, Rt.Hon. D., Lord Justice-Gen!. (dec*). Brady,The Rt. Hon. Maziere, M.R.1.A., Lord Chancellor of Ireland. Brand, William, Esq. Breadalbane, John, Marquis of, K.T., F.R.S. Brewster, Sir David, K.H., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Principal of the University of Edinburgh. Brisbane, General Sir Thomas M., Bart., K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L., F.R.S. (dec*). Brodie, Sir B. C., Bart., D.C.L., Pres. B.S. Brooke, Charles, B.A., F.R.S. Brown, Robert, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased). Brunel, Sir M. I., F.R.S. (deceased). Buckland, Very Rev. William, D.D., F.RB.8., Dean of Westminster (deceased). Bute, John, Marquis of, K.'T. (deceased). Carlisle, George Will. Fred., Earl of, F.R.S. Carson, Rey. Joseph, F.T.C.D. Cathcart, Lt.-Gen., Earlof, K.C.B., F.R.S.E. (deceased). Chalmers, Rev. T., D.D. (deceased). Chance, James, Esq. Chester, John Graham, D.D., Lord Bishop of. Christie, Professor 8. H., M.A., F.R.S. Clare, Peter, Esq., F.R.A.S. (deceased). Clark, Rev. Prof., M.D., F.R.S. (Camtridge.) Clark, Henry, M.D. Clark, G. T., Esq. Clear, William, Esq. (deceased), Clerke, Major 8., K.H., R.E., F.R.S. (dec*). Clift, William, Hsq., F’.R.S. (deceased). Close, Very Rev. F., M.A., Dean of Carlisle. Cobbold, John Chevalier, Esq., M.P. Colquhoun, J. C., Esq., M.P. (deceased). Conybeare, Very Rev. W. D., Dean of Llan- daff (deceased). Cooper, Sir Henry, M.D. Corrie, John, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). Crum, Walter, Esq., F.R.S. Currie, William Wallace, Esq. (deceased). Dalton, John, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased). Daniell, Professor J. F., F.R.S. (deceased). Dartmouth, William, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S. Darwin, Charles, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. Daubeny, Prof. Charles G. B., M.D., F.R.8. DelaBeche, Sir H. T., C.B., F.R.S8., Director- Gen. Geol. Surv. United Kingdom (dec‘). De la Rue, Warren, Ph.D., F.R.S. Devonshire, William, Duke of, M.A., F.R.S. Dickinson, Joseph, M.D., F.R.S. Dillwyn, Lewis W., Hsq., F.R.S. (deceased). Drinkwater, J. E., Esq. (deceased). Ducie, The Earl, F.R.S. Dunraven, The Earl of, F.R.S. Egerton, Sir P, de M. Grey, Bart., M.P., E.R.S Eliot, Lord, M.P. Ellesmere, Francis, Earl of, F.G.8. (dec*). Enniskillen, William, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S, Estcourt, T. G. B., D.C.L. (deceased). Fairbairn, William, LL.D., C.E., F.R.S. Faraday, Professor, D.C.L., F.R.S. FitzRoy, Rear Admiral, F.R.S. Fitzwilliam, The Earl, D.C.L., F.R.S. (dec*). Fleming, W., M.D. Fletcher, Bell, M.D. Foote, Lundy E., Esq. Forbes, Charles, Esq. (deceased). Forbes, Prof. Edward, F.R.S. (deceased). Forbes, Prof. J. D., F.R.S., Sec. R.S.E. Fox, Robert Were, Esq., F.R.8. Frost, Charles, F.S.A. Fuller, Professor, M.A. Gassiot, John P., Esq., F.R.S. Gilbert, Davies, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased). Gourlie, William, Esq. (deceased). Graham, T., M.A., F.R.S., Master of the Mint. Gray, John E., Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. Gray, Jonathan, Esq. (deceased). Gray, William, Esq., F.G.S. Green, Prof. Joseph Henry, D.C.L., F.R.S. Greenough, G. B., Esq., ¥.R.S. (deceased). Griffith, Sir R. Griffith, Bt., LL.D., M.R.1.A. Grove, W. R., Hsq., M.A., F-.R.S. Hallam, Henry, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. (dec*). Hamilton, W. J., Esq., F.R.S8., For. Sec. G.S. Hamilton, Sir Wm. R., LL.D., Astronomer Royal of Ireland, M.R.LA., F.R.AS. Hancock, W. Neilson, LL.D. Harcourt, Rev. Wm. Vernon, M.A., F.R.S. Hardwicke, Charles Philip, Earl of, F.R.S. Harford, J. §., D.C.L., F.R.S. ; = > XXV1 Harris, Sir W. Snow, F.R.S. Harrowby, The Earl of, F.R.S8. Hatfeild, William, Esq., F.G.S. (deceased). Henry, W. C., M.D., F.R.S. [Col., Belfast. Henry, Rev. P.S., D.D., President of Queen’s Henslow, Rey. Professor, M.A., F.L.8. (dec®). Herbert, Hon. and Very Rey. Wm., LL.D., F.L.S., Dean of Manchester (dec*). Herschel,Sir John F.W., Bart.,D.C.L., F.R.S. Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., F.R.S. Heywood, James, Esq., F.R.S. Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S. Hincks, Rey. Edward, D.D., M.R.I.A. Hincks, Rev. Thomas, B.A. Hinds,8., D.D., late Lord Bishop of Norwich. (deceased). Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D. Hodgkinson, Professor Eaton, F.R.S. Hodgson, Joseph, Esq., F.R.S. Hooker, Sir William J., LL.D., F.R.S. Hope, Rev. F. W., M.A., F.R.S. Hopkins, William, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. Horner, Leonard, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S8. Hovenden, V. F., Esq., M.A. Hugall, J. W., Esq. Hutton, Robert, Esq., F.G.S. Hutton, William, Esq., F.G.S. Ibbetson,Capt.L.L. Boscawen, K.R.E.,F.G.S. Inglis, Sir R. H., Bart., D.C.L., M.P. (dec*). Inman, Thomas, M.D. Jacobs, Bethel, Esq. Jameson, Professor R., F.R.S. (deceased). Jardine, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.E. Jeffreys, John Gwyn, Esq., F.R.S. Jellett, Rev. Professor. Jenyns, Rey. Leonard, F.L.S. Jerrard, H. B., Esq. Johnston, Right Hon. William, late Lord Provost of Edinburgh. Johnston, Prof.J. F. W.,M.A., F.R.S. (dec). Keleher, William, Esq. (deceased). Kelland, Rey. Professor P., M.A. Kildare, The Marquis of. Lankester, Edwin, M.D., F.R.S. Lansdowne, Hen., Marquisof, D.C.L.,F.R.S. Larcom, Major, R.E., LL.D., F.R.S. Lardner, Rey. Dr. (deceased). Lassell, William, Esq., F.R.S. L. & E. Latham, R. G., M.D., F.R.S. Lee, Very Rey. John, D.D., F.R.S.E., Prin- cipal of the University of Edinburgh. (deceased). Lee, Robert, M.D., F.R.S. Lefevre, Right Hon. Charles Shaw, late Speaker of the House of Commons. Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., F.R.S. Liddell, Andrew, Esq. (deceased). Lindley, Professor John, Ph.D., F.R.S. Listowel, The Earl of. [Dublin (dec*). Lloyd, Rey. B., D.D., Provost of Trin. Coll., Lloyd, Rev. H., D.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. L.&E. Londesborough, Lord, F.R.S. (deceased). Lubbock, Sir John W., Bart., M.A., F.R.S. Luby, Rev. Thomas. Lyell, Sir Charles, M.A., F.R.S. MacCullagh, Prof., D.C.L., M.R.1.A. (dec*). REPORT— 1860. MacDonnell, Rev. R., D.D., M.R.LA., Pro- vost of Trinity College, Dublin. Macfarlane, The Very Rev. Principal. (dec*). MacGee, William, M.D. MacLeay, William Sharp, Esq., E.L.S. MacNeill, Professor Sir John, F.R.S. Malahide, The Lord Talbot de. Malcolm, Vice-Ad. Sir Charles, K.C.B. (dec*). Maltby, Edward, D.D., F.R.S., late Lord Bishop of Durham (deceased). Manchester, J. P. Lee, D.D., Lord Bishop of. Marshall, J. G., Esq., M.A., F.G.8. May, Charles, Esq., F.R.A.S8. Meynell, Thomas, Esq., F.L.S. Middleton, Sir William F. F., Bart. Miller, Professor W. A., M.D., F.R.S. Miller, Professor W. H., M.A., F.RB.S. Moillet, J. D., Esq. (deceased). Milnes, R. Monckton, Esq., D.C.L., M.P. Moggridge, Matthew, Esq. Monteagle, Lord, F.R.8. Moody, J. Sadleir, Esq. Moody, T. H. C., Esq. Moody, T. F., Esq. Morley, The Earl of. Moseley, Rey. Henry, M.A., F.R.S. Mount-Edgecumbe, ErnestAugustus, Earl of. Murchison, Sir Roderick I.,G.C. St.8., F.R.S. Neill, Patrick, M.D., F.R.S.E. Nicol, D., M.D. Nicol, Professor J., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Nicol, Rey. J. P., LL.D. Northampton, Spencer Joshua Alwyne, Mar- quis of, V.P.R.S. (deceased). Northumberland, Hugh, Duke of, K.G.,M.A., F.R.S. (deceased). Ormerod, G. W., Hsq., M.A., F.G.S. Orpen, Thomas Herbert, M.D. (deceased). Orpen, John H., LL.D. Osler, Follett, Esq., F.R.S. Owen, Professor Richd.,M.D., D.C.L.,F.R.S. Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce, D.D., Lord Bishop of, F.R.S., F.G.S. Palmerston, Viscount, G.C.B., M.P. Peacock, Very Rey. G., D.D., Dean of Ely, F.R.S. (deceased). : Peel, Rt.Hon.Sir R.,Bart.,M.P.,D.C.L.(dec*). Pendaryes, E. W., Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). Phillips, Professor John, M.A., LL.D.,F.R.S. Pigott, The Rt. Hon. D. R., M.R.1.A., Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer in Ireland. Porter, G. R., Esq. (deceased). Portlock, General, R.E., F.R.S. Powell, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.R.S. (dec*). Price, Rey. Professor, M.A., F.R.S. Prichard, J. C., M.D., F.R.S. (deceased). Ramsay, Professor William, M.A. Ransome, George, Esq., F.L.S. Reid, Maj.-Gen. Sir W., K.C.B., R.E., F.B.S. (deceased). Rendlesham, Rt. Hon. Lord, M.P. Rennie, George, Hsq., F.R.S. Rennie, Sir John, F.R.S. Richardson, Sir John, M.D., C.B., F.R.S. Richmond, Duke of, K.G., F.R.S. (dec*). Ripon, Earl of, F.R.G.S. MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. Ritchie, Rev. Prof., LL.D., F.R.S. (dec*). Robinson, Capt., R.A. Robinson, Rev. J., D.D. Robinson, Rey. T. R., D.D., F.R.AS. Robison, Sir John, Sec.R.S. Edin. (deceased). Roche, James, Esq. Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., F.R.S. Ronalds, Francis, F.R.S. Rosebery, The Harl of, K.T., D.C.L., F.R.S. Ross, Rear-Ad. Sir J.C.,R.N., D.C.L., F.B.S. Rosse, Wm., Earl of, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.LA. Royle, Prof. John F., M.D., F.R.S. (dec). Russell, James, Esq. (deceased). Russell, J. Scott, Esq., F.R.S. [V.P.R.8. Sabine, Maj.-General, R.A., D.C.L., Treas. & Sanders, William, Esq., F.G.S. Scoresby, Rev. W., D.D., F.R.S. (deceased). Sedgwick, Rev. Prof. Adam, M.A., F.R.S. Selby, Prideaux John, Esq., F.R.S.E. Sharpey, Professor, M.D., Sec.R.8. Sims, Dillwyn, Esq. Smith, Lieut.-Colonel C. Hamilton, F.R.S. (deceased). Smith, James, F.R.S. L. & E. Spence, William, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). Stanley, Edward, D.D., F.R.S., late Lord Bishop of Norwich (deceased). Staunton, Sir G. T., Bt., M.P., D.C.L., F.R.S. St. David’s, C.Thirlwall,D.D.,LordBishop of. Stevelly, Professor John, LL.D. Stokes, Professor G. G., Sec.R.S. Strang, John, Esq., LL.D. Strickland, Hugh E., Esq., F'.R.S. (deceased). Sykes, Colonel W. H., M.P., F.R.S. Symonds, B. P., D.D., Warden of Wadham College, Oxford. Talbot, W. H. Fox, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. Tayler, Rev. John James, B.A. Taylor, John, Esq., F.R.S. Taylor, Richard, Hsq., F.G.S. XXVil Thompson, William, Hsq., F.L.S. (deceased). Thomson, A., Esq. Thomson, Professor William, M.A., F.R.S. Tindal, Captain, R.N. (deceased). Tite, William, Esq., M.P., F.R.S. Tod, James, Esq., F.R.S.E. Tooke, Thomas, F.R.S. (deceased). Traill, J. S., M.D. (deceased). Turner, Edward, M.D., F.R.S. (deceased). Turner, Samuel, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.8. (dec*). Turner, Rev. W. Tyndall, Professor, F.R.S. Vigors, N. A., D.C.L., F.L.S. (deceased). Vivian, J. H., M.P., F.R.S. (deceased). Walker, James, Esq., F.R.S. Walker, Joseph N., Esq., F.G-S. Walker, Rev. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S. Warburton, Henry, Hsq.,.M.A., F.R.S.(dec*). Ward, W. Sykes, Esq., F.C.S. Washington, Captain, R.N., F.R.S. Webster, Thomas, M.A., F.R.S. West, William, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). Western, Thomas Burch, Esq. Wharncliffe, John Stuart, Lord, F.R.S.(dec*). Wheatstone, Professor Charles, F.R.S. ’ Whewell, Rey. William, D.D., F.R.S., Master of Trinity College, Cambridge. White, John F., Esq. Williams, Prof. Charles J. B., M.D., F.R.8. Willis, Rev. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S. Wills, William, Esq., ¥.G.S. (deceased). Wilson, Thomas, EHsq., M.A. Wilson, Prof. W. P. Winchester, John, Marquis of. Woollcombe, Henry, Esq., F.S.A. (deceased). Wrottesley, John, Lord, M.A., F.R.S. Yarborough, The Ear! of, D.C.L. Yarrell, William, Esq., F.L.S. (deceased). Yates, James, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. Yates, J. B., Esq., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. (dec*). OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1860-61. TRUSTEES (PERMANENT). 51k RopERIcK I. MurcuIson, G.C.St.S., F.R.S. JOHN TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S, Major-General EDWARD SABINE, R.A., D.C.L., Treas. & V.P.R.S. PRESIDENT. THE LORD WROTTESLEY, M.A., V.P.R.S, F.R.A.S, VICE-PRESIDENTS. The EArt oF DERBY, P.C., D.C.L., Chancellor of | CHarLES G. B. DAuBENy, LL.D., M.D., F-.R.S., the University of Oxford. F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Botany in the Uni- The Rey. F, JEUNE, D.D., Vice-Chancellor of the versity of Oxford. University of Oxford. HENRY W. ACLAND, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Regius The DuKE oF MARLBOROUGH, D.C.L. Professor of Medicine in the University of Ox- The EARL OF Rosse, K.P., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. ford. The Lorp BIsHoP OF OXFORD, F.R.S. WILLIAM F. Donkin, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., Savilian The Very Rev. H. G. LippELL, D.D., Dean of Professor of Astronomy in the University of Ox- Christ Church, Oxford. ford. PRESIDENT ELECT. WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, Esq., LL.D., C.E., F.R.S, VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT. The EARL oF ELLESMERE, F.R.G.S. JAMES ASPINALL TURNER, Esq., M.P. The Lorp STANLEY, M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S. JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., Pre- The Lorp BisHop OF MANCHESTER, D.D., F.R.8., sident of the Literary and Philosophical Society .G.S. of Manchester. Sir Poitrp DE MALpas GREY EGERTON, Bart., | Eaton HopeKtnson, Esq., F.R.S., M.R.I.A., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S. M.I.C.E., Professor of the Mechanical Principles Sir Bensamin HEywoop, Bart., F.R.S, of Engineering in University College, London. THOMAS BAazLEY, Esq., M.P. JOSEPH WHITWORTH, Esq., F'.R.S., M.I.C.E. LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT MANCHESTER. ROBERT DUKINFIELD DARBISHIRE, Esq., B.A., F.G.S., Brown Street, Manchester, ALFRED NEILD, at Mayfield, Manchester. ARTHUR RANSOME, Esq., M.A., St. Peter’s Square, Manchester. Professor HENRY ENFIELD Roscor, B.A., Owens College, Manchester. LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT MANCHESTER. ROBERT PHILIPS GREG, Esq., F.G.S., Manchester. ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. BaBinGTon, C. C., M.A., F.R.S. | GLADSTONE, Dr. J. H., F.R.S. SHARPEY, Professor, Sec. B.S. BELL, Prof. T., Pres. L.S., F.R.S. | GRovE, WILLIAM R., F.R.S. SpPorriswoopr, W., M.A., F.R.S8, Bropik, Sir BENJAMIN C., Bart., | HoRNER, LEONARD, F.R.S. Sykes, Colonel W. Fa es D.C.L., Pres. R.8. Huron, Ropert, F.G.S. FE.R.S. 8. H. DE LA RUE, WARREN, Ph.D., | LYELL, Sir C., D.C.L., F.R.S. Tire, WILLIAM, M.P., F. E.R.S. MILLER, Prof.W. A., M.D., F.R.S. | TyNDALL, Professor, F.R FirzRoy, Rear Admiral, F.R.S. PorTLOCK, General, R.E., F.R.S. | WEBSTER, THOMAS, F.R. GALTON, FRANCIS, F.G.S. PRICE, Rey. Prof., M.A., F.R.S. WILLIs, Rey. Prof., M.A., F.R.S. Gassior, JOHN P., F.R.S. EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. The President and President Elect, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant-General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presidents of former years, yiz.—Rev. Professor Sedgwick. The Marquis of Lansdowne. The Duke of Devonshire. Rey. W. V. Har- court. The Marquis of Breadalbane. Rey. W. Whewell, D.D. The Earl of Rosse. Sir John F, W. Herschel, Bart. Sir Roderick I. Murchison. The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Sir David Brewster. G. B. Airy, Esq., the Astronomer Royal. General Sabine. William Hopkins, Esq., LL.D. The Earl of Harrowby. The Duke of Argyll. Professor Daubeny, M.D. The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D. Professor Owen, M.D., D.C.L. His Royal Highness The Prince Consort. GENERAL SECRETARY. The Rey. ROBERT WALKER, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Experimental Philosopliy in the University of Oxford; Culham Vicarage, Abingdon. ASSISTANT-GENERAL SECRETARY. JouN PHILLIPS, Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the University of Oxford ; Museum House, Oxford. CENERAL TREASURER. JouHN TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S., 6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames Street, London. LOCAL TREASURERS. R. 8. 8 William Gray, Esq., F.G.S., York. John Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq., F.R.S., Swansea. C. C. Babington, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., Cambridge. J. B. Alexander, Ksq., ong William Brand, Esq., Edinburgh. Robert Patterson, Esq., M.R.LA., Belfast. John H. Orpen, LL.D., Dublin. Edmund Smith, Esq., Hull. William Sanders, Esq., F.G.S., Bristol. Richard Beamish, Esq., F.R.S., Cheltenham. Robert M‘Andrew, Esq., F.R.S., Liverpool. John Metcalfe Smith, Esq., Leeds. W. R. Wills, Esq., Birmingham. John Angus, Esq., Aberdeen. Professor Ramsay, M.A., Glasqow. Rey. John Griffiths, M.A., Oxford. Robert P. Greg, Esq., F.G.S., Manchester. AUDITORS. Robert Hutton, Esq. Dr. Norton Shaw. John P. Gassiot, Esq. OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. XX1X OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE ABERDEEN MEETING, SECTION A.—-MATHE&MATICS AND PHYSICS. President.—Rev. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy, Oxford. Vice- Presidents.—Sir David Brewster, K.H.,D.C.L., F.R.S.; Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., F.R.S., M.R.I.A.; Rev. R. Main, M.A., F.R.S.; Rev. W. Whewell, D.D., F.R.S., Hon. M.R.1.A., Master of Trinity College, Cambridge. Secretaries.—Professor Stevelly, LL.D.; Rev. T. Rennison, M.A., Fellow of Queen’s College; Rev. G. C. Bell, M.A., Fellow of Worcester College. SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS TO AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTs. President.—B. C. Brodie, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry, Oxford. Vice- Presidents. —Professor Andrews, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.1.A., F.C.S.; Warren De la Rue, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.; Professor Faraday, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.C.S.; Professor Frankland, Ph.D., F.R.S.; Professor W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.; Lyon Playfair, C.B., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Secretaries.—G. D. Liveing, M.A., F.C.S.; A. Vernon Harcourt, Esq., B.A., F.C.S., Student of Christ Church; A. B. Northcote, Esq., F.C.S., Queen’s College. SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. President.,—Rev. A. Sedgwick, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology, Cambridge. Vice-Presidents.—Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Hon. M.R.S.E., F.G.S.; L. Horner, Pres. G.S., F.R.S.; Major-General Portlock, R.E., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Secretaries.—Professor Harkness, F.R.S., F.G.S.; Captain Woodall, M.A., F.G.S., Oriel College; Edward Hull, B.A., F.G.S. SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY. President.—Rev. Professor Henslow, F.L.S., Professor of Botany, Cambridge. Vice-Presidents.— Professor Daubeny, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.; Sir W. Jar- dine, Bart., F.R.S.E., F.L.S.; Professor Owen, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Secretaries.—E. Lankester, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.; E. Percival Wright, M.A., M.B., M.R.ILA., F.L.S.; P. L. Sclater, M.A., F.L.S., Sec. Z.S., C.C.C.; W.S. Church, B.A., University College. SUB-SECTION D.—PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCE. President.—George Rolleston, M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Physiology. Vice-Presidents.—Professor Acland, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.; Sir B. Brodie, Bart., D.C.L., Pres. R.S.; George Busk, F.R.S.; Dr. Davy, F.R.S. L. & E.; Professor Huxley, F.R.S.; W. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S., F.R.S.E. Secretaries.—Robert M°Donnell, M.D., M.R.I.A.; Edward Smith, M.D., F.R.S. SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. President.—Sir R.I. Murchison, G.C.St.S.,D.C.L., F.R.S., V.P.R.G.S.; Director- General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Vice-Presidents.—Lord Ashburton, M.A., F.R.S.; John Crawfurd, Esq., F.R.S., Pres. Ethn. Soc.; Francis Galton, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.; Sir J. Richardson, C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.; Sir Walter C. Trevelyan, Bart. Secretaries.—Norton Shaw, M.D., Sec. R.G.S.; Thomas Wright, M.A., F.S.A.; Captain Burrows, R.N., M.A.; Charles Lempriere, D.C.L.; Dr. James Hunt, F.S.A. SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. President.—Nassau W. Senior, M.A., late Professor of Political Economy, Oxford. Vice-Presidents.—Sir John P. Boileau, Bart., F.R.S.; James Heywood, F.R.S. ; Lord Monteagle, F.R.S.; Monckton Milnes, M.P.; Right Hon. Joseph Napier, LL.D., D.C.L.; Sir Andrew Orr; Sir J. Kay Shuttleworth, Bart., F.G.S.; Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S.; William Tite, Esq., M.P., F.R.S, XXX REPORT—1860. Secretaries.—William Newmarch; Edmund Macrory, M.A.; Rev. J. E. T. Rogers, M.A., Magdalen Hall, Tooke Professor of Political Economy, King’s Col- lege, London. SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE. President.—W. J. Macquorn Rankine, LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Engineering, Glasgow. Vice-Presidents.—J. F. Bateman, F.R.S.; W. Fairbairn, C.E., LL.D., F.R.S. ; J. Glynn, F.R.S.; Admiral Moorsom; Sir John Rennie, F.R.S.; Marquis of Stafford, M.P.; James Walker, C.E., LL.D., F,.R.S.; Professor Willis, M.A., F.R.S.; T. Webster, Q.C., M.A., F.R.S. Secretaries,—P. Le Neve Foster, M.A.; Rey. Francis Harrison, M.A.; Henry Wright. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. Professor Agassiz, Cambridge, Massa- chusetts. M. Babinet, Paris. Dr. A. D. Bache, Washington. Professor Bolzani, Kazan, Dr. Barth. Dr. Bergsma, Utrecht. r. P. G. Bond, Cambridge, U.S. M. Boutigny (d’Evreux). Professor Braschmann, Moscow. Dr. Carus, Leipzig. Dr. Ferdinand Cohn, Breslau. M. Antoine d’Abbadie. M. De la Rive, Geneva. Professor Dove, Berlin. Professor Dumas, Paris. Dr. J. Milne-Edwards, Paris. Professor Ehrenberg, Berlin. Dr. Eisenlohr, Carlsruhe. Professor Encke, Berlin. Dr. A. Erman, Berlin. Professor Esmark, Christiania. Prof. A. Favre, Geneva. Professor G. Forchhammer, Copenhagen. M. Léon Foucault, Paris. Prof. E. Fremy, Paris. M. Frisiani, Milan. Dr. Geinitz, Dresden. Professor Asa Gray, Cambridge, U.S. Professor Henry, Washington, U.S. Dr. Hochstetter, Vienna. M. Jacobi, St. Petersburg. M. Khanikoff, St. Petersburg. Prof. A. Kolliker, Wurzburg. Prof. De Koninck, Liége. Professor Kreil, Vienna. Dr. A. Kupffer, St. Petersburg. | Dr. Lamont, Munich. Prof. F. Lanza. M. Le Verrier, Paris. Baron von Liebig, Munich. Professor Loomis, New York. Professor Gustav Magnus, Berlin. Professor Matteucci, Pisa. Professor von Middendorff, St. Petersburg. M. l’Abbé Moigno, Paris. Professor Nilsson, Sweden. Dr. N. Nordenskiold, Finland. M. E. Peligot, Paris. Prof. B. Pierce, Cambridge, U.S. Viscenza Pisani, Florence. Gustave Plaar, Stresburg. Chevalier Plana, Turin. Professor Pliicker, Bonn. M. Constant Prévost, Paris. M. Quetelet, Brussels. Prof. Retzius, Stockholm. Professor W. B. Rogers, Boston, U.S. Professor H. Rose, Berlin. Herman Schlagintweit, Berlin. Robert Schlagintweit, Berlin. M. Werner Siemens, Vienna. Dr. Siljestrom, Stockholm. M. Struvé, Pulkowa. Dr. Svanberg, Stockholm. M. Pierre Tchihatchef. Dr. Van der Hoeven, Leyden. Prof. E. Verdet, Paris. Baron Sartorius von Waltershausen, Gottingen. Professor Wartmann, Geneva. Report of the Council of the British Association, presented to the General Committee at Oxford, June 27, 1860. 1. The Council were instructed by the General Committee at Aberdeen to maintain the establishment at Kew Observatory by aid of a grant of £500. They have received the following Report of the Committee to whom the working of the Observatory is entrusted. REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXX1 _ 2. The continuance of Magnetic Observations, at stations indicated by the General Committee at the Leeds Meeting, has engaged the attention of H.R.H. the President, and of the Council; and they have had the advantage of co- operation on the part of the President and Council of the Royal Society. Every means has been adopted for pressing the subject on the favourable attention of the Government, but, it is to be regretted, hitherto without success. 3. The importance of telegraphic communication between sea-ports of the British Isles, has been the subject of much attention since it was urged on the General Committee by the Aberdeen Meeting. The Council are happy to find that Admiral FitzRoy has been authorized to proceed in bringing to a practical issue the recommendations offered on this subject to the scientific department of the Board of Trade; and they. congratulate the Association on the share they have taken in a cause so dear to humanity. 4. The expedition suggested by the Royal Geographical Society, and con- curred in by the General Committee of the British Association, is on its way; Capt. Speke, under the direction of the Admiralty, with his assistant, Capt. Grant, having sailed from Zanzibar. Sir R.1. Murchison, in reporting on this subject, expresses the obligation which is felt by the promoters of this great step for the exploration of Africa, to Lord John Russell, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. The Report of the Parliamentary Committee is received for presentation to the General Committee this day. 5. At the Meeting this day, in pursuance of the Notice placed in the Minutes of the General Committee at Aberdeen, it will be proposed —“ That a permanent distinct Section of Anatomy and Physiology be established, in addition to that of Zoology and Botany.” The Council are informed that Invitations will be presented to the General Committee at its Meeting on Monday, July 2, to hold the next Meeting in Manchester; on behalf of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Man- chester, and other Institutions and Public Authorities of that city, from whom Invitations were received at previous Meetings. Invitations will also be presented to hold an early Meeting in Newcastle, on behalf of the Council and Borough of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and to hold a Meeting in Birmingham in 1862, on behalf of the Birmingham and Midland Institute. Report of the Kew Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science for 1859-1860. Since the last Meeting of the British Association, the self-recording mag- netographs have been in constant operation under the able superintendence of Mr. Chambers, the magnetical assistant. A description of these instruments has been given by Mr. Stewart, the Superintendent, in a Report which is printed in the Transactions of the British Association for 1859. The drawings for the plates connected with this Report were made with much skill by Mr. Beckley, the mechanical assistant at Kew. It was mentioned in the last Report of this Committee, that a set of self- recording magnetic instruments, designed for the first of the Colonial Obser- vatories which have been proposed to Her Majesty’s Government, had been completed and set up in a wooden house near the Observatory. Shortly after the meeting at Aberdeen, the Chairman received a letter from Dr. P. A. Bergsma, Geographical Engineer for the Dutch possessions in the XXX1l REPORT—1860. Indian Archipelago, requesting that the Committee would assist him in pro- curing a set of self-recording magnetic differential instruments similar to those at Kew, the Dutch Government having resolved to erect such at their Observatory at Java. In consequence of this application, and as the instruments which had been completed were not immediately required for a British Observatory, it was resolved that they should be assigned to Dr. Bergsma; this gentleman has since arrived, and has for the last few weeks been engaged at the Observatory in the examination of his instruments. The usual monthly absolute determinations of the magnetic elements con- tinue to be made. Application having been made through Padre Secchi, of the Collegio Ro- mano, for a set of magnetic instruments, for both differential and absolute determinations, for the Jesuits’ College at Havanna, the whole to cost 600 dollars, or about £150, General Sabine obtained, at a reasonable price, the three magnetometers that had formerly been employed at Sir T. Brisbane’s Observatory at Makerstoun, and also an altitude and azimuth instrument. With these instruments it is expected that the application from Havanna Observatory can be met within the sum named; the instruments are now in the hands of the workmen, and will be ready early in July. Two unifilars, supplied by the late Mr. Jones, for the Dutch Government (one for Dr. Bergsma, and the other for Dr. Buys Ballot), have had their constants determined. Observations have also been made with two 9-inch dip-circles belonging to General Sabine, which have been repaired by Barrow, and with two dip-circles and a Fox’s instrument designed for Dr. Bergsma. A set of magnetical instruments, consisting of a dip-circle, an azimuth compass, and a unifilar, previously used by Captain Blakiston, have been re-examined, and have been taken by Colonel Smythe, of the Royal Artillery, to the Feejee Islands. As it was feared that the Kew Standard Barometer might have been injured by the workmen who some time since were repairing the Observatory, a new one has been mounted. ‘The mechanical arrangements of this instru- ment have been completed in a very admirable manner by Mr. Beckley ; and the mean of all the observations made shows that the new Barometer reads precisely the same asthe old. This result is satisfactory, not only as showing that no change has taken place in the old Barometer, but as confirming the accuracy of the late Mr. Welsh’s process of constructing these instruments. The height of the cistern of the new Barometer above the level of the sea is 33°74 feet. Mr. Valentine Magrath having quitted the Observatory, at his own request, on the 14tn of February last, Mr. George Whipple has taken his place as Meteorological Assistant, and has given much satisfaction. On the 12th of March, Thomas Baker was engaged at the weekly salary of 8s., to be raised to 10s. in six months if he gave satisfaction, which has hitherto been the case. Since the last meeting of the Association, 173 Barometers and 222 Ther- mometers have been verified at the Observatory. Professor Kupffer, Director of the Russian Magnetical and Meteorological Observatories, visited the Observatory, and was presented with a standard thermometer. Mr. J. C. Jackson, Lieutenant Goodall, R.E., and Mr. Francis Galton, F.R.S., have visited the Observatory, and received instructions in the mani- pulation of instruments. Mr. Galton has made some experiments at Kew Observatory, to determine . REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XKXIil the most practicable method of examining sextants, and other instruments for geographical purposes. Considering that these instruments, after having been once adjusted, are liable to two distinct classes of error, the one constant for any given reading, and the other variable, it is an object to form Tables of Corrections for the constant errors of instruments sent for examination, and also to ascertain the amount of variable errors which might affect their readings. As a groundwork for examination, it is found that small mirrors may be permanently adjusted, at the distance of half a mile, so that when the rays of a mirror of moderate size, standing by the side of an assistant, are flashed upon them, they may re-reflect a brilliant star of solar light, towards the sextant under examination. By having four permanently fixed mirrors of this description, separated by intervals of 20°, 60°, and 40° respectively, and by flashing upon them with two looking-glasses of moderate size, it is possible, by using every combina- tion of these angles, to measure every twentieth degree, from 0° up to 120°. The disturbing effects of parallax are eliminated without difficulty, by mere attention to the way in which the sextant is laid on the table, or, in the case of a zero determination, by a simple calculation. Moreover, the brilliancy of the permanent mirrors is perfectly under con- trol, by the interposition of gauze shades in front of the looking-glasses that flash upon them. This renders an examination of the coloured shades a matter of great ease and certainty. Based upon these principles, Mr. Galton has drawn up a system for the thorough examination of sextants. Each would not occupy more than two hours in having its constant errors tabulated, and its variable errors deter- mined; nor would an outlay of more than £30 be required for the establish- ment of fixed tables and permanent marks. Difficulty is, however, felt in setting the system in action, owing to the absolute need of an assistant having leisure to undertake it. The sum of £179 12s. 6d. has been received from the Royal Society, to defray the expense of erecting a model house for the reception of the instruments for Colonial Magnetic Observatories. The Photoheliograph has been an occasional source of occupation to the mechanical assistant; but before daily records of the sun's disk can be ob- tained, it is absolutely requisite that an assistant should be appointed to aid Mr. Beckley, because his duties are of such a nature as to prevent his de- voting attention at fixed periods of the day to an object requiring so much preparation as is the case with photoheliography. Unfortunately, the funds at the disposal of the Committee are quite inadequate for this purpose; and unless a special grant be obtained, the Photoheliograph will remain very little used. At present Mr. Beckley is preparing the instrument, under Mr. De la Rue’s direction, for its intended trip to Spain, for the purpose of photographing the eclipse which takes place on July 18th. The expenses of these preparations, and of the assistants who will accompany Mr. De la Rue, will be defrayed out of the grant of the Royal Society for that object. The requisite preparations are somewhat extensive ; for it has been deemed necessary to construct a wooden observatory, and to make a new iron pillar to support the instrument, adapted to the latitude of the proposed station: both the observatory and iron pillar may be taken to pieces to facilitate their transport, The wooden house is 8 feet 6 inches square, and 7 feet high; it is entirely open at the top, except that portion divided off for a photographic room. 1860. ¢ XXXiv REPORT—1860. The open roof will be covered by canvas when the observatory is not in use ; and when in use, the canvas will be drawn back, so as to form an outer casing at some little distance from the wall of the photographic room; and, in order to keep this room as cool as possible, the canvas will, in case of need, be kept wetted. The chemicals and chemical apparatus will be packed in duplicate sets, so as to provide as far as possible against the contingency of loss, by breakage or otherwise, of a part of them. Mr. Downes, of the firm of Cundall and Downes of Bond Street, has promised to accompany the expedition; Mr. Beckley will also go; and Mr. De la Rue has engaged Mr. Reynolds to assist in the erection of the observa- tory in Spain, and in the subsequent photographic operations. The Admiralty, on the representation of the Astronomer Royal, have pro- vided a steam-ship to convey this and other astronomical expeditions to Bil- bao and Santander. It is proposed that the Kew party should land at Bilbao and proceed to Miranda. Mr. Vignoles, who is constructing the Tudela and Bilbao railway, has kindly promised his aid and that of his staff of assist- ants, to promote the objects of the expedition, and promises, on behalf of the contractors, the use of horses and carts for the conveyance of the apparatus. The expedition will sail from Portsmouth on the 7th of July; and, should the weather prove favourable, there is reasonable hope that the various phases of the eclipse will be successfully photographed. Whether the light of the corona and red prominences will be sufficiently bright to impress their images, when magnified to four inches in diameter, is a problem to be solved only by direct experiment. Professor William Thomson (of Glasgow) having expressed a desire that the practical utility of his self-recording electrometer should be tried at Kew, his wish has been acceded to and the instrument received, and it is expected that it will shortly be in operation under his direction. A Report has been completed by the Superintendent on the results of the Magnetic Survey of Scotland and the adjacent islands in the years 1857 and 1858, undertaken by the late Mr. Welsh. This Report is printed in the Transactions of the British Association for 1859. The following correspondence has taken place between General Sabine and the Rev. William Scott, Director of the Sydney Observatory :— “ Observatory, Sydney, March 2, 1860. “ Srr,—The great interest which you take in the promotion of Magnetical Science encourages me to address you on the subject of the establishment of a Magnetical Observatory at Sydney. The report which I send you by this mail will explain to you the character and position of the Astronomical Ob- servatory under my direction. “JT am convinced that an application to our Government, from influential persons at home, for the establishment of magnetical observations on not too expensive a scale, would be readily attended to. Iam not practically acquainted with any magnetical observatory, with the exception of that at Greenwich, and am ignorant of the cost of a set of instruments, and the exact amount of space required for working them; but I believe we could find sufficient room in the observatory without any additional building; they would be under my own supervision, and all that would be required would be an additional assistant, to share with myself and my one assistant in observing and computing. The Governor-General, Sir W. Denison, would, though powerless as regards public money, exert his influence in favour of such an object. REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXXV “ Trusting that you will take the matter into consideration, and excuse the liberty I have taken in addressing you, “Tam, Sir, ‘* Your obedient Servant, (Signed) “W. Scort, « Astronomer for N. S. Wales.” “ Major-General Sabine.” “13 Ashley Place, London, May 8, 1860. y y « Str,—I lose no time in replying to your letter of March 2, received this day. ‘The self-recording magnetical instruments at Kew have been in action nearly two and a half years—a sufficient time to test their merits or defects. I have myself completed the analysis and reduction of the first two years (1858 and 1859) of the Observations of the Declinometer, and can therefore speak of my own knowledge of their performance, as far as that element is concerned. The Photographic Traces, recording both the zero line and the actual move- ments of the magnet, can be measured with tolerable confidence to the third place of decimals of an inch, the inch in the Kew instrument being equiva- lent to 22 minutes of arc. The reading is consequently made to the 1000th part of 22 minutes of declination. The record is of course continuous; but, for the purpose of computing the results, howrly readings have been tabulated. In the first year the trace failed in 107 out of 8760 hours, chiefly from failure in the supply of gas, which is brought by pipes from Richmond, a considerable distance off. This inconvenience has been remedied by the construction at the Observatory itself, at a small expense, of a water regu- lator, through which the supply from Richmond passes, and there is now no reason why the trace should ever fail. I have now in course of analysis and reduction the same years of the observations of the horizontal and vertical force magnetographs, and have no reason hitherto to believe tnat the record of those two elements will be inferior to that of the declination. The three instruments, with the clock which keeps the registering papers in revolution, together with reading telescopes placed for eye observation, either to accom- pany or to be independent of self-registry, occupy an interior space of about 16 feet by 12, including a passage round for the observer. The cost of such a set of instruments, complete in every respect, is £250; and four months must be allowed for making them from the date of the order, as well as an additional month for their careful verification at Kew (should that be de- sired), where a detached building has been erected for this particular pur- pose, in which they may be kept in work in comparison with the Kew instru- ments. A detailed description of these instruments is now in the press, and will be published in June in the volume of Reports of the British Association. The results of the first two years of the Declinometer observations, showing what are deemed at present to be the most useful modes of eliciting the re- sults, will be printed in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society’ in the present summer, and the first two years of the horizontal and vertical force magneto- graphs in the same publication later in the year. A small adjoining room is requisite, opening if possible into the instrument-room, which should contain suitable troughs for the preparation of the paper to receive the traces, and to fix them. It is important to diminish as much as possible the changes of temperature in the Observatory itself, exclusive of the effect of the instrument cases, which have adaptations for that purpose. So far in regard to differential instruments. For absolute determinations and secular changes a small de- tached house is required, say 12 feet by 8, in which equality of temperature need not be regarded, but which must be at a sufficient distance from other e2 Xxxvi REPORT—1860. buildings containing iron, and have copper fittings. The instruments required for these purposes are an inclinometer and a unifilar, the latter having pro- vision for the experiments of deflection and vibration, as well as for the abso- lute declination: the cost of the first is £30, and of the second £45; both may be verified, if desired, at Kew. The little work which is sent to you by the same post as this letter contains a full description of these instruments, and directions for their use. In addition to the charges named above, making in all £325, the cost of packing, freight, and insurance will have to be taken into the account. “ One assistant will suffice, as you suggest, for keeping the magnetometers in action, and for tabulation. The absolute values, and the calculation of the results of all the instruments, would be, I presume, the work of the Director of the Observatory himself. Provision must also be made for a supply of chemicals, stationery, and gas. Should it be thought desirable that the instru- ments should be prepared and verified under the superintendence of the Com- mittee of the Kew Observatory, a request to that effect, transmitted by your- self through the Governor of the Colony to the Chairman of the Committee of the Kew Observatory, Richmond Park, London, $.W., would, I am sure, meet immediate attention. That such an institution at the head-quarters of our Australian dominions would be as honourable to those who should be instrumental in its establishment as it would be beneficial to magnetical science, must be a matter of general recognition, and it would, I am per- suaded, find a warm supporter in your present most excellent Governor. ‘TI remain, Sir, “ Your obedient Servant, (Signed) “ EDWARD SABINE.” “ The Rev. W. Scott.” From the following correspondence which has taken place between Her Majesty’s Government and the President of the Royal Society, it will be seen that the establishment of a Magnetical Observatory at Vancouver Island is postponed, in consequence of the war with China precluding the establishment at present of a corresponding observatory at Pekin :— “Treasury Chambers, 16th May, 1860. “ Srr,—I am directed by the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury to acquaint you that My Lords have had under their further con- sideration the establishment of an Observatory at Vancouver Island, and the insertion in the Estimates of this year of a vote for that service. “ My Lords are fully sensible of the importance of obtaining a series of accurate Magnetical Observations at the stations recommended by the Council of the British Association, and it would give them great pleasure to assist without further delay in forwarding objects so interesting for the cause of science. “The numerous and pressing claims, however, on the public finances in the present year make it imperative upon My Lords to submit no fresh esti- mate to Parliament which is not of a very urgent character, and where the total limit of expense to be incurred has not been accurately ascertained. “In the present instance My Lords must observe that you appear to be under some misapprehension in supposing that any engagement was entered into by the late Government to establish a Magnetic Observatory at Pekin or elsewhere. On the contrary, the letter of this Board of 6th December, 1858, to Lord Wrottesley states that, ‘whatever may be the public advantages to be derived from the proposed new establishments, the object would not, REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXXVI it appears, be sacrificed by postponement, and, looking to tae extent of the other claims upon the public finances already existing, My Lords have thought it right to defer the consideration of the question until next year.’ we The letter then further states, that the three Magnetical Observatories at the Cape of Good Hope, St. Helena, and Toronto, which were originally sanctioned in an estimate of about £3000 for three years, had in fact cost £11,000 for that period, and, in all, had put the country to an expense of nearly £50,000. ‘This considcration alone suffices to show the necessity for very careful investigation by the Government before any step is taken which might commit the country to further expense. The circumstances referred to in the letter in question continue in full foree; and an important further argument against undertaking the proposed Observatory at Vancouver Island at the present moment is furnished by the political events which have since occurred in China. In General Sabine’s able letter of the Ist January, 1859, it is stated that, ‘without entering into the comparative scientific value of Vancouver Island and Pekin as magnetic stations,—both being highly important,—this much is certain, that, whatever might be the value of either, that value would be greatly enhanced—far more than doubled—by there being a simultaneous and continuous record at both stations; and Sir John Herschel remarks that the importance of a five years’ series of observations at one of the proposed stations without the others would be grievously dimi- nished, and the general scope of the project defeated.’ “ As the present state of things in China precludes the establishment of a Magnetic Observatory at Pekin, or any point in the Chinese Empire suffi- ciently to the north to correspond with a station at Vancouver Island (though there is reason to hope that this state of things may be of short duration ), it would appear desirable even in the interests of science to postpone the consideration until something more certain can be ascertained as to the possibility of meeting what Sir John Herschel and General Sabine consider such an essential requisite, viz. the commencement and continuance of simul- taneous observations at Vancouver Island and at a point in China nearly in the same parallel of latitude. The interval which must elapse until the political state of affairs in China may render such an establishment possible may be usefully employed in obtaining the most accurate estimate possible of the actual cost of founding and maintaining each station for the period requisite for the complete attainment of the scientific objects in view, so as to enable Her Majesty’s Government, when the proper time shall arrive, if they shall decide on doing so, to submit a vote to Parliament with confidence as to the amount of expense which they may ask the nation to defray in the interests of science. ‘Cl ain, Sin “ Your obedient Servant, (Signed) “ Gro. A. HAMILTON.” “ The President of the Royal Society.” “May 23rd, 1860. “My pear Sir,—In Mr. Hamilton's letter (returned herewith) he has referred to Sir Charles Trevelyan’s communication to Lord Wrottesley of the 6th December, 1858, expressing the desire of the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury to postpone to the following year the consideration of the esta- blishment of the Colonial Magnetic Observatories which had been recom- mended by the Royal Society and the British Association for the Advance- XXXVili REPORT—1860. ment of Science ; but Mr. Hamilton has omitted altogether to refer to the interview which took place between the President of the British Association and Sir Charles Trevelyan subsequent to that communication, viz. on the 18th of December, 1858, when Sir Charles Trevelyan stated that ‘if asingle station for magnetical and meteorological observations were applied for [in- timating Pekin as its locality] by the Joint Committee of the Royal Society and the British Association, My Lords would be disposed to comply with such application. (See Report of the Council of the British Association, September 1859.) “ Political events which became known shortly after that interview made it manifestly unadvisable to apply for a station in China; but the scientific importance of procuring systematic magnetical researches at other stations which had been named in the original application from two Societies, in parts of the globe which were conveniently accessible and under British dominion, remained as before. In these respects Vancouver Island was unobjectionable, and was therefore substituted for ‘a station in China’ in the application, which, consistently with Sir Charles Trevelyan’s communication of the 18th December, 1858, was made by the Joint Committee of the two Societies. The confident expectations thus founded being known in the United States by the publications of the Reports of the Joint Committee of the Royal Society and British Association, the Government of the United States authorized the establishment of Magnetical Observatories at a station on the east side of the United States, and at another on the south coast, both designed to cooperate with the British Observatory to be established on Vancouver Island ; the three stations being obviously remarkably well selected for systematic researches over that large portion of the globe. The two observatories of the United States’ Government have been established, and commenced their work at the beginning of the present year. “In reference to the aggregate amount of expenditure incurred by the magnetical researches recommended to Government by the Royal Society and British Association in the last twenty years, it may be remarked that, the researches being altogether of a novel character, the continuance of the Observatories, when first asked for in 1839, was for a very limited period. It was, in fact, an experiment, and their longer continuance would not have been recommended had not the experiment proved eminently successful, and such as to justify the prosecution of the researches. The subject was there- fore brought afresh under the consideration of Government in 1845 and again in 1849, and the further expenditure to be incurred received the sanction of the Treasury on both occasions, as have also, on other occasions, the magnetie surveys connected with the Observatories. It is possible that the aggregate amount of expenditure thus sanctioned and incurred may not be overstated at £50,000. It is an average amount not exceeding £2500 a year for this great branch of physical science. ‘“‘T am not myself the proper authority to say whether the gain to science, and to the estimation in scientific respects in which this country is held by other nations, be, or be not, an equivalent for this expenditure; but I may be permitted to refer to the opinion expressed by the Joint Committee of the two Societies, consisting, as is well known, of persons holding high places in public estimation for their general knowledge and good judgment, as well as possessing the highest scientific eminence :—‘ Your Committee, looking at this long catalogue of distinct and positive conclusions already obtained, feel themselves fully borne out in considering that the operation, in a scientific point of view, has proved, so far, eminently remunerative and successful, and that its results have fully equalled in importance and value, as real accessions REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXXIX to our knowledge, any anticipations which could reasonably have been formed at the commencement of the inquiry.’ “ Believe me, my dear Sir, “ Faithfully yours, (Signed) “ EDWARD SABINE.” “ Sir B. C. Brodie, Bart., P.R.S.” Mr. Hamilton to the President of the Royal Society, in reply to his letter of Qnd June (not given here). “Treasury Chambers, June 14, 1860. “ Sir,—In reply to your letter of the 2nd inst., with its enclosure from General Sabine relative to the establishment of Colonial Magnetic Observa- tories, I am directed by the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury to state that, without entering into the question what verbal assurances may have been given in December 1858 by the then Assistant Secretary, Sir Charles Trevelyan, of which no record was made, their Lordships observe that the main ground of their letter of the 16th May, 1860, remains unaffected, viz. that, in the opinion of the highest scientific authorities, whatever might be the value of observations at Vancouver Island, that value would be greatly increased by simultaneous observations at some station in the North of China, and, on the other hand, would be ‘ grievously diminished’ if no station in China was established. Under these circumstances, their Lordships thought it desirable to postpone for a short time the consideration of the question, in the hope that it might be considered under a different state of things in China, rendering possible the attainment of the greatest amount of scientific advan- tage from the expenditure of public money, in case that expenditure should be decided upon. “Tam, Sir, “ Your obedient Servant, (Signed) “G. A. HamILToN.” General Sabine has written the following letter to Dr. Bache, who had intimated to him that, in the event of Her Majesty’s Government declining to establish a magnetical observatory at Vancouver Island, it was the wish of the United States’ Government to establish one in Washington Territory, in the vicinity of Vancouver Island :— “May 22, 1860, “Dear Bacue,—I waited to reply to yours of April 13th until we should have received the reply of our Government regarding the Vancouver Island Observatory. Mr. Gladstone has availed himself of some expressions in Sir John Herschel’s letters and mine (to the effect of the far greater import- ance of having observations on the Chinese as well as on the American side of the Pacific to having either separately) to postpone a decision regarding Vancouver Island until our relations with China shall enable our Govern- ment to consider the question of establishing both simultaneously. Our pro- position, therefore, has fallen to the ground, and it is quite open to your Government to occupy the field which you were willing to concede to us in consideration of the forward part which our Government has hitherto taken in magnetic researches. “Now in regard to the instruments, which, as you are probably aware, have been prepared at my own risk, in order that, should our Government accede to the recommendation made by the Royal Society and British Asso- xl REPORT—1860. ciation, the time might be saved which must otherwise have been lost in their preparation. They have been made on the model of those which have been in use at the Kew Observatory since January 1858. An account of these isin the press, and will be published in the volume of Reports of the British Asso- ciation for 1859-1860, which must be in circulation next month. I have thoroughly examined and computed the declination results for 1858 and 1859, by means of tabulated hourly values, and am now engaged in the same cal- culation of the Bifilar and Vertical Force Magnetometers. The Declination Report will be presented to the Royal Society, and printed in the ‘ Proceed- ings’ in the course of the summer, as well as the results of the Force Mag- netometers for the same two years, as soon as I am able to draw up the report in due form and order. But Iam able tosay, regarding all the three elements, that the instruments are eminently successful. Independent of the continucty of the record (which is of course a great thing in itself), the hourly tabula- tions are far more consistent and satisfactory than were the eye-observations at any of our observatories. “In preparing a second set of instruments, therefore (which we have done for the proposed Netherlands Observatory in Java), we have had very few improvements to introduce, except the addition of reading-telescopes for each instrument—so that we may always retain the power of eye-observation, either in addition to or substitution for photographic records. Dr. Bergsma, the Director of the Java Observatory, is now at Kew, observing with his in- struments, in comparison with those in our own Observatory (as we have a separate building for the instruments on trial), and will take them away towards the end of June. ‘These of course will be paid for by the Netherlands Government, having been ordered expressly for them. There will then be the third set, which have been prepared for Vancouver, and which are ready to succeed the Java instruments in the experimental house. A few very trifling improvements have been introduced in these—none worthy of being noticed here. They at present stand as mine, and I shall be indebted £250 for them. The decision of Government, as communicated to the President of the Royal Society, makes no reference to my responsibility on their account. I am, therefore, to say the least, quite free to dispose of them as I may please. Now I am not rich enough to offer them as a Joan to your ‘ Washington Territory ’ Observatory ; but if you desire to have differential determinations there in addition to absolute determinations, I am persuaded that you could not have better instruments than these would be; and I consider myself as quite free to offer you the refusal of them, asking only in return that you will give me as early a reply as may be convenient, because I have some reason to expect that I may receive an application from the Sydney Obser- vatory to obtain a duplicate of the Kew instruments; in which case, if you had not claimed them in the meantinie, I should direct these to be sent to Sydney. -- Sincerely yours, (Signed) “ EDWARD SABINE.” “ Dr. Bache, F.R.S., Director of the Coast Survey of the United States.” The reply to this letter has not yet been received; but in the meantime the following application has come for a set of magnetical instruments for absolute determinations from Dr. Smallwood, Professor of Meteorology at M°Gill College in Montreal, Canada:— “St. Martin, Isle Jésus, May 2], 1860. - © Srr,—I duly received yours of the 16th of July last, in reference to the REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. xli establishment of a Magnetic Observatory here, in connexion with observa- tions on meteorology and atmospheric electricity, and deferred writing until I was in a position to acquire the instruments necessary. * You said in your communication that ‘£80 or thereabouts was required;’ and you were kind enough to add, with a spirit of generosity I could not expect, ‘that every care should be taken to superintend the construction of such instruments, to verify them, and to determine their constants, and have them carefully packed and sent out.’ “ The object of the present letter is to ascertain, Ist, the exact cost (if pos- sible); 2nd, to whom the amount shall be forwarded; Srd, when the instru- ments would probably be ready ; 4th, a short list of what are to be sent. “JT feel that Iam asking too much from you; but a knowledge of your devotion to a science which you have so much extended, makes me feel less diffident, and I have thrown myself upon your kindness. “T have also to acknowledge the receipt of a Book of Instructions, &c., with thanks. “ So soon as I get a reply from you, I will at once transmit the amount with the order, and submit a plan of the building. * Believe me to remain, with great consideration and respect, “ Yours faithfully, (Signed) “ C, SMALLWoop.” * General Sabine, London.” Instruments to meet this request are in preparation. The Committee have thought that it might not prove uninteresting to the members of the British Association, if, in this Report, a short description were given of the Kew Observatory, and of the nature and amount of work which is accomplished therein. The Observatory is situated in the middle of the old Deer-park, Richmond, Surrey, and is about three-quarters of a mile from the Richmond Railway Station. Its longitude is 0° 18! 47" W., and its latitude is 51°28’ 6" N. It is built north and south. The repose produced by its complete isolation is eminently favourabie to scientific research. In one of the lower rooms a set of self-recording magnetographs, described in the Report of the last meeting of this Association, is constantly at work. ‘These instruments, by the aid of photography, furnish a continuous record of the changes which take place in the three magnetic elements, viz. the declination, the horizontal force, and the vertical force. The light used is that of gas, in order to obtain which, pipes have been carried across the Park to the Observatory, at an expense of £250, which sum was generously defrayed by a grant from the Royal Society. Attached to this room is another, of a smaller size, in which the necessary photographic operations connected with magnetography are conducted. In the story above the basement, the room by which the visitor enters the Observatory is filled with apparatus. Much of this is the property of the Royal Society, and some of the instruments possess a historical value; for instance, the air-pump used by Boyle; and the convertible pendulum designed by Captain Kater, and employed by him, and subsequently by General Sabine, in determining the length of the pendulum vibrating seconds. _ An inner room, which opens from this one, is used as a library and sitting- room, and in it the calculations connected with the work of the Observatory are performed. In this room dipping-needles and magnets, which it is neces- sary to preserve from rust, are stored. Here also the MS. of the British Association Catalogue of Stars is preserved. A room to the east of this contains the standard barometers, and the appa- xlii REPORT—1860. ratus (described by Mr. Welsh in the ‘ Transactions’ of the Royal Society, vol. 146. p. 507) for verifying and comparing marine barometers with the standard. This room has also accommodation for the marine barometers sent for verification. In the middle of the room is a solid block of masonry, extending through the floor to the ground below. To this an astronomical quadrant was formerly attached ; it is now used as a support for the standard barometers. This room contains also a Photographic Barograph invented by Mr. Francis Ronalds, which, though not at present in operation, may serve as a model for any one who wishes to have an instrument of this description. It is described by Mr. Ronalds in the Report of the British Association for 1851. In a room to the west of the Library, thermometers for the Board of Trade, the Admiralty, and opticians, are compared with a standard thermometer by means of a very simple apparatus devised by the late Mr. Welsh. The Observatory also possesses a dividing-engine by Perreaux, by means of which standard thermometers are graduated. It was purchased by a grant from the Royal Society. In this room the pure water required for photographic processes is obtained by distillation; and here also a small transit telescope is placed for ascertain- ing time. The transit instrument is erected in a line between two meridian marks—one to the north and the other to the south of the Observatory ; so that, by means of suitable openings, either of these marks may be viewed by the telescope. In a higher story is the workshop, containing, among other things, a slide- lathe by Whitworth, and a planing machine by Armstead, both of which were presented to the Kew Observatory by the Royal Society. In the dome is placed the Photoheliograph for obtaining pictures of the sun’s disk; attached to the dome there is a small chamber in which the photographic processes connected with the photoheliograph are conducted. This chambe 1's supplied with water by means of a force-pump. A self= recording Robinsons anemometer jsalso attached to the dome. In addition to the rooms now specified, there are the private apartments attached to the Observatory. On the north side of the Observatory there is an apparatus similar to that used at the Toronto Observatory for containing the wet- and dry-bulb, the maximum and the minimum thermometers. The model magnetic house, elsewhere alluded to in this Report, stands at a distance of about 60 yards from the Observatory ; and the small wooden house in which the absolute magnetic observations are made, at a distance of about 110 yards. These houses are within a wooden paling, which fences them off from the remainder of the Park, and encloses about one acre of ground attached to the Observatory. The work done may now be briefly specified. In the first place, the self- recording magnetographs, as already mentioned, are kept in constant opera- tion, and record the changes continually occurring in the magnetic elements. The photographs are sent to General Sabine’s establishment at Woolwich, to undergo the processes of measurement and tabulation. In the model magnetic house there is at present a set of magnetographs which Dr, Bergsma will take to Java. When this set is removed another will supply its place, in readiness for any other Observatory, colonial or foreign, at which it may be required. In the house for absolute determinations, monthly values of the declination, dip, and horizontal magnetic force are taken, and magnetic instruments for foreign or colonial observatories have their constants determined, xiii REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. “NOLLOH “& ‘O98T “eunr YIST *gouadaATy pur sZuarprys yyStq spunod UIAITT Sl puvy Ul souLTeg ay} 4ey} puy pur ‘aur 07 poqyussaid sIayONOA 94} YIM If poredutoo pue yunoooe sAoqe oy} pautmMexe Ary [ OL 61 Lo6F Caer th 6 9 98T 9 ZI 641 0 0 91 6€ 61 Zé Snoop OonH oD N N OL OL OL OL CIR DG ae co Sa — eae — en — ae — I ES 0 &f 0 OL "s Hi eieteseeeerserneerseeterees DUBtL UT QOURTeg PORTER Meee e renee tet ewer eeeheneeaee syders { -OJOUTLI, AOS OT} IOJ JUNOdR Ss UeITdG, seeeesesseercanesseeeterens SQTIOIBAIOSC() [etuojog 10 uste10g 10; sydeaSojou -SvjN VuIMeXa pue 9ATIIeI 0} YOTYA UI 9sNOFT UapooA, B Butpymq jo 4809 gUnoooe 4Sel UT pasieyorapun = £09917 seeatesentaseneeeneeneeres® DEBIT JO WUD, * sasuedxe Aqjad pue o3e19310g steeesceees son ‘KJaTpuRyy ‘sasuadxy asnop{ siteeertesesteesserreneeererterts Spi DUR S[LOD ““asn4sog pue ‘syoog ‘Arau0yeg ‘Bunuitg seers OSB pur ‘Staquadieg ‘1aSuouLUO0rT ttreeerseres O09 ‘STOO, ‘s[elazeyy ‘snjyereddy "88 92 ‘O98 ‘eg oune Sutpua ‘syoom CT ‘1oyxeg “L, Peete weer eeteeree "STI 4e ‘098T °8I aunr Surpua ‘sydam gp ‘oiddiz “9 HOw eee ae etree eeerer eee "sce 4e ‘098T ‘eg aung Surpua ‘syaem Tp ‘Aoppog "y irre one “ape sci’ss OR ‘FI "qa Suipua ‘syyUOM XxIS ‘YyBIsePY “A “ff Oem meee ee enreeseserene 098I ‘9 Ajne Zurpua ‘srajzrenb 9e1y} ‘sraquireyd *O eee eereeereconeeesssooorssesaserongi ad -xo Surpaaesy Aqyod Toy pomorye 60441q Peete see reweresreraee O98L ‘oe ouur 0 OST Heine ‘szazrenb 9014} 4aeVMaig “g OF, + —! 029 ‘salre[eg “SLINGWAVd OL 6 496% 0 0 OST 9 ZI GAT ao ao oO on Lol ei 0 0 00S 8 6 8 p38 ee eeeenereeeeentee sydeaSojouSe yy MOY OY} jo quamded yied ur Aya100g jedoy oy} Woy *** SQLIOPBAISYO) [VIUOTOD 10 usta10,y 10F sydvisojouseyy VUIGIeXO pUe AATIDOI 0} YIM UL asnoy uspoom v Zuryoora jo asuadxa ay Avajap 03 Ajo100g ekoy ay WoIy SIoJaMOUIay, J, prwpueys 10y “ “ “c Boe ewereresererersaee 8 91 Ze eee eeeenrecsenereres suvloydg wWOJy 0 61 29 treeeeeeseseree KP TUIPW au} WONT 0 FL 06°" Spery Jo prvog 947 WOIy ‘p °S HF —S}UIUINIYSUT JO UOLOYIIOA OY} 1OF srepereveceeseseeeres TOINSVILT, [PIIUIH) IY} WOIF POATa00y qunoooe 4se Moss aouRleg “ POOR O Hemera esereeseeerereeenees “SLd 1 GOTe 8 9RT 417% aun 02 GGRT “PT saquadag woxsf uorni0ssH Y/82)2. xliv REPORT—1860. In the meteorological department, all the barometers, thermometers, and hydrometers required by the Board of Trade and the Admiralty have their corrections determined; besides which, similar instruments are verified for opticians. Standard thermometers also are graduated, and daily meteoro- logical observations are made, an abstract of which is published in the ‘ Illustrated London News.’ Instruction is also given in the use of instruments to officers in the army or navy, or other scientific men who obtain permission from the Committee. All this amount of work, it is believed, can be executed by the present staff, consisting of the superintendent, three assistants (magnetical, mecha- nical, and meteorological), and a boy; but the expense attending it is greater than the present income of the Observatory, furnished by the British Asso- ciation, will support. In the resolution of the British Association of the 14th September, 1859, it was recommended to Government, at the instance of the joint committee of the Royal Society and British Association, that the sum of £350 per annum should be placed at the disposal of the general superintendent of the mag- netical observations ; this sum was intended to have defrayed the expenses attending the magnetical department of the Observatory and the observa- tions of the sun’s spots. It will be seen, however, from the correspondence contained in an earlier part of this Report, that this source of income is not yet available. Joun P. GAsstotT, June 18, 1860. Chairman. Report of the Parliamentary Committee to the Meeting of the British Association at Oxford in June 1860. The Parliamentary Committee have the honour to report as follows :— No subject of sufficient importance to require any especial notice has occu- pied their attention during the past year, nor indeed was there any matter referred to them at the last Meeting of the Association. There are now either two or three vacancies in that portion of the Com- mittee which represents the House of Commons, according as it shall be de- termined whether the vacancy caused in that Section by Lord de Grey’s taking his seat in the House of Lords is or is not to be filled up, WrottTeEsLey, Chairman. May 28, 1860. RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. xly RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE Oxrorp MEETING IN JUNE AND JULY 1860. [When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the Secretary of the Committee, except there be a specific nomination. ] Involving Grants of Money. That the sum of £500 be appropriated to the maintenance of the Esta- blishment in Kew Observatory, under the direction of the Council. That a sum not exceeding £90 be granted for one year for the payment of an additional Photographer for carrying on the Photo-heliographic Ob- servations at Kew. That a sum not exceeding £30 be placed at the disposal of Mr. Broun, Dr. Lloyd, and Mr. Stone, for the construction of an Induction Dip Circle, in connexion with the Observatory at Kew. That a sum not exceeding £10 be placed at the disposal of Professor Tyndall and Mr. Ball, for providing Instruments fur making Observations in the Alps, and for printing the formule for the use of travellers. That the Balloon Ascent Committee, consisting of Prof. Walker, Prof, W. Thomson, Sir D. Brewster, Dr. Sharpey, Dr. Lloyd, Col. Sykes, General Sabine, and Prof. J. Forbes, be reappointed, with the addition of Mr. Broun ; and that the sum of £200 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Dr. Matthiessen be requested to prosecute his Experiments on the Chemical Nature of Alloys; and that the sum of £20 be placed at his dis- posal for the purpose. That Prof. Sullivan be requested to continue his Experiments on the Solu- bility of Salts at Temperatures above 100° Cent., and on the mutual Action of Salts in Solution ; and that the sum of £20 be placed at his disposal for the purpose. That Prof. Voelcker be requested to continue his investigation on Field Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to Cultivated Crops; and that the sum of £25 be placed at his disposal for the purpose. That Mr. Alphonse Gages be requested to continue his Experiments on the Mechanico-Chemical Analysis of Minerals; and that the sum of £20 be placed at his disposal for the purpose. That Mr. Mallet be requested to carry on his Experiments on Earthquake Waves ; and that the sum of £25 be placed at his disposal for the purpose. That additional excavations be made at Dura Den by the Committee, now consisting of Dr. Anderson, Prof. Ramsay, Prof. Nicol, and Mr. Page; that Mr. J. B. Jukes be added to the Committee; and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Mr. J. Gwyu Jeffreys, Dr. Lukis, Mr. Spence Bate, Mr. A. Hancock, and Dr. Verloren be a Committee for the purpose of Reporting on the best mode of preventing the ravages of the different kinds of Teredo and other Animals in our Ships and Harbours; that Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys be the Secretary ; and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Mr. Sclater, Dr. A. Giinther, and Mr. R. T. Tomes be a Committee for the purpose of preparing and printing a Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Terrestrial Vertebrata of the West India Islands ; that Mr. Sclater be the Secretary ; and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Mr. Robert MacAndrew and the following gentlemen be a Com- xlvi REPORT—1860. mittee for General Dredging purposes :—Mr. R. MacAndrew, Chairman; Mr. G. C. Hyndman, Dr. Edwards, Dr. Dickie, Mr. C. L. Stewart, Dr. Colling- wood, Dr. Kinahan, Mr. J. S. Worthey, Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Dr. E. Perceval Wright, Mr. Lucas Barrett, and Professor J. R. Greene. That Mr. Robert MacAndrew be the Secretary ; and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Dr. Ogilvie, Dr. Dickie, Dr. Dyce, Prof. Nicol, and Mr. C. W. Peach be a Committee for the purpose of Dredging the North and East Coasts of Scotland. That Dr. Ogilvie be the Secretary ; and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That the surviving members of the Committee appointed in the year 1842, viz. Mr. C. Darwin, Rev. Professor Henslow, Rev. L. Jenyns, Mr. W. Ogilby, Professor Phillips, Sir John Richardson, Mr. J. O. Westwood, Professor Owen, Mr. W. E. Shuckard, and Mr. G. R. Waterhouse, for the purpose of pre- paring Rules for the establishment of a Uniform Zoological Nomenclature, be reappointed, with the addition of Sir William Jardine, Bart., and Mr. P. L. Sclater. That Sir W. Jardine be the Secretary ; and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose of revising and reprinting the Rules. That Mr. Sclater and Dr. F. Hechstetter be a Committee for the purpose of drawing up a Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Species of Apteryz living in New Zealand. That Mr. Sclater be the Secretary ; and that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Dr. Collingwood be requested to dredge in the Estuaries of tne Mersey and Dee ; and that the sum of £5 be placed at his disposal for the purpose. That Dr. Edward Smith, F.R.S., and Mr. Milner be a Committee for the purpose of prosecuting inquiries as to the effect of Prison Diet and Discipline upon the Bodily Functions of Prisoners. That Dr. Edward Smith be the Secretary; and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Mr. T. Wright, Mr. J. B. Davis, and Mr. A. G. Hindlay be a Com- mittee for the purpose of exploring entirely the piece of ground at Uriconium in which the human remains have been found, in order to examine more fully the circumstances connected with the discovery, and to obtain the similar Skulls which may still remain under ground. ‘That Mr. T. Wright be the Secretary ; and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Professor James Thomson (of Belfast) be requested to continue his Experiments on the Gauging of Water; and that the sum of £10 be placed at his disposal for the purpose. That the Committee on Steam-ship Performance be reappointed, to report proceedings to the next Meeting ; that the attention of the Committee be also directed to the obtaining of information respecting the performance of vessels under Sail, with a view to comparing the results of the two powers of Wind and Steam, in order to their most effective and economical combi- nation ; and that the sum of £150 be placed at their disposal for this purpose. The following gentlemen were nominated to serve on the Committee :— Vice-Admiral Moorsom; The Marquis of Stafford, M.P.; The Earl of Caith- ness; The Lord Dufferin; Mr. William Fairbairn, F.R.S.; Mr.J. Scott Russell, F.R.S.; Admiral Paris, C.B.; The Hon. Captain Egerton, R.N.; Mr. William Smith, C.E.; Mr. J. E. M¢Connell, C.E.; Prof. Rankine, LL.D.; Mr. J. R. Napier, C.E.; Mr. R.Roberts,C.E.; Mr. Henry Wright, Honorary Secretary ; with power to add to their number. That Prof. Phillips be requested to complete and print, before the Man- RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. xlvii chester Meeting, a Classified Index to the Transactions of the Association from 1831 to 1860 inclusive; that he be authorized to employ, during this period, an Assistant; and that the sum of £100 be placed at his disposal for the purpose. Applications for Reports and Researches. That Mr. H. J. S. Smith be requested to continue his Report on the Theory of Numbers. That Mr. Cayley be requested to draw up a Report on certain Problems in Higher Dynamics. That Mr. B. Stewart be requested to draw up a Report on Prevost’s Theory of Exchanges, and its recent extensions. That Prof. Stokes be requested to draw up a Report on the Present State and Recent Progress of Physical Optics. That Dr. Dickie be requested to draw up a Report on the Flora of Ulster, for the next Meeting of the Association. That Dr. Carpenter be requested to draw up a Report on the Minute Structure of Shells. That Dr. Michael Foster be requested to report upon the Present State of our Knowledge in reference to Muscular Irritability. That Mr. James Oldham be requested to continue his Report on Steam Navigation in the Port of Hull. That the Lord Rosse, Dr. Robinson, Professor Phillips, and Mr. W. R. Birt be a Committee for the purpose of making observations on the Moon’s sur- face and comparing it with that of the Earth. That Professor Phillips be the Secretary. That the Rev. Professor Price, Dr. Whewell, Sir J. Lubbock, Admiral FitzRoy, Sir W. S. Harris, and Rey. Professor Haughton be a Committee for the purpose of reporting to the next Meeting of the British Association, on the Expediency and best means of making Tidal Observations, with a view to the completion of Dr. Whewell’s Essays in prosecution of a full Tidal Exposition. That, as it would be highly desirable that the observations on the Magnetic Lines in India should be continued, His Highness The Rajah of Travancore be requested to complete the Survey already commenced by him, through his Astronomer. That it is desirable that a Committee be appointed to consider the best mode of effecting the registration and publication of the numerical facts of Chemistry. That the Committee consist of Dr. Frankland, Dr. W. A. Miller, Prof. W. H. Miller, Prof. Brodie, Prof. Williamson, and Dr. Lyon Playfair. That the Lords of the Admiralty be moved to authorize some small vessel stationed on the South-East Coast of America to take a convenient oppor- tunity of collecting specimens of the large Vertebrate Fossils from certain localities easy of access between the River Plata and the Straits of Magellan. That Sir W. Jardine, Bart., Prof. Owen, Prof. Faraday, and Mr. Andrew Murray be a Committee for the purpose of procuring information as to the best means of conveying Electrical Fishes alive to Europe. That Sir W. Jardine be the Secretary. That Mr. William Fairbairn, Mr. J. F. Bateman, and Prof. Thomson be a Committee for .the purpose cf reporting on Experiments to be made at the Manchester Waterworks on the Gauging of Water; with power to add to their number. xl vill REPORT—1860. That the Committee to report on the Rise and Progress of Steam Naviga- tion in the Port of London be reappointed, and that the following gentlemen be requested to serve on it:—Mr. William Smith, C.E.; Sir John Rennie, F.R.S.; Captain Sir Edward Belcher; Mr. George Rennie, F.R.S.; Mr. Henry Wright, Secretary ; with power to add to their number. Involving Applications ta Government or Public Institutions. That the Parliamentary Committee, now consisting of the Duke of Argy!!. Dake of Devonshire, Earl de Grey, Lord Enniskillen, Lord Harrowby.’ Lord Rosse, Lord Stanley, Lord Wrottesley, Bishop of Oxford, Sir Philip Egerton, Sir John Packington, be requested to recommend two members of the House of Commons to fill the two vacancies. That Sir Roderick I. Murchison, as Trustee of the Association, and Mr. Nassau W. Senior, as President of the Section of Economie Science and Sta- tistics, be a Delegacy for the purpose of attending the International Sta- tistical Congress in London on July 16. That the Committee on Steam-ship Performance be requested to commu- nicate with the Parliamentary Committee, for the purpose of obtaining their assistance in accomplishing the objects for which the Committee on Steam- ships was appointed. Communications to be printed entire among the Reports. That the Communications by the Rev. W. V. Harcourt, on the results of Experiments at the Low Moor Iron Works, be printed entire among the Reports of the Association. That Mr. William Fairbairn’s Paper, on Experiments to determine the effect of vibratory action and long-continued changes ef load upon Wrought- iron Girders, be printed entire in the Reports of the Association. That Admiral Moorsom’s Paper, on the Performance of Steam Vessels, be printed entire among the Reports. That Mr. Elder’s Paper, on a cylindrical spiral boiler, with comparative evaporating power and temperatures of furnaces, flues and chimneys of various boilers, be printed entire in the Transactions of the Sections, with the necessary diagrams. Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Objects by the General Committee at the Oxford Meeting in June and July 1860, with the name of the Member, who alone, or as the First of a Com- mittee, is entitled to draw for the Money. Kew Observatory. pee oe Da Kew Observatory Establishment ......... a Sth nie Sand Se nt OO ee Mathematical and Physical Science. Photo-heliographic Observations at Kew... .. eee. cece nece 90 0 O TYNDALL and Bati.—Alpine Ascents ........ eeeese008 10 0 O Carried forward i .% ccs cave cele vetenree alana 600 1) ) RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, £ OOS i 2 es eee ere 600 Balloon Committee ...... Li wee =e eer ye peme 0,0) Broun and Committee. —Dip- Bletlogh PA MEE cus sas 30 Chemical Science, including Mineralogy. Marruatessen, Dr.—Chemical Alloys...........0 00.0 ee oe 20 SuLtivan, Professor.—Solubility of Salts ............ meeps. 20 VoeEtcker, Professor.—Constituents of Manures .......... 23 Gaces, ALpHonse.—Chemistry of Rocks and Minerals .... 20 Geology. Matter, Rosertr.— Earthquake Observations ............ 25 Committee.—Excavations at Dura Den ..........00...+22 20 Zoology and Botany. Jerrreys, J. G., and Committee—Ravages of Teredo and EMMI SISSY a 2 OND Pc deo ky 16 oA laid. ciara. bid'g/e 10 Scrater, P. L., and Committee.—Report on Terrestrial Verte- brata of West PCS ae eee deals Sars mane bo Re es 10 MacAnprew, R., and Committee.—For General Dredging .. 25 Ocitvix, Dr., id Committee—Dredging the North and Rast Coasts of Scotland . eran 25 JARDINE, Sir W., Bane mad Ooninilece. Revising iid Ret printing Rules of Zoological Nomenclature.............. 10 ScLArEn, P: L.—Investigation of Apteryx..... sneha ie 50 CoLiinewoop, Dr —Dredging i in Mersey aud: Dee, ss salt 5 Physiology. Dr. Epwarp Smiru, F.R.S., and Mr. Mitner.—Effect of Prison Diet and Discipline upon the bodily functions of BN fe oh Pia Sool oh c'g'a’s sie, nce Cb rece eeveeeweene phatase Geography and Ethnology. Committee for exploring Uriconium...............-. sacs e 0) & Mechanical Science. Tuomsoy, Professor J.—Gauging of Water .......... 0008 10 Committee on Steam-Ship Performance ......+.-... 0.0. 150 Classified Index to the Transactions. Professor Patties (to employ an Assistant) ...........00+ 100 Total,... £1395 O O xlix coooc oo Ores oso i=) 0 coos cook oosco oo OCS Osco 6S (6) 1860. d REPORT—1860. General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants for Scientifie Purposes. i 8s, - de £ 3. d. 1834. Meteorology and Subterranean Tide Discussions ....escscceseeee 20 0 0 Temperature .......0ssssesceee ee 0 1835 Vitrification Experiments........ ot) Ard Tide Di : y 62 0 0 Cast Iron Experiments...........+ 100 0 0 Bete ce NS aiedeatnen se rar tyes Ae Railway Constants ....+.+0+... ses 28 British Fossil Ichthyology .....- 10570) 70 Tid’ ond Sen Revel Ce agreed £167 0 0 | Steam-vessels’ Engines..,...- sees LOO. 20) 0 1836 Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... .. 331 18 6 F : : Stars in Lacaille .......00.....0 soe wile Way Tide Discussions .........seesesees 163 0 0 Stars in BOATS Gataleous 616 6 British Fossil Ichthyology ...... 105) 0, ON ieee a apart BUS eaaies 10 10 0 Thermometric Observations, &c. 50 0 0 Steamtonwines in Gordan ee 50 0 0 Seba on Jong-continued 171.0 Atmospheric Air .........+0008 ee U6) Seg Rain Gauges ...ccesececeeeeees ccveee 913 0 by pH ete nies its . . : apenas fe ee Seep hs Cea Gases on Solar Spectrum ......... 22.0 0 unar Nutation........-scee Poses OO MEO Ss (0 Hourly M lomenl On Thermometers . SCALE EC og, alii) ourly Breleoro On et ee aancneu sees Zucit |p es eS, and Kingussie es : OSS] Reptiles ..scscececcevereereee 1837. Mining Statistics ........s000se000. 50 0 0 Tide Discussions ....s..sseesesseee 284 1 O £1595 11.0 Chemical Constants ....--...++ aes Met an G Tiunar Nutation\ ccccstrspostessenes 70 0 0 1840. Observations on Waves.........00+ 100 12 0 | Bristol Tides..........6. eeeves asaare L000) 70 Tides at Bristol...cccccceccccccceces 150 © © | Subterranean Temperature ...... 13 13 6 Meteorology and Subterranean Heart Experiments ,...0...s.s0008 18 19L Temperature ....scccccessssceeers 89 5 3 | Lungs Experiments ......+++.40 » 813 0 Vitrification Experiments....... .. 150 0 0 | Tide Discussions .........++++94 + 50 0 0 Heart Experiments .........0eesee 8 4 6 | Land and Sea Level............44 Vim Ui Sl Barometric Observations ......... 30 0 0 | Stars (Histoire Céleste) ......... 242 10 0 IBALOMELETS Wavsesoeyoscsssescei se .» 11:18 6 | Stars (Lacaille) ......... COROCR 30 -» 415 0 Bs Stars (Catalogue) ........006 weseacw 264 0 0 eats 1438 Tae = ciseuesecs ececvevemn elo iO 1838. Water on Iron .,....... anpupee eke eee 0: “10'-V6 Tide Discussions ....ss...e0+8 eecse 29 © 0 | Heat on Organic Bodies ...... over! 0, De 20 British Fossil Fishes ....... ses. 100 0 0 | Meteorological Observations...... 52 17 6 Meteorological Observations and Foreign Scientific Memoirs ...... 1921.6 Anemometer (construction)... 100 0 0 Working Population rest eee eeeee ees 100 0 0 Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... wee 60 0 0 | School Statistics......ceeeeseerees ope at Animal and Vegetable Substances Forms of Vessels steeteeeeeeeeeenes 184 7 0 (Preservation of) .......4. vateed 19 1 10 | Chemical and Electrical Pheno- Railway Constants ......... be 41 12 10 MENA . uc escececesecstesecesencescsn 40 0 0 Bristol Tides .....sssseeeceeeeseereee 50 0 0 | Meteorological Observations at Growth of Plants ..... Re amen iene) Plymouth) ccescecsenss a exe ssenetens OOO Mudein URivers: csecssceecsentescevee 3 6 6 | Magnetical Observations ...,.,... 185 13 9 Education Committee .......... 50 0 0 £1546 16 4 Heart Experiments ............... 5 38 O ———— Land and Sea Level............0+ 267 8 7 1841. Subterranean Temperature ...... 8 6 0 | Observations on Waves...... seeeoO ONO Steam-vessels.........ses00+ cectecees 100 0 0O| Meteorology and Subterranean ‘ Meteorological Committee ...... Sp MOL Teel Temperature .......ssessees oe 882-0 ‘RHEYMIOMELErS iesassasessereasspanss 16 4 0 | Actinometers......ecssccssesseess 10 0 0 £956 12 2 Earthquake Shocks .........scs0e 17 of eae, Se | Acrid Poisons...........0005 on siswiewa ~ 162 000 1839. Veins and Absorbents .........4. - 38 0 0 Fossil Ichthyology......... seve sates nl LOM OlaO VINTEC A GEUIVEES uneeesece ee acceses on 5. 0670 Meteorological Observations at Marine Zoology.....sssseeesecees sos elie 2emrs Ply mottthiveecsae’eseesere eee sorte) 60010) 10))'SkeletonMapsi \.c.-..-nssc0seckeed a. 20% 02°10 Mechanism of Waves ..........4- 144 2 0) Mountain Barometers ........... 5 GDL SiG Bristol Tides .....se.ssseeseseeseeeee 35 18 6 | Stars (Histoire Céleste)........0+ 185 0 0 GENERAL STATEMENT. ; 5 C5 aC Beare (Uacpille)Gosesecsscescsseecees 79 SB 10 Stars (Nomenclature of) ......... 17. 19-.6 Stars (Catalogue of) ...........0008 40 0 0 eet ON) LOM esse kecescussesess as 50 0 0 Meteorological Observations at DBEMRESS Eo npeccy ceccserensses tect 20 0 0 Meteorological Observations (re- duction of) ..... miihspisesste sees 25> 7.0090 Hossil Reptiles .......0..sessoseees we 504 0710 Foreign Memoirs ..... Pseanes noses en O2ee0e G Railway Sections .......... eeResia 38 1 6 Forms of Vessels ......0++.. Beesess 1938 12 0 Meteorological Observations at EVTATOY Cll nays ceeeeyscre renee sss 55 0 0 Magnetical Observations ......... 6118 8 Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone 100 0 0 Tides at Leith ...... Eabgasnss seats 50 0 0 Anemometer at Edinburgh ...... 69 1 10 Tabulating Observations ......... 96.33 Races of Men ....,..e0008 ero, ye Oe Radiate Animals ............ oye OLS 0 £1235 10 11 1842, Dynamometric Instruments ..,... 113 Ll 2 Anoplura Britannie .....,. Aneta es Wee a Tides at Bristol............+6+ AAO Re Oe) ea Gases on Light..... Saracen ease oF BULA OF Chronometers ........... areanenaer 2help. (6 Marine Zoology..........000+ recat wl aT RL, British Fossil Mammalia ....,.... 100 0 0 Statistics of Education ........... Fie ZA eeel eat Marine Steam-vessels’ Engines... 28 0 0 Stars (Histoire Céleste)............ 59 0 0 Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of) ...... 110 0 0 Railway Sections .........sss000... 161 10 0 British Belemnites...... “cohecocdcd 50 0 0 Fossil Reptiles (publication of Report) .....,... Re eesee Shalt eld 0.40 Forms of Vessels .........0 aon ses 180 0 0 Galvanic Experiments on Rocks 5 8 6 Meteorological Experiments at HAIGANIOUEN! 55 50¢.20rersccores ah 68 0 0 Constant Indicator and Dynamo- metric Instruments ....... “oe LD UMD Force of Wind ............ cvececses 10 0 0 Light on Growth of Seeds ...... ree MEL REAUSTALISLICS cayi..cssscesccesess fe D0 10-0 Vegetative Power of Seeds ...... 8 1 11 Questions on Human Race ...... 7 £19 178 1843. Revision of the Nomenclature of DETTE esse ccece sce RasedaTecsienne 6 Ate a Reduction of Stars, British Asso- ciation Catalogue ............00. 25 0 0 Anomalous Tides, Frith of Forth 120 0 0 Hourly Meteorological Observa- tionsat KingussieandInverness 77 12 8 Meteorological Observations at MEP DOEN spaces eGeecwcsvieces ee dp” TOA Whewell’s Meteorological Ane- mometer at Plymouth .,....... 10 0 0 Ge ons Meteorological Observations, Os- ler’s Anemometer at Plymouth 20 0 0 Reduction of Meteorological Ob- SET VAtLONS Mew. .ssescecsecavenies we 30 0 0 Meteorological Instruments and Gratuities Brceseujssesnseeiereetase Be Gi Construction of Anemometer at Inverness ....00+0- teeeeeeeeresens 5612 2 Magnetic Co-operation ,,.......... 10 8 10 Meteorological Recorder for Kew Observatory .......s000 ssesensvee 00 0 O Action of Gases on Light . eeseeece 18 16 1 Establishment at Kew Observa- tory, Wages, Repairs, Furni- ture and Sundries ..........+5.06 1338 4 7 Experiments by Captive Balloons 81 8 0 Oxidation of the Railsof Railways 20 0 0 Publication of Report on Fossil Reptiles .......+ Piereeousiscuseseey 40 0 0 Coloured Drawings of Railway NEEHONSepewansarssasaveeersaresss 147 18 3 Registration of Earthquake Shocks ...... aaRevesesesesathesers 30 0 0 Report on Zoological Nomencla- tC Mises css on aspen snes bene® vores) 110/07 0 Uncovering Lower Red Sand- stone near Manchester ......... 4 4 6 Vegetative Power of Seeds ..... 5 3 8 Marine Testacea (Habits of) ... 10 0 O Marine Zoology.....sssssseeees siege LDUGIES Marine Zoology....es.sseeceeseerace 2 14 11 Preparation of*Report on British Fossil Mammalia .........00s.. - 100 0 0 Physiological Operations of Me- dizinal:Agents si,cccsxesssorssse 120) 0) 0 Vital Statistics ......sse.00 paeeecgs ND) ea Additional Experiments on the Horms:of Vesselsipeversssensses0 0 100 Ou 2 Additional Experiments on the Forms of Vessels ....0s.ssss+000 100 0 0 Reduction of Experiments on the Forms of Vessels ....ssseessee0s 100 0 0 Morin’s Instrument and Constant Indicatot) seesse sake nestsaasasane ~» ) 628).14, 10 Experiments on the Strength of Materials; po.esseressae BOcrecsecrem. 0) et MT £1565 10 2 1844. Meteorological Observations at Kingussie and Inverness ...... 12 0 0 Completing Observations at Ply- WAGUUG) wateyentenaaesercscaseses eon Ol 10 Magnetic and Meteorological Co- OPETAUON Wasahaceescgscreeeesan - 25 8 4 Publication of the British Asso- ciation Catalogue of Stars...... 35 0 0 Observations on Tides on the East coast of Scotland ......... 100 0 0 Revision of the Nomenclature of SEATS cans vecsacnetenn se sesexs 1842 2 9 6 Maintaining the Establishment in Kew Observatory ......0...00 117 17 3 Instruments for Kew Observatory 56 7 3 d2 lii REPORT—1860. a) ERAGE £ os. d. Influence of Light on Plants...... 10 0 0) Fossil Fishes of the London Clay 100 0 0 Subterraneous Temperature in Computation of the Gaussian Treland) Wewerssadaessccestasstaee 5 0 0 Constants for 1839.......04+ sneer DORE OO Coloured Drawings of Railway Maintaining the Establishment at Sectionsineciscesocs teste dieorm esse 15 17 6 Kew Observatory ...scosseseeee . 146 16 7 Investigation of Fossil Fishes of Strength of Materials....., asesyesns OO MO haO the Lower Tertiary Strata 100 0 0} Researches in Asphyxia........04- OP liGee Registering the Shocks of Earth- Examination of Fossil Shells...... 10 0 0 CUUAIOS eine steels sslelvsisis cin ve 1842 23 11 10 | Vitality of Seeds .........00- 1844 2 15 10 Structure of Fossil Shells ......... 20 0 0 | Vitality of Seeds ...,...0.... 1845 712 3 Radiata and Mollusca of the Marine Zoology of Cornwall,..... 10 0 0 ZSgean and Red Seas.....1842 100 0 0 | Marine Zoology of Britain ...... 10 0 0 Geographical Distributions of Exotic Anoplura .secoe.eee 1844 25 0 0 Marine Zoology........+++ 1842 010 0} Expensesattending Anemometers 11 7 6 Marine Zoology of Devon and Anemometers’ Repairs ....++.. aod) 2 HOreEO Cornwall ........ssesesvevecesees 10 0 0} Atmospheric Waves .......se0ee.0e 3.3 3 Marine Zoology of Corfu sesinees -«- 10 0 0) Captive Balloons ....... «1844 8S 19 3 Experiments on the Vitality of Varieties of the Human Race GEUSlamecaaactcuusessiedsseseveddees 9 0 3 1844 7 6 38 Experiments on the Vitality of Statistics of Sickness and Mor- Seedseetnecdiirarseterssaccecl GA eimOlr ot) oO tality in York ..,cccsscscensssase sla On 10 Exotic Anoplura ......cssss0e0ce aetholion +10" 40 Fe685 1610) Strength of Materials .......... 100 0 0 ———— eee Completing Experiments on the Forms of Ships .....seeesereeeeee 100 0 0 : 1847. f Inquiries into Asphyxia ......... 10 0 0 | Computation of the Gaussian Investigations on the Internal So for 1882) RSS rorene 50 OOM Constitution of Metals ......... 50.0 ' 0 | Habits ee Sas sssaon 10 ae Gonctanuelidicatociandanioun's Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0 Instrument, 1842 ...esseseeeee D0: 5 | eamne: Zeolasyol ComirallT an eae 2 me i Ca Atmospheric Waves «sss... Peer ie Rs TSE ess MVatalityan SCCds. z.osedscnsensenees 4 7 7 1845. Maintaining the Establishment at Publication of the British Associa- Kew Observatory svrsseeeseere 107 8 6 tion Catalogue of Stars ....... 851 14 6 £208 5 4 Meteorological Observations at Inverness ..... Sponpdoggcd: itacse’ 80.18 11 1848. Magnetic and Meteorological Co- Maintaining the Establishment at Operation... oe reneecenes vee 1616 8 Kew Observatory ssesssecessaees 171 15 11 Meteorological Instruments at Atmospheric Waves ..sseesessees oot OS HORCS Edinburgh ....sccsvseees ieeneeaee 18 11 9] Vitality of Seeds ......ss00008 vat Da NO Reduction of Anemometrical Ob- Completion of Catalogues of Stars 70 0 0 servations at Plymouth ........ 25 0 07} On Colouring Matters v.00. 5 0 0 Electrical Experiments at Kew On Growth of Plants........0000.-- 15 0 O ObservatOry ...cecresssscseceass a AGL 28 £275.18 Maintaining the Hatablishtacatn in ——— Kew Observatory aeaesaiaeemanes » 149 15. 0 For Kreil’s Barometrograph ...... 25 000 F 1849, Gases from Iron Furnaces ...... 50 0 0 | Electrical Observations at Kew The Actinograph ....csscsessreeees ils ete Observatory sae eoy sents ousiccaniiey OO IO mel Microscopic Structure of Shells... 20 0 0 Maintaining Establishment at Exotic Anoplura s.sseecsee 1843 10 0 0 ditto serene aemieaitabicioie sists cosa) OMS Vitality of Seeds.....sssseesee 1843. 2 0 7 | Vitality of Seeds ws seeseees amu Brae Vitality of Seeds ...seeseeeee 1844 7 0 0 | OuGrowth of Plants..........+0+ 5 0 0 Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 | Registration of Periodical Phe- Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0 MOMENA seeeesseeseeneerserenee sees 10 0 0 Statistics. of Sickness and More Bill on account of Anemometrical talitysin) York csstsspeeeeeeee 20 0 O| Observations ......... seeeeeweeens 139 0 Earthquake Shocks ....... 1843 15 14 8 £159 19 6 £330 9 9 — 1850. 1846. Maintaining the Establishment at British Association Catalogue of Kew Observatory ........ secesee 200 18 0 Stars vsessceeevevsveveerereeet844 211 15 0 | Transit of Earthquake Wayes,.. 50 0 0 GENERAL STATEMENT, ase es Periodical Phenomena .,.,........ 15 0 0 Meteorological Instrument, AZOLES wesseseesceecsseenvenscears 2hmei0L. 0 £345 18 0 1851. Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory (includes part of grantin 1849) .........ce0e0 309 2 2 Theory of Heat ..........s0cee0 foe Pe MEA Periodical Phenomena of Animals MUDECIAUIES cy adaeseccccaseceacvece 5 0 0 Vitality of Seeds ....cc.scsscereee 5 6 4 Influence of Solar Radiation.,..... 30 0 0 Ethnological Inquiries ..,......... 12 0 0 Researches on Annelida ......... 10 0 0 £391 9 7 1852, Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory (including balance of grant for 1850) ... 233 17 8 Experiments on the Conduction PRMETEAC Tcadens nas - a Yeh Galyt | inher roe | a My he They i] ate - y ‘ p athe , VGs, Baiiiesls Sor aL: BPA hShe Fie THF re fee wit} u road ats Hind t Veet ope solani MAA odes) nas (hawt: ot Yee ; y yatta: Saree sits 4 Sar Wa cit ye set “Ph haat Va rth . i te ce Ep el? guids SOLAS. ) ‘ big ‘ : ‘ 7 is @ perc ley Pan Rid Sasa - yup Ai : : (le of aati ¥i any. b , j 1 P : ’ i . . “4: . Bie eos : 1 Chitose eines 4 iSéctgrigns Popes nt & ait 4 ison fet oh wil TA roly |b itin- ait). vs ie teroqecmay at. a » CAI a vbiwaper Baw rie , v ‘alileoehs deta ee EY Gh ARP EEG GO" “yi . a aks ' Aayipe toy Snsiih, Ssiy OT Fea Run ed erin cp 2 rl yj ix Anica Shadi ay ears to is wore sali Wie Qadivoetly Gd ies! pe Ha —prue ive : etd sizhe ei ile Hides: Saar emi Vinee ote yx Jie beanies der er dro - ce Wesose ‘ nda eoeg eywojast ¥ aay f uh? Agoryt ical da Agta fl ea ay) i shire ha adear os ivesd ie * vet BS deciti nay org it toes f heonida sae cnet : no wl itt 130s) Morpers linda 29A 0 it WF sae 5 i ia riey * df Wo ols! ue yett Ses wii: ciiiw -pitvewovo} nn} } a pi, i oe PRE HO Doditye. 7 eet a eae a? ha Oy) Pola S rio: ee PAY Bibs Gs 7) OFT} rest Sual gt. Vs + viyt ; i > drcHoleeyye fae bay eb iesgayl $ pil ME aff) BO ere! cd 9 ivttea ni ate SO ORS ave feck tartmet Phenin vr (ed ben. acivete wars W285 “HAMA baisloo iz et ane @dife nts bnew «dtl ee Nh RET ot ge5t PERRO e! hte. ceed yOd gers lirtae. H ace ie tat Sodinar > trv it: 16 Chappe nh Yas $y Paid 2 ee dene te yrs aioe at} sed) Ob: 2twork-e Gad Bir an Sppheals My of of DE 4 vhertéast paras art ele g| fay FE a SEW Tat Oe eet Soe a Gott Seige? ewe: =f scree werent Birt Mdilyid ont: coors SH ee alebgidyNercains ke anit eel at at hsdiit i Dee riqg im “sor ale tok ‘monwyithstet Src yeesrs yd biw ele wor ar wrnaess34) tai Det aw ligt. Bits al go tide iatiow. brivar Sadi tise), oc : = . per WO swe whanipu am ’ ot setae tn W 24st ~m, ~ “ss , r ’ la » ae O18 . P bs hy or 4 im ©. a > ’ i ¢ eo Aes re Pans er Tg thx dhksi ha by ARS > " » La) ee enka ee . 24 ‘ 5. ae Of O& “m3 5 MSs cdpesai é , a ire, \s ~* dit : ° tome’ < ae ’ haps PEO af m at Wile Fe ng > 1, _ Fs _ > _ ' 2 ae ok - REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1859-60. By a Com- mittee, consisting of JaMes GuatisHER, Esq., F.R.S., F.RA.S., Secretary to the British Meteorological Society, &c.; J. H. Guav- sTONE, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. &c.; R. P. Gree, Esq., F.G.S. &c. ; and K. J. Lowe, Esq., F.R.A.S., M.B.M.S. &c. In presenting a continuation of the Reports on the Observation of Luminous Meteors, it will be seen that the work is now placed in the hands of a Com- mittee, and it is with sincere regret that in presenting their first report, they have to announce the loss of Professor Powell, who died on the 11th of June, 1860. The preceding twelve reports were carried on solely by Professor Powell, but from the further prosecution of this labour he felt compelled to retire some little time since on account of failing health, having made arrangements for the continuation of the reports. Within the past year there does not seem to have been any unusual exhibition of meteors, either in August or in November; and there is little to be added to the ob- servations themselves ; in one instance only was the same meteor seen by two different persons, viz. that observed at Wrottesley Observatory and at Baldoyle (county Dublin), on March 10, 1860: this meteor was remarkable for its form and for its variation in colour, as noticed by both observers. It is much to be regretted that the observations of this meteor yet collected are insuf- ficient to trace its path, velocity, &e.; it is scarcely possible that so re- markable a meteor, visible from points so distant, can have passed unnoticed, and it is very desirable that if any observations may have been taken of it, that they should be forwarded to the Committee, for the purpose of being submitted to calculation. M. Julius Schmidt, now of the Royal Athens Observatory, in a communi- cation to M. W. Haidinger of Vienna, read by the latter at Vienna the 6th of October, 1859, before the Imperial Academy, has made some valuable observations upon some phenomena relative to the luminous tails of meteors, of which a résumé is given in the Appendix. An interesting paper has appeared in the Philosophical Magazine, April 1860, “On Luminosity of Meteors from Solar Reflexion,” by R. P. Greg, Esq. ; a brief analysis is given in the Appendix. In the Journal of the Franklin Institute there is a very interesting account of a large meteor seen over a large extent of country by daylight, on November 15, 1859; an abstract of this paper also appears in the Appendix. os 1860. fs B Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. REPORT—1860. Appearance and Brightness and Colour. Magnitude. erent eee ee ee eeee .|Globe form, twice the size of Ist mag. x star, as a spark. 15 21 21 22 23 =2nd mag. * Equal to 2nd mag. teeter nee 6 30 p.m.|= Ist mag. x 211 a.m. Larger than p-m. of a lst mag, star. Planetary m ap- pearance. Three times the size| Orange, Velocity or — F Train or Sparks. Duration’ Peer ee ten enn eee e ee ennee Leaving a streak............ No streak or sparks. Slight streak separate Tne eee eee emma tenner en neee A streak composed of se-|Duration 0:3 sec. = to 2nd mag*...... =tolstmag.x,!Leaving a small mass of|Rapid. orange. and three times path, parate stars. Duratie separate stars in its| O:l sec. track. teen e eee teneenees Lasting 2 or 3 se No sparks .......... severe |Slow. Duratio 2 seconds, { Direction or Altitude. om near # Pegasi, passing through y Aquarii to about 3 Capricorni. om y Aquarii to 3 Capricorni Much red downwards from below Aquarius. oved from under « Ursee Ma- joris, from the direction of y Urs Majoris and fading away 2° beyond » Urs Ma- joris, having passed within 30! of this star. oving horizontally from E. W. and crossing over 2 Urse Majoris. ssed between Cassiopeia and the Pole Star, going towards -E. Its course was a line from Cephei to E group of} Camelopardus, Rete teen een ewenenees Reser reeeeeeeee om the direction of Capella, starting at No. 36 Aurige, and fading away midway be- ween 9 Urs Majoris and Many No. 26 in the Lynx in a space devoid of stars. General remarks. in W.S.W. Moving on a slight curve, The meteors to- night gave a point of diver- gence in Cassio- ela, peia. Increased in bril-| liancy and disap- pearing at maxi- mum brightness. Much cloud. Aurora Borealis. Very bright for its! size. During the evening Aurora Borealis and lightning. At Highfield House at the time there was Aurora Bo- realis, lightning and snow. Lightning and snow. A singular meteor.|Ibid cloud and strong lightning i W.~ and A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 3 Place, Highfield House. ener e neta enee eee eeneneerene One eaten eeeees Diss, Norfolk ... meteors.| Highfield House. Peete e eens Correspondent... Reference, Mr, Lowe’s MS. Tide “10 cil Thid. Ibid. A) Coccusnnacan Tbid. 4 REPORT—1860. Appearance and Brightness : Velocity or ' Date. Hour Magnitude. and Colour. Train or Sparks. Duration. 1859. |h m 3s Oct, 23) 8 1 p.m.|As a spark ............ Small S22. No sparks left............... Very rapid ; almo: instantaneously Oct. 23) 8 32 p.m.|= 2nd mag. «.........\Colourless .../No streak or train ......... Rapid. O-2 sec. Oct. 2311 46 30 |= 2nd mag. *, star-|Bright blue...|A streak left in its track. Rapid. like. 0-2 sec. Oct. 25) 2 O am./= 2nd mag. *......... IBIMOSscc5 5.0052 Withia train - j.ciuess ase Rapid. 0-2 sec. ING Vie 2 Bebw een: 7. cccccecselcotecetoatsesee| cocenacarecatereetlee oan td oat tits on gu ccatoca nse aee URE senha et areeeeel &8 p.m. Nov. 2/12 45 a.m./= Istmag.*, appear-|...........ccc0ec.[escocsscescsccsccenccesscesectes Rapid :...\....:09 ed as a flash, Nov. 3) 2 3 am./= 3rd mag.*......... Colowrless™. |Sireak: oerscjiecevnetoeoee RApIC y easvers Nov. 3) 2 4 am.= 3rd mag.......... Colourless™:*:|Streak Vscc0c:essesesteveee Rapid ....... PP Noy. 13) 2 50 am.'= 2nd mag. «......... pene Fe SELCHK sb ss sapeuersrtertane Very rapid ...... IN OMe S| 2219 AML Ds. veacaeeetanec ss: van Iprilbanta® 30). siissvceveramast aves canst Instantaneous... orange scar- let. BMS LIA svi v0 vasigta tent akd assur aft dprotecgh caxcefuaned eles sect oa op ¥apesetgadare See ai a till 3a.m. Noy. 15) 8 55 p.m.|= in sizetoY¥. Globe Blue, bright Without sparks or train/Slow. Duration meteor. till it burst, then broke) O-4 see. into two or three small fragments and disap- peared. NOW 20) 8 Op iis 5.cecceeacandtee tesco. eee eee ee Ree eee ae SEROPRORSEPEPRY foe cuteagnecssbacs: Dee. 5 5 2 p.m.Twice the size of 2...'Colourless ...|.........s..0se00- Bs ott eenieee ISIOW.....0c000000eail Dee. 5 6 30 pm. = aba heiress Colourless) °F 2\55..ssccseceees coe Pevstsetern sees Eo sowie cam Bec, 5 9 25 ipim.j— Usbanmp.eric.s.-s--|...coecceteeteee es leer Meus sathonc te SEEROOO SEC | ero 4 om A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 5 Direction or Altitude. m / Andromede towards §. 45°. above t Draconis to near’ 7 Herculis coming from the direction of Polaris. assed 15' BH. of bothsand x Ursx Majoris crossing over the star 36 in the Lynx, moving over 20° of space perpendicularly down. erpendicularly down from near No. 25 Canes Venatici. N. about 20° below the Pole Star, ell down from under Polaris at an angle of 80°, and fading away as it reached the Milky ay. m the zenith 6 Persei. erpendicularly down through Cassiopeia. above the N. horizon, seen through a cloud. Poe Pe CREP eee CES C USS eee eee reer er) ell down in N.W. from 20° above the horizon, disappear- ing 10° above the horizon. C Slight Aurora Bo- downwards at an angle of] realis and distant General remarks. lightning. Temperature 24°°5 at 4 feet, 18°°0 on the grass. Many large me- teors, chiefly in N.E towards; Appeared, disap-| peared, and re- appeared four times in rapid succession, but never moved its situation. Lightning in N. at! the time. 12 meteors. Clouds! numerous all Place. Highfield House. Observatory, Beeston. evening and night, and this, added to a full moon, caused most of the me- teors to be invi- sible. Faint Au- rora Borealis. An auroral arch at the time. Majoris only, moving over 5° of space. ell down in W. from the alti- tude of 45°. ell perpendicularly down in §.W. from the altitude of 40°, moving over 5° o space. ~ Tbid E. J. Lowe Highfield House.\Id. ............44. Observer. Reference. Mr. Lowe’s MS. se SAO BEE ROSE Ibid. DOR Sie cece ttae ce Ibid. Capt. A. §. IL/Tbid. Lowe. spare hich board re Ibid. 6 _ REPORT—1860. io } Appearance and Brightness 5 Velocit; Date. Te Magnitude. and Colour. Erain.or Bparks. or reed 1859. | h m Dec, 7 7 Op.m. |Larger than Jupiter,|Reddish ...... Long streak .........06000- Very rapid. D star-like. tion 2 secs. Dec. 14) 9 20 pm. }=2nd mag. *......... Orange ...... Sparks: ...1 cc clbswaavvevenbae Rapid. Durati 2 secs 1860. ans 62! 8 Open: |= 2p dnt BiZ0 Fh... se: 00-|vecns ska hlaess vc) oss snck cans snn4ss chess Faleren tthe Mita eer Ni ieee Jan. 24} 9 28 p.m. |Increased rapidly un-|Blue............ Train of separate sparks.../Slow. Duration ! til four times the secs. apparent size of| Jupiter. Many POA Mron 9) Ol cccssndeccesicdshistcusss{ecctecsossoatontce| dpgosneusG’s phaiteheooscesaesteds|Glaaaineetacsicce tam 10 p.m. Feb. 24] 7 40 p.m. |=Venus .....cscceceeeelecsseceeeceeteoees With Calla ssiecesceonecsvoc|eobynntass ie eneceree Mar. 2/10 40 p.m. |=four timessize of }|Bright ......... Long tail......s.ssesees Wiese BloWisvvssesccey ea va Mar. 10] 8 40 p.m. |= Venus............... Bright as Ve-|Moderate speed, trail oOff.........:.cccsseeeuene nus. Colour} sparks left in its track of Venus. for 3 seconds after the meteor had vanished. Mar. 14} 8 45 p.m./Six times size of Ju-|Very bright, Burst into fragments...... Moderate speed .. piter. almost like lightning in appearance. Red in co- lour. Mar. 21) 7 15 p.m. |= Venus............... IBTignter than... .cs0s.cesesscesdentesse cress SIOW..:casssontagi 4 ‘ Venus. Mar. 21| 7 40 p.m. |= Venus............... Brighter’ thant|s.....:.:.ocssessasaetendtaceses Slow... .. ) wae a “<2 §67 Apyguopy | STW || 9a | ‘AN| 0 ‘qdeg | ‘Sny | Atnpyeune) Aeyy | -ady |-zepy | ‘qagq | wer ‘YJUOUL Yowa TOF coz “soytporay pue saprpog Fo xoaqum yy “AVIIOYNB onsopRyeo, ‘] 1avy, ‘Sain -q'y Ag ,,‘sdoajayy snout] uo suonvasasqg ,, *9 23 A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. ‘soorjou oywatad pure speorportoed snortea osye £ OCgT “TOLMZ Ut yyeysTjasaH UapuOTSsLOJAMyeNT Top UT ONSOTLTRD 8,J[OAA JOpnyy { POgT aoy UETeUNY §Lopusscog Jo oumnyoa peyuermoetddng oyy ur ‘onsopeyeD s,rupryYyD 0} yuewmepddng yyue, oy Suteq ‘onsopeyep s1ysmepsnsog pue ‘Auouoysy aemndog sodery ‘saneywneg pure yozajonty ‘yprumtpg Jo sonsoypRyep ‘sjoday uoreoossy YsHMG {toystdoy [eNUUY fsoylLoajop Jo onFopRyey s~upepyg {suoyoojop Ipequorprey pue pavdoyg ‘vuuatA OY} UL sopAooJoTY OY} JO sonsopeyeD ‘GFT ‘Asojpoxoojop[ s,Mosmoyy, { UeTeUUY s,jaopuesdog {TeuMopr WeoLoULy sWweUr “T[IG ‘ourzesvyy yeorydosopryg uopuoy ‘ Aqdosopryg fo eumor suospoyoryy Sonbiskyg ep yo ormmyg ep sereuny ‘snpuoy soyduog—umoy poyeTpon » Tel 90 OFS 109 SIL OPP ft sypeqe.ag ao ‘soprfog: 69 Lt IST 6L1 O6T OLT |" Sdoaqjout Suyeuojop pur ‘soyT[O1ay If GG SIT 16 101 OTe ae ere * (S[[B} WOAT Lo ot10q8) sozTTOAOW "fk +f. . . . * San | sou qandcuaed Pre a. peal aaonde Sanbane “wo drz98e(q ‘mNSO[ICD §3aIH Ap. “[ aquy, Jo sisf{peuy CL | I8t Ze |oo i#8 (1s [or ie | eo jor 6 ter jez ie (qapojen%) OEST “a'V 07 OORT “a'v wos skepdsrp yetomne Jo coqum yy J a. e = Steen eee Peewee ewer ens eeeces See ee Wee enero serereeneerees (oSvcy) yyuout 8T 816 AL {46 166 jl | 99 |FI |G JF [AT GT JOT | OT ee IOF pepaovaa saxeqs-Sutyooys jo sXvtdsrp yedroutad yo roqumyy 0-961 | STST |] LET) S81 OFT) SET | 227/61) 16 | LOT} #6 | OTT}86 |9TT\ . * TSO TIDUS) 0:96 | SSIT || ILL} GFT} 801) FOT| SFL|S6 | 8G |Z4 | 14 |GL SL | G6 | soprqoq ofdunig 0-06 | 09F |}9G |9E | GE | TE |66 |9E | EE 166 |S |8E |9B | 16 |" be SS OHTTOAQV [RIOT ——s LG | |F 16 IL |e jh je |G IT |B |9 |S Je |r vonsopmep saoneyumeg aq mow ‘gory ure}Ta0uQ “g 10D GOL | 86 | OL |L4T j€T |Ir |8 jst jor |¢ j9 |#r js |8 eee vrs erogjout Burywuojey “9 0-L1 $0G ZL LI SI LI LI 0G 104 & GI SI 91 OL eed Meech eas 3m gis ope pe LAI YS 1 9u0js pu woay 7) » : *ySWOTJVAIASGO OSIUTY LY) FO PAISNIOXO ‘YOST "A'V 0} FRC “a*¥ ' Tosy ‘sapTouRe pus seprfoq Jo endoyeyy gy jomexyeuy “Bay aT TABLE II.—Days of the Month on which Bolides cr Aérolites have been observed and recorded.—R. P. Greg. 24 REPORT—1860. 1 SH OOD 1D Hh 1D HOD OH 9 19 09 OD LD IDNA CD HINO NON SO OD HNN lO AHKHA OCHA RDA MANANAANMH OR AN HAHAHA HIOANIMDOOOAHARANMOWVAMM MAOH 121A HOA = oe | . July.| Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Noy. | Dee. = = AAANAND 1NANOOCHNMAEOANHNAANHHAMAMDOUMWA 3 : m o as) 3 3 . : Z ; EB CODA AAAANTHA POONA AHMOANHOG Fs ENN fo ia) r | Bl acne IMMA aIeD fee imc am mm 2 F see ee a Oa st 500 A160 09 69 OD I OT 69 19 1D sets St NOD dH fie < rill ae tee ae ne ot oP HAH ANOMOANHANAT INHOHOHOHHANAN tin o e ims ie ey Ef OD OO NON DH HD 0D OV 109 OD HID CT OD HY HOD HOD SH CT 3 rt ’ er) e Tid HS SHAS SHAD IS SKHDS SHAH SSK SSH™ a aN oe ee Oe Oe ee Sy ray ay ot oo ot OGG CY CG GU CLES oo, cS) 5 : * orm, ey eee a A Us fat a ered, SG: 5 srt ICY SCs Sire OT as Ba | rh ae ea by Noy. Oct. nq | 3 , : aa one) -, Sans S$ QU Hl SCO sr iCN COGN rsirt (2 CGNs corti 8 rt ee od s|n 8 ep s : Pe ve ae A A ie rin ct} 3 Sia: Koy Whos Tear St Nac ae OL Pea Geers swe cn chee Fig ede = 3 a: =I b Bs a a hrike rea. mune, ° alee im aS} | S SODCDMIIAA 5 § SIMICIQOOM sririrt 3 5 300 rr4 5 3 309 o nas : a) ae) oS i) . : ae 5 5 IHN AAAN PARA HA IAM EP INRA in Pi inn iN mn mI S ; aa =| Pie PINAR INA Pd Ha A PP INRs i iin | 4 3S a | Hin . = 1a : . & | btw: ei) Bsr ee ee Ai .: 22. 40 Total 200 Of these, at the Oxford Meeting it was reported that more than half were either new seeds only just germinated, while for the others they had made * See Reports of the British Association for 1858 and 1859. ON THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 35 so little progress, that we almost despaired of any substantial results under such untoward circumstances. Still, however, we now offer remarks upon some of the more striking experiments, which it may be said are so far com- plete up to November. GRASSES. Sorghum saccharatum (Holcus saccharatus), Chinese Sugar-cane-—The fine summer of 1859 enabled us to grow this plant to a height of as much as 7 feet, as also to perfect its saccharine matter, at least in a very high degree. This success, which was pretty general all over England, had caused very flattering encomiums to be passed on the merits of this plant for agricul- tural purposes, especially as a green soiling food. The total failure, however, of our experiments for this season is not only instructive as to the great diversity of seasons, but should also teach us caution in recommending the extensive adoption of any new plant in our uncertain climate from only a single year’s growth. Our best plants did not attain 6 inches, and indeed our failure this year was more signal than our success the previous one. fgilops ovata.— Although our specimens are far later in coming to matu- rily than in any former season, yet the results are more striking than we have before observed. Even at the time of our writing (November), little of our crop for 1860 has ripened; but the spikes are longer than usual, whilst the stalks (culms) are taller; and added to this is the important result of a show of more and larger grain, of the shape of the wheat grain, so that we have searcely a doubt left as to this being the parent of the cereal or corn wheat. Again, as another evidence of the results and effects of cultivation, we have the crop of this year affected with all the epiphytical fungi to which wheat is liable, and the more so the more it is manured. Gyneria argentea, Pampas Grass.—-Our specimens, one of which flowered most beautifully last year, are all dead, so that however highly this plant may be recommended for naturalization in other parts of England, where the climate is milder, we cannot think it will ever be safe to trust to it on the “Stony Cotteswolds.” Of British Grasses, we have to report that we have had in operation during the present season as many as sixty plots; several of these are only our usual common English species, many of which are condemned to be resown on account of their inevitable admixture. Among the experiments of interest, we have to report the complete production of Festuca elatior from a plot of F, loliacea, in which the changes were as follows :— 2nd year.— Festuca loliacea the rule, with exceptional cases of F’. pratensis. 3rd year.—Festuca pratensis the rule, with exceptional cases of £’. elatior. 4th year.—F. elatior increased. 5th year, 1860.—Festuca elatior has complete possession. In reference to this, it will be remembered that we noted in a former Report the occurrence of F. elatior in Earl Bathurst's Park, which we then conjectured had been derived from the sowing of the seed of FP. pratensis. This year we have further to remark that here the e/atior form is the rule, and scarcely a vestige of the F. pratensis remains ; and very coarse and un- sightly it is as a glade in a park. We have now performed this experiment twice with the same result, and our views seem confirmed by the accidental case just referred to; we have then no doubt that the three forms just adverted to are but varieties of a single species ; and we have much pleasure in observing that our views in this and other cases of alike kind, derived from actual experiment, and reported upon to the Association in 1847, should be confirmed by the D2 36 REPORT—1860. Specific Botanist as thus: under the head of ‘Meadow Fescue, Festuca elatior,’ see Bentham’s ‘ Handbook of the British Flora,’ p.602, we have the following :— “a. Spiked Meadow Fescue (fF. loliacea, Eng. Bot. t. 1821). Spikelets almost sessile, in a simple spike. Grows with the common form, always passing gradually into it. “b. Common Meadow Fescue (F. pratensis, Eng. Bot. t. 1592). Panicle slightly branched but close. In meadows and pastures. “ce. Tall Meadow Fescue (F.elutior, Eng. Bot. t. 1593 ; & arundinacea, Bab. Man.). A taller, often reed-like plant, with broader leaves, the panicle more branched and spreading. On banks of rivers, and in wet places, espe- cially near the sea.” Now, though well aware that these views are not generally shared by col- lecting botanists, we are yearly more and more persuaded that even greater innovations than now contended for y.ill be admitted; and we cannot help expressing pride and pleasure that we should for the last fourteen years have been conducting a series of experiments, many of which practically prove the truth of several of the theoretical views, with regard to what has been termed the “lumping” of species, of the author of the Handbook ; and we cannot here omit expressing our best thanks to the British Association for their assistance in prosecuting these interesting inquiries. Poa ( Glyceria) aquatica.—Our plot with this experiment still continues to exhibit 27 its entire space, without the slightest intermiaxture, the induced form we have before reported upon, which indeed is so different from the original grass, that at a first glance most observers would pronounce it to be large examples of Poa trivialis ; the differences, however, in all parts are as great between our induced form and that grass, as exists on comparing the induced form with the Poa aquatica. There can be no doubt that in this case the cultivation of the seed of a water grass in an upland situation has led to great changes, not, as has been supposed, brought about by cross- breeding or hybridizing, but the seed of the P. aquatica has at once been changed in the growth of the plants that came up from it ; and it now remains to see if the change be a permanent one, to which end we hope to be able to sow a plot of the seed of the induced grass next spring; but in the mean- time it may be well to remark, that although it has frequently seeded, yet that the bed is still free both from innovations from seedlings of its own kind, as also from those of other species. Poa (Glyceria) fluitans.—At the same time that the plot was sown with the seed of P. aquatica, another plot was occupied with seeds of the Poa Jluitans ; and we should remark that in both cases the seeds were drilled, and the drills remain intact to the present hour. Now the result is, that both plots were indistinguishable at the first time of flowering, and have so re- mained to the present hour; and with reference to the last form, it may be well to point out that, having been favoured by Messrs. Sutton of Reading with specimens of the collection of grasses which they keep in cultivation, a bundle marked ‘‘ Glyceria fluitans” is identical with our induced forms from both P. aquatica and P. fluitans. Poa aquatica and P. fluitans.—We offer no explanation of these; being wellacquaiuted with these two species, we can truly say that our induced form is widely different ; nor is it at all identical with any other British species. It is, however, still a matter of regret that we have not been able to procure ripe seed of these species from the district, as, so far as we can discover, none of the P. aquatica at least has ripened in the district. It may be well to mention, that even this shyness in the ripening of the seed of this now so i ON THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 37 emphatically a water grass, is not without value as affording something like evidence that this species is perhaps after all out of place, and this may point to the fact that our induced form is the right one; at all events, it quite determines the fact that the name Glyceria is inapplicable, as it is a decided Poa in cultivation. Crop PLANTs. Pastinaca sativa, Parsnip.—Our ennobled examples of these were con- sidered so perfect, that it was thought advisable to consign the whole of the seed of 1859 to the Messrs. Sutton of Reading, as new varieties of any cul- tivated crop plant is always desirable, and more especially when, as in the present case, the new form has been directly derived, not from a variety, but from the original wild stock. In reference to the continued success of this experiment, Mr. Sutton reports in a letter of October 17th of this year as follows :— “ The Student Parsnip in our trial ground is the nicest shape of any, more free from fibres, and as large as the ‘ hollow crown,’ which is a good medium size. The flavour seems to be very nice.” This is the more important, as of late this useful garden esculent has much fallen into disuse, its want of flavour being the assigned cause. We must not omit to remark, that one of the most malformed specimens of parsnip, and also a highly digitated Swedish Turnip, were set aside for seeding, with a view to sowing next spring in the same kind of plots, as there seems reason to expect that such degenerate forms could only beget a degenerate progeny : with a view then to ascertain how far this degeneracy, or otherwise, may proceed, we first took careful portraits of the seeded roots, the seed of which is now put by for experiment. : Brassica oleracea—Having gathered some seeds of this wild cabbage from Llandudno, N. Wales, in August 1859, we sowed it in the summer of the present year in our private garden, from whence we removed some plants for a plot in our College garden. These, and our own examples, are already highly curious, as showing the tendency to run into so many of the cabbage varieties, e. g. long petioles ; the types known as “kale, greens,” &c., both with broad, more or less undivided leaves, and with a tendency to deep lobes and divisions. Others with short petioles, offer the true cabbage type; while these even now show tendencies for the production of sorts, as flat heads, sugar-loaf, green, red, and white varieties. These of course are what one would expect, but still it is curious to mark its progress. In speaking of the Brassica family, we cannot help expressing our conyic- tion of the justice of including the genus Stnapis with Brassica ; for just as our experiments incline us to the opinion that all our so-called species of this genus are after all only derivatives, so we believe that the Charlock Sinapis arvensis, L. is also an agrarian form of Brassica. Upon this, however, we want the experiments of a lifetime; still these would be replete with interest, and more especially as we find cabbage, rape, turnips, radishes, and mustard almost wholly attendant upon cultivation, and that not only with us, but in every variation of climate. How wild the thickets of Sinapis nigra, some 6 feet high, look on the banks of the Ohio! and yet we have the authority of Beck in favour of its introduction from Europe ; and so we have evidence of the crops in India being smothered with wild rapes, which our experiments show are principally Judbless varieties of the turnip. Mangel Wurzel——The inquiry connected with the growth of this crop is one which may be considered of interest in a physiological as well as an agricultural point of view, and hence we give its results in this place. 38 REPORT—1860. It is tolerably well known that this valuable crop was introduced into cultivation with the hope that it would yield a valuable supply of food in the shape of leaves, whilst at the same time it was supposed to be capable of fully developing its growth of roots, the leaves then being employed for summer and autumn food, whilst the roots were to be stored for winter use; however, we were early struck with the fact, that using the leaves to any extent, would prejudice the crop of the roots, and we therefore twice before the last year instituted experiments upon this matter with a result that may be generally stated as follows. The Mangel Wurzel, stripped of its outer leaves from two to three times during their period of growth, do not produce half the weight of root of those left intact. And herein we thought that we had established the law, that as long as a leaf of Mangel was sufficiently sound to be useful as food for any animal, so long was it of use in aiding the proper development of the plant; but this statement has been controverted by the result of some experiments made at the Albert Agricultural Model Farm, Ireland, where it is stated that the result of taking the enormous quantity of 5 tons of leaves from the acre of a growing Mangel crop, was to increase the weight of roots at the rate of nearly 54 tons. Now, under these circumstances we determined upon repeating the experiments upon a larger variety of Mangels this year. Ist. A set of experiments made with nine sorts of Mangel Wurzel planted with burnt ashes, duly thinned and tended as usual; the plots being 24 yards square. 2nd. Nine plots of the same sorts transplanted. The outer leaves of all these plots were taken off on the two following dates, September 4 and September 21. On the 12th of November the whole crops topped and tailed, consisting of twenty-four roots to each bed, half of which had been stripped of their outer leaves; thus twelve roots each, stripped and unstripped, gave the following results for both the untransplanted and the transplanted plots :— Untransplanted Plots. / Transplanted Plots. Names. Entire. |Stripped. | Entire. |Transplanted. lbs. oz. | Ibs. oz. lbs. oz. Ibs. 02+ J. Elvethan .0......cececcessccvcsessesese 8°10 at ea 14°10 5°10 DopVellow, Globe; .c.testecsec enessvarcses peta D° 2) |: Seale ela 6:14 Be med Glove 087. e lites eset 8 2 CAD OB Vis 3 4. New Olive-shaped Red Globe...... 11:13 7°60) 44 12° 4 5: 6 5. New Olive-shaped Yellow Globe 16°13 12.33 seo 11°14 7°10 6. Sutton’s New Orange Globe ...... 9-5 312.) 6 10° 2 5: 3 7. Improved Long Yellow .........++. 19: 0 Ol | 7.) 1910 We. 1 8. New Long White ......ceccccecssecee es aoe 7 8 8 12°11 7 6 Of SH VSMC ions zetcieen a deed sass cosas 16°15 So @) | 9 15°13 611 OtB eee ppcxsostteeee meee Boner os 114°10 63° 3 121: 4 63° 6 Here then we take these results from so many sorts as conclusive evidence upon this point, only remarking that, in all probability, had the season been one of an ordinary kind, the discrepancy would have been even greater, as this year the tendency of growth has been in favour of leaf development. The same experiments were tried with Kohl Rabbi, and withthe like results ; and it should be mentioned, with regard to all of them, that the seed was obtained from the Messrs. Sutton of Reading, and that it was true to sort. ON THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 39 It s not a little remarkable that in both the Mangel and Kohl Rabbi the results have been greater in the transplanted than in the untransplanted plots, the former yielding a larger crop; this too has probably been favoured by the moist season, but as it is a subject of great farming interest, we shall renew our experiments upon this matter. Dipsacus fullonum et sylvestris.—Our plot of this year fully confirmed our view of last year, as to the specific identity of these two forms of this plant; for without being able to assert that we had decided D. fullonum from the seeds of D. sylvestris, or the opposite, yet the specimens glided soimperceptibly into either form, that, distinct as are decided examples, we were much puzzled in deciding as to the paternity of some of our specimens. To quote from English Botany, 2nd edition: ‘“ Hudson mentions this plant as growing about hedges. Inthe clothing countries, where it is cultivated for use, it may escape from the fields. There is much doubt concerning the value of its specific difference from the D. sylvestris.” Bentham is of the same opinion, so that our experiments in this only lay claim to a simple and practical method of confirming these views. Our notion at the same time is that it would be exceedingly difficult to find a wild example of the true D. fullonum ; that is, one which from its hard re- flexed bracts would be worth anything for fulling purposes. We have hunted long in the districts where the economic form of the Teasel is grown, and we have always been of opinion that where its seed has been scattered and allowed to grow wild, it lost its stiff hooked characters ; and, to say the least, even the best of them merged into D. sylvestris ; the fullonum being indeed a difficult plant to keep perfect, unless under constant change of seed and soil. WEEDS, &c. Thistles have formed the subject of several experiments during the past year, which will be referred to under the following names :—Carduus arvensis, C. acaulis, vars., C. tuberosus. Carduus arvensis.—Our experiments upon the growth of this plant were undertaken in order to explain their method of reproduction, as it had been disputed by the farmer that thistles were produced from seed. On September 2nd, 1859, were sown ten seeds which had been collected a few days previously ; by the 21st of the month these had all come up, and some began to show the secondary leaves, as in Diagram, fig. 1. By the time the prickly foliage became manifest, the cold weather had set in and all the plants apparently died. However, in February 1860 we noticed a bud just emerging through the soil, which induced us to take up a couple of the speci- mens and make drawings of them, of which copies will be seen at 2a and 2b. Here then at a and 6 are buds by which the continuance of the plant is secured, the buds a, 6 forming whilst 5, b are sending up leaves for the second year, so that by June the plants had advanced to the condition of fig. 3, in which, while a strong shoot is progressing above ground, a most extraordinary rhizomation is taking place below fig. 3, fully explaining how in the next season we may meet with a thicket of Thistles derived from a single plant. Here then it is obvious that the conclusions with respect to the Thistle not seeding, were the result of the small and inconspicuous plant which it makes the first year, and this apparently «lying, confirmed this view ; however, we see from this experiment that thistle seed is as fecundate as that of other plants, and as we have counted as many as 150 seeds from a single head of flowers, and as we may haye an average of ten heads of flowers to a single flowering stem, the eight tertiary buds at fig. 3 a, a may each represent a 40 REPORT—1860. flowering head in the following season, which would thus give us the following sum as the seeding capabilities of a single Thistle plant, namely— 150 x 10 x 8= 12000. These figures then will account for the “ Plague of Thistles” which one sometimes hears of, and points out most forcibly the importance of not allowing these plants to perfect their seed, and hence waste places and neglected waysides should carefully be watched in this respect ; but as this cannot adequately be done without compulsory enactments, it is interesting to find that some of our colonies have already instituted state laws with reference to this subject, and during the last Session of Parliament an attempt was made to get an act applicable for this object for Ireland. The destroying of such thickets of Thistles as we have described has ever been an object of interest with the farmer; and it is not a little curious to remark that the operations connected therewith have so much been regulated by rhyming directions, as follows :— ‘ Thistles cut in April, Come up in a little while; If in May, They grow the next day; If in June, They ’Il grow again soon ; If in July, They ’ll hardly die; If in August, Die they must.” These words, uncouth as they are, are still meant to express some important facts in the natural history of the plant. It may be observed that, with the preparation we have described of underground buds, there can be no wonder at the quick reappearance of the plant on early cutting ; at the same time, if we consider that the whole of the aboveground parts of the plants would naturally die at the first approach of cold, we may conclude that the decree of “Tf cut in August, Die they must ”’ is more apparent than real. For while the tertiary buds are advancing to flower, they are also active in providing a still newer growth of rhizomata and buds to perpetuate the continuance of the plant; and hence we have no hesi- tation in saying that never can this thistle be destroyed by late cutting off its aboveground stems. However, even at this time much good may be done in keeping down the reproduction of the plant; for by the August mowing seeding is prevented, though even for this object we should prefer an earlier cutting, as one head of flowers usually ripens at a time, and not all at once. Carduus acaulis—We last year reported upon our experiments with the true acauline form and the slightly cauline examples of this species ; we have now to remark that the acauline examples maintain their normal condition, whilst the cauline ones, from being only about 3 inches high when selected for the experiment, have this year advanced to a complete thicket of stems nearly a yard high, some of which have as many as a dozen heads of flowers, and is a very showy and handsome plant. Carduus tuberosus.—The specimens originally discovered by us at Ave- bury Druidical Circle have now advanced to immense masses, both as regards their summer development of flowers and their tuberous rootstocks; the flowers are above 3 feet high, much branched and very showy, very different from the single, or at most two-headed flower-stems of the ‘ English Flora,’ pl. 2562, which, however, is a faithful representation of the plant we trans« ported to our garden. The tubers with us are as large as those of Dahlias. ON THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 41 We should remark that this year we have a number of seedling plants which have come up wildly in different parts of our experimental garden, which we shall be curious to know if they become like their parents. With us it seeds so enorniously, that it can hardly fail to be a matter of interest as to how this plant, originally noticed as from Great Ridge between Boyton House and Fonthill, Wilts, should have been for so many ycars lost to our flora, whilst its present natural habitat on artificial earthworks, though truly ancient enough, would seem to point to its having been introduced to its present locality. Diagram showing the mode of Growth of Carduus arvensis. } f \ 77 Feb. 17, 1860. } mee ee 3rd nat. size. Fig. 1. Seedling of the first year. Fig. 2. a & b. The position of the seedling plants in spring sending up secondary buds J, d. Fig. 3. The secondary shoot advanced to a large plant, while the rhizome extends and ter- tiary buds a, a are prepared for the following year. Bentham, in his description of the position of this plant, has the following remarks :— “Tn moist, rich meadows, and marshy, open woods, in western and south- central Europe, extending eastwards to Transylvania.” Its position at Avebury is so very different from this, that we cannot for- bear to describe it. Avebury Circles (of stones) are placed on an elevated plain of chalk, around which are elevated mounds or earthworks, the whole ‘surrounded by a broad deep vallum, which is at all times perfectly dry, and it 42 ‘“REPORT—1860. is on the driest and most exposed part of the mounds that the plant occurs. Its change from such a poor position to our garden, which though only un- manured forest marble-clay, is yet moist and stiff, will doubtless account for its wonderful growth. Cuscuta epilinum.—Our last year’s report on experiments in the growth of this Dodder excited so much attention, that we determined upon following out some additional ones in the present season, to which end we sowed two plots with flax-seed, as follows :— Plot 1. Flax-seed perfectly pure—The result was a very fine crop, per- fectly clean. Plot 2. Dirty Flax-seed with some seeds of Cuscuta epilinum infermixed.— This was scarcely half a crop, and the fine specimens of Dodder bearing down the partial crop, is at once an evidence of the mischief this parasite can do to the crop in question, as also of the perfect ease with which we can grow it ; so also how easy to prevent its presence in the flax-crop if we take care to sow pure seed. As regards the Clover Dodder, though this pest is yearly becoming more and more prevalent, yet this season has been especially bad for ripening its seed, and we are still in want of seed for special experiments upon it. Seeds of Orobanche minor have been collected this year with a view to a series of experiments upon it, as the Broomrape, like the Dodder, is yearly becoming more and more troublesome; and it would seem that Clovers are liable to attacks from both forms of the parasite, and in all probability of more than a single species of either; for, as regards Broomrape, we have col- lected the two forms O. minor and O. elatior from different Clover crops ; we still want to know whether the Cuscuta europea and C. Trifolit are specific- ally distinct. Myosotis —We last year reported upon some curious changes wrought in the cultivation of M. sylvatica, in which we gave it as an opinion that the M. palustris of authors was subject to great variations, giving rise to annual as well as perennial forms, the former introducing us to the M. sylvatica and others, as offsprings of M. palustris. Our present stock still bears out this view, as we have as derivatives from MW. sylvatica a still decreasing flowered form and annual and perennial conditions of our varieties. This year we introduced into the garden the very bright blue Forget-me- not of our ditches ; this in cultivation (the same plant) has become the small flowered light blue form which we take to be the M. repens of Don, as de- scribed by Mr. Babington. While upon this subject we must not omit to mention that, having been favoured with a packet of seed from the eminent firm of J. Carter and Co. of Holborn, under the name of Myosotis azurea major, we were much inter- ested in observing what kind of bedding plant it might make, particularly as in the Seed Catalogue for February 1860 we find the following remarks appended to the Myosotis species :— ** Forget-me-not. These beautiful flowers are too well known to need recommendation : will grow around fountains, over damp rockeries, or in any moist situation. MM. azorica and azurea major are the finest.” Of course, from this announcement we expected something rather choice ; but our disappointment may be guessed when we found the result to be a very poor small light-coloured variety of MZ. palustris. Now, we are far from blaming the Messrs. Carter for this, as it will at once be seen that this was an induced form, and no one can at all answer for its permanency ; aud it may be that our position or some new circumstances of cultivation induced the change from an expected fine flower to a very insig- BALLOON COMMITTEE. 43 nificant one. Still this affords another curious instance of the effects of cul- tivation upon this genus, which seem to tell us that we must not be too posi- tive in the specific distinctions adopted by authors for these plants. The effects of the season of 1860 have been remarkable in several particu- lars; we would, however, only refer to a few plants under experiment. Dioscorea Batatas, Potato Yam.—Smaller than ever; cannot be at all de- pended upon, even to make its seed in the Cotteswold district. The Cabbage tribe sadly cut up with us, but the Brussels Sprout was found to be the most hardy of any kind. Gyneria argentea.—Killed entirely, both in the College and our own private garden. Sorghum saccharatum.—Scarcely attained 6 inches in height against 7 feet of the previous year. Zea Mays.—Indian corn not 2 feet high, and died as soon as flowered. Roots of all kinds smaller than usual. Potatoes small in quantity and much diseased. Fruits have not attained their usual size, have not ripened, and are flavourless. Forest trees have made little wood, and their new shoots are not ripened. Garden flowers made little growth, shabby both in leaves and flowers. Plants perfected for less seed than usual. Cirencester, November, 1860. Report of the Committee requested “to report to the Meeting at Oxford as to the Scientific Objects to be sought for by continuing the Balloon Ascents formerly undertaken to great Altitudes.” By the Rev. Ropert Waker, M.A., F.R.S., Reader in Experimental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. {wn presenting their Report, the Committee would observe at the outset that the main object for which the former Committee (in 1858) was appointed remains yet unaccomplished ; and this is the verification of that remarkable result derived from the observations of Mr. Welsh in his four ascents in 1852, viz. “the sudden arrest of the decrease in the temperature of the atmosphere at an elevation varying on different days, and this to such an extent, that for the space of 2000 or 3000 feet the temperature remains nearly constant or even increases to a small amount.” It is obviously important to determine whether this arrest represents the normal condition of the atmo- sphere at all seasons of the year. The ascents of Mr. Welsh were made between the 17th of August and the 10th of November. The question remains, whether this “arrest ” would be observed before the summer solstice as well as after, and whether there were any variations at different seasons. The changes in the temperature of the dew-point, consequent upon this in- terruption in the law of decrease of temperature, would extend our know- ledge of the condition of the atmosphere at such altitudes. To accomplish thus much would not require ascents to very great altitudes, although there are many objects to be attained by ascending as high as possible. The liberal offers that have been made by Mr. Coxwell and Mr. Langley, of New- castle, would enable observations to be made at a very moderate cost, and Mr. Langley appears fully competent to accomplish the task. There are also many other observations which may be made in balloon ascents which 44 . REPORT—1860. may prove of very great value. Prof. W. Thomson is anxious that obser- vations should be made on the electrical condition of the atmosphere. He has described in the article on the Electricity of the Atmosphere in Nichol’s ‘Cyclopedia,’ a portable electrometer, and also a mode of collecting electricity by that which he styles the water-dropping system, which would, in his opinion, be easily applicable. The observations might be carried on, first, by ascending to very moderate heights, and then going as high as possible. Dr. Lloyd desires that observations should be made for “the determination of the decrease of the earth’s magnetic force with the distance from the sur- face.” The failure of Gay-Lussac to detect any sensible change ought not to deter future observers. His methods were wholly inadequate; but Dr. Lloyd is of opinion that if attention be confined to the determination of the total force or its vertical component (instead of the horizontal), it would be easy to arrive at satisfactory conclusions. Sir David Brewster suggests that further information may be obtained as to the polarization of the atmosphere and the height of the neutral point. And, lastly, Dr. Edward Smith and Prof. Sharpey are desirous that experiments should be made as to “the quantitative determination of the products of respiration at different high elevations.” Dr. Smith has, as it is well known, been for the last two or three years engaged in experimental inquiries on inspiration, and he is so satisfied of the value and importance of the investigation, that he is not only willing, but desirous to make the requisite experiments himself. Dr. Smith has furnished directions as to the points to be observed and the mode of ob- servation. Report of Committee appointed to prepare a Self-Recording Atmo- spheric Electrometer for Kew, and Portable Apparatus for observing Atmospheric Electricity. By Professor W. Tuomson, F.R.S. Your Committee, acting according to your instructions, applied to the Royal Society for £100 out of the Government grant for scientific investigation, to be applied to the above-mentioned objects. This application was acceded to, and the construction of the apparatus was proceeded with. The progress was necessarily slow, in consequence of the numerous experiments required to find convenient plans for the different instruments and arrangements to be made. An improved portable electrometer was first completed, and is now in a form which it is confidently hoped will be found convenient for general use by travellers, and for electrical observation from balloons. A house electrometer, on a similar plan, but of greater sensibility and accuracy, was also constructed. Three instruments of this kind have been made, one of which (imperfect, but sufficiently convenient and exact for ordinary work) ‘is now in constant use for atmospheric observation in the laboratory of the Natural Philosophy Class in the University of Glasgow. The two others are considerably improved, and promise great ease, accuracy, and sensibility for’ atmospheric observation, and for a large variety of electrometric re- searches. Many trials of the water-dropping collector, described at the last Meeting of the Association, were also made, and convenient practical forms - of the different parts of the apparatus have been planned and executed. A reflecting electrometer was last completed, in a working form, and, along with a water-dropping collector and one of the improved common house electrometers, was deposited at Kew onthe 19thof May. A piece of clock- EXPERIMENTS UPON WROUGHT-IRON GIRDERS. 45 work, supplied by the Kew Committee, completes the apparatus required - for establishing the self-recording system, with the exception of the merely photographic part. It is hoped that this will be completed, under the direction of Mr. Stewart, and the observations of atmospheric electricity com- menced, in little more than a month from the present time. In the mean time preparations for observing the solar eclipse, and the construction of magnetic instruments for the Dutch Government, necessarily occupy the staff of the Observatory, to the exclusion of other undertakings. It is intended that the remaining one of the ordinary house electrometers, with a water- dropping collector, and the portable electrometer referred to above, will be used during the summer months for observation of atmospheric electricity in the Island of Arran. Your Committee were desirous of supplying portable apparatus to Prof. Everett, of Windsor, Nova Scotia, and to Mr. Sandiman, of the Colonial Observatory of Demerara, for the observation of atmospheric electricity in those localities; but it is not known whether the money which has been granted will suffice, after the expenses yet to be incurred in esta- blishing the apparatus at Kew shall have been defrayed. In conclusion, it is recommended to you for your consideration by your Committee, whether you will not immediately take steps to secure careful and extensive obser- vations in this most important and hitherto imperfectly investigated branch of meteorological science. For this purpose it is suggested,—1. that, if possible, funds should be provided to supply competent observers in different parts of the world with the apparatus necessary for making precise and com- parable observations in absolute measure; and 2. that before the con- clusion of the present summer a commencement of electrical observation from balloons should be made. Experiments to determine the Effect of Vibratory Action and long- continued Changes of Load upon Wrouyht-iron Girders. By WivuiaM Fairsairn, Ksq., LL.D., F.R.S. AMONGST engineers opinions are still much divided upon the question, whe- ther the continuous changes of load which many wrought-iron constructions undergo, has any permanent effect upon their ultimate powers of resistance ; that is, whether a beam or other construction subjected to a perpetual change of load, would suffer such an alteration in the structure of the iron or the tenacity of the joints, that it would in time break with a much less force than its original breaking weight. But few facts are known, and few experiments have been made bearing on the solution of this question. We know that in some cases wrought iron subjected to continuous vibration assumes a crystal- line structure, and is then deteriorated in its cohesive powers ; but we are yet very ignorant of the causes of this change, and of the precise conditions under which it occurs. A few experiments were made by the Commission appointed to inquire into the application of iron to railway structures, to ascertain the effect of changes of load upon homogeneous bars of wrought and cast iron. They found with cast iron that no bar would stand 4000 impacts, bending them through one-half of their ultimate deflection, but that sound bars would 46 REPORT—1!860. sustain at least 4000 impacts, bending them through one-third of their ulti- mate statical deflection. They ascertained also, that when the load was placed upon the bars without impact, if the deflection did not exceed one- third of the ultimate deflection, the bar was not weakened ; but that if the deflection amounted to one-half the ultimate deflection, the bars were broken with not more than 900 changes of load. With wrought iron bars they found no perceptible effect from 10,000 changes of load, when the deflections were produced by a weight equal to half the statical breaking weight. These experiments are interesting so far as they go, but they are very in- complete as regards wrought iron. For wrought-iron bars they were not continued long enough, nor do they apply to those larger constructions in which the homogeneous bar is replaced by riveted plates. The influence of change of load on riveted constructions possesses a special importance, from its bearing on the question of the proper proportion of strength in plate and tubular bridges. Do these constructions gradually become weak- ened from the continual passage of trains? and is it requisite to make allow- ance for such a deterioration by increased sectional area of material] in their original construction? These questions I have sought to solve by the fol- lowing experiments. As the load is brought upon bridges in a gradual manner, the apparatus is designed to imitate as far as possible this condition. A riveted beam is fixed on brickwork supports, 20 feet apart. Beneath this is placed a lever grasping the lower web of the beam, and fastened upon a pivot at the ful- crum. At the other extremity it carries the scale and weights. This lever is lifted clear of the beam, and again lowered upon it by means of a connect- ing rod attached to one of the arms of a spur-wheel placed at a considerable distance overhead. In this way any required part of the breaking weight can be lifted off and replaced upon the beam alternately by the revolution of the spur-wheel. The apparatus is worked night and day by a water-wheel, and the number of changes of load is registered by a counter. The girder subjected to vibration in these experiments is a plate girder of 20 feet clear span, and of the following dimensions :— Sq. in. Area of top: 1 plate, 4in.x}in......,.. Sine. | 200 2 2 angle-irons, 2X2X 79; ........ 2°30 —— 4°30 Area of bottom: 1 plate, 4 in.x1tin........... 1°00 35 2 angle-irons, 2x2x73...... 14 —— 340 Web, 1 plate 155% 4.2.5. sb ds shi. cate eees 1:90 Total sectional area .............0005 ; 8°60 Depth, s,i006 9 ts02 06 Steaebesiniaswcls 16 ins Weight : ~ab.)5.52 pase peep sass oiss)) TD eowk 3.qns; Breaking weight (calculated) Ba sipn. aipisy emai This beam having been loaded with 6643 lbs., equivalent to one-fourth of the ultimate breaking weight, the experiment commenced. EXPERIMENTS UPON WROUGHT-IRON GIRDERS. 47 Tas e I.—Experiment on Wrought-iron Beam with a changing load equivalent to one-fourth of the breaking weight. Date, Number of Deflection 1860. changes of load. | produced by load. Remarks. March 21 0 0°17 » 22 10,540 0-18 i 7 craints O16 Strap loose and failing to lift ; SB Oe bille. eh wile 5 5 é 26 46,100 0-16 the weigt: ‘ania 57,790 0°17 eSB 72,440 0-17 oe 85,960 0°17 25.30 97,420 0°17 ey on 112,810 0°17 April 2 144,350 0°16 ‘ae 165,710 0:18 ee 202,890 0°17 o10 235,811 0°17 ee 268,328 0°17 oe | | 281,210 0-17 3 («17 321,015 0°17 3° «20 343,880 0°17 Strap broken. pH rg 390,430 017 #428 408,264 0-16 io. 28 417,940 0°16 May 1 449,280 0°16 a. Se 468,600 0°16 ee 489,769 0'16 ae 512,181 0-16 Bald 536,355 0°16 ue 560,529 0°16 5 14 596,790 0°16 As the beam had now undergone above half a million changes of load, that is, it had worked continuously for two months, night and day, at the rate of about eight changes per minute, and as it had undergone no visible alteration, the load was increased from one-fourth to two-sevenths of the statical breaking weight, and the experiment proceeded with till the number of changes of load reached a million. Tasxe IJ.—Experiment on the same Beam with a load equivalent to two- sevenths of the breaking weight, or nearly 33 tons. Date, Number of Deflection 1860. changes of load. in inches. Remarks. May 14 0 0-22 In this Table the number of i elo 12,623 0°22 changes of load are counted me ay 36,417 0°22 from 0, although the beam had — , 19 53,770 0°21 j already undergone 596,790 a 22 85,820 0°22 changes, as shown in the pre- » 26 128,300 0°22 ceding Table. » 29 161,500 0°22 » 31 177,000 0-22 June 4 194,500 0°21 mt fF 217,300 0°21 e 9 236,460 0-21 s 12 264,220 0-21 » 16 292,600 0°22 m. 20 403,210 0:23 The beam had now suffered a million changes of load. 48 REPORT—1860. TaBLeE IJI.—Experiment on the same Beam with a load equivalent to two-fifths of the breaking weight. Date, Number of Deflection 1860. changes of load. in inches. Remarks, June 2 7 0 Sy 2S 5175 The beam broke after 5175 changes with aload equivalent to two-fifths of the breaking weight, although with lesser weights it had appeared uninjured. Summary of Results. Ratio of load | Number of | Total number aes Table. | to breaking | changes with | of changes of een me Remarks. weight. each load. load. 16 1:40 596,790 596,790 0-17 10F 1:34 403,210 1,000,000 0:22 III. 1:2°5 5,175 1,005,175 0:35 Broke. Since these experiments were made the beam has been repaired, and has made 1,500,000 additional changes with a load equivalent to one-fourth of the breaking weight without giving way. It would appear, therefore, that with a load of this magnitude the structure undergoes no deterioration in its molecular structure ; and provided a sufficient margin of strength is given, say from five to six times the working load, there is every reason to believe, from the results of the above experiments, that girders composed of good material and of sound workmanship are indestructible so far as regards mere vibratory action. As the experiments on this important subject are still in progress, we hope to bring the subject more in detail before the Association at its next Meeting. A Catalogue ¢f Meteorites and Fireballs, from a.p. 2 to A.D. 1860. By R. P. Gree, Esq., F.G.S. 1. Turs Catalogue is intended partly as a sequel to the Reports on Lumi- nous Meteors, now continued for a series of years in the volumes of the British Association Reports, and partly as a continuation, in a corrected and extended form, of a Catalogue of Meteorites published by the author, in two papers on the same subject, in the Numbers of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science for November and December 1854. 2. The following works and periodicals have been consulted, viz—Thom- son's Meteorology, 1849; Transactions of the Royal Society ; Nicholson's Journal of Natural Philosophy ; Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy ; London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine; Brewster's Encyclopedia, article “ Meteorite ;” Annual Register; Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal; British Association Reports; Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy ; Spurgeon’s Annals of Electricity ; New Edinburgh Philosophical Journal ; Partsch’s, Shepard’s, and Reichenbach’s Catalogues of Meteorites ; R. Wolf’s, Chladni’s, Boguslawski’s, Quetelet’s, Baumhauer's, and Coulvier- Gravier’s Catalogues ; Dr. Clark’s Thesis on Iron Meteoric Masses ; Poggen- dorff’s Annalen; Annales de Chimie et de Physique; Comptes Rendus; Trans- actions of the Imperial Academy of Arts and Sciences of Vienna, 1859-60, papers by W. Haidinger; Transactions of the Royal Academy of Brussels ; Quarterly Journals of the Natural History Society of Zurich, 1856; Die Feuermeteore insbesondere die Meteoriten, &c., von Dr. Otto Buchner of CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS, 49 Giessen, 1859; Lithologia meteorica del Profesor Joaquin Balcells, Barce- lona, 1854; Report on Meteorites, by Prof. Shepard; Reports of the Smith- sonian Institution, United States; Silliman’s American Journal ; as well as various private notices and public journals. I have likewise to acknowledge the kind assistance and valuable information received from Herr P. A. Kessel- meyer, Dr. Buchner, Herr W. von Haidinger, and Professor Heis. 3. The few abbreviations used in this Catalogue speak for themselves, and hardly need explanation. Where weights of meteorites are stated, it is gene- rally intended to denominate lbs. Troy, English, though sometimes the Vienna or Prussian pound has unavoidably been given. Tables of analysis are added at the end of the catalogues. Genuine cases of stone- or iron-falls and de- tonating meteors, are marked with an asterisk (*), and in the Tables count for 1; doubtful cases are marked in the Catalogue with a (?), and count as 4 in the Tables. The numbers in some of the Tables, it will be found, do not quite agree with those in the corresponding Tables given in the Report on Luminous Meteors, in the Volume of the British Association Reports for 1860, owing to the circumstance that when that Report was presented at the Oxford Meet- ing the present Catalogue was not then quite completed. 4. A few remarks are added to the Tables, which do not eall for much comment in this place, as they have mostly already been alluded to in the aforesaid Report. With regard to the November period for shooting stars, E. C. Herrick, of the United States, considers it to be advancing into the year; in A.p. 1202, it occurred about the 26th October; in 1366 on October 30th ; so that the motion of the node of the zone or ring which furnishes these shooting stars, is at the rate of 3 or 4 days a century ; the period itself being a recurrent one probably of about 33 years. (See Silliman’s Journal, No. 91, p. 137, for January 1861.) 5. In the Catalogue itself great care has been taken in separating the dif- ferent kinds of fireballs and aérolites; hitherto this has not been done with sufficient care, and large meteors have not unfrequently been called aérolitic, when not even any detonation has been reported; examples of this not unfrequently occur in the catalogues of Baumhauer, Kamtz, and Arago. Dr. Buchner of Giessen, and P. A. Kesse!meyer of Frankfort-on-Maine, will, I understand, shortly bring out catalogues of aérolitic falls, where details in matters concerning original authorities and geographical distribution, &c. will be given very fully. In the Tables at the end of this Catalogue, Class A includes only cases where stones or irons have really fallen; Class B, meteors accompanied by detonation ; Class C, first-class meteors mot accompanied by detonation ; this class includes all fireballs given in the catalogues up to the year 1820; after that time, only the most remarkable ones, as in consequence of the subsequent greatly increased number of observations from about that time, it is evident the described fireballs would probably be of smaller size than for older ob- servations ; Class D includes all fireballs mentioned in the catalogues and supplements, large or small, where no detonation was reported, and of course includes the C class. The Tables are so cunstructed, that a glance will suffice to show the results as regards numbers and dates, and the proportion which one class bears to another; some of them will be found to be not without some interest. Note—— Wherever the words “ Stone-fall” or “ Irou-fall” occur, it may be understood, as a rule, that such phenomenon was also accompanied by a detonating fireball, or at least by a detonation. 1860. E REPORT—1860. 50 gi anorg “astou a @ Aq pamoypog ‘Teqary “[TPJ-9U0IS "IGG “a'°V 10 ‘[[vJ-9003g *[1e} ouryuodaas £ pat 0491p “MOTYLUOJIp pure Tego. “opp “109}9U Suyeuoyep v § (EG “a’v 10) 2 0991p “Ayquqord 4svj oy} sv ameg 0991) “pepSeg 0} 44Sno01q sau0j}g “£68 “a*V 10 ‘0941p *(488 40 ¢gg ‘a'v) OVP “T1eJ-9u04§ “partes “Treqo.y “0771p *[[af souo [jews Auvur { 0791p “0941p “o}NIp *[[2} S9U0}S [PADAAS £ [][VJ-9U0}S “0701p “o7VIP 0331p ‘uOTyeUOJap pnoy v Aq paMoTfo} ‘0941p “qystAep = * yreqaay "T[2F souoys Auvut ‘0441p *(Kmyuao 449) 0991p “oWIp ‘0941p UdT[eJ IO 9U0}s UOMTMOD v ‘OSeAy 04 Surpxodoe !{ 0941p ‘aeypid J “0731p ‘oVIp “OFFI “0741p -£1nyuad 4sIy 94} JO JyeY ysIy ay} BuLmp £ 0431p *[[UJrauojg “oy ‘syIVUD YT weetereee ee eeeeene seeeeeeee eereeeeee wees wees eeeeeeeee eeeeerees weeterene eeeeeeeee “moy ‘ayer mworpean¢y eeereeewe “a'S'S 07 “A'N'N “N04 °S weeeeeeee sereseeee aeereeeee veeeerens weeeerene “moto = - uns = seeeweree oy tp 0131p oBuvy ween eeewe ee eeteee oo ewe eee eee eee nee eee ee ren eaeree eee Pred eee weeweseee seeeeeree eeeteeuee eevee ees oyIp op aBuv] eee eweeee weseeeeee weeaeeree oserneeee ee eee seen se eeseeee “qySIOM 10 321g seeeee wteeeeee i psine apn sles tie eats ake eps ae ys eeteewas +0 ones oenes Sunqssny becew cess cnveceesassewstens qd ky ~~ Apeqy “uae Ny peecwewee tees ealyg *R0109 |eeeeereseeeeceseeeeeeeeres® TUSTLY eruejodosapy ‘peqy-pomyy Free aS oclein oSRin quia. sctme ee Ne eum, ueder ewe eeee wee adiag ‘ 2 Upramog wee ¢ QOURAT wwee ee eee é seeveeseetesseners ATOXES |eeeeereeeeeecereerens ueysoy seg Pema n et eeeweeee é |rorseceecomereecoaserweerts BITTIO * op seeeeeeeee Z ofgtp |rtteeeereeereeseereeeres 2 Q0URI| eee eet eweeee wiqeiy ‘rapuog |rreseeeeepssourg avau ‘eLtg steerer BOTITY meee QORIULL, * gdournueisiog Peeer eee eer eree 0341p seeeeereieeetteeeeereeeee — OITD ee eee een eee eeeeeeaeense reese 03}1p |oseeee Pewee hee eeeeeeee eunyg *Aq1[eOOTT ‘O98T “a'V 0} Za" WO ‘soplog pue soypo1gy JO ensopeyey ‘ait 10 Ayn t 2) o a (Me he he Ae Oe Oe ‘ o Oe Ae Oe Le Ae Ae Oe Ae Oe Ore eg *016 986 *OS6 * 666 * 126 * C06 2168 *668 *988 *'9G8 “68 168 * 628 * 68 #059 *919 206% #18 *°G8G “F8S * OLS *0GG «TBP *OGP COUP * ESE OTE * PST *90T wOS=E #'Z 'a'V ABO] 51 “20URISQNS SUTMOTS Vise PUNOAS 94} WO puNo; udeq aAvy 03 pres au aSuey A19A ¥ puv‘uaas sivqs Jurjooys Aue 'FEOL *A*V 10‘(4sT 10) qIOTTWdy *E6E0T p "val0D ur ‘arjsueoyy ye $ ¥/COT , "POST ‘I 19q0300 sv oues ATquqord $sumoj]epueA ecoeT 3 ‘sndny to Ae "ZO 10 1Z0T a ‘roneyuneg "eT[uyrauojg| cteereees tawmeaigue oitetsh adie reeeeceneneeees Soi i “ROL ‘asIou 4vaIi8 pur yYSY oWoojaut| ** a aFIey] seecevoereneacoovrrrs FOOD0IOM|''' OF INL] *®GZOT "2 OZ8I {CH vIsiaq) Trerouoyg| + . eeevecces oe om sess coveee pOELTTT ‘Sny x0 Aqne “1Z0Ta “HOOM BY} URY} ADWYSIIq! ,C¢T yvoays “M 04 “SL oBrey verses Ff OODOLOTA|"** OT ABI] ~ "SLOT. *(rysMefsnSog ‘ ¢ tag uvidse9) ¢ [[ej-uory Serre r ee eeeeees "SqT 0002 seer eta vipuy “weliolg ery Q *600L “Tpeqary| ostttsees ee ooeaibe « Wettteeeeeeeneawereres 2 QOUMAT| 09] ys ae *(onoyeyeQ sraneyumeg) toojam omyorae) trees aoe sca uooul = sotteenereesecoceeres HODDOLOMT|’** FT IUOS) ZOOL e . 2 “[eqoay weenenene errr Ts é jews 62 “ABN ‘0001 *(g doquisoaq]) [re Ary pur Treqauy 1860. REPORT “TeQeay, *TI8J-90035 $ 1osjaW Suyeuojop *ouIp *(stutg 4B Wes Osye) [[Vqory *g puNog IO [Jay £ []VF-U0I] “[PJ-9U01S *[[eJ-au0}S *onIp *TRIVAVS £ OIIP “OZGT Awak ay4 at0zaq £ 0941p *Sq[ LZ 0} [ WorJ [eraAas £ 0941p *SQLOZT AUlos ‘udT[eF VaVY 07 Pres YOST | [1ef-au0Ig ‘Sq, § 0} “q] T wor Auvtm £j[eJ-au01¢ *qxou=sdeysod £2 []vJ-au0js TeQory “yey A[uo syuryy tupepyg —“yyeqaay +2 Auwnure yy9g § Sau04s 9a.1y1 £ 0941p é‘W'd Z% $9U0 aBIv[ ONO | [[RJ-9UN0}5 *[[BF-2u0Is ‘oynp ‘op *[[9J SAMOS VTuvl OMY £ []VF-aTO0Ig “Oy}Ip “Weqaty “eoy ye amty-ABp { sauoys ARpNoIsaA 4yySt, Aue “oyp *T[eJ-9u0IS *[[eJ-uo.] *T1eJ-2U0}S “Teqoay *[[BJ-au0s "OVP “eqe1g “OFFI ‘av 30U ‘OFET ‘a'y [Jo aUO {]]eJ-aU0}g *(sanesyuneg) ¢ o11[O198 *(anZojeyep sroneyuneg) o1W1[0198 “[[Bp-9U03Sg “TeQeay "2 ArenIqey IFZ = *Tyeqoay *O7g ‘SyAV UY nn WV ZG eetewerre ‘WV 6 wy FT seeeneees wee ee tenes eeceeeree peetereee sen eeeene se eeenees ee eeeeeee weet tteee ‘mmoy $ 97VI $ uOIyeanqg Beeeeeeee seeeee “MH OF "AA eeccereee peeteeses eeseereee seeeeeeee Bee eeeeee waeeeeree we eeeseee seereeeee we eeseees ee eeeeeee Pre Corr errr eeeeeeeee st tewees cceeeves eeeeeceee Seeresees eeteceses seerseree eee eeeeee *MOTDaII(T uoow % 0411p a31e[ weeeeeree Porseceee ee eeeeene JS4L 06 adie] “Sql 022 seeeerees eet eeeeee eeeeetens weareeons seeteneee oeetetees eee eeesee eeeeteres “QUSIOM IO azIg — eeesee suoyeyg Auoxeg ‘eisuunyy, veeeccece eiSurnyy, *pjaysueyy pepesinatestrensdsesr ss BINGO reer errr ry Ipeysisq[ey Hreteeeroes Kuoxeg JounaN reeseeeeeeeeeseerseeesrnee BUY) see teeeeeeee aourty ‘ulsnoulry tetevecorsereeeeevees FINGSSNY eice(Ss eeaeuaecee uredg ‘uoStary| eteeeeteeuseeeeserreees grogentg Saneoeastanessheanewessc'ees//UthT)| : euIYyD ‘eNpqyY aA) Alea] CN *euaig * Bupry “Ulaon'y| Sroquounyy eusewoy ‘vuasag pescacesnie tee oT BHUT “Wa YsIsuyy) teereeeeseecees KipaT oN “BMAD phcpsian ects ecees em Tt ey ‘uvu-OF srreseees praatog 10 AUOXeS| Heese eeereeeneraee Ayu ay Oq.19IT A seseeeeeeeeeeeeeneeees QOUD LT teeeeseeeeeeeeertseetees grip medg ‘soding Setteeneereererrees BABE JoAoueyy ‘uapuryy | * Sanquaplo *QALYSY.10 J | *A]R 9] * Bug! “-O9NIp, sieteeeteeeecees (mT sereereesers IOUT BIS ‘UIPTY| Peer etna nreeseeeeessssetees BISATIS saeeeee sestegnnseseseenesven UBITIBIIOW ARCO RG IO ECROUHIS eH Han Capit Sevcoeaeiees ror Os “Aqyvo0r] see “Ie WW 1 Avy “AON I *99q @ vady é FI oune 82 Tudy 62 oune Avy Sonuean aa. 8I “AON 22 “ydag mea. 9% Me the I Avy Z IL ‘Sny 0G WO) < et Aine 6 ‘ur Zz Avy 9% “42,1 “qjuoUr jo Avq "POST *ZSSL * BPS La "LEST *GFSTp * a *'8ZS1 * “OZST cous *9IST *TISL OST “66FI 2 *O6PL *'COPL * *TORL * O8FT *FLEL ‘SOFT | * SEF *1ZFL *6LET *B9CL * 09ST "FOEL *BCCT "ESET "2ceL * OFEL COEET a * BEET “CZEl "LOT ——$ —_——_—_ "ARO A CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS, ‘S(T OOT Inoqe Tove 9014) “tauoIy uvtsyg oy} UO ‘zoyRINy IY “4snSny Jo pug *[[9f Jsnp par pue yortq sAvs yunoooe au0 [loJ sau0js SI9T ¢ anso]eye9 Sloneyuneg 0} Surproooe “orpporge fuapsaA ‘ey Joquieoaq xggcT 1 “TUpr[YD 0} Surpsooor “Tey [nJyqQnog °g Arenuee eZsCT y ‘aytuajoul [njyqnop £anSor “e129 sloneyoneg 0} Zutpioooe ‘oyyo1gy “Fz raquiaoeq €O9ST 3 ‘BUUATA 0} JU9S B1OM YOIYM JO INO} ‘LOYISIOG UL Za[OYSt 4¥ [Lay S9U0IS BFIV] OALT “LG/T ‘taAowyassay 0} Surproooy *havSunzy *'GGST 3 j Pooyq pazejnSvoa arty 41 TWOAZ U9T]LJ ALY 0} Plvs doULySqus vf eIsuLMY], ‘9 AIqWaAON * RECT 5 “TYSMU[SNSOg 0} Surprooov QFE, “AuOXeg ‘RMD *'CFCT p *punord atj} O7UT s[ja OM Suttaquo ‘fa11eq v Jo azIs ayy 9UO “Ud][eJ DAVY 0} ples sau0js ‘wA04s[IVy v Suing “gz dy , SnY vee a dy 68 “AON e999 fe ose og “rep =f Sar “" 7g oune 5 see 6 ady nee pz ey "* 8T ‘AON “qyuour jo seq * 8697 *LE9T “POOL *SO9L “IVI 55 CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. “‘suoljovsuery, Teormdosopiy 909 *10J PAyOo] sauo}s ou 4nq ‘punoxrs ay} ur sojoy deep Auem Sunyeur ‘Tjaz Apoq Aroy oie, fvorewmer ‘eZo, el op oer ‘yg ‘uuMynY *OOLT OGY «FIOM » “S*N WLZ 10 ‘young ‘aurog *3 /T eq ‘GT APN * ‘arqtjosse Atqeqoad *j10da.a pnoy & Y}IM 4SAng {1oajoUN VpquyIeMIt WV 869T s Bos ou OJUL [[aJ JI UTM pAvay pUNos Surssty : OF OF YSty sapiur FZ WOT f u10yZoT pure viqvure(y sv [jaa sv “aap ‘eysutdog “("g °O I8TZ) TE URI *9L9T 2 ‘90U0 9U04S B {; BOIIAUIY Ut ‘44A0Janboy ye 4yvYz poyzeys OS|¥ ST 4] Qouvly ut Atqeqord ‘y10Jotpoory Yor pojejs yOu st 4t $ yLOFayOoY x2 F9T - "ot TaN “2 Aine MIGI 10 OZ ouN *E99T p *pasnjuoo ATyUaptAs syunod0y “ggg ‘d ‘OEQT OF UNMUIYZY 99g “AOJOUIVIP UI 499; G Jo soy v apeM 4say Suravy ‘Ur SUTTeF Foor ayy Aq WaUI OM} paTfly pue 95e4709 v Jo Joor 944 YSnoIy} oy "78800 JSOM *OBIN) PUL BJO WaaMyoq *ZL JOquIDDa([ 4 “QOUIAOIY UI UOSIVA JUNOP UO ‘GZ IEqUIAAON’ *'GEHT 10 LEOT , *(, ACW WSL {2 AvP WIZT) Woour sv yyStaq ‘0331p *sSoUIadYG IAOqe saTtut Qe ‘]Teqory “TIeJ-2104g “Te qeay; ‘[eraaag “gp “d ‘gZgr “MTA “Ytopusddo,g £ [[¥J-2M0Ig *EdyTorge £ Lo0ajaut 8.1] “Teqary, ‘aUO ABIR] Bf [[RF-AN0AGg ATVI] *TeAVANS £][eJ-aU0}g ‘(Tupelyg) {uoyeuojop Aq pomeduooor qeqory *(andoyeye9 s,ranequneg 0} Surpr0oor) o191o198 *sprvmiaqje uotyeuojap { aprjoq yuRTTTLIG *ouuTp “Teqary “YSIY Saptur QE {poystuea Aypenpeas $f 10F ArvuoTye,s *o9ytp “0391p “op Teqory “0371p ‘soovfd Anew ye woes { 0991p “0730p é"S ‘O ‘Ae page ‘Treqory *a8a[[09 weysary Ivau [fay [eA9Aas { [[eJ-aU01g "(ST taquiaydag) o491p ‘Treqaay. *Auoxeg Tay} [eIdAVS $ [[vjJ-au09g *yeOq & OZUT [AJ £ [[BF-9u0Ig ‘oqp RaeRe UOLUOJap { LOISIOD AVOU vas at} OFUE TAF : “opp searerees ‘W'd G "Wd gy ‘Wd GC sever enee seeeesoee eeveveeee eenereeee Sumdao seeteeees Wa J. fer ee eeee Seeeeesee “MN 04 ‘S'S ee eeereee seeeeeeee eoerevere "M04 °S eoreeeeee eeeeeenee eoeeeeeee Se eeeseee *M.09°R eecoveeee aSIe] sroesees TBySULION fspaaq|''’ QT ART ‘OLLI ddeseeue Heerentesaenreneeesseesers normal"! £ ‘0aQ] “G0ZI eoererere Pe ccerecccccccetseves SsouIIOYS see Te Aine *SOLT "Sql o£ “ereeereesespTuOpaovN “essueq|"*' £ ounr) * eoorereee Cerny puepsuq eee 0z “IRIN “OOLT Oeereeees COOCCEECECEOEET sit f= ‘puojaoieg oe CZ 29q x FOLT sensor eee POOP Peete ewer eteanees voreule sr eee nUngny % 3 eeeeeeeee HOP e meee eeeeeeeeeee Apueuio Nn see L uee ‘OOLT fees * auieg ‘uasuTyeay|'** 6T At] *'869T3 eeeeeeeee ee eee eUdIg ‘eutjoqueg sae eT uee */69T Oe eeeeces teeeeeees AreSunqy “IASOWA J, Soar “dy #2691 @eorerere Aaa ages tte mie 10 wee a “ae *069T verre SaqeTS pau “WOysog|""* — 300) *'689T waco eees eee eeeeeeesene UNO |T] vee LT “ady} “8891 ee eeerees Oe PCP ETOP Cece errr rer Sue nae 22 AvqN “1891 uoou $ srreseeesens Sizdiary ¢Auemmay|** @L Ane} “989T . . es Bevpasvocsssccects Auewey)*** raG ‘Shy "S891 i - tewenee Aurqyug see Lt eeeeeeene eee tee eeroeesrssccene 9qe3so}404 eee et "KON eeeeeseoe penseonsepecesaccerse she RO GOUnY wee 61 Ae "F891 reseasereessensensecenes! gaummmiongie 2 ott ve Kuvaayi* =e AV) "Z89T |) seewienle Heteeereresereerererees DUBEMOD|"* £T ‘90Cf } evcseccee eriseoseceporrec ences “MMOS IAdtaty coe T aune eee eee ereer err ery Tir uopuoT eee ST At IN ¥089T ( sees See snaepy see 2 ydag ceesemnns eres queT-uo-sz0jyuRAT |" 9 “qa ‘gsot | seeeeeree Se eee eer ereseceeeees Jlopuowag owe az Aen) *#LL9OL veers riseseestenseeeeeneenene gQUITTC)|*** 2 a ! eer puepsug | veeumeme vireteeeeesees ouptorng, aqttoyy|"** uoou— Sm BATE T\Y Soe een BIMSa[qIS tet eeee [eduqi0g RURAL ‘UOTUuIsio.1y *pUuRLIOZING * qpar3pnys steeeeeeereeseeeeeees DUBTLOZTING seereees odoing *N S$ pueysuyy|* seneeeeeeeeeeevees WOTINT £ Ayr] seeteeees os saIpuy qseny ‘Ay 0'] sereerees BIINOYOR § Stmsalyog tersssererercseesversess Kousondy Fe eee eee e ewer tees ereseee AueSunypy ttteeeeseeeresesereress DUB TUT vereeeees DTUTIIMUO ‘UITTIYIS tetesererres UDTINT PUB IULIG teeeee eee *"HURLIIZIIMG See cceeccetescesereeece “* UOLIMN 7 *£41[200'T aYSpIO}XG ‘ArnGxty) . : ae PP xossy Pvojqsye yy eee nee BIMOYO, ‘Z}IMoosatq\*** 6G NN MiMwWOangaaaae Ha NN te] Con FZ “LN OL ‘sny p ‘ure é 9 “IRIN It ‘dy t ‘~O Il 1g “AV “qqyuouL jo Aug ve “6321 “BaLT LOLI “9SLT + Pp CSL “I6LT * ° “6ILT {Stl lq CLILTe “OLLT *'GTLT *PILT * TILT "Iva es see ee ee een! er Ade ERE he RR Ve aM a ee ae aS “OLLI 103 A[quqoad arom ynq { zeLaumpassay 0} Sut */G OJ YJUW9Z 9Y} UI WIAs SOUIeTY "ZZ 19qQ0I0Q -*CZLT p re “plone ‘/ TZ] AOF YLASTUL B SI 4T £490II09 you st sty, “AIeZuNFT ZOPLT ¢ > “YSit] sap Gz AALS yuUNOION JOYJOUY “puod—as & UI SaTtUT ce) “44 3!ay vers B 4e papofdxa pur ‘yorq popunog uayy ‘urese SGq="a {+p 4aaFQ008 ‘uses ys.1y UDA YSIY saptut OCT 3 41 pozernojeo Adley papusosep uay} pue ssaiZap Aq sor yr skes Jauyong ‘vas ayy oJUT UOTeU ‘adoingy usoy AON J9AO [UV uaas Ssapim Fy=-p Saqynutm 40d sajtur geg="a -079p YITM ][2J 02 pattaas Yyorya ‘[Teqamy y uotNoy, “ez Arenaqag *OFLT + SySry soptur QZ 2 4S1Nq f ployatay] 19a0 saptul cg UI9g “GT YLT *GILT 5 “gL ysnSny ‘seuedieg se owes yy A[qeqoig ‘uousIAy ¢°gT 10q0199 y "ZL rnad ayy ‘sarqoyyue autos 02 Surpsoovox { punoy usaq aart O} pies “81 39Q 20g ‘uOUsIAY Iveu 410jduIeYD put seajuodieg sgt asnany 5 ‘kyeos pue Araaqis ‘ssvur ayyy-Ayjal y “purrs, Aqjay “FZ YOU «=e BIZT 4 *auUeYD ay} O4UT [Jaz YO ‘TTeqory e@ ATUO ‘zyMIeYy 07 Satpsodoe ‘ynq ‘raney *4OI1L0D Bq 0} WIS JOU S2OP SIYy 4Nq ‘[[aF aUOJS B ALI 99e48 ‘GFRT -wneg 03 Zutpsooor ‘oytporay *purpsugq ‘praysundg ‘cp asnsny AGE eee cl “Sny 19% “aa < L “ydag ¢ Ane b ‘4dag 6{ ounr ee 9Z ew Petal ee LYo) vi oe “ot Ame “7 aune see ZI "dy “6 "qog “0 “AON “yqyuoUuL “OSL *OGLT “PLT * *EcLT “OSLT *T¢LTs * 59 CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. *pavat] SOU UDTTM 4URISIP SoTtUL 99 * W8as 4SIY UdYM [VONTIA *92 ‘YYNOMpaaMy, ‘OT ArenAgayT *ZL/T x “POOMst}}9g 3B G/LT Sv tues Aqissog “ETET ‘8Le “d *AXXX["[OA “OTUIITTD ap sapeuuy ‘afqqad snoaoris Ao13 vaytTouoIs VW ST Z/T ¢ *ATOaLLONUT YSnoyy ‘amos 0} Surpr09oe sT LT 10 ‘OFLI “a'v ‘vIjomMoy Ystyiny ur prasieseyy ye 10 *cg 19qG0}0Q OT 1 “eAoe maps “Binquapuerg “gz Ane “ZOLT y "MET 92 UO vAoUay y2 palvoy pue uses useq IARY 07 pres yey} se ames ATqtssod S][ey oyTOIOe Seouvlg ‘asig ‘suvjqueyg sey iysmesuSog “[{ 1equaAON [O/T g “ELOLT “purpsugq Man “OT AVI *OOLT 5 *auo 4xau au} Ayqissod £3 GGZT *s,uYor yg ‘pur[punojmaN “PACT ¥2°09ZT o “Inopualds pamouar TIA uleSe: aSOI UIT} pure ‘YIAv9 dy} Spivaroy AJanbI[qo puadosap 0} pawaas : saytw QE ssau’ ~IOAUT JOAO £ SalTUT GG OSpLIQueD 19A0 yYSay £ puodas v UTSOTIW YE =AqIO0TaA . ‘OUlYS-SSOY 0} 9Spriquey Woy usag “(6% 10) 9Z JaqMIOAON “gEsT p “S[RUIMOL VUUATA 9} JO 9UO UL ][eF SI} JO yUNODOR ][NJ v paysiqnd Aya4ey Sey JeSurpreyy *1oyeS0} popyaa sureyo so odeys ayy ut [fay UOIT Jo sasseut omy ‘aoryd Yoo} UoyRUoyap 94} JaIZV “posedisstp Afaryua o10JOq AMO ue IOF a[qista Uorsopdxe ayy Aq 49] pnopodmnodea ayy, “wyworg “gz AVP CLT , “squoUr, ~Svay Ul UMOp UaT[ey OAvY 07 pres ‘[Teqary v { vIsa]Ig “G6 AieMAqaT g*OGLT q "TJaus snomydins Su014s vB Sutavay “ysvur s/diys e pasoy “Uys * [[eqory o1440a[9 uv A[quqoud ‘uvaog onUeTTY “fF TaqUIBAON “GFT » Chant, -essteasd oagusvies veneers [escseeeenees —gonrarequonl |, *O1IP ee ewoeree eeeterees ob eaweeee Pere eee eee eres purlsuy see ¢ “Sny “0421p seeteeeee seeeneens weeteeeee ee eee eee re ers tdsa19 eee 6z Aqne "SILT ‘onip wee eteeeee ee eeteee shes ween new eteeean ¢s8ayVq4g pou see éAqne “payiey + [eormod £,¢ Ur UOT}BUOJOp {Mors ! [Jeqoty] TT UL OG | ‘H's 0} “ALN uoout # wereeeseees QAUSOIMTIG!"" OL “Q) * SL Tx “MaT[Py aay 0} pies Satlo4s eee we enee eb eeeneee ee heaaeee “puryaty wee é é n *[[eqa1y eee eeenee wet eweree eeeeeedee *** UOZUTIO A wee 6 *AON ‘pajvuojap { puodas v soztur FZ YSty sopu Fe $ peqaay] ett eMieey cee uooul< sereeere Huvpsug puw sours} ZT Aqne) TZ LT *(a[dounueysuog 0} Quas satt04s aq) [[ejrau0yg eee ar eereee rey “sql fp+'sqy PP [retierseeereeeesecen eens peissey “07 0 *OL1T: “uoleuojop pue [[eqaay . sddeentes seater eeeen eens “i oa ¢ aune * “yy 3ipAep Aq was aly Jo [eq v edovvcess otonnteve deeded ecdaeeecdnereeeces Amuaaog aay? “uee “G9LT “Ch. as ‘ds aq] gg Jo auo ‘[[ay omy f[[eJ-au0}g) “Wd F +'sq g¢ BIIvALT ‘UdTOAIDtaneyy|*** OZ AON] * "9G.¢ 13 ‘ds ‘[eraaas S]]vj-au0j}g) “wa co RoHS LN “sql $1 “ gouedy ‘ouqang ‘son7q|*** gt ydag} x*ggsT “T[eqaay. wee e tone Otte ween eee ewww eee wee Feet e ete wetewene purlsuq tee 9% "290 ‘ “YUM IY} JOoTpprursyy ynoqge fauojsazAvpe f[[vJ-au03g} “Wa G Seager a So ae weeeeeoewrre UBT ‘OystaqTy|""* GT Ajue] *'99/T *auIty auLos Suysey ‘Qu Sty OLTOdJOUL qysiaq e ee vests oe eetens eee reeeee! {Oreceneveneatees t= AFA TOM eeI TAL *AON *(é LT 10q0}00) UoNeuoyap £ yuerTLIq {0731p moot = seteresenere NUvIsUT JO YNog}""* g oO] * ‘aptfoq afuey v “a'S 0} “AN sowvensee Mitecerereerrorrens UOTMMaI|* G “SHY “4S1Tuns yenba £03}1p - sees eeeeeeene aSiey . +. seeee awWoy dee ¢ Avy CO/T H “Teqaay wee eeteee eeroeoree ore ewewae eee eee ane Slt g eee 61 “AON } “quenyiq £ prvoy ytodar pno] ve Sunsinq rayye ge] sttttts “MN 09 “S'S fore ecesenee UIUCTOP ULE hE, *FOLT: *(€ FOLT 40) yTeqaay 196 “AL O}-- weeeeeeeeeesoeses DALY SPIOJ Pa gq “104 Aroy pure aiy jo aqols qsea v| ** . . . Phebe LOSEay ius sy etsnnad rok nty: “ydag "1O00WL au} sv qq 511q Oe OMe ween eee reste anne” Surpvay woe H “0741p “Te qety raqours Ainodea Surpino v 4yay ¢Surpzzep {]1e} eB.aey {0341p ; “Io}Je WOLVUOJap 4eIIT { ajo] Ywaays aFxey 0741p : corm: #r tara sor an ee eetees eteewreee rer ore “ON 02 °AA'S dee see uapaag)*** 1B: Pda LEL (09.82 9 “plojapie af G Shaan aourdy jo qyno eee aL 5 fU € 7 ul’) ut St ‘anZo]e4e9 | “y10Jayooy *Z9.¢ “18 ‘ds ‘ ypay Aueur $ [[eJ-aU07g “Teqoay, *0G-¢ "a3 ‘ds { Tjay Aueur £[]2J-aU0}9 *T roquiaydag 10 £ {eqauy “OF Suysey 431] pur ory Jo T[eq WYyStIq B “OVID “Teqaay, *(anZo]eyVO s,rysmesnZog 0} Surpsosor) o141;o198 “We gery *39-G 13 ds : vip sayout g auo !]][ty-aU0,g *Z AOI £ 0941p “0998 4SIY UdT_M YSIY soptw cf £ 0341p “oWIp ‘op. "EFT PO) "(2914 pro ‘Aine 434%) Teqazy, PURIp "spA OZ { Y8ty sepium Qe { ‘das rad sapwu zp ="a! *upooury 1aA0 UOTeUOJap { ,,09 1OF aTQISIA years (2°S'O ‘ysuny yIZ) [eqary “TTRj-91045) *][2F DUO ! [[ef-au0Ig *109]9UL “GZ O39T * 11eJ-Uor] “Tle qoay, *Q [ey-uosmt ¢ 2g TT udy £ oqp ‘qdog “Bepy IU9H "ZTLLT “yreaumyso Ay UL $ [[eF-aU04g 9611 “U9dS 4SIY UIYM YSIy saytul QQ {0331p “0721p *0741p *poyvuoyep ¢ [[eqoiy "UOIRUOJAP PUB IY SIT 0az0UN “(Z9LLT) Spear £ 11ey-eU0 7g “(699Z1) g2NTOIQe f OnIp “0771p “Teqery ‘eruA[OA Ut f 0711p *Auvuliay $ [[vjf-awojg *IOI}JIU BB1vy B raumry-Aeq, §*¢9.¢ “13 “ds £ ]|vy-aU04g 1860. REPORT: — 60 “orp ‘sxIBOAYy ‘mmoy !99v1 adorzein(, ‘W'd s0F beeeccece uoou tee eweeee eee eereee 0G Ul OG ‘Wd Peeeescee ee eeeeeee ‘N'Y OL AMO]S uoou ie >| lees bY *N 0} °S o. . eeereeeee were ereee ee eeerees ween eeere “ACN 0} *9'S'"S ‘a's 0} *M'N *S 07 °N "AUNOM 04 “OS'S eee en eee fereesaee eeeeeenee eet eeeeee ey *MOTJIIII ae ook *SqI OT+0Z uns= weet eeeee wee eeseee eeeeeeree ee eeeeee Bee neseee uoow * uoow ¥ uoouw < Se eeereee *SZO ¢ woreserre seeeee weeree aeeeeeses wbererees aB1v] eee eeeees “sql 79 Peeeeeree “SqI 6 qystaa\ 10 aztg eee ‘Auvosny, xnvopiog ‘sapuey ‘uvjoqivg eecee “sssanatqoauUod auIBI ‘MoyeyD eetteveeeeerereees USNGUIpT Scskbawaneee pursag jo yynog FORO HOH e ee eee eee aUlI¢] Wtteeeeeeeeeeeeeeerees DUBTOAT aUIV I -UO-7.10F ULI “* 900010] ] ovepenses eas BITRATE, “‘yprqstorq SOOPER eee ete dOUITeA tee eneeeeeeneerers Ayvyy Yon tteseeeereererreersress one oe onde rT eke 0G bye! tee Zz 4ydag “" 6g aune eee OL saidy st ‘day “7 gune BL "Gag “OE rune ae) see t ydag “og Aine oo ee eeee . ‘IN ‘uopuo7| - "0 ““purpoog ‘pueysugq ‘aouery|*** gt santeesensseroseroee s QaaTTUed|"** EL ‘Sny sreeeeeeccesersererteees — QOUIBTE|*** é Peee eco eEee OCI e ee eee eres ung)" Ayn ences seeeveuces aulag, ral ‘idy vipuy ‘a1oyey é - ee eeesereesans wedg MON eee Z “AON “-eeTmpUSUTqON ‘uoyseag)""' T cady eet eeeree pura. ‘poossijjad|*** é sete eee eee newenee ery dpapepitg) CPT ee ee eeee ree Teer cerry mya * uly ap Juatuaziedac) ** OWOD Ivau ‘olIpuog tteseereeerereeerereseees GUIDE eee n tense Ruoouy ‘ouvliqry see seeaeeeneeeesoecee+* BIBTIQAON steeeeeeeeeeeesereeess — DIOTXG terse OorNaTy vissny ‘eZzaynIg¢ eee eceeetoesees .1nqog ‘qorpoy “Aqipeoory ao ite 190 rac “Sny aes} “IRIN 97 ‘Suny ane I I “dag “Qo, 10 ‘uve “ ¢, “any “11 Ane or Avy é “* 6T ‘adag BCEAO COE fy ah WeYawAA |? g Avy 2G ROSES NI i (apie) i ‘euadig|"** LIT ‘AON “youl | jo deq #T6LT —*06L1 “88L1 i Bers “LBL1 6 S8LT “PBLT # P) aeBLIq *Z8L1 “IBLT é * 0821 * “OLAT *8LLTe * WLLL é “QLLT * * “GLLT #ELLT "Iva 61 CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS, *UdT[eJ IABY 04 ples souojg ‘asnoy uojyeg ‘cyudy x UOVUoZap YITA patucdurogoe | ‘ox ‘ulp1og ‘uapsaiq on 6 6621 ¢ “S2TRS 3B WIST PYF UO SOUO}S JO [[BJ OUI YIM [Loryuapy ATissog “aYOUTAITTIA “B YOUR “BGLT + *s19}0 0} Zurpxodov [fay oourysqns snourtan;Ig yep e £ anojezv9 szaneyuneg 07 Surprodoe ‘orytposge {Bursing soye soynuiU May B "8 YoleW *'96LT q JOQWOAON YIZT *[12 padeys-ajpurds paaino Suoy v pey fuasuyj0H *[] 4oqMOAON “IGLT 3 ‘araydsowye ay} Jo Aqoyseja ay} Aq pasneo st Surpunoq SIY] sautseut sZutg ‘pnoyo ev puryaq Suysang ‘uwSe asoxr uayy ‘ama ® paddoup way} ‘A\equozt0y paaour ysay t YSanquipy *TTIoquiaydag “Zest , “pula JO QuBOTLINY @ Suny *Z aaquiaydag ‘gg/T o "T[2F O09}eUT IO d1WTTo19e ue Aq pasneo useq aay 0} pasoddns *[1e} Surzeyq oBaey £ queryyaq *Z 010198 { UOeUOJep years vB Aq poamoT[os ‘0441p "g4SB] SB ous ¢ T}eqa1y *T[BJ-9u0}g “Tleqory *[le} ouTQUadJes & pey { 0441p “Tleqoay *peayt9AO UuOIsO[dxa dI109}9M pnoy v *Tyeqaay "GP-g "13 ‘ds £ ]]ej-au0jzs *ysty Sattur fy ueyy ssaq you { apijoq “TeQe.19 *4SANq SUOOU 911} SB AFI] Sv fuIOF UI AB;NZa.at £ |Teqaay “OXOLIY JOA ‘810A Iva ¢ []ej-aUu0}¢ *[B1VAaS f][ej-9U0IG "04-13 ‘ds $0341p °07VIp *OF-g “13 ‘ds dn poyoid ET £ [[eJ-aU04¢ “Teqouy “SNUG axl] A[UO ysay 4e f ayqeiseA $]eAo {0991p ; “O}Ip “0341p *ua][eJ VALT OF ples 4snp dtIOa}aur £ 0941p ~ *O991p “onl ‘Wd UST YL9148 Peatesene eereeeee ‘Wd g ‘Wd ¢ ‘Wd / S eeeterees weet teens i Ts7qQnoq ‘sasnoy OM} JO UONVIFEYUOD snooURyNUIS Y “4yOJYULIy “ey isnBny “Gg/T > *19]J@ SayNULU aMIOS YIOX IOAO Ose apoydxo 07 pavayy = “gurrppaq A1aA ‘aprjoq e[quop v se yorM “Ud2I FY “SATU YOST JO VoULAsIp B 10J JOYIeFoye $ vURLY UT ApuNnSing JIAO UDIG "YSIY ,ZT AO OT UOZIoY 03 Jayyeaed Suraout uses ‘puejaay uz *pauazzoysoroy sdeysed “4say 4v uaes Yont you qIvy { syivds pur yeas e yoy £Suysing Aqeysed 1ayye “Wy 07 91971] B pauany § Spoq ueyI— “TNy1Qnop savadde siya ang § Aep 4eyy Jo yyStu ayy ut Use} oA 0} 9UI0S Aq pres : BPABIOT, 4 ‘sesoqy eyuesg “02 judy -O8t q fx “puRLIaz}IMG ‘aug *GZ JaqWI0aq “ZO8ST » “UOTYTILOJAP YIM ysinq Sekueg-ASey 4v £0331p *,G 1oj asiou Suyjquina ve Aq pamorjoy $ 0331p] wea TT "N UO} yeqaay, ree sreeens *yasiawl0g £ [[ey-au03g Sige tocs eonteenes ‘aouvlg $¢¢.¢ «ad ‘ds $ [yej-ouojg| wa Fg st teeeees *4sanq £0331p) yomb qeqaay) cee "€GFET «"PaeMOl[oy UONVUOZap 4va13 fo9,Ip| “Wa Ef ‘ommp) ce ‘[eqoay) “UNIS YS oy} UL ‘YeTean( vou {]][ejJ-ou0jg| uoo0H veressese “yy SipAep yenba £ 44H, ontoazaw qearB vl et teeeeeres yeqaay) ve ‘dn payord squomSeay GT {[[vJ-au0jg| wa SF *19G0190 YIST 10 f 0911p “UBIPHOU O19UTBUI 9Y4 0} so[sue yy Su 4v $ 0941p “Teqoary *09-¢ “Ad dg -Aep-prur ye [[aJ Oary $ [[PJ-aU0Xg “0931p Tleqe.1y, *4Alne yap Jo £][eJ-ysnp $uoreUojop {10939 “Te qaay, HOSOULII}VYT JO JUIMIUAIAOY ![VAdAas £ ][J-au09¢ “youn 98 Osye £ ][Rqarg *purury §70.¢ “19 ‘ds ! qvj-au0qg “0941p “0911p “Teqaay "968 “A “I *104 ‘EIST “IY Jo ‘uny “TI9} S9u0}s eV 9 "ydeog pur aiepy ye ! $9.¢ “19 “ds £ |][BJ-aU04g “1eqeay “Tae ,§ Ul UOBUOJap f Suoy ZT [re “4 9SNp pur ][vj-au0}g °S Sp1U.MO0} see eeeees rrr errr sees “AL 0} °OL “T'N 0} “A'S eeereseee Peer eseeeresessees AaeSangy)*** Ll “any % ** Xaqing § pxojxg|*** €z “avyN| AreSunqy ‘yyseg|""* g ‘aee BOSCO lf ** Ainquoysepy/Ajne 10-Sny| * OTST "Sql 8 streseeeeressoasuey ‘AuStsseyg|'** ¢ 490] * q queiy[aq serreees DuRlsug ‘g fuepuoy|'* Ez oer Pee erreeecereesscecee uaduryi69 wee 91 dag WoO pnJ= [eereseesseeesseeesee BOREAS FL * . eee eeere eee 194S90.10,\\ eee OL Avy evececcce seceevevece aouado]y tee 0g ad y "Sq CZ wseee - vIpuy ‘yeuripoo'y eee QT “qq * CISL ee eeeeeee HOt e weer eeneeee uopuoy ‘fa.tang eee Z 00(] av cue ahere ttitseeseresseseereteees WODSOT|'* & eee eeeeee Scere rages tame DLT ‘qzoq eee ¢ “AON * 2 POO e weet eee eeesesaeese Auruitay see sal 400) seteee MOSstyIL) Il Seeeeeeee seers Sngssny 8 + sq] SI rrerrerery yy a DOURAT ‘uady see c ‘adag * eee eeeeee ie er OCCT Con 6 (re: ih| eee ¢ “any evieeeees retteeeerereeeeeseeeres BAgTIaQ|** EZ . pire e teeceecapeceen eee OPULUL see ¢ Ayne * er ecceee . ere errr uIplag eve 61 ady “Sql OF : “"BIssmy ‘qnumyoRg|*** ¢ ‘qaq| * ¢ ad1vy] seeeeeereess uot $dinqssny|"** sz uve] = “PLST ont tees See eeeeeeeee B1OgrA\ ‘xv]RyUuo'T see EL 0aq wea cwatee Heseteseeeeeeeseess DoBTapuNng|** OT ‘treseeesaeenenseesseeea ONDOOA\ |" GB ‘AON wets Witeeeeeeseeeessoemia@ang|"** QZ “190 aatysayy ‘sede |sdaguo'sny "Sql FO+GO+ZI\" “* yoMaury|*** OT see eweree uooW = see eee eeeee aurag see zZ ydag ee ‘sn “uu09 ‘UaAt ET MON aoe Fz pry 4, see REPORT—1860. x) © Se | -osuorqn-y-esseyy 3 “(Fest ‘Yxopua8og) T[ry-a108| ‘ovIp "07!P +4 Areniqag Jo pua 10 £o71p "0y}1p *(g48e[ sv ames) 0791p “Teqeag *(anZopezeg Ss, Ly{sMe[snZo0g ) d171]o198 *o371P “0341p *(queqsut yI9 10) TTeqory "2p.g 1D sds £]ey-au0jg “0991p *o3atp “Te qeay, "O2.¢ °13 “ds { |]vy-audg "Lp. 13 ds £ Tpey-au0jg “oyp *(g 4sB] se ouaes) [Teqory *4 U0 aB1v] BuO ! T[eJ-9U0IS ‘preay asiou Zurquina pnoy | y4S1]-1was penba *o}Ip ‘onp “OVP “0341p ‘THeqery, “por uy} ‘anytq ‘4s15 9e o71M *ovIp “0731p *BISSY *9U0}S 2UQ, é OTC OF OFUT Tog “(Avy pxg 10) yuvrIAq £ 0991p “oVIp “onIp "0741p “ou11p "0741p “0741p “0VIp "Treqe.y *o29 ‘Syreuoy aeerereee see eeeeee eet eesees ser eeeres sen eeeeee Pre eeeeeeeee sts eeeeee eeererere ‘WdZ eee eeetee woereeene Cet eeeeee ste eeeeee eee eneeee ee eeeeene “mMoy £aqet uoryeing eet weenee seeteeees see eeeeee seeteeens UOTJOOIICT "qy319M\ 10 9ZI1g Annette ewe enee * gulog wee ecececcveseneccces A&imqaayueg TA ee eee eee eee eee eens enves uoun4 oo ae aeons eee e ee ecresesevsces qz0dsory seeeeeeeneees steeeeeee yazodson sreeeserrseess BIDRITOTY snbiaebe nee = TamTLy * pursuq rtteteeesseeeeeeeeoers Tngq9dg et eeeeee ysueloulg “ey pools seeeeeeees qroquatay| **BUulqy10 BOLIWY YON) viuopadry ‘sa. 19| 4 seeeeenee eiudyloA ‘ey IZ10gR7Z, see teereeeereretes upaag o1URY|** Htteeeeeeeesenssereerers genology)" eeeceereeettces aourly ‘soSoulrry eee teeveeesereeserees QaTysupooUNTy|*** “ purfjoog ‘umoyjaqdwed|::- teeteseeeeeseeseeeeneres BEIQGIG|*** teseeteereneeeseeeeerees DUBISUT) ere reer rT : one seb ewesersessee weet een eeee eeeeenee Tyee SOA, eSprquny|*** seeeteweeeeeeeessees DUOUUIYDIY|"** sasteerecasseseoeeeeone FIN GSINY a oo * uadugjo9|"* seeeeee ggsay|e eteeeteeeeseeeeeneeneers gutta see POeueeeeee TT eee RIMIYOR see ** QUuUuO0Iey)-39-40'7|"** seesereeeeerens Sin uayqjon, vee steseeeeeeeeneeseerecens KpSuNgT|s+* FOR Ree nena ewan eeeeeee jAopyessnq vee eee ee ee teeeneeeeees see puryyoog Lad *AqR00'T 9 “494 Sl “ate 8 ‘02d 61 “AON 9 "~O g ‘ydag L ‘8ny za Avy L3 Lt OL ‘Ady 81 Z “ACT 02 29d 6L “3°20 Et “Suy *"yquour jo seq “BI8I “L181 “9T8I “Iva 67 *(09¢°d ‘Zzgt ‘Txx[“uUys,j1aqTIN) *10J payorvas 4ou asneoaq punoj 400 979M qoryas ‘sauoys Surypey Aq pasnvo uaaq aavy yim punos3 om} ur sajoy oy} yey SYUIYI LUpe[Yy) “1099 w Jo UoIso[dxa ayy Aq pasneo uaaq VAey Oo} pasoddns ‘aqenbyjrea ue Sutnp patmooo ! [[ey [NFqQnop y ‘erunszawoOg eoyoreyp ‘suorjyeuojap Aue JO UOTUIUI ON *1O9}aT yeaI3 v ATUO ‘s}UN0D “08 JOY}O f sou04s Jo JaMOYs B Skes OStIy ‘BZUBSOD 4°67 IOQWIAAON g *yourdey @ ojUr Surpey Suruqysry Jo oyo.ns ev Aq pasnvo ‘guojs-ao1mind ayy aourysqns e Ayuo {auuSjarQ *9 ysn3ny ‘ozel J “OTIUI F JajawMeIp pazernoyeo MM ofF ‘S UOIaNG ‘oy ‘puryfieyy Ssjassnyoesseyy x'[z Jaquiaaon , “Punos UIaq AALY 0} pres ddUL\Sqns snoUNRIas Y x eT ysnFny P “6FST ‘sy10daxy “aos “Wg */¢ roy dn paqySiy sea pooysmoqySrau apoym om coe Aq Pi yO “IPRS PUL BIYOLT[VM Ul ysoreyoNg usamieg [Ee 19q0};09 *g TST F) . "Wosq.1eq 0} Surpros0e “g°Q = OE Your 4 CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. “0941p “oyzIp ‘Teqaay reer Ty “MIS 0} *S'N *pavay uaeq VARY 04 pres ose punos Sur ssi y #9 Areniqay y sees" TOpUOT ‘ueyuar70L f eriesesesrenasases ese Np uaaRl oo ig “2 ISU] sv oes ‘ 0731p os co | Me cwaces secees veeeeee oeee Aueuniay *** LT ‘ou1Ip aia benedere asipanelants [iP esiowiviajnns. ollie cele betveileceaa tee nace youunyy *** oI Ae ‘TeqQe19 se eeeeene seereeees seeceeere Sizdiery,"** 8z dy ‘roajatu aSaey] teeteess sevecveee Petareitstelee pursy ssemouy, 3g)" 0% *(giopue3Z0g pue TYSMU[SNZOg ) ][eF O1V1[O19v PO ES >|) a ge OSU RU || OGd aU Becicoticig Jao * Blurdoulog|"** ¢ ‘aeyy| Z q “oIp egaouinia nepsarg)""" SL “qoq “TZ81 *04Ip eeerevecs “+ squegitt ag *ouIp eee eetene Veeeveesis: | | leuev hamiaie'ce Beet wwee seo ROTOR NT wae G “Treqary Sees wteeats Ree neecat: vauny|"* 6 90q ‘eliquyeg = “4ySt[Aep oxy £ dn Sur Araao porysiy “""" so[sf uviuoy fezuasog|"** gz é a “MONCUOJIP YA ‘]Jeqaay] "tee tes onpeaier sn : “eISSN ‘YYPswuToyO|"*" Zp ‘AON! ¥ *(anZojeqe9 s,zoneyqumeg 04 BZurpioooe) oyouge| setts oo te a. eee. eee rones puejury ‘auug3aag|"** g -Sny 5 yeqary] tte courcsdee ye Pune cnucmeet ye mealies obese naan eee unig)" 9g 208 oung *ysdoqrAy “[[aF [eAaAVs { |[eJ-aU0}g] “wa So "N 03'S “SQIFI+OF °° eissny ‘Sroqvang ‘euxi7q)"*" Zr Aug] * “mmydyns Jo yjoums $][ej-auoyg} ttre eeeceeees “aI ¥ Sis ‘ SaeSuny ‘Sanquapag SO Hs x “0701p seeeeeeee eeeeeeees se eeneene se esecsevesccesiecesne yorusopuy|"** oT Avy ‘Treqaqy] street acuweadue, | Wil) Tsaricatieciel . ilenmasee Sar pisvelnsale a Sanqssny}"** 8I *(anZopeyeQ s,raneyumeg 0} Surprcoor) o1t[o19e eaatides SOTA aaa Gules “7 enSnuy aevau ‘vas uil'** ¢ ‘ady! Z-0Z8T “aye |Z paeay uoeUOjap £ reqaay steeeeeee *M'S 0} ‘aN aBIv| aemary) “ssv ial Q10WIyeg Ce A % s ‘oyytp| cutee Pes rir Neat liek Reactor Pec stgl Se Ce Ma Sahn “* gtayooyl': ET ‘apljoqg ecccccese Ceseenace | Mol 0. Gacwamnitals mta(e a.pracste Spat ayaa oh o. Meyuaijoy)*** 8I roqgup] crereeess | teeters | tee fae Peeaatnee Rea enenes eiwayog|"** FT ‘o1}1p ceccccees Meeeeesa se A cissweilde eg. wall Saicine centres ABO oSurmocy 4gl"" eT “AON "yyeqoeay eeereeeee ACSC Me ocerceca 3 sreinivieje tiv viele wees duamquy tee ‘1240990 WIZT IO £Gg.¢ Adds {yay oaaqy { T[eJ-audyg| WV g seeeeeeee “ss pissnag "ean ‘zlog|""* m ‘Teqary) . st teeeeee sfa|sioiels.e(sje.sigininte\eiaisiele seeee puesaq see 400 “618I-EI8T 1leF * Snovoettoos pue yy Sty { pey-auogg] veeereees | terete | teeters dee “"" UByT JO as] ‘aso.yng|*** * “ypeqouy] ctttete pottcceiss : ¥ “= Temqoy|** “uoIsopdxo yuajora $ ][eqory ArOATIS oUyM ve] “Wa $38 access orones Ses OReB yA ‘asim? * p “toup| ot sere uundg *Teqa.y eeereeeee . ysanqim iI *¢ 109jo Ul Suryjeuojap “ BLUB Ww)" LT “[[eqeaiy eeeeevese see eeenes tone duaiaueAieenBine tsk to aes IZ hom tee LI *uorsopdxa pur 109}9UI snoutuny & a eeeeeeee wee eeeeee seeeeenee avec eeececeececerecne S.unoqsayO see oI * +) Tey aourysqns snourunyiq R £0331p see eeenee eeeweeree eeeeeeere een neee AB MION ‘RlURIysSIuyD wee el sIYBCaaUI sass ts eeeweeses Raeahorind sees naBurprebleyse+zsess a mIMMAG IM eS (6 *[[ejJ-2u0j}s puv TOI} aAlso[dxo j[euls & “Wd g * 90URL] ‘s1aduy “es @ oun, #* ITM Suipoidxa “QySt[ 0110939 OL jo unLn[Oo qysiiq Buoy] 5 : SSS) RB POM: G “dy “syands Auew] “yeqory) * sterereeneenionceesoueseeesSigdigry Te “uorsopdxa pnoy qytIa qsanq ‘10939 UL SNOULUINT JSBA E: “M'S 0} “O'N a i ee Sa aa VIM A ‘puoW yoy ree (OD cd *(g4xou=) op) set eustsweehs b Set one Seeeteereeresteteeess BOLIQULY INIT G ‘OUip|| =sss"="== eeceesene ae wiusscrsvvnteeglttestecciommg|ss: fe “ABIN *4 ISBl Sv oules £031p auleinievete'sle westdenr'a ssotseesnereracnansoneneeeo@igdign|ss® 6 *o1yIp roeesnstens sTaSnUNtaNy |e: 8 40M} £ 0771D “ee 2 BEIBAR PUL BIARLOT "*7L109 "aq -ounip Seo ou ORE ET Ica SORTS | (| -)qhrp | SO che soqp| octets a eeeeeeee uesivicy.sle sestuneerernenvesiner TOISQUOTT| °° PL *O}Ip te teeeeee ee eeeteee eeeeeenee wee wee ener eseeree B.1n0q.iay9 eee Il ‘uve ‘Zo81 *oWIp eeneeeeee ee eteteee eeeeeecee palgietinme deinbaie's es ose at TO pak |e 8z *Z.0m} §q[eqaay) cette “ | QZ ABUITA AA SZyISNLT] *** OZ 10 CZ “MOIVUOJOP YIIM potueduodov £ 0941p Froquiawty : Sroquosg)** $% * “0731p 1860. wen eewee sneselsn gus s psesess os te BaT(l@Ny nee Iz 0771p wee eteeee se teeeeee sete we See t tena e eee purysugq|* Il ‘owp) te seeeeeees chicago Srey hy a ‘oyp) oe seneeeees Sarebiee sretreieeerreteerseres apUta Ay et & SAOMG sOITIp) <* caagtipgnl| =~ Ge *o}Ip wearers eeeeeeeee seeeeecee cen ecereeueeeevucnetenne purySug|:: 4 oC +] oo SORE paSe pene ECe SIC: Th 14 5] sh ghee Il ‘ure "CSS *]]eqaay|yasuns a10y Sohw nie sstonecorseensesuncerseesre amg see 12 "D8(] eyeyeqy §'eG.¢ «a8 ‘ds fyeroaes £ ][eJ-au0yg]-aq Suiuade| “AWN 03 ‘a'S +'sql 23 “-Bipuy ‘quo ‘a1odyayyng\""* og * fn *481nq pue payref f aay Jo ured f033Ip| “wv Z evecevece uoouw & voazaedssenscscs>roe4 sGRTmEMETW AS aaT *01Ip evccceccs devecccce vaeutetios steenesenseecssereeeeeonpTady OL ‘oup| sees euSeeseus Raieleaie sie reseeeoeseeseerseseoes UneDpsaog|"** ZT "Teqary eeeeeeres weet eeree Seem eens Pee new ee eens Baqray)** Il *0171p op oe adr] Heese gorraaly "g FINO)! F “AON *(4.10q40}9Q pugz) 1oajour auy o uoow % * purlsug *s !uozysug):: 9z *ovN1p eeeee seeeeeees tteeeeeee seeseveceesecescecass Sanqay1og POON cd ‘IWOID pure [ayo] “Teqaay] seers seccecees Senoatedn seenneecceseereeeees Binguatg|'** ET 400 Zu1urezu09 ‘1a, arp Wi SayOUTE ynoqu 9U0}s oO £0931) EOI g9.g adds + aourary ‘qeuidy ‘ayeg etl’ eT * *g [elaaas * [[PJ-aUu0}g SuaGabives SEH oOOUNC sess WpAMG YpRIsRa|"** OT * “UOTJVUOJIP JeIIZ £ SayNUTU [RIBAS O[GISTA U1. “A OF “AL pocccesscnerss 55-2 ST BAOMM TOMI: aif «40dC) 3 “op ee . ts seers Ugsog) tt 6% "T1eqa1y oo . steeeeeee ao sees . Sraqumoig aa £4 *slItg 7¥ uses osye { yS1q sanSvaz gg { asinod outUedsas "AUN 0} ‘S'S pitkeoue” vereereseese gouuLy ‘aT[ayooyy|""* OL “SMOPRYS 489 $109}9UL WUENTTLIG ISOM /£ ieans seeccnsce weeeeeeee cece eeeeeceesccsecesrsces sdyy|'t* ZII0LT -sod Suotsoydxa yea13 & YI UMOP [J Ly Jo ssvUl aTie]] “ttt SEO 229) eee srrressesss gyuatqog $aSQry|*** TL é q *]wolyo9]9 Ayqus] Teqaay) oc eeeceeees seeeeeeee sriteeseeeensss00neess aime se suat “So Tose WT Gee #9 *oyp *ovip “oup “TeG99 ihe Joqmajzdag § G¢.¢ “13 ‘ds { syuoMBeay Z £ [[eJ-aU0}g *paliey pur [Rao ! [jeqouy *PULT[O]] 1aA0 [[e uaas ‘ [[eqary : “Teqeng ‘(andopejeg S,1oneyumeg 07 Surpsod9r) o141;0108 ‘sauoyspivg sdeyasad £ [jay sauoys "282 A[ue “Teqoay “moou 4ynoqe $99.¢ "13 “ds ! [[eJ-aU04g ‘oyIp ‘ovtp *o97Ip ° “Teqaag = *SOUOJS JOY [RIOAIG ‘ayVArpeyAT UL { ]]VJ-aU0zg) O wy Z “yuelfuq § yeyuozvoy | parrey § [jeqauy r+ fsnoutsat wo *(anSoyuywg srysmejsnsog) onmtpo1a2 “2 [[eqaay v 1097e |[aJ oourysqns | ‘onp a *oy4Ip S ‘onnip fy | ‘TeqQerg qq | *IOQMIDAON YIT IO £ |peqary | + oroaqour 1 119} saqmtdd uot Surareyuoo sauojspieyg ‘ermayog uy *99.¢ “13 ‘ds { [[eJ-aUdIg ‘auy-Aep {ary Jo aqoyS ysmnyiq [peu ‘yalopuasz0g °¢ [Jaf snp ouoojaut pure ! 0431p ‘ysnSny Y{[ 10 $094Ip TeGe1y *SSOUMOJSMOLIOG JW ‘*LOOJOT QueTTLAG “Teqoay, “EPL AR “es Z “uryuNoy, rwou {[[eJ-aM04g “Tle qeag, Os[y "Gz.g 13 ‘ds { yay syuamSeaz 9014} {[[eJ-aU04g *oyuaD 42] ‘UY, ep quomaziedaq *0941p ‘OWIP “Weqorg ) es ~ dap ‘syIVUldyy seeeeeeee ‘WV ‘W'd Z tee eeee tee eeene Suissa ¢ yornb “ eee eeeeee eeeeetees yomb uoou ‘Wd 6 eee weeeee “Moy fayeL Suorean¢y wet eeeeee eee eeeee Weta eeene ser eeeeee “SL O€ uoow = “M’'S 0} °O"°N we eeeeeee erases nes “QL [ 03°20 ] S41 OT “aS 0} “M'N eeateenee “M'N Of °O'S eee eeeaee uo0ouwl = seen eneee wee ee tees ween eneee “SaLF eee eeetetees ee eeeeene eeeeeeeee ee eeeeee tee eeeee set eeneee wen eeeeee see eeeeee “sql eee eeeee +'sqi Zt see eaeeee ‘uoyoortqg | *y4yStaM IO azIg anseig Sizdiary srtrtresereeeereeeesees JOAOURET ‘SDUELS YoImpurg ‘sayAyno “ gouRty qanoourvy ss qy98d49 ** Burpproyy eee eee ce eee RISSNY ‘uos1ay9 “uiedg ‘odmeg |xp stypoas10 7 treeeees ane sangg £ yop pare. meh ‘puepdueyy ‘Aouralur yy “* Tlasseg S.nquaiuy seen eee tee etetaeeees SaaqsSiuo y eee e ee ee eee eee e eee Suaquoig iitesereseererrees pimp (Sul tieteeesanenseeeeeeeenets O7790W *Bimayod ‘sneynay ree Zingapseyy “ aouvly ‘suey seoreeroeres onSerg § uaSUBLIG Hiceeeeteneereererrers UOg eeesteeeessesreeseneeneess 2UTeTW sereeseoe DISSNY ‘yeaIeyzIp.19}¢ * unviag ‘ye1qaz teerees Binqsaaqag ete ee eee voOllawy 3 ‘vsopuay Nttesstsrerrseceecvoeeee CUBIST bees sneeennpinsiecicngen S25 ZEOnT treeeerereerees QT1SMOSUIUNT ; veers UL * BEaqig ‘8}03.4] Ceieeerereeseereeeees TOK so Kiva ‘eusojog ‘ozzvuay srersessveeersrearggupiy Aol Pee Tee rere ttt weeee ** 3 sajden “Aqrqea0ry ~ uyptog | 61 LT ‘PO rie “92 PT 10 GT wee Ot 4ydag ag eee ¢ ‘Suny “8 92 “ging “° 9%. sun “Or os “se ‘dog pz iE OT “2% sue oT “OT OL vq mg Of “+ $T “AON “0g ** BD 190 nee el ydag 6g eee ral ‘Sny “' § oun LT tudy T ‘ey 81 “8 ‘gag “oy cue OT “9 90q “+ 9% “AON “yyuour jo keg mem ow “SO8L a. * q *FC8lu “S681 “rea 71 CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. “uerderey qunowW wo ‘u104s-19punTy v Burmp ‘yozajan% 07 Zurpaxoooe ‘Tay auoys aS.ey ® S(apuoity ut suyseg shes yunooov au0) auuorey-ya-yo7T = #asNNW ¢ “essapg 4 Wnasnul ayy WH sseat jediourd sayy, * GT ARIA + “TONLYUUNV 0} Surp.ioooe ‘IATYSI[I AA UL OSTe uses $ JoazauI adv, e ATUO ATquq oid ‘ondojeyeg s,taneyuneg 0} Sutprovoe ‘onyoisy ‘zt Ae *'GZ8I y "OZ8L ‘ZI AW ‘attyssojsaono[y) ur uses 1OAJIM BBV] 9Yy1 se omes ay} ATqIssog “41 Aq paqoaye AWwa13 seM V[pooU OOM SBM 94} PUB ‘UOAL DI10949UA 9YI[ PAYOOT 41 {91 das BAY O} pres SI ‘UUOg Jo ‘qye1a380N JOIg ‘uopuoyT Ul Ja[vop [eAoUIU B WHO.J 4 4YSnoq OM ‘OdTXayT UL PlLYIIMYOR “IY JO wotssassod ur st [Jay YoOupm woar Jo good 949 ‘4104 "(é9Z81) BIND[eD ¢*g oquIaAON ; “9SIOU JOYITA ‘s]Teq [[VUUs JO TaquINT ¥ OFUT SuryBarq ‘YITea JY} 07 [Tey pUe 4SeA 94} WHOA ayer -edas 0} pamivas snajonu 94} JO LO11A4,UI JY} JO yeg *ZO1YO ¢gAaqMIaAON 5 “TUpelyD oF *sq[ £ 9U0 ‘[fay sous smog + ‘uOSIayD ¢'gz AINE p “GOB ‘Zap ‘d *xxx ‘[oa ‘ormyD epuny “ezgt ‘gt Aine ‘prpeyy ap 2330ze5 “Yon pasayns a33v0 pue aut $saloqs JO JaMOYs JUBpUNge ue Suledg ‘odmeD [ep sepioa0y ec Ane , “PT Ae Tl9F ‘syun0998 oMIOs 04 Zurpr0d08 : ysnyxAT Avou ‘uryuNOT, x gT AIenIgaq - “ET Asenuee sisyqjo ‘ ozzeuery Surpsoooe [uyyquog -yuery jo ‘rakamjassay “y “q 0} Surproooe $sytyy ‘uepdeg gl Av 3 qe ‘9 Axeniqag 9A13 saryioyyne sul0g +‘ozzeuay “ct Aivnure =x'PZST es *(anZojeyeo s,raneyuneg 0} Surpxoo0v) onrjorae| "°°" pssasicn nn * gouery ‘auu0Ie-49-907|""* ‘Bny| x n *F81NQ :Ulet} SOI (Gp £4axoo1 @ O¥IT f [Teqa1yg} yornb *O°N OF “AVS wacnsncecserosiviesseee! UNM ee Loge *109}9U1 9UY B eeeeeeees eeeescens aB.1eT ween eeneseee puesuq)|* 81 ‘oyup| ere ceceecere piexaaace seeteraeteeneeeaeeecrenerss QHTeET et! TT ‘oq}Ip cette wvvenvaes se gasuapgl'* g “0171p ieisime "M'S'M OF “AND sve Sizdrary “9 *O71Ip dere veeee ‘aN 0} *M'S eeetewens Tene eeewweeererese WlaqsuayUeLy ere ‘Sny ‘oytp| ere eee beemadeet tseeeeteeeeeneeeeeeensBOLIOTE "6% *[]eqouy, . sereeeres eer TO eee eee t owen ereseee B1aq[aplayy wee 1z Ayne} (2 Ge8T)_"LL-€ ‘49 ds £ [ey-au0rg "sq 98 * gojsoursayeyg ** 6T I “yaeds pate SurAvoy ‘paysiuea £ ysinyq te eeeeeee seeeereee uoow £ ptreeesereoeres QUISTaISIONO|D|""* ZT Avqn % x “Teqaay steeeeees seereeces ee enneee Preece reer eT etre rere MOSSPTH wee FL ‘estou pur sdueivedde o1toajom snotind ve] *ttttttt* spreMumop vgaeeenss sreraceacccscosens IGMOTIqueERl=-=' pW *puno} sauojs ON “UOTZeUOJap pnor Aq paMoT[oy $ 0441p sKedxeees ones these q ** Ayeqy ‘oueSnq|"** cy * "C08 “d ‘gest “Teqery eeeeeeeee oer eeeees te teeeeee Seer errr ayoury, eq FL "qaq ‘tunaueyyy 90g ‘afdoad yeraaas parry pur’; |[ay samoys| | “tttttee seecceeee eeeceeees eteeeeessneses sever) dersoan|*** 3 “9281 (9281 “IITA ‘g1opuesdoq) é [[ej-wory ecerrrsoe ececcecoes eeeeeeeee oTrrererrrr Ty STTYSITEAA, ‘uapAeg woe Al An é 3 ay * gUIvyy-UO-WOsyURTA!'* BT -Teqag Bee eee cease ‘= OTTeH|""* OT sre[nqo|3 AN yearys eeccccece’ eee eee eee | eq4no|e9\""° Z “years ou £ ysippar ttt eeeeee eo eee eeee Owe eee eee tee eee et toes UILIOg, eee TI 09q "Eq OYY-JaUIOD aFuey YIM ‘Tyeqouy) ,Fg yea.ys “M04 “5 * eqynoreg|""* 2z “[tey Buoy ‘a8iey f uoyout yonb| |Z yeors “AM 0} “H ‘eae “ UaET"** PT “0771p set eebewe! eee eeesee: eee eerene ORO O HEE e eters eweeseeee Slld eee 6 "4svl oy} se ommes A[qeqorg ‘owip| ttt seveceeee seeeeeees. Titeerensessseeseeees SrQGgSIOTN|"** G “Treqaay ecswsavee: eH i “qqSyig Aq wees SuorouT yeyMOZLLON| ,,9 10 ,,G “AX OF eg)" ¢ 3 REPORT—1860. 72 — . —_ “op “4ayOOI B OHI ySANq {yy St[uooUT= £ 0411p *oyp “0931p T1eqa.1g *¢79.¢ 13 ‘ds £44 St, puv astou Y4IM “[]PJ-aU0}g *9ULI] BUIOS OJ BIQISTA RII} */@ JO s[vatazurt ye parvaddesip puv paivadde 90144 *(anZopeqeg s,ranvyuneg 0} Surp.1ovoe) o41[0198 ‘splVmdioye CF.,Z UOIBUOJap $ yURTT[LAG pur FYI] IvaId raptjoq “TLR F903 ‘(ues | *s][Vqaty aa14) -ufy) UesLY JO JUDTUUIAAON “][aFSAWO}s £ *[[BJ-90}g *(anSojeyeg Sjaneyuneg 0} Sutpaoooe) o131[0198 08d ‘QesL‘ulanyy “palll{ UeIpuy UY *¢ [[BJ-2U0IS *0G-¢ “Ad cds $ [[eJ-aU0}S ‘JOqMIGAON TZ 40 ‘ aurysuns Surinp uses *109}9UI JU B *1aqou | *Teqary “UIP UL OE 0} ¥IST B WO paseasour $ ayFruns jenba "Zp.g "Ad "ds $1]ey-au04g *(1Fe “d *AIXXx TOA ‘Gegt “B30q) [[eJ-aU0Ig *YO UDAIS SUOTPLEL[YWIOS $ UdaId-sse1d auy TE Ge40. “1upelyo 07 ddng 40] StysMVsudog ut $ [[eVJ-aU0}g *UOLso[dxa UB PUB ‘As OI} PastoATsy FYST] OlLogjs We *ovuIp Teqoa1g (28 °990) *Z1-¢ ‘a8 ‘ds ‘ wort ou surezuod £ [[LJ-aL0Ig szagidne | *(qaneyuneg 0} Supsodoe) a1y1[o19e ULI} Jadiv] samy £ 07 yuLod & Wo.y pasvasour ‘[[eqaty sayeriq ‘gg.g “ad ds { syuamdesy aaa $ [[eJ-9d0}g *yaor9 | "e.g 3 ‘ds ‘yuawmSesy auo { [yej-au0yg uayosaddry ur £ ]yeqoay *EGZ8T ‘sytuds our poqedissip ‘aay JO UIeIZ S queTIaq §yeoaqsep £ 0431p “yy dia 42] *1eqaay, ASIOU 4wIID YIM 4sanq $ 4uLIT[IWq pur aoiv] ‘ [[eqoay "29 ‘syBWody ‘Wd Fy *w'd%/ynoqe set eeeeee eG UL ST KV 6 wade ‘Wade ‘WV *Inoy $ ayer ! uolyeing, *N 0} °S oe eeeeeee “A'S 0} °O'N *A\'S 0} “HN Oeeeeeree en etetene ee eeeeeee “a Sp1BMO}-- weer eeeee seeeeeeee “a'N 0} °AA'S seecesese seeee “202 °M seeeeedes “M'N 0} A'S BICEDER ICG | adivy uoowl= "Sq $3 u0o0m = a3.1vy Pere eneee seeeeeree “Sq 9€ a312| *p 8, woowl = “Sd Soy eeeeeeree oe 0-% “13 “ds “Sq1 ¥ adie] "Sql TI+'SqI¢ *sq[ [B49A0s *4yZI9M 10 9ZIg * emon|' “ urpag|"** uapeg $S1aquiaqar ya $B1aqtaay}*** evterieeneneeseaseeeren Qe AQ |*t* eeeeeeresereeees 3 rgqsuasnay|"** tereeer-OTTUSPIOJXO ‘UOPUNLT] “ meysurmarg ‘uoyseq3pq|"** Sesiauab adel esis Vcinbsehes SCOTS HET see Hetero eee ROUyy Ss ‘UMOY, aden, see seeseeteraeeeeterereeessens BaTaDg |e RBeainene n ‘asia MON, ra] see = 3 re" TOUUIG UN * vissmyy ‘[oS 7 -Lousety|*** veeeterseeeeee Juoprassn|*** etreeteseereeeeeeees BOLIOUILY NK seeses eg ery ferBto0ag ‘YyAs104|*** aI10'T ap yuLowayaedacy ‘A.ing}*** BE "ROLYY "Sg ‘uMoy adrg}''* aris -uuing | ** aTepsarqqny ‘u0}10p]]"*" secetcces BIUIBATA, ‘puowyory wee Het ew ett teee Agyany, RONCHI bIA see tteeeeteasrerertes IOK MON * vyyoy|**: - earls stteeeeseeeeesensceseeeq OFTUBIY ‘utr “ILI vad ‘po “qq "AON *~O “Sny 9z “dag Ane g Avy Il 9 ‘AON Ol 0 L "dag P oune Avy “24 “uur “Sny Il 81 saryskquaq ‘310d |, y|"4dag 10'Sny GT retensebeversascreersess QUTIOUOT|s 101g) “AON ““puvlodg uvissnyy *004SI[ VIG eo tet eweeeerene “ nyog-prny}"* * YOtmuaaty|*** “* gaSsouuay, “OT[TAYSUN ee eee errr reer vipuy ‘atodaazeyy coo oer Zunsomwec se eee etn rrevereeevevane vyynayeg|""* Nseeeeree teeteseesoreexnpaplog see sett eeeseeseeess aqeg| "SA ‘oureyy ‘o]ptAtaqe yA |°** *Ay1]e00'T G ‘PO 0¢ “any 6 Avy "qd 29, € “AON “ydag *yquoUL jo Aeq “Lest * " “OSsT ¢ 3 * * * é * 6681 * * “8281 *LO8L {8610 LZ8Ta oO 7 * 3 *'1E814 *9C8le PULD @ 73 CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. *¢d0ajaTY “pear aq pjnoo ad 4so][eus 944 qe} ‘AsuazUT OS AUNT} BuO 4e 4YSTT oY, *,CT toy AtvuoNeys pourewor YOM pautroy pnojpo Aystor v u9yy ‘9383s AL0yZR[NpuN Ue UT {Ie} yYSI4q Suoy ev aueoaq ‘spremuMmop poivadde yy31, Jo years y “W'Vg “[OIAT, “FT JOQWaAON | “pad ‘aniq ‘aztyAs £ asrou ou $44 SIs 0} 480] [[1} OZIS UL FuisvasoUr [IMS ‘sprvavas quam $ UOOUT TNF BY} JO 9Lq} 07 Yuaz ayy Ur wis WYSUq v WOT zis UT pasvatouy “WNoudT “GZ oUNL x ‘andoleqeD S,lonvyuneg 0} Surpsod0e ‘xnvopiog “gz Auenure “zest , *A[snotavad 6 taquiaydag Jo [[ey 94} JO yuNOdoL pasnzuod B Ajaraum‘sodedsmou vuuar, v Jo ApLoyINE 94} UQ “BIARIOPY *AaqQuIddaqZ I ‘OE8T ‘OT Nady ‘apazey syong ag “s*y"Y "A ‘20'T “ACJ Jo woIssas ~sod ay} Ul st QUOys SIT, “A0}S90Ig AvaU ‘UOIUN] ‘CT AIeNIqQaT *'OEST y “T12qaay B WIOIZ JI 9424s JOU saoq = ‘uaTeUUy “SS0g pur ‘76g “mt ‘ze ‘mnydins pue snsoydsoyd jo yfaurs yvyy ‘aovyzans aur[eyshso por v YITM JU09s Jo sovard ayy] £ MJIqnoq ‘NS 6281 = “HT JOA ‘2amRy “[eqary ev AUG "gz Jaquiasdag -GZRT 5 *parinoo0 uolso[dxe ay} 1aqJe UaT[ey savy 04 pageys ore saoard + retqnoed ssajayysoaau £ poppaquut saqtaXd uoar pue anydjus Jo sajoyied yrtM ‘[eooreyo yovduod Jo pury v axl] oA0W $aouR\sqns Tnyaqnop Wey} e10Uur B aq 04 ary “py 07 suvadde ‘saysoyauepy Jo ‘uorssossod s,yyTWg *y “Y “AC UL Mou ‘uoIsto90 sity UO UaT[ey aAavy 04 pasoddus ‘dn payord 9y11094 “aut ayy, “arysdquag’ “sAodiTyY {8Z8T 10 JZ8T ‘1aQquiaqdag 10 ysnSny , "96% “Wt ‘zymyy osye taodudsmou ev woxy £ yey-auors [nyJQqnop y (¢¢z Avy) “Oe qsngny p “63e AeI S*gQ “oosaMUING Ut ‘OAYSVN ‘Yoorg oywaqy ¥g Avy 5 ‘atodoazeyy avou ‘Moy IV #2z Alenaqag q “OLoazour AT[Vat JOU ATquq -oid dn paxard uaaq aavy 04 pres avojs oy, *ap[taraye Ay wdaquiaydag , eeeeereee ore eetene ST eas ste eeeeee Teqo1y ‘aouvivadde snoutuiny o110a}0u & “TeQoay, *yoUl09 99.e] 10 ‘yayoo1 v ayT] “Teqary “Suyzzep “Ys ‘ UoOUT snojnUIE.Ty AOYYeI pur {Ie} Suoy ev pey ‘aNO OFUL BuIWIUN s{[eq aaIyy Aq JL se pawdy “Tleqety eet eeeeee "S$ 01 'N seer eeens ‘ure.14 Suo] fanytq pure use1 $4s.1mq you pip Spadeys-read *S 0} 'N “BaAg[O [[BUIS £ 4ayOOI B ay] ysanq £ AT[e}UOZIZOY paaout “5 0} AL ‘uon| *ovIp “0 0} “AA “MOTFEUOJAP PNOT YPM + 0931p yeah ‘oytp| sttseeees stsaecees Teqaay ceeeceeee "ystuaaad Querpiiq £1[2q rapunod-pz v ay] “(789 stoneyuneg pue zjzWe y 07 Surpso9oR) ortyo.108 “YW 7e uaas ose £4ySpAep Aq “489M [7 UL 980. “teqety “9 AOJ OGISIA ‘OpIM Cf INS] Jo Your prosy v yo] *oWWIp *¢ pavat] punos Furssty ev $ syreds yno aav3 § yeqary *MOLIOUZ YY *[[tJ-9U0}g9 "eT At “Gg.¢ “AB ‘ds ‘][rJ-au0Ig *¢ Al@ ay} UI UOIeUOJap OL10a}9TI B “treqas eeeeseee /9 89148 ‘Wve “Wd fe see eeeeee *M 0} errr rT ae “Auvosny, “M'NUN 09 °O'S'a “M'S 0} “I'N "aS 0} “M'N * plemauniy|"* $z wee eeeeee eeeee Jordy, eee cae Sie: < - Decueraee Nea ss ar OH] —* |rseeeeeeerseeeesseeees gudologley 10 ZT sacedsone resesesesteseesseseereeeres UTTTG|"* Q "499 aS.avy sereeececoeseeeees BIDUT GniaaI|'"* FZ AlN uoom = ; * asargq f yynourd}g|"** 6z uoou # ‘a8.ivy ss eernrpur ‘Iyjaq|"*' ¢g oun eeeeerene SOO tet eeeeeeeene see Sy “ 1e oer eetoes Fete eee eteeeens viIput ‘esueg wee 02 ARVIN aB1v] see eeerereeeeeeece vIpuy ‘anyany|"** Il “ady coseveuse seetereeeseeeereeererrerts MIO? GT asivy tenet ew weeeseee vIIquiey ‘oung a2 Youryy "+ Sraquaney|** £ *qaq wodadeses “= tog! eg a8iry Sestreeerrerreeseynpgpaog)' Z Uee “sq $9 eee ee ey PIAV.AO TA ee 09q afuey reeeeeeteesensens onTTTSploJada fy] |""* tmoow = sereeerone TraSNeySINGpIUpy|*** setae Jeso0g agar] be “ ypaunig|* “++ Sroquiazatay £ way Sisdoyy|"** gouvly ‘s1aI10g}*** Ayeqy ‘ousiyo,]|"** +2 ddg-UapIe[G = ¢ uaieyey = ¢ [[rJ-auoig *(anZopejeg s,Dysmeysnsog ) o11[o198 ‘Caze'd yay Moy) Aue ‘99 YIOT AO § [[eJ-aU04g “TI@qea8. *(sjaoday ‘oossy “I11gq) “AON TET IO £ [[eJ-at10}¢ “iceQl ‘ET JaqUIaAON se awes § [Teqory “Suyzzep ‘sired omy 04UL papraip “gy Stay Aq $smopeys ysvo {yy St] OLtOajour yYsIIq & ‘wystt] “Treqary -IM} SULINP Yea.sys B 4JaT § YSIppest ‘ s[/eq ¢ 0JUT paplatp *ge.e 18 ‘dg -y1g aune Jo $ [[BJ-au01g -aZ OY} WOA, SUVA JYS!] OAOIjUI zIYM JURTTLIG B "W'd B “UOZTIOY BY} 0} YQIU] *109}9M BUY v slapunyy oy] papordxa f Aoajam yueI[LAq v “Ageryo Moovig yy *Ays ur dn Sty “Te qerg } *(onSojeyea Stoneyumeg) ¢ o1tjo1908 © “yeulueyg yY “laquiadaq WIZZ «0 {][eJ-aU04g S *1o9}aU JUL ‘anyq-ystuaaiS f aepnqols § [yeqa1y Suyzzep pur oie] ‘|’ pavd-gunoo] ‘oad WET 10 $[[eqary Bae] fs [ev Ut patty uoszad v {yy Brom sages ¢ JO alo $ [[RF-9U0Ig S *[[2} SOUOIS BOAT, “SUOIZUOJEp PUB LOa}oUT $][eJ-9U04g i LOIVUOJap pur ‘T[eqory io *s109}OUL JO JBMOYS payeigayed oy} SuLinp usas *o9tp “queryiiq § yeqaty “4s1nq OU pIp § 18 (OST £ re} 10 YEa13s OU ‘0471p TeQ19 *(enZojeqzQ s,raneyuNeg 0} Surpaosoe) o1}1;0198 "o4Ip “Teqeay; ‘wd S¢ ‘Buysing 1aye 29 uotjeUojep *(sqaoday ‘oussy *4l1g) [[BJ-au0I¢ TIeqerg, *(anZoreieg s,joneyuneg 03 Surpro90r) o1y1[o19e “quet[lig {sMopeys ysvo £ a1y JO Vqo[s B51] “Teqeag, ~ ‘ ™~ *o2p ‘sy reUay, “1reqazy) oer ve sees qysie ue AG ALIS MO]S ‘WV 8 OT ee eeeeees eee ee news eee eewene “Wd £9 see verene see eowree Mos Alo ‘wa Fg u& 10 16 ‘Inoy £aqeI $ UOT]BING eeeeeeee seeeeeree Oeerereee [eyUOZTLoy . oo uMOp + eee eeeee *M'S SplBVMO} *M04°S eee eeeeee sete eens “N O}A'S *MO}'H feseeeeee eeeeereee wee eeteee eeeeereee eo A'N SPIVMO4 eeeeerees weetstees eeweeeeee “M 07 °2 “woTyoart zoqrd e°SqI ST wee eereee see eeeeee eeeeetens snus, < “sq L eeeeereee uoom=— eee eereee “Sql O€ oe eeeeee +'sqig uoow £ eeeeerees u0o0oml = eereeteee ee reeeeee eeeeeecee eeeeeroce aSiey *q4319M 10 9ZIg Ll eeeeweene timayog ‘sneqnay seer etweeretens Ayporg ‘eyesueyy Pore cree reer re ere rere é sodeny see eeeeeeeee AreSunyy ‘uaqeyey F vOLauly "N seers gu Z0[0D s"QTTYSPIOJAIIFT “S stteeeeseeteeeserrereee S1988TLIG ssereeneeseees gary spsOJOIO]Y “S “** BIpUy ‘Iesstpy ‘seTeMieyy r “S ‘AQ ‘erydyapeityg vereeee nEIZUNG * BISOTIS ‘Braqyosupy seresreseeeooerees Bisa Jaddy Oe eee teem ew eres ysno1oqsurey sereeeerseeeeeeees KTOXES (294197, pelemenlseinsaclssaTRRTINY “etuAyOA . reese BOS WU * QAIqspI0Ja.19 Fy seeeeeaetenerereneeeesena IOTHUR “* uvysueysgy ‘ ieyepuey seeneteeerne PIALIOTN. ‘oysur|g rrrerrr ree ererr rere) Sinqselg f * $9784 paid) oo sane Auvwi95 SrIaquMIgzAt AA SMasneys.nqpyty sec eereesoesece purpjoog ‘KeIS] seteeeseererses QITH81948900 AA “-*¥STOGOT, ‘ysUIOSIe.LyORN reeeeeees JQqgQUOI andeig ‘B1aquainy Heeeeeeeeens SBIDRTN “ees Bipuy “yeyeqary) JO “AA stteseeneneeeseeerereeseees UTOG teteseeeseeeeeeeeeersers DUBISUA * QITYSP1OJaII FY sone * reSunzy ‘eyezs|"** IT OT él 9? “AON JO pua errs 06 €1 40 ZT éT “AON —< % 400 “ydag OT “sny gt Aine 02 At 61 ‘dy 81 “IRIN “SSSI 02 61 €I 29d 61 ‘PO “yUoUL jo Avg om -” * to ao 7, *SE81a 75 CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. *ge.[="a3 ‘ds § youquayoray 04 Strpazodov ‘orro9joUr yOu st pur “fayxoIu OU ynq UOJ pue oTWASIe amOS Sut ~UleqUOD PUNOF sea ‘ULIPIsqO Suljquasar ‘au0ys v f adUapIOUIOD pus uoNdad -ap jeodo uv Ajqissod 0 ‘qeataqoaya sdeysed ‘ureq e 0} a1 40s dAvY 07 ples SI Lodjzaul sy, “eouRIy ‘uly ep ‘Ad|[og iveu ‘pououg * ET IaqmaAON , "CLE ‘d ‘IAxxx ‘Toa “uuy ‘380g ‘astou pnor e ITM punod ay} UO JoAJasqo ay} WO Joey E [Jaq ‘eq *g raquiaydag b “rapunty Ayqissod four ayy 3e Apnopo §10jsa0uaIty Woa Sart ET ‘qOMSpTY y@ Aep owes dn payord ou0js oy7 papaddord you wou ‘toajaut aq} Jo Burysanq oy} A[quqoad $ aaryspaoyasopy ¥F ysnSny a ‘purl ayy dn SuiyZnojd uo punoy Ajuo ssvar * PleY W0}909 vOJUT T[ay fUOTJeUOJAp pnoryT ‘uuay “oo UosyoIg *yE AINE o “saoeid rayy0 Auvut pue ‘SUUOIGAH “Ypresynyg ye uaas osye { Zamquiaisr4\ TAO uouURd v ayIT asTOU Wim papordxe $4ydI] Jo urey pue syieds Squvipaq faq AA #ZT Aqng , "ANFO[UILD SLYsuvjsusog 9g —*Ysjusoyz1o1y, Jo ssanogq 7°77 YUN w “sastou uvouvtiayqns A[qissod S urefdxa 07 anoyIG “Wy g [IY WK'V [ Wor are ay} ur Afjuatedde pavay sasion ‘orp ‘vuaSeyrseg ‘oymy — ¢ "eg Arenuer I "PSBT AL IOA “Ege “d “350g ur ‘rupelyg Jo quawarddng yor s,LysMeT “snSog a8 ‘Sit{2 JO yUNODI SHOLIMd e OJ {ynU[VM % JO yey} 07 vad e Jo azts wory sadard Avjndsoa aTqeLy [[eUs [eIaAVg “neqoT “gy Arvnuer xGeg>t 4 ‘aag “Ud}4Z[ OY} IO oT AdYJOUR ‘MOFL[Eg ayV] Toy papuagur st uaqeyery ATq ~issod ! geg[ ‘1aquiaaoy Cz Jo T]ey ULIALIOTY Oy) IO “Tey RTEZG 943 0q Avur 41 > AWLOOT OYA TOF sv [JOA sv ‘SuyURA ST [Tey Sty JO uonvUojur astoaid a10y, “BIoRTeM pue AeSuny{ JO stapioq ‘uaywyey {GZ TOQUIOAON FPEST 5 *aqtueIs Jo voard v ‘tuperyD 0} Surpsoooe ¢ Snquny szadedsmau oxour v £ (4sT Jo) zg Arenuere “FeEgT ; “PEST [dy Jo pua ‘odery 0} Surpioooy “aeqepuey *saquaaon Jo pug q “punoy a19M spUIMZeIy 10 sau0ys g ‘qovquoyorey 0} Surprooow : Aryoysnut Jo a1y1e1 Jy Aq PaMoOl[oy ‘uouued ¥ Jo yodar v oyT[ ‘UOKeUOJap pNoy eUG “eIATIOW ‘oysUeTY %*'Cz JAQUIIAON g “TAQWIAON YI0Z 9Y} JO 1oaqzaut 943 ATQIS “sod : ¢Z 1aqmaaoN ‘oysuelg ye [[ey 947 ATQeqoid ynq § syloday ‘oossy “31g das £ Junqsorg Ivau avak sty} sauozs Jo [[ey y “Banqserq “oz raquioao Ng "CEI ‘BT toquiaydag ‘[rery, “Iq Aq paquosap auo ay} A{qissod : aynurur e weyy a10ur a]qIsTA WOOUT Tuy se IST $ aoj0u aqeard | FEgy 10 CesT noqy “Arist soquiaydag “gest » THAqQnog = *ULoF “ISOGOL “OL AIOE eEEsT p “UOTFEAITI GE 7B Surjsing ynoyjzta pareaddesip yr shes yunovov aug “seupeyy ¥'8T Youry 5 ‘atodyaiqny 48 ‘ZZ8T ‘OE ‘AON SB ouIug “eUUINe JaATY pue qefung oy} UaaMyoq SeIpUT “EEgT 10 ZEST q ‘uayeuuy “S3o0g pue zyWIYY 0} Zurproooe ‘Teqary v ATuo ‘ purlSuy “ET 9quiaoaq “zest * Iv[NZuv uv Jo sauoys pres st 4t pur S [ox [rePT “THeQe49) “OUT, DULOS IOJ WOULD Jo Sursy oy] sastou pur $100j;our i i. “pavay UoTyRUOzIp OM £ ][[eJ-9U0Ig i] euSnu0om Suone fn naae ‘neaain wom “Laquio09ag YET 10 £44 3tupto ynoqge : as1ou ou hes ata 4 aS1v] id CEO Sinqapseyy pue ulplag|*** ZT ‘09, “Teqauy ttt eeeeee wet eneeee PILES IE 9) ” ‘stuory “WO}""* PT “(e PERL ‘TET Ia WasON se outs) Teqary se eeeeeee we eerneee Pee eet en eeeeeeeeesens Roweuly ‘N|*"* el “dotyeuojap pro, Ssmoprys 4SB0 £ [ley £ guadsapuRoUT ‘Wd 6 "aN OF “A'S i weeeeeeees OURLT ‘Uy, | aq)" €T “AON *punoa3 | “syreds ; paltey : anytq ‘ padeys-avad bs ah “aN 0} “A'S 8 puryoog) Bas ye)""" BT Bite) uo ssvur ayty-Ayjal v Surtavoy 1123 £av4s-Sutj00ys ee eeeeee eee eeeeee Pee teeeee . steerer eewe e405) see 9 dag Pe "13 ds £ [ey -auo1g Wd Ey io mre maa SIZ Hee wetter eeneeeeeene Joys0ualIg|""* F ‘dn ysiy Ie 91 UL WoTssnou0d qvaad v teeter eens teseetees tet eeeees sroretnads ose" OTIS PLOPOII Py “sl p ‘Sny “(é I qsnsny 10 1¢ Aine 10) []eJ-uory oW'atz a O7°M “Sq 6 sn ‘Jossouulay, “oo wosyorq|"*" OF *s]]eq [eAAAOS 070 peprarp [re} tee eeeeee “M09 “0 . . sereesene UTIOT ‘ snyey|"** eT “UolyeuOJOp ‘ urety Suoy ‘][eq-uouugo v Oy “Wd Sg “MN OF O'S 3 Kf BIIQUII}AT AA, b url)" ZT Ane (e¢2 Auenure) Treqaty) oceeetees eeeeeeeee . . wpeuary Man) “TIeqoary. YsIppoa B eeeteeeee “O02 wee eeeeee Sede eeeeretereesraes S1oqssiuoy “aston pure aoursvodde O1I09Ja UL I[GUYAVUIT B “Wd 6 a ed nN eee JoTUOdy uBISSnY pue uvissnig)*** feet een eee oyny, wee oeeseaecoe neqoy| . REPORT—1860. 76 Teqery “Kyunoo wyseng °“G.¢ ‘13 ‘ds § ][ey-au0ig “0441p “0331p “Tegany “feme popes pur payed Ayjenpes *109}9U OUY B “Te qeay ‘aPTPMOYHO 4B £ yl[-snovovuoqgred £ T[ej-aU0j}g ‘OL ysuSny 10 f10ajauI oy *ec.¢ 13 ‘ds {squamBesy ¢ { T[eJ-2U01g ‘epLuryg UI Was Ose £ 4Sinq ‘AOa\aTE 4UeITTAG *QIOCUMLD IRI £ [}VJ-9U0}g “porter $01 Hers § querpiaq £ epyjoq o8.e] *pat ‘antq £ sMopeys 4svo sxaqye syaeds £ aytyM-raATIs WIIG $4yS1]-Aep Aq +9904S aJOYM IY} IOAO UES * O[QISIA ,,Q[ Yeea3s “THeqeag. ‘aumdneqg “sMoprys 4seo *QOURLT *[[VJ-9U0}S *sIByS Pot OJUT 4sinq * Yystntq {Bao TH) QSIppat UIA “MOAT UazOU BHT] £ Y{St[-uns jenba *g¢.¢ “aS ‘ds ! ]Pj-au0qsg "9L.g 19 ‘ds $ sauogs [[eMs dUIU Jo [[eJ pur rojo *AZO[OLOIJO|_ SWMOsWMOY YT, 2g “| [BJ-aU0}g *(yxopuss3oq) []eJ-au0jg ‘wy + £ATpno] poyeuozep £ Avp se 4ysiy £ parrey *E PERL ‘Blezs= { (sytoday ‘oossy “qq ) [[eJ-aU0Ig JO 1aMOYs aBAey Atoa $ aSTOU YITA ysanq {LodjomM oe] "G08 09 [ [ WLorT sou04s | *uotso[dxe ouaydsounye “BaS JB UaaS { ToqMIAON Jo yg IO pag fared QSTOU OU £ [1B} 410s +g [ROLIJOOJO ¢ puNoy aouRysqus [NJ}quop y “[]eqa14 ‘wa F {astou pue UOIso[dxe ‘ auTYsUNS SutInp {Iv} YSIppat puv a1ojaq agp £4S1nq OU prp £ queITTIIq ‘aly UO WLaq UIPOOM v 9\{I| *sadULINOD Jv Plvay UoTyeuoJap $ SMopvyYs 4svo ‘UOTYBUOJOP Pu IOAJItU 9FAe] Ox ‘syIVUldy eeeeeesee "Wd te eae eeees ee reeeeee 108 P9198 weneneees yomnb WY £6 uOT 89148 wel UL OF JG HeIA4s uS 04 wl Het en eens ut 9 yonb AOS al uoou wa fg ‘K'd ¢ MOIS £ ,E ‘Wd ¥{[ AOS ‘WV OL ST vats eeeteeene "Wd $9 ‘Wy ‘mou { azel £ uorqeing errr “M'S 03 “SN oo eeereeeee yequozt0y “aS 0} ‘M'N eeeeeeree o'a'N 0} “MN "M'S 0} “SN *S OJ 'N “A°N'N 09 *AX'S’S eeeeeeeee “MN 0} “A'S see eeeree *A'S'S 0} “O'N'N 10 "WV G UMOP 34310148 *uOT}OONICT oa é°sqt 0S “Sq, “UDI {|G adit] snua, < asiry “sal & uoow < aFIv] “Sql 6T +a1% *SZO 9 uoow $= eeeeeeeee ZL.g ‘13 ‘ds UOOUL SB ISAT] aie] aaIe] snuaA < a8] uoow # weeeeeeee *4y 319M 10 aZIg Pema ee eeen tee r tnt ewer nee OAL aes seeeseeeeeerereeeees UBTTTY verte Bipuy “gS f yeyoowmes eeeeseeeteeee® GTONT=ANS-9PUOD Pee B.moqiayo adoz] pooy jo aden stoseerseerone KUBULIOD|''* 6 erpuy ‘aesrag ‘a1odvyepuryg|"** 9 sreteeees NIOK MON ‘ueStyoryy|"" ST sete ee eeeees vipuy ‘roodinqyy see SI seeeees TODUOT “UOISUISUay|*"** ZT * nesaig|"** Z * zyugery|""* OF *g "fy ‘NOD9UUOD|"** FI seetteeeeesseerorees UDI)? T steesreeveceeosevooestpy SarSty|'*° seeeereeeees gquigaeqg ‘apneasg|"* eee eeeee puepaly aS *y109 see 0g * visapig taddq}""* 62 cana} ‘UsATYMAN “5 ¢ serees KIVFuNGT ‘VUIAT-SsOIg|"** FZ Secenessecce JayemaSpug qseq|""* ¢ lerereserseeseerterrenreprngny| ** OT teeeesees KivSungzyT ‘emopoytp|"** ST seees gsno[noy, ‘[nosa,|"** ¢ “AreZunyzy ‘vag-ueyryq|"" é water [lzeig ‘OvoRI\ ee Il lesesteneeeetecsaeeseeees*® BIGQTIQ!'! ZZ serreeres roqdtueyynog ‘a1Avzy|""* G - stew en erent eee eeeewenee nee eeeeeeee secret eeeeeee allory ap quatmazredaq ‘Aang)"** tereseerees priqnjeg ‘ourssoy |" eee eee weet eeseeeene S.moqiy9 aoe Z ii ‘ure % 5 eater ew eeeee quouparg TLOATY] see 8 “day *OE8T *Aqpeoo'T a hice “IVI T nejsatq|""" 8L “490 ew eeeeeee QOUILOT] see SI dag "sg" ‘stounty)"** 0% “3ny OL oune tg “Ady CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. "Wd g § URIDO ULUIIaL 91} IOAO popoTd -xo Atqeqoad {spunos Sutfjor pue Surjyoes9 ose {QT 10; uouUd ayI] punos B ‘Jaye jf 10 ,Z $paysey 4 yS|IyA syrzeds yno Surmoiyy ‘Apuanbasqns pausoy sem auo yNq “[1e} OU asaya fdn YStpT ‘ox ‘“Brmsajyog xg Arenuere “yYSUNs 94} UL SMopoo OTeUSTId payoayor YOryAr ‘uIeI3 Buoy foddiyisueg Jo *Ay'g ‘Aeq ay} J0A0 Ayeuy Surystuea ‘sajdey 0} surezunoy IZZNAQGY ey} Wo ‘sapdeyy Jo WlopSuary aya Joao passed pue yoeq pourny ‘vag IYLUPY IY} AAO Udy aT “TT OAL ISA VW ‘sotdenNy “GZ JEQUIDAON o ‘UMOP JYSteajs ApwaU PaaowW “YSinquipy *g taquIeAON y ‘yquow oy} jo Sutuuisegq ‘oorxoypy ‘olajedonNy xAaqmIaAON w "(OL A ‘OFST A0J syorg JO yoog vax 9as) sivys Surpey Jo sapnqyypnt yyWM porueduosor ‘aig Jo qaays v ayt[ ‘uopuoTy ut ‘1aqmaydag Y}P 941 Jo “IN'V E pUv ‘Wd QT Udaa\jJ0q uaas Inodva uosuiito 10 “yy SI[ O1109}auI YsIppat aejnZurs y “¢E aaquiaydag | "(91495 ‘O ‘FT asndny) 9g snSny x ‘da ySty AraA useq aay ysnut pur ‘sgovtd aso [[v 3 aouvavadde omres oy} ApAvau poqyuasa.d fyeqouy sty} : a1enbs sandea[ OF[ JO ILYSIP U IQA) ‘Ow ‘QUURSNeT f AerquIND Ssiteg *g oun ¢ "2 (anSopezwg sJJOM) OL ‘Sny ‘young seouieg ‘Auvuiay “Gg asnny ; ‘antq 10 ajdand aztsoddo ary ‘par adpa ouo ‘snaponu OqIYAA 9d¥I7 YSIppor B BurAvay ‘uozrioy aaoge og poystueA “ZT YOR y “gsanq 41 []1 WOOM 9y3 UeYy JaZie] AT[enpead emvoaq pue ‘Ayptder [lay $ yjTUez oy} ur yoads 4y311q se uefeg ‘yI0Q ‘Og ysNSny 5 *SOINUIUL [PIOAVS Payse] Yywanjg “Gg ysusny ; "Sf “Sse uy x°G ARP 3 *sando]ejyvo UBWIIH IY} Jo Aue UT [[eF Sy JO UOYUAaTE OU aq 04 Saas BIIYT, “eMopoyryy 4v ‘ey, Arenuve Ajqissog ‘euasny “2 ¢] [Udy p “dF eos $ saajow O¢p‘ze vovds ut paads aynjosqe { puovas B Saljour CERF YI YIM poads ‘sara pEFZ 10 ‘Aajomelp yooz QOS, $ USIy sopttd O/T ‘AYor\ JOA f wy Fy fasiou years $e pose] $ usippat req $ gue $ uasneysingp)} pur yorunyy yv osye usas : uoyeUOJap YIM ysanq { YstueesS SM 0} ‘QSPG FY = *UOZLIOY UlayyNos vy 07 UMOp AjAeoU YYIUZ 94 SSO19V JUIM PUB “UONVAID .CF 4B “N 9} UT 9SOr S sqTeq AaTTeMs ¢ Aq pomoT[oF ‘{1e9 [Vs B pey £o¢G Jo ore uv apeul { YSIy (99 {MOTs “Sg 0} *N ‘asnojnoT J9AO YSINTG “AYIA pur ajseg ye osje fasnojnoy, *g Arenuee x'vegT 5 “UTEAY 10 [1H] OU f4SINq JOU PI] “POU DITALIG “AIAVFT ‘G AIQWIOAON gq *puooas v UL aTitd BF Jo JIRA YY AV Buros ‘YySry aay QOOT gnoqe Apjuor -eddy ‘1auyong 0} Suiprosoe gegy = ‘snojonu ay) ut afqudaosad Auoardde AWAVI Yep B ¢ 9[QISIA 4s|yM ANS UL UMOP MOT { pavay spunos Surpsipm ‘Bury ~YORIO SSIXB S}L UO 278J01 0} paMlaag “Bimoqiayg “gl Arenute «981 2 “oprjoq COORCIE ‘aS 0} ‘A'N uoowl = * spurisy] yorMpurg)"* g -qagq “UOT}LUOJOP f SMOPRYS Surysvo £ 4ySi1q ‘Yornb ‘asuey] ,[ ey- | -AVN'M OF Ws'a| “py suoom = “euoyy fepeiuady|"* g ‘ure) *OF8Ta \Teqaay) ,,h years | aN 07 “An's mG BAQUOR|** Ale “yaTajoNny 0} Surpi0v08 $ a1gI[0.198 seeeeeeee see eerees en eeeeee eee erereeeres enters scceos UrTIY oes LI * ‘op feeeeeees rrr rr ere rere sjassnig ‘slo[q tee a Aque "Treqay seseeneee eraseeeeeeneeesereseoeees goupTTl * PT ‘aOURIY “QoMOTT + *PG.g “13 ‘ds $ [yejJ-2u07g “Sql GL PAvuay-neaywyyH ‘aenSuy!*** ZL * “JI}IUURIP UT SatJaUII}ZUI YY ‘sMOpETS 4Svd { MOIS "ANN 0} ‘D'S aSAv] ““xnveplog ‘uady tsiaSuy** 6 oune Lua “queiqyug eveeeeree se eeeeece setensansrrcssaseccnsons. gmedaiml=* py { o ¢ Brin Wimmccr. p Ae) REPORT—1860. 80 P9148 3 rq pe “*Spu0das [CIIAIS 10} “queiyiiq Buoy 06 pur ‘apr ,P[ Ie} * yout0d v axIT *MO|S, (‘uasneynyy reo ‘uasneyps0N) “sqy 9 £ ]]TeJ-aU07g) *spawmiaye GT UL uovuoyap “A'S ut posvadde Ajuoppns $ dn ySry oT Fp osip punor 4ysi1q, “48nd yor|q * []BJ-au0ISg *O}1IP} “aptjoq "74G.¢ 13 ‘ds {]Ja¥ omy £ ]]eJ-2U04S ‘uns Jo 4YSIT OARS “Sunsinqg ynoyIM youNxe AyUeppns auvdeq) *Z0-¢ “43 ‘ds {uot OU sUID}UOD £ []vJ-2U0}g *ystmorod *Japunry 4e Xossng UT UV—S Os[e { 214 Jo sstuL aDaLT v “0141p “T1eqo4y, *(99¢ ‘d ‘pegyt cat ‘oa “330q) aaMoys v £ []vjJ-au0}7¢ ‘wa £9 fuoeuojap Ssyteds £ 4s1y 9v 4ysaqyS11q “UOLUOJOp 4LaId $ [[eqory 4yBIaq A19A £ 09)1p *o1qIp “Te qQ944 ‘T[op pue yystaq Ajaqyeusogqe § dn ySiy £ queqyuq “Teqeag, ‘syaeds] *4Se] Sv ames { LoayaU [NJWNvaq pure sjuowSseay por pue anjq our ysunq $,2¢ a[qisia *ywa.ys par £ [yeqaay ysiusatd ‘Tnyqnop A194 *(zzMR yy) ][eJ-909g *payre, £ ySIy fF Inoge uozZLoY 04 JaT[v.ed poaout “MN ata] *ystu9ai3 OT 1OJ a[qista yeas Jo yavd UI papuadsap Ay Mojs Ua} £ UOZTIOY AACR .¢ 10 .Z A[UO “[[eqoiy fwd OT" ‘90.119 B UL poaow AT enpeas ud *sjied OM} OFUL UOTZLUOJZIP YIM PaprAIp ‘aOUBIY 10 ! []BJ-9U0IS -euojap £ ‘Wa $6 4sanq S syteds fonTq {smopeys ysevo Bur uory] “SL £3 ‘Ilef-2u0}g *paaAind auredaq Yeat}g “ya d01 v VyI] *layje uorjeuojap £ [rey WY F1.1q) *oprioq "ow ‘SAVOY oot eeneee Seer yornb ee eateee we Ul 606 "wd £G yf 89.148 7) 10 WG We 22148 yl ears ‘Wd G ‘W'd 06'S u& (% WOTyeys /G04,FY2a14s ‘mmoy !99eI £ WOIyein(d ate eneses senretene ee eeeeree seereeree "H'S 0} "M'N ee eeeeees aeteneeee see eeeeee “M°S 0} “A'°N “a'S O} “ACN eer eeeree eer eweeee “MS 0} “A'N rrr! *uonoam L.¢ 13 +ds ‘p soyoUr OT uoow = "Sq FIT ES aBie] see eeeeee “Sql ST etree eens aie] see eweeee 9¢.¢ = ‘ud ‘ds a3.1e] aie Jayzidne = eeetseeee att eeeeee seeteeeee “wp {CT aZ1v] aoe, Aros tee eet eee é ‘Sql £ uns= ‘99.1v| #¢.¢ "1d «ds a3.1e] “VY FIOM IO aZIg UIsloAnog ap quod * Sanquey * Sinquey ‘s+ Kuvuliay £ uapuaAy UTaTy sreereee outa $ erpeydysa Ay Bipuy ‘qsiapueyy ‘uovzaur yy ; qyo9119 * BULIE ya. aouRLy tee eeereneees aourly ‘uoulie,[) “* puTporeg *g ‘aqpasdoystg Hee eee ee eeeenetewnes BZ.anquare fy wLysuyjON $ uopio0'T seeescceneeeneres TIODSIOSALY seerccescesvscccessesens sasnig see eweeee peqepemiy jo “WN seme ecerereseeseetoes “ON ‘BIsaTIs) “+ souduey fsaSsoq ‘qeurdy * ysinquery teeeeeeees OS pTaquing| steageeesceteeeeaeeseeers® BUTIR eee teeeeeeeeerneerereens BULB "8" QIasT] ap quama31edaq se eeeeeee seeeeee DATYSYAOA ‘4VSMO..Ie YY setae e retorts ewe seerseeee Feet teen reeset enenee Binq we Fy pac raeaesvennauites+ so? purysug, Sables sted ***T1O]NOT ab see eeseeseceseeee® Peewee essen esene aiazo'yT ev] op ‘dag ‘so1gtuny) “" gsnoinoy, $ Jarjodyuoy, THeeeseeseseers BIABOID “ual BOCOGIIO IIIS jaya) pb] PA 6D) sisteseueceeeeeeoecessorees BITE T “Aqeo0'T é S.imqueyqy) 2 VISITS, Go LT 9T “adag “Suny Ayue og 96 (6 1G neg oo FI c% 06 aune Av ln ‘dy “AVTN “Mal ‘ute *AON ‘po 09 0g &@ mg 8I ws 0g mg ral ZI 0g mg mg If Il Il ZI F 8g 9% Il ‘ady SI “eI "990 *adag “‘Sny Ayne aune “yyuoUL jo keq “g "RO) + ae ev xX * * “OPS8L “va 81 CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS, *Aju0 Japuny}y jo depo v Ajqtssog ‘raaouvzy 20% Arenaqog , “pare, { savys oyeredas Aueut Jo pasodwoo ‘snoponu "epZofO\ JO QUaWUIeAOD oy) UI ‘Suns 4y “ZT AaenAQaT , *499f OE IO OZ ueYy} Jorvau payovoidde oq JOU P[nod 41 YY [ay FF UOYM Joy OG “(CCRT “x "TOA “Bey "[1yq 998) yy] pue OSIOU FVOIT YIM [Jaq [Zerg ‘eyeooy ‘sony oyu “Arenuee x FPHRT g *sadsoA 94} UI prvay astou.at} { spuodas [ereAds 10J dn pouazySiy sem A130N0d apoyM oy} ‘amity ay, ye ABRoy YySnoyy, ‘ow ‘younz xz Jequiavaq o "Wd G {1OaZ0 a[quyivuloy ‘syivds ‘QouvApe ur Yo Marty, pray £ [Iz ON ‘sooeid say}0 pue ‘Aerawu0D ye osye ‘oxy ‘xnOWIT “TT Joquieo—qq u “UO 24} Uo ‘vyzI1UTIg qs14g ‘efeysrqos-autposia,\\ JO "A'S ‘SISIOM OZ IV “BISSNY #9 1290990 “vG Pasel Yay] JO puvq-yeerys 10 [ey oFrey sty, = *Banquez_ “zz Aoquiaidag | *suorqiod ouuadies [[eus O7UL J[aSzt paalossIp Ayenpeas ostp punosr yySiq oy,“ A\"S O4X UT parvaddy ¥9 ysnSny 4 “yqavo oy4 03 Ivou AI9A pauloas {Wad Q {UOZIIOY IwoU UMOP MOT { {9zNUIUI B SaTtUT GG 5 *AA"S 0} O1y Jo sseuI pal-poojq Be MLYZUNION FY “G AtenAgaT “SPST ¢ (eg -d wayx “Tig “3eN JO [eummor YSinquipg oes) euNeG “SolJATY UL OUUOY IOP PUL L[eJoIP UDOMJOT “OE IOQUIOAON * ZEST + *SPIBAK “Joye Ie 94} UL spunos Surjquint Buoy { eisaytg WA0 TTY Ez 19qG0100 y “sq Z 10 ‘saumumuld ¢Fg Sioa § [Peqary siyy Jo sdeysod yonpoad oy ‘pooysmnoqySieu ayy ur punoy sem UOIT Of109}9UI JO ssBU Jes ‘TERT A[ne UT “STII 913 Jo apts 94} Uo punold 24} YON0Z 0} poulvas pur ‘uaMOINeY JO so1yTATop VY} Suoye Vy Jo yeas B ay possed pry} ya £ yeurdg ur oxy Jo urer & OMT] [[9} PUe poprAtp-or JoYOUe $ MOPBIW B Fuogle [[OL pue punoss 94} 0} UMOp [[eF OF pawiaes YOIYA Jo ouo ‘sqavd 90143 O3uL papratp § Axaz[iQ4e oy] SUOTZEUOJEp JO sattas B DOURIvaddesIp Joye Ajayeipswmwy ‘sadso, ‘jeurdg avau ‘yuswoyney xe Joqumiaoay g “rvaddesip 07 4say aya sem sing Yotyar [[eqory dy} JO yred oy} FXOU SUM YOIYM eos oY Jo ytvd yey, *,CT JO osip B QIK O Tleqo.1y @ 07 Zurseosout ‘1e)s-Zurjooys uoutmoo v axl] puv ‘4317 Jo yurod v se 184g 9[0g 9Y} IB paouawWMOD Suravy se paqisosap st auto styy, ‘a1asy 4e ‘Quo qxau oY} Jo aoxI[d AIPJOUT WO. QUNODOR JayJOUR ATQeQoIT &gl IsNsny ; "Tey [NJIqnop 419A Y “G*N ‘SapogQaed Suryoor-anjeyaw ayy M-TaATIs ZurarezU0s SB OS[@ paqiosop SI 9U04S DILSMOMIEPT IYJ, “LCF “ON “NINsUT,] osfe ‘gge°d “pogT ‘at‘ddng “B80g 90g 9 “quosaad ye afquureiqo you 1999e] Yor Jo Savpnory -aed Joyjany ‘Yipavy 4B a10Jaq suvak UIOS T[IJ WY} JUOyS B Surjquioser Suay[ey DART OF ples “tapuny} pue Suzys, pue se o1yy ut Surpystym Aq porurdmoooe Ts 41eseq ayt[ ‘au0}s yoy YW “oiysytoX ‘oyBaorezT “cysnsny eZPSt o ‘ayes moliepy ye Avp ouies TleJ-9U0}s 94} 0} sAayor ‘onZopezeg siy ut aneyUNeg *poysiuea pur dn ayx01q ‘papuoose A[MO]S YOM IYOUS Youyq B Suravgy {OT ur asangy £ yy Byiay $ [rez OYI[-aYOuls v pry | nepsoag 4e Ajqeqo.d ‘tysmvjsnzog Aq usag *c ysnSny p *padeys-avod put aFiv] UO IY, “aot MaSTA Was sues JY} ATqeqolg “sg purjsuq “{{ Ane 5 *9U0 1X9U 9} Se OURS *SIXE S}L WO 93Rj01 JOU PIP FT SLUT JoUTqeG sty} Wo ‘sueg “TT ANE q *Sd19ZO'T JuaMzIedag ‘asnayy pur ‘sorzneag “4g 4e Vpoldxa 07 pavay pue U9as OS[Y “puooas v Satu GF f 4seT 4e YSIY saptUI ZT “4sty 4e YSIY saplal FET *S O1'N ‘6G4' FL BINJOSGe $ CgO‘TZ DATIE[AL £ puodas tod soujaut ggz‘TZ paeds quaizdde ‘uoyom o1rmueo0es apeiSo.yor yim ‘oyoqraddy :41q1Q “FEPp “Eh *IAX ‘(OA ‘snpuay sazdwmog vag “40g Aq suOlIt[ND|eD *g OUNL X'ZFEBT ev she eeeree “uaas Ioazaut | “TTeqaay ou ynq ‘UOIywUOJap { M10}s-Mous B SuLINp ‘Aup-prur see eeeeee seeeeesee setae eee ereseee soideny {euudig wee COCR CUCOR DCE CRE SEETN nC /.0114:)) «| Ow Set eeeeee Oe eeeseee ate eeseee Pen eetees te eeeseee osuey Alaa k<¢ our y fasnayy $ xnowty)*** oe seeeeeeseseeee seo TBUySUl}qO 108 THeQe1g *y29.148 Ystuaerd ! uoou A10xv[upun {[eIUOZTIOY “ANN 0} “D'S ‘Teqaay| ttre secaeeeee ‘oyqip) sseteseee Roabhcene “saprfoq) tet saeee “MDI JOB} [EIOAS ‘ssvul aF.aey AIBA {][eJ-Uo1]] "WV Z *plvol{ suoryeuojap oad { y[eqory yuerytaq Aras) “Wad OT “uOOUL UIyUaddas f4Y SIT suns [enba ‘aprjog qeorS| —-MOJS ‘aptjoq) ees Reoasnnae *Z MTOsge ¢ y40dar pnoy £ dn ySy poop ayy ve] “Wa C mS ARR 1860. REPORT 82 “OT A-Ysinyq “roajaum Arvu0ye4s snoLmMo *O771P “Optjog “yeas par £ payrey Tegery ‘2 UONJBUOJOp £ [ley pur Joojom Ary a[qeyreuad ‘9SIOU puv UOISO[dxe yeo1d £449I[-Aep ‘optjoq ouy *1oajauL [HFWNVIG *UOZIIOY 0} YITUAZ WOAT YRoIys SW9—as [JAA you ‘[jeqory *suOTJVUOJIp snor] ‘OPYM=JOATIS $ puno.l -OUINU PUL 4waIH ‘WV Z S[eoTUOd SuOOML UL J0z4311q ISTS PUL 90S ‘UIGT ‘WIST 4} UO OsTY *0941P 0771p "AON | *“1OIJOUL JURTT[IAG ‘VOUBTY *19jJB ,F IO € UOTJwUOJop pnorT { Surjzzep *gG.¢ “13 ‘ds ‘; uoleuojep pur [[vj-au0yg “109jaU 9B.Ae] *109}9U JUY. *[Ie} [Tews * [eyUozZIIOY *Z OIPT]OIQe £ 109}9uM ATsO[dxa *yqsiu owes Smquweyzy ye ouo ose *O7}1P TRG219 *BUOT SoAjOU J PUB 9pPIM OZ JoyooI B oy!] sosnag 3e *[BoluoD + yvaa3s Ystppea ‘ jeyUOzIIoY ApAvoU "4y311q pur oSze] ‘7491 Jo uret 10 yro.ys “TIeqeag “TTeqary ystusea3 “0931p “Teqety *Ystpper £ asinod auruadaas “Te qeay, “s[asshig pue Zioquieg ose : spreMiaye F UoIyeUOJop *moyaA-uaplos § nytyneaq L194 “Teqe19 “Urey pot £10a}9Ur MOTTa<-uaplos SPUNOS TBOIsNUL+sauo [ets AULT f109}9UL ON][eJ-2110}S - “*§tloyo DUNO. +3 *a1v ay) UT] "1124214 painojoo-pat yep "oy ‘SyIvUIOY lad ~MOTS | MOIS ee eeerene “ASS OF “Oo NN "M'S'M 0} “ANS ‘WV OT ‘aS 0} “M'N *S 0} 'N ‘Ss OJ 'N “I'S 0} ‘M'N "N'VE “M'S OF *O'N WOP HBS ue m us 10 ue “MM 04} “a WY GF9 = oe eee eeee OTS “Aa°N°N O} °AA*S'S eet eeeeee eeatetees *M 0} 'S *M 0 *a 0% 122.148 eee weeeee sone eeeee eeeeeteee ane eeeees eeeeeeeee eeeeneeee ee eeeneee eeneerees eeeeereee ‘Wd Ze ee eeeteee WAG ‘MOS *S O}'N . ‘ anoy {oye1 “nonoaa1g * WOTyeIN GT Ceweeeeee eeeeeesee eee ee ewes foeeeeeee woo "pF een eeeeee eet eenee eer eeeeee aBIeT ase Aros adel Aro eee eneee snua, = ee neeeees 9/.¢ “13 ‘ds aS1e] *yYZ1aM IO 9ZIg seeee uoltq teeteeeeseeereeeeres YODUOT Sinquie yy sreseeeeeeeeteeenerteerees gripe meysuniox Sanqure fy croceeeeeees Bisaitg Braqauniy Sede eeeneenanes aourly gS 99999 stesveeeeereesseererees YNOUIITY seees* sgoerd 194q}0 pur sit seater neeeee aouedy Ss ‘oesdvry tersee 9929 SuoIAOAW $ OvshBTy Sasori eeeeeerereeesongryy * Aequiog ayyeg Ams 90184 aourty ‘ovskeq eee ee Aequog mu0g Pa Th ve seemows es HCNe) ‘s MoIpUy “ae eee eee eee rere ry Apaequo7y bs Ayes] *§ pur sajdey POR eee eet eee ee eeesewetee wnis[aq ween eerees sosnig funisjeg teem eee rent owe BISATIS ‘[[P19AQ Rete eee neem eweres Aequog ss" quoyyurrg § ypeysuIE(y see eeee st eeeee eer e twee ee eeee eee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeenes dinque py Raeas Spsmabehie shies tosis +S UCN TCT ola * BULIeg errr e reer ereryy “'saSnig Verietuaeeeseeeeersrens srossnig srseeeeee Broquainn { VUE tere Banque yy “e URT Z.inquie yy sresesees QuOIAT, °09 ‘1949T[ TY seeeeeeesereeeneesens GBIMGUIPT seeteee “Ane007T ~~" 62 Ot Lt it LZ 02 91 ig i 0Z "tt 0% LI ey Lz IZ cI ol 0% oie 0g iG 06 OL oe g 9T or “3g 1é Lé ¥G 02 ol ai II 62 It "AON ‘PO Ae “ady “qjuOUL jo keq a ee ee ee eS ee é *'CP8L3 * “PPS “189K 83 CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. , *SUOT}ETNOTeO JO puly sey} url Uodn patpar aq 09 yoojraduit 003 9q ShBMTe 4SNUA s}UIUIAAOUI 109}9UI UO SUOT}LATAS “OQ ‘2/0 —'JIGIO 8,,00109 B AqLIOSOp YOu sa0p JI ‘a ‘2 ‘GUSTIAAOTL OLIQUODOTAT, qoolIp B WWM uns aq} punor vjoqieddy ue saqiosap yt Ajyuenbasuood pur ‘puooas tod aoeds ut AjLOoTaADJNTOsYe SaajaU YFG'E/ ="a pur ‘qyIv9 oY spredeI se puodas sad saajau 009's4 =Ajtooyaa ‘squtod yuasayrp WoIF 109391 SIq} JO APE SUONBAIOSGO dt} WOT ‘OATS SUOTR[NOTLO SAMegq ‘avd 4I YOIYA WO T94SAS IB]Ja}S VY} 0} UIVSe UANJAL 0} 41 sossoAe.Ty Aya1oUt ‘oIa4sAs Ie[Os Ino But 79901 YOM pue ‘Iayjour 0} UNS 10 1248 dUO MOA AOLdS sastOAeTy yey} BuO ‘a “2 ‘Apoq Ae[[9qs-VAPUL UL SIT} SYUTYI IAQ “FFEST ‘LZ 19G0~Q “VON y "PLE-ELS “A ‘GFRT AOJ SJORT JO Yoog wax vag ‘uousmouayd yeowyoala ue SBM SIY} SHOPISUOD SIMBTT "g “AA JIG “aAIMOY f FT CT “Buoy “TF ,9¢ IT Ul 901 aWIes 4e UVES 1OdJaMI (7) adie] Y *; papeey afqnop “34317 d110a30uL que Iq pur years A194 “48800 avau ‘uoURqaT pue quulry “gt oun g *ovsde’y 38 ose fajjag xg Arenuee ,; “snpuoy soydurog “[ny}qnop sdeysad { ou0 yuasaytp pue yourjsip & ma0q aAvly] OF pres “WV g 4e aUO BY, *,[ UL paMmorioy astou {Suyzzep § uozw0Y PAGE GZ Uday ‘saou[d 19440 pur “29 ‘a1gzor] ‘oNskeT ¥-0% IAqUIAAON 5 “(COTT “d ‘snpuay soqydur0g Jo “xx “Toa wOIy ‘Y O0N 998) WOOM = sIoduy ye Ua—S OS[y “Wa FG ¥°2Z 1940100 p *paasasord St 41 Wade oTayAA [NJ}qQnop st 4r { oLIOajaUL Sead ‘punoy uaaq aavy™ 0} ples auoys ay} LayJayM JqQnop auios st atayy, ‘ovskeT ¥ TZ IaqoQ , © “ojauelp samjamyue SF $ Suyey waTM Jase] YOnUT vagy “yurod v ys1y ye Syst “oT raquiaydag q “SUOT OFT [ie £ yyZuaz Ut .Q¢ Jo ore poamno B ur poaour § durey yySt1q aSrey e ayT] ‘ne[sorg ye $ years ysIppar v ATUO Suravay ‘poystava yorya ‘s1eqs FYSIIq [L1oAas oFUL ysmnq {saoetd Ge MOJy UT quas sjunoooe periejap Sdn ysiq 419A uveq savy ysnur {uasog ye u2aS OSTY “qURITTIIq * UIPIA UI ,g 10 ,F JO ¢ [rey Molfak-ystuseI9 { ayUROap-UIM eB OYIT *"M OF “Y] $ MOIS f [eWWOZIIOY f Sraquosnpy PY “eISeTIg *¢ aaquiaydag 3 “aUIYSUOONL [(n} Sutmmp saoprys sro issetees puelyyiq eo Ue OL ‘ounp “01'S avtearee guegi* ¢ ‘ "Teqouy WB MO} “OL o31R| “"" gsnomnoy)"** [ ‘aeyAL *qY4 31] Bu0Iys $ afquop ‘a ‘2 ‘Surqonoy Aypreou ‘omy| —- yon “A'S O} “O'N seeesces Treeetereroeeeeooupay ‘IINOIT]OD|"** TZ “0791p eee eet eeeeee te ewevere PCODODEGE EOC iif sani nee) fg [OO Il ‘aprfoq ee eeee eee asae] AIOA POCO ic ‘urwmere) see OL *PlLYIJOH “Fg A9AO YSry saprargey faqoyS snooust 93.0] *M 0} ‘ sabres ssreeeess QouBly !purplaZjImg)"** Ee ‘qaq *"SMOPLYS SUMS 4svd $ UIeIy Buoj| ‘Wed CFG "aS 0} “A'N ¢adaepAraa |" aMO'J-INs-suoTeYyD|"** 9— ‘uer| ‘OFT *IO9JIUL a[qeyiemoat lala cai atarre oesrcccces vteds + eee Saenad Aequog nel 6 ‘asTou pur] WY O19 § years ouy ! toozaui| _,Z Yeas |-a's'M OF 'A'N'T kKse OOUG LT SUOI CT sreeeeres sgourd AuBat ! BISalIg srreseeee ZyUaTqOD § WOPYURAY “SaTBA\ SuopuoTy $ ayeSscunyy bade Heeseereeereens guUsn td *aaavnor snos A4.1a,] “OW ‘SURITIG) $ SLIVG weyqsunjoy | uopuoy meee guieg arrysoyg ‘Aanquat \y sseeeeeseerseomBUsUulION reese gugopsodq $ aady 4S Poe eee eT Tee Tere ee ere rere eee uoliq setters UMOCE t00 ‘puRlal] Peewee en eee Zraquvg $ jasseg “*s99uid JayjO pues Buoy, errr ree eee panmasbaecenvenscnas =" Qn OT Oi] AL Cee er eer Jaysaonopy PRRERED 7.Oe Goa ICDS OgeON yc lf “ Wopeg £ BLIuArg ‘uNLDd[o¢] oun ‘unjuy ** SOOUIAOTY YSIUayyy * 4puqgsuLinc] AR U0ja10] Ruoduy ‘VyVANOV IV Oe eee newer eee eene TISOIS aadd teeeerees WOYONTT ap sasauaug |’ eee ee eneee ‘ sadgity £ asnojnoy, “AppLoo'T Ja}saono[ 9} slitq|" LI LI on | OL 6 “PO! Gs cS dag 3G Li OL 1 ‘snuy I¢ cZ £3 at at Arne 61 y ¢ oun 8 Avy 1g GG [1G “AVX *yquouL jo Ae, an = “OFSTe Bild *y1edv 499} VUUITA 0009 qnoqe 48 pUNoj a19M UOT JO SassvUL OM4 OY} !][9F VIY JO syva.ys por Oy pus ‘uoisojdxa oS.1v[ auo { uaas toajayy “Juopsuuvondney ‘neuneig x'pT Aine 4 “ara dsourye ay} o7ur passed aavy ysnui toajaut ayy Joord v ‘akey 0} Sutplooor $ dungiys Aqenpess “OL Tox a]qista pauremas yeyi pops sn[nund-o.L119 v ayIT JOS}t UodN punor pura 07 patiaas YOIM “jays pazuaput yYZuq v puryaq JT ** OF “AA P2AOUL SAaUYyONG 03 Supiodor ‘euUlA VY “OT Arenuer g "Ypluaz WOT YJNOS SpremMoy, “9 ArenuLe “PRT o *dULLO9JIUL [NJIQnop &v JoyW.C poazapisuod aq 4SNUE PUL ‘ULOAT OT][LJIUM OU SUTLJUOD “ABD “g ‘puR[YNY stamMINg OST y ‘BISaTIS Ul Saovid Aueyy *syavd 9a.y4 JO pasoduioo ‘OQ, of pnopo yyStIq v yor] ‘OW ‘NEISAIq ‘gy 1aqMaAON w *ditoayaw AT[Bat Sead SI} JOYJOYM AQnOp YON st d1oyJ, “]JOWs s[quaoisesip v Sutavy po.tocoo “SIp Uaeq aARY 07 pits ‘sql ZPP JO BUOIS W "][PMOT xT] AaqWIAAON _ *[[Uq-uouurd *q[-g Ue Jo yyy OZIs yUaT seddv $ 109j,9u1 yURITTIIG SOUL B STM SIE ‘O[QISIA CT LOZ poasey yor “ued ]P4jUdO SIT IvoU FYSI[ Ystpunor eB Zurcatos ‘pus youa ye dn Jlasyt pasayye3 uoyy “© Poysel Yeas suouruny ayy, ‘Avp se qysziry cuoliq” *G aaqmaaAoN x “UOZILIOY BAOGE GT 42 SO] Sq] 07 “MA f AqIdne ULqy AaZary *UOISNY JO 9}v45 B UT Oq 0} pamtaas £ [Ivy pue years Suoy $4s1nq pur uMop ogg [fay {yeas A19A UOYLUOJap fsakory, pur saqivyg 3 os[y ‘sutq %*'G 19q0O x “O.MYSHEM UL pure ‘odpriquieg ye os[e uses Apuoanddy “‘puodas B UL Sarl FZ ‘OIL F°A\ OL AG *N £ YSIY saftut Tg Sastou YITA papord “x9 4t SAUS 4UNODDe JUG "YzIWaZ WO. sparMUMOp paaout { YyTUAZ Ur qd DLOIJIW FLOAT V UY UL f LOVJaWI TI] v MILYTUIVON 4 egzsaquaydag y “Rog ye Ajand Jost wort oy} to ‘xvoy wv st A10}s a]OUM aq} Jayya yng ‘dn payaid W9aq PUL Ud[es aavl{ 0} plus UOLL UY ‘puRjaty ‘Mog ‘og -Q[ asnSny 5 "208 JO OpNzty[e uv yu UdaS 4SINT “JassegQ “LT asnSny ; *(Aoj0Ur “VIP 4997 OSE pue “ySty soyim 47%) puooas v salu ¢ *y “y UL yUMAAOM oprId ~O1jaL | SpUOIS 98Z‘ZT UOIN[OAaL Jo 9UNIy | So.xjdUL YgFG Paads vax $ puodas dod saujaut 99¢6 paads quaredde ‘ saxjout Qoo'Zp aouranaddesip Jo ynamout qe Yva Wolf aouRysIp fsayam QOL ‘py [ea ‘asnojno, ez Aine o ‘syteds ur Ayeuy pasvoddesrg ungny -9z aune p “RIRASNY UL ‘Avg uojaloyY xg JUNE , “WapUd A -Ula[ yy JO auojs ayy Surjquies “9d “Sq, Q 0} T INOGU Jo ]Jo} [eIBAIS S vUOLITY OyUoW AvaN x°g ALTY q °N 03°S ‘SAL}OU HLG‘ TT PoUL;SIp 4svoy f cGEe‘cy YZAva WO. doULysIP 4sa}vaL3 £8 10 ,¢ Loy Years Vay +. UL (gf JO O18 ue UT papuadsap A[MoTS { aNTq azed Ssaqjom JGL'pT = Ayoojaa quaivddy -uoyour o1ju90008 apesSorjat v fooURA[ UL ‘UO FY “;pLzSWAeC 4B Ud—aS Ose fyA0;Y URL “ZT 10q0;00 ¢ YIM “YyAVa OY} JO aztJaqes v aq AVUL LOdjaUL sity SKUs VG “LZ YORI » ~Op YIM [fof sjuowBVyoMyE “TZ. AB‘ds $ ][ey-uoay *U01zeU0} | “aploy “YSty GT f aa-ysiniq) ZT yvaays *MOT[aA-YSIppas seer rates *9)IT] M-YSIMo][ad ‘apltoq “qySiq £ [rey Bu] *¢ UOPUOT 4B UdaS OSTY ¢ VAS I9AO ASTOU Y4IM papoldxa "(EG/) “SQL G6 19430503 ‘[eIaAag “go. 1B ‘ds {[eJ-aU04¢ *1O9}aW JU e "Wd ge eeeeteeee “sql OS +2F Peete teeeeee vINIYyoR ‘neuneag see FI Atne % b AO e eee eaweeetnesceseueres vuleg]|'** Gz aune EERE ROURBEORODOO i TES | ho 92 Se err rer cere nr ry uuog|'** OT uuog)|""" 6 phe sep see has casien ce eee SOLA Y CH hi posscecsennedepes sch yesresar TOK yous} 3 teen eeeeseene aaysuaapsoqy|""* GT ‘AVN * “'""BMOT “09 “UUIT MOLI +o GG * HERO EEO OS UECOSOCS <4 fa FOG 1z see eeseee “aN 0} +- eee eeeses snuaA <= ate eeeeee ee eeerees eee eee eee ery Av “ady eoccccese CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. ‘onp Il ‘onip 01 *,L 105 Areu0192)8) "EG °G2q “aptoq ve € “q2I A[Iveu auo pur ‘umop—-Suryyey auo $ omy oquUI PeplAlp| ‘Wag “O'S 0} “ALN OL “W10}S-dap } ‘astou ou !Apsuoqur ut Surdiva years Byal] “AN 0} “A'S sessep see “UsUUIqUIID|'** g ‘uer -unyy eSutnp |[ay fuomoa][008,predayg uy *szogioyjip} ‘tt OPED 2E-o IB 'ds tg +g ‘eurorrg ‘sg ‘puryory|*** ramung | "gf.¢ 1d‘ds ! Sraquaugyogavou { [eroAas S]ej-auoig| "wa Z EQ é°Sq[ LT reevesees BrivaRd ‘ieyqJap ; Sy eeeeeeees ee teneeee FOO emer teem ete ee reseeeeae “" pea *2 SU] SB ours { ysintq § sMOpeYs 4svo ‘aplpoq o3.te] “IojoMVIp UL sayour ZI f[G.¢ "AB “ds £ |[ey-auoig "ZapsOq WOSINITO YpTMA ‘ma8I3 Eaetep 4q papray-atquop § pares pue podeys-aead uaaiS SuoztIoYy vAOqe OL {44 3IUq pue ad1ey Aron Teqary yq3r1q ‘ou *oytp “aprjoq “S6PS1 ‘J[9s}t Surpurdxo aprym 4sanq “wvIp UL "Ul $Z aU0}g ‘MOIso|dxa yua[orA “]][BJ-aUOIg “purer, ‘stay Aq paarasgo $ [jeqory ‘qUaMAAOMT oUjUAdIas ‘pride. ‘Buoy F [1e7 “apifoq “partes § ysinyq ‘TeqQe1y *puodas WAP ot} 4e 4ueTTIIIq ysoul ‘jlopsuuruipag ye ospy ‘ysanq £ |jeqaay v *[[eqauy aB.xe]] “poads render $4 10J Arvu0rye}s ‘syieds [[euls puz [te} f Apoq [eo1u09 £ jeyuUoztaoy Ayrvau AMOTS u KOTNG £ pLOJXO}"** OZ “qyStaq v8 “A'S 0 “SN uoou *p £ treetesencnoeseeseen BaangIBgl*' ET “ystppet Sspreadn paaom| *t******* Sacer uoout *p £ * ayedany|' g “4dag ‘op yornb *a°S 0} “AN SNUIA "ES8T ‘1g Arenuer Jo Zurqis ‘Aya100g yeAoy ayy Jo suoTjoRVsuery, “IOd}oM Suywuojap W ‘uvuNIOY -aaquiadaq] o} au 99s ‘uoustoUaYyd sty} Jo yuNoDde SnorAND v 4OJ : pNoyo Yor|q aSzR] B Jo axyUID ayy ur parvadde snajonu ay} § Apog ay} ury? seSu0] sau g 30 ¢ [184 ‘au aWOSs pose] ‘UOWVUOZap pue astou ! ¢ O1I[O19y “IWAOT LT Jaqwmeosqg p “Zaye] emMYyg cuvuNI “OM 38 udas 4Vy} sv oues ay} Ayqissod { uoNdiosap sauoj;sSuIAVy Iq WosT fuispnl ‘soajaw Suyeuojzap v Apjueseddy -voryy élaqmasaq oF oun , *gqaysunyy ye ‘Auvuay ul uaeg “Zt ysnZny gq ne *3S8T e *RUO[IDIVG JV AOSSAJOIg “4SIET “WEN ‘S][ooTeq umbvor ‘aq, Aq eunyooug snows t wos payoesyxq ‘uorsodwioo ut ouojs OYsUL[gY O11} sajquiasoy “SNA Yorjq puv ‘sapoyaed o1yjezou pomoys {dn o8T f3URTIUG ][eqo1y punor pue oniq “Oprloq "YO UMOAT} syteds pue [re9 $ punor £ 4a]01A *[BAO £ O44} ORUL Paptarp jte, £ aBaz] *BU0T (Cg Ywoays $ ystn{q *(¢-E—G.g) Sanqsiajog avau $0z.¢ “13 -ds £ ouoys *paystuea ATuappns £ ysintq *ystnyq *SOMLMIVAD QOL WYSIOM {QE.¢ AT -ds $ou0}s “4sing * aprfoqg “2qY SOM Ut soumEIS Cge+ “sqre+-*sq[g =sau04s da} "EG.¢ "13 ‘dg ] *(8-E—G.z) 2.g “a3 ‘ds $ ou03s 0371p “0731p “YSIppat fuiei) Buoy ‘ apioq “O9STOU FNOYIIM 4sing f4ULTT[LIq pue aztyAr "24.1 a3 ‘ds $ ucay “Teqeay *109}OM SUNBUOJIp B 19}Je {][eJ-a00}¢ *aptoq *uleay [NJNvEG £ opr[oq *8]]8q OA} OFUL JTAS} POplAIp { yvaa}s ou 7 a *(andopeye9g S FIONN 02 /¥ AOjs /OT {89138 seeeeeece eeeseeees ‘Wd CPL ‘Wad G yomnb pidex pider OTS uf eal uS& Hea sees 148 aes ee “AL'S 0} “O'"N eeersrees eee eecene “a WOd “ACN'M SPITM03 “aS 0} “M‘N “A'S 0} “AN ‘a'N 0} “A'S “aN 0} °A\'S “A'°S'H OF MN M See easeee nk ,02404,,9 106 eteiveee amydep Cente eee u¥ OF 1€ ¢°N O}'S “8 “aN O} “AUS Hee ‘aS 0} ‘A'N ‘NV [TT | ‘ANN 0} °a'S'S ‘ wo1qzeing MORAL | wee eeeeeeeee aBuey Sq 66 k<=9 uoom “p = snusaA sss-onIa Ue nO Ni “AqLOOT *g *q ‘Ayonquay “00 uostqueyy)" “gues ee HG wg a) ‘Sny "** BZIP] + Bg “* 134100 "02 Lie “*g Ate a ee ae “OL “2m rey “IT “qed sepa eE 6 “¢ 20 gz (a T ST aol “0% 8 “$2 eee I 4dag og “oT osha ‘Sny “er “* 2e Aye “" gg oune = OF 8% “22M *yyuoUl jo seq | mom “O98T Hm re * %& 2 *"6S8Te BLED @ 97 CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. “S2TIM QOT Jnoge Jo yy S10y eB ye snourtEN] amedaq ys1y JOOjONN sty} 3843 pasoddns stay “30d auo 38 pauoneis JoArasqo ue 0} saMUIM [e19Aa8 4se] 0} readde pynom punos ay} sny} pur ‘say g¢ 10 9Z JO 90UR4S1p @ 19A0 P2INGLYSIp 9q P[NOA sstou OY) [eALOzUT yey} Ur 4ad ‘SuTysinq UT puodes e Jey ATUo Adnooo0 Ayyear 4y Siw 1093901 ay} YSnoyy roy { to9j0m 9q} JO Zunysing ayy jo HNseL BY} Oq 0} ‘soynutuL Vatu, 10 OM} BuTse[ ‘uorsopdxa a[qipne ay} Sdoprsuoo A[qeuoseas Ar9A ‘100491 Siy} UO podoy sty ur ‘qsreyy *A urefuag II (x) ‘adoing 0} yuas Zuraq are susumtvadg euuat, yo Amaproy [eeduy 94} Jo suonovsuesy, oy} JO aUIN[OA puZF ay} Ur soded § JoSuIple py 99g ‘spuBy pur sieduy ayy quinueq 03 se pjoa AJasuaquI os sem Yoram dn payord sem auojs UG “saUO ATVs GT 10 FT Aq pomoTjog ‘punoss ayy yooys Torys “uoHeUoyap yea1d v uayy ‘uaas sem Apoq Asay void y “py Aug ‘eyes ~urBrey 48 aovjd yoo [[eJ ayy sdes yuNODOe JayJOUY “siequinu ut YAR aI) dn paysnold souoys o110039ur Jo 1aMmoys 3ea18 eB Udy { YyNOW-UOUURD e mod samey ayy ayiT “(¢ Buoy 4o9z ZT) 21g JO sauIey papoaoons sasiou ayy 04 { auI Suol & paysey !Surmieye pue auqns Ay~nyured euswousyd oy} [je {surez “UnoUI aq} Yooys puv ‘syuvzqeyur ay} pauayysiy suorsojdxe pue syaoys Jo Seas VY "098T leqmiadaqj Jo pua ‘1adedsmau ,, SauIry, ,, 943 998 ‘Tey a[qeyeUL “ot SIG} JO JUNO UB OY “eIPUT ‘atoYyeT Jo “q'N ‘eAduey *'gz A[neG g “Alle UOZLOY BAouL 0} parvaddy ‘sayrur omy ugaq aAevy 0} paye[nd ~[20 ‘Surpratp 19732 puooas wo [7eq 38.14 Jo ouR\sIp § Zuo] 06 UlRIy, ‘*p1x0daz WO S10919T PaAdasqo 4soq pUe a[qeyxIBWAL JSOUI BU} JO BUG ‘aAIND XaAUOD B yy Yo passed savy 07 ynq ‘yy1V9 ay} 09 [IJ 07 you pasoddns sea $4uUeys1p SofTtl [Tp Jnoge Yy1e9 ayi 07 Youordde yso1vou syt yy *A[UO ET JO ZT AIO “ojaA quaredde $ puooas ev sajtor gz uaeq oAeYy 03 paye[no[eo aoeds ur 4410 ~OTPA agnfosqe ‘peaytoAo ysoulje usyA rea ArVA pouiass {suaavay orUa al} ssoroe ysowye Apuordde pue ‘A[moys Ayautesyxa poaowr $yuenjiq 19s ‘ ysiniq ‘ary pue syieds jo ures e Aq pomoyfoy ‘omy Ogut /& hoge ut 4y10der @ UTM poprAarp spleMsoyze [eq a[SUIs e 4SIY IW “W'd Cf'G WOge sayeig ET UP pue | yapraa ur Qug Aq sayroL QOOT Jo yIZuaT e A9A0 Uaag ¥ yz AINE 3 *re[n3ue sau04s S4noge saynuror % paysey ‘Axoysnut ext 19430804 papusyq ara spunos ayy Uary4 pur ‘sioys-uouued ay] pavay 4s1y spunos JoUNSTP va1y}-AjUeM “4s1nq ‘peayioao Apreau 4s1y preay o10M spunos ayy ‘pl00d0D MAN FV “1O9}0U ayy JO WOHOaLIp ayy UT 4sayzANJ sauo Jade] ay fapim ¢ Aq Buoy sayy vore ue TOAO [JF “OI “FG pur gE s19yIO “SqT GOT SuLyZIom auO ‘punoy at0OM 0g ynoqe Wor Jo ‘sauoas ayy, ‘orenbs sapim Qe] 100 preoy SUOT}VUOJaq] “suOIso[dxa 99 tae APoamp punos Zurzziy ev yIIA spnoyo ayy ysnoayy [[af sou0ys yoryq * s19j9MeIp Z[=[eoluod urea f yueTTIIQ snaponu fariut v jo Z Apoq ay} jo 1aj00r “BIp powinssy “sauo}s vy} Sutddorp sa3ye uo ssed 04 ‘raaamoy ‘poieadde 4t ‘soll [pf jnoqe papordxa yr ueyA yySIey $puooes s9d SITU F Sem AZIOOT “9A paye[noyeo syt fuged yoaup syt WoIy satUL GZ mnoge suoNRys 4% UOC au} JO azis ay} Jo porvadde soajaut ayy, “Wd GP'Z] ‘OIQ *[T ARI *098T a ‘SMopeyYs 4svo | Suysing 10738 Ystuaesd ‘Ystppaa ‘atdand ‘ atrysayy Ur pue ‘uinqyortg ‘doreg ‘10d man ‘plojpeig 4B osje uaeag ‘QT yorey Pp *(*) O98T 10F aynANSUT UIPUeITg 94} Jo TeuANO f 99g ‘suOorso[dxa Jo sotIas OMT, ‘SOTTO OT OF F JnogE ysing UsYyA yYSIaF{ ‘oUTYSUNS [[NF UL UVag -passan3 oq Poo se aey se ‘puodas vB sapIu GG ynoge uoToUI yuoKedde { spuooas z UL SoTIUL OTT Jnoqe yyed ajqisia $spnojo Ayous Surino owos jim ‘sprea ~40Ye OANULOL B Jnoge sj1odax pnoy pur ‘usas ysey v ATWO ‘peaqaaso vay A “Aegq orvmejacy ojut q[ey A[qeqord pjnom pue ! Aostar Mon Jo yxed urayynos 9G} AOAO [BONAIA SUM AT “OB UB JO ,OZ 1O¥ ,,Z WYSIY Jo amy, *; waqsks ATVIOS OY} JO JoquioUL B a1ofatayy you $ ¢ a1foqraddy y1q4o § puodas v sayrut O€ 3Se9[ 32 = UoNoM Jodorg *19y¥eMm 94 UL [ay Ajqeqoad ‘punoy souoys on “HOUUB YOOT JO Surry ay} 03 Tenba yzodar $ erurst, pue a10UTyeg ‘Y10X MAN ‘Kasiof MAN ‘FnoyOeUUOD UTI Uaes { saynUTH 9914} 10 OM} OF arenbs sarpur GG T0AO pavoy SuoIso[dxgy “A0ajaur a[quyIeuIer sou y *°¢T JaqmOAO ee OA MON ‘MayaTPeg FV IT asnsny g E93 Youryy ‘arenbs soyim F Jo var = Sutssty Tat souois pue ‘si0da S ani {sirans - REPORT—1860. 98 “ontp| *o}}Ip “ov}Ip ‘op “[eqatg, ‘JOSSOA B PIVOK UO Ta} sou0}g *¢ 0941p “IPOT 10 ¢ [peqo1y “T[2} OMI, “]]BJ-auoig “ov Ip "(42 Tady 10) ¢ 0331p “0741p *(¢ anZoyeye 4ST Ul g 490) 0141p “oyyp "0941p “OVI *¢ 0741p *¢ 0791p *¢ 0991p *¢ OIp “Tega *[[J-9U04g *¢ OIp “é [[eqaty *07}1p “é SPOT ay} JO WNos £ UOTZEMOJap YIM Ta} OmMy £ T]eJ-a009g ‘zag uvidseg | "G/E pur Egg “av WadMjagt "2 01NIp “EouIp ‘oytp g 09Ip "2 0191p “eTIeqeay *soul04s jO IaMoYs B “T1ey-2u03g ‘op ‘syIVUayy eeneeeeee seeweeere araee eeeeereee we eeeeeee eeeneeeee wet eeeeee eeeeerese euereeees eeeeeeees BiCOUUATIG | IO INO} ee eweeeee eeererees on wees eeertroee eeererene een eeneee eaee eeeeetene beeretons “M04 °H eeererene *MOTOoIICy eet eweeee see eeeeee weeeeeene eeneeeeee eereeeeee eee eeeeee eres Peer eerey eeeeeeere weeee seeeeeree eeeeeeeee “44 319M 10 9ZIg . young, va eee qIe49petN}*** “ Tasurpyney|*** stag ULIpUy 4seq|"** tet en ee eeweneee ee eeteweneeeee wee * aourrg ‘Stoyjoreyg)*** Oo secaneeeseeserseereesereoes WOTIMT|*** veeesesees progtraneay|*** ¢ sac eeeaceeeenrtevhesb sora IB aINIS wee seeeeeeee presuonery Sonn wee ¢ seers OOTOyZqOFq|"** see eeeereeeteeerereee eluojAqeg eee eeccco res eeerseesrenseee Auemias) eee rer er Tee eer auloon'y see sewer eoeterens errr 10 ‘UIMSE YY se ee we eeeeeeeee set eeeeeeeerees seat ee eeetereee seteeeeeeeeees BIGRIW JO BISIOg|"** seers Qidouryueysu09|"** he He he he Oe Oe GD) Oe he Oe Oe “AqvOO'T ‘ANDOCTIVIVO AUVINAWATddAS YO NOILVONILNOO — Ce ‘ I(T) 0€ “AON St Av 1¢ GI ‘qe < 8 ‘AON cz “3dag L@ °*¥0 SL oune LG “IRN 6% “Ie CI 390 82 1z “3dag @ oune Og ‘“uee p Aw ae 6 ‘ues JeuMNg ¢ 8a “AON #% “99d FI “dy FS *490 g vudy “AON 61 °*?0 6 ‘dy Avy é “yuour jo seq “6891 “OPOT *PPOL “eP9ol “OF9T *PEOT “OS9L “8691 “S39L “619T “96ST “08ST “PLST “09ST “SPST “LEST “66ST “SEFl * 9661 “LLIT “89IL *TSIT *OEIL “SII “¢60T “6S0L “646 “186 098 *69L * 696 “BOK 99 CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS, “SIST 10 FIST Atqeqord £ uMouy you Tey Jo uy youxgy “ypeysueG x-eTgT g "0441p; “Teqory “Mnasnyy Staqjapioyy ay} Ur Mou {au04s “0941p "0371p “0731p *O74IP 1eqa19 *[1eJ-2u04g *03}Ip *034Ip 0431p ‘o1yIp ~O}Ip “0341p “0431p “Gploqunyy) our ye Surutys uns £ 0441p “o14Ip 0341p “ouIp "oWIp “op Treqerg ‘TleJ-9U0}8 BION *s stoa}0N1 Aue 0431p *0}}Ip: *o}71p “0341p "0971p *014Ip *0941p “(é3UD IST Ur Seasaqqog — 490) op ’ “OFIp “0741p "(éFD 4ST UL yorepy 487g) 0331p (‘é S181) “0% UE 09 JO ory “quRTTTIAg WO.G se amieg “Wnosny, e44nITeg oy} UT ‘98D 4ST UI ‘sorpuy yseq a3] “0441p *074tp Wd OT €4y3q yonur § sjaed [Te19A98 OFUT 4s.INq £ 0431p “(€98Q 4ST ur BL Aeyy) op set eccees eeeeeesee eeeeweces Oeeeeeres “Wd | Seeconeee Pe eeeeeee Beet eeees eee eeeees Hew wweee eeeeccsee seeccceee eencesese eeettsece eeecesces ee eencnes tee eeecee seereeves eeeencere ot eeeeee see eeeeee eeeesees uMop-- "M07 seesevces eeeeereee @eseneree seeerecce Beeeeeene tee eeeeee eee eneene errr erry rrr erry mentees Deteeeere SOO POP ewer erase eeseanessees yorpay eco Aa peaener eens SANS SILY, eee Ate eneeeereecesaceree qpeysueg wee on ° '* DURPTAZ}IMG IO souRrg|"** oer Per ererre . eee eeeeecene * BIpuy ‘peqepesopy|"* veosasaainanesateestdeecess mass ( Oe eee een eserenseetereccenns euieg|*** tet eeeensens young) "** ¢ ted eee eeneneeereetneacreees ausag|"** tieteeseteeeeeeeseeeeseenpagtigny|*t* : “* Bollauly *g ‘uededog|**- Otte ee eeteeenes wn sessessaneanesazeesseseesse priggin sas ¢ sree eeenroararag.|** seeseseereensenseresees gtugOnIT| “teeeoeees Bipuy ‘reqonbuery|*** mre seen tees seneee err errr errr rrr eer errr rer yy Se ettteeeteseee aoe ee Me AeA Ansan. neeee . SOO eet eeeeeeeee > eee Petre ereees Buojaoreg jo keg see ** Buopeoirg ‘ymfyuoy|"** hh eee ey Young, eee FL Il 0d (4 it 9% “390 £ ‘AON LU Ajne P oune Q 13 “AON 2 vq 6 oune GL 90 ZI “AON 02 oune € ‘0q Z L ‘sny “AON 490 1g Av ¢ ‘4dag OL ‘sny oe Ato 6¢ ‘Ady p Avy 9% “qq GT ‘ues 7 “AON GZ ‘00q IT ‘PO “4s1nq £outp| ateee ons o7Ip pe eeeeeee + youuny|""* p “AON “ysnq $ ure} Buoy £ 0771p treereeSraquiayItAy|"** 61 “3dag ‘oWIp teeeeeeee sosceveceeeesvorsessees AnGsonVy 20 TT aq "CESL ‘ouIp a) "MIN 0} “A'S seeeeeeee teecereroecsecooeses FIQQG MOI, peaig “Sny -gsanoo auijuadies $0y31p| ‘w'v + *S OF 'N a3Ie] purpiezjimg pus Auvuitay "|" p “ure “o}Ip eereeseee . coe Poe eee eee eee ee eee) uuog eS I og "09d “SE8L ‘opp seeeeeeee setae eeeeeeeeee é 9 OT “Sny ‘oup| cutee? peceneree serseeeereetesseeereroreers guipal'?* QT ‘uur! — “O&8T ‘oytpl| et seeeeneee + moovag|"** €% ‘outp| eeeet seseeeeee “ younzl'* @ "490 “oI aoe seereeeneneseee é earl 9 “ydag “431 quelypiq £0991p “T'N 0} "A'S seaeeersesereeseensee FIO UUOPIT A, mn 108 “‘Sny. 0741p wee eneeee seetereee wees Bue ae 9% Aine "6281 OVP aeeeeeeee . neusjny see 0¢ Aqne "8281 “onIp seeesseeeeneeraeceeseneeesemoagtp|*** 97 ‘oyp ssssensenesteeerteeersees GLI |"** £900 *oVIp eae eeeree ee eeeree * Zinquayeyosy aoe rad *o1p seeeneeee wee eeneee - BANPBWI14S i] see L dag *ouIp ser eeeeee é aoe 12 Ayn “ouIp seeeesees seseeeeee seceaeteteeeeeeeereesees oxnpARg|*? T Your] — "ZZ81 *o7}IP eoereneee seeneeeee POteeneee se eeeeeeeeetone é see 9 dag ‘9Z81 *syreds ysippor Our 4sinq 0331p seeeerene ‘a's 0} *M'N steeeeeee . 4peys[aygty, $0991p see 6 "AON of uolzeuojzap iM 0341p eeerenree tees . seeeevesesees SOQ UaWl AA, aoe 6 Sey ‘ouip seeeeeeee pevenvney seeneeeeneneees “4 -qaq| “GZ8T “2g GT ‘Sny| = "E281 “* 6T une) = "G8 “* BT ‘0a 299 of das “Binqssny|""* ¢% “IeW| “128T sereneeeenene “ 2r 00 Aaya staeenesensenrens 5 “+ 9g ee eeaeeee 1860. REPORT ‘oyntp] eee eoeseeeee pereneJep eeecccesesccece ‘oyp| ott? veseeeees “op eereeetee “O1}Ip ‘oyytp| vette oeeepeace ‘owp| eet teveweees “oWIP nee eeneneneeeee Ae he Ae Oe Oe Oe seen ee eeeeeenee “op *oVIp ee eeereee eeeeeveee seeeeeeee Semen meee eee eeeeeeeetese youn see 8 Aung "OZ8T *074IP seeeeeeee peeeeeree se eevesee . eorrteee é Fg Ae ‘6181 *souo JoTjems Z Aq pomojpoy fquel[Ig *0991p *saqeqg poyuy “uouMaA|** {T “Uer| “BIBT aeresesee 2 {sey se owes £ 0391p eneeeee +. oeetecceccccecs r "27 (é 291 10% ‘KaeSunf{ ) Treqeay ane eerene seeeeeeee seem rceee Pee é * 12 "09d 9181 100 *aorlein( “"yuuoUl 10 ANO}{ jo Aug feds SP Ay ee SS ee eee ‘O2p ‘SyIVUOY, BNCOUOERG | "7,4 819M IO ZI *ApI[LOO'T 101 CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS, *oup "0741p “op "oyIp “query * 0391p “0331p "0931p 0341p “0731p “oyIp *SOAIT, 92 OsTe {0431p “0p “0431p “O}4Ip °04}1p “0741p “0731p “Jaye uoleuojep f aurysuns Suump $ 0341p “0941p “0341p “0491p “0331p “0731p “0}4Ip “0931p “0441p “oyp *goulag 4e osye { [req Arey Bue] £0331p “0431p “0431p “0}4IP *| SOMMUTOL F IT(ISIA Yvarys £ o991p “0941p “0931p "0921p “0741p “OF}IP: “0731p “outp "(éUrY,] ap yuanrazmedeq) op seeeeesee Poesecees 61 ers see eeeeee we eeeeeee Poreeeese tet eweree Coeeeseee “MN 0} “O'S “Mw eeeeeeens eeeeeeees “HE O4°M Oeeeeeres Peete rees “aS 02 eeoresees errr rrr! N‘°M 09 ‘°O'S'a Ceeeeeses Pe eoeeree Gereeeees Be eeneeee eeeeeeens eeeveeres seeee eee eeweee eet eeeree * uuog)"** tresteeseeerseeees seeeeeeeeegagtp) eae tteeteeteseeereeeeereneees UTTiggg| te TOR meee eee eee eeeeeeeres Aporg tee “= arseg|-* “+ suueg|* ttesteeeesaseseeseneeneseeneeggaty|ses seeeeeeceeeccesovosso TPT SUIION eee *** gsnojnoy|*** “ypreS4nqg)"** sreeGimqzin gy § S1aquiezat Ay |*** Oe ere errr rey kequog Sede erecerereseveseseees puepsuy eee sereeseseeeseeeseneee HOTMMaaID) eeeeee Avquiog see ***S.19q W194AL AA |*** Fee eee oe eerie soos MATIC UL} | ee teeeeeeeeeseesereeeeeves HUTT] *#* see oo . eee < eeeereseee young)" seeeeeereeeseeeeereeeeers BoB Tt reseeseneereeteaseeeneeeees grrpagless stetesenesseeeseeesseees OMMOIO Tt ttteeeaeseteerenneesensees ange qa lene UEpasulaM pur B1aquioqatyy|*** sereeceeeccceeceecees SIQQUIOLITA\ see steseseesereeeeasseseenser Bae] t#* “*oygtp|** tteneteeesreseeeseneerenes goumnig| ee srteeescereeeeesseee SIQGMIVL AA eee teevevenesaeeseeveneeeeees UOT #84 steeseeeees Quigg |e seeeeeeeeesees JgrMEG OB] SUOT]|*** resteeeeeeesaseseveerene masSny|*** setae reer aeseaeretessese yorunyy eee ** Dayeysyorperny|*** seteeeseeeeeeeeeecrenreess GITIQ ET |*## oe ey) ko “OF8T “/% yoge ur] *ouIp UOTVUOJap Sus pue ‘Zz 10 l IO} mar qeaid $ 0431p *aslou ON ‘wy f¢ WY F f48mq S4queriaq £099Ip] ,G1 Yeeas “0341p *0}41p) *o}1Ip *0V1p ‘owip *o34Ip “ovp *o4Ip *o1Ip "014'p “op "0341p *O94Ip “ont “ouip *o7}1p “on1Ip “0941p asoo ‘padeys-read syjeqary Z {1oajour ayqnop ‘0431p ‘QUIT UT ‘19113990}] “0391p ¢uuog 4e Os[e £071p ‘op “Teqary ‘TUNASHY, YSU oy} Ur yuamsey ev $ [[ejJ-au0}g ‘WIP “0931p “o}4Ip *0}41P *o}Ip *o#4Ip *pavay astou ou f4simq $ adzep £ 0491p *094tp “ouIp “0991p “Tegaay : ib 10208 see eeeree see eeerne eee eeeeee se eeeenes Sl beeeeeeee REPORT—1860. ‘wed OT beeen eeee eeetereee “BUr[OIED Y}ION eet eeeeee bee eaters ‘Wa £9 beereeeee eer eeeeee 102 “uorRng “2p ‘SyIVUlyy Jo INOFy oa’s 0} seeeeeees seteneree “MON 0} *S°N bee eereee baeeeeeee “M'N 03 *O'S bes eeeeee seeeeeeee “WOTPOIIIG, uoou < z hk <2 “4 310M IO 9ZIg SUTTON Tyanig $ xty se" nelsaig §Zinquapyoayy|"** see ee ete compare seco recs5 area IZCTOGE see eee eee w enn ennee AanqsapAy . playsoola'T ‘uoySurmo ry apaseg|"** feeereeeterseeeses gmpumeasqoary|*** uayoniqieeg|*** “Ue SULJON nee Tmyesoy|"*" . “oqatp)"** ** Sraquosarpy|"** se ee eee eeeee mreqsuryj0N ose tener P10JXO “Trqasoy see see eneeee vee Dre sUB ION sleq|*** eee eee eww eens Sylogq ‘pjaype.ig wee steeee veeeeeseeeees* TBUBUTIION eee “= ""99819UL0G ‘M0}SBq-9Ul0}G]"** **9UNOLED 42 4O'T PURE ad hehehe “XOXO ‘ yoojspoo \\\** mi pboate ethene shins * aUTAsaatty aA "** é - pLogxg|*** nejsaig|*** nee 99s OTB USUIZ}ON coe ravesenentsendeses tony’ = gmoy|** . : BUN IA * BISaTig|*** wesc cence reece nccesceecs é Se ELicl OEOELCEO Gi aye (| *Aq[B00T é € 83 06 © 9 I ey I ‘AON “ydag if I “qd 00q dag ‘any, ‘Sny 66 G [ el P OL Aine AvIN cT 3G é L 06 62 9 L L [ ‘ady [ ‘18 “qed ‘ure "AON [ *99q T ‘AON ‘Sny GT Avy “yjyuour jo keq “6F81 oO ° “8P8I “L¥81 “BOK 103 CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. *yovuznarly Ivan ‘mIayXog 4 osTe useg ‘parvaddestp 41 uoyA saytur (; [eorydessoa8) fF av pu ‘sajiu ¢ ye UdeS qSIy USA FYSIay Sat payeynoyeo siayy “MeJUNOUT [ayy ay} pue playuoystg ye prvoy uoNeuoyap ‘udyoyUNIN 4B OsTyY "Zz ArenIqoy *'[G8T 5 "6g aed ‘onSoT -ByBQ osje aag «‘ayenbyyAwa ue oy] puNo’Z 94} yooys ostou oy} { vIssnag YstayyY UT ‘saz a1enbs YO 19A0 prvdy Uadq AAT 07 std0s asIou ayy ‘ate 94} YSno.1yy Suidy sparq oy] punos Surysna v Spavasaye pavay Loy} qySnoyy ajdoad pjajarg ye £ aul} 943 42 4svo10A0 Jauyer Ayg -gArenuee “CRT q “Aquoredde ‘1yey siya JO squnoooev poysiqnd oN ‘somues3 g¢ pue sammesFopy ¢ paysiom Savy 0} Paqyys St aUo}s aIIQUa OY], “AULIe YOU 94} Jo epjeqey Jauo]og © JO UOTJOOII% OY} MOF SUM JuoMUFeAy SIN, ‘apuroMEyY *F ANE = BPST 5 ‘TAO + parte, Soyyrp) etree pore adIP] ““‘uapeg “laaouvyy ‘y10yyuery|*** TT ounce *0341p . Yee ee eecccvcee nie'e\Selgisielevin'a Suleatateie'elsiclaie Sraqieagy|"** 8I key *yeo14s aBrey £4q3r, 4094} 101104 01 £ 0931p sta as acuipveses: A eee eee eeeeneeees XIy|""’ 61 “oyp| ssttetes ee eeeeees sesreeeee : Ssandamaless al ‘Buljzzep £ syreds pue uoryeuojap yItM ysanq { 0341p uns= penseleseas> era Tray ae tee eb * *; uouamMousYyd oMoydsomye uv § ¢ orp Shin coon uguuEg {plepeqral' 1Z ‘qed 4 *souo JUatayIp OMI, *09}1p : “ UuOg pur xty|""* Zz “queqiiq £094rp| ststttes sevees “oan reSingg “3 -oep “ISS ‘ovIp| cette cisvavecers cveees “Tey SUTIION 07 soqgtp] ceesetees | teeeeeees | aeteweene | foveee SERS TOUNSDOsaLEGH ““pqOFXQ|"** ET “AON ‘oup i Gulpovincsicte Wete oe woySurpre(y wes 9 “0741p arn uayoutyunan|*** GT ‘oup stteeeees weyjuery|* % “ydag *O}4Ip Ceecscoce seereeee peceee sestecree*-Qaam wee 62 ‘OID Dada wenwace ature Ova weysunj0N Nore] 2Z *o}Ip eee eerees ee eerseee “zg1umyosqoo'T £ Sinqavyy art 91 ‘owtp| cette se eeeeees oe eeeeees Hrreereteesseresss ‘Sny “o1tp| ,OL ers vescesees eteeereeseeseeereeeerees TQISUNTA| QZ “0931p sees ate wae eeneee ‘up a *-Zizdiery Pais &Z 0431p Peceseve ovcccpoce eoeeneeee OO meee tomers eeernsine purpysuq eee 6 “quer $ 0331p ‘T'N 09 °A'S eeeeeeree sreeeeececeesceceeeee A TQQUIOWIT AA coe 9 Ni -O1}IP secccceee seeresees Trereseereerereceeee MBO BUTHON ea 6 *oWIIp seneeeees . . . Broquasiayy soy ‘oytp| ost tereeeeee seeceeeee sereeeereeeeconcecee TBUSUTNON =i Ont soup] seeteett taeceeeee oe eeeeeee sreetteeeeeeseeeeeres ropuaatl ss g ady ‘op *ttevesesoeeeeeee eee pO SUIVON|"** l *qsanq £o3ytp| sttttt* *N 03'S . . “Broqmazat\y “@ aR “0741p OL eeeteenee ween eeeee tee teeereres “wey SUuIyjON s- 92% \ REPORT—1860. 104 “0971p *s punos Surzziya £ ysinyq £ VIP *0}41P} *syaeds 10 [Ivy ou £ OVP ‘uoneuojep Aq paaor[oy £0991p, ‘oyIp "0941p “oUIp “091p ‘OW IP | “qySty esuozut £ 0971p) ‘Wy Styrny Supp £ 0991p) “Te qe4g; "qorunyy 7 “GL ET Jo uoutoads y *[[eJ-9U04) *O341D} ‘ounIp *o}IP) “oy: “oP *,,6 paysv'T “Woreuoyap ¢parrey £ uer[iaq ‘0191p *o341p ‘syrvds pure ‘pax ua} ‘aztqM £ 0991p “quoqjzIUMAa}uI §syxeds paano[od £ 0741p "eg Ang “Treqory ‘uneshy, UdSUIUO.LD oY} UT ‘olUt}-ABp * [[BJ-9U0}g *034TD *o}1p “ysintq $ 0791p *o3}Ip ‘E1¢gT ‘*syaeds 10 uresy ou £ [[eqory *PUNLUL 90 JOE 904s Jo IYZIOA\ “[[BJ-9U04g *2 qtodea @ Aq pamoT[oy 0991p “0741p "¢ WRT IUION Y OSTY *0771P “ApourpeyY ye OSTY — “FUBIT[LIq £0791p “E1981 ap uayy ‘pasvatour S4yysiy Jo yuiod B 4s1y 4e £ 0431p “paysiuva pue pasea.to | ° *0W4Ip *ysinqq * TTeqeqy OW ‘SIVULAT OT 122498 errr) eeeneesee id 18 EE seeweeeee weeeeeeee we eeeeeee eeeretens “uOTqeAN ([ 10 INO}] *M 07 '°H eee eweee seereeeee ee eeeneee ee eee wee “H'S'H OF “M'N'N ee eeeeane set aneeee eeeeeeene “a'N’O OF “MIN M “M'S 0} ‘A'N eee eeeeee eee eeeeee we eewesees *M'N 0} eoeteeees eeeeeeeee *UOTJOO.IICT eee eeeeee aBie] teeeeevee “UDP {QT seeeeseee seeseeees eeeeeeeee ke= snue, < Aeeeerene uoom £ "Wy S1aM IO 9ZI1g Zyuvy $ Z1aqmayzst Ay ecneesrnsperses) TOHZING PPP Pee eee Pee Ja4ysuny]y teres Tord, pur pueplIZpIMS uayoILUNIN eeees S1aqss1u0y Fee ewer eeeeeeees 4pejsUe alto py seer eseeccceeeceecece uesuepy * qaysunyy “ 2OT Poe Pee P ee Pee eee eee | J94sunfy sreles csp” Aas ckeresers ORO MOT “* BOLITY yseq ‘pury-eyfue PPP PPP Pee Pee eee eee MOOBIY wee ecerereccsesseesesces uasuepiy ste" JoIsUNIA PUB UasULTIT * * JaqysUNUIs 019.1 sccrsesses-SIZd ony ulpiog { BIsafig £ oyIp SOOO ewe eee eee tees MOOTID “0491p * Joysun yy ** s 9aysiaysooley { puvl[ozy seeeeeeeseeeoes DUBTIOH ‘appa seeeee *** ¢ QIIysiaqsaoIe'y | puel[oyy eeeeecscceesees Auoxeg ‘neSog treeresseseeeeeeoeee TBO SUIGION *uayoITyunaN £ JLT “es sBipRI ‘aLOT[ON srreseeteaneeersrrss 7 IOISUNTY rtetserserseenseneresere MOQBIO Jaaoueyy ‘uaps9 A ‘op ‘uuog £ 0331p PEGE Ec ‘J1opyassn $ 0991p Ronristetstee “-oMIp sO eee et eeeeeee seenescesseeees XIV *Aqyeo0'T eee JaTrauey 0 tha “oT 1% mg “ T TT “6g “OTL wg “9 rt 62 ¥6 91 €L Il “6 61 él £3 mg 9 Gg a LT Il FB ol “9g “9 “9 9% xa ol “IBY ‘uer 09(] 90 Aue oune Tudy “IRIN “qu “ues 29 ‘any Ajae. oune Avy “uee 20 *AON "700 dag “Sny *yyuOUL | jo Avq “PS81 oO o “S81 e *BE81 “1S81 BUEy 2 CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. "I 31] WO13 yno Surars ‘snus, < zZ ‘uoFuepry ye ospe wag *Zgy ‘d “xxx “JOA *¢ OYIO9}9UL B9T_—“BISATIG JO AyaIO0g ay} JO ssulpadd01g vag ‘soovjd Auew ye pavay uorsord ~modag 03 aq you siya Avy ‘pury-eyfuem ‘umm “9 yore eErst » “X@ _ “ysdnq if uayM sapitd g ynoqe pur “4siy 4V sopIM ET 4YSIaq { sopiut YZ ‘eplng pur ‘nedag ‘neqo7y ‘euar ye osye se ‘asiou ynoyIM = —-4e edeq Aq pajeuysea yyed sy jo yyBueq = “TT Joquis.a(ql «= ¥"ZGRBT aq syieds ojur ysinq ‘use1d usyy ‘MoTed 4sug ye ‘TojaUNEIp UI OT ‘SIzdiey yy ‘Bp[ny pue ‘uapeg ‘uowerg “j10;yURIy 4B UDES OSTY “TT ABI ‘ZEST z 071 eeccences REPRISED GS ooo BORSRA ILO Gf ya) ED 82 ‘ounIp eeeeeeeeeeseereeeecreees pont oz “roLaMy YON oyp| ttt Cuohonccc --euaqepSeyy ag" § “09q ‘outp] ete Rr ereseee eetnee ae Hetseseeseesereeerestes uprplies g “0741p soreeeees tone cere eeeecenees uayoiryuneyy|*** 8 "AON “0931p oo rereeeveneeesesees TONSIOH[BM |" OT “0131p Seseereees er eeveree ser eeeeee qpeysueua Fy Am FI ‘op| tte eenceseee seecseeee ssreteesontessens eet tTan OTH “TT 900 “ouIp Sereeeees soesestes riessseeecseenaceceneseseespaata [*** 3g *0}IP aes ectshevcees sucuhseushot=¥c eager ess ote 4dag ‘oyip| rte “04 “AL ; -aTaonDIENIS OT *noow ¢ = ‘aq 3t] years zoyip| snyess eeeeesees syetuseesuaseceseserens sqagumripg|-"* Bi ‘Suny ‘ommp) tt or eneseee serpesesccaqrhreeece*encer=rscoagnmn ites aon CATE *0}Ip seeesceesceeeeceereeeeerons BOTIB [tf key "(Tudy q1Gz Jo) opp) tt" ir uaqoMyUIZ449T pueppejseqi||"** FZ ‘oyup| merase caveniets etttestereeesseseeeseeseserpipe|st OT *onIp samen vse SOO COC Or seccecresenscvestcees qpeysuor9|"** TT sady 0341p errr ry REESE ON HA eee 62 ‘oyutp] cette APRLOOK = -suafteaitiben| ae ‘oynp| tees docnascoc soeaeties Spenco “euuatal' eT cure] — “Gegt ‘owp) ce eedastons caeoa 00 Heeeeeesereeeesunotuagnyag|"" @ "29Q] ‘ujdoutu 8 oyIT “WoNBUOJap YIM ysINq !0431p} “WY TT uMOP —- “so ‘uapquig ‘sueddaxy|''s JT * *[[eus £ 0931p eeeretene see eceees 5 wwe Fy £ 1948UN PY “TL “AON ‘omp| tt SeChSec0- natecegna sore teseeess quompy|""' @ “490 ‘omtp| tes ptietion EucheveKe trteteaessecessererees sereesnarp|"* g 0731p Pee eeeeee Be LER EE D OO ROOF) 1 (0) wae c *oyp) eee ee Br1oqualyey|"** z “ydag FOUND) Wecsterecrs Coecsnees seeteetepian|'* 6z 0p oS eS SS Pee eeeees TtteeseeesecseeesoeeS 19QUaIJUIS see al “o7VIp teeeeeeee OOO ewerre eet eeesaeere MOORID eb) Zz Aqng ‘owip| cette +. numosqnery|“** *oayIp ee tewneee te receeee eeerereee eeereeee a MOORID aoe Cl Ae MOON) a coo2eo2s tereeeees teeereees sete eeeeseevesseenseseee Siaqueg secu aur *ougIp eerecccorecescecesecscvosee Rind arise" —_ <= | <8 © 2) sy Sees Se a 274s “payrey $ Mots fo371p| : vee er reeeeeaee “oyIp ‘neaey|** ‘Wa FG “4sinq ‘0g JO 18 £0991p “a'N 0} “A'S PULpIIZIIMG ‘Yougrg|"** GZ ‘Wd 0Z'Z “ySt[Uoou 4Yysuq Sutanp £o1p “A'S 0} "a'N “uassorg $ uAyURI|** TT ‘mDIp UL Eg 04 ,Z Syyed anbyqo foyyrp| “Wa £ *S 0} 'N ssreseee apeqsued)’'' g "ded “quer [Iq £0991p tt eeeeeee wean eeree een . BISSNAg ‘uay1og PORE 2h ‘Wa J ‘wp your Sy f4ySt{u0om Surmp foyqrp}| sett “a 07 "MA peaee se UnlTayuRyy f 4ypeysmueg)'*’ [TL “Wd fg “yged anbryqo agiya ‘parley £04}1p seeeerees "M'S 0} ‘HN weeteeeee ee eee cre rrr wassaly [8G “AON *0WIP eececceee eeeereece see eeeres Coc ccereresevesccasrcose é yedaog eee 12 *ystppat £ [req uayorq Auo] £0991p| ,,G 0} ,,h * wnigjog ‘uiranoy|'** 27 “261900 ‘BAOANG We BuLINp sT[eqory OM £.0470p resetereeseapdrog|'** OZ 90 ‘OSIOU OU S OTMIM Fuoy B I[qISIA yeas £yuerTIAq £ oWIp AS “ACN AL OF “O'S vs Aueuay pesyuag|""* ZT «6S81 ‘OL “ny TeX purpiag * £0991p £ opp fee ee eee we eeeeeee Seems e ee rweer tt aeee eens sees Bulg see Z ‘Sny *aSlOU FOYIIM qsanq £ prpuazds £091p é ‘a's 07 “W'S sete teee Se eeeeteneeseenees udyoalyUna Ny AIS 3 Aine “UIA OU fanbrqo yyed £0931p ‘aS 0} *A‘N tee eeveee Ae bene cae eeeeneneees BIpey dso AA see CL Avy *quUrT[aq £071p seseereesee wae Pleyequa|"** 6L “IRIN q “OUIP| ,€ OF 6 es ** uatumen|* 06 “42d| — “6S8T S *OUUT} DUIOS 9[QISTA yeas $o4ytp] “ttt yes sIv[eQ ap seq|'** OF ‘AON tera} ‘ovtp| “W'a OGL steeeeees teeeeeeee teeeee vipeqdysa Ay £quOULa[O PO ae ‘WV O¢°ZL *queTT [IAG £ 0991p eeeeeeees we eeeeeee seeeeenee bebe noses GBT1O AT ‘ereydisa see g ‘pO | “payer Sspnoyo yysr1q our paarosstp 0391p} OTS *“M 0} *H uoom $= CPibReneSece Seen e TOT GUNA oe OL Gas ec “EOF, OQISIA Wea14s £0491p} ,,O1 04,,¢ “MON 0} “S'S sascha stteseeeeessesees Sinquapiol''? TL Ame ra) ‘syeds O7UL paapossrp $ojqrp]| *tt7**** The “* pUNUT4LO” pue taysunyl|"** Bz Be | STOH 5» ¢ “eumgp Ur “Iz “OUNP) EOF 1B “ACN OF "O'S COE ES — PIOPOQ ia"? 26 S 00% {sept gy Jo yyStoy v qe syred ¢ oJuL4samq $oyytp] “Wa OT *“a'N OF “AMS Auoxeg Spuryjoyy fereydysoyy|*** Z fe imey g Soap) cere" Gioloe sssssnertevessrerssisenases oAOTT|"** Q OUNE "Wd Tas) “astou ou £ querypiaq $091p eeereeene "MS 04 “a°N eee eee Bryer dasa A wee Li “qo “uOLeUOJop 6 ysinyq $ [rey paamo s 0}}1p “Wad Cre “1's 4 “MIN nopserescecserscest”“DUBIAOZIEME see 1% * “pale, f ysippadt $OM} OJUT paprAtp £0471p| ‘Wa G “AN 0} “AL'S : qloyayooy S[ayeyojnon|"** OT *OF}IP seereeeee se eeeeeee wee DEO UE LUA (ig fem 8 “ure erred | ‘oyp| ee se teeeees eececseee Preeerereer ee * uoueg|"** GT ‘AON (cSOH * "So TUL c="a $ Sp 0} Ysry sa] tun LI £0791p eeeresees set eeeeee eeveeceee PO rete ewe t ewes ee ne eaeeees slit eee 62 ‘pO ‘oup| te “M'S 0} “SUN taseesoce Hieseeseeetessecceseesesse BoTpaltes 7 Gaal *2O8T $2] *ou1p eeeeeeeee ee reesces h= see e ee eeresreneeasseeeee young)" Il &q sopiur (¢ uvWI9DH) g IOAO pavoy UOYLUOJ9p $ 0731p 2S 0} 'N *emayog|'"* G 400} * *1O9}9UL OJIYM QuddyUseUM { 0441p "M03 °H * young 6, Avy “quer LIq $ 0V41p uUMOp-- set eeeeee POOR e teen JoyeyojnaN wee GZ "ITN *NOTZBUOJOp quo]OrA Aq Po MOTTO} $ oy0p seeeeneee seeeeeeee Henne eee eee aren eee erpeydysa jy nee 91 *qoyy ¥ *Treqoay “aN 0} "A'S uoow = sereseeeeres XTW $ PUBLOZIIMG!*** G ‘"URP] "OC8T o |j—— oa neneerey —— =) Bo uORM ; . Ht “yquour : et O79 ‘sxe Mey 10 INO} worjoaATCT qu ZIM 10 aZzIg AqtROOrT jo kvq 19K 107 CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. foutzeseyy suemopuey fautzeSeyy ATIQUOW {*02x9 *SU0}G OTLO9}9 UO JOINT “H *M Aq oporse ‘gpeT ‘eueyodonay, erpedopsoug ‘sjoeq JO YOog awax s,qmry, !Q9gI-Test ‘sizdiery ‘uyer -y “y ‘opunysSunioyt\, pun o1ydesfoan ‘gIMOUosY Jop apunery pun udzuEpaTI My uasuyeyiequqQ { aoueLy op InyNsUT,] § BIsaTIg JO Seyat00g oY} Jo sBurpovo0rg § ABojoroa}0qy 8,z}0Iey f suotearasqO S,ypruIyog *¢ ! OORT ‘aT[eE ‘AtmouoNsy jo (Z/fiuyassauyoogy) matday ATOM SIH £O9ST PUL GBGgT ‘assazy sadddgq Jo Aya1I00g ay} Jo SduIpPIao01g IY} JO sytoday {sayezey ypeysmueg ‘wMeyUeyW ‘audojog a4} £ Aydosopityg pue Aroystyy [eAnjeny Jo Teurnoe jayeyojnon {AT Weg ‘FERT AOF “any “S80q ‘tapelyo Jo andopeyeQ 94} Jo yuomarddng yIOT s,Lysaeqsn3og ! EFT ‘aISeq ye Aydosoyg [VINyeN Jo Aya10g ay} Jo SBurpaav01g { egy ‘319q “W9}IIM JO SpLooay [enuuy—: jusmefddng oy} ur Aj[eroodse aiow pue ‘andojeyeQ Surpasoid ay} url paz[Nstod ssoua1ejar pue say Moyne eUONIppy “Y}IUazZ 9} WOI UMOP BYSteXs [Tey 07 UIA q@ waas sem fAvIqmieD pue suaTMTY UaeMyaq UAT[ey AALY plNoa ‘punosd oy} 0} [TAF YL Jt puw foouvsy wr suopeyy 1aao Apoamp saptur qq Apeuy * plvy}70H "9g JOAO saptut [eorydessoes Og sem LoajoU sy} ‘Ug—as ysIy MONA, “JosUNpY Jo stay “Jorg Aq sreoyed jeuoytppy “¢g Ateniqag ‘gest ‘a7oAr *ATOJVUNZAOJUN 4SOT IO Prefstor udaq AAVT oUOYs SIT} Jo suaMIBeay aU, “610g sung “g’N ‘dn poyord way 4stom pur poo aymb sem § sapou.red OY[eJOUL BurUTYS TOU ysN1d apisjno AayyIOU pry yf “38a s,youp v sv adaey se qnoqe sea pue ‘soydey vou [[e} 0} usas se 4I f UOSpUeS 9[QuIAy palquias [29 Buoy £ 0471p *ovIp “ysinyq ‘0331p "Wt1q {Trey ow Spaama yyed £ 0931p ‘ayy $ Zurzzep yey peorq Buoy {0341p *aSOU FHOYIIM 4sinq {0941p “oyIp “THe 9249) “Tey pue rapunyy jo w104s v Suranp Toyz £ [pej-au0yg eee eeeese woeeeneee 19 21S "MIN 0} “D'S *M 0} SL *S 0} °N *NO}'S ye uaag quay v § Apnopo pue yep ToyzeI WYZIN ‘OVW ‘JasseQ ‘oz ArenUeP “E98T y “oI 9NOys oy} fTTeqoay Au sem oioq} aeadde you saop yy “QggT ‘et oung JO jaurjuay Ai1apuopuoyy oyy vas ‘purjery ‘aoydey G aune Z'098T q ‘o1p ‘assay ‘premuapo ‘Siaqpaty ‘WV G Noge saftor [eolydeis0es 9z Jo doueystp v IdA0 podtoosad aB1e] eereseee seer eneee eeeseeeee ory ee eenes seeeteveceeereeee- 1999 0NUISUIALY] see teorere sites) BIE YT £Jxopuesy] see teeeeseeeeeeroe Ugnsaa(q|"* TWassaly|*** Peete cece sec eessevecres yroysqyy|* * uapsaaq|"** |vrrert* peBauog ‘oa ‘aoqdey|** frssetiescees purjjoH 1860. REPORT 108 29 QS yer ae “Test “SSSI “Pest “PE8I “9E8L “THEI “OF8L “PBT “CPL “OF8T “SPS “OS8I ]1S8t OS8L TOS81 “ES8T “LS81 “LG81 “8S8T “Taqusadaq “TOG UL9AO Ny SRT OVW YOY ur ‘OOST “a'v 0} ‘spremyorq pasueie “QOgT ‘a’v wo1 avaf yova ul syjyuOU soy} Surmoyg “6281 “SSSI “OFS8L “GF8L “CPB “eP8L “PPST CPFSt “PPT “OF8T “6F81 “OS81 “OS8T “eS8T eSSst “OS8T “LS8T “LS81 *19q 03909 “L281 sraquiaydag ‘T Gav, “post “8081 Ost “OI8L “GI8L “CI8I “SI8I “6181 f0681 9681 ¢ Lest “BE8T “OPSL PPEL fOS8T “TS8T e9c8T “LS81 ‘judy “poAdasqo Us0q IAB S109}9]A] Surjeuoyaqy 10 *Areniqayq 109 CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. *St}UOUL Jay}O 949 [Je pue Arenuee 10J UO Os pure ‘NGgT UI Udas 919M Om} f S]s8a1 UOIOTdsNs amos YOryA uOdn ynq ‘paytodat a19M OMY QUOTE YOIA Ur ‘ISS 01 Youq auou uay} ‘ggg] UT ou sem a1aY} £ GGRT IO OOST UL U9ES IOd}0UI FuLyeUOJop AO [[eF I7IPOAQe OU AumnuNS UT : SHY} peat oq 0} BIqGUI, SINE, a ee eee “T6FT 1201 “G6FL “6201 “SPST {8611 “LSST “6FSL “LOST “GOCT “B19T “18ST “SOT “GEOL “LO9T “COLT “LE9T “LOLL “OPLT {TsO “SSZT “SGL1 “POET ¢300T “ST9OT "GGLT ‘O8IT {sett “COLT “PE9T ‘TIST “OPOL “POLT “82ST “1671 “B9LT “PLOT “S09T “LP9T “Q9LT ‘OFST “POIT CPIST “GLLT “6891 “PSOL ‘OS9T *TLLT “T6ST “6LE1 “E8ST “GOST “POLT “ESL {BEL “O8LT “899 “06ST “96ST ‘OI8T “PILI “B9LT “E8Z1 “06LT “90LT “OST “OE9T f 09ST “OI8T “COLT “GLLT COLL “S08T “GOL “T9ST ‘PS9OL “98ST “TI8T {BEL “LLL “BLLT ‘OI8T “SOL ‘08ST eS60L “9L9T “LEST “9S9L “PI8L ‘OSLT “86LT “OI8T “TI81 “6ELT “LL9L COST “ITZT “L491 “GPOL “6181 “GOLT 2081 “OL8L “PI8T “BOLT “089T “0Z9T {sIZt “OFLT “8281 “POLT C0681 “OLLI 9081 eStst {Ost “69LT “B69T “8391 “61LT COGLT “96FT “ZELL ‘0281 “LBL “8081 e9st “0281 “P6LT “LELL “6691 “TEZT “ELLET “OLST “TPLT “681 “6081 eSrst “9I8T USe81 “SO8T “ISLT “SILT ‘961 ELLLT CLSL “S6LT {6681 “e081 “SI8L “SI8T eSest “6081 “O9LT “T9LT “8641 “GBLT “8ST “86L1 “SEB8l “GT8T “PI8T “6181 f6681 “SI8I “O9ZT “BBLT “POST “96LT “GOL “e08T “SE8I “SI8L “6e8L “OZ8L ULSst “6181 “T6LT “C6LT “GOST “PISL “O69T “L081 “SEsl “6181 ‘6S8L €Ce8L “TESL “Test “E081 “6621 “9081 “GI8T “L691 REPORT—1860. 110 eeeeee seeeee die seseee nis tl * * : oie rite tie MMO DITO OGDNAEHMOOMrNOMH * nia da *s[R}0], Apaea ‘Sny “Atne ‘oune “uer ‘O08T “av 0} FoRq O9ST *a'v wo. ‘avaz Yyoua 10} soquinu jv}07 pur ‘yuo yore Ul S109}9J\] Suyeuojag pur s]jeq oyToOIoy Jo soquinu ayy Surmoyg ‘TJ TIVE “UMOUy -un qyuoyy “9881 “2881 *8E8L “68I “OPS8T “TP8L “OP8L “SPSL “PPst “CHST “OP8I “LP8L “SP8I “6P8T “OS8T *1S8T “OS8T “S981 “PS8T “Ccsl “9S81 *LS8T "8981 “6981 “0981 “VOX 111 ball ain nia nic OO Hin Oa INNO NINN Oe mea mic CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. miler jen Ada SH OD NI HIM OO oD met ns wet ANA N % seceee % seeres eoeeee eeeeee eeeeee eeneee teeeee eeeeee Ooeeee * stews * raeeee sence eoreee eeecce tees oeeees seeeee stews eoseee % * * * seeeee % % soeeee £ eeeeee Sx seeeee a f % * oereee Sx wc eeee * eeneee se enee seeeee eeeeee * we REPORT—1860. 112 OtRe : ia a is ag xa Lond ary oatan TAN tl [mel Ore oo am Nad HOD OD of oD 20 OD : ol mist st oD ono N N sone _= taal anwotDE : Ot: en ere ik: Oia *1aquIIa(T | ‘A9quIaAON "1990190 I € ‘a a Ad HOD OAT MAAN — al eee “ee nl ANd TEN al a]: fo) jaan = — ‘roquiaydag | -4ysn3ny “Aqne ‘ounce Lo | 200 OD = Om 1 oOON NON NANAeE 2~N ANWAN oa) nie | ro) [anos a FV Ore Ve Oy eave ea ie qudy "yyuoJA, pue Leg 10J Cd pur “gq “YW sasse[Q Jo uolNqiysIg ‘TIT @TaV I, A A SS ee ee He se NO 2 re ea _ >No Nn a HA : N cc OAR - =e = NO — tl tulle wef lg |g oeleel ol 7 NAAN NON N _— @/ 1 Res < ‘youryy «=| *Arenaqag | *Aavnuee OOS ee ee ee yes) | Sass ie Blo sie 2] o “qq00W jo eq 1] a “S6L1 9} Z6Z1 "1641 "C6L1 "96L1 10 CELT “LOST 9} 66ST “66LT "SOST “08ST *608I “L081 "LIST ‘OST *LIB1 “CISTI “6181 "2281 °F SISI "$281 “et8L (| Aouanboay mmut "LOB "L281 “IXBUI 29 WNL ‘SE8I 0} OST “IES “IUTCL UL sivak “Csl "Ces qyste Jo Tear, “6E81 "6E81 -ur pesoddns y } “epgt “SEST *LF81 “LST *1S8T ‘OSS "PSST “CCS “681 *LS81 *paarasqg *paqeno[eg *payelnoleg *paarasqo “SyIVUIO yy “sivaX WNUTUT YY *sIvaX WNUIxeyy "II pue ‘] safquy, Jo sisfjeuy shee CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS, sa! aoe LONE TAN SH tal elie we] ig forefe fer foe] a | 7 Tofedelel pte] 7 mT rfel ad g tele] 7 a a Neo IANANN eee tee 114 REPORT—1860. 34 | =) mA ot In so I~ OC aoonn OD Him ‘le corn —) oo (alan ian! aan ae N Ae 3 MONN HNMH OMAH COMMID oO A ee ce 5 InOinwD MONA ANSOH MOND WHO A ee Loe ae [on | _— =| : ° vey > rot MMOD AOMN Atom OND ONWSO ao] =| 3S > ey A B TRANS TRH ABete HANA AHHH n am = 3 : © = HHA RTOS SNM HRMNOSO MON ro =a onl ae — o > ~ o wm . . = i S r= 4 HANAN ANISM MANGO NMA ONAW — oa co] " ic} o Ka 2 : are E H v4 5 INO N AOR HARD WHA WAWA 5 - A oa ad S ss NOAD ANTN AHN Aw Aww 3 =I oOo mn . 2 = s Eo oF 6 6 1D no rt eH MONN MOO > 2 g : 2 : oo 1S) ae : mn = oO oO so 5 One ANIM NMAN MAM NOs _ ree] = = -Q ro WAIN NAOSOM Nota AN: Wwi9s = % g BOHN FON Wnt Weise pein 2 : 6a = aN otno HORS BS AAG WOM OST Baad AeA AS 115 CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. ‘ZT 0% [LT raquiaoaq ‘Of 02 JT aquiaaon "ET 0} ¢ aqUIaAON, *J 0} T 1240390 “OL 0} [ raquiaydag “7 0} F ysndny “QT 07 z ounr 23 03.8 Avy "02 99 g [dy "GS OF SVL Ye] “61 01 OT Atenigay OT 0} g Arenues *y Arenuee 0} OE Aequisd9aq "Gz 01 ST 1aqma00q, ‘OL Jaqmasaq 0} [TE Joquiaaoy “Of 0} JT zequiaydag “1g 07 1g ysudny "L Av 02 62 [dy "GZ 04:12 [dy +s Areniqay 0} GT Arenuer *Saql[O1AV JSOML Jo sauity, *SOWPOIQY SIMI JO SOUT, "SL 03 [IT toqmsa00q “OE 03 JZ JOQuIDAON, "ET 0} G JaqaIaAONy *g 0} ¢ Aine "69 0} T 19qG079G) "J 07 ¢ oun "GT 0} [ taquiazdag "ZZ 02g ALIN *f 04 F ysn3ny "3S 04 ZT Aine “ET 01 g Arenuer "FZ 02 FL Yoreyy “E61 09 OT Arenagay *syoodg 1097971 WoJz JOUNISTP sqoodg ontjo1oy ‘sod 10aqaq 0} WoUWIOD syvody otfo12y mo Han bbe OD Hun 9 ws ON ork] Ns NO eH tN OO "A TEV], 3 if a ; ss : L 6 I ot € uy (A bd eee £ € 3 T T € I a m I I sas . ae 5 a * 2 = g og b , I ¢ 62 € b z ¢ 8% £ I z r la I g € g 9% I Entiat € So } : : ; : 12 Ecc eee eeerereesee® a pue 9 + sopllog £91 Hee meee erent nteeeses DIPIOIIY [210 L 89 Nessa *sioaqaWW Suynra0ya(q Sei teeees Wf S][BJ-UOLT PUB -aU0}S syIuoUL XIs +5801) 18 ¥6 fey Tete temas ereeeeee a pue 9 : §[240J, a L¥ Se eee CT SSPIQ 2 OIG cg LY 99 Sesieetcceeoneecors ASEUIO) + SOPILOg Ee $927 £47 seco eee eeeeeresoeeses dINITOIVe e307, Set | Ser | Fat Poe gt sxoazoy Sueur $02 €I ZL oft |W FS] [ef-uosy pue -auorg ‘avy | “qaq | cure “suo P81 1cz OFL 0s9 €¥8 $81 san4 861 $402 912 $c3 92 ¢6 $19 i*6 eg $82 €0l Le paca “UOT[ayLag *uoraydy “syjuouL “sqIUOUL *“Sq}MOW XIS “k[ng pues oune | ‘ue pur ‘00q IOPULMW XI Jomung xIg | pug JO ‘[e1413S[OS} 4ST 40 ‘[eI4T}s]OS s TA 19%, Jo sisffeay ~ @ ) TIA aTavV yi mg ° fa me 911 goct | FEL | Sl | Sel} IIT | 641 | SOL] 64 L8 68 oF Lsg cr €8 #S 9% 18 ag 0g 9¢ FE OL 6£8 16 86 6 68 a6 19 6F 1g Gc $e Scor | %60 cy | t9¢ | #1¢ ze | tPF LE Le | &c2 $et Szgr | Set | fee | $91 FL | fet | Fe ral 6 $c 02 OFZ Ol | t1z oc | 41 | $81 8% & 82 02 todetoay | , : ‘ : 5 F af : : ; Aqyquoyy [e}0J, sag | ‘Aon | "390 | ‘3dag | “Buy | “Aug | coung | “Avy judy Cae SO A lise) Pe i a eee ape ble ee de eS ek sl © “YIUOT YORa Joy JOquINU YA ‘Sapljog pue s109}9]\] Suyeuoyaq, * sazpoiay — | ‘TA AIAV YT, 117 CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS, OFT ¥F 201 “"W'd ‘S]e4OT, 1g 8st €f “wv ‘S[eI0], € I Zz ZI 4 IT Ol $ 9 ZI 9} IT z 3G ae IT ° OT 9 6 P IT 9} OL 91 ZI t OL 6 8 I L OL 36 91 9 Or 6 18 6 z L 6 98 6 € 9 8 FL S % £ 8 O72 al ¥ 8 L 19 ¥ I ¢ i 19 ai ¢ ial 9 04¢ T Pe 1 9 04¢ 81 ¥ ial G OF L l at G %F 2G rd 0z - 1¢ z z e F OE 91 G Il € 4% £ I z ard L I 9 o OT e z ye Z OT 8 T L I 0} Zt see ee . I 0} ZL Fs "$1099, *S|[@J-U01] “Wd F *S109}9 TY *S][@J-UOIT “wv STPIOL Suneuojog 10 -3U03§ *SInO}{ $1890, Suryeuojaq 10 -9U0}S “SAMO FT ‘XI aTavyT | Ei 16 362 Il ¢ L Sp Pee ee eee eceereteeesstees Jaquis09(] 86 SF cI ¢ L 6 "tt JAQUIBAON 6L foe el #9 8 9 ** 1340390 ug £i¢ *L c OL Se PYTTITESLIT Tey y Jaquiaydag 26 Ze LI £2 G Sp ewer ccccccscescccccereeses qsnsny 19 Sip 1 6 ¢ $9 veers Ainge 6% LE ¢ L ¥ 9 agune is Lg L c 6 z PTeeeEPTTESOOeEr TT Tee ere reece Ty Avi cc Sez 6 Sp Il ¥ Pee mee aren eeeereeesseseeeeee Judy cg ie as 6 eT rv ce bacoteeree tess + yore L¥ $82 G $¢ 8 : te = * Alen1ga,y 99 £42 ¢ £e L By Pewee eseaset eases eeenseseee Arenute 0) “gq pur y 49) “gq pur ¥ 0) “gq pur y “WqUOT *s]eq0, 098T 93 00ST “a'v *O08T 93 OOLT “av OOLT 93 T “av 1860. REPORT 118 SI € FL 6 ST él Il L £& 1é *s[e}0, | “00M | “AON | “900 | “ydag} “Bny | -Ajn¢ Il 9 8 5 8 eI HAO Owe ore ee ese eeeeeeenee uoT409IIp Ajraqynog WIA 6 6 L L IL 9 FOP meee ete e ene etssenreenses uoljoerrp Ayaayato Ny WTA L EL eT OL OL 9 eee rrr errs worTyoaap Ay19989,\\, WM €l- al TAO e ene t ee weweseereneeeees uoTyoaa1p Aqaaqseq TEAL og | ze-| te | ez | €B | eg. [rcrrettreetstesseessesseeees suorqmazosqg Jo “ON | ‘oung | “Avy | tudy | ‘ae | ‘qaq | ‘ure “SUOyy “OD pur ‘g “Y ‘sioajayA] ssv[o-ys1y pue aiy1[019y Jo uoNveaIp 843 Surmoyg ‘X JIAV, 838 9T a SOR er ewe ates eseesenne “Wad 9 0} uooN > UOOUIDIW Or aL 0g Weer ete e ee eene renee uO0ON, 0} ‘WV 9 : W0Ota10,7 OFT tF 20T SOPs weer area eee eee renee saeeeee qysiupryy 03 uooN 1¢ 81 ioe Cee ee ree wees we re eeeeessestensees uooN 0} qySiupryy 19 FE €¢ stencestensvenetnie sen Clay g ay“ N'a iG 244 SIN OI 82 Z01 tthe te easeteeteceseeeseeee eyed 9 01 "W¥ g : keg @ *S10940] °s U0. “SEHIOL, Samed ae Bis site van a8 ou, A eer SSR ee ee oe eS "XI qe, Jo sisseuy CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 119 REMARKS. 1. While there appear to be eight yearly maximum and minimum aérolitic periods for the years generally, there are likewise some indications of other periods for some of the months taken separately. Some months may have major or longer periods of maximum, as Novem- ber, which perhaps has one of about 70 years (though for the sporadic showers, according to Herrick, one of 33 years, in which case the numbers of shooting stars should now be again on the increase, so as to culminate in 1866). January has also probably a long or irregular period, as regards classes A and B. Of late years the numbers for December and January have evidently been on the increase, and especially as regards the former month, and this as regards all classes ; and the eighth to the seventeenth days appears to embrace a time favourable to a considerable increase over the average for the month. Tables I., II., II., and IV. § 2. The proportionate numbers of each class appear to have varied at dif- ferent times for the different months. Table VIII. 3. There appear to be aérolitic and meteor epochs both distinct from and common to each other. A proximate attempt has been made to show some of these in Table V.; perhaps some of these are more apparent than real; but the subject is worth consideration. 4. While the aérolitic class, A and B, in its total is under the average for August, which is the principal and most constant month for an abundance of sporadic meteors, it is over the average for November, likewise a month noted for an abundant display of meteors and shooting stars ; and while there is an increase over the average of detonating meteors (though not of recorded Stone-falls), from the 9th to the 13th of November, i. e. precisely during the regular periodical appearance, it is uota little singular that the August aéro- litie period, if it may be so called, precedes by several days the usual period of greatest abundance of the shooting stars ; one being August 4 to 7, both inclusive, and the other August 9 to 12. See Table III. 5. The decided preponderance of aérolitic phenomena, alluded to in the Report as occurring in the afternoon, as compared with the forenoon, will be seen clearly given in Table IX. 6. As regards the observed direction of aérolitic and first-class meteors, there would seem not to be any very great tendency one way or the other ; it would have been natural to have expected a much more decided leaning to a Westerly direction. The sudden change from an Easterly direction in Sep- tember and October (about the time of the autumnal equinox), toa Westerly direction in November, is remarkable, and calls for especial notice. 7. The considerable increase of aérolitic falls and meteors for the months of June and July over those of December and January has been previously alluded to in the Report itself. That more detonating meteors in proportion to Stone-falls should be recorded during the winter months than during the summer months, is precisely what might have been expected, and the reverse holds equally good. Tables VI. and VII. 8. Taking the entire year, there is a much greater tendency towards equality of distribution in the aérolitic class than is the case with sporadic shooting stars and the smaller meteors; indeed, were it not for the excess in November (an excess common to every class apparently), the numbers of the former (Aand B) would be about equal for the first as for the second half of the year. 120 REPORT—1860. CORRIGENDA ET ADDENDA. Page 53, line 22 from top: for “1596” read 1596.x. Page 59, line 18 from top: for “ Sarthé” read Sarthe. Page 62, 1804. Apr. 15. Geneva. fireball: add, s.to N.; also, followed by a train of smaller balls. Page 64, line 18 from top: for “ Aug. 10” read early part of Aug. Page 64, line 12 from bottom : for “ Iron-fail” read Stone-fall. Page 65, line 7 from bottom: fireball at Gottingen; add, followed by many smaller balls. Page 67, top line: for “1819. June 13. Jonsac’”’ read and add, 1819.x June 13. Jonsac, Charente, &c. &e. Page 70, line 5 from top: Gorlitz; fireball; add aérolitic ?. Page 71, line 11 from bottom: replace the (x) before May 12, by a (?). Page 71, line 12 from bottom: insert the (x) before May 19. Ekaterinosloff, &c. Page 72, line 6 from top: read February 27 or February 16. Page 72, line 11 from bottom of Notes: for “‘ Summer co.’’ read Sumner co. Page 73, line 3 fron top: add Vouillé near “ Poitiers.” Page 74, line 21 from top: for ‘ Okaninak ” read Okaninah. Page 82, line 6 from top: for ‘‘ Nuremberg ” read Nurenberg. Page 92, after line 5 from top: insert, Apr. 12. Berne. Fireball. Page 94, line 10 from top : for “ Columb ” read Columbus. Page 96, after line 16 from bottom: insert 1860.x Feb. 2. Alessandria, Piedmont. A stone- fall, Also omitted in the Tables. Report on the Theory of Numbers.—Part Il. By H. J. SrepnHen Smitu, M.A., F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry, Oxford. 39. Residues of the Higher Powers. Researches of Jacobi.—The principles which have sufficed for the determination of the laws of reciprocity affecting quadratic, cubic, biquadratic, and sextic residues, are found to be inadequate when we come to residues of the 5th, 7th, or higher powers. This was early observed by Jacobi, when, after his investigations of the eubie and biqua- dratic theorems, he turned his attention to residues of the 5th, 8th, and 12th powers*. It was evident, from a comparison of the cubic and biquadratic theories, that in the investigation of the laws of reciprocity the ordinary prime numbers of arithmetic must be replaced by certain factors of those prime numbers composed of roots of unity ; and Jacobi, in the note just re- ferred to, has indicated very clearly the nature of those factors in the case of the 5th, 8th, and 12th powers respectively. He ascertained that the two complex factors composed of 5th roots of unity into which every prime number of the form 5z+1 is resoluble by virtue of Theorem LV. of art. 30 of this Report, are not prime numbers, i. e. are each capable of decomposi- tion into the product of two similar complex numbers; so that every (real) prime number of the form 5x+1 is to be regarded as the product of four conjugate complex factors ; and these factors are precisely the complex primes which we have to consider in the theory of ‘quintic residues, in the place of the real primes they divide. ‘To this we may add that primes of the forms 5n+2 continue primes in the complex theory; while those of the form 52—1 resolve themselves into éwo complex prime factors. Thus 7=7; 1l=(2+a)(2+0°)(2+a*)\(2+a'); 13=13; 19=(4—3(a+a*))(4—3(a?+2°)); 29=(5—(a+a'))(5—(a?+a°)) ; 31=(2—2a)(2—2°)(2—a*)(2—a'), &e., * See a note communicated by him to the Berlin Academy on May 16, 1839, in the ‘Monatsberichte’ for that year, or in Crelle, vol. xix. p. 314, or Liouville, vol. viii. p. 268, in which, however, he implies that he had not as yet obtained a definitive result; nor does he seem at any subsequent period to have succeeded in completing this investigation. q ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 121 where @ is an imaginary 5th root of unity. Precisely similar remarks apply to the theories of residues of 8th and 12th powers,—real primes of the forms 8u+1, 12”+1, resclving themselves into four factors composed of Sth and 12th roots of unity respectively. By considerations similar to those pre- viously employed by him in the case of biquadratic and cubic residues, Jacobi succeeded in demonstrating (thorgh he has not enunciated) the for- mul of reciprocity affecting those powers for the particular case in which one of the two primes compared is a real number. But it would seem that he never obtained the law of reciprocity for the general case of any two complex primes; and indeed, for a reason which will afterwards appear, it was hardly possible that he should do so, so long as he confined himself to the consideration of those complex numbers which present themselves in the theory of the division of the circle. No less unsuccessful were the efforts of Eisenstein to obtain the formule relating to 8th powers, by an extension of the elliptical properties employed by him in his later proofs of the biqua- dratic theorem *. It does not appear that any subsequent writer has occu- pied himself with these special theories ; while, on the other hand, the theory of complex numbers composed with roots of unity of which the exponent is any prime, has been the subject of an important series of investigations by MM. Dirichlet and Kummer, and has led the latter eminent mathematician to the discovery and demonstration of the law of reciprocity, which holds for all powers of which the exponent is a prime number not included in a cer- tain exceptional class. 40. Necessity for the Introduction of Ideal Primes.—The fundamental pro- position of ordinary arithmetic, that if two numbers have each of them no common divisor with a third number, their product has no common divisor with that third number, is, as we have seen, applicable to complex num- bers formed with 3rd or 4th roots of unity, because it is demonstrable that Euclid’s theory of the greatest common divisor is applicable in each of those cases. With complex numbers of higher orders this is no longer the case ; and it is accordingly found that the arithmetical consequences of Euclid’s process, which are of so much importance in the simpler cases, cease to exist in the general theory. In particular, the elementary theorem, that a number can be decomposed into prime factors in one way only, ceases to exist for complex numbers composed of 23rd + or higher roots of unity—if, at least (in the case of complex as of real numbers), we understand by a prime fac- tor, a factor which cannot itself be decomposed into simpler factors}. It appears, therefore, that in the higher complex theories, a number is not necessarily a prime number simply because it cannot be resolved into com- plex factors. But by the introduction of a new arithmetical conception— that of ideal prime factors—M. Kummer has shown that the analogy with the arithmetic of common numbers is completely restored. Some prelimi- nary observations are, however, necessary to explain clearly in what this con- ception consists. * See M. Kummer, “ Ucber die Allgemeinen Reciprocitiatsgesetze,” p. 27, in the Memoirs of the Berlin Academy for 1859. ft For complex numbers composed with 5th or 7th roots of unity, the theorem still exists ; for 23 and higher primes it certainly fails; whether ‘it exists or not for 11, 13, 17, and 19, has not been definitely stated by M. Kummer (see below, Art. 50). ~ “Maxime dolendum videtur” (so said M. Kummer in 1844) “quod hee numerorum realium virtus, ut in factores primos dissolvi possint, qui pro eodem numero semper iidem sint, non eadem est numerorum complexorum, que si esset, tota hiec doctrina, que magnis adhue difficultatibus premitur, facile absolvi et ad finem perduci posset.” (See his Disserta- tion in Liouville’s Journal, vol. xii. p. 202.) In the following year he was already able to withdraw this expression of regret. 122 REPORT—1860. 41. Elementary Definitions relating to Complex Numbers.—Let ) be a prime a 2 ark : number, and @ a root of the equation 2a =0; then any expression of the form F(a)=a,+a,a+4,0°+....+a,_,0*-” were en in which a@,, a,, @,,.+--+@,_., denote real integers, is called a complex inte- gral number. To this form every rational and integral function of @ can always be reduced; and it follows, from the irreducibility of the equation nal “ : ae tages that the same complex number cannot be expressed in this reduced form in two different ways. The zorm otf F(a) is the real integer obtained by forming the product of all the A—1 values of F(a), so that N.F(a)=N.F(a*)=... =N. F(a*—!)=F(a). F(a). F(a")... F(a*-!). The operations of addition, subtraction and multiplication present no pecu- liarity in the case of these complex numbers; by the introduction of the norm, the division of one complex number by another is reduced to the case in which the divisor is a real integer. Thus fa) _flayE()E(a’)-...F(@) | F(a) N.F(a) ; and f(a) is said to be divisible by F(a) when every coefficient in the pro- duct f(a)F(a*)F(a’)...F(a*—!), developed and reduced to the form (A), is divisible by N. F(a). When f(a) is not divisible by F(a), it is not, in general, possible to render the norm of the remainder less than the norm of the divisor; and it is owing to this circumstance that the common rule for finding the greatest common divisor is not generally applicable to complex numbers. If, in the expression (A), we consider the numbers a,, @,.--@,—2 as indeterminates, the norm is a certain homogeneous function of order \—1, and of A—1 indeterminates; so that the inquiry whether a given real number is or is not resoluble into the product of \—1 conjugate complex factors, is identical with the inquiry whether it is or is not capable of representation by a certain homogeneous form, which is, in fact, the resultant of the two forms O44 77+ 4,07 Sy 4 +°:° +Gy2y?—*, and age 9 oo aR! i al ah tin The problem is considered in the former aspect by M. Kummer, in the latter by Dirichlet. The methods of Dirichlet appear to have been of extreme generality, and are as applicable to complex numbers, composed with the powers of a root of any irreducible equation having integral coefficients, as to the complex numbers which we have to consider here. Nevertheless, in the outline of this theory which we propose to give, we prefer to follow the course taken by M. Kummer: for Dirichlet’s results have been indicated by him, for the most part, only in a very summary manner *; nor is it in any case difficult to assign to them their proper place in M. Kummer’s theory ; while, on the other hand, it would, perhaps, be impossible to express ade- quately, in any other form than that which M. Kummer has adopted, the numerous and important results (including the law of reciprocity itself) con- * See his notes in the Monatsberichte of the Berlin Academy for 1841, Oct. 11, p. 280; 1842, April 14, p. 93; and 1846, March 30; also a letter to M. Liouville, in Liouville’s Journal, vol. v. p. 72; a note in the Comptes Rendus of the Paris Academy for 1840, vol. x. p. 286; and another in the Monatsberichte for 1847, April 15, p. 139, ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, 123 tained in the elaborate series of memoirs which he has devoted to this sub- ject *. 42. Complex Units——A complex unit is a complex number of which the norm is unity. If \=3, there is only a finite number [six] of units included in the formula +a". But for all higher values of X, the number of units is infinite. Nevertheless it is always possible to assign a system of »—1 units (putting, for brevity, 3(A—1)=,) such that ad/ units are included in the formula tatu ....u ts"; in which w,, t@,, Ws)+++%,—1 are the assigned units, and f, 7,, 2,,..-2,—1, are real (positive or negative) integral numbers. A system of units, capable of thus representing all units whatsoever, is called a fundamental system. The existence, for every value of A, of fundamental * The following is a list of M. Kummer’s memoirs on complex numbers :— 1, De numeris complexis qui radicibus unitatis et numeris realibus constant, Breslau, 1844. This is an academical dissertation, addressed by the University of Breslau to that of Konigsberg, on the tercentenary anniversary of the latter. It has been inserted by M. Liou- ville in his Journal, vol. xii. p. 185. 2. Ueber die Divisoren gewisser Formen der Zahlen, welche aus der Theorie der Kreis- theilung entstehen.—Crelle, vol. xxx. p. 107. 3. Zur Theorie der Complexen Zahlen, in the Monatsberichte for March 1845, or in Crelle, vol. xxxv. p. 319. 4. Ueber die Zerlegung der aus Wurzeln der Einheit gebildeten complexen Zahlen in ihre Primfactoren.—Creille, vol. xxxv. p. 327. The date is Sept. 1846. 5. A note addressed to M. Liouville (April 28, 1847), in Liouville’s Journal, vol. xii. p. 136. 6. Bestimmung der Anzahl nicht zquivalenter Klassen fiir die aus Aten Wurzeln der Ein- heit gebildeten complexen Zahlen, und die idealen Factoren derselben.—Crelle, vol. xl. p. 93. 7. Zwei besondere Untersuchungen iiber die Classen-Anzahl, und iiber die Einheiten der aus Aten Wurzeln der Einheit gebildeten complexen Zahlen.—Crelle, vol. x1. p- 117. (See also the Monatsberichte of the Berlin Academy for 1847, Oct. 14, p. 305.) 8. Allgemeiner Beweis des Fermat’schen Satzes, dass die Gleichung 2*+-y%=7zA unlésbar ist, fiir alle diejenigen Potenz-Exponenten A, welche ungerade Primzahlen sind, und in den Zahlern der ersten 3(\—3) Bernouillischen Zahlen als Factoren nicht vorkommen.—Crelle, vol. xl. p.131. (See also the Monatsberichte for 1847, April 15, p.132.) This and the two preceding memoirs are dated June 1849. 9. Recherches sur les Nombres Complexes.—Liouville, vol. xvi. p. 377. This memoir contains a very full résumé of the whole theory, and may be read by any one acquainted with the elements of the theory of numbers. 10. A note in the Monatsberichte of the Berlin Academy for May 27,1850, p. 154, which contains the first enunciation of the law of reciprocity. 11. Ueber die Erganzungssitze zu den Allgemeinen Reciprocitatsgesetzen.—Crelle, vol. xliv. p- 93 (Nov. 30, 1851), and vol. lvi. p. 270 (Dec. 1858). 12, A note on the irregularity of determinants, in the Berlin Monatsberichte for 1853, March 14, p. 194, 13, Ueber eine besondere Art aus complexen Einheiten gebildeter Ausdriicke.—Crelle, vol. l. p. 212 (Aug, 31, 1854). 14. Ueber die den Gaussischen Perioden der Kreistheilung entsprechenden Congruenz- wurzeln.—Crelle, vol. liii. p. 142 (June 5, 1856). 15. Einige Satze tiber die aus den Wurzeln der Gleichung aA =1 gebildeten complexen Zahlen fiir den Fall, dass die Klassenzahl durch A theilbar ist, nebst Anwendung derselben auf einen weiteren Beweis des letzten Fermat’schen Lehrsatzes.—Memoirs of the Berlin Academy for 1857, p.41. An abstract of this memoir will be found in the Monatsberichte for 1857, May 4, p. 275. 16. Theorie der Idealen Primfactoren der complexen Zahlen, welche aus den Wurzeln der Gleichung w”=1 gebildet sind, wenn n eine zusammengesetzte Zahl ist.—Memoirs of the Berlin Academy for 1856, p. 1. 17. Ueber die Allgemeinen Reciprocitatsgesetze unter den Resten und Nicht-Resten der Potenzen, deren Grad eine Primzahl ist—Memoirs of the Berlin Academy for 1859, p. 20. Tt was read on Feb. 18, 1858, and May 5, 1859. An abstract will be found in the Monats- berichte of the former year. A memoir by M. Kronecker (De unitatibus complexis, Berlin, 1845; it is his inaugural dis- sertation on taking his doctorate) connects itself naturally with the earlier memoirs of the preceding series. : 124 REPORT—1860. systems of »—1 units may be established by means of a general proposition due to Dirichlet and relating to any irreducible equation having unity for its first coefficient, and all its coefficients integral. If, in such an equation, R be the number of real, and 2I of imaginary roots, there always exist systems of R+I—1 fundamental units, by means of which all other units can be expressed; or, in other words, the indeterminate equation “Norm =1” is always resoluble in an infinite number of ways, and all its solutions can be expressed by means of R+I—1 fundamental solutions*. The demon- stration of the actuai existence, in every case, of these systems of fundamental units (a theorem which is, as Jacobi has said+, “un des plus importants, mais aussi un des plus épineux de la science des nombres”) is of essential im- portance in the theory of complex numbers, and has the same relation to that theory which the solution of the Pellian equation 2*—Dy’=1 has to the theory of quadratic forms of determinant D. It may be observed, how- ever, that in the case which we have to consider here, that of the equation a = 7 =o the existence of fundamental systems of »—1 units has been a= demonstrated independently of Dirichlet’s general theory by MM. Kro- necker and Kummerf. If A=5, a+a-! is the only fundamental unit; so that every unit is in- cluded in the formula ta*(a+a-1)”. If \=7, the complex units are included in the formula ta* (atta) (a? +a), But for higher primes the actual calculation of a system of fundamental units involves great labour; and a method practically available for the purpose has not yet been given. It is remarkable that every unit can be rendered real (i. e. a function of the binary sums or periods a'+a—", &c.) by multi- plying it by a properly assumed power of a. We shall therefore suppose, in * To enunciate Dirichlet’s theorem with precision, let f(v)=0 be the proposed equation ; let 1, @g)+.. a» be its roots, and y(a,), (#,),..- P(#n) a system of n conjugate units. If the analytical modulus of every one of the quantities Y(«;), W(a2),...W(#,) be unity, the system of units is an isolated or singular system. The number of singular systems (if any such exist) is always finite, whence it is easy to infer that the units they comprise are simply roots of unity. For if ~(«) be a singular unit, its powers are evidently also singular units, and therefore cannot be all different from one another; 7. e. /(«) is a root of unity. If f(x) be of an uneven order, there are no singular units; if f(a) be of an even order, —1 is a singular unit; and if /(a)=0 have any real roots, it is the only singular unit; whereas if all the roots of f(a#)=0 be imaginary, other singular units may in special cases exist. A tae nO =0 has 2(A—1) singular units included in the formula +e*, Ad- mitting this definition of singular units, we may enunciate Dirichlet’s theorem as follows :— a system of A units [A=I+R—1], e,(a), eo(),...ex(@), composed with any root #, can always be assigned such that every unit composed with the same root can be represented (and in one way only) by the formula w .€y(a)"1. €5(a)"2, @,(c)"3.... en()"A, where 7, 7%)... 7, are positive or negative integral numbers and w is unity, or some one of the singular units composed with a. The principles on which the demonstration of this theorem depends are very briefly indi- cated in the notes presented by Dirichlet to the Berlin Academy in 1841, 1842, and 1846. + Crelle’s Journal, vol. xl. p. 312. { See Kronecker, De unitatibus complexis, pars altera; and Kummer, in Liouville’s Jour- nal, vol. xvi. p. 383. Thus the equation ea. ee ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 125 what follows, that the units of which we speak have been thus reduced to a real form. For all values of d greater than 5, the nuinber of systems of fundamental units is infinite. For if w,, w,,...%¢,—1 still represent a system of fundamental units, it is evident that the system E,, E,, ... E,—1, defined by the equations 1,1 1,2 (1, #—1) E, = us , vee X UT gp (1), (2,2) (2, w—1) FE, =u, us a nsie.e Boe aes Me en CA Ewa) ae Se tea BS). | is also a fundamental system, if the indices (1, 1), &c. be integral numbers, and if the determinant 2+(1, 1)(2,2)....(—1, p—1) be equal to unity. And conversely, every system of fundamental units will be represented by the equations (A.), if in them we assign to the indices (1, 1), (2, 2), &e. all systems of integral values in succession consistent with the condition Z+(1,1)(2,2)(3, 3).--(u—I, p—1)=+£1; so that a single system of fun- damental units represents to us all possible systems. We shall also have occasion to allude to independent systems of units. A system of p—1 units, w,, w,,..U%,—1, is said to be independent when it is impossible to satisfy the equation ur ur ur at wee =1, whatever integral values are assigned to the indices 7,, %,, 2) +++ My—1> The equations (A.) will represent all possible systems of independent units, if we suppose that in them the indices (1,1), (2,2), (3,3)... receive all positive and negative integral values, subject only to the condition that the determinant A=3+(1, 1) (2,2).--(#—1, »—1) must not vanish. Every system of fundamental units is also independent; but not conversely. Every unit can be represented as a product of the powers of the units of an inde- pendent system ; but if the system be not also fundamental, the indices of the powers are not in general integral, but are fractions having denominators which divide A. Lastly, if ¢,(a), ¢,(a@),...- ¢u-1(@) be a system of inde- pendent units, the logarithmic determinant L.e¢,(@), L.¢,(a), aoe iewr Cr enc) A L.¢,(a@”), PC aP ay | ts sree ee Oe (ae Yop L. e(at~*), L. e(a”~*), Sey, Slee ema. )s in which y denotes a primitive root of X, is different from zero; and con- versely, if the determinant be different from zero, the system of units is inde- pendent. For all systems of fundamental units, the absolute value of the logarithmic determinant is the same; for any other independent system, its value is A times that least value. The quantities denoted by the symbols L.c,(a), L.e,(a), &c., are the arithmetical logarithms of the real units ¢,(«), &c., taken positively. 43. Gauss’s Equations of the Periods——In Gauss’s theory of the division of the circle, it is shown that if X be a prime number, and if ef=A—1, the e periods of f roots cach, that is the quantities ,, 7,. 7, +++. 7,_,, defined by the equations 126 REPORT—1860. 0 , _2 ay iy ed! + av +a? E = evatoiets seal ° Et vet ~2e+1 (f—Ve+1 Beutcee! . ce aatew cteebes +a! ~e—1 ~Ze—1 3e—1 fe—1 Ne-=a ta? +a’ + eee tar (y still denoting a primitive root of \), are the roots of an irreducible equa- tion of order e having integral coefficients, which we shall symbolize by F(y)=y°+ Ay '+A,y° 7+... A, ytA,=0 (see Disq. Arith. art. 346). This equation is of the kind called Abelian; that is to say, each of the e periods is a rational function of any other, in such a manner that we may establish the equations »,=9(»,), 7,=0(n,)s 7;=9(n,), «+++ 25=¢(ne-1); Where it is to be observed that the coefficients of the function ¢ are not in general integral. The determination of the coefficients of the equation F(y)=0 may be effected, for any given prime A, and any given divisor e of A—1, by methods which, however tedious, present no theoretical difficulty. Every rational and integral function of the periods can be reduced to the form a,y,+a,n,+4,n,+ --+a,_,n,_;. If we com- bine the equation 1+ 7,+7,+7,+..--+7e-1=0 with the e—2 equations, by which 75, 79, -+-+ 5 | are expressed in that linear form, we may elimi- nate 7,, 7) +++ %e—1, and shall thus obtain an equation of order e, satisfied by No te. the equation of the periods, or F(y)=0. This is the method proposed by Gauss (Disq. Arith. art. 346) ; M. Kummer, instead, forms the system of equations m7 == n, f+ (0,0), +(0, 1)n, +(0,2)n.+ --- +(0,e—1)ne-1, mm, =2,f+(1,0)n, + 1)n,+C1,2)n,+ ---+C1,e—1)ne-1, oN =n, f+ (2, 0)n,+(2, 1)n, +(2, 2)n.+ eee (2, e—1)me-1, ~ . . . 7 . . . . . . . . . . . Ne =Ne-1f + (e—1, 0)n, +(e—1, 1)y, +(e—1,2)n,+ eee +(e— 15 e—1)ne-1, and eliminates 7,, 7,5 --.e—1 from them. The symbol (4, /) represents the number of solutions of the congruence y¥+*==1+y*+t*, mod A, w and y denoting any two terms of a complete system of residues for the modulus f; nx is zero for all values of k, excepting that 2,=1, if f be even, and m,=1, if f be uneven*. The systems of equations corresponding to the particular cases e=3, e=4, have been given by Gauss, who has succeeded in expressing the values of the coefficients (2, 2) in each of those cases by means of num- bers depending on the representation of \ by certain simple quadratic forms ; and has employed these expressions to demonstrate the criterion already men- tioned in this Report for the biquadratic character of the number2+. A third method has been given by M. Libri{: he establishes the formula ANL=M + n(1 +e.) + 0,(1 ben.) + +++ nea(1 Heres); in which N; represents the number of solutions of the congruence * Liouville’s Journal, vol. xvi. p. 404. + Disq. Arith. art. 358, and Theor. Res. Big. arts. 14—22. + See the memoir “‘ Sur la Théorie des Nombres,” in his ‘ Mémoires de Mathématique et de Physique,’ pp. 121,122. The notation of the memoir has been altered in the text. See also M. Lebesgue, in Liouville’s Journal, vol. ii. p. 287, and vol, iii. p. 113. ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 127 1+ai+apg+...+a,=0, mod A*. If S,, S,, S,... denote the sums of the powers of the roots of the equation F(y)=0, this formula may be written thus, — k.k—-1 : ANL=\* + 8, +heS,+——g— &S, + woe Ses, or, solving for S,, S,,..., #8.4:=2 Ne—AN at “ns oo ~(-)N, —(r=1)*. From this equation, when the values of N,, N,, &c., have been determined, S,, S,,... may be calculated, and thence by known methods the values of the coefficients of the equation F(y)=0. Lastly, M. Lebesgue has shown that, if we denote by o, the number of ways in which numbers divisible by d can be formed by adding together & terms of the series y°, y',. . -yA-2, sub- ject to the condition that no two powers of y be added the indices of which are congruous for the modulus e, the function (A—1)F(y) assumes the form ALY —o, y+ ony* "— «2. +(—1)° oe] —(y—S)'t- But the practical application of any of these methods is very laborious when X is a large number, chiefly on account of the determinations which they all require of the numbers of solutions of which certain congruences are pobre mie es a ons susceptible. For e=2 the equation is vty. o, or, putting r=2y+1, r°—(—1)"A=0. The cubic and biquadratic equations corre- sponding to the cases e=3 and e=4 are also known from Gauss’s investiga- tions. The results assume the simplest forms if we put r=ey+1. We then have (1) e=3, 4A=M?+27N?, M=1, mod 3; 7°—3Ar—AM=0. (2) e=4; A=A’°+B’*; A=I1, mod 4; e=(—1)% [7°+(1—2e)A]?—4A (r—A)?=0f. Though these determinations are not required in M. Kummer’s theory, we have nevertheless given them here, in order to facilitate arithmetical verifi- cations of his results. The forms of the period-equations for the case r=8 and e=12 can (it may be added) be elicited from the results given by Jacobi in his note on the division of the circle (Crelle, vol. xxx. pp. 167, 168.). 44. The Period-Equations considered as Congruences.—An arithmetical property of the equation F(y)=O0, which renders it of fundamental import- ance in the theory of complex numbers, is expressed in the following theorem. “If g be a prime number satisfying the congruence gf=1, mod \, the congruence F(y)=0, mod q, is completely resoluble, 7. e. it is possible to establish an indeterminate congruence of the form F(y)=(y—%) (y—u,) «+» (y—ue-1), mod g, * In this congruence 2}, 2»,... x; are & terms (the same or different) of a complete system of residues for the modulus ) ; and in counting the number of solutions, two solutions are to be considered as different in which the same places are not occupied by the same numbers. A simpler formula for S;,,, may be obtained by considering 2, 2g, ... 2, to represent terms of a system of residues prime to A, and denoting by ey, the number of solutions of M. Libri’s congruence on this hypothesis. We thus find 8z+1=Ayx— f* (Liouville, vol. iii. p. 116). + Liouville, vol. iii. p. 119. ‘ = M. Lebesgue, Comptes Rendus, vol. li. p.9. Gauss has not exhibited this last equation in its explicit form. See Theor. Res. Big. 2. ¢. 123 REPORT—1860. Ups Uyy ++ + Ue—1 Aenoting integral numbers, congruous or incongruous, mod q*.” : : : ee A particular case of this theorem, relating to the equation ae =0 (which may of course be regarded as the equation of the A—1 periods, con- sisting each of a single root), is due to Euler, and is included in his theory of the Residues of Powers; for it follows from that theory (see art. 12 of this Report), that the binomial congruence x\—1=0 (and therefore also the x— congruence =0, mod g) is completely resoluble for every prime of the form mA+1. A remarkable relation subsists between the periods 7,, 7, «++ me—1 Of the equation F(y)=0, and the roots 2,, 0,, Uz +++ Ue—1 of the conyruence F(y)=0, mod g. This relation is expressed in the following theorem :— «“ Every equation which subsists between any two functions of the periods, will subsist as a congruence for the modulus g when we substitute for the periods the roots of the congruence F'(y)==0 taken in a certain order.” It is immaterial which root of the congruence we take to correspond to any given root of the equation. But when this correspondence has once been esta- blished in a single case, we must attend to the sequence which exists among the roots of the congruence corresponding to the sequence of the periods. When w,, u,, ... %e—1 are all incongruous, their order of sequence is deter- mined by the congruences U,= (4), U=O(uU,), «++. U=G(Me-1), mod g, which correspond to the equations =I)» m= GCM)» +++ + Mo = HCMe=1)» and which are always significant, although the coefficients of @ are frac- tional, because it may be proved that their denominators are prime to the modulus g. When w,, %;+++%e—1 are not all incongruous [an exceptional case which implies that g divides the discriminant of F(y)], a precisely simi- lar relation subsists, though it cannot be fixed in the same manner, and though the number of incongruous solutions of the congruence is not equal to the number of the periods. (See a paper by M. Kummer in Crelle’s Journal, * This theorem was first given by Schoenemann (Crelle, vol. xix. p. 306); his demonstra- tion, however, supposes that g =e,—a limitation to which the theorem itself is not subject. The following proof is, with a slight modification, that given by M. Kummer (Crelle, vol. xxx. p- 107, or Liouville, vol. xvi. p. 403). From the indeterminate congruence of Lagrange (see art. 10 of this Report) x(a—1) (w7—2)....(v—g+1) =a! —2, mod g, it follows that (y—nx) (Y—g—1) (Y= MK—2) «+ YM IFAD SY 14)" — (Yn) =y! — ng! — (ym) =" —y, mod g, observing that ,.4=n,41naq» and that, if Ind g be divisible by e (or, which is the same thing, if g satisfy the congruence gf=1, mod X), np41nd g=7%- Multiplying together the e congruences obtained by giving to & the e values of which it is susceptible in the formula (y—nx) Y—2¢-1) YE 2) + (Y= Me) Sy" —y, mod g, we find F(y) F(y—1) F(y—2) «-- Fy—gt )=(y?—-)*, mod g; whence, by a principle to which we shall have occasion to refer subsequently (see Art. 69), it appears that F(y) is congruous for the modulus g to a product of the form (y—uy) (y=) + (Y—Ue_)- ee ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 129 vol. liii. p. 142, in which he has established this fundamental proposition on a satisfactory basis.) 45. Conditions for the Divisibility of the Norm of a Complex Number by a Real Prime*.—Instead of the complex number S(a)=a,+a, a+a,a’+.... +a), a\-%, let us now, for a moment, consider the complex number W(n)=e, NAC, M1 NaH +002 +Ce—1 Ne—1y which, with its conjugates Yin) =e, me, No lg Ng oe ee +Ce—1 No» b(n.) =e, M+¢, 1; +¢, 14 oe Sie +¢e_1 Ny eerste reoeeeeesere ee eoee sess ve vese W(ne-1) =e, Ne—1 +, No +e, Nees Ce} Ne—2 is a function of the periods only, and is therefore a specialized form of the general complex number f(a); and let ¢ still denote a real prime, satisfying the congruence gf=1, mod d. By means of the relation subsisting between the equation-roots 7, 7,, -+ e—1, and the congruence-roots %,, %,) ++ We—1y M. Kummer has demonstrated the two following theorems :— (i.) “The necessary and sufficient condition that (7) should be divisible by q (z.e. that the coefficients ¢,, c,,...¢e—, should be all separately divi- sible by q) is that the e congruences W(u,) =e,u, +e, u,+0,U,+ .+++ +ee—1 M1 =0, mod g, Yu) =e,u, +e,u,te,u,t..0.+¢c-1u%, ==0, mod q W(Ue-1) =6, Ue-1 +6, Uy +e, U,+ . 60. +c] Ue~2 =0, mod qd should be simultaneously satisfied.” (ii.) “The necessary and sufficient condition that the norm of (7), taken with respect to the periods, z.e. the number (n,) p(n,)..+- W(ne-1), should be divisible by g, is that one of the e congruences Y(u,) =0, W(w,) =0,...+++b(we-1) =0, mod q, should be satisfied.” These results may be extended to any complex number f(a), by first reducing it to the form S(a)=, (n,) +a y, (n)) +a" p, (n.)+ vee fall Wye (1). This is always possible; for, since the f roots which compose any one period, ¢. g. 4,, are the roots of an equation y(a)=0 of order f, the coeffi- cients of which are complex integers involving the periods only}, we may simply divide f(a) by x(a), and the remainder will give us the expression of f(a) in the required form. Further, let g now denote a prime apper- taining to the exponent f (not merely satisfying the congruence gf =1, mod A, but also satisfying no congruence of lower index and of the same form). The two preceding theorems are then replaced by the two following, which are analogous to them, and include them. * The outline of the theory of complex numbers contained in this and the subsequent articles is chiefly derived from M. Kummer’s mémoire in Liouville, vol. xvi. p. 411. T Disq. Arith. art. 348. 60. K 130 REPORT— 1860. (i.) “The necessary and sufficient condition that f(a) should be divisible by q, is that the congruences (ux) =0, w, (ux) =0, aint (ux~)=0, mod g, should be simultaneously satisfied for every value of k.” (ii.) “ And the condition that the norm of f(a) should be divisible by 9, is that the same congruences should be satisfied for some one value of k.” When the congruences W, (wz )=0, Ww, (wr) =0, ... - by-1(&e) =0, mod g, are simultaneously satisfied, f(a) is said to be congruous to zero (mod q), for the substitution n,=u; These f congruences may be replaced by a single congruence in either of two different ways. Thus, if we denote by F(y,) the complex number involving the periods only which we obtain by multiplying together the f complex numbers FA FU FO Dy sss fet eel it may be proved that the single congruence F (w,)==0, mod q, is precisely equivalent to the f congruences W,(uz)=0, W,(uz)=0,.... bei (ux) =0. Or, again, if we denote by ¥(»,) a complex number congruous to zero for every one of the substitutions 7,=,, 7,>=U. +--+ 4)>=Ue—1, but not con- gruous to zero for the substitution 7,=u, (such complex numbers, involving the periods only, can in every case be assigned) *, it is readily seen that the same f congruences are comprehended in the single formula W (ne-x) f (a) =0, mod g. The utility of this latter mode of expressing the f congruences will appear in the sequel: the formula F(az-)=0, mod q, is of importance, because it supplies an immediate demonstration of the important proposition, that “if a product of two factors be congruous to zero for the substitution 7,=wz, one or other of the factors must be congruous to zero for that substitution.” 46. Definition of Ideal Prime Factors.—To develope the consequences of the preceding theorems, let us consider a prime number gq appertaining to the exponent f; and let us first suppose that it is capable of being expressed as the norm (taken with respect to the periods) of a complex number (7), which contains the periods of f terms only; so that q=(n) Cm) + +++ (me-1)- If the substitution of uw, in W render Y(w,)=0, mod g, we may distinguish the e factors of g by means of the substitutions which respectively render them congruous to zero; so that, for example, U(x) is the factor apper- taining to the substitution n, =. We thus obtain the theorem that if f(a) be congruous to zero, mod g, for any substitution »,=w,, f(a) is divisible by the factor of g appertaining to that substitution. For if Y(,) be that factor of g, S(@) _ fle)Y(n Vn)» bne-1) , Wn) q ; but f(a) d(n,) W(n,) «++ (ner) is congruous to zero, mod q, for every one of — the substitutions y,=w,, 4,=U,, ++» 7,=Ue—-1; it is consequently divisible by q; i.e. f(a) is divisible by U(m,). A useful particular case of this theo- rem is that wz—7,=0, mod Y(n,), if Y(w,)=0, mod q. * Crelle, vol. lili, p. 145. The number W(7) of this memoir possesses the property in question. ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 131 Again, it may be shown that these complex factors of g are primes in the most proper sense of the word: 2.e., first, that they are incapable of reso- lution into any two complex factors, unless one of those factors be a complex unit; and secondly, that if any one of them divide the product of two factors, it necessarily divides one or other of the two factors separately. That W(n,) possesses the first property is evident, because its norm is a real prime, and that it possesses the second is a consequence of the last theorem of Art. 4.5. For if W(,) divide f,(a) xf,(«), either f(a) or f(a), by virtue of that theo- rem, is congruous to zero (mod q) for the substitution »,=«,; that is to say, either f(a) or f,(a) is divisible by 1(»,). ow, if every prime g which appertains to the exponent f were actually eapable of resolution into e complex factors composed of the e periods of Ff roots, these factors would represent to us all the true primes to be con- sidered in the theory of the residues of Ath powers. And for values of J infe- rior to 11, perhaps to 23, this is, in fact, the case. But for higher values of X, the real primes appertaining to the exponent f divide themselves into two different groups, according as they are or are not susceptible of resolution into e conjugate factors. Let, then, g represent any prime appertaining to the exponent f, whether susceptible or not of this resolution, and let f(a) still denote a complex number which is rendered congruous to zero by the sub- stitution n,=w,; f(a) is said by M. Kummer to contain the ideal factor of q appertaining to the substitution n,=u,. ‘This definition is admissible, because it is verified, as we have just seen, when ¢ is actually resoluble into e con- jugate factors; and its introduction is justified, as M. Kummer observes, by its utility. To obtain a definition of the multiplicity of an ideal factor, we may employ a complex number ¥(7) possessing the property indicated in the last article. If of the two congruences C¥(n)]” f(a)=0, mod q”, [¥(n.)]"**f(a)=0, mod g”*+}, the former be satisfied, and the latter not, f(a) is said to contain 7 times precisely the ideal factor of g which appertains to the substitution »,=w,. 47. Elementary Theorems relating to Ideal Factors—The following pro- positions are partly restatements (in conformity with the definitions now intreduced) of results to which we have already referred, and partly simple corollaries from them. They will serve to show that the elementary proper- ties of ordinary integers may now be transferred to complex numbers. (1.) A complex number is divisible by g when it contains all the ideal factors of g. If it contain all of those factors 2 times, but not all of them n+1 times, it is divisible by g”, but not by g”*!. (2.) The norm of a complex number is divisible by g when the complex number contains one of the ideal factors of g. If (counting multiple factors) it contain, in all, of the ideal factors of g, the norm is divisible by g’/, but by no higher power of g (f denoting the exponent to which g appertains). (3.) A product of two or more factors contains the same ideal divisors as its factors taken together. (4.) The necessary and sufficient condition that one complex number should be divisible by another is, that the dividend should contain all the _ ideal factors of the divisor at least as often as the divisor. (5.) Two complex numbers which contain the same ideal factors are identical, or else differ only by a unit factor. (6.) Every complex number contains a finite number of ideal prime fac- tors. These ideal prime factors (as well as the multiplicity of each of them) are perfectly determinate. K 2 132 REPORT—1860. The prime number ) is the only real prime excluded from the preceding considerations. Since \=(1—a)(1—a’)..-.(1—a—}), it appears that the norm of 1—a is a real prime, and therefore 1—a cannot be resolved into the product of two factors, except one of them be a unit. Again, because the necessary and sufficient condition for the divisibility of a complex number by 1—a is that the sum of the coefficients of the complex number should be congruous to zero for the modulus \, and because the sum of the coeffi- cients of a product of complex numbers is congruous, for the modulus A, to the product of the sums of the coefficients of the factors, it appears that if the norm of a complex number is divisible by A, the complex number is itself divisible by 1—a; and also that if the product of two complex numbers be divisible by 1—a, one or other of the factors separately must be divisible by 1—a. Hence 1—a is a true complex prime, and is the only prime factor of A; in fact, A=(1—a)(l—a’)... (1—ad—!)=e(a)(L—a)\-}, if e(a) denote . the complex unit 1—a®? 1—a’° 1—ad-} ta 12 l—a The theorems which have preceded enable us to give a definition of the norm of an ideal complex number. If the ideal number contain the factor 1—a m times, and if it besides contain &, k',k',...- prime factors of the primes g, q', g",.... appertaining to the exponents f, f', f", -... respectively, we are to understand by its norm, the positive integral number AM GS glES qMEF" 6.05 a definition which, by virtue of the second proposition of this article, is exact in the case of an actually existing number. It will be observed that the number of actual or ideal prime factors (com- pound of Xth roots of unity) into which a given real prime can be decom- posed, depends exclusively on the exponent to which the prime appertains for the modulus A. If the exponent is f, the number of ideal factors is aa =e. Thus, if g be a primitive root of \, g continues a prime in the A-1 complex theory ; if it be a primitive root of the congruence x 7 =I, mod A, it is only resoluble into two conjugate prime factors. This dependence of the number of ideal prime factors of a given prime upon the exponent to which it appertains is a remarkable instance of an intimate and simple con- nexion between two properties of the same prime number, which appear at first sight to have no immediate connexion with one another. It may be convenient to remark that the word Ideal is sometimes used so as to include, and sometimes so as to exclude, actually existent complex numbers; but it is not apprehended that any confusion can arise from this ambiguity, which it is not worth while to remove at the expense of intro- ducing a new technical term. 48. Classification of Ideal Numbers——An ideal number (using the term in its restricted sense) is incapable of being exhibited in an isolated form — as a complex integer; as far as has yet appeared, it has no quantitative — existence ; and the assertion that a given complex number contains an ideal factor, is only a convenient mode of expressing a certain set of congruential conditions which are satisfied by the coefficients of the complex number. Nevertheless we may, without fear of error, represent ideal numbers by the same symbols, f(a), F(a), ¢(a@)..., which we have employed to denote actually existing complex numbers, if we are only careful to remember that these symbols, when the numbers which they represent are ideal, admit of ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 133 combination by multiplication or division, but not by addition or subtraction. Thus f(a) x f(a), f(«)+f,(«), [f(«)]”; are significant symbols, and their interpretation is contained in what has preceded; but we have no general interpretation of a combination such as f(@)+f,(«), or S(«)—f(«)*. This symbolic representation of ideal numbers is very convenient, and tends to abbreviate many demonstrations. Every ideal number is a divisor of an actual number, and, indeed, of an infinite number of actual numbers. Also, if the ideal number ¢(a) be a divisor of the actual number F(a), the quotient ¢,(a)=F(a) +¢(«) is always ideal; for if ¢,(a) were an actual number, ¢(a), which is the quotient of F(a) divided by 9,(a), ought also to be an actual number, It appears, therefore, that there exists an infinite number of different ideal multipliers, which all render actual the same ideal number. It has, however, been shown by M. Kummer that a finite number of ideal multipliers are sufficient to render actual all ideal numbers whatever; so that it is possible (and that in an infinite number of different ways) to assign a system of ideal multipliers, such that every ideal number is rendered actual by one of them, and one only. Ideal numbers are thus distributed into a certain finite number of classes,— a class comprehending those numbers which are rendered actual by the same multiplier; and this distribution into classes is independent of the particular system of multipliers by which it is effected, inasmuch as it is found that if two ideal numbers be rendered actual by the same multiplier, every other multiplier which renders one of them actual will also render the other actual. Ideal numbers which belong to the same class are said to be egutvalent; so that two ideal numbers, which are each of them equivalent to a third, are equivalent to one another. We may regard actual numbers (which need no ideal multiplier) as forming the first or principal class in the distribution, and, consequently, as all equivalent to one another. If f(a) be equivalent to S(a@), and g(a) to ¢,(a), f(a) x g(a) is equivalent to f(a) x $,(a),—a result which is expressed by saying that “equivalent ideal numbers multiplied by equivalent numbers, give equivalent products;” and the class of the product is said to be the class compounded of the classes of the factors. 49. Representation of Ideal Numbers as the roots of Actual Numbers.— An important conclusion is deducible from the theorem that the number of classes of ideal numbers is finite. Let f(a) be any ideal number; and let us consider the series of ideal numbers f(a), f(a)’, /(@)’,... These numbers cannot all belong to different classes; we can therefore find two different powers of f(a), for example [/(a)]” and [f(«)]”*”, which are equivalent to one another. But the equivalence of these numbers implies that [/(a@) ]” is equivalent to the actual number+1; ¢. e. that [/(«)]” is itself an actual number. We may therefore enunciate the theorem, “ Every ideal number, raised to a certain power, becomes an actual number.” The index of this power is the same for all ideal numbers of the same class, but may be different for different classes. By reasoning precisely similar to that employed by Euler in his 2nd proof of Fermat’s Theoremf, it may be proved that the index of the first term in the serics f(a), [/(«)]’, [/(@)]°..-, which is an actual number, is either equal to the whole number of classes, or to a submultiple of that number. This least index is said to be the exponent to which the class of ideal numbers containing f(a) appertains. * These symbols are, however, interpretable when f(a) and f,(a) belong to the same i ome ©) ae. is ae Xf, («) be both actual, f(«) +f, («) is the ideal quo- ent obtained by dividing 9 («) xf («)+¢@(«) xf, (a) by 9 (a). Tt See art. 10 of this Report, ‘ tye 134 REPORT—1860. It would seem that for certain values of the prime A, there exist classes of ideal numbers appertaining to the exponent H, if H denote the number of classes of ideal numbers*. Such classes (when they exist) possess a property similar to that of the primitive roots of prime numbers ; 2. é., by compounding such a class continually with itself we obtain all possible classes, just as by continually multiplying a primitive root by itself we obtain all residues prime to the prime of which it is a primitive root. It has, however, been ascertained by M. Kummer that these primitive classes do not in all cases, or even in general, exist. The theorem of this article enables us to express ideal numbers as roots of actually existing complex numbers. ‘Thus, if g be a prime appertaining to the exponent f for the modulus X, and resoluble into the product of e con- jugate ideal factors ¢(n,), 9(7,), $(7,),+++$(ne_,), these ideal numbers, which will not in general belong to the same class, will nevertheless appertain to the same exponent h; so that [o(n,) 1", Co(m,)1’; ..- will all be actual num- bers. The power g” is therefore resoluble into the product of e actually existing complex factors. If we effect this resolution, and represent the factors of g” by &(n,), ®(n,)...., the ideal numbers $(1,); ¢(7,);++++ may be represented by the formule 1 1 (1) = [&(m,)]* o(1,) = [(,) 1" gs9)2) 50. The Number of Classes of Ideal Numbers.—The number of classes of ideal numbers was first determined by Dirichlet. He effected this determi- nation by methods which he had previously introduced into the higher arithmetic, and which had already led him to a demonstration of the cele- brated theorem, that every arithmetical progression, the terms of which are prime to their common difference, contains an infinite number of prime numbers, and to the determination of the number of non-equivalent classes of quadratic forms of a given determinant t. Dirichlet’s investigation of the problem which we are here considering has never been published; but that since given by M. Kummer is probably in all essential 1espects the same, as it reposes on an extension of the principles developed in Dirichlet’s earlier memoirs. Our limits compel us to omit the details of M. Kummer’s analysis ; the final result, however, is, that if H denote the number of non-equivalent 2 x a In this formula P is a quantity 1 f i ae (7) ea classes of ideal numbers, H @ay=i* A defined by the equations P=9(8) 9(B°) o(8°).+.g(B*), 0(BY=1+-y,B+ yf? + 738? + «+ +, , * See on this subject M. Kummer’s note “on the Irregularity of Determinants” in the Monatsberichte of the Berlin Academy for 1853, p. 194. M. Kummer’s investigation, however, is restricted to classes containing ideal numbers f(a) such that f(a)xf («*) is an actual number. + See his memoirs on Arithmetical Progressions, in the Transactions of the Berlin Academy for the years 1837 (p. 45) and 1841 (p. 141), or in Liouville, vol. iv. p. 393, ix. p. 255. The first of these papers relates to progressions of real integers, the second to progressions of complex numbers of the form a+27. In the memoir “ Recherches sur diverses applications de V’analyse infinitésimale 4 la Théorie des Nombres” (Crelle, vol. xix. p. 24, xxi. pp. 1, & 134), Dirichlet has applied his method to quadratic forms having real and integral co- efficients; and in a subsequent memoir (Crelle, vol. xxiv. p. 291), he has extended this ap- plication to quadratic forms, of which the coefficients are complex numbers containing 7. See also Crelle, vol. xviii. p. 259, xxi. p. 98 (or the Monatsberichte for 1840, p. 49), xxii. p. 375 (Monatsberichte for 1841, p. 190). Weshall have occasion, in a later part of this Report, to give an abstract of the contents of this invaluable series of memoirs. ae Be ——~ 7 eemeneii te eerie ed ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 135 B representing a primitive root of the equation B\"'=1, y a primitive root of the congruence y~'=1, mod X, and y,, y,) ys)++- the least positive resi- dues of y, y’, y*,-.. for the modulus A; A is the logarithmic determinant (see art. 42 of this Report) of any system of »—1 fundamental units, and D the logarithmic determinant of a particular system of independent but not fundamental units, e(a), e(a”), e av Satan an , defined by the equation y q sin ine 2ik BfGee)G—e) Gwe e(a)= (la) (Ima) + jaan hire 7. 7 = eae sin rae so that L.c(a), Lee(a"), Lee(ai*), +. Lee(at +) | L.e(a”), L.e(a”), L.e(a), aterae Leal D=| 1 .e(a”), L.e(a”), L.e(a%), .... L.e(a”) L.e(a?” ), L.e(a), L.e(a””),...- Lee (a), Each of the two factors and 2 of which the value of H is com- Ee (2\)#-} ” posed, is separately an integral number. That z is integral isa consequence of the relation which exists between the logarithmic determinant of a system of fundamental units, and that of any system of independent units; that P is divisible by (20)*—* may be rendered evident from the nature of the ex- pression P itself*. The factor a taken by itself, represents the number of classes that contain ideal numbers composed with the periods of two terms ata, a?+a-*,.... only; or, which is the same thing, it represents the number of classes each of which contains the reciprocal f(a@~") of every ideal number f(@) comprehended in it; aye? on the other hand, is the number of classes of those ideal numbers which become actual by multiplication with their own reciprocals+. The actual calculation of the factor 2 is ex- tremely laborious, as it requires the preliminary investigation of a system of fundamental units. For the cases \=5, \=7, the trigonometrical units e(a), e(a"), e(a””)... ave themselves a fundamental system, so that in these two P (2A)a~ presents somewhat less difficulty ; and M. Kummer (though not without great labour) has assigned its value for all primes inferior to 100. For the primes 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, that value is unity; for 23 it is 3, and then increases with extraordinary rapidity; so that for 97 it already amounts to 411322823001 =3457 x 118982593. The asymptotic law of this increase is expressed by the formula cases D=A, and Rae The computation of the first factor * See the investigation in the next article. + See the note already cited, “‘ on the Irregularity of Determinants,” in the Monatsberichte for 1853, p. 195. 136 REPORT—1860. Lim [ Lipis pom |= CN aa when ) increases * without limit. It will be seen that the number of classes of ideal numbers for A=3, A=5, A=7, is unity; 7.¢., for those values of A every complex prime is actual. In the absence of any determination of a system of fundamental units for A=11, A=13, A=17, and A=19, it is not possible to say whether this is or is not the case for these values also. But from and after the limit \=93, the value of the factor indicates P a that a complex number is not necessarily a complex prime because it is irresoluble into factors. 51. Criterion of the Divisibility of H by }.—The number of classes of ideal numbers, which we have symbolized by H, is not in general divisible by A; but in certain cases it may happen that it is so. The quotient 2 is never divisible by \, except when the other factor is also divisible lg 2h)e-} by X. And it has been found by M. Kummer that the necessary and sufficient condition for the divisibility of by \ is that the numerator of one of BR Gry the first ~—1 fractions of Bernoulli should be divisible by A. The investi- gation of this singular criterion depends on a transformation of the function ¢(() which enters into the expression of P. If we represent the product (yB—1) ¢(B)=(rn-2—-1) + (y- B+ Cyn) P? + 000 + VY, Ya—2)3*—*, in which every coefficient is divisible by A, by ALB, +B,B-+0,8+ ...B,_ 9°], or X43) (bm denoting the quotient a or I as ee if I represent the greatest integer contained in the fraction before which it is placed), we obtain by multiplication the equality (7° +1) P=d*h (B) 4B"). (BX); or, since y"+1 is divisible by X, and may be supposed not divisible by \°+, Se= HOME) HOM), C denoting a coefficient prime to. The congruence =0, mod A, P. (2A )R-} is therefore equivalent to the congruence ¥(B) (6°) .... (B*—*) =0, mod d, which may, in its turn, be replaced by the following, Vy) Hy’). b(y*-?) =0, mod 2. For, if there be an equation which, considered as a congruence for a given modulus A, is completely resoluble for that modulus, any symmetrical function - of the roots of the congruence is congruous, for the modulus X, to the cor- responding function of the roots of the equation. The function J(() (3°) * Liouville, vol. xvi. p. 473. The formula is given without demonstration. t For y¥+1 and (y+-A)#-F1 are both of them divisible by \; but only one of them can be divisible by 2, since their difference is not- divisible by 2. We can therefore, without changing Yo 7, +++ Y,—g) determine y in accordance with the supposition in the text. ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 137 pete), which is a symmetric function of f, /’, ... 2, the roots of the equation z*+1=0, is therefore congruous to f(y) p(y") --+- d(y*-?), which is the same function of y, y’, y’,-.. y*~?, the roots of the congruence gt+1==0, mod A. Hence the necessary and sufficient condition for the Meeabiity of —* i Qi by \ is that one of the » congruences included in the formula Uae) ==0, mod Ny w= 1,9, 3 ..- fh -nublemths wiis., (A) should be satisfied. Now y~@"-» Wy”) sbiy ee rewvar) A eaYa 0 +... +d, 57°%—)3 01, observing that y,5 y, Y2++-Ya-2 are the numbers 1, 2, 3,...N—1, taken in a certain order, and introducing the values of b,, b,, by eee z=r—1 yr On-Di (yn!) = gon-1 TY” mod 2. z=] r This last expression may be further transformed as follows. If f(x) denote 22 any function of x, and F(a)= 2 f(x), we have the identical equation 21 z=vA-1 a z=y—1 r BT ees F (1M )=@—-1) FO) s=1 r z=1 Y y and 2 being any two numbers prime to one another. To verify this equation, we may construct a system of unit points in a plane; then the right-hand member is the sum of the values of f(a) for all unit points in the interior of the parallelogram (0, 0), (A; 0), (A; y), (0; y); while the two terms of the left-hand member represent similar sums for the two triangles into which the parallelogram is divided by its diagonal ye—hy=0. Writing then in this identity a°”~* for f(x), and employing =F the symbol F,,_, (x) to represent the sum 2 2”, or rather the function x=1 My 20 a gy PMV ea —4+i2 ike ee aa a) by ie eae Ee eras oe 1.an—9.0.9. Tl. 2n—4.4 Ot +(—1) Be. Il.2n—1 2 ei aie 1T.2.11.2n—2 ” in which B, B,... B, are the fractions of Bernoulli, and which, when x is an integral number, coincides with that sum, we find x=)A—-—1 z=y—1 ‘ Bars, 2 Fea | W#l=G- ri @~))- x=1 X= Laster But F,,_; (A—1)=Fhs_i (A)—\2"-1 is evidently divisible by ; so that x=r—1 z=y—1 > gn + >» anes [| = 0, mod X. x=] 2=1 Y The congruences (a) may therefore be replaced by the congruences «x=y-—1 D2) \ peas [P| = (), mod A, which may be written in the simpler form z=] Y 138 REPORT—1860. z=y—1 i >» Bays (-;)=o moda, z=] v4 2r I (y—1)A uf Y are congruous (mod 2) to the fiactions—25 >) ett Rs taken in a cer- PY Y us tain order. But, by a curious property of the function F,,-»» demonstrated for the first time by M. Kummer, if we observe that (A being prime to y) the numbers J 5 I Y 7B Bape (—2) (LD Ba (=D. r=] oF + 2nyn-1 The condition for the divisibility of H by X is therefore that one of the p congruences included in the formula B, (y2”"—1) =O, mod 4, should be satis- fied. The last of these congruences, or B, (y?—1)=0, is never satisfied ; for it is easily proved that the denominator of B, contains \ as a factor, while y2*—1=(y"+1) (y#—1), though divisible by A, is not divisible by \?. And since, if n—bo) + a (a,—b,)+a*(a,—b,) + ... + af! (ap-1—b y_1) =0, mod ¢, (no), involves, by M. Kummer’s theory (see art. 45), the coexistence of the f congruences ao—bo =0, mod g; a,—b,=0, mod g; ..-a_1—b¢_1 =0, mod gq; ¢. e. the identity of the complex numbers a+ aa,+a*a,+...a¢/—laz_1, and bp +ab,+ @ b.+..+af/—1bz_;. It is worth while to notice that, if g be a prime ap- pertaining to the exponent 1, for the modulus A, @. e. if g be of the linear form m\+1, the real numbers 0, 1, 2, 3...g—1 will represent the terms of a complete system of residues for the modulus g(a); but if (@) be a factor of a prime appertaining to any higher exponent than unity, a complete system will contain complex as well as real integral residues. By applying the principle (see art. 10) that a system of residues prime to the modulus, multiplied by a residue prime to the modulus, produces a system of residues prime to the modulus, we obtain the theorem, which here replaces Fermat’s Theorem, that if ~(a) be any actual number prime to » («), [y (@)]N-1=1, mod g(«). If we combine with this theorem the principle of Lagrange (cited in art. 11) which is valid for complex no less than for real prime modules, we may extend, mutatis mutandis, to the general complex theory the elementary propositions relating to the Residues of Powers, Primitive Roots, and Indices, which, as we have seen, exist in the ease of complex primes formed with cubic or biquadratic roots of unity. In fact, these propositions are of a character of even greater generality, and may be extended, not only to complex numbers formed with roots of unity whose index is a composite number, but also to all complex numbers formed with the roots of equations having integral coefficients, as soon as the prime fac- tors of those complex numbers are properly defined. 140 REPORT—1860. 54. M. Kummer’s Law of Reciprocity —We can now enunciate M. Kum- mer’s law of reciprocity. It appears, from the last article, or it may be proved immediately by dividing the N—1 residues of ¢(a@) into \ groups N-1 of terms, after the following scheme, (0) Fig Tay ose) Fy eae (1) AN Oy + +++ OTN, A (2) PaO Lin» oats. 8 Fag si net PND (A—1) a\—ly,, a\—}, eeee ON A and proceeding as in art. 33 of this Report, that if ~(@) be any actual com- N-1 plex number prime to ¢(@), Y(a) * is congruous for the modulus ¢(@) to a certain power a@* of a. This power of a may be denoted by the symbol tees “4 so that we have the congruence [v(a)] * = [HS], =* J - mod ¢(a@). The symbol ee roaen we may term the Atic character of Y (a) with regard to ¢(@), is evidently of the same nature as the corre- sponding symbols with which we have already met in the quadratic, cubic, and biquadratic theories, and admits of an extension of meaning similar to that of which they are susceptible. Availing himself of this symbol, M. Kummer has expressed his law of reciprocity by the formula eis Y(ay ACOMEN aon ,¢(@) and {(«) denoting real or ideal primes. But, to interpret %) 1» this equation rightly, it is important to attend to the following observations. (1.) When (¢) and ¢ («) are both actual numbers, the formula supposes that they are both primary prime numbers. The prime 1—g is therefore excluded. (2.) The definition that we have given of the symbol [$3] becomes N unmeaning when ¢(@) is ideal, because no signification can be assigned to an ideal number which presents itself, not as a modulus or divisor, but as a residue. Let, therefore, i denote the index of the lowest power of ¢ (a) which is an actual number; 2. e., let 2 be the exponent to which the class of @ (a) appertains; and let [¢ (@) ]” represent the actually existing primary complex number which contains the factor ¢(«) # times, but contains no ¢ (a) ¢ (a) : : ; @ (a)* ; tion a perfectly definite meaning. Let then kre ] =a"; we may define A other prime factor; then the symbol [ | has by the preceding defini- A h the value of the symbol oe) by means of the equation Bal = y v(a)Ja > 2 ¥(@) h o (4) =a’, which, ¢f h be prime to , always gives a determinate value ¥(«) ae ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 141 a for [$ Ss , k being defined by the congruence AA ==h', modi. For the symbol [§ 3 however to the condition that [¢(#)]” is primary. It will be seen, therefore, that the exceptional primes of art. 52 are ex« cluded from M. Kummer’s law of reciprocity, for a twofold reason :—first, because if \ be one of those numbers, the definition of a primary number is not in general applicable; and secondly, because, on the same supposition, ] so defined, the law of reciprocity still subsists, subject the symbol 2) may become unmeaning. “ion ad j 55. The Theorems complementary to M. Kummer’s Law of Reciprocity.— The prime 1—a, and its conjugate primes, as well as the complex units, are excluded from the law of reciprocity; but complementary theorems by which the Atic characters of these numbers may be determined have been given by M. Kummer. For a simple unit a*, we have the formula k jie On) =a* *® , With regard to A, which is the norm of 1—a, it may be A observed that if ¢ («) be a prime factor of a real prime g appertaining, for ‘the modulus A, to any exponent f different from unity, z.e¢. if g be not of the linear form m\+1, the character of every real integer, and therefore of A, a with respect to ¢ (a) is+1, because, iff> 1, q = ! 5. divisible byg—1. But whatever be the linear form of g, the characteristic of X or x (A) (for so we x @ («) Ja shall for brevity term the index of « in the equation =at), is de- termined by the congruence x)= t Da, mod A, LS o D, being the value (for v=0) of the differential coefficient ee Moo v\h if @(a@) be an actually existent number, or of yee? if it be ideal. To obtain the characteristics of the units, M. Kummer considers the system of independent units E, (a), E, (a), eeeee Ey-1 (a), defined by the formula —2k —4k =2(u—1)k —] Y 7 Y Ex (a)=e(a)e(a”) e (at) ane ne (es in which e(a) represents tae trigonometrical unit of art. 50, and y is the sale primitive root of A which occurs in the expression of e(«). We have then, for x [E* (q”)] and x (l—a*), the formule n k 2k B, 2 x CEx (2@")] = (—1)" (y*"—1) ah D,-2%, mod X, PRB N—I hk? and x(i—at)=— >, gNoT iB pf ht Bd-3 —B, Du fre ee (= 1° oS Ba 142 REPORT—1860. N representing the norm of ¢ (a), B,, B,...B,-1 the fractions of Bernoulli, and D,,, the value of the differential coefficient dm log ¢ (ea (or d™ log Le (e”)}" ) for v=0. dvu™ hdv™ These formule do not in general hold for the exceptional prime numbers ), which divide the numerator of one of the first »—1 fractions of Bernoulli. This is evident from the occurrence in them of the coefficients D,,, which if ¢ (2) be ideal, and / be divisible by \, may acquire denominators divisible by A, thus rendering the congruences nugatory. It is sufficient to have determined the characteristics of the particular system of units E, (a), E, (a), ---E,_, («), because, as that system is independent, every other unit e (a) is included in the formula e(a)=E, (a)™ E, (a)™ «6... Ey—1 (@)™«-1; so that x [e(a)] may be found from the congruence k= x Le («)] =s my x [Ex (a) ], mod A, which cannot become unmeaning, except in the case of the exceptional primes, because if D! be the logarithmic determinant of the system of units E, (@), E, (a), 1. Ei: (a),D and A retaining the meanings assigned ng them in art. 50, it may be shown that D is prime to X, and therefore 2 => xis also prime to ); 7. e.,the denominators of the fractions m,,72,,...™,—1 are prime to A (see art. 42). But M. Kummer has also given a formula which assigns directly the characteristic of any unit e (a) whatsoever. If Ax denote the value of the differential coefficient ance eS). for v=0, we have Vv k=p—1 x le(a)i] =4,Sol+3 Au, Dy_ay» mod *. k= 56. We have already observed (see art. 39) that it is impossible to deduce a proof of the highest laws of reciprocity from the formule which pre- sent themselves in the theory of the division of the circle. It is true (as we shall presently see) that the formule IV. and V. of art. 30 determine the decomposition of the real prime p (supposed to be of the form 4+ 1) into its A—1 complex prime factors ; but it will be perceived that these complex fac- tors occur, not isolated, but combined ina particular manner. From equation IV. of the article cited we infer that p= (a) w (a); let then y (a)=f (a,) FS (a) «+ +f (Gy) 5 %,)&,.+%, being « different roots (of which no two are re- i ciprocals) of the equation ~ 14; so that f(a,), f(a), --~f(@,) are one- p q 4=1 half of the complex primes of which p is composed ; if e(a@) be any real unit, satisfying the equation e(a)=e (a), it is plain that e(a,)’e(a,)’... e(a,)” =1, or p(a)= te(a,) f(a,) Xe(a,) f(a) --. XE (a) f(a.)- The consideration, therefore, of the number (a) cannot supply us with any de- termination of the Atic character of f(@,) which will not equally apply to Sf (a,)xe(a,). But for all values of \ greater than 3, the number of real complex units is, as we have seen, infinite; and the character of any com- plex prime f(a) with respect to any other complex prime evidently changes * The formule of this article are taken from M. Kummer’s second memoir on the com- plementary theorems (Crelle, vol. lvi. p. 270). —_" = + = “a ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 143 when f(a) is multiplied by a unit of which the Atic character is not unity. The inapplicability of the formule of art. 30 to any general demonstration of the law of reciprocity is thus apparent. The only equation of reciprocity that has been elicited from them is the following :— el (22) x.. ; (22?) =(t) x(t.) x.. x5 x in which ¢ (@) is a complex prime factor of a prime number p of the form m\+1, and q,, J.,+++-Ge are the e conjugate factors of a prime number g appertaining to the exponent f for the modulus X. This equation, which, if we adopt the generalized meaning of the symbol of reciprocity, may be writ- ten more briefly thus, (e%) =( q ) , was first obtained by Eisenstein, q Ja \o(@)/r who inferred it from M. Kummer’s investigation of the ideal prime divisors of (a) (see a note addressed by Eisenstein to Jacobi, and communicated by Jacobi to the Berlin Academy, in the Monatsberichte for 1850, May 30, p- 189). In a later memoir (Crelle’s Journal, vol. xxxix. p. 351), Eisenstein proposes an ingenious method—reposing, however, on an undemonstrated principle—for the discovery of the higher laws of reciprocity ; but it would seem that the application of this method failed to lead him to any definite result ; and it is unquestionably to M. Kummer alone that we are indebted for the enunciation as well as for the demonstration of the theorem. 57. M. Kummer appears to have waited until he had developed the theory of complex numbers with a certain approximation to completeness, before proceeding to apply the principles he had discovered to the purpose which he had in view throughout, the investigation of the law of reciprocity. He succeeded in discovering the law which we have enunciated, in the year 1847, and, after verifying it by calculated tables of some extent, he commu- nicated it to Dirichlet and Jacobi in January 1848, and subsequently, in 1850, to the Berlin Academy, in a note which also contained the demonstra- tion of the complementary theorems relating to the units, and the prime divisors of X. From the analogy of the cubic theorem, it was natural to conjecture that the law of reciprocity would assume the simple form (2) =) for primes p, and p, reduced, by multiplication with proper anf A JA complex units, to a form satisfying certain congruential conditions. But to determine properly these conditions, 2. e. to assign the true definition of a primary complex prime, was no doubt the principal difficulty that M. Kummer had to overcome in the discovery of his theorem. If \=3, the single congruence f («)==f(1), mod (1—a)’, sufficiently characterizes a primary number; and since, whatever prime be represented by X, that con- gruence is satisfied by one, and one only, of the numbers included in the formula a* f (a), it was probable that it ought to form one of the con- gruential conditions included in the definition of a primary complex prime. In determining the second condition, M. Kummer appears to have been guided by a method which depends on the arithmetical properties of the logarithmic expansion of a complex number. If we develope log £2) I(@)—fQ) f(a) th in ascending powers of ~—2_“ \-/ and represent by L\*/ the finite num- oe fa) feos vinnie ber of terms which remain in this expansion after rejecting those which are congruous to zero for the modulus A, we are led, after some transformations, to the congruence 144 REPORT—1860. Ufo = D, X, (@)+D, X, (a) +... +Dy—2 X,~2 (a), mod A, s=A—2 where X; (a) represents the function = —-y~* a’, and Dy, denotes, as in i __ , Glog fe) art. 55, the differential coefficient EeRT In this congruence the first coefficient alone is altered when f(«) is multiplied by a simple unit ; and only the even coefficients are altered when f(a) is multiplied by a real unit. Now D, is rendered congruous to zero by the condition f(@) =f (1), mod (1—«)’; and M. Kummer has shown that, by multiplying f(a) by a properly chosen real unit, D,, D,,...D,—3 may be similarly made to disappear, so that we obtain -u = D, X,(a)+D, X,(a@)+ ...-+Da—2 Xa_2(a), mod d, a congruence which is proved to involve the second congruence of condition satisfied by a primary number, 2. e. f(a) f(a—!) =f(1)’, mod A*. 58. The methods to which M. Kummer at first had recourse in order to obtain a demonstration of his theorem, consisted in extensions of the theory of the division of the circle. By such extensions he demonstrated the com- plementary theorems, and even a particular case of the law of reciprocity itself—that in which the two complex primes compared are conjugate. But, after repeated efforts, he found himself compelled to abandon these methods, and to seek elsewhere for more fertile principles. ‘I turned my attention,” he says, ‘to Gauss’s second demonstration of the law of quadratic recipro- city, which depends on the theory of quadratic forms. Though the method of this demonstration had never been extended to any other than quadratic residues, yet its principles appeared to me to be characterized by such generality as led me to hope that they might be successfully applied to residues of higher powers ; and in this expectation I was not disappointed f.” M. Kummer’s demonstration of the law of reciprocity was communicated to the Academy of Berlin in the year 1858, ten years after the date of his first discovery of it. An outline of the demonstration is contained in the Monatsberichte for that year; and it is exhibited with great clearness and fulness of detail in a memoir published in the Berlin Transactions for 1859, which contains what is for the present the latest result of science on a problem which, if we date from the first enunciation of the quadratic theorem by Euler, has been studied by so many eminent geometers for nearly a century. It would, however, be impossible, without exceeding the limits within which this Report is confined, to give an account of its contents, which should be intelligible to persons not already familiar with the subject to which it refers. Taken by itself the demonstration of the theorem is, indeed, sufficiently simple; but it is based on a long series of preliminary researches relating to the complex numbers that can be formed with the roots of the equation w\=D («), in which D (@) itself denotes a complex number com- posed of Ath roots of unity. To those researches, and to the demonstration of the law of reciprocity founded on them, we shall again very briefly refer, when we come to speak of the corresponding investigations in the theory of quadratic forms, an acquaintance with which is essential to a comprehension of the method adopted by M. Kummer in his memoir. We may add that M. Kummer has intimated that he has already obtained two other demon- * Crelle, vol. xliy. p. 130-140. tT See the Berlin Transactions for 1859, p 29. ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 145 strations of his law of reciprocity, which, though they also depend on the eonsideration of complex numbers containing w, yet do not require the same complicated preliminary considerations. 59. Complex Numbers composed of Roots of Unity, of which the Index is not a Prime.—In a special memoir (see the list in art. 41, note, No. 16), M. Kummer has considered the theory of complex numbers composed with a root of the equation w"=1, in which ” denotes a composite number. The primitive roots of this equation are the roots of an irreducible equation of the form Fis)— isis aor sees 9 Tl (w?—1) 0 (w?%P—1).... Py» Po Py» +--+ denoting the different prime divisors of x*. If W (x) be the number of numbers less than 2 and prime to it, F (w) is of the order p(n), and every complex number containing w can be reduced (and that in one way only) to the form f (w)=a) +4, +a, 0°+.... +4) ,0¥-1, The numbers conjugate to f'(w) are the J (~) numbers obtained by writing in succession for w the p (7) primitive roots of w*=1; and the norm of f (w is the real and positive integer produced by multiplying together the w (n conjugates: If g be a prime number not dividing z, the sum Bp=w* + wht + wh? + ...., in which the series of terms is to be continued until it begins to repeat itself, is termed a period. The ~ periods w,, w,,...@, remain unchanged if for w we write w%, wi’, etc. Hence, if g appertain to the exponent ¢ for the modu- lus 7 (i. e. if g satisfy the congruence g‘ = 1, mod m, but no congruence of a lower order and similar form), the number of different numbers conjugate to ? a given complex number containing the periods only is at most a For brevity, a complex number containing the periods only—for example, the number Cote, BW, +0, D+ 10+. + ln Dy may be symbolized by f(@,), so that S (@)=%+e, WebC,Wapb voce Hey Dnke If 1,7, 7,,...are a set fhe) numbers prime to and such that the quo- tient of no two of them (considered as a congruential fraction+) is congruous for the modulus x to any power of g, the numbers conjugate to f (a) may be na * The irreducibility of the equation % = =0 when x is a prime was first established by et Gauss (Disq. Arith. art. 341). Tor other and simpler demonstrations of the same theorem, see the memoirs of MM. Kronecker (Crelle, xxix. p. 280, and Liouville, 2nd series, vol. i. p. 399), Schoenemann (Crelle, vol. xxxi. p, 323, vol. xxxii. p. 100, & vol. xl. p- 188), Eisenstein (Crelle, vol.xxxix. p. 166), and Serret (Liouville, vol.xv.p.296). The principles on which these demonstrations depend suffice to establish the irreducibility of the equation = gP —] but they fail, as M. Kronecker has observed, to furnish the corresponding demonstration when 2, as in the text, is a product of powers of different primes. This demonstration was first given by M. Kronecker (Liouville, vol. xix. p. 177), who has been followed by M. De- dekind (Crelle, vol. liv. p. 27), and by M. Arndt (id. lvi. p. 178). + For the definition of a congruential fraction see art. 14. 1860. 146 REPORT—1860. represented by f (a,), f (@,); f (@,.) --+.+ The periods are the roots of certain irreducible equations, each of which is completely resoluble when considered as a congruence for the modulus g; and the roots w,, w#,,+.+ of the congruences are connected with the roots a, @,,...of the equations, by a relation precisely similar to that enunciated in art. 44. ‘This relation M. Kummer has established by introducing certain conjugate complex numbers* Y (w,), ¥ (w,), ¥ (@. ),»++- involving the periods only, not themselves divi- sible by g, but each satisfying the x congruences included in the formula Y (@,) (Sir—Uj,.) =0, mod g, =y heh oo owe From these congruences it is easy to infer that, if f (@,, @2)++++@nr) =O be any identical relation subsisting for the periods, a similar relation SF (Uys Uap oo Un) =0, mod q, will subsist for the numbers %,, %,)+++Un; for we find WY (wy) f (Bry Bary ++ = V (G,) f (uy U2. ), mod g, i. @.f (Uy) Uy) +++) =0, mod g. Another important property of the complex number ¥ (@,) is that it is congruous to zero, med gq, for every one of the sub- stitutions 7, =U,, 7, =Ur,, DW, =Ur,, --. except the first: thus the congruences WY (uy,) =0, VY (u,.) =0 are satisfied, ... but not ¥ (w,)=0, modg. If, then, f (w) be any complex number satisfying the congruence W (a,)" f(w) =0, mod g”, but not the congruence V (a,)”"+! f (w)=0, mod g”*1, f (w) is said to contain m times precisely the ideal factor of g corresponding to * These complex numbers are defined as follows (see the memoir cited at the com- mencement of this article, sect. 3, and that in Crelle, vol. liii. p. 142) :—Let wy, be a period satisfying the irreducible equation ¢ (w;,.)=0, and let a,, a,,... be the incongruous roots of ¢ (y) =0, mod g, 4,, 5,,... the remaining terms of a complete system of residues, mod g, so that ¢ (b,), 9 (5.),-+-- are prime tog. Since w,/ = w;,,, mod 9, and wyy=wz, We have, by Lagrange’s indeterminate congruence (see art. 10 of this Report) (@,—-4,) (7-4)... (@E—3,) (W7,—D,) .... == 0, mod g, or, since w,—3, divides ¢ (4,) etc., (51) p (Oy) +++» (yz, —a)) (WE—Ay) .-. = 0, mod G5 i. e. (wy —4) (@,—a,)+--.==0, mod gq. We may now consider the x series of factors Sy iH SL CS i Ed corresponding to the m values of & [the numbers a,, a,,...are of course the same for two periods which satisfy the same irreducible equation, but not in general the same for any — two periods], and, retaining among these factors only those which are different, we may take for ¥ (w,) the complex number formed by combining as many of them as possible, in such a manner as to give a product which is not divisible by g, but which is rendered divi- sible by g by the accession of any one factor not already contained in it. It is evident that W (w,) cannot contain all the factors w;,—a,, @j,—4,,---+ 5 let us then denote by wa—u a factor which is not contained in W (w,); we thus obtain the relation Y (w,) (w,—u,) =0, mod g, or, changing the primitive root w into w”, WY (a,) (w,7.—Uz,) = 0, mod 7. The conjugates of Y (w,) are all complex numbers formed according to the same law as Y (w,) itself; and, besides Y (w,) and its conjugates, no other complex number can be formed according to that law. Also the number w, which corresponds to a given period w;, is ab- solutely determined as soon as we have selected the multiplier Y (w,); for if two of the factors w1,—d,, Wy,—4,,... were absent from ¥ (a,) we should have V (w,) (w,—a,)=0, ¥ (w,) (w,—4,) =0, mod g; and thence (a,—a,) Y (w,) =0, mod g, contrary to the hy- pothesis that a, and a, are incongruous, and that V (w,) is not divisible by g. The corre- spondence of the numbers w,, v,,.-.+U,, With the periods w,, @5,;-.-+@p, can thus be fixed in ag many ways as there are numbers conjugate to YW (w,), @ ¢. in nd ) different ways. ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 147 the substitution a,-=w;. Since it can be shown that the numbers conjugate to ¥ (a,) are all different from one another, it follows from the definition, that the quotient —— represents the number of conjugate ideal prime fac- tors contained in the real prime g, appertaining to the exponent ¢. If g bea divisor of 2, the definition of its ideal factors requires a certain modification, which we cannot here particularize. (See sect. 6 of M. Kummer’s Memoir.) The two definitions, corresponding to the cases of g prime to , andga divisor of 2, enable us, when taken together, to transfer to the general case when z is composite, the elementary theorems already shown to exist when m is prime (see art. 47). We may add that it is easy to prove, in the general as in the special case (see art. 48), that the number of classes of ideal num- bers is finite. 60. Application to the Theory of the Division of the Circle-—We cannot quit the subject of complex numbers without mentioning certain important investigations in which they have been successfully employed. The first relates to the problem of the division of the circle. In this problem the s=p—2 resolvent function of Lagrange = 627 (see art. 30) is, as is well s=0 known, of primary importance. Retaining, with a slight modification, the notation of art. 30, and still representing by \ a prime divisor of p—1, and tee z ==0, let us consider the function F (a, x), by a root of the equation which is a particular case of the resolvent, and let us represent the quotient pate) F (a! x) by ¥z (@). We thus find F (att, x) LE @ 2) =v, (a) ¥, (a)... te s(a)F(aa), - . . (A) and in particular, observing that F (a, x) F (a\—!, a)=p, Bite. esrb (a ab. (a) .0.-Yr-a(h)y fn 6 et ew (2) a result which is in accordance with the known theorem that [F (a, x) ]* is independent of 2 and is an integral function of « only. The resolution of the auxiliary equation of order \, the roots of which are the ) periods of p—1 eP—l =X roots of the equation 7 =0, depends solely on the determination “e— of the complex numbers v, («), w, (~),..-.Wa—2(@). For when these com- plex numbers are known, we may equate F (a, a) to any Ath root of the ex- pression pw, (~) UJ, (%).-. Ya_2 (a); from the value of F (a, a), thus obtained, those of F(a’, 2), F(a’, a)....may be inferred by means of equation (1); and, lastly, from the values of F (1, x), F(a, 2), ... F (a4, 2), the values of the periods themselves are deducible by the solution of a system of linear equations. To determine the numbers w, («), ,(«),... M. Kummer assigns the ideal prime factors of which they are composed, employing for this pur- pose the results cited in art. 30. The equation yz (a) i. (a—-!)=p shows that Y% (a) contains precisely 1 (p—1) ideal prime divisors of p, and no other complex prime. To distinguish the prime factors of p contained in yy (a) from those contained in uz (a#-!) M. Kummer avails himself of the congruence V. of art. 30, viz., Il (m+n) mod p. Tlm.fin’ P Vino et. \!= eo, and w=y”, mod p, so that wu, u°,...w\—! are the roots of PAs 148 - REPORT—1860. _— = 0, mod p; also, to adapt the formule of art. 30 to our present pur- pose, let @-"' =a, m=), n=h)N'; it will result from these substitutions, that We (u-") =0, mod p, if & and h satisfy the inequality [A] + [4A] >A, where [A] and [RA] are positive numbers less than \, and congruous, mod A, to h and kh respectively. If we represent by f(a) the ideal prime factor of p which appertains to the substitution «=u, this may be expressed by saying that vz(«) contains the factor f(a—"), if [i 4 Hi >, the symbols Hi and [FZ] denoting the least positive numbers satisfying the congruences L hx =1, mod X, and Ae=h, mod X. Assigning, therefore, to the number every positive value less than \ compatible with this condition, we may write te (a)= tar f(a-"), +a’ being a simple unit which may be determined by the congruence vz (a) = —1, mod 1—a)**: it is not necessary to add a real complex unit, for a reason which has already appeared (see art. 56, supra). From the expression for ¥z («) a still simpler formula for F (a, x) may be obtained, viz. m=h—] [= Lee rae Hy. LL ira n= 61. Application to the Last Theorem of Fermat.—The second investigation to which we shall advert relates to the celebrated proposition known as the «“ Last Theorem of Fermat,” viz. that the equation 2” +y” =z” is irresoluble, in integral numbers, for all values of x greater than 2}. As Fermat himself * The numbers ;(«) are primary according to M. Kummer’s definition (art. 52); for F (a, x) F (ak, x) ¥, (2) = F (e+, 2) = at, the summation extending to every pair of values of ? y, and y, that satisfy the congruence y”!+-y/2=1, mod p, in which y represents the same primitive root of p that occurs in the expression F(#, xv). Hence ~z(1)=p—2= —1, mod X, and yz («) vz (2!) =p=1=[¥; (1)]*, moddA. Also ¥, («)—¥;, (1) is divisible by (l—«)?; for ¥%(L)=2 (y, +4y,)=3 (1 +4) (p—1) (p—2), observing that y, and y, each receive all the values 1, 2,...y—2 in succession. We have, therefore, the con- gruence ¥',, (1) ==0, mod X, from which it follows (see a note on the next article) that VY, (~) =, (1), mod (l—«)?, or yy, («) = —1, mod (1—<)?, as in the text. + Liouville, vol. xvi. p. 448. _M. Kummer has also extended his solution of this problem to the case in which x is any divisor of p—1. See the memoir quoted in the last article, sect. 11. t Fermat’s enunciation of this celebrated theorem is contained in the first of the MS. notes placed by him on the margin of his copy of Bachet’s edition of Diophantus. It would seem that this copy is now lost; but in the year 1670 an edition of Bachet’s Diophantus was pub- lished at Toulouse, by Samuel de Fermat (the son of the great geometer), in which these notes are preserved (Diophanti Alexandrini Arithmeticorum libri sex, et de Numeris Mult- angulis liber unus, cum commentariis C. G. Bacheti V. C. et observationibus D. P. de Fermat senatoris Tolosani. Tolos 1670), ‘The theorems contained in them are, with a few excep- tions, enunciated without proof; and it may be inferred from the preface of S. Fermat, that he found no demonstration of thera among his father’s papers. Nevertheless, in the case of several of these propositions, we have the assertion of Fermat himself, that he was in posses- sion of their demonstration; and although, when we consider the imperfect state of analysis in his time, it is surprising that he should have succeeded in creating methods which sub- sequent inathematicians have failed to rediscover, yet there is no ground for the suspicion that he was guilty of an untruth, or that he mistook an apparent for a real proof. In fact these suspicions are refuted, not only by the reputation for honour and veracity which he enjoyed among his contemporaries, and by the evidence of singular clearness of insight which his extant writings supply, but also by the facts of the case itself. It would be inex- ie poy ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 149 has left us a proof of the impossibility of this equation in the case of n=4, by a method which Euler has extended to the case of m=3, we may suppose, without loss of generality, that 2 is an uneven prime ) greater than 3, and we plicable, if his conclusions reposed on induction only, that he should never have adopted an erroneous generalization ; and yet, with the exception of the “ Last Theorem” (the demon- stration of which, after two centuries, is still incomplete), every proposition of Fermat’s has been verified by the labours of his successors. There is, indeed, one other exception to this statement; but it is an exception which proves the rule. In the letter to Sir Kenelm Digby which concludes the ‘Commercium Epistolicum, etc.’ edited by Wallis (Oxford, 1658), Fermat enuntiates the proposition that the numbers contained in the formula 22”41 are all primes, acknowledging, however, that, though convinced of its truth, he had not succeeded in obtaining its demonstration. This letter, which is undated, was written in 1658; but it appears, from a letter of Fermat's to M. de * * *, dated October 18, 1640, that even at that earlier date he was acquainted with the proposition, and had convinced himself of its truth (D. Petri de Fermat Varia Opera Mathematica, Tolose, 1679, p. 162). It was, however, subsequently observed by Euler that 22°-+1=4294967297 =641 x 6700417, i.e. that the undemonstrated proposition is untrue (Op. Arith. collecta, vol. i. p. 356). The error, if it is an error, is a fortunate one for Fermat; it exemplifies his candour and veracity, and it shows that he did not mistake inductive probability for rigorous demonstration :—‘ Mais je vous adyoue tout net,” are his words in the letter last referred to, ‘‘ (car par advance je vous ad- vertis que comme je ne suis pas capable de m’attribuer plus que je ne scay, je dis avec meme franchise ce que je ne say pas) que je n’ay peu encore démonstrer l’exclusion de tous divi- seurs en cette belle proposition que je vous avois enyoyée, et que vous m’avez confermée touchant les nombres 3, 5, 17, 257, 6553, &c. Car bien que je reduise l’exclusion a la pluspart des nombres, et que j’aye méme des raisons probables pour le reste, je n’ay peu encore démonstrer nécessairement la vérité de cette proposition, de laquelle pourtant je ne doute non plus & cette heure que je faisois auparavant. Si vous en avez la preuve assurée, yous m’obligerez de me la communiquer: car aprés cela rien ne m’arrestera en ces matiéres.” The “ Last Theorem” is enunciated by Fermat as follows :— “Cubum autem in duos cubos, aut quadrato-quadratum in duos quadrato-quadratos, et generaliter nullam in infinitum ultra quadratum potestatem in duos ejusdem nominis fas est dividere ; cujus rei demonstrationem mirabilem sane detexi. Hanc marginis exiguitas non caperet.” (Fermat’s Diophantus, p. 51.) Fermat has also asserted that neither the sum (ébid. p. 258) nor the difference (ibid. p.338) of two biquadrates can be a square. Each of these propositions comprehends the theorem that the sum of two biqnadrates cannot be a biquadrate; and of the second, we possess a yery remarkable demonstration by Fermat himself (#éd. p. 338; and compare Euler, Elémens d’Algébre, vol. ii. sect. 13; Legendre, Théorie des Nombres, vol.ii. p.1). The essential part of this demonstration consists in showing that, from any supposed solution of the Diophantine equation 24—y4=a square, another solution may be deduced in which the values of the indeterminates are not equal to zero, and yet are absolutely less than in the proposed solution, from which it immediately follows that the Diophantine equation is impossible. This method has been successfully employed by Euler (/oc. cit.) to demon- strate several negative Diophantine propositions, and in particular the theorem that the sum of two cubes cannot be acube. The only arithmetical principles (not included in the first elements of the science) which are employed by Euler and Fermat in their applications of this method, relate to certain simple properties of the quadratic forms x?+y?, 2?+2y?, a°+3y?; and as these principles seem inadequate to overcome the difficulties presented by the equation z”-+7"+2"=0, when x is > 4, it is probable that Fermat’s “ demonstratio mirabilis sane” of the general theorem was entirely different from that which he has inci- dentally given of the particular case. The impossibility of the equation 2”+y”+2"=0 for n=5 was first demonstrated by Le- gendre (Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences, 1823, vol. vi. p. 1, or Théorie des Nombres, vol. ii. p. 361. See also an earlier paper by Lejeune Dirichlet, Crelle, vol. iii. p. 354, with the addition at p. 368, and a later one by M. Lebesgue, Liouville, vol. viii. p. 49) ; for n=14, by Dirichlet (Crelle, vol. ix. p. 390); and for n=7, by M. Lamé (Mémoires des Savans Etrangers, vol. viii. p. 421, or Liouville, vol. v. p. 295. See also the Comptes Rendus, vol. ix. 'p- 359, and a paper by M. Lebesgue, Liouville, vol. v. pp. 276 & 348). But the methods employed in these researches are specially adapted to the particular exponents considered, and do not seem likely to supply a general demonstration. The proof in Barlow’s Theory of Numbers, pp. 160-169, is erroneous, as it reposes (see p. 168) on an elementary proposition (cor. 2, p. 20) which is untrue. A memoir by M. Kummer on the equation 24+4y4=2*, in which complex numbers are not employed, and in which no single case of the theorem is 150 REPORT—!1860. may write the equation in the symmetrical form rrity*t2*—0, The impos- sibility of solving this equation has been demonstrated by M. Kummer, first, for all values of X not included among the exceptional primes* ; and secondly, for all exceptional primes which satisfy the three following conditions :— (1.) That the first factor of H, though divisible by A, is not divisible by d? (see art. 50). (2.) That a complex modulus can be assigned, for which a certain definite complex unit is not congruous to a perfect Ath power. (3.) That B,, is not divisible by d*, B, representing that Bernoullian number [xk p—1] which is divisible by \+. Three numbers below 100, viz. 37, 59, 67, are, as we have seen, excep- tional primes. But it has been ascertained by M. Kummer that the three conditions just given are satisfied in the case of each of those numbers; so that the impossibility of Fermat’s equation has been demonstrated for all values of the exponent up to 100. Indeed, it would probably be difficult to find an exceptional prime not satisfying the three conditions, and conse- quently excluded from M. Kummer’s demonstration. We must confine ourselves here to an indication of the principles on which the demonstration rests in the case of the non-exceptional primes f. demonstrated (Crelle, vol. xvii. p. 203), is nevertheless of great interest for the number of auxiliary propositions contained init. Of the same character are the notes by MM. Lebesgue and Liouville, in Liouville’s Journal, vol. vy. pp. 184 & 360, and a few theorems given with- out demonstration by Abel, Guvres, vol. ii. p. 264. In the year 1847, M. Lamé presented to the Academy at Paris a memoir containing a general demonstration of Fermat’s Theorem, based on the properties of complex numbers (Comptes Rendus, vol. xxiv. p. 310; Lionville, vol. xii. pp. 137 & 172). It was, however, observed by M. Liouville (Comptes Rendus, vol. xxiv. p. 315), that this demonstration is defective, as it assumes, without proof, the proposition that a complex number can be repre- sented, and in one way only, as the product of powers of complex primes—a proposition which, as we have seen, is untrue, unless we admit ideal as well as actual complex primes. The discussion on M. Lamé’s memoir attracted Cauchy’s attention to Fermat’s Theorem; and the 24th and 25th volumes of the Comptes Rendus contain several communications from him on the subject of complex numbers [or polynémes radicaux, as he has preferred to term them]. In the earlier papers of this series, Cauchy attempts to prove a proposition which, as we have already observed (see art. 41), is untrue for complex numbers considered gene- rally, viz. that the norm of the remainder in the division of one complex number by another can be rendered less than the norm of the divisor (see Comptes Rendus, vol. xxiv. pp. 517, 633 & 661). Llsewhere (iid. p. 579) he assumes the proposition as a hypothesis, and deduces from it conclusions which are erroneous (pp. 581, 582). But at p. 1029 he recognizes and demonstrates its inaccuracy. The results at which he arrives in his subsequent papers on the same subject are, for the most part, comprehended in M. Kummer’s general theory (Comptes Rendus, vol. xxv. pp. 37, 46, 93, 132, 177). In one place, however (p. 181), he enunciates, though without demonstrating, the following important result :— “Tf the equation a+ y+2=0 be resoluble, 2, y, z denoting integral numbers prime to A, the sum fake Sees e-em et +(e is divisible by \.” (Compare M. Kummer’s memoir in the Berlin Transactions for 1857, p. 64.) The investigation of the Last Theorem of Fermat has been twice proposed as a prize- question by the Academy of Paris—first at some time previous to 1823 (see Legendre’s memoir already cited, in vol. vi. of the Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences, p. 2), and again in 1850 (Comptes Rendus, vol. xxx. p. 263): at neither time was the prize adjudged to any of the memoirs received. On the last occasion, after several postponements of the date originally fixed for the award, the prize was ultimately, in 1857 (id. vol. xliv. p. 158), con- ferred on M. Kummer, who had not been a competitor, for his researches on complex num- bers. * Liouville, vol. xvi. p. 488, or Crelle, vol. xl. p. 131. + See the memoir No. 15 in the list of art. 41. ‘£ When A is not an exceptional prime, the equation v\+y\+z2*=0 is irresoluble not only OO ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, 151 We may suppose that \ is greater than 3, and that no two of the numbers 2, y, z admit any common divisor. And first, let none of them be divisible ak— by 1—a, « still representing a root of the equation =0. Since for x we may write a’ a, we may assume that 2, y, z are of the form x=a+(1—«a)’ X, y=b+(1—«)’ Y, z=c+(1—«a)’Z, a, b, c denoting integral numbers prime to A, which evidently satisfy the con- gruence a+6+c=0, mod. The equation a\+y*-+2*=0 may then be written thus (way) (a+a2y) (w@ta%y)....(atary)=—2", No two of the factors of which the left hand member is composed can have any common divisor; each of them is therefore the product of a perfect Ath power by a unit; so that we may write, r+a°y=a?e(a)v*, e(a) denoting areal unit. Since wv’ is an actual number, it follows (remembering that ) is not an exceptional prime) that v is also actual ; hence v* is congruous, mod A, to a certain integral number m. Eliminating m x e(a@) between the two con- gruences x+a°y==ma’e(a), and +a “y=ma °e(a), mod Xd, we find a °(ata’y)—a°(x+a *y)=0, mod AX. For the modulus (1—«) this congruence is identically satisfied*. That it should be satisfied, mod (1—«)’, we must have the relation (@+)p==ds, mod X; whence, putting b —— =k, mod d, a+b we have p=s, mod X. Substituting this value for p, we find that the con- gruence a" (e@tacy)—ak (a+a-*y)—0 is identically satisfied, mod (1—«)’*; but in order that it should be satisfied, mod (1—a)*, we have the condition s°b(2k—1) (R—1)—3s(k—1 .y"+ha")=0, mod A, where 2 and y' are the values (for~=1) of the second derived functions of # and y with respect to a. This conditional congruence must be satisfied for every value of s; either therefore k==1, mod A, or 2R=1, mod. The supposition A==1 is inadmissible; for it implies that a==0, mod A, contrary to the hypothesis. Hence we must have 2k=1, and a=, or, by parity of reasoning, a=b=c, mod Xr. But alsoa+b+c=0, mod A, whence we again infer the inadmissible conclusion a==b==c=0, mod X. in ordinary integral numbers, but also in any complex integers composed of Ath roots of unity. The demonstration does not possess the same generality when A is an exceptional prime satisfying the three conditions cited in the text. In this case M. Kummer has only shown that the equation #\+-y*+-z\=0 is irresoluble when we suppose that 2, y, z are ordinary integral numbers prime to X, or else complex numbers containing the binary periods a+a—!, one of which has a common divisor with i. * Since is divisible by (1—2)"—?, and since 9(«)=9 (1)-+(@-1) ¢'()+@-I2£O +...,it is readily seen that, if-+’ et ee eee are relatively prime, and may be represented by expressions of the form 2 (a) $e" e (2) o> Ch eR Oe €x-1 (a) pa-1 * e, (a), €, (a), ... representing units, and ¢,\, ¢,°,.... Ath powers prime to 1—a. Eliminating x and y from the three equations aty =e,(a)(1—a)™—**19,%, ata" y=e,(a)(1—2) 4, + Gs y=es (a) (1—a) os’ we obtain a result of the form gr +e (a) o\=E, (a) (1—ay™™*6., . «+ (2) e(a@) and E,(a) denoting two units. But, as in the former case, it may be shown that r* and os* are congruous, mod X, to real integers, and (1—a)""~?*=0, mod d, because m>1. Hence (a) is also congruous to a real integer for the modulus X, and _is therefore a perfect Ath power by a property of every non-exceptional prime (see art. 52). The equation (2) therefore assumes the form Te x +yA=E, (a) 2 (1—ayer—a, If, therefore, the proposed equation (1) be possible, it will follow, by suc- cessive applications of this reduction, that the equation x +y\=E (a) (1—a)* <* is also possible. But this equation has been shown to be impossible; the equation (1) is therefore also impossible. 62. Application to the Theory of Numerical Equations.—In the Monats- berichte for June 20, 1853 (see also the Monatsberichte for 1856, p. 203), M. Kronecker has enunciated the following theorem :— “The roots of any Abelian equation, the coefficients of which are integral numbers, are rational functions of roots of unity.” The demonstration of this theorem (Monatsberichte for 1853, p- 371-873) depends ona compa- heey ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, 153 rison of a certain form, of which the resolvent function of any Abelian equation is susceptible, with M. Kummer’s expression for the resolvent func- tion in the case of the equation of the division of the circle (see art. 60). It thus involves considerations relating to ideal numbers. Two propositions of a more special character, and closely connected with one another, have also been given by M. Kronecker (Crelle, vol. liii. p. 173). Their demonstration is immediately deducible from the principles of Dirich- let’s theory of complex units :— ‘ (ad—be), bd—c’) (2, y)’, ®=(—a’ d+3abe— 26°, —abd+2ac?+b’ ec, acd—2b? d+ be’, ad*—3bed+ 2c’) (a, y)’, which are connected by the equation + Duw’?=—4H'; let also w and ¢ denote the values of U and © corresponding to any given values of x and y, which do not render H=0, mod p. Then, if (GP )=-1 P the congruence has always one and only one real root; if (=)= +1, it has P fy =e either three real roots, or none: viz., if a) = +1], it has three; 3 if (ete) p, or =p, it has none. The interpretation of the P eubic symbol of reciprocity will present no difficulty if we observe that ¥ —D, mod p, is a real integer if p=3n-+1, z.e. if (=)=» and that, if p=3n—1, el ir (> )=-1. we have V—D="—8x WID=(p—p")W ID, mod p, so that ¥ —D, mod p, is a complex integer involving p. It will however be observed that the application of the criterion requires in either case the solu- tion of a quadratic congruence, 7*==—D, mod p, or r°=+1D, mod p. Similar, but of course less simple, criteria for the resolubility or irresolu- bility of biquadratic congruences may be deduced from the known formule for the solution of biquadratic equations. 68. Quadratie Congruences—Indirect Methods of Solution—The general form of a quadratic congruence is az*+2bx2+c=0, mod P;—p denoting an ‘uneven prime modulus, and a a number prime to p. It may be immediately reduced to the binomial form 7*=D, mod p, by putting r=axz+6, D=0? —ac,mod p. ‘The number of its solutions is 2, 0, or 1, according as D is a quadratic residue or non-residue of p, or is divisible by p, and is therefore in every case expressed by the formula 1+(— ). If p=4n+3, and ~)=1, the congruence 7*— D==0, mod 9, is satisfied by 7=D"*), and r=—D”*, and is in fact resoluble by the direct method of art.65. But no direct method, applicable to the case when p=4n+1, is at present known. Two tentative methods are proposed in the sixth sec- tion of the Disquisitiones Arithmetic. They are both applicable to con- gruences with composite as well as with prime modules. This circumstance * See a note by Mr. Cayley in Crelle’s Journal, vol. 1. p. 285. yo 160 REPORT—1860. is important, because, when the modulus is a very great number, we may not be able to tell whether it is prime or composite, and, if composite, what the primes are of which it is composed, although, when the prime divisors of a composite modulus are known, it is simplest first to solve the congruence for each of them separately, and afterwards (by a method to which we shall hereafter refer) to deduce from these solutions the solution for the given composite modulus. To apply the first of Gauss’s methods, the congruence is written in the form 77> =D-+ Py, P denoting the modulus. If in the formula V=D+Py we substitute for y in succession all integral values which satisfy the inequality —Pay m inferior to i+; and of y not superior to 8. The demonstration of this theorem is not very satisfactory, and the number of trials that it still leaves is very great, viz. 3 Gr + s), The application of Gauss’s second method is rendered somewhat more uni- hi | | ed ys ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 161 form, and at the same time the necessity for constructing a system of qua- dratic forms of determinant —D is avoided by the following modification of it:—By a known property of quadratic forms, whenever the congruence r’ +D=0, mod P, is resoluble, the equation mP=a°+ Dy’ is resoluble for some value of m < 2/2. By assigning, therefore, to m all values in suc- cession which are inferior to that limit, and which satisfy the condition (5) = (5) and then obtaining (by Gauss’s method) all prime representa- U tions of the resulting products by the form x?+-Dy’, we shall have r=+ ff r=+ oie .-.. mod P, 2’, y', x", y'! etc. denoting the different pairs of values of x and y in the equation mP=2?+ Dy’. 69. General Theory of Congruences.—We may infer from several passages in the Disquisitiones Arithmetice, that Gauss intended to give a general theory of congruences of every order in the 8th section of his work, and that, at the time of its publication, he was already in possession of the prin- cipal theorems relating to the subject*. These theorems were, however, first given by Evariste Galois, in a note published in the Bulletin de Férus- sac for June, 1830 (vol. xiii. p. 438), and reprinted in Liouville’s Journal, vol. xi. p.398. An account of Galois’s method (completed and extended in some respects) will be found in M. Serret’s Cours d’Algébre Supérieure, Jecon25. The theory has also been independently investigated by M. Schoe- nemann, who seems to have been unacquainted with the earlier researches of Galois (see Crelle’s Journal, vol. xxxi. p. 269, and vol. xxxii. p. 93). In several of Cauchy’s arithmetical memoirs (see in particular Exercices de Mathématiques, vol. i. p. 160, vol. iv. p. 217; Comptes Rendus, vol. xxiv. p- 1117; Exercices d’Analyse et de Physique Mathématique, vol. iv. p. 87) we find observations and theorems relating to it. Lastly, in a memoir in Crelle’s Journal (vol. liv. p. 1) M. Dedekind has given (with important accessions) an excellent and lucid résumé of the results obtained by his pre- decessors. In the following account of the principles of this theory, the functional symbols F, ¢, ,... will represent (as in general throughout this Report) rational and integral functions having integral coefficients; we shall use p to denote a prime modulus, and @ an absolutely indeterminate quantity. As we shall have to consider the functions F(x), f(x), (a), ete., only in relation to the modulus p, we shall consider two functions F, (x) and F, (2), which differ only by multiples of p, as identical, and we shall represent their identity by the congruence F, (v)=F, (x), mod p, which is equivalent to an identical equation of the form F,(2)=F,(«)+p)(x). The designation “modular function,” which has been introduced by Cauchy (Comptes Rendus, vol. xxiv. p- 1118) will serve (though, perhaps, not in itself very appropriate) to indicate that the function to which it is applied is thus considered in relation to a * See Disq. Arith. art. 11 and 43. t Galois was born October 26, 1811, and lost his life in a duel, May 30, 1832. He was consequently eighteen at the time of the publication of the note referred to in the text. His mathematical works are collected in Liouville’s Journal, vol. xi. p. 381. Obscure and frag- mentary as some of these papers are, they nevertheless evince an extraordinary genius, un- paralleled, perhaps, for its early maturity, except by that of Pascal. It is impossible to read without emotion the letter in which, on the day before his death and in anticipation of it, Galois endeavours to rescue from oblivion the unfinished researches which haye given him a place for ever in the history of mathematical science. 1860. M 162 REPORT—1860. prime modulus. Since in any modular function we may omit those terms the coefficients of which are multiples of p, we shall always suppose that the coefficient of the highest power of z in the function is prime to p. If F(w)=f, (x) xf, (w), mod p, f, (w) and f, (#) are each of them said to be divisors of F(x) for the modulus p, or, more briefly, modular divisors of F(x), or even simply divisors of F(a) when no ambiguity can arise from this elliptical mode of expression. If a be a function of order zero, i. e. an integral number prime to p, @ is a divisor, for the modulus p, of every other modular function; so that we may consider the p—1 terms @,, @,, @,; -.. @p—1, of a system of residues prime to p, as the units of this theory, and, in any set of p—1 associated functions a E(z), a, F(@)p26e. apa EC), we nay distinguish that one as primary in which the highest coefficient is congruous to unity (mod p). If F(#) be a function which is divisible (mod p) by no other function (except the units and its own associates), F(x) is said to be a prime or irre- ducible function for the modulus p. And it is a fundamental proposition in this theory, that every modular function can be expressed in one way, and one way only, as the product of a unit by the powers of primary irreducible modular functions. The demonstration of this theorem depends (precisely as in the case of ordinary integral numbers) on Euclid’s process for finding the greatest common divisor, which, it is easy to show, is applicable to the modular functions we are considering here. For, if o, (a) and , (a) be two such functions [the degree of ¢,(#) being not higher than that of @, (x)], we can always form the series of congruences $:() = (x) $.(@) +7 $4(x), mod p, $2(@)=9.(#) $,(@) +7, 9,(@), mod p, Ce et eC eC De Mie Dc Sa YS OR RSM Je Sea eer Tt CT in which 7,, 7, ... denote integral numbers, g,(“), g,(#),-.. modular func- tions, and ¢,(«), ¢,(v),-... primary modular functions, the orders of which are successively lower and lower, until we arrive at a congruence px (2) =k (2) ort (@) +7 or42(w), mod p, in which 7,==0, med p. The function $741 (7) is then the greatest common divisor (mod p) of the given functions ¢, (w) and @, (a); and, in particular, if 441 (@) be of order zero, those two functions are relatively prime. We may add that, if R be the Resultant of ¢,(#) and ¢,(«), the necessary and sufficient condition that these functions should have a common modular divisor of an order higher than zero is contained in the congruence R=0, mod p*—a theorem exactly corresponding to an important algebraical pro- position. From the nature of the process by which the greatest common divisor is determined, we may infer the fundamental proposition enunciated above, by precisely the same reasoning which establishes the corresponding theorem in common arithmetic. Similarly, we may obtain the solution of the following useful problem :—“ Given two relatively prime modular func- tions A,, and A,, of the orders m and m, to find two other functions, of the orders m—1 and m—1 respectively, which satisfy the congruence A ke : Gat An Rene 1 ls mod Pp * See Cauchy, Exercices de Mathématiques, vol. i. p. 160, or M. Libri, Mémoires de Mathé- matique et de Physique, pp. 73, 74. But a proof of this proposition is really contained in Lagrange’s Additions to Euler’s Algebra (sect. 4). re ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 163 The assertion that f(«) is a divisor of F(x), for the modulus p is for brevity expressed by the congruential formula F(«)=0, mod [p, f(#)], which represents an equation of the form F(x)=p9 (a) + f(#) 9 (2). Similarly the congruence F,(#)=F,(x), mod [p, f(x)], is equivalent to the equation P(e) =F) + po@) +f) Y @),- If f(x) be a function of order m, it is evident that any given function is congruous, for the compound modulus [p, f (x)] to one, and one only, of the p™ functions contained in the formula @,+a,¢7+ ...+@m-12™—}, in which a,, a,,...@m_—, may have any values from zero to p—1 inclusive. These p™ functions, therefore, represent a complete system of residues for the modulus [p, f'(2)]. A congruence F(X)=0, mod [p, f(z) ], is said to be solved when a func- tional value is assigned to X which renders the left-hand member divisible by f(«) for the modulus p; and the number of solutions of the congruence is the number of functional values (incongruous mod [p, f(#)]) which ma be attributed to X. The coefficients of the powers of X in the function F(X may be integral numbers or functions of x. The linear congruence AX=B, mod [p,f(«)], in which A and B denote two modular functions, is, in particular, always resoluble when A is prime to f(a), mod p, and admits, in that case, of only one solution. We shall now suppose that the function f(2) in the compound modulus Lp, f(«)] is irreducible for the modulus p,—a supposition which involves the consequence that, if a product of two factors be congruous to zero for the modulus Cp, f(«)], one, at least, of those factors is separately congruous to zero for the same modulus. We thus obtain the principle (cf. art. 11) that no congruence can have more solutions, for an irreducible compound modu- lus, than it has dimensions. For, if X==£, mod [p, f(x)], satisfy the con- gruence F,, (X)=0, mod [p, f(x)], we find Bn (X) == Fn (X)— Fn (2) = (X—£) Fn (X), mod [p, f(x)]; Fm—1 (X) denoting a new function of order m—1, whence it follows that if the principle be true for a congruence of m—1 dimensions, it is also true for one of m dimensions ; 2. e. it is true universally. 70. Extension of Fermat's Theorem.—Let 6 denote any one of the p™—1 residues of the modulus [p, f(x)] which are prime to f(x); it may be shown, by a proof exactly similar to Dirichlet’s proof of Fermat’s theorem, that Ge =1==1), mod [p, f(#)].........-.2.+- (A) This result, which is evidently an extension of Fermat’s theorem, involves several important consequences. It implies, in the first place, the existence of a theory of residues of powers of modular functions, with respect to a compound modulus, precisely similar to the theory of the residues of the powers of integral numbers with regard to a common prime modulus. A single example (taken from M. Dedekind’s memoir) will suffice to show the exact correspondence of the two theories. The modular function 6 is or is not a quadratic residue of f(«), for the modulus p, according as it is or is not possible to satisfy the quadratic con- gruence X*==0, mod [p, f(w)]. In the former case @ satisfies the congruence M2 164 REPORT—1860. o3(p™-1) =], mod [p, f(x)]; in the latter, 04(?"-D==—1, mod [p, f()]. And, further, if 6, and 0, be two primary irreducible modular functions of the orders m and x respectively, and if we use the symbols lel and [F| to 1 denote the positive or negative units which satisfy the congruences 63‘?"—)) x= [zi]. mod (p, @,), and he hp [z| , mod (2, 0,), respectively, these 2 1 two symbols are connected by the law of reciprocity [F| =(—1)”" Fe] ‘ 2 1 But the equation (A) admits also of an immediate application to the theory of ordinary congruences with a simple prime modulus. In that equation let us assign to @ the particular value x ; we conclude that the function #?”—1—1, is divisible for the modulus p by f(«), @.e. by every irreducible modular function of order m. Further, if d be a divisor of m, gP™—1—] is algebraically divisible by avP’—1 —]; whence it appears that gvP™—1_] is divisible, for the modulus p, by every function of which the order is a divisor of m. But it is easily shown that 2?”—!—1 is not divisible (mod p) by any other modular function, and that it cannot contain any multiple modular factors. Hence we have the indeterminate congruence vp™-1_] =I f(x), mod p, ......... sen hi in which f(x) denotes any primary and irreducible function, the order of which is a divisor of m, and the sign of multiplication [I extends to every value of f(x). This theorem, again, is a generalization of Lagrange’s inde- terminate congruence (art.10). We may infer from it that, when m is >1, the number of primary functions of order m, which are irreducible for the modulus 7, is m an py alee = [Pm 2p" + ph qa — Spi gas + ste > Gy» J «++ denoting the different prime divisors of m. As this expression is always different from zero, it follows that there exist functions of any given order, which are irreducible for the modulus p. A congruence F(a#)==0, mod p, may be considered resolved when we have expressed its left-hand member as a product of irreducible modular factors. The linear factors (if any) then give the real solutions; the factors of higher orders may be supposed to represent imaginary solutions. We have already observed that even when all the modular factors of F(«) are linear, we possess no general and direct method by which they can be assigned ; it is hardly necessary to add that the problem of the direct determination of modular factors of higher orders than the first, presents even greater diffi- culties. Nevertheless the congruence (B) enables us to advance one step toward the decomposition of F(2) into its irreducible factors ; for, by means of it, we can separate those divisors of F(«) which are of the same order, not, indeed, from one another, but from all its other divisors. We may first of all suppose that F(#) is cleared of its multiple factors, which may be done, as in algebra, by investigating the greatest common divisor of F() and I'(x) for the modulus p. The greatest common divisor (mod p) of F(x) and 2?-!—] will then give us the product of all the linear modular factors of F(x); let F(a) be divided (mod p) by that product, and let the quotient be F\(#); the greatest common divisor (mod py) of F,(x) and gP*—1—] will give us the product of the irreducible quadratic factors of F(x) ; ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 165 and by continuing this process, we shall obtain the partial resolution of F(x) to which we have referred. 71. Imaginary Solutions of a Congruence.—We have said that the non- linear modular factors of F(«)==0, mod p, may be considered to represent imaginary solutions. These imaginary solutions can be actually exhibited, if we allow ourselves to assign to # certain complex values. The following proposition, which shows in what manner this may be effected, is due to Galois :-— “If f(#) represent an irreducible modular function of order m, the con- gruence F(6)=0, mod [p, f(x)], is completely resoluble when F(a) is an irreducible modular function of order m, or of any order the index of which is a divisor of m.” To establish this theorem, write 0 for 2 in equation (B); we find 62"-!—1 ==II F(@), mod p, the sign of multiplication II extending to every irreducible modular function having m or a divisor of m for the index of its order. But the congruence 6?”—!==1, mod [p, f(x)], admits of as many roots as it has dimensions; therefore also every divisor of 9?”—1— 1, and, in particular, the function F(@) considered as a congruence for the same compound modu- lus, admits of as many roots as it has dimensions. Let the order of the congruence F(0)=0, mod [p, f(«)], be 6, and let any one of its roots be represented by 7; it may be shown that all its roots are represented by the terms of the series r, 7?, 7?°,... 77°}, For, if F(r)=0, mod [p, f(x)], we have also F (r?)=[F(r)]?=0, mod [p,f()], and similarly F(7?*)==[F (r)]”°=0, mod p; so that 7, 7?, 77’, ... 7?°—} are all roots of F(@)==0, mod [p, f(#)]. it remains to show that these 6 func- tions are all incongruous, mod [p, f(x)]. If possible let rp*+*' = ppt", mod [p, f(x)], & and k' being less than 6; we have, raising each side of this 6—k' b+k 6 ° ee congruence to the power pé—"", rP°*"==rP", mod [p, f(x) ], i.e. rP*=r, or rP*—1==1, mod [p, f(x)], observing that rr°=r, mod Lp, f(x) ], because rP’-1__] is divisible by F(r) for the modulus p- We conclude, therefore, that 7 is a root, mod [p, f(«)], of some irreducible modular divisor of the function 6?*—1—], i. e. of some irreducible function of an order lower than 6; because & is less than 6; r is therefore a root, mod [p, f(x) ], of two different irreducible modular functions, which is impossible. If, therefore, we suppose x to represent, not an indeterminate quantity, but a root of the equation f(2)=0, we may enunciate Galois’ theorem as follows :— “Every irreducible congruence of order m is completely resoluble in com- plex numbers composed with roots of any equation which is irreducible for the modulus p, and which has m or a multiple of m for the index of its order. “ And all its roots may be expressed as the powers of any one of them.” 72. Congruences having Powers of Primes for their Modules.—It remains for us to advert to the theory of congruences wiih composite modules—a sub- ject to which (if we except the case of binomial congruences) it would seem that the attention of arithmeticians has not been much directed. We shall suppose, first, that the modulus is a power of a prime number. The theorem of Lagrange (art. 11), and the more general proposition of art. 69, in which it is (as we have seen) included, cannot be extended to congruences having powers of primes for their modules. Let the proposed congruence be F (a) =0, mod p™; and let us suppose (what is here a restriction in the generality of the problem) that the coeffi. 166 REPORT—1860. cient of the highest power of x in F(x) is prime to p, or, which comes to the same thing, that it is unity. Let F(a#)=PXQxR...mod p,—P,Q,R, .-. being powers of different irreducible modular functions. 1t may then be shown that F (7)=P’x Q'x R’..., mod p”, where P’, Q’, R',... are fune- tions of the same order as P, Q, R,..., respectively congruous to them for the modulus p, and deducible from them by the solution of linear congru- ences only. We have thus the theorem that F (x), considered with respect to the modulus p”, can always be resolved in one way and in one way only, into a product of modular functions, each of which is relatively prime (for the modulus p) to all the rest, and is congruous (for the same modulus p) to a power of an irreducible function. We may therefore replace the congruence F (x) =0, mod p”, by the congruences P!==0, mod p”, Q’==0, mod p™, R'=0, mod p”,... But no general investigation appears to have been given of the peculiarities that may be presented by a congruence of the form P! =0, mod p”, in the case in which P is a power of an irreducible function (mod p), and not itself such a function—a supposition which implies that the discriminant of F (x) is divisible by p. If, however, P be itself an irreduci- ble function, the congruence P! =0, mod pm, gives us one and only one solu- tion of the given congruence if P be linear, or, if P be not linear, it may be considered as representing as many imaginary solutions as it has dimensions. In particular, if we consider the case in which all the divisors P, Q, R,... are linear, we obtain the theorem :— «« Every congruence which considered with respect to the modulus p has as many icongruous solutions as it has dimensions, is also completely reso- luble for the modulus p”, having as many roots as it has dimensions, and no more.” If «=a,, mod p, be a solution of the congruence F (x) =0, mod p, and if that congruence have no other root congruous to a,, the corresponding solution z =a m, mod p”, of the congruence F (2) ==0, mod p”, may be ob- tained by the solution of linear congruences only—a proposition which is in- cluded in a preceding and more general observation. The process is as follows :—If, in the equation F (a, +Ap)=F(a,) + Ap (a,) +2 F(a.) +00 we determine # by the congruence oF (a,)+kF'(a,)=0, mod p, (which is always possible because the hypothesis that (a—a,)* is not a divisor of F (x), mod p, implies that F’(a,) is not divisible by p*), and then put a,== a,+hp, mod p’*, we have F (a,)==0, mod p*. Similarly, from the expansion F (a,+kp*)=F (a,) +hp? F' (a,)+..-; a value of & may be deduced which satisfies the congruence F (a,+kp*) =0, or F(a,)==0, mod p*; and so on continually until we arrive at a congruence of the form F(am)=0, mod p™. But when F(z) is divisible (ior the modulus p) by (a—a)’ or a higher power of a—a, the congruence F(«)=0, mod p”, is either irresoluble or has a plurality of roots incongruous for the modulus p”, but all congruous to a@ for tle modulus p. Thus the congruence («—a)’+kp(«x—b)=0, mod p’, is irresoluble, unless a==6, mod p; whereas if that condition be satisfied, it admits of p incongruous solutions, comprised in the formula z=a+pp, mod p’, p=0, 1, 2, 3,..p—1]. * If F (x) =(x—a,) $ (x), mod p, where ¢ (a,) is not divisible by py, we have F’ (x) = » («)+(a—a,) ¢' (x), mod p, or F’ (a,) = ¢ (a), mod p. ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 167 73. Binomial Congruences having a Power of a Prime for their Modulus.— If M be any number, and Y(M) represent the number of terms in a system of residues prime to M, it will follow (from a principle to which we have already frequently referred : see arts. 10, 26, 53, 70) that every residue of that system satisfies the congruence a¥(™) ==], mod M,—a proposition which is well known as Euler’s generalization of Fermat's theorem*. In particular, when M=p”, we have x?”~'(p-1)==1, mod p™. This congruence has, consequently, precisely as many roots as it has dimensions—a property which is also possessed by every congruence of the form «¢=1, mod p™, d denoting a divisor of p"—!(p—1). This has been established by Gauss in the 3rd section of the Disquisitiones Arithmetice, by a particular and somewhat tedious method+. The simpler and more general demonstration which he intended to give in the 8th section}, was perhaps in principle identical with the following ; we exclude the case p=2, to which indeed the theorem itself is inapplicable :— Let d=dp", 6 representing a divisor of p—1, and m being < m—1; and let us form the indeterminate congruence x'—] ==(x—a,) (w—a,)....(%—az), mod p™—”, which is always possible, because #°—1 ==0, mod p, has 6 incongruous roots. It is readily seen that, if A and B represent two numbers prime to p, and if A==B, mod p’, A”*==B?", mod p*+s; and conversely, if A?°=B?*, mod prts, A=B, mod p"§. By applying this principle it may be shown that xp” —] = (xP"—a,P”) (xP”—a,p") .... (av"—azP"), mod p™. For if we divide a»"—1 by 2?"—a,”, the remainder is a,”"—1. But, because a,5== 1, mod p”—, a,6p” ==1, mod p”; i. e.a?”—a,P” divides v?"—] for the modulus p”. Similarly «2'»”—1 is divisible (mod p™) by 2"—a,P" ete. ; and since all these divisors are relatively prime for the modulus p, x5?" —1 is divisible (mod p”) by their product ; 7. e., at" —] == (aP"—a,?”) (aP”—a,p) ... (a? —a,?”), mod p™. We have thus effected the resolution of «*»”—1 into factors relatively prime, each of which is congruous (mod p) to a power of an irreducible function ; since evidently (7?”—a?”") == («—a)?”", mod p. To investigate the solutions of x’»"— 1 ==0, mod p”, we have therefore only to consider separately the 8 congruences included in the formula «?”==a?", mod pm. But each of these congruences (by virtue of the principle already referred to) admits precisely p” solutions, viz. the p” numbers (incongruous mod p”) which are congruous toa, mod p”—”. The whole number of solutions of a'»”—1 =0, mod p™, is therefore equal to the index dp” of the congruence. It further appears that the complete solution of the binomial congruence a?”—1 =0, may be obtained by a direct method, when the complete solution of the simpler congruence «'—|1==0, mod p, has been found. For we may first -* Euler, Comment. Arith. vol. i. p. 284. t Disquisitiones Arithmeticz, arts. 84—88. See also Poinsot, Reflexions sur la Théorie des Nombres, cap. iv. art. 6. } Disquisitiones Arithmeticz, art. 84. § If A=B, mod pr, but not mod pr+1, we have A=B-+Apr, where & is prime to p- Hence A?* =(B+kp")P°=BPs>47BP%—! ptr LK ere K denoting a coefficient divisible by p; or AP°=B?*, mod p**”, but not mod p **”*", because £B?*—! is prime to p. This result implies the principle enunciated in the text. 168 REPORT— 1860. (by the method given in the last article) deduce the complete solution of x'—1==0, mod p™~”, from that of «7—1==0, mod p; and then the roots of zx'p” —]==0, mod p™, can be written down at once. 74. Primitive Roots of the Powers of a Prime.—All\ the elementary pro- perties of the residues of powers, considered with regard to a modulus which is a power of a prime number, may be deduced from the theorem just proved. In particular, the demonstration of the existence and number of primitive roots (art. 12) is applicable here also; so that we have the theorem :— “There are p—2 (p—1) (p—1) residues prime to p”, the successive powers of any one of which represent all residues prime to p™.” These residues are of course the primitive roots of p”. If y be a primitive root of p, of the p numbers included in the formula y+hp (mod p’), p—1 precisely will be primitive roots of p*. For y+Ap is a primitive root of p* unless (y+/p)P—! =1, mod p’; and the congruence xzp—1==], mod p’, has always one, and only one, root congruous to y for the modulus p. But every primitive root of p* is a primitive root of p*, and of every higher power of p, as may be shown by an application of the princi- ple proved in a note to the last article, or, again, by observing that every primitive root of p”+! is necessarily congruous, for the modulus p™, to some primitive root of p™, and that there are p times as many primitive roots of p™t) as of pm. (See Jacobi’s Canon Arithmeticus, Introduction, p. xxxiii ; also a problem proposed by Abel in Crelle’s Journal, vol. iii. p. 12, with Jacobi’s answer, ibid. p. 211.) 75. Case when the Modulus is a Power of 2.—The powers of the even prime 2 are excepted from the demonstrations of the two last articles—in fact, if m > 3,2™ has no primitive roots. Gauss, however, has shown (Disq. Arith. arts. 90, 91) that the successive powers of any number of the form 8n +3 represent, for the modulus 2”, all numbers of either of the forms 82+3 or 82+1; similarly all numbers of the forms 8%+5 and 8x+1 are repre- sented by successive powers of any number of the form 8z+5. If, there- fore, we denote by y any number of either of the two forms 82 +3 or 82+5, we may represent all uneven numbers less than 2” by the formula (—1)*y8, in which a is to receive the values O and 1, and f the values 1, 2,5,....g™-2, A double system of indices may thus be used to replace the simple system supplied by a primitive root when such roots exist. Tables of indices for the powers of 2, and of uneven primes inferior to 1000, have been appended by Jacobi to his Canon Arithmeticus. 76. Composite Modules.—-No general theory has been given of the repre- sentation of rational and integral functions of an indeterminate quantity as products of modular functions with regard to a composite modulus divisible by more than one prime. Aud it is possible that no advantage would be gained by considering the theory of congruences with composite modules from this general point of view. A few isolated theorems relating to par- ticular cases have, however, been given by Cauchy (Comptes Rendus, vol. xxv. p. 26, 1847). Of these the following may serve as a specimen :— “If the congruence I («)==0, mod M, admit as many roots as it has dimensions, and if, besides, the differences of these roots be all relatively prime to M, we have the indeterminate congruence F (v)=h (a—1,) (a@—r,) (w—r,) ...(e—r,,), mod M, k denoting the coefficient of the highest power of # in F (w).” But if, instead of considering the modular decomposition of the function F (x), we confine ourselves to the determination of the real solutions of the ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 169 congruence F (2) =0, mod M, it is always sufficient to consider the con- gruences F(x)=0, mod A, F(«)=0, mod B, F(x)==0, mod C, ete., .... (A) where AX BxC..=M, and A, B, C,.. denote powers of different primes. For if «=a, mod A, «= 6, mod B, X =e, mod C, denote any solutions of the first, second, third ... of those congruences respectively, it is evident that, if X be a number satisfying the congruences X =a, mod A, X =), mod B, X==c, mod C (and such a number can always be assigned), we shall have F(X) =0 for each of the modules A, B, C,.. separately, and therefore for the modulus M; and further, if the congruences (A) admit respectively a, 2, y, +. incongruous solutions, the congruence F(«)==0, mod M, will admit axfxXy...inall; for we can combine any solution of F(x)=0, mod A, with any solution of F(«)=0, mod B, and so on*. 77. Binomial Congruences with Composite Modules —The investigation of the real solutions of binomial congruences depends (in the manner just stated) on the investigation of the real solutions of similar congruences the modules of which are the powers of primes. With regard to the relations by which these real solutions are connected with one another, little of importance has been added to the few observations on this subject in the Disquisitiones Arithmetice (art. 92). If the modulus M=p* g’ re... »P> 4 7, «+» repre- senting different primes, the congruence «¥(™) = 1, mod M, possesses no primitive roots; for if m be the least common multiple of p*—! (p—1), q’— (q—1), r°-! (r—1),...., 2 will be less than and a divisor of J (M). But evidently, if x be any residue prime to M, the congruence «»—] =O will be satisfied separately for the modules p+, g°, r¢,.., and therefore for the modulus M ; 7. e., no residue exists, the first ~(M) powers of which are incon- gruous, mod M. If, however, M=2p* this conclusion does not hold, since the least common multiple of ~ (2) and (p”) is W (2p™) itself; and we find accordingly that every uneven primitive root of p™ is a primitive root of 2p™. When, as is sometimes the case, it is convenient to employ indices to designate the residues prime to a given composite modulus, we must empley (as in the case of a power of 2) a system of multiple indices. To take the most general case, let M=2?° p g? r¢ ..; let wu be any number of either of the forms 8x+3 or 8n+5, and P, Q, R,... primitive roots of Pe Covina VEX spectively. Then, if x be any given number prime to M, it will always be possible to find a set of integral numbers en, wn», &ns Sn, Yn ++ » Satisfying the conditions (—1)*" wen==n, mod 2°; O< , <2, 0 since f*+1==0, mod p. Substituting these values in the equation (A), we find 23(p—1) = 24>, mod p, which is in fact Gauss’s criterion. Art. 25. In the second definition of a primary number, for “6 is uneven,” read “6 is even.” Although this definition has been adopted by Dirichlet in his memoir in Crelle’s Journal, vol. xxiv. (see p. 301), yet, in the memoir “Untersuchungen tiber die complexen Zahlen” (see the Berlin Memoirs for 1841), sect. 1, he has preferred to follow Gauss. Art. 36. In the algorithm given in the text, the remainders p,, p,... are all uneven ; and the computation of the value of the symbol Po) is thus rendered 4 independent of the formula (iii) of art. 28. The algorithm given by Eisen- stein is, however, preferable, although the rule to which it leads cannot be expressed with the same conciseness, because the continued fraction equi- valent to 2° terminates more rapidly when the remainders are the least ia possible, and not necessarily uneven. Art. 37. In the definition of a primary number, for “@==+1,” read “a=—1.” But, for the purposes of the theory of cubic residues, it is simpler to consider the two numbers +(a+4p) as both alike primary (see arts. 52 and 57). Art. 38. Jacobi’s two theorems cannot properly be said to involve the 172 REPORT—1860. cubic law of reciprocity. If (2 =1, it will follow from those theorems that of 3 o a | (2) = or p*, they do not determine whether (2: =p, 3 2 1/3 or ps It is remarkable that these theorems, “forma genuina qua inventa sunt,” may be obtained by applying the criteria for the resolubility or irreso- lubility of cubic congruences (art.67) to the congruence r°—3Ar—\AM =0, mod g (art. 43), which, by virtue of M. Kummer’s theorem (art. 44), is re- soluble or irresoluble according as g is or is not a cubic residue of i. On the Performance of Steam-Vessels, the Functions of the Screw, and the Relations of its Diameter and Pitch to the Form of the Vessel. By Vice-Admiral Moorsom. (A communication ordered to be printed among the Reports.) In this the fourth paper which I now lay before the British Association, it may be desirable to recapitulate the points I have brought into issue, and for the determination of which, data, only to be obtained by experiments, are still wanting, viz.— 1. There is no agreed method by which the resistance of a ship may be calculated under given conditions of wind and sea. 2. The known methods are empirical, approximate only, and imply smooth water and no wind. 3. The relations in which power and speed stand to form and to size are comparatively unknown. 4, The relations in which the direct and resultant thrust stand to each other in any given screw, and how affected by the resistance of the ship, are undetermined. In order to resolve these questions, specific experiments are needed, and none have yet been attempted in such manner as to lead to any satisfactory result. The Steam Ship Performance Committee of the British Association have pressed upon successive First Lords of the Admiralty, the great value to the public service which must ensue if the following measures were taken, viz.— 1. To determine, by specific experiment, the resistance, under given con- ditions, of certain vessels, as types; and, at the same time, to measure the thrust of the screw. 2. To record the trials of the Queen’s ships, so that the performance in smooth water may be compared with the performance at sea, both being re- corded in a tabular form, comprising particulars, to indicate the characteris- tics of the vessel, of the engine, of the screw, and of the boiler. Hitherto nothing has come of these representations. In the paper read last year at Aberdeen, I showed, in the case of Lord Dufferin’s yacht ‘Erminia,’ how the absence of admitted laws of resistance interfered with the adjustment of her screw, and how, therefore, as a matter of precaution, a screw was provided capable of a thrust beyond what the vessel required. 1 also showed, in the case of the Duke of Sutherland’s yacht ‘ Undine,’ how her screw, from being too near the surface of the water, lost a large portion of the ¢hrust due to its size and proportions. In other words, a screw capa- ble of giving out a resultant thrust in sea water of 5022 lbs., at a speed of ON THE PERFORMANCE OF STEAM-VESSELS. 173 vessel of 9:26 knots an hour, did actually give out only 3805 lbs. ‘That is to say, the effect produced was the same as if that screw had worked in a fluid whose weight was about 48 Ibs. per cubic foot instead of 64 lbs. Tam now about to exhibit some other examples from among Her Majesty’s ships of war. The questions now before us are— 1. The resistance of the hull below the water-line in passing through the water, and of the upper works, masts, rigging, &c., passing through the air, the weather being calm, and the water smooth. 2. The relation in which the thrust of the screw stands to this resistance. [The Admiral here gave certain results from the ‘ Marlborough,’ the ‘ Re- nown, and the ‘Diadem,’ and proposed that a specific issue should be tried by means of the ‘ Diadem.’] What would I not give, he observed, for some well-conducted experiments to determine this beautiful problem of the laws which govern the action of the screw in sea-water! It is a problem not only interesting to science, but fraught with valuable results in the economical and efficient application of the screw propeller. After commenting on the performances of the U. S. corvette ‘ Niagara,’ the Admiral observed, I have no means of forming a very definite opinion as to how she will séay under low sail in a sea-way, how she will wear, how scud in a following sea, or how stand up under her sails, or whether her statical stability be too much or too little, or how the fore and after bodies are balanced. These are points to be determined, not by the mere opinion of seamen—-for a sailor will vaunt the qualities of his ship even as a lover the charms of his mistress—but by careful records of performances in smooth water and at sea, and a comparison of such performances with calculated results from drawings beforehand. Let a return of such things be annually laid before the House of Commons—we shall then know whether we are get- ting money’s worth for our money; and also we should receive all the benefits of public criticism towards improvement. We should not then allow defects to be stereotyped, till chronic blemishes are turned into beauties, or, if not so, then defended as things that cannot be remedied. I have now completed the task which four years ago I imposed on myself. Beginning with simple elementary principles, and ending with minute prac- tical details, I have, as I conceive, shown the process by which the improve- ment of steam-ships must be carried on. More than one hundred years ago scientific men, able mathematicians, showed the physical laws on which naval architecture must rest. A succes- sion of able men have shown how those laws affect various forms of floating bodies. Experiments have been made with models to determine the value of the resistance practically. With the exception of some experiments of Mr. Scott Russell, I am not aware that any have been made with vessels ap- proaching the size of ships to determine the relations of resistance to power, whether wind or steam. Ships have been improved, and modifications of form have been arrived at by along painstaking tentative process. The rules so reached for sailing ships have been superseded by steam, and we are still following the same tedious process, in order to establish new rules for the application of steam power. I think the history of naval architecture shows that it is not an abstract science, and that its progress must depend on the close observation and cor- rect record of facts; on the careful collating, and scientific comparing of such facts, with a view to the induction of general laws. Now, is there any where such observing, recording, collating, and comparing? and still more, is there such inducting process ? 174 REPORT—1860. I can find no such thing anywhere in such shape that the public can judge it by its fruits. We are now in full career of a competition of expenditure, and England has no reason to flinch from such an encounter, unless her people should tire of paying a premium of insurance upon a contingent event that never may happen ; and if it should happen without our being insured, might not cost as much as the aggregate premiums. ‘Tire they will, sooner or later, but they are more likely to continue to pay in faith and hope, if they had some confidence that their money is not being spent unnecessarily. There is now building at Blackwall the ‘ Warrior,’ a ship to be cased with 44-inch plates of iron, whose length at water-line is 380 feet, breadth 58 feet, intended draught of water (mean) 255 feet, area of section 1190 square feet, and displacement about 8992 tons, and she is to have engines of 1250 nomi- nal horse-power. Is there any experience respecting the qualities and performance of such a ship? Anything to guide us in reasoning from the known to the unknown ? Do the performances of the ‘ Diadem,’ ‘Mersey,’ and ‘Orlando,’ inspire confidence? Where are the preliminary experiments ? Before any contract was entered into for the construction of the Britannia Bridge, a course of experiments was ordered by the Directors, which cost not far short of £7000, and it was well expended. It saved money, and perhaps prevented failure. This ship must cost not less than £400,000, and may cost a good deal more when ready for sea. But there is another of similar, and two others building, of smaller size. What security is there for their success ? The conditions which such a ship as the ‘ Warrior’ must fulfil in order to justify her cost are deserving of some examination. The formidable nature of her armament, as well as her supposed impregnability to shot, will natu- rally lead other vessels to avoid an encounter. She must therefore be of greater speed than other ships of war. To secure this, it is essential that her draught of water should be the smallest that is compatible both with stability and steadiness of motion, and that she should not be deeper than the designer intended. ‘To ensure steadiness it is necessary, among other things, that in rolling, the solids, emerged and immersed, should find their axis in the longitudinal axis of the ship. To admit of accurate aim with the guns, her movement in rolling should be slow and not deep. Every seaman knows how few ships unite these requisites. It is not quite safe to speculate on the ‘ Warrior's’ speed; nevertheless I will venture on an estimate, such as I have stated in the case of the ‘ Great Eastern,’ whose smooth-water speed I will now assume to be 152 knots, as before estimated, with 7732 horse-power, when her draught of water is 23 feet, her area of section, say 1650 square feet, and her displacement about 18,588 tons. The speed of the ‘ Warrior’ in smooth water ought not to be less than 16 knots, in order that she may force to action unwilling enemies whose speed inay be 13 to 14 knots. The question I propose is the power to secure a smooth-water speed of 16 knots. Reducing the ‘ Great Eastern’ to the size of the ‘ Warrior,’ and applying the corrections for the difference of speed of 3 knot, and for their respective coefficients cf specific resistance °0564 and ‘07277, the horse-power for 16 knots is 7543. Raising the ‘ Niagara’ to the size of the ‘ Warrior,’ and applying the cor- rections for the difference of speed between 10°9 and 16 knots, and for their respective coefficients of specific resistance ‘0797 and ‘07277, the horse-power to give the ‘ Warrior’ a smooth-water speed of 16 knots is 7867, being an excess over the estimate from the ‘Great Eastern’ of 324 horse-power. ON THE EFFECTS OF LONG-CONTINUED HEAT. 175 If the power required for the ‘ Warrior’ be calculated by adaptation from the ‘ Mersey’ and the ‘ Diadem,’ it would be 8380 horse-power and 8287 re- spectively ; from which this inference flows :—that unless the mistakes made in the fore and after sections of the ‘Mersey’ and ‘Diadem’ are rectified in the ‘Warrior,’ she will require above 8000 horse-power for a speed of 16 knots, notwithstanding her greater size and increased ratio of length to breadth. Before investing more than a million and a half of money in an experiment, commercial men would have probably employed a few thousand pounds in some sort of test as to the conditions of success. Perhaps such test may have been resorted to and kept secret for reasons of public policy. Perhaps it is intended that the ‘ Warrior's’ speed should not be greater than that which is due to five times her nominal horse-power, which could not exceed 152 knots with 6250 horse-power, under the most favourable conditions, and may be much less. The British Association, by becoming the medium of collecting facts and presenting them to the public, has done good service; but that service ought not to rest there. Collectively, the Association may be able to do little more. It can only act by affording public opinion a means of expression. But indi- vidual members may do much. Towards such opinion I am doing my part. I ask, in the cause of science, what is the system under which the Queen’s ships are designed and their steam power apportioned ; the organization by which their construction and fitting for sea are carried on; the supervision exercised over their proceedings at sea, in the examination of returns of per- formance and of expenditure ? During part of 1858 and 1859, two committees appointed by the Admi- ralty collected evidence and made reports on the Dock Yards and on steam machinery. I have read both reports with some attention. They are not conclusive, but they are entitled to respect. I have also read the replies and objections of the Government officers. There is a clear issue between them on some of the most essential principles of effective economical management, and on the application of science. A Royal Commission has been appointed to inquire into the system of control and management in the Dock Yards. This is so far good, but it does not go far enough. It does not comprise the steam machinery reported on by Admiral Ramsay’s Committee, and it cannot enter upon the questions Ihave just enumerated. Yet the efficiency of the fleet depends quite as much upon the adaptation of the machinery to the ship, and of the ship to the use she is to be put to, as it does upon the manner in which she is built. The Commission ought to be enlarged both in objects and in number of members. It consists of five members only. Report on the Effects of long-continued Heat, illustrative of Geological Phenomena. By the Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, F.B.S., F.G.S. Tue chief occupation of those who during the present century have employed themselves in investigating the history of the earth, has been to develope the succession of its strata. In following this pursuit, they have found their best guide in the study of its organic antiquities, and have not been led, for the most part, to very precise views of the physical and chemi- cal changes which it has undergone. Yet there are questions in Geology to which no answer can be given with- out an accurate examination into these. In regard, for example, to the 176 REPORT—1860. chronology of the earth, the observation of organic remains alone can never supply reliable data for reasoning. If we should attempt to draw inferences from biological analogies, and measure the duration of beds by the growth of imbedded skeletons, we should be stopped by the probability that the first species of every series were successively created in a state of full-grown maturity*, and by the intrinsic weakness of all comparisons instituted non part materia. Neither can any precarious mechanical analogies render the inquiry more definite, or give a logical value to our conclusions. We are not entitled to presume that the forces which have operated on the earth’s crust have always been the same. Were we to compare the beds of modern seas and lakes with the ancient strata, and assume proportionable periods for their accumulation, we must assume also that chemical and mechanical forces were never in a state of higher intensity, that water was never more rapidly evaporated, that greater torrents, fluid or gaseous, never flushed the lakes and seas, and that more frequent elevations and depressions never gave scope for quicker successions of animal life. To gain any real insight into these ob- scure pages of ancient history, we must have recourse to a strict induction of physical and chemical facts, and thence learn the probable course, and causes, of the wonderful series of changes which geology unfolds. I am not aware that any full and connected statement has been published of the facts which have been contributed by physical observations, and chemical experiment, towards elucidating the conditions of those changes, and propose therefore to preface the account which I have to give of experi- ments designed to throw light upon them, with a sketch of the progress of science in that department. Forty years have elapsed since the author of the ‘Mécanique Céleste’ drew attention to the fact that multiplied observations in deep mines, wells, and springs, had proved the existence of a temperature in the interior of the earth increasing with the depth. He remarked that, by comparing exact observations of the increase with the theory of heat, the epoch might be determined at which the gradually cooling globe had been first transported into space ; he stated the mean increase, collected from actual data, to be a centesimal degree for every 32+ metres, and added that this is an element of high importance to geology. ‘ Not only,” he said, ‘‘does it indicate a very great heat at the earth’s surface in remote times, but if we compare it with the theory of heat, we see that at the present moment the temperature of the earth is excessive at the depth of a million of metres, and above all at the centre; so that all that part of the globe is probably in a state of fusion, and would be reduced into vapour, but for the superincumbent beds, the * To suppose otherwise with regard to animals which take care of their young would be absurd; and hence it is probable also that this is the general system of creation. The most remarkable fact which modern geology has disclosed is the continual succession of newly- created species. It has been attempted to account for thes2 according to known laws of pro- geniture, by supposing numerous non-apparent links of transitional existence to fill up the gaps in the chain of derivation by which one species is presumed to have descended from another. But this is only twisting a rope of sand; conjectural interpolations cannot give coherence to a set of chains which are destitute of all evidence of continuity one with another, and between which, as far as our experience goes, Nature has interposed a prin- ciple of disconnexion. In using the word creation, we acknowledge an agenf, and own our ignorance of the agency, with regard to which, in this case, we only know that it is systematic ; for we see successive species accommodated to successive conditions of existence. + M. Babinet (Tremblements de Terre, 1856), taking M. Waiferdin’s measurement from artesian borings, which gave 31 metres for ]° C. as the most exact, remarks, that the tem- perature at the depth of 3 kilometres must be above the heat of boiling water, and at that of 60 kilometres, about 2000° C., sufficing for the fusion of lava, basalt, trachyte, and porphyry. ON THE EFFECTS OF LONG-CONTINUED HEAT. 177 pressure of which, at those great depths, is immense.” ‘ These considera- tions,” he further added, “ will explain a great number of geological phe- nomena ;” and he instanced those of hot springs, which he accounted for on the supposition that rain-water in channels communicating from super- ficial reservoirs with the interior of the earth, thence rises again, heated, to the surface. Fourier, at the same time, expounded the methods by which, after extended observation of the internal temperature, and further experiments on the conduction of heat, he conceived that mathematic analysis might determine the epoch at which the process of cooling began, concluding in the mean- while from facts already known,—Ist, that no sensible diminution of tem- perature has taken place during the period of historical chronology ; 2ndly, that at a former era the temperature underwent great and rapid changes. Thus was a train of graduated causes, physical and chemical, introduced into Geology on the foundation of inductive reasoning, which is capable of resolving some of the chief difficulties of the science in our comparison of the present with the past. When, for instance, we read in the organic contents of the strata the history of a period when the climate was apparently uniform in all parts of the earth, and learn from the imbedded plants that the temperature of Arctic lands was once equal to that of warm latitudes at the present day, to account for these circumstances, we need no longer bewilder ourselves with hypo- theses ; we have a vera causa in the knowledge that the earth has passed through a state in which its temperature was due, not so much to a sun then veiled in clouds, as to a heat penetrating equally in all directions from the centre to the circumference of the globe. When, again, we contemplate a mountain range, and view the abrupt pre- cipices of some alpine chain, with its enormous masses of rock uplifted to - the clouds, and descending as many miles into the bosom of the sea, and when we compare such abnormal labours of nature with the petty risings of the earth’s surface in the existing state of things, we have a vera causa for that disparity, in the knowledge that there was a time when the eruptive forces of the seething mass within were greater, and when a weaker crust underwent vaster disturbances. Or if we examine the general structure of the strata, and see the same stra- tum contemporancously solidified over large portions of the earth’s circum- ference, and then observe the absence of consolidation in the actual opera- tions of nature, whether under the pressure of deep seas, or elsewhere, except in a few foci of igneous action, we have here also a vera causa of the difference, in the ancient prevalence of that high temperature which the laboratory of nature and art shows to be the most capable of lapidifying stony materials. Descending into the details of mineralogy, we find the same departure from the present order of nature in the constitution of minerals; and in the sequence of chemical effects of heat increasing with the age of the stratum, we see a real cause for the distinction. Thus, for example, to begin with the upper beds; the chemist knows that solutions of carbonate of lime, at the ordinary temperature, deposit crystals with the common form of calcareous spar, but near the boiling-point of water with that of drragonite. Now in the mineralogical collection of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society is a specimen of this mineral investing calcite, from the chalk cliffs of Beachy Head ; and if any one will examine the caves of calcareous grit on the Yorkshire coast, he will find them in some aie like those of volcanic rocks, or the mouths of hot springs, with . N 178 REPORT—1860. Arragonite*. Here then we have proof of a certain modicum of heat existing in boiling-springs now extinct, which once pervaded these strata; for had the heat of the water which left this deposit been much more, or less, than about 212° F., no such crystals could have been formed. Not far from the same locality, in a thin seam of the cornbrash Oolite, I have found nodules en- closing small Crustacea, the interior of which was filled with crystalline blende. No other trace of zinc is to be seen in the country aroundt. The same singular phenomenon may be observed in the neighbouring Lias-shale, where the chambers of the Ammonites frequently contain blendet. This is not a phenomenon peculiar to the district ; it illustrates the general con- dition of the-earth after these shells were deposited, and is best accounted for by the vera causa of an elevated temperature ; it indicates that the fumes of zine, or one of its volatile combinations, must have penetrated the strata, taking the form of blende in the chambers of the Ammonite, and having been sealed up in these, escaped decomposition. The same account is applicable to the dissemination of carbonate and sul- phide of lead and copper in the Permian and Triassic strata, and of the particles of metallic copper in the mountain limestone ; as well as to the de- posits of calamine in the hollows of that rock, on the conditions of which de- posits light is thrown by an experiment of Delanoue, who found that no pre- cipitate of carbonate of zinc is produced by limestone at the common tempera- ture, but that it is perfectly thrown down from a warm solution of its salts. And here also it is worthy of remark, that in the experiments of Forch- hammer to illustrate the formation of dolomitic strata, when a solution of carbonate of lime was mixed with sea-water at a boiling heat, the compound formed contained only 18 per cent. of carbonate of magnesia, but that the proportion of magnesia increased with an increase of temperature; in the experiments of Favre and Marignac, the composition of equal atoms, which is that of many natural beds of magnesian limestone, was attained by raising the heat to 392° F., and the pressure to 15 atmospheres; and in those of Morlot a mixture of sulphate of magnesia and calcareous spar was com- pletely converted, in the same circumstances, into a double salt of carbonate of lime and magnesia, with sulphate of lime. The probable history of all the caleareous and magnesian strata, with their interstratified cherts and flints, and interspersed chalcedonie fossils, is that they are products of submarine so/fataras, whence issued successively, in basins variously extended, gases and springs capable of dissolving pre- existent beds, which caused alternate depositions .of silica and carbonated earths, and intermitting from time to time, allowed intervals for the succession of organic and animated beings. The manner in which materials are furnished for extensive sedimentary deposits by processes of disintegration dependent on subterraneous ema- nations, has been observed by Bunsen in the solfataras of Iceland. He describes the palagonitic rocks, formerly erupted there, as undergoing con- * Dr. Murray informs me that this Arragonite is found in a little bay within six miles of Scarborough, in the seams and crevices of the upper calcareous grit. He describes it as fibrous, compact, or imperfectly mammillated, wanting the oblique cleayage of calcite, scratching Iceland spar, and flying into powder in the flame of a taper. Mr. Procter having at my request taken the specific gravity of a fibrous specimen, finds it 3, and confirms Dr. Murray’s description of the other characters of this mineral. + The only peculiarity is that a basaltic dike traverses the district at a distance of a few miles from the site of the fossils. t The Lias fossils sometimes also contain galena. Blum describes a bivalve from a fer- ruginous oolitic rock near Semur, the shells of which consist entirely of crystalline lamin of specular iron; and a cardinia from the lower lias, according to Bischof, likewise consists of the same mineral, which we know elsewhere as a result of volcanic action. Le ON THE EFFECTS OF LONG-CONTINUED HEAT. 179 version by these means “ into alternate and irregularly penetrating beds of white ferruginous, and coloured ferruginous, fumerole clay, the deposits being disclosed to a considerable depth, and exhibiting in the clearest man- ner the phenomena of alternating colours.” ‘‘ One is astonished,” he re- marks, “ at observing the great similarity between the external phenomena of these metamorphic deposits of clay still in the act of being formed, and certain structures of the Keuwper formation. Thousands of years hence the geologist who explores these regions when the last traces of the now active fumeroles have vanished, and the clay formations have become consolidated into marl-like rocks by the silica with which they are saturated, may suppose, from the differently stratified petrographic and chemical character of these beds, that he is looking at fletz strata formed by deposition from water.” *« At the surface, especially, where the deposition is favoured by slow eva- poration, innumerable crystals of gypsum, often an inch in diameter, may frequently be observed loosely surrounded by an argillaceous mass. At the mountain ledge of the Namarféyall, and at Krisuvik, this gypsum is found to penetrate the argillaceous masses in connected strata and floor-like depo- sits, which not unfrequently project as small rocks where the lower soil has been carried away by the action of the water. These deposits are sometimes sparry, corresponding in their exterior very perfectly with the strata of gyp- sum so frequently met with in the marl and clay formations of the Tras.” The great disturbances and fractures, the trappean rocks, and the frag- ments of porphyritic conglomerates, at. the bases of these formations, tend to confirm the opinion of Bunsen, that they have had a metamorphic origin, an origin very probably common to other beds, whether consisting of marl, shale, or sand. All the sand-beds now forming are due to the disintegration and detritus of ancient sandstones, a process, which continued through a great lapse of time, has but coated some portions of the sea-side with unconsoli- dated sand. In the soundings of the Atlantic depths, the microscope, according to Maury, has failed to detect a single particle of sand or gravel. For the origin and consolidation of the inferior grits and shales we must look to ac- tions, mechanical and chemical, more potent than those which the present tranquil course of nature presents. In examining the carboniferous sand- stones of the Blue Mountains in New South Wales, with their shales and coal- beds, more than 12,000 feet in thickness, Darwin was ‘“‘surprised at obser- ving, that though they were evidently of mechanical origin, all the grains of quartz in some specimens were so perfectly crystallized that they evidently had not in their present form been aggregated in a preceding rock;” and he quotes Wm. Smith as having long since made the same remark on the millstone grit of England. If any one, in fact, will observe with a lens the surfaces of the quartz pebbles included in that grit, he will find on most of them numerous wnabraded facets, which bear evidence of a quartz-crystalline action having pervaded the rock whilst its consolidation was going on. There can be no better proof of widely-spread chemical action due to heat than the frequent presence of crystallized silica in every part of the stratified rocks. The deeper we descend in the strata, the more plentiful are the veins and beds of guartz, and the more manifest the signs of metamorphic action. Von Buch was the first to explain, on the principle of metamorphism, the change of calcareous rocks, in contact with pyroxenic porphyries, into dolomites ; and in 1835 the same principle was extended by Fournet to the metallization of rocks by contact with quartziferous porphyries, and to their felspathication and silicification by the contact of granite. “Since the theory of a central fire,” he observed, “has been confirmed by modern researches, all the great questions in the history of the globe appear suscep- N2 180 REPORT—1860. tible of a simple solution, and it is astonishing that chemists have not yet carried their views in this direction. From the moment that we consider the terrestrial globe as a mass of which the different parts have successively undergone the action of fire, we must also conceive, as a necessary conse- quence, a series of chemical phenomena, such as calcination, fusion, cemen- tation, &c.,” meaning by this latter term, the mutual molecular inter- penetration of bodies in contiguity, a process of which I shall presently have to offer a remarkable example. There was one mineralogical chemist, however, of high eminence, who had long before carried his views in the direction desired by Fournet. In 1823, Mitscherlich, having examined the forms, and analysed the ingredients, of forty crystalline products of furnaces *, to which Berthier had contributed several parallel results of experimental processes, pronounced them identical with various native minerals, and in particular with peridot, pyroxene, and mica. In the artificial mica, however, he found Lime, of which granitic mica scarcely contains a trace; and this led him to speculate on the cause of the chief chemical distinction between the granite and trap formations, consisting in the absence of calcareous and magnesian silicates from the former. Supposing, he argued, that the primary rocks were formed at that stage of the earth’s refrigeration when 4ths of its water were in a state of vapour, the pressure on every part of its surface, computed according to Laplace’s calculation of the mean depth of the sea, would be 225 atmo- spheres + ; but under such a weight the affinity of lime for silica would cease ; hence the crystals of uncombined silica in Carrara marble. The surmise has since been brought into evidence by an experiment of Petzholdt, in which pulverized quartz, heated to whiteness with an equal weight of carbonate of lime in an open vessel, was found to form a silicate with the lime, but produced no combination when heated in a strong, close vessel of iron. The crystallization of the primary rocks was supposed by the early Plutonic theorists to be due to slow cooling ; but this principle alone does not satisfy the phenomena. The crystalline structure of granite is seen, for example in Glen Tilt, at Shap Fell}, and elsewhere, to be equally uniform in its partial irruptions into the superior strata, as where it appears to be the foundation stone of the earth's crust; it has crystallized in its accustomed manner, where it has penetrated fissures of the upper beds in plates as thin as the leaves of a book and threads as fine as a hair, and even where it is involved in the in- vaded stratum so that no junction with any vein can be observed. How could it have been thus injected in a state of fusion, unless of the most liquid kind? and how could the heat of such liquidity, in a material of which the fusing-point is so high, be otherwise than rapidly cooled down? Furthermore, the quartz which forms su large a constituent of granite, has always the specific gravity of crystalline silica, which exceeds that of any other species of silica. But Deville and others have shown that fusion * Annales de Chimie, tom. xxiv. p. 258, 1824. Mitscherlich sur la production artificielle des minéraux crystallisés—“j’ai trouvé, 4 Fahlun, du silicate et bisilicate de protoxide de fer, 2 Garpenberg, du mica et du pyroxene, les mémes figures crystallines, et tous les autres caractéres des minéraux correspondans, le bisilicate de protoxide de fer et de chaux, de magnésie et de chaux, les trisilicates de chaux, de chanx et de manganése, le fer oxidé (fer- rosoferricum), le protoxide de cuivre, le deutoxide de cuivre, ]’oxide de zinc, les sulfures de fer, de zine, de plomb, l’arsénieure de nickel, &c. &c., et beaucoup d’autres substances en cristaux bien prononcées. t In Mitscherlich’s Mémoire, as printed in the ‘Annales de Chimie et de Physique,’ tome xxiv. pp. 372, 373, the atmospheres are stated as 2250, deduced from a mean depth of sea, 96,000 feet, with a cipher too much, that is, in both cases. ¢ I understand from Mr. Marshall that the ramified granite of Shap Fell is similarly crystallized with the rest of the rock, but finer grained. ON THE EFFECTS OF LONG-CONTINUED HEAT. 181 lowers this specific gravity to a constant amount, and that fused silica does not recover its density in cooling. Crystalline granite, as Delesse has shown, passes by fusion from the density of 2°62 to that of 2°32, and Egyptian porphyry from 2°76 to 2°48. . Again, the felspar in granite is encrusted by the quartz, the most fusible by the least fusible material, contrary to all experience of crystallization either from solution or fusion. Lastly, all the minerals of which granite is composed have been artificially produced, and their production has in every instance taken place at tempera- tures far below that of the fusing-point of that rock. ‘The first specimens of artificial felspar analysed by Karsten, and measured by Mitscherlich, were found in the lining of a copper furnace amongst a sublimate of zinc. Mitscherlich tried to obtain the like by fusing several pounds of native felspar in a porcelain furnace, and subjecting the mass to a process of slow cooling, but without success*. In the Mulden sinelting works, Cotta observed the walls of the furnace traversed, in the joints of its masonry, and in the cracks which it had undergone, by beautiful metallic veins, the sides exhibiting the _phenomena of impregnation and alteration as in the boundary walls of natural veins, and the ores consisting of galena, blende, iron and copper pyrites, purple copper, Fahl ore, native copper, &c. In like manner pyro- morphite (Pb’ P+4+4 Pb Cl), in well-formed six-sided prisms from the iron furnace at Asbach, was found attached to the stones of the masonry. There can be no doubt but that Karsten’s crystals of felspar, like these, were formed by gaseous sublimation; and an analogous process would account for the felspar observed by Haidinger in a basaltic cavity, under the form of Laumonite, and by Bischof in a porphyritic bed, in which a Trilobite also was found. A new view of the production of minerals has been opened by Ebelmen, who obtained the most refractory crystals of the granitic rocks, such as spinel, emerald, cymophane, and corundum, by segregation in the interior of a fused mass. They were formed at a heat far below that which would fuse either those crystals or granite, by means of the evaporation of a fusible and volatile medium. Gaudin also, on the same principle using a similar alkaline solvent, and substituting sulphuric for boracic and carbonic acids as the volatile ingredient, obtained the ruby. To the same category may be referred an experiment by Precht, who having added to a transparently fused frit, weighing 14 ewt., a considerable quantity of felspar, found, after cooling, that a large portion of this mineral had separated itself in foliated masses, and in several distinct crystals. The most important light, however, on this subject, especially in relation to metamorphic phenomena, is from the experiments cf Daubrée on the reaction of gaseous compounds upon various earthy bases. Conveying the chlorides of tin and titanium over lime at heats varying from 572° to 1652° Fahr., he produced crystals of tinstone and brookite; by variations of the same principle, at heats not exceeding redness, he obtained all the following mine- rals :—wollastonite, staurolite, peridote, disthene, willemite, idocrase, garnet, phenakite, emerald, euclase, corundum, zircon, periclase, spinel, augite, di- opside, gahnite, franklinite, hematite, felspar, and tourmaline in hexagonal prisms imbedded within crystals of guartz. The process was of this descrip- tion :—Chloride of aluminium, passed over lime at a red heat, produced corundum; chloride of siliciwm, passed in like manner over seven equiva- Jents of potash or soda and one of alumina, produced the different species of felspar : the latter named gas, decomposed by lime at the same heat, or * Mr. Marshall fused a large mass of granite, and cooling it slowly obtained no crystals. 182 REPORT—1860. by magnesia, alumina, or glucina, gave erystallized quartz in the usual form of the pyramidal hexagon, passing below into a silicate of the associated bases. ‘“ The most remarkable part,” as Daubrée has remarked, “ connected with these reactions, in a chemical, and especially a geological point of view, is that the silicium and the silicates thus produced have an extreme tendency to crystallize, and that the crystallization takes place at a temperature far below their points of fusion.” “* The manner,” he adds, “in which quartz and the silicates are connected with the granite rocks has long been a difficulty in all the hypotheses on the formation of the rocks called primitive. Now we find, in our experiments, that guartz crystallizes at the same time with, or even later than, the silicates at a temperature scarcely exceeding a cherry- red heat, and consequently infinitely below its point of fusion.” M. Daubrée disclaims the supposition that those rocks themselves were formed after the formula of his experiments. Nevertheless, considering the probability that formations at higher temperatures, now obliterated, may have preceded that of the granitic rocks, observing the uniform erystalliza- tion of granite in the tenuity of its ramifications, as well as in mass, and perceiving that Daubrée by his process has reproduced almost all the granitic minerals, and among them not only the felspar, but the crystalline quartz of granite,—it must be admitted that such a theory is worth attention. Durocher has added to Daubrée’s researches two capital experiments, of direct geological application, in obtaining the sulphides of the mineral veins by the reaction of sulphuretted hydrogen on the chlorides of the metals in a state of vapour, and in having effected the metamorphism of limestone into dolomite in an atmosphere of the vapour of chloride of magnesium. A theory of sublimation, however, may admit of many modifications, and may be combined with the principle of segregation illustrated in the experiments of Ebelmen. Deville and Caron, having fused bone phosphate at a red heat in excess of chloride and fluoride of calcium, found that lime apatite crystallized out in cooling, and was easily separated by washing from the soluble salts. In like manner, with different bases and different chlorides, they obtained the numerous varieties of apatite and wagnerite. And they observed further, that all these minerals became volatile at a slightly elevated temperature in the vapour of the chloride amidst which they were formed. Senarmont, pursuing another course, had applied a heat somewhat ex- ceeding 662° Fahr. toan aqueous solution of hydrochlorate of alumina, con- fined in a close tube, and thus decomposing it into its volatile and solid ingredients, obtained corundum, distinctly crystallized and mixed with diaspore, the same substance under a different form, and with different chemical properties, thus repeating in a remarkable manner that process by which the same minerals are found in nature similarly intermingled. He also succeeded in eliminating crystals of quartz from hydrate of silica by dissolving the hydrate in water charged with carbonic acid, and gradually raising the temperature of the tube which contained it to a heat of from 400° to 500° Fahr., and by analogous methods he obtained carbonates and sulphides identical with native minerals. In some of these experiments the process was so varied as to show that the separation of the anhydrous cry- stals was due to the gradual withdrawal of the dissolving gas. The hydrated © sesquioxide of iron, also heated in water of the temperature of 360° Fahr., was dehydrated, becoming magnetic. In an experiment by Wéhler, on the contrary, apophyllite dissolved in water at the same temperature, returned — on cooling to its original form, retaining its water of crystallization. To this class of discovery Daubrée has likewise added some valuable facts, having — obtained regular crystals of quartz, by decomposing, with the vapour of — water alone, the interior of a glass tube subjected to a low red heat ; at the ¥ 2 ON THE EFFECTS OF LONG-CONTINUED HEAT. 183 same time silicates were formed, hydrated or anhydrous, according to the degree of heat; when fragments of obsidian were inserted, crystals of Rhyacolite appeared ; and the silicated water of Plombiére being substituted for plain water, and kaolin for obsidian, crystals of diopside insinuated themselves into the silicated substance of the tube, and the kaolin was changed into a substance possessing felspathic characters. All these experiments are adverse to the idea that the primary rocks have undergone fusion. The best natural criterion, perhaps, of the temperature at which they were formed, was afforded by the discovery, in 1828, of a method of manufacturing wltramarine, based on Vauquelin’s identification of a furnace-product with the Lapis lazuli found in granite and in primitive limestone. In some specimens which I possess of the latter rock, this beautiful mineral may be seen enamelling with minute specks, and with perfect distinctness, within and without, all the plates of the calcareous erystals, which are here and there interspersed with small crystals of sulphate of lime. The heat at which the artificial ultramarine is made is that of red- ness. A lower temperature will not suffice to produce the colour, and a higher destroys it. We can now better understand how Hunterite, a white felspathic mineral containing 11°6 per cent. of water, can have been formed where it is found ; a hydrated silicate of alumina in the bosom of molten granite is an anomaly for which high pressure would scarcely account; but if the rock was at the temperature only of a low red heat, the formation of this mineral, and of the hydrated micas, will no longer appear a marvel. Other notices of ancient degrees of heat have been observed in the strata. In a cavity within a quartz crystal from Dauphiné, Davy founda viscous inflammable fluid in small quantity, in a perfect vacuum*. In the cavities of other quartz crystals he found water and rarefied air. Sorby, having determined the amount of rarefaction in one such from a bed of mica-slate, in which he detected many others, calculated the temperature of the crystal at the time of its formation to have been 320° Fahr. In one case Davy found evidence of pressure which had condensed the elastic fluid in a erystal of quartz, and Brewster observed the like in crystals of topaz. From a general review of the researches now detailed, the following infer- ences may be drawn :— 1. That all the consolidated strata, viewed chemically, bear marks of sub- jection to an action of heat agreeable to the theory of the earth’s refrigera- tion, in direct proportion to the age of their deposit ; and that they show that action most explicitly in the presence, throughout, but more abundantly as the series descends, of that peculiar form of silica which is chemically repro- duced by the action of heated volatile matter. 2. That the igneous minerals were formed by molecular aggregation, at a heat not exceeding, perhaps, that of an ordinary fire, either as a residuum from the expiration of fusible and volatile materials, or more generally as a deposit from volatile forms of matter. As there are two classes of eruptive rocks, the guartzose and unquartzose, so there are two classes of emanation which accompany them, and deposit earthy minerals, differing for each class, in the neighbouring strata. They generally mantle round the rock, and but seldom penetrate it; as if it had rather made room for them to rise, than as if they made part of its substance. Yet they bear a resemblance to the character of the rock which they follow. Thus the erystallized owide of silicon is the characteristic ingredient of granite * Rose quartz from granite, and cornelian from trap, are coloured by a carburet of hydro- gen; crystals of graphite also have been found in quartz; but as carbonic acid must have existed before plants could grow, these facts are no proofs of antecedent organic structure. 184 REPORT—1860. rocks; and the earthy minerals imbedded in the metamorphic strata around such rocks resemble quartz in being simple crystallized oxides,—innumerable gems, for instance, of the crystallized oxide of alumina—vast masses of the same, many tons in weight, in the form of emery, encysted in limestone which has been metamorphosed by rocks of granitic character,—still greater masses of crystalline sesquiowide of iron in similar relation to those rocks,— crystalline peroxide of tin shot through them into the strata above. In the eruptive rocks which followed the guartzose, these minerals, with almost all the quartz, died out, and were succeeded by others of a more complex nature appropriate to the porphyritic, trachytic, basaltic, and lavie eruptions. Yet all these, as well as the granitic, are attended by similar metalliferous veins, which grow very weak in the latest, but still show, at least as far as the eruption of the more ancient lavas*, a continued communica- tion with a common reservoir deeper seated than any of them. Davy saw the lava of Vesuvius issuing, as if forced up by elastic fluids, perfectly liquid, and nearly white-hot, its surface in violent agitation, with large bubbles rising from it, which emitted clouds of white smoke, consisting of common salt in great excess, much chloride of iron, and some sulphate of lime, accompanied with aqueous vapour, and with hydrochloric and sul- phurous acids. It contains also realgar and sulphide of copper, due pro- bably to the reaction of sulphuretted hydrogen on the chloride of the metal. In the early time of these eruptive emanations, when they escaped at many points with little interruption, the land rose only to low levels above the waters. As the crust of the earth grew more solid and weighty, and the vent was confined to fewer lines of shrinkage, the elastic elements of disturbance upheaved the incumbent beds with greater power, and the * Though the presence of quartz in lava has been denied, the following account of its coexistence with schorl in that of the valley of Maria in Lipari by Spallanzani shows that it does exist in ancient, perhaps basaitic, lavas, and strikingly illustrates the theory of its sub- limation, as here advanced. ‘‘ Among the lavas partly decomposed we find pumices and enamels containing felspars and scales of black schorls, and certain curious and beautiful objects, which derive their origin, in my opinion, from filtration. The lava is white and friable to a certain depth, of a petrosiliceous base, full of small cells and cavities, within which these objects make their appearance :—Tirst, minute crystals of schorl ; from the inside of these cells project very slender schorls, sometimes resembling minute chestnut bristles, sometimes a bunch, a plume, or a fan, to be ascribed to filtration after the hardening of the lava, since though it is common to find schorls in lavas, they are found incorporated within them, not detached as in this case. The second filtration has produced small guartzose crystals, and the manner of their distribution in prodigious numbers renders them a very singular phe- nomenon among volcanic objects. Wherever the lava is scabrous, wherever it has folds, sinuosities, cavities, or fissures, it is full of these crystallizations. The larger crystals extend to 34 lines, the greater part about 4a line. They consist of a hexagonal prism, infixed by the base into the lava, and terminated by a similar pyramid. Three crystals, among those I examined, were terminated by two pyramids, the prism being attached to the lava by a few points, and the prisms projecting out. The most regular are in small cavities, but not a few are on the surface of the lava. The Java, embellished with these, forms immense rocks and vast elevations hanging over the sea, which, whenever they are broken to a certain depth, are found to contain these crystals, with capillary schorls, not very numerous. I have in my possession a group of needle-formed crystals from Mont St. Gothard, within which are seven small prisms of black striated schorl. The same may be observed in these minute crystals. One of these was perforated from side to side by a needle of schorl, the two ends of which projected out. The tormation of these capillary schorls must have preceded that of the quartzose crystals; otherwise it is impossible to conceive how the former should have penetrated the substance of the latter. In remelting the lava in a furnace, the quartz crystals remained perfectly unaltered.” Spallanzani also states, that in this lava are garnets and chrysolites more refractory in the fire than the matrix ; and he adds that since Dolomieu’s visit to the adjoining stoves, when the whole ground on which they stood was saturated with hot vapours issuing everywhere from small openings an inch or two in diameter, at the time of his own visit these were reduced to one, exhaling some sulphur and encrusted with soft pyrites. — iT RWS ON THE EFFECTS OF LONG-CONTINUED HEAT. 185 mountain chains culminated to their utmost height. In the progress of re- frigeration the compressing and imprisoned forces became nearly balanced, and the residual predominance of the latter produces the phenomena of existing earthquakes and volcanoes. In the earlier periods, unmutilated skeletons, undisplaced scales, entire ink-bags, and florescent fronds, indicate conditions of nature which would now be called unnatural, a history of sudden death and speedy embalment, common, not to individuals only, but to generations and species. The pre- servation, in exquisite casts, of the most delicate organizations indicates a speedy but a tranquil entombment, which it would be difficult to refer to any other agency than that of gaseous emanation through the waters in which the plants and animals existed. Alcyonia and sponges, looking like recent specimens preserved in the places where they grew, point to a process of silicification, chiefly anhydrous, which anticipated decomposition. In the decreasing activity of internal heat and insalubrious emanations, we see the advancement of the physical and chemical conditions essential or advantageous to /ife; and with the progress of such conditions, favourable to the development of higher and higher forms of organization, we find a perfect correspondence in the natural history of organized fossils, and the increasing tones of the “ Diapason, closing full in Man.” From the theory of heat and the facts of geology, combined with physio- logical considerations, we learn that there was a definite era, in which the earth first became capable of supporting vegetable and animal life ; and we may account for the late appearance of man, by observing that there were no conditions adapted to the well-being and progress of human nature, till this state of things had yielded to a healthy atmosphere, a moderate heat, differentiated zones of life, stable forces, and a stationary standing ground. {In the rudimental ages of the earth we behold an ever-changing scene of new and fitful conditions passing in rapid succession. Through all the stages of its existence previous to the present uniformity, so favourable to the exercise of reason and the freedom of will and action, we see force gradually subsiding, and the time allowed to life expanded into a wider liberality. Our ideas of its duration, as compared with indefinite ages, are equally limited with our view of its magnitude, in comparison with space or matter ; we can find in geological data no chronology but that of priority; the fossil records even of its unconsolidated beds have not yet supplied us with the key of the cypher which should connect geology with human history. If ever we come to know the age of the primary rocks, or of the protozoic strata, it can only be by combining physical data with the experimental reproduction of granite, and a knowledge of the heat which the lowest organisms can bear, and live. Since Hall first applied chemistry to the service of geology, few attempts have been made in this country to pursue the path which he opened. In 1833 the British Association entrusted to a commission, consisting of Prof. Sedgwick, Dr Daubeny, the late Dr. Turner,and myself, the task of illustrating geological phenomena by experiments which it was hoped might have thrown light on some of the subjects discussed in this Report. Disappointed of the greater part of the fruit of these experiments, I yet believe that the few results which I now lay on the table of the Section will not prove devoid of interest, especially as evidence of the low temperature at which bodies scarcely reputed volatile are capable of being sublimed. The iron furnaces of Yorkshire having been selected as furnishing the best field for these experiments, it fell to my lot to conduct them. Every facility was afforded me by the zeal and liberality of the proprietors and managers of two furnaces, one of which at Elsicar, belonging to the late Earl _ Fitzwilliam, and managed by Mr. H. Hartop, worked for a period of five 186 REPORT—1860. years; the other at Low Moor, belonging to Messrs. Wickham and Hardy, pro- longed its unintermitting blast for fifteen years. The materials fur the experi- ments, in addition to those which I was myself able to supply, were provided partly by a grant from the Association, partly by an extensive donation of minerals and fossils from the stores of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society. Professor Phillips also, who was then in charge of that Society’s Museum, lent me his valuable assistance. The object kept in view, in devising experiments of so long a duration, was to subject the greatest possible variety of materials to the greatest possible variety of conditions, such as it might be presumed had formed, or altered, rocks, minerals, and mineralized organic remains. These were arranged in numerous crucibles, upright and inverted, and within two strong tripartite boxes of deal bound with iron thongs; one of these was stored with large blocks and copious powders of granite, basalt, limestone, grit, and shale, with whole and pounded minerals of every kind, hydrates and anhydrates, the ingredients of a great variety of minerals com- pounded in proper proportions, all the different salts and elements calculated to react upon them, with almost every metal adapted to form veins or to re- gister heat ; the other contained organic substances, fossil and recent plants, shells, corals, reptiles, and bones, disposed in clay, sand, chalk, marble, gypsum, fluor, sulphates, muriates and other salts of soda and potash which might dis- engage volatile elements by their mutual action, to react on fixed constituents. At the Elsicar furnace I was allowed, whilst it was being built, to insert crucibles in the back of the masonry in immediate contiguity with the body of melted iron. At Low Moor it was agreed to place boxes filled with cruci- bles and materials under the bottom stone, before the furnace was built. This stone, consisting of millstone grit, 15 inches thick, though it gradually wears hollow in the centre, retains the iron fused upon it usually for fourteen or fifteen years, without being materially impaired. In its crevices are often found the beautiful cubic crystals of nitrocyanide of titanium, first brought into notice by Dr. Buckland. In this situation the temperature to which the contents of the boxes would be exposed could not be exactly foreseen. It was presumed that in the centre it would be near to the melting-point of cast iron. It will be seen by refer- ence to Plates IV. and V., which give a section and plan of the furnace, that the boxes did not occupy the whole space beneath the bottom stone. It oc- curred to me therefore, when these had been placed in position on a bed of sand, covered with the same material, and built up with fire brick, to deposit round them in asimilar bed of sand, and enclose in like manner within walls of brick, lumps of various metals, and of granite, sandstone, fossiliferous shale, and limestone. From these supplementary experiments are derived the most interesting of the results which I have to describe. For when at the expiration of fifteen years the furnace was blown out, I found nothing left of the boxes but the iron straps with which they were bound, in a state of oxidation ; a few crucibles and portions of crucibles only had survived the general wreck of their contents ; granites, basalts, limestone, choice minerals, measured pieces, weighed powders and compositions, had disappeared ; all the exactness with which Professor Phillips had arranged for identifying the altered substances by their position and by comparison with reserved specimens, was lost labour. Nor did I find the deposits in the Elsicar furnace, at the end of five years, to have fared any better. From all these carefully devised experiments I can produce but two worthy of notice. One of them exhibits the conversion of river sand into sandstone, with a vacuity in its axis left by the volatilization of arecent plant, The stone has considerable tenacity, and came out of the . a a ON THE EFFECTS OF LONG-CONTINUED HEAT. 187 erucible, with no adhesion to its sides, a perfect cast; no salt had been added to it, nor is any separable from it by boiling. The close cohesion of the grains of sand by the action of heat may have been facilitated by the inter- mixture of some impurities, referable to oxide of iron, and possibly to felspar. The only vestige of the plant is a skin of silica on the surface of the place which it occupied in the interior of the sand, coating the vacancy, but not furnishing an impression from which the character of the plant can be re- covered. ‘The stone showed signs of splitting from shrinkage in an oblique, or nearly vertical direction, a tendency which might probably have been more conspicuous had the experiment been on a larger scale. The other specimen is a translucent mineral of a pure blwe colour. This colour it does not lose when heated red-hot in the outer flame of a candle. Melted into a bead with carbonate of soda, it passes into a pure opake white ; the same also with a small proportion of borax; when the proportion of the borax is increased, the bead is transparent and colourless; dissolved in hydrochloric acid, the mineral loses its colour. The solution contains much sulphate of lime, and some silica and alumina, whether potash also, or soda, I have not determined ; tested with prussiate of potash, it shows no trace of copper; and none, or scarcely any, of iron. This substance therefore belongs to the class of minerals of which Lapis lazuli and Haiiyne are varieties. It has been formed irregularly under a thin crust of sand to which it adheres, is ini- bedded in sulphate, sulphide, and carbonate of lime, and accompanied with erystallized fluoride of lime. Whether this fluoride is a recomposition, or part only of the original mixture from which the blue mineral has been derived, I cannot say. The erucible certainly contained pounded fluor, and a sulphate, which underwent decomposition, and partially decomposed the fluoric crystals. But the objects to which I have alluded as possessing a new and unexpected interest, are the metals above mentioned as having been supplementarily placed, outside the boxes, under the bottom stone of the Low Moor furnace. The specimens consisted, originally, of pieces, of which chromographie plates have been appended to this Report, cut from a bar of zine, a block of tin, a pig of /ead, and a plate of tile-copper. They occupied, severally, the places marked in the accompanying ground plan of the furnace, 1, 2, 3, 4, as numbered at the time of the deposit. It will be seen that none of these pieces have undergone fusion, that of which the melting-point is lowest (the block tin) preserving perfectly its dimensions, the exact shape into which it was cut, and the sharp edges of the cutting. ‘The external coat of the tin, to the depth of from 1th to ith of an inch, is converted into deutoxide, crystalline, transparent, and of the same specific gravity as the native ore; between this and the metal, intervenes in some parts a space, which, with the striation of the metallic surface, indicates that a portion of the substance has been dissipated. Of the bar-zinc, more than half has been changed, though it preserves its original form, into a mass of crystalline oxide, interspersed with globules of the metal, burrowed in all directions with drusy cells and cavities, and showing extensive sublimation into the indurated sand which envelopes it. The nature of the sublimation is manifested by a number of prismatic spicula of metallic zine, about 4th of an inch long, standing within the cavities. But that which is chiefly remarkable is the tile-copper, in respect both to the temperature at which it has been volatilized, and the combination and interpenetration which its molecules, in a volatile state, have effected with its nearest neighbour, the dead. I have caused a drawing to be made of these specimens in their relative positions, as they lay in proximity to, but not touching, each other, having a portion of sand interposed. 188 REPORT—1860. It will be seen that a very considerable portion of the copper plate has been dissipated, that the surface has been sweated down, and in some parts the whole substance has evaporated away. Bright crystals of red oxide of copper line the wasted surface, which is also covered above with a coat, ith of an inch thick, of mixed crystalline oxides of copper and lead; and in the hollow which the dissipation of the metal has left between it and the indurated sand, is a sublimate consisting of fine twisted coherent threads of metallic copper, like those met with in mines and slags. Where nearest to the lead, it has so intermixed its exhalations with those proceeding from that metal as to have spread over the upper leaden surface a coating of green crystals, consisting of a double oxide of copper and lead. Beneath, and round the lead, at its contact with the sand (which below has penetrated its sub- stance without altering its form), runs a pink skin, marking the path of the red oxide of copper. I cut the lump of lead in half, and found it not only traversed in the middle by a seam of mixed oxide, but, what was still more remarkable, dotted with spots of metallic copper, which had found their way to the very centre of the mass, and even reached the opposite side. That it was the metal in this case, as in that of the zinc, which became volatile, and was subsequently deposited in the form of specks and filaments of copper in some places, and combining with oxygen, as a crystallized oxide in others, cannot be doubted. To attribute these effects to thermal electricity would not be consistent with the facts; for there was here no contact, and no circuit. The penetration of the lead by the molecules of copper may be called Cementation, and be supposed to be due to capillary attraction of pores distended by heat acting on the volatile particles. But the surprising part of the result is, that the sublimation of copper by heat should have taken place at so low a temperature. These four metals, in close proximity, and all acted upon in the same manner, were their own mutual thermometers. It was impossible that the heat to which the copper plate, as a whole, had been subject could have been higher than the melting- point of the unfused lead and tin. I can attribute this unexpected fact to no other cause than the continual and protracted passage of hot currents of air and vapour, mingled perhaps with carbonaceous gas from the neigh- bouring wooden boxes*; and it seems probable that if the central portion of the bottom stone had withstood to the end the action of the furnace, or if the buried boxes had been protected with a vault of brick, more light might have been thrown on the transfer of molecules at moderate tempera- tures by similar effects produced on other materials. I owe an apology for having delayed this Report much longer than I should have done, had the bulk of the experiments been attended with better success. I have been reminded of them by the design of a member of the Association to institute some of a similar character with the added conditions of pressure and steam. Whoever should now undertake such experiments would conduct them on the vantage ground of the later researches which I have here noticed, and might obtain results of high interest to geological and chemical science. It may be doubted whether heat protracted through many years, or even extraordinary pressure, may be essential elements of such results. The unintermitted presence of volatile materials, for a considerable time, passing over and dwelling among those of greater fixity at temperatures mounting up to a red heat, may be the only needful condition; and if a fur- * Tf I am right in believing that an oolitic Echinus, Pecten, and Coral, and an Ammonite from the Lias, which I recovered from the furnace, are those marked in the Plan with the Nos. 8, 9, 10, then, as these were reduced to alkalinity, though without change of form or markings, it would follow that the carbonic acid under the same circumstances separates from lime at an equally low temperature of the mass, under the partial action of hot currents. ON THE EFFECTS OF LONG-CONTINUED HEAT. 189 nace were appropriated to this object, it is not difficult to conceive a con- struction and application of it which would fulfil such a requirement. If any one could succeed in effecting the synthesis of pseuwdomorphic crystals, or of granites and porphyries, he would certainly perform a great service to chemical geology. In the first of these subjects of experiment success is scarcely to be looked for, except in the metamorphic action of heated volatile agents. It is possible that granite also, and porphyry, might be formed by a process of volatilization ; or they might perhaps be produced as a residual igneous crystallization out of a mass, of which the flux had been removed from the denser substances by sublimation, solution, or pressure. It should appear that the production of marble is also a problem still un- determined. Rose has expressed an opinion, founded on his own ex- periments, that the solid substance which Sir J. Hall obtained, by igniting chalk under a pressure that prevented the extrication of the carbonic gas, cannot have been marble. Possibly the presence of an excess of the acid may be an additional requisite to the production of a perfect specimen. Since this Report was drawn up, I have seen a memoir by M. Daubrée* which contains a very able and complete exposition of the progress of geological chemistry. His observations on the deposit of zeolitic crystals and other minerals discovered in the interstices of the old Roman brick- work and concrete at Plombiéres}, which have undergone the action of sili- cated waters springing from the earth at a temperature not, now at least, exceeding 158° F., seem to have solved the problem of the deposit of such erystals and minerals in the vesicles of basaltic rocks, and to have proved them to be due to aqueous infiltration whilst the rock was still hot. His views on the formation of another class of minerals, and the origin of the granitic and other early rocks, seem to be not equally satisfactory. To these he has been led by his own late experiments on the effect of aqueous vapour in decomposing obsidian and glass. He propounds, with the difftidence, however, which belongs to a hypothetical speculation, a theory to the following effect—that in a primeval state of the earth, when the heat now known to exist in its interior extended to the surface, as that surface cooled. down to a certain point, the red-hot obsidian, or silicated glass, of its first coat was decomposed by water condensed from a state of vapour, under great pressure, at a red heat; thus the quartziferous rocks were formed, at first as a plastic sponge, and when the water had evaporated as granite, the schist and slates immediately superincumbent upon it being the residuary product of the mother-waters. But this speculation is open to grave objections. What principle of solidification, it may be asked, capable of compacting graaite, is included in a process of disintegration? What has become of the silicates involved in it, to which we might look for such solidification, but whieh are absent from granite? The mother-waters which it supposes are incapable of dif- fusing the peculiar minerals encysted in the proximity of granitic rocks even to the distance of thousands of feet. No less unaccountable would be the absence of all the zeolitic and opaline substances that might have been expected. Everything tends to show that whatever the power of this process may be, it must be confined, at least, to the lavas, basalts, and trachytes. That heated water has been so universal a solvent as M. Daubrée supposes, is rendered very improbable by a circumstance noticed by Cagniard de Latour in his celebrated experiments on vapour highly heated and com- * Etudes et expériences synthétiques sur le métamorphisme et sur la formation des roches erystallines, 1860. T The presence of fluorine in the apophyllite of Plombiéres is remarkable, the more be- cause Vauquelin analysed the waters with the express object of detecting this constituent, and denied its supposed existence in them. 190 REPORT—1860, pressed. In one of these, the addition of a crystal or two of chlorate of potash to water at the temperature of 648° F., proved sufficient to prevent any action of the aqueous vapour on the glass ; so easily was it saturated by the presence of a more soluble material. Neither is it at all probable that any stratum which can be supposed to have preceded granite under extraordinary conditions of heat and pressure, can have resembled in any degree obsidian or glass) M. Daubrée takes the vapour expansion of the ocean over the globe as equivalent to a pressure of 250 atmospheres, somewhat exceeding Mitscherlich’s supposition before quoted. On this pressure Mitscherlich, as has been said, sagaciously re- marked, that it would probably materially modify the chemical affinities of bodies, and prevent the formation of silicate of lime. His anticipation has been experimentally verified; and an equally remarkable instance of the same principle has been lately observed by Mr. Gore, who has found, on immersing some fifty substances in carbonic acid liquefied by pressure, that in that state it is chemically inert, to such a degree as not to dissolve oxygen salts. In these cases it should seem that pressure favours homogeneous, or simple, at the expense of heterogeneous, or complex, attractions ; and there is all the less reason for admitting M. Daubrée’s supposition, that obsidian, or any vitreous silicates, preceded the granitic rocks. We may carry these ideas further ; we may extend our speculations from the heat and weight of a vaporized sea to the gaseous system of Laplace, and the ultimate atoms of Newton. ‘Then, as the heat by degrees radiated into space, and as the repulsive force yielded to the forces of attraction, the first compounds would be of the simplest order,—water, and hydrochloric acid,—the chlorides of potassium, sodium, silicon, and aluminium, the oxides of magnesium and calcium, with others of a like class. Here we have both the materials of the sea, and of the primary crust of the earth; and at the same time all the power of consolidation which free crystalline force and enormous pressure can give to materials indisposed by that pressure to enter into complicated combination. In contemplating the origin of granite, it is not, however, competent to us to regard it as a fundamental rock only, since it preserves the same erystalline character under various conditions of heat and pressure. But we must remember that the gaseous theory which we are imagining implies a residue, in an internal gasometer, of similar primary compounds confined in a highly heated, condensed, and elastic state at no great distance under our feet, from the sudden or gradual evolution of which it is not difficult to conceive that all the eruptive rocks and veins, and many of the pheno- mena of consolidation in the sedimentary strata, may be accounted for. Every rock of eruption, and every mineral vein, which has shot up into the strata, indicates such an origin. The porphyries, trachytes, basalts, and lavas are essentially chemical and erystalline compounds. They differ from the quart- ziferous rocks only in this, that the chief part of the siliceous ingredients which characterize the latter having been antecedently used up, the greater fusi- bility of the former has more or less obliterated their crystalline structure. In these speculations it matters not from what source we suppose the heat of the earth to have been derived. Perhaps, a law of gravity, together with the other forces of attraction, imposed on the ultimate particles of matter, may account for all the heat which is, or has been inthe world. In any case, the most probable inductive conclusion from our knowledge of the earth’s heat, and the phenomena of eruption, with the light thrown on the production of minerals by Daubrée’s first sertes of experiments, and those of Durocher, appears to be, that mineral veins and eruptive rocks are the result of gaseous combinations and reactions. As regards mineral —— 43> ee oe ee ee ee ee > De a eran nei ON THE EFFECTS OF LONG-CONTINUED HEAT. 191 veins, this, I believe, is the opinion of most observers. But we see the same metamorphic effects which are produced by them, equally produced by the presence of any eruptive rock. If a stratum of limestone be invaded, and a portion of it included in the invading substance, that portion is not unfre- quently impregnated with magnesia and converted into dolomite, equally by a mineral vein or a granitic rock. The advantages which this theory possesses over any that have yet pre- sented themselves, are that it accounts for all the following phenomena :— 1. The characteristic structures of granite, and of gneiss and mica-slate,— which may be compared to the deposits of graphite in gas-retorts, solid where the carburetted gas aggregates its decomposed molecules of carbon in confinement, but faliated and quasi-stratified, where the gas chances to escape through cracks in the retort into the more open chamber of brick-work ;— 2. The perfect uniformity of crystalline texture in granite, whether deep or superficial, in thin veins or solid masses, showing that neither great pressure nor slow cooliug have been essential conditions of its crystallization ;— 3. The wide diffusion of zones or atmospheres round the eruptive, and especially the granitic rocks, of mineral substances, and metamorphic effects, a phenomenon which, together with that of the filling up of mineral veins from below, is not accounted for by any other theory ;— 4. The metalliferous and quartziferous impregnations of the sedimentary strata. If, with Cordier, we divide the eruptive rocks into the guartzose (which correspond to the granites and earliest porphyries) ; and the wnquartzose, comprehending the fe/spathic (which correspond to the later porphyries and trachytes) ; with the pyroxenic (which correspond to the basalts and lavas) ; and if we consider all these as originating from gases, accompanied by aqueous vapour,—then the phenomena show the amount of such vapour present in the guartzose formations to have been almost infinitesimal, whilst that which attended some parts of the pyrowxenic formations was con- siderable. As regards the sedimentary siliciterous rocks, they show, in the semiopaline, semiquartzose composition of the siliceous beds, the action of anhydrous gas, aided by aqueous vapour. Aqueous vapour acts on silicates only at a heat approaching redness, and conveys no silica. Chloride of silicon would carry silica, and would diffuse it at a much lower heat, since it boils at a temperature below 140° F. Connected with the preceding speculations the following remarks may deserve attention. There is a singular resemblance of mineral and erystal- line constitution between the pyrozenic rocks and meteoric stones,—a re- semblance, in fact, so close as to indicate a similar mode of production out of the same materials. The late optico-chemical discoveries of Bunsen and Kirchhoff have shown, with a great degree of probability, that molecules of tron, nickel, and magnesium abound in the solar atmosphere; should the progress of those discoveries add silicon to this list, we have here again the chief materials, both of meteorolites and of pyroxenic rocks. In any ease, whether we suppose the meteorite to have been contemporaneous with the earth, or to be ejected from the moon, or emitted from the sun, our thoughts are led back to a time when the whole solar system consisted of the same ultimate atoms, and are confirmed in the opinion that the meteorites and the fundamental rocks of the earth have undergone similar processes of mole- cular and erystalline combination, the vitreous coat of the meteorite, and the vitreous character of the later lavas, being due also to the same causes :— Ist, to the fusibility of the material; 2ndly, toa more intense heat generated by a nearer proximity to an oxidating atmosphere; 3rdly, to a more rapid rate of cvoling. 192 REPORT—1860. What our views, however, of the original constitution of matter may be, is a point of less consequence than what are the conclusions in geology to which we are conducted by observation and experiment. The general con- clusions to be drawn from the foregoing researches seem to be these :— That no theory of the earth consists with the phenomena, which does not take into account a heat of the surface once amounting to redness ;—that the most prominent chemical and crystalline compounds which laid the base- ment of the earth’s crust, and continued to penetrate it, as far as into the tertiary strata, have disappeared in the present eruptive system ;—that the nature, force, and progress of the past conditions of the earth cannot be measured by its existing conditions ;—that to deduce accurate inferences in the sciences of observation, the attention requires to be directed less to gene- ral analogies than to specific and essential distinctions. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. PLATES IV. & V. Section, and Plan, of the furnace in which the deposits lay for 15 years, the number of each deposit, external to the boxes, being marked on the plan. PLATE VI. Fig. 1 (Plan No.4). Tile copper 5 in. X 2} in. X 3 in, coated with laminz of dark, red, crystallized oxide of copper, alternating with white and yellow crystallized prot- oxide of lead, and with a pink intermixture of crystallized oxides of copper and lead covered with sand indurated, but not vitrified, by protoxide of lead. a. Twisted filaments of metallic copper. 6. Crystals of red oxide. bb. Lamine of crystallized red oxide of copper alternating with protoxide of lead, and mixture of oxides of lead and copper. c. Particles of metallic copper. ec. Golden metalline spot. Fig. 2 (Plan No. 3). Pig lead, 4} in. x 3} in. X 2} in, View of upper surface, show- ing green and yellow double oxides of lead and copper, with spots of metallic copper. d. Cavity from which lead has sublimed. e. Spots of metallic copper. f. Double oxides of lead and copper. PLATE VII. Fig. 3 (Plan No. 3). Pig lead, vertical section, showing exterior and interior seams of mixed oxides of lead and copper, green, yellow, and red, with spots of me- tallic copper. g. Red oxide of copper between lead and indurated sand. h. Spots of metallic copper in the interior of the lead. i. Oxide of copper and lead. kk, Lead hardened by disseminated oxide. Fig. 4 (Plan No.4). Enlarged section of part of fig. 1, showing threads of metallic copper. Nie. 5 (Plan No.4). Part of fig. 1; enlarged view of pink mixture of crystallized oxides of copper and lead, with spots and threads of metallic copper. PLATE VIII. Fig. 6 (Plan No, 2), Block tin, 3 in. X 2 in. X 1 in., with a coat of transparent cry- stallized deutoxide from } in. to 4inch thick, 1. Striated surface of metal beneath oxide. m. Crystals of deutoxide, transparent and colourless. : Fig. 7 (Plan No. 1). Zine bar, in indurated sand, fractured, showing a surface partly metallic, partly crystalline. n. Spiculz of sublimed metal. o. Seam of metal. Fig. 8 (Plan No.1). Showing cavernous face of oxide of zinc with crystals of do. p. Cupped hollows set with crystals of oxide of zinc, out of which globules of metal have sublimed. Bottem Stone 16 inches thack Dara Tar i ie TO 7 aq7ia wae en a ores | D ‘ a od s nt th ara yin Me, REFERENCES. cies Iron rests upon the bottom Stone in the space < feet 4inches in the Section and the blast 1s introduced at the small Grclein D° The rigures tronv 1 te 23 on the Ground Plan represent the order and situation of the Deposits made in the cavity “on the outside of the Boxes. Lhe black tines in the centre of the Ground Plan repre - "sent the two Boxes whose two sides meet exactly tn the centre of the Furnace. e letters GR.B.C.D, agree with those marked on the Bocces. N° L. Zine bar. 2. Coral tn Coral Rag, Tie how Moor Pig Trow. ; 2 Block Tin. ih = Jo. Lecten in Malton Oolite. 18. Septarium. " 4 3. Lig lead. plates Al. Coral, recent . 19. Flagstone : 4. Tile Copper.| -7-8. LR. halk, 20. Granite . 5. Lit Shale trom Black Ironstone. 13. N° 11,395. 2L. dnamonite trv Lias . 6. Black Ball Zronstone. 4. Whale Vertebrx. 2%. Basalt. 7. Jet. Ls Blue linestone with Shells, 23. Granite Yorks Streets 8. Echirats in Malton Ovlite. 16. Magnesian Lanesterve . ia l f Ground Plan of the furnace . Opening where the Blast is introduced Bottom Stone L6 tnehes thick. Ts Front Arch where the Furnace ts worked. ae ra Ss Pe Fas 2. ee ae +e at » oe > . + Oe tes : » 2 Aw wick j ba 3° “ae. Bf Foe es * ; Cr ee “ 7" RIOTS om * "y 2 e Pas © (Plan V°4 : (Plan V?3.) Fig 4& Plan Ni 4) hig 3 (Plan Fig. 7. (Plan N71) fig. 6. (Plan ¥* 2) Fig. 8. (Plan N’1) ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 193 Second Report of the Committee on Steam-ship Performance. CONTENTS, Report. ’ Appendix No. I.—Table 1. Table showing the results of performances at sea and on the measured mile, of 17 vessels of the Royal Navy, of 22 vessels in the Merchant Service, and of two vessels of the United States Navy, together with the particulars of their machinery. Table 2. Return of the results of performances of 49 vessels in the service of the Messageries Impériales of France during the year 1858. Appendix No. II.—Table 1. Quarterly returns of the speed and consumption of coal of the London and North-Western Company’s express and cargo boats, under regulated conditions of time, pressure, and expansion; from January 1 to De- cember 31, 1859. Table 2. Half-yearly verifications of consumption of coal of the above vessels, from January 1 to December 31, 1859. Appendix No. ITI.—No. 1. Form of Log-book used by the Royal Mail Company. No. 2. Form of Log-book used by the Pacific Steam Navigation Company. No. 3. Form of Engineer’s log used by the Peninsular and Oriental Company, No. 4. The Admiralty Form for recording the trial performances of Her Majesty's steam-vessels. No. 5. Board of Trade Form of Surveyor’s Return of Capabilities. Appendix No. IV.—Table 1. Showing the ratio between the indicated horse-power and the grate, the tube, the other heating, and total heating surfaces; also, between the grate and heating surfaces, and between the indicated horse-power and the coal consumed, Appendix No. V. Letter from Mr. Archbold, Engineer-in-Chief, United States Navy. Description of the hull, engines, and boilers of the United States Steam Sloop ‘Wyoming’. Table 1. Return of performance of the ‘ Wyoming’ under steam alone. Table 2. Return of performance of the ‘Wyoming’ under steam and sail combined. Table showing the trial performances of the steam-vessels ‘Lima’ and ‘ Bogota’ when fitted with single cylinder engines, and after being refitted with double cylinder engines. Also the sea performances of the same vessels under both these conditions of machinery and on the same sea service. Report. Ar the Meeting of the British Association, held in Aberdeen in September, 1859, this Committee was re-appointed in these terms :— “That the following Members be requested to act as a Committee to con- tinue the inquiry into the performance of steam-yessels, to embody the facts in the form now reported to the Association, and to report proceedings to the next meeting. “That the attention of the Committee be also directed to the obtaining of information respecting the performance of vessels under sail, with a view to comparing the results of the two powers of wind and steam, in order to their most effective and economical combination. “That the sum of £150 be placed at the disposal of the Committee for these purposes.” The following gentlemen were nominated to serve on the Committee :— Vice-Admiral Moorsom. William Smith, C.E. The Marquis of Stafford, M.P. J. E. M¢Connell, C.E. The Earl of Caithness. Charles Atherton, C.E. The Lord Dufferin. Professor Rankine, LL.D. William Fairbairn, F.R.S. J. R. Napier, C.E. J. Seott Russell, F.R.S. Richard Roberts, C.E. Admiral Paris, C.B. Henry Wright, Hon. See. The Hon. Capt. Egerton, R.N. 1860. o 194 REFORT—1860. Your Committee, having re-elected Admiral Moorsom to be their Chair- man, beg leave to present the following Report :— They have held monthly meetings, with intermediate meetings of sub- Committees appointed to carry out in detail matters referred to them by the General Committee. The Committee regret that they were deprived of the services of one of their members, Mr. Charles Atherton, at an early stage of the present inquiry, his public duties preventing his attending. They have been assisted by Corresponding Members ; noblemen and gentle- men, who, not being members of your Association, were not, by its rules, eligible as members of your Committee. Some of them, however, being owners of steam yachts, and others intimately acquainted with all matters relating to steam shipping, their cooperation was considered very essential, as introducing to the Committee gentlemen, not only capable of dealing with the subjects of this inquiry, but who also had it in their power to place in the hands of the Committee, materials, which, it is confidently hoped, will eventually lead to a correct and scientific knowledge of the laws governing economic Steam-Ship Performance. The Corresponding Members so elected were :— Lord Clarence Paget, M.P., C.B., &e. | Capt. William Moorsom, R.N. (since Lord Alfred Paget, M.P. deceased). Lord John Hay, M.P. Mr. John Elder. The Hon. L. Agar Ellis, M.P. Mr. David Rowan. The Earl of Gifford, M.P. Mr. J. E. Churchward. The Marquis of Hartington, M.P. Mr. Thomas Steele. Viscount Hill. It will be within the recollection of the Association that the labours of this Committee last year were almost exclusively devoted to explaining to the various shipping companies and others with whom they were in correspond- ence, the objects proposed, and suggesting such forms as, if accurately filled in, would accomplish the purposes contemplated by the British Association. Log-books were prepared, and copies furnished to the leading Steam Packet Companies. At their first meeting the Committee took into consideration the manner in which the grant of money placed at their disposal by the Association could be most judiciously applied, and after mature consideration it was unani- mously resolved :— “That to procure information from shipbuilders and engineers, it is found to be indispensable to hold personal intercourse with them, without which little progress is likely to be made.” The Honorary Secretary was accordingly deputed to wait upon the prin- cipal Shipbuilders, Engineers, and Steam Shipping Companies in London and its vicinity, to explain the objects of the Committee, and to solicit their cooperation by furnishing the Committee with authenticated returns of the sea performances of vessels, as well as of their trial trips. In this your Committee are happy to report that they have succeeded. All to whom application was made expressed concurrence in the objects of your Committee, and their willingness to render every information in their power. The great difficulty was to make a suitable selection of vessels as examples of ordinary performance in the mercantile navy. Press of business, and perhaps want of thoroughly understanding the aims of the Committee, induced them to throw the whole labour of making these returns upon the Committee. The log-books for a number of years, and any documents the Committee desired to see, were freely placed at their service; but the time required to ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 195 wade through the masses of logs, together with the fact of the Association _ meeting this year nearly three months earlier than usual, rendered it imprac- _ ticable for more than a limited amount of work to be got through. It was therefore determined to make a selection of certain vessels, and to endeavour, as far as possible, to render complete the record of a few. Your Committee at the same time communicated with the Admiralty, with a view of instituting a similar comparison between the trial trips and ordinary performances of Her Majesty's vessels at sea. They much regret that they have not been able to obtain the latter. The Lords Commissioners, however, very courteously entrusted the Committee with the original returns of Her Majesty’s vessels during the years 1857, 1858, and 1859, as furnished by the officers who conducted such trials, with permission to copy and make any use they thought fit of the information they contained. Diagrams of the engines taken on the trials during the year 1859 were also furnished. ' Your Committee must remark with regard to these trial performances, that they do not appear to be instituted with any other view than as a trial of the working of the engines, excepting in a few instances, when experiments have been made to test the merits of certain screws. In very numerous cases, the officer distinctly reports that the boiler power is insufficient. The speed may or may not be taken at the convenience of the officers, but in no case : : any note taken of the economical efficiency of the engines with regard to uel. As your Committee are restricted to a record of facts, it is out of place __ here to suggest changes in the mode of conducting the trials of Her Majesty’s _ ships. The Committee would, however, fail in their duty if they did not avail themselves of this occasion to repeat their conviction, as expressed in their last Report,—“ That it would tend to the advancement of science, the im- provement of both vessels and engines, and to the great advantage of Her Majesty’s service, if the trials of the Queen’s ships were conducted ona more comprehensive plan, directed to definite objects of practical utility on a scientific basis, and recorded in a uniform manner.” In addition to the vessels of the British Royal and Mercantile Navies, your Committee have great pleasure in being enabled to lay before the British Association a return of forty-nine vessels in the service of the Messageries _ Impériales of France, obligingly furnished by a member of the Committee, Admiral Paris, and recorded in the form used by that Company ; also, of __ two vessels belonging to the United States Navy, the particulars of which have been extracted from the second volume of Mr. Isherwood’s recent __ publication, entitled “ Engineering Precedents.” They have been introduced _ into the Tables (see Appendix, Table I.). While this Report was preparing, the Committee were gratified by receiv- ing from Mr. Archbold, Engineer-in-Chief, United States Navy, two sets of tabulated returns of performance of the United States steam sloop of war _* Wyoming,’ under steam alone, and under steam and sail. ___These returns are of peculiar value, as comprising particulars in a form which the Committee believe has never yet been published. Along with the _ data afforded by Mr. Isherwood’s book, they give the area of sail spread and _ the force of wind by notation, together with other particulars, useful for _ caleulations of results and for comparisons. _ These Tables are contained in the Appendix, with Mr. Archbold’s letter, and a description of the hull, engines, and boilers of the ‘ Wyoming.’ The returns furnished by the British Admiralty embrace 216 vessels and _ $53 trials, with about 900 diagrams. For the same reason as above stated, in o2 — ere CU ————————— ‘© os ee agen fd Pe paneer Or ot ales) a 196 REPORT—1860. case of merchant vessels your Committee were obliged to make a selection, and to endeavour, for the purposes of the present Report, to obtain a complete record of a few, in the form suggested by the Committee. With this view, application was again made to the Admiralty, asking for the additional parti- culars not embraced in the returns of trial performances already furnished, and stating that their Lordships were, of course, aware that the particulars given in those documents were of comparatively small value without others of the vessels, their engines, screws, and boilers. The Committee added that they were in possession of such full particulars from both companies and private firms, and they trusted also to be favoured with similar information from the Admiralty. To this communication, the Lords Commissioners re- plied that they regretted they could not at present supply the information desired; but they would be glad to receive a copy of the reports obtained from companies and private firms. Your Committee thereupon constructed a Table embracing the particulars of merchant vessels (Appendix I., Table 1), and also a blank table filled in with the names of Her Majesty’s vessels, selected as before mentioned, and containing the results of the test trials already given, and furwarded them to the Admiralty, begging that they might be favoured with the return of the table of the ships of war with the blanks filled in, adding, that if pressure of public business should prevent that being done, your Committee would send a person to copy the particulars on receiving the sanction of the Lords Commissioners to such a course. As a measure of precaution in case of failure on the part of the Admiralty to send the promised particulars in time for printing, your Committee ob- tained returns of the machinery of these vessels by application to the manu- facturers, personally and by letter. They avail themselves of this opportunity to thank Messrs. Boulton and Watt, Maudslay Sons and Field, and John Penn and Sons, for having so fully and so promptly responded to the call. They are, therefore, now enabled to lay before the Association a table com- prising the results of the trials furnished by the Admiralty, together with the particulars of engines, &c., furnished by the manufacturers: the figures in Clarendon type (see Appendix I. Table 1) denote the Admiralty returns, Your Committee regret that there are some particulars of the trials still wanting, as, for example, the evaporation of water and the consumption of fuel; but they believe that hitherto those items have not been recorded, It is earnestly hoped, now that public attention has been called to the subject, that a more exact and careful account may be taken, both on the measured mile and on ordinary service at sea. In compiling the Table of merchant vessels, a similar course has been adopted, viz. of gathering from the best sources the various details necessary to complete the Table. The Companies to which the vessels belonged, gave every information in their possession, not only of the vessels themselves, but also of their actual sea performances, and placed at the disposal of the Com- mittee the sea logs for every voyage, with permission to make such extracts as they deemed proper. For any additional information, they were referred to the constructors of the engines and vessels. Your Committee cannot speak in too high terms of the constant readiness to give information, although at considerable inconvenience to themselves, which the various Companies and private firms have invariably shown. They feel assured that, had time permitted, and if the requisite labour could be devoted to it, the whole shipping community would willingly contribute their quota of statistics : all that is wanted is uniformity of arrangement, and that a form similar to the one proposed by the Committee be generally adopted. The thanks of the British Association are especially due to the Royal ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE, 197 Mail Steam Packet Company, to the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, to the London and North-Western Railway Company, to Messrs. Inglis Bro- thers, Messrs. Randolph and Elder, Messrs. Caird and Co., Messrs. R. Na- pier and Sons, and to Captain Walker, of the Board of Trade. Captain Walker very obligingly placed at the service of the Committee some of the books in which the vessels registered and surveyed by the Board of Trade are recorded, and your Committee are in possession of copies of the entries of 51 vessels, varying from 600 to 2000 tons register and upwards, registered in the ports of London, Liverpool, Southampton, and Glasgow, during 1858. These have formed a very useful guide in leading to a selec- tion of vessels from which to obtain the particulars requisite for comparison. Your Committee have been in communication also with the French and American ambassadors, with a view to obtaining the statistics of perform- ance of their respective navies ; and, after referring the matter to their home Governments, the Committee have received the assurance of their willingness to cooperate. Your Committee, being precluded by the terms of their appointment from discussing theories, or attempting to deduce laws, have, nevertheless, thought it not inconsistent to prepare a table of ratios based on the indicated horse- power, and showing the ratio between that element, as developed on the measured mile, and the grate, the tube, and other heating surfaces of the boilers producing it; also, between the grate and heating surfaces, and be- tween the indicated horse-power and the coal consumed. The Committee regret that this important item, the coal, is not more frequently recorded, very few private trials making any note of it; and in no instance brought under the notice of the Committee, have the Admiralty officers made known this element, so necessary for ascertaining the efficiency of the boilers (for Table of Ratios, see Appendix IV. Table 1). The following is a general summary of the result of the Committce's labours during the past session. They have obtained :— 1. Returns of 353 trials by 216 of Her Majesty’s vessels of war during the years 1857, 1858, and 1859, with about 900 (898) diagrams taken during the trials in 1859; also notes, by the officers conducting the trials, of observed facts. Of these trials, fifty-eight made by seventeen of the vessels, have been selected by way of illustration, with the particulars of machinery obtained from the makers, and arranged in a tabular form. (See Table 1, Appendix 1) The names of the vessels are the ‘ Diadem,’ ‘ Doris,’ ‘ Mersey,’ ‘ Marlborough,’ ‘Orlando,’ ‘Renown,’ ‘ Algerine,’ ‘Bullfinch,’ ‘Centaur,’ « Flying Fish,’ ‘ Hydra,’ ‘Industry,’ ‘ James Watt,’ « Leven,’ ‘ Lee,’ « Slaney,’ and ‘ Virago.’ This Table also comprises the two American vessels, ‘ Niagara’ and ‘ Massa- chusetts,’ together with the British vessel ‘ Rattler,’ introduced for compari- son. 2. Returns of 68 merchant vessels. Four diagrams taken during trials of the ‘ Atrato.’ Scale of displacement of the ‘ Atrato.’ Lines of ditto. Eight diagrams of the ‘Shannon’ taken during trials. Twenty-two of these vessels have been selected and tabulated. (See Ap- pendix I. Table 1.) Their names are— Anglia,’ ‘Cambria,’ ¢ Scotia,’ ¢ Tele- graph,’ ‘ Mersey,’ ‘ Paramatta,’ ‘Shannon,’ ‘ Tasmanian,’ ‘ Oneida,’ ¢ Atrato,’ ‘La Plata,’ ‘Lima,’ ‘San Carlos,’ ‘ Valparaiso,’ ‘ Bogota,’ ‘ Callao,’ Guaya- quil,’ ‘ Undine,’ ‘ Erminia,’ ‘ Admiral,’ ‘ Emerald,’ and ‘John Penn. The returns of the first four, belonging to the London and North-Western 198 REPORT—1860. Railway Company, are the mean of a number of trips on actual service be- tween Holyhead and Kingstown. ‘The returns of the ‘ Erminia,’ ‘Admiral,’ ‘Emerald,’ and ‘John Penn,’ are measured mile performances only ; but the remaining 12 vessels, with the exception of the ‘ Undine, show their sea performances over distances of about 6000 consecutive nautical miles each, in addition to the performances on the measured mile. 3. Return of the results of performance of 49 vessels in the service of the Messageries Impériales of France, recorded in the form used by that Com- pany. ‘The whole of these vessels are given in the Appendix. (Appendix I. Table 2.) 4. Quarterly returns of the speed and consumption of coal of the London and North-Western Company’s express and cargo boats, under regulated con- ditions of time, pressure, and expansion, from January 1st to December 31st, 1859—presented by Admiral Moorsom. (Appendix II. Table 1.) Half-yearly verifications of the consumption of coal of the above vessels, from January 1st to December 31st, 1859, (Appendix II. Table 2.) 5. Forms of log-book used by the Royal Mail Company (Appendix III. No. 1), by the Pacific Steam Navigation Company (No.2), by the Peninsular and Oriental Mail Company (No.3), the Admiralty form for recording trials of Her Majesty’s vessels (No. 4), and the Board of Trade form of return of capabilities (No. 5). 6. Table showing the ratio between the indicated horse-power and the grate, the tube, the other heating and total heating surfaces; also, between the grate and heating surfaces, and between the indicated horse-power and coal consumed. (Appendix IV.) From the above list, it will be readily conceived that the time of the Com- mittee has been fully occupied, as the task of copying and condensing from log-books is one involving a large amount of labour. Your Committee have not therefore, as yet, been enabled to conduct experiments on the plan recommended in their first Report presented to the Association in Aberdeen. They have, however, kept that branch of their inquiry in view; and through the courtesy of Mr. A. P. How, of Mark Lane, and of Messrs. Tylor and Sons, of Warwick Lane, they have been presented with apparatus of the value of about £60, consisting of salinometers, and an engine counter and clock; they have also at their disposal, for use whenever required, a superior dynamometer, and a compound stop-watch, and are now prepared to pro- ceed with experiments, should the Association see fit to renew their powers, and the consent of the Government be obtained. The Committee regret that they have not been able to collect any such information respecting the performance, under sail alone, of steam-vessels, as was contemplated by the Association, “with a view to comparing the results of the two powers of wind and steam, in order to their most effective and economical combination.” They must, however, draw attention to the synopsis given by Mr, Isher- wood, of the steam-log of the ‘ Niagara, in which her performances, “ under steam alone,” “under steam and fore-and-aft sails,” and “‘ under steam and square sails combined,” are set forth in such manner that those conversant with the subject will be enabled, without much difficulty, to assign its approxi- mate value to the power of the sails alone. In Mr. Archbold’s Table of the performance of the ‘ Wyoming,’ the addi- tional particulars of the force of the wind by notation, the area of sail set, and the indicated horse-power, which are not always stated in Mr. Isher- wood’s synopsis, afford the means of tolerably accurate comparison. It is a duty the Committee owe to themselves, to express thus publicly ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 199 their sense of the services rendered to the Association by Mr. Henry Wright, their Honorary Secretary, whose untiring energy, indefatigable labours, judg- ment, and discretion, have enabled them to lay this information before the meeting. To Mr. Smith, a member of the Committee, their acknowledgements are due, as well for the use of a room in his offices, as for several sources of information opened to them by his influence. The Marquis of Stafford, by placing a room in his house at the disposal of the Committee for occasional meetings, has contributed materially to the personal convenience of the members. Of the grant of £150 voted by the Council of the Association, to defray the expenses of printing, postage, collecting information, &c., £124 3s. 10d. has been expended, viz.— o's fe Peprniuog last year’s Report ....... ...0--00cesncces Beware) oot SenmrIMinn present Report. ... 52). -saa- sees ecco recess (8 14.0 To stationery and miscellaneous printing = GU Gt Mieedeecltn..0 5) RG Dee D EMUMINEIE sic ne, 2 50S iv Mete sae amo satel v olple ey ia bide She whee a ‘iain abe To sundry expenses, ‘including cab hire and railway fares, incurred 812 6 by the Honorary Secretary whilst collecting information .... 812 6 Votal expenditure 55.5% Vit. Fae. he's £124 3 10 Balance of grant remaining unexpended....£25 16 2 It was originally intended to institute inquiries, not only in London and its vicinity, but also in Glasgow, Liverpool, Hull, Bristol, Southampton, New- eastle-on-Tyne, &c., and for this purpose it would have been necessary to defray the expenses of an agent to conduct the inquiry; but the shortness of the session, together with the extended field which London presents, ren- dered that course impracticable. Your Committee feel, that a beginning having thus been made towards the means of a scientific investigation of the performance of ships under differ- ing conditions at sea and in smooth water, it would ill become the British Association for the Advancement of Science to drop the question, although expense as well as trouble is involved in its successful pursuit. They recommend the reappointment of a Committee, with a renewal of the grant, and with power to remunerate a clerk for such services as cannot be undertaken by any of its members. On behalf of the Committee, C. R. Moorsom, Vice-Admiral, 19 Salisbury Street, Strand, London, Chairman. June 13th, 1860. WNote.—Since the above Report was written, and whilst in the press, infor- mation was forwarded to the Committee which has enabled them to compile the Table given in the Supplementary Appendix, showing very interesting com- parative results of two vessels, the ‘Lima’ and ‘ Bogota,’ when fitted with different systems of machinery. The Table shows the results of perform- ances on trial of these vessels when fitted with single-cylinder engines, and also at sea on a voyage of upwards of 6000 miles; also their performances when fitted with double-cylinder engines. ERRATA.—Larce TABLE—APPENDIX I. ‘ Atrato’ on trial, Stokes Bay, Jan. 22, 1857, omit Indicated Horse power 1128°42. Ditto, ditto, Mar. 4, 1857, for Indicated Horse power 1198°22° yead 2396°44, 200 Appenp1x I.—TAsBLE Name of vessel. Guirinal ........... Seer +2 ane Méandre eee eeweneeee sere eeeee QOBITIS 5 i052 ateuien oat Bosphore ........- Hellespont ........ Qronteecsssed.<.2 Philippe Auguste Merovée Cheliff Aventin ..........+. Leonidas ..........+ Tage ¥ Tancréde Télémaque Amsterdam Périclés se eeereeeee Totals see eeeene Nominal horse-power. REPORT—1860. 2. revolutions. Mean number of reyolu- tions by counter. Corresponding number of | 24 | 27-5] 2 h num- Nominal power realized ber of revolutions obtained. corresponding wit Total distance run. Hours Under weigh. Under steam. h 841 2211 805 2781 2677 1686 1822 2359 2269 6106 3244 4320 6870 218 63808 5795 5393 5370 2668 890 1174 5512 5454 1223 6129 5104 63874 284945 5815 2793 1967 1911 3108 2537 3514 1862 2018 525 2 2107 1671 1485 2168 2320 1969 2285 1924 1017 1424 2162 2543 2528 20 1904 116152 30| 92733 2370 1893 m m 25| 1462 15 2077 50 2556 15) 2622 15 2786 10 30 40 1400 40 25 25 55 45 50 36 2125 55) Results of Performances of the Steam-ships in Mean pressure of steam. Mean cut-off. ee ee Mean vacuum in condenser. 0°65 | 0:50 ots nae Notz.—Metre = 3:2809 feet = 393702 inches } <3 1,935,570 2,180,496 543,000 2,268,404 1,704,550 1,414,570 1,259,626 1,350,790 3-46) 0°33} 2,081,867 | 1099 0, = 220549 Ibs, Avoirdupois, Consumption of coal. | 2 = a3 = ? 3 Pet 3 u ¢| 8 Total g | Fe '|eul es Ble e | £8 leelas A Sie ewes lee = [2 |ERg* K kilo. kilo. | kilo.| kilo - 1483 465 | 40) 48 2 1390 432 | 3-7| 46 : 1533 450 | 41) 48 ; 1248 384 | 3:4] 3-4 Fi 14380 411 | 3:8} 3-9 52 1675 416 | 45) 44 3 1586 462 | 4:9) 5-4 : 1529 414 | 47} 5-0 . 1605 489 | 45 “6% 1547 477 | 51 > 1644 495 | 5-4 “62 1130 345 | 4:7 Y 1222 369 | 50 2 1268 423 | 53 E 1215 336 | 5:0 a 3,336,095 | 1191 387 | 4:9 : 1,983,785 | 1008 318 | 4:2 1:33} 1,906,803 997 800 | 41 q 2,950,203 949 3809 | 4:7 9} 2,470,000 | 972 315 | 48 bd} 3,692,912 | 1051 348 | 5:2 47 372 | 49 348 | 46 366 | 59 372 | 46 St SUB HS G2 DH HH HS CHS OUT HS HS OT OT UH CUT Ou HK ROMTROTATWHHAAAR WK MARSHESAS 348 | 4:3 339 | 5-4 354 | 5:6 806 | 4-2 300 | 4-2 309 | 5-4 303 | 5:3 288 | 48) 5-0 306 | 5:4) 53 836 | 53) 57 821 | 51] 5-1 279 | S51} 55 267 | 54) 5:2 279 | 5-7) 59 246 | +7) 48 303 | 43] 53 383 | 47) 5-9 270 | 49} 59 212 | 5:0} 5:7 282 | 3:9} 49 330 | 5:3} 55 261 | 47} 55 5:2] 5:2 358 | 48) 5:1 ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 201 the Service of the “ Messageries Impériales” of France during the year 1858. Consumption of oil and tallow. 3 B= | s pele n ° 5 Zz Fe a) oO Total. 3 Py uo = a s i] o oO 5 & S Ay kilo kilo knots . (184943 |10°521 3774 | 0-214) 9:21 Mean speed estimated. 8:81 9°30 9°82 peed of nine knots, Consumption of fuel per mi le reduced to the s oo He Be ict 78 352 iS) Go 09 — 02 GO 303 329 bo =I or 291 SSSs 2 8 6 © He O> Co poe Nol &) = 35 287 246 296 300 348 458 402 359 381 450 429 298 311 308 332 275 269 282 275 277 354 297 224 232 224 499 586 293 401 359 445 287 211 16782 342 Distance run with 1000 kilogrammes of coal at the speed of nine knots. métres, 13,517 14,684 15,766 16,939 17,729 18,311 16,878 20,181 14,181 13,741 14,025 18,843 18,299 13,096 14,096 15,592 19,341 22,547 18,713 18,472 15,962 12,673 13,804 15,484 14,575 12,338 12,945 18,639 17,820 15,494 16,715 20,165 20,595 19,668 20,160 14,723 15,667 18,652 24,802 23,856 24,781 11,120 9,469 18,985 13,851 15,460 12,465 19,318 26,208 | 31,295 16,945 202 REPORT—1860. Appenpix IT.—Taste 1. Chester and Holyhead Railway—Steam-boat Express and Cargo Boats, under regulated conditions of Time, Passages. No. Average Agius of rate of jweight Vessel. Date. trips ed | “pn run, miles. |valves. 5 1859. hm h h lbs Eupress: 1 Jan. to 31 March ...| 73 | 8 24%) 4 0 | 449 | 13-40 | 1 reek 1 April to 30 June ...| 47] 7 380] 420 | 4 37 | 1364 | 15 eg ta hota & 1 July to 30 Sept. ...} nil. 1 Oct. to 31 Dee. ...... 36| 526| 424 | 449 | 13:08 | 15 1 Jan. to 381 March ...} nil. Carebtia 1 April to 30 June ...| 836 | 5 29] 417 | 431 | 18:95 | 15 a sr 1 July to 30 Sept. ...|75| 516] 413 | 427 | 1415 | 15 1 Oct. to 31 Dec....... 44| 555| 421 | 441 | 1845 | 16 1 Jan. to 31 March ...| 81 | 7 28%} 4 6 | 445 | 1326 | 15 ate 1 April to 30 June ...| 34] 6 48] 416 | 440 | 1350 | 15 ware ards 1 July to 30 Sept. ...| nil. 1 Oct. to 31 Dec....... 41| 615] 420 | 449 | 1308 | 15 1 Jan. to 31 March ...| nil. 1 April to 30 June ...| 37] 5 0} 4 7 | 430 | 1403 | 10 Telegraph ...... 1 July to 30 Sept. .../83| 6 7] 411 | 4 40 | 1350 | 10 1 Oct. to 31 Dee. ...... 40| 6 O| 427 | 458 | 1268 | 10 Sarge: 1 Jan. to 31 March ...| 77| 917 | 5 40 | 6 44 | 1039 | 15 hee 1 April to 30 June ...| 76 | 9 27] 5 44 | 6 28 | 1083 | 15 oir ae a 1 July to 30 Sept. ...| 63 | 8 33] 545 | 635 | 1063 | 15 1 Oct. to 81 Dec....... 77|1215| 540 | 6 47 | 10:31 | 15 1 Jan. to 81 March ...| 26} 1115] 615 | 755 | 884 | 12 1 April to 30 June ...| 87 | 9 25 | 555 | 6 22 | 10-41 | 12 sors 1 July to 30 Sept. ..... 75 | 12 45| 6 0 | 727 | 939 | 12 1 Oct. to 31 Dec. ...... 49|1335| 635 | 816] 846 | 12 1 Jan. to 31 March ...| 71]10 O0| 715 |] 8 3 848 } 10 1 April to 30 June ..| 7{| 8 5| 7 O | 728 | 9:37 | 10 bess! 1 July to 30 Sept. .../ 28/1115 | 6 O | 6 57 | 1007 | 10 1 Oct. to 31 Dec....... $9). 11-15'-615 | 738 (1937) 18 1 Jan. to 31 March ...| 56113 5| 545 | 656 | 1009 | 12 1 April to 30 June ...| 65 | 735| 530 | 6 14 | 11-23 | 12 1 July to 30 Sept. ...| 75 | 730| 520 | 6 7 | 11-44 | 12 1 Oct. to 31 Dee. ...... 91 | .8 20} 5 20 | 6 30 | 10-76 | 12 ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE, 203 Department.—A Return of the Speed and Consumption of Coal of the Pressure, and Expansion, for the undermentioned Period. Coals consumed. Average Proportion of Per trip Per hour Per hour pressure] steam in cylinder. | including | including | exclusive of Remarks. aE getting up raising raising steam and | steam, bank- | steam, bank- while lying ing fires, ing fires, at Holyhead. &e, &e, Ibs. tons cwt. Ibs. |tons cwt. lbs. |tons ewt, Ibs. ir) iS a 121112 | 213 47) 2 30| * Heavy gale, W.N.W. bo b 13 | f¢and none | 111714 | 211 40| 119 28| — Based engines. 123 | 18andnone | 1210 3 | 211 101} 119 79 133 26 11-15 37 | 212 11] 119 80 133 2s 12 211 | 214 33} 2 1 50 133 ze 138 17 66 | 219 28) 2 6 45 12 coe 13 138 59 | 217 65) 2 5 63) * Heavy gale, W.N.W. 19,|} “fzond2e | 12 998 | 215100; 2 3 98| Based engines, 103 18 1813 71 | 216 90} 2 4 71 HEPER fecetezs000...-: 12 17 60 | 217 15) 2 4 35 10 none Ther e | an A O82 oe lO 93 none 1418 25 | 219 41) 2 6 65 7s of) ISelswU 2S SS |p els ais 7 a 13 13 54 | 2 2 32|/ 114 12 7s 38 1415 96 | 2 4101} 116 78 7s a8 1413823 | 2 4 23) 116 O 103 none Sell64 | 11s 7 17 98 RENN fr cers << :-+-5s-- 8) 895621) ll 618) 4k 11 none GolD 28 \eil eT rAO 17 39 103 none Cha) ZU de ale ste) 17 88 9 none Qre2r dey ale 2ae72 isi alg TUM Niece so. .00e. 102 6£.| tit) 16) V. 6 i 8 none 9: Te24-| 1 8+ 36) 1 3983 | 83 none 11 221 |} 1 9 48] 1 4 95] Norg.—Orders are given to the vessels, in gales and 10 | 2nd grade ll 724/112 86] 1 4 45/heavy head sea, to ease 10 | land2 grade | 10 861 | 113 51} 1 5 10) the engines, which occa- 10 | land2 grade | 10 11 20 | 114 54} 1 5 _ 6/sionally increases the ave- 93 | land2 grade | 11 1812 | 115 39) 1 6 103) rage passage. and full speed 204 REPORT—1860. Appenpix IJ].—Tarie 2. Chester and Holyhead Railway—Steam-boat Department.—Chester and Holybead Steam-boats’ Consumption of Coal for the Six Months ending 30th June, 1859. Total as shown b Num- Average mm, y Th th Total f Name of vessel. pees . = i pe i oe oe the sitar pair rasta coal on board. 1859. tons ewt. Ibs. tons cwt. lbs. tons cwt. Ib. Anglia. ies cose roma oF li iy df] 147315 78] 1458 8 0 Cambri March 31. sao a June 30 ... 11 15 37 493 11100| 426 4 0 Bookin 2a. ho. pone 1313 591) 1532 11 47] 1575 13 0 March 31. Telegraph ....... June 30 ... 12 17 60 476 8 92| 49812 0 Hibernia ......... pores 13 13 b4f| 210918 23] 2104 19 0 Hercules «........ Earring Sil Gfl) 533 18 94.) 585 15. 0 Ocean seve son a nie? Wi eoraie “0 | p28 Th Sea Nymph...... Pet. ce Mgowar tls eae ee 8137 0 31] 8202 3 0 AprenpDIx II.—Tasre 3. Chester and Holyhead Railway—Steam-boat Department.—Chester and Holyhead Steam- boats’ Consumption of Coal for the Six Months ending 3lst December, 1859. 1859 tons ewt, lbs. tons cwt. Ibs. tons ewt, Ib. Anglia ...sses.- {res | 36 | 1210 3 | 450 0108| 44917 0 Cambria ......... Pept 30 | Te aay eat |) Wsle1l eeyaaieg 1000 Sle RO {esr | 41 | 131371 | 56018111] 568 6 0 Telegraph ......\{ Dees | fo | 1413 25¢| 170811 60] 1688 3 0 Hibernia ......... {RPr sy? | 8 | i213 a3 f| 206015 91) 2074 16 Hercules .......-. SPE EO ee ty 1087 12> be | ames aes Dcomtee ee {ree re dE Sea Nymph...... ort a ie ta ie + |; 1852 1b 1d iaeeeceee 9820 14 27] 9823 205 ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE, *‘sUTeTOY — |—_—$———$ | *kepsojsaX uoou *u00U Je VdULzSIP pus duireag *SIOHUI[D Pu Soyse 93sB/\\ d0uls papuedxg Ss *adaeyo uo AyQUUNy ‘wv “PLEMIOT *suoT[ea “aid ‘syd “syed | ‘syd «sped a 989 “Mo *Sq[ "949 SU0} “u01jdiasoq *Soy quaqed s0d “708 S[lUs “dn urea3s a oe | ee ee ee ee eee) Ss Ae und 90uvzsIqy Sinoy JO ‘ON sanoy JO "ON. : *WOIsIOTUT “1078 MA TO *“MOTTRL Tt) " *padrasqo | “wouolyd *yunov0v = |‘apnqtZuo] Jo} *paaresqo *quno20% TONCHEA | apnyZuory | epnzisuoy | apnyZuoy | aouasayiq | epnzyeT apnjzyey *apngziyey Jo aouatayt(y *aanqivdaq *90uv}sIq *osmnop | | *gorAgas § Auvdulog 943 Y}IM poqzoduU0d dounIs sumosto A19A9 pojoUu ATaNUIUL aq OF SI ULUNOD S14} UT ‘adieyqo Ul sig9ULdUy Saou IE zazea jo Azisuaq *S][aM 307] Jo ainjesoduay, *1o7VAA Ss ,a9dULT -ua Jo uoyeInGg “spat. smoujey *sjouy *sasmmog sno Hy ‘SHUVNAY “SITIO UI Ide JO JY S19Y adeIsAy *yo Jurmojq a10jaq *yoqzem rod pautnsuod s[vog *1ajomI0IEq, aur3ua jo yyS1ay uvayy qysram ut Avs ‘speoo jo uordumsuoo Ajin0xy *f[noy Surysroa aatsuvdxa jo aa13aq *yozeA\ Jad suonnypoaay | *agnuru Jad suoynjoaay | ‘a3ned-tivs4s Jo 4 S1azT "798 S]IUs JO ‘ON *sanoy anoy AloAy wo1y ahs: ep aq} ‘Aep ————- Butanp diyg sAurduog yoxyoug meayg prey teMoy vrpuy ys9AQ4 OY} JO So'T *[ AIAV], —]]] Xlanaaay ———— soouisug ys —SSCSCSCSCSSSSOSOOOOSOCOCOSSCOSSSSO:~C~CS TATU QUITTING, Noms -- aa a a PCLIAGING) “LopuvUTULOD ‘qoortOd 4 PUNOF pus ‘pxvog wo Surureutod SoNTURND oT} YITA 41 poawdurod ‘oroqv oy} pourmmex OAvT O AA ‘anBdOa 044 JO mOTBUTULIe} ayy 4B paxvoq Oo Surureutayy “*** quourtedeg Surpreg | poumsuoo “** guounasdeq oursug J somyuen? p ajstnid nals sini oba\o(a(hiifin/e's nfolelole)o'eie/ slate s[eqoy, S Ze) @ adeoa Li qe] TOAy pxvod wo | Sururues Ayguengy B SQT | SAT | "STS | “S73 40-9 ur yjur yf uray ur “ay . PS] eds | cael egal a ceniegel [eal ase eee 2 S| 12) d — 482 mee 4 Bele : : a ‘ong ‘Tony quayed ‘[voo yo toNdriosep pus | + | A rg wml Ss? Be ete. |) et og Ge pe Ayyenb oy} {amo00 prnoys Aue zr ‘Avpop jo pre bs as § | fe E Saeis ia 5 i E 3 |B 2 = a 8 = a 5 {Mourypowmt pus [[nY JO uoryTpuoo ayy 04v98s aL0FT 4/9 3 EB | 25, |.85|9 Fail Ati eA ina el om &)}e] & sadvdod 019 2 2, Ealee. ke & E | o g 3 B | 4 2 Fa ; F| ; Surmp popisia 8410q les aE] TEL S|FIEI* | 8 ‘(apis Jeyyo ey} UO panuyuos oq Aevum YOrYM) SYTeULOT *paxvoqg Wo poatooayy asBIOAy ‘sommgaedaq. “‘STRALLIW ‘sinoy —— skep ———— ‘pardnooo oury, 24} papua pus “————_ 7 “| “——_ Jo Aep ——_ 94} poouauimoy amaiealos ae eee Loe ce “euUBUe 0} youd pure OsteredeA 07 vueneg woz osvoA v OF diys-tvayg sAuvdu0g uonestaen ureayg oyloeg 94} Jo JoouSaq pure ‘191g ysuq “lapuruMOD oy} Aq uanjoy "——— "on adviog § JaWUILIIG *Z TIGV[.— ]]] XIGNaday 206 2 ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 207 Aprrnpvix JII—Tasrez 3. Peninsular and Oriental Company's Engineer’s Log. | aoe: 2 4 o 2 2m 3 i) 1 eH u = H Cay Se fe) q m ns a a 3 sv rc) o.|9 3! 2 a] a a see I are es ‘dd _Joslofl/e. n dial & | 23] 8 |E5] & |3s/84)/ 88/238] a8] = B/Si/o; ® ee S| SB Sa |Gopeang let | as (0) = Date. o|e v 3B 10'S as} °o © | ssh hy bservations. O} ey a 2 S) 2S a = ee ad (eo Us = | Hels] 6 | os] ss] © l|eS| oe] 89] BE) BS] 3 Bao Af SiS (ier | Se are |) Smee acy el eae o| 3 ya | = 8 & z O°} 90] & a) eB |g Bere patie oie o Ea iS) AppENDIx II].—Taste 4. Yard. Report of trial of Her Majesty’s steam vessel Date TIRE TIRES coc etic ccs sa ccece cece catesecececsavastevevedess REED Mee, Sync detache cakes eIdeehecd sa havadeasd divas Draught of water... { “Aft _ Number of revolutions of the engines ...............6.:00000 BreRSHeR OU Mateby VALVE. .......c6ssccsccsesececeesseccacessensons MURR TE CONCENSCES « oi.cc5sascdedet odetaceLobadscencoetcdecass merower-as shown by indicator .............cccsssccsccseneseteeees o SRMES DEE C res tate apd svdcdocs tee. fa cbs deehewsesecasetuedaneds Indicator cards and tracings are attached to this Report. Remarks as to the performance of the engines, boilers, &c. Revolutions of aie 7 No. of runs. exigines per minute. time. pore Mean speeds. peed Min. | Sec. | | EE Knots mean | of means. [Note—Appendix III. No. 5 carried to bottom of Tables opposite page 216. - 208 REPORT—1860. ApprenDIx IV.—Tasce showing the Ratios between the indicated Horse- indicated Horse-power ; Name of vessel. VESSELS OF THE Unitep States Navy. Niagara (screw) Performance in smooth water Place and nature of performance. Ordinary actual performance at sea under also, between the grate and heating sur- Statute miles. $i. | Voasinenniesnabuas esas ) . Pr ene ap o obo fet tH Horse-power. og ee [es] 38 | ac oo S as | os Sy g. = -— Ps oF CE 62 "39 EPPS BSeé aa cs] as =0 se BO Rie) eee (ea as @H be ge. 3o.D sa 22 |Hal Ba aon | $3 2a ne 2° esh on —<———— a. Sem 57 st ago and On a2 [me] ae) oH 32 So ag a? CE we oe HO mod Sd e go : Be | ge |os| $2 | 888 |a88| S2 | $8 |) BES) SBS] Se Be d Ba | £3 |sa| 4 (S25 /8e3'| $3 | S21 888] Fee] Fe 3 g So | Sg | ho! =o leek loot] H8 | oS | sea] Saez] Ss S] d ox S [es] SB ogo] °30| Sm 29 a= HHS ot g 5 23 2.8 | os a cosa | ofa = °° on asa @¥ EI eq jase ios | 29 |S 28 gS | 88/48 eS aO 4 A es a8 BS) $3 ae a ‘S @n 3 2) cd Sa a A | a4) al | & i é ma | § = : | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. 1955-09 | 700 858 | 2-793 | -247| 6-556) 2-192) 8:748 85°386| 334) 3-529 879-28 | 700 796 | 1-256 | 55414577 | 4873 19-451 |35°336| 334) 4-617 |41-813| 9.058 77365 | 700 “905 | 1-105 | -625 16-567 | 5-538 22-107 \35°336| -334) 4-904 42-743 8-716 837-31 | 700 *836 | 1:196 | -57815°308 | 5°117 |20-426 |35°336| 334) 4-987 |42-156) 8-452 824-48 | 700 849 | 1:178 | -587\15-546 | 5-197 |20-744 |35°336 |- -334| 4-790 |42-269| 8-597 (240-74 50° oe axe toll % (|10-280 10-281 |28:448) ... | 4-029 —-168°81 30: oat w. =| 514 ie 14-661 |14:661 |28-448} ... | 4-401 149-61 ae ioe ... |°988) | & | |16:543 |16:543 |28-448|) ... | 4-491 16254 set bars .» | 585) ) & \115:227 115-227 28-448} .., | 4-429 428 200 467 | 2-140 436°7 200 “458 | 2-184 499-2 200 “401 | 2-496 519-2 200 385 | 2596 2324-42 | 800 344 | 2-906 | -234) 5-131) +991} 6-122 26-16 193 2325:96 | 800 *343 | 2°907 | 234) 5°035| +987) 6-022 |26:16 193 2663-60 | 800 300 | 3°330 |-204) 4:478| +865 | 5°343 |26-16 193 2587-50 | 800 *309 | 3°234 |-210) 4609) +894) 5:503 |26-16 193 2685:04 | 800 “298 | 3°356 | -203) 4441} -858)| 5-299 |26:16 193 2979 800 268 | 3°724 |-183| 4:004| +773) 4:777 |26-16 193 3091 800 "259 |3°864 |-176| x we | 4659 [26-47 2921-2 800 278 | 3-652 |-186| ... we. | 4:929 |26°47 (2788-4 800 287 | 3486 |-195) ... ... | 5°164 |26°47 2884-4 800 | -278 |3-606 |-189| ... ... | 4:992 |26-47 2920-32 | 800 | -274 |3-650 |-186| ... we | 4:931 126-47 2825-6 800 *283 |3-532 |-192| ... ... | 5-096 |26-47 3091-1 800 | -259 |3-864 |-176) ... ... | 4658 |26-47 3009'03 | 800 | -266 |3-761 |-188| ... ... | 4:786 |26-47 3022 800 265 |3°778 | :180| 3:947| -762)| 4:709 |26:16 193 | 3054-26 | 800 *262 | 3°818 |-178) 3-905] +754) 4-659 26-16 193 1722-08 | S00 ‘A465 | 2-153 | 316) 6°926| 1-338} 8-264 |26-16 193 273894 | 800 292 | 3-424 |-199| 4-355 | +841 | 5-196 26-16 193 4044 1000 247 | 4-044 | -168) 3:702| +736! 4-438 |26-40 198 3183 800 | -251|3:979 |-171| « | ... | 4524 126-47 2864-75 | 800 | -280 |3:581 |-1901 ... | ... | 5-027 26-47 2759-95 | 800 | -290 |3-450 |-197/ ... | ... | 5-218 26-47 2837:36 | 800 282 | 3-547 |-192! ... we | 5'075 26-47 2793 800 286 | 3491 |-195) ... vee | 91156 (26°47 ao Particulars of the tube-surface were not furnished by the manufacturers of the engines. o0U. P on 210 REPORT—1860. TABLE (continued). Speed. Name of vessel, Place and nature of performance. z F | 2 = S 3 | s m2 Renown (screw) .......csscssccueeeneeseeeeees On trial, Stokes Bay, March 15, 1858 ...... 13-167 |11-43 » (with half-boiler power) ......... Ditto. ditto ©) March 16-5 ers... 10°535 | 9:145 Ditto ditto, “April Oy syn eseseceee 13-611 |11°815 Ditto, Plymouth, August 22, 1859 ......... 14-97 {13-000 Ditto, outside Breakwater, Oct. 7, 1859 ...\15°16 |13°160 PANTERING (RCYOW): scccsesqessctaatiabiescoses eve: Ditto, Stokes Bay, April 9, 1858 ............ 10-71 | 9300 MVE NGCFEW)! ipessshvusdrasspasengroseyesoue ++ Ditto, Stokes Bay, April 29, 1858 ......... 10:68 | 9:270 Hee: (SCLOW)). i.>ssbcatancnsdosesscaseeaeay sens’ Ditto, Stokes Bay, April 13, 1858 ......... 10:68 | 9:270 Ditto, Stokes Bay, April 28, 1858 ......... 10:77 | 9:350 Ditto, Stokes Bey: June 20,1858: 2s..4.- 13°52 |11:736 ..|Ditto ditto. dune!S0/-9) 3) eeeee = 12-48 |10°794 Ditto ditto July 2, ee ree 12-70 {11-025 Ditto ditto July 6, i Abetesees 12°56 {10-908 Ditto ditto July 8, bye ete 12-71 |11:038 Ditto veiaitho) J uly l Die ss. eset cece 13°29 {11-536 Ditto in Basin (Keyham), Mar. 28, 1859 Ditto outside Breakwater (Keyham) May4, PBB: ova. ( (Ditto Ydilte): 7... Aes Ditto ditto Sept.27, ,, 7612 eS (Hirsch’s propeller)..........:.... Ditto ditto Oct.13, , 8-015 » (Ditto GILLO) sh seetepevenssse se Ditto ditto Feb.24, ,, 6843 ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. TABLE (continued). 211 Horse-power. fa | 3 3s 4 “| | z 2754-64 | 800 . 1429 800 31826 | 800 3617 1000 3992 1000 2939 80 299°5 80 303-6 80 299-8 80 1166 350 1090-88 | 350 1089-60 | 350 1266-9 | 350 1174-88 | 350 1019-68 | 350 1195 600 1436 600 258 300 408-6 | 300 480 300 453124) 220 394 220 1122 540 954 540 2616 80 317-4 80 283 60 24062 | 60 21650 | 60 222-67 | 60 241-48 | 60 196-82 | 60 223-90 | 60 220-13 | 60 211-62 | 60 24060 | 60 199-68 | 60 _ Ratio of nominal to indicated horse-power. ea) fre =) o_ Ratio of indicated to nominal horge-power. 3443 1-786 3978 3617 3992 3674 3744 3791 3748 3:33] 3117 3113 3619 3357 2999 1-992 2°393 860 1-362 1-600 2-059 1-791 2-078 1-767 3:270 3968 4717 4010 3608 3711 4-025 3280 3731 3669 3527 4-010 3328 rate-surface to d horse power. Ratio of indicate pod oO io?) & s : 8 fa | 83 & 9 18se/] se qT “4 Oo 3 v #2 | ces | SEE SS |Sey|see Hg |ask| see ed |stn| gee IE Pe a e a 5:240 10:077 4°525 * 5:02) eh 4:549 4:627| -476| 5:103 4:°541| +467] 5:008 4:479| -461| 4-941 4533) -467| 5-003 4-819} 1:089| 5-909 5:152| 1-165] 6316 5:157 | 1:165| 6°323 4-436 | 1:002| 5:439 4-783 | 1:081| 5-864 5 867 | 1-209) 6-579 6:587 | 1-889} 8-477 5°482 | 1:572| 7-054 8-981 none | $442) 5-442 none | 6:259| 6°259 3°863 | 5°117| 8-981 4-544} 6-018 |10°563 4556) °906| 5-463 3°755| +746} 4:502 x 3'943 4:638 5155 5-012 4-621 5-620 4-984 5-069 5:274 4-638 5:589 Ratio of heating surface to grate-surface, 18-13 18-13 33°59 33:59 33°82 23°82 32°631 32°631 32631 \32°631 32°631 32-631 32°63] 32-631 32631 32°631 32'631 & Ratio of other heatin surface to tube-surface. 103 103 103 103 226 +226 226 226 "226 °226 286 286 1-324 1-324 198 198 * Particulars of the tube-surface were not furnished by the manufacturers of the engines. rhour | 1 cy a | ag BS Tex ke | Ses aU ng E PSL) 8: 2, sae =r B23) £238 eg | eee 6.4 S44 Ser RO 49 3g Ss] |E o | | PQ Water evaporated per. hour per Ib. of fuel. REPORT—1860, TABLE (continued). Name of vessel: Mercnant VEssELs. cAmaelia (Paddle) sie wacece. se omence vei mane Cambria (paddle) Sconia | (pAddle)| veep tacstesaersess same hees toe! eee eee eee ry Tasmanian (screw) Onn e nee nent enter eeaeee TUTOR e meee eee e ent a ee eeenenes Oneida (screw) Callao (paddle) Lima (paddle) Ue eee ee ee eee ee re OORT e eee e meee nese eeeeeeenees Valparaiso (paddle) Bogota (Paddle) i ccsevescsksccsesscgasernars seek San Carlos (screw) CO er Cee eri Guayaquil (screw).......sssccccsssssseseeeaeees Erminia (screw) eee eee ee eee eee eee John Penn (paddle).....5.....0...sesvereaceee Speed, Place and nature of performance, g Fe z | a m | ‘Mean of six special trips on ordinary | service between Holyhead and Kings- town, 29th September to 3rd October, 1B D4: ss xs deckvasacgihes aca, eae ee 14:93 Ditto ditto, 22nd to 26th May, 1856 ,..|14-07 Ditto ditto, 17th to 21st May, 1855 ...|15-68 Ditto of two trips, 29th May, 1855 ......... 15-24 On trial, Stokes Bay, March 13, 1854...... 15°86 Ditto ditto January 22, 1857...) ... Ditto ditto March 4, 1857 ...... . Ditto, Stokes Bay, April 21, 1859 ......... 15:31 Ditto, Stokes Bay, June 7, 1859 ............ 16:08 Ditto, Frith of Clyde, July 8, 1859......... 16:01 Ditto, Stokes Bay, August 1, ,, ........ 16-60 Ditto, Stokes Bay, June 15, 1858............ 16:42 Ditto, Stokes Bay, July 27, 1858............ 14:86 Ditto, Glasgow to Liverpool, Oct. 22, 1858.| 14-86 Ditto, Liverpool to Kingstown, May 20, 1859 Ditto in the Clyde, Sept. 16, 1859 eee eee eee eee ee eee eee eee eee rer) Ditto, Glasgow to Liverpool, Sept, 22, 1859. Ditto in the Mersey, February 20, 1860... 22, Ditto, Glasgow to Liverpool, March 1860 FOR enna reenter eee n ween eee eeeeeteeseseesees Measured mile, Greenhithe, July 6, 1858.. Holyhead to Mull of Cantyre, July 29, 30, TSO8s.Sasngeks eeonhiee sa guase Ceawat aoe cee Run in Lochs Ness and Lochy, Oct. 26, 27, 28, 1858 Dede meee e eee e eee eameereeereenes eee eenee Ditto in Stokes Bay, Oct. 12, 1858 Ditto, Lower Hope, Feb. 6, 1860............ 13°82 14:40 13°54 13°82 10-67 11-49 9-48 ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 213 TABLE (continued). = OV. ~ A q is ta Horse-power. 2 3 28 /a8 £ 5 = ~ co E £8 8 3 3 $s 35 | SE [ses] 35 ge | ae ae oS reg iierey Eth, |) reise o Be | de ($21 $2 | S8olsae) 82 | #8 | eee} ses] Bs <3 = Fe | &$ |e2| 23 |Seh|set| 2 | $2 | es2) Ree] 84 2 & Ge be 5 Seay te pales a3 So BOS] Fad aaa} 3 | os og | he] AE |eoklwseok| 8 5 ao) sag o 6, S B | £3 | g8 [38] Se | cae] ces] 3&1 $2188 | sek] ae 3.2 $ S28 Sa eae ‘Be Cs Sse | 5 2° = 4 a ae Fe g EE se lé 2 | g2 3 as 3 & |e4 a | Ibs. 816-07 | 330°52| -405 | 2-469 |-196) 4-769} -558) 5-827 |27-17 117| 6-837 995-35 | 392°10| -394 | 2-538 | -166) 5-544] -452| 5-996 136-17 ‘081 | 5:787 93418 | 379:92| :407 | 2:458 |-199| 4:943] +627] 5-571 |27-98 *127| 6-679 | 1165-98 | 448 384 | 2:603 | +142) 6:3382| 1-377 | 7-368 |51-68 164) 6-69) ase 800 ee Soya iliecoe| iene noe w. (47-91 | 1-106 coe ee eaten Poet tes Rec ... |47-91 | 1-106 | 2396-44 | 800 3834 | 2-995 | 217) 3°346| 3-703} 7-049 |47-91 | 1-106 | 3-739 1088 250 230 | 4°352 |-163) 4-044] +925) 4-960 |30-39 228 2940 764 *260 | 3848 | -202) 4-998} +872) 5-871 |29-05 174 {29285 | 774 264 |3°783 | -193) 5-042| 1-259] 6-302 |82-55 249 3790 774 ‘204 | 4897 | +149) 3-896| -973| 4-869 |32°55 249 ‘| 2800 550 "196 | 5-091 | -182| 3:768| +537] 4-306 |23-6414| +142] 3-000 FE 1912 450 1235 |4:249 | 222) 4:789| +795 | 5-584 |25-17 166 | 3-514 11050 320 805 | 3:281 | +133) 1-904) 1-142] 3-047 |22-85 600 | 2-133 | 1160 320 276 | 3°625 |-117| 1-465} 1-293} 2-758 |23-53 eee | 2615 800 320 “400 | 2500 |-162) none | ... | 3-000 |18-46 -.. | 3080 {1100 320 *291 |3:438 |-127|) 1-318} 1-091] 2 909 |22-85 “600 | 2-036 500 120 “240 | 4:167 |-152| none} ... | 4:400/28-94 wee | 25852 | 600 120 ‘200 |5-000 |-123) ... | ... | 3666/2973 | ... | 1-866 157:09 | 50 | -318 | 3-142 | -287| 4-697/ 1-311! 6-009 |20:90 | -279 15877 | 50 | -315 | 3-175 |-284) 4-648| 1-297) 5-945 20-90 | -279 160-84 | 50 | 311 |3-217 |-281) 4-588} 1-281! 5-869 20:90 | -279 5459 | 30 | 550 / 1-819] ... | 8172! 1-702} 9:875|38:174| 208 798 | 150 | -188 |5-320|-162, ... | ... | 4-229 214 REPORT—1860. AppENDIx V.—Letter from Mr. Archbold, Engineer-in-Chief, U. S. Navy. Office of Eugineer-in-Chief, Washington, D.C., May 12th, 1860. Srr,—I have the honour to transmit herewith, an abstract of the perform- ance of the U. S. Steam-sloop ‘ Wyoming,’ under steam alone, and under steam and sail, on the passage from Philadelphia to Valparaiso, Chili, col- lated from the logs of the engineer department of the ship. Iam unable to give you any account of her performances under sail alone, as in these logs no note of the sail is made when not under steam, and the ship’s logs are not sent to the Navy Department until the end of the cruise. No trial of the ship was made in smooth water uninfluenced by sea from which any data of value can be obtained. We do not try our ships at the measured mile, the guarantees required of the contractors of the machinery being on performances at sea, and for an extended length of time. The re- sults for each day, as shown by the abstracts, are not assumed to be strictly correct, as the data from which they are calculated are taken from the ordi- nary observations of the engine-room, subject to errors and inaccuracies unavoidable when the observers are so many, on duty for so short a time, and when attention is necessarily engrossed for the greater portion of the time in the care of the machinery. But as the errors are as likely to be on the one side of the truth as the other, the average and means will not be far from correct. Indicator diagrams were not found in the logs for each day, which will account for the omissions in some of the columns, and there was but one set taken during each twenty-four hours. The horse-power for the day was cal- culated from these diagrams, correcting for the average revolutions for the day ; and the horse-power for those days during which no diagrams were taken, is calculated from those taken on days when the circumstances of wind and sea were as nearly similar as could be found. The force of wind is expressed in our logs by numbers, as follows :—O, for calm; 1, light air; 2, light breeze; 3, gentle breeze; 4, moderate breeze; 5, fresh topgallant breeze ; 6, strong single-reefed topsail breeze; 7, moderate gale, or double- reefed topsails; 8, fresh gale, or three-reefed topsails; 9, strong gale, or close-reefed topsails and reefed courses; 10, heavy gale, or close-reefed maintopsails and reefed trysails; 11, storm trysails, or storm staysails; 12, hurricane, or when no sail would stand. In the column headed “ cut-off,” the figures indicate the distance in inches the steam followed the piston. The apparent discrepancy in the consumption of coal for the days between October 25 and 31 inclusive, and some of the columns of which the coal was the dividend, arises from the distilling apparatus having been in use, making fresh water for ship’s use; the amount of fuel due to the water freshened having been deducted before dividing. It should be remarked, in justice to our system of surface condensing, that the vacuum shown by these abstracts is not so good by from 10 to 12 per cent. as has been obtained by the same engines on former occasions, or by condensers of the same class in other ships. I trust you will find in the abstracts everything necessary to the object you have in view, and you may depend upon the truthfulness of the result as nearly as they could be obtained from the data we have before us. We have, in common with your Association, felt the want of systematized authentic information upon steam-ship performance, and should feel obliged by the receipt of any facts in relation to any of your modern vessels of war, ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 215 which the plan you have organized has developed; in return for which we shall be happy to render further service if desired. I have the honour to be, Sir, Your obedient Servant, SAMUEL ARCHBOLD, Engineer-in- Chief, U.S. Navy. Vice-Admiral C. R. Moorsom, Chairman of the Committee on Steam-ship Performance, British Association. Description and dimensions of the Hull, Engines, and Boilers of United States Sloop ‘Wyoming.’ Hutt. ft. in. Cpe SARA RACE AS ace crcocrortr rere ere rec 232 9 Length SUE APE SUCCAS sector cre tsecodethsad acnsseccasaascmessicos | 209+” 9 Length between perpendiculars. spadsoer Saco ebeacesoaneos IOsgNe 198 6 Length of keel from back al of forward stern post...... 158 O Width of beam, moulded.. dageaactteteccdtincstgenatedeg Oe Oe Width of beam, extreme . LA SR ean OP ree Oa ie Ta | Depth of hold . Seen clessinaieecaedudelich caslecwss tans tceren 5 Het PU Space allotted to ‘machinery GonIGr ORO CONC OGL ANC. acc EAL COLOO ei meeN) eats: Draft of water (loaded) forward..........cssecssesesscesecees Pes Mreatmrot Water (lORdEd) Ait... eo... ecscecscveccsscsnsecenscess 13 4 Area of immersed midship section ..........cscseesereeees sq- 391 O tons. SUEMREE GP as oh Pus o8 ti chavo escieek Vdeleedowsetay anleiaidtides Wipe aTE RIEL fee Ws cance ics aces oo soon cree ara icenessemedb ard gaens 997 err ebele Of CHANCE 65.1. 266 66s és ccs caccensstesecsenendac 17 ao EMPIHIIEC OL (OXI 65 255.05. ca0cenacwecdins dcoacupugntebaddestas. 1a? 30! ENGINES. Two in number, horizontal, with double piston rods, and direct-acting ; slide valves, and independent cut-off valves, and situated 76 feet 6 inches from serew. One surface condenser common to both engines, containing 3000 square feet of tube-surface. Cylinder, not jacketed, diameter............... 4 2 Cylinder, stroke of piston .....ccscceeceeeeeeese 2 6 The air-pump (one to each engine) is worked directly from the cross-head, and consequently has the same stroke as the steam-piston. Its piston is a barrel plunger, packed by a gland in the centre of the pump. The foot valves of vulcanized rubber are situated beneath the plunger, and the deli- veries above it. ft. in. Capacity of air-pump, one revolution............ eubic 3 3 Area of foot valves, one end .............s000066. 8G: 179 5 Area of delivery valves, one end .............5. 8q-» 270 O There is also a cold water circulating pump to each engine of the same dimensions as the air-pump. BoILers. Three boilers, with vertical water space tubes over the furnaces. Shells of 916 REPORT—1860. iron, tubes of brass, placed two on one side of the ship (of which one con- sists of a single furnace and is used as an auxiliary or “ donkey,” and to sup- ply the deficiency of fresh water caused by leakage, &c.) and one on the other side, facing each other, with a fire-room fore and aft between them. ff. n. Length of boiler ......ccscseseeseeteeseeeeeasesee see eesunncenseeeseaes 94 9 Breadth, including fire-roomj.e,. 2ssssesksgas es. aue~= ase aetee Eee 29 0 Depth, ecclnsive Of BLEAMAATUM *. cate seme seosuds ose ceeen ease eee 107 2 Depth, inclusive of steam drum 10 ft. diameter.................- 14 @2 Fire-room, length) se. ccc case gecemens sos coals eieeslee ag ries eee eee ee 24 9 Fire-room, Width oo, sect ose ctele ieusiecuiscecea uenowsisacteas stesseceeee 8 6 Heating surface in all eariee se Beuekccsuee ser sceceoncs tithe ER EEaee sq.7890 O | Tubes, malength ..).52,ccesencesnsasaot uss geeiieplosaace Seen meme 2 74 Tubes, pecans GiaMeter | sicscccsscsesosetecescs snes coe eeReeeenere Oe Tubes; WP BUmver. <5... Yeh s scenes ones acs etecncss cpeacanaae 4.230 FURNACES. ft. in Breadth, except “donkey,” which is 2 ft. Gin. .....ccsesee see eee 3°0 Length .. Se eRe wreeioisrae bd bicision § oie selene Selenisealedce sa he aaa eee 5 10 Area of all grates . - es ae 242 O Smoke-pipe, one telescopic, height w whieh’ up "(above grate) . 52 O MAMELSL coe ech se alebere ces one cc caamicncc ances icin cah\sin'ae eae carey sae eee 6 10 ADGA, see cnaions sewieiaiaeesiesis pps seg pens aie petals anew Least area between tubes in all boilers seresconsnonceveseecnsncsee SMe . GU Go tons. Weight of Dotlers (1.00... senasevssevesceves esnsnusseenes ouesvenunawee 74°75 Weight of water in Hellehen eco er O 41°37 ft. “in Cubic contents of water space........:..sceccesssocrecseececoccecees 1484 0 Cubic contents of steam space....,.... Slate athacete Mee 1318 O Contents of combustion Shambers ‘each farnace. soe acetate 6183 O Distance of fire-bars from top of furnace ........cceeceeeeeeee ees 2 30 Distance of fire-bars from ash-pit . ......0c0000cassecuiceseressusvsce 1 4 PROPELLER, one true screw of brass. ft. in. INumberofsblades' ..,. sssececrecoeccss cocesteleanatiownine osloctiveonten eee 4 0 Diameter on SCLEW . ccaccecanecrmesetcese eee cies se ese won ceckeearneee Vas ’ WD AINeleriOl DOSS sc. csc cc sanaecor ientes teeta ce crcless souls cciumseanteee cee 1 93 @ Length .. sisindleve eS O0-4a TTR EEE Ee 2 6 Projected ar area aL ‘tight ‘angles alee axis. as = T * 1 hom F | = , E )a| | a §s S. 3 f= aise t Oivnlenn | cana Frnt tack | Brook 0 ? r i i = ‘ : ts fave} a |e { 3 4 | { ‘ safe {a t ‘ . : 1) E [its | ahs - U0) I i $ § 43 fara | 3] pie at 100 | 3 1 D: Di t| r a : #100) 5 1 Date Ditto ed from Tih ee i : s v0] vo] wc iva ‘ (c 7 ast ot | eed : % , | 2 = | F ) Bxtratted from the A Table of 0 J Hae Sew ot ‘ " 21h, 4. 20) o|t 1 »| si200 | 19900 00 |e ‘ c A 7 "i | i \ a| 0 ¢ 3} 1 Jno) 6 21 : 4 ‘ , t | Ne 11 as | a 3} Dat 1 : ot | to i a Dit Ditto ‘ nae ‘ 6 | a8|2a| p a : a4 alo « i I 20 | som F rn ‘ 5 } ‘ 2 | 3\ 0 a | 5) ou mit tt Ey | er 2 : f 13 a aos r 77" iawn] 90 : : P oli ' Int 1 4 == ‘ Dit . 2 4 | s ( x 4 f f Two, 7) 1 ~ 3 i i J = a 0 sa) y | oft ae fills eal tesa ree Stabe. 1088 ‘4 om ta | 30 oh 0| a0] 2 D0 ; ‘ iy rr 2 wi} 8 One, 7°77 1 1 3 I I 20 u ( ‘ wr|s o|2 Tron. | One 29” diam, | 09 Tits 1 H ita mt ty i z s = iM lo 8 © : i : oo 8 1 rf Py 1 3 tla tht 1 Py 2 i tla jt © | 4 7 eu ‘ 0 S cs | - )2 m L. 1 f (Grat ” 10 2 414 Bul 7 4 i oO 8” diam 10 i} i |trcn Tile 4 10 23/24 14 bu 7 in 3,00 3 : t ‘ « Sy 125) u us| 6 0 es} Dite D a 7 ; | “ 1s }a 0 | 25) 23) Dit ite Py = == ale. a) 1 » 2 6| Dn s/o ¢ I 20 = D ws ; 4 ri mw | v7 | (0 2 saleo 5 j 188 : | Uae 246 3 3 4/20 | Bal 8 : 13s] a2 a8 5 | BP 5 c 0 ° s|s E a r 2l6 0 Ir , am, | 12 j bi { 1 $ 20|f0 14 o |e ola] 2. | mn a " re 4|T 6a} 09) 190 w7 4 1 “4 cor} fe 12 2u{110 19 63 Q One 9’ diam. ex, | 16 | i routes) 4 12 2a|1w 13 a 3|s bite | 70 16 | — Lin oa | i} ar | Silo. 7 us wa| ao} a ‘ ) m7 | 0/2 |r| tron. | 0: w.| 00 } 3 {3 | it) pa Cy ° ‘ T 46/163 u is | 4 i rd Iron, ‘Ona & 8” diam ei | Ta : (a | ati) at pi : | ae w | alc ea | Ee pa, 7 | a |144) tron. | ove a iam, z P ! é . | ad \ | | \ \ AMR atts \ THe = “ye a z : : meng) Cnt Peale ss wl \=\=| =) ; Wi cf 1s i : hn te sol200 10) | | v » 183 H | T# 3 a/200 10 | | BPS 7 | | | | . ; > = 2 a |. T 70] 110) 160) 7104 Gra sori 1 6 2 04 of 2 aj] 73 | 1s [an } roo. | Twos'diam, | 15 | 5390. | Adsl Moororn - : 2 (isstd ewe up| 4i7 100} 90) aK 0 0/68 0 0} 366 2 Grab tub be rnj}in 14) ws} 60| 3) pate | twos" dis Ditto = 3 il furnace 450 | | E r 2 | firs 7 Bt as r 70/116) 15.6] a0 seo | 935 | 1a | 6.1147 |Gratetsntnbesoivdl}| 1 6 2 0] of 1 a] 76 vies | 4 | a Ditto | Two 6’ dia 1s | est Ditto =, rs ” ‘, Fl Tuva vol i6}180 0 0|7 0 Gr 1060 loin 10] | oo! a Bro u Ditto wm | tp fur. 402 2 | ; : )an ¢ o0 : Ke 12 ¢ $0, ube Bul in 6 1o ros 190010 9 | OF ee = | Mafra. Caird aud Ca., of Green: : f 2 f : otal heal i it | saa | | Ditt 3 1 aie in. 03h ab | Taito / Dito su - those it 7070, total 1ONDS | | ix Wepetel by permission of Royal Mail Company . > : ) ; ( a ( | ; / 2 2 , { pages § sina tat | aiabaz anys log : ea . ‘ 4 | Totatar a3|100| 190) 137 rs00 [31a }100] 8°] Gen |r 1a ac} a2 0 | sos |o o}a ruse | Two 4 diam, . 7 4 olen 0 0 0 7 7 sal ‘m | . 1 Mait Con 1 ‘ ww |e tar 40} ana wooo | e000 | asa | on} 26 | c.2asa 20 20 | 2100 | 0 10 | 94 | 94 rT x | a7 xi Com Br » | sibs 4 bare | 4 ° : | ee | | | i cares gsdiios| Bebe rom Ing books of Royal Mail Company. : <= , 2 = , i=) 70 © 0 F = 5 Nord maar F | tt, | ald Napier and s: } sme | 1 : j ” caleiadea cl azo | o92'0.0 |-s0r0)usco! os | a0n ‘@etatony | varia aco. |\vaes focal lon) ak |-rvoa'o tan. | 92 | ni | Moe Napier and Ss of Glo 5 {io 4) far a rr tier 3088, 0 AWASOS , ; le Tit tures frags Tayal Bll Cowpany' log bo - 40 | Bz ) v wi | | a ¢ | ae ccc 1) Mail Coinpany oy * i my tp Oo 1 0) ou 2 tubalar re) 8 yy |e soit) sot 0.0} an1.00 | aos] 8973 | sa jo. c. 70128) Cr, 810, tobe 10,6008, 7 16 | inala s Tiras [Two 7/107 diam, : 7 | wa ; i Hog os | 24 . (ieee M | Go |e. 03035 | olbericanm 138 § | =i | pie Thtto tan foun Tioyal Mail Companys hog be ‘ myiee| 2 x 1 oo} = Nhwartaip.-|as-2 | a0 | 8 , H 7 p | a 00 1 ‘ BNP beret tc ec oo | 1 | coocmos |p. souy, ta. 916 ao as | ys} 7 0 Tron; |, One® diam, oran_| SP% A. and J. Inglis, of Glasgow 414 : P f am | en | i ? Beal S| bu FIMO | ater LORE ANOTTS |» | Ditto Ditto tra] Bact froma Haya Mail Company’ Yog book - ae) 7 - Rraiy Fay f | | aes - s : | 1 sch Me Tlandalph, F ef ; » Jia . 3 ie lass) 10000) ¢ 450 | rate 134, tale 1100,7} 3 0 +s | s}0 0/44) 4 | tron sont | pilolph, Elder, & Co, of Glsaguw ‘ ‘ : : a jae Lee ren) allo [ca th | other 108) oe : j Pa SL) 2fsind trom Tag took, by Foruiacoa : ae ay os ee rca) an | 2 fi | | sink | | Pea Navigation Company ole » : 7. : : a 00} sr00n | 414 forseaw} wo ola | 4p | 8 | at | mw | wt a bpletae vant 126/260] «| e200] e500] 760] 0) 1 | e400 |arte7,bating 2200/1 01010] 2 0 (eet Volos [co | sure | Meee ee eT oe cng, ie P : ot ; oH thy Nea tas ae 5 || 351 | ri 1 otal 0] a teisr Dio — fo oni & ‘ wr a7) i | | | | 7 . - Cs - mo » ifs 257 1 n Vine o|mol|no| 700) 00] mm 0} | 6.600 | Grate 190, other 9400 40 20 0 ou Pr Randolph, Elder, & Co, of Glasgow, , ‘ a 3 Lio a ne ALS | Sat wil: <8 lax 6 Bs Mfato from log book of aciie Sten Navigns 1 Tons ; . se : 4 | | apa t=. es ‘ : / 3 100 | 00 | 100) s001 6 xn |ante1uo, hes {2 0 3 0/2 0 1.0] @| gaia 28] 0} a Tran, 25 o% Kandalph, Rider, & ¢ 4) ‘ al " be Wp ‘ snr 1300, 20 ao/so 10] 2) tive | ; 1 i fron lg took’ of Peele Steara 2 — -—-26 : so | " a met! a te noo} aoo| 100] a0) 0, f y} sa }a ols Tron, daw, | on | suo Huandolph, Rider, & Co. aa : 0.01) aaa Tey || a poe } pio Din 7 | Meta fom og tok at Pacife Steam —4 Tmanp so | ¢ = | wr | ee n all vita toni) « - nen 2 i wD | o | 1000 }19} 4 mieT4, heating 2900. .| 3 0 Trvo. | One 6" 4" diam. 19 Teendsiph, Eder, and Co. omar i : wales) 2 a Di Tito 119) Ditto’ " " J at one as Pear oa ahd Iron. | Ooearea 708 Connel,(oember af the oomitien) b ne ata ais ‘ ne i Dita into on of the Maryuls of Stands fed th . e i pitts mito : | Garret tla 4 4) yg 90] 1000 2: Hews. | One, area aaa | TE MCounell, by permission of Lord Dalferin Viton phil 8 mb ‘ne tons with engine , Tron, ihito “ Tanikin, (member of the eomuitton) no} oof me i © \ 2 Ditto. ne 20 high, Thomas Steal, of Ayr, PO “ Dress, | Two #9" lam. John Pen snd Sons, of Greenwich. LIST OF THE BRITISH MARINE INVERTEBRATE FAUNA. 217 Interim Report on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches. 4 2 Donegal Square West, Belfast, ; 23rd June, 1869. __ Dear Srr,—-With reference to the experiments on the gauging of water by its flow in triangular notches, authorized by the General Committee at Abeideen, I have to report, for the information of the Association, that, as they have to be carried on in the open air in a field adjacent to a waterfall at several miles distance from home, and as they require the formation of ponds and the construction of measuring tanks, sluices, &e., and involve careful and repeated observations continued often through whole days, fine summer weather free from both rain and wind is almost quite essential, and winter weather is peculiarly unsuitable. For these reasons, and on account . of my duties at Queen’s College here, I could not enter on the construction of the experimental works until the close of the College Session, which _ occurred only on the 9th inst. I have now, however, got the principal parts of the works constructed, and have got preliminary trials made, but I have found it impossible to have the final experiments ready for the very early Meeting of the Association which occurs in the present year. For these experiments a grant of £10 was placed at my disposal ; and in order to meet the costs already incurred, of which some, from the nature of the case, are at present uncertain, I now apply to the Treasurer for the whole amount of the grant, for which I shall account at next year’s Meeting, giving at that meet- ing my report on the experiments now in progress. I am, dear Sir, yours faithfully, James THomson. To John Phillips, Esq., LL.D., F.RS., Assistant General Secretary, British Association. List of the British Marine Invertebrate Fauna. ts [For the Dredging Committee of the British Association. ] bs NOTICE. ) Tue following lists have been prepared in conformity with the desire of the Committee of the Natural History Section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, which, at my suggestion, recommended the appoint- ment of a general Dredging Committee, with a liberal grant of money for the carrying out of its objects. _ It is intended to place these lists in the hands of the local Dredging Com- ‘Mittees and naturalists engaged in researches in the most important districts of the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland, with a request that they may be returned, with notes on the conditions under which each species of the par- ticular district has been found, and memoranda of such additional species as may be obtained. By this means it is hoped to collect local lists of great nterest, and materials for a more complete catalogue of the Invertebrate Fauna of the British Seas. In the preparation of the present lists, I have Deen assisted by Dr. Baird and Mr. S. Woodward and other members of the Dredging Committee. The catalogue of Mollusca is taken from the work f Messrs. Forbes and Hanley; that of Crustacea has been obligingly fur- nished by Mr. Spence Bate; of Radiata by Mr. Stuart, of the Royal College 218 REPORT—1860. of Surgeons; of Sponges by Dr. Bowerbank; of Rhizopoda by Messrs. Rupert Jones and Parker; and to Dr. J. E. Gray I am indebted for permis- sion to extract the list of Annelida from an unpublished work by the late Dr. Johnston, of Berwick-upon-‘weed. ROBERT McANDREW. Isleworth House, Feb. 10, 1860. *,* The nomenclature and arrangement are taken (with a few slight modifications) from the “British Mollusca” of Messrs. Forbes and Hanley. +t The species marked with an asterisk have been recorded as British since the time when Mr. Barrett prepared the following list. Octopus, Cuvier. vulgaris, Lam. Eledone, Leach. octopodia, Penn. Rossia, Owen. Owenii, Bail. macrosoma, Delle Chiaje. Sepiola, Leach. Rondeletii, Leach. Murex, Linneus. erinaceus, Linn. corallinus, Scacchi. Trophon, Montfort. clathratus, Linn. muricatus, Mont. Barvicensis, Johnston. Fusus, Lamarck. gracilis, Da Costa. propinquus, Alder. Berniciensis, King. Dalei, J. Sowerby. fusiformis, Broderip. antiquus, Linn. Norvegicus, Chemn. Turtoni, Bean. Buccinum, Linneus. undatum, Linn. Humphresianum, Bennett. Nassa, Lamarck. reticulata, Linn. pygmexa, Lamarck. incrassata, Miiller. Purpura, Lamarck. lapillus, Linn. Columbella, Zam. nana, Lovén. Mangelia, Leach. attenuata, Mont. costata, Pennant. brachystoma, Philippi. *Ginnaniana, Philippi. gracilis, Mont. Leufroyi, Michaud. linearis, Mont. nebula, Mont. purpurea, Mont. rufa, Mont. CEPHALOPODA. Atlantica, D’ Orbigny. Ommastrephes, D’ Orbigny. sagittatus, Lam. todarus, Delle Chiaje. Eblanz, Ball. Loligo, Lamarck. vulgaris, Lam.? (Forbesi, Stp. De GASTEROPODA. Order PROSOBRANCHIATA. septangularis, Mont. striolata, Scacchi. teres, Forbes. Trevelliana, Turton. turricula, Mont. Lachesis, P7sso. minima, Mont. Marginella, Lamarck. levis, Donovan. Ovula, Lamarck. atula, Pennant. ? acuminata, Bruguiére. Cyprexa, Linneus. Europea, Mont. Natica, Lamarck. monilifera, Lamarck. nitida, Donovan. sordida, Philippi. Montagui, Forbes. helicoides, Johnston. pusilla, Say. Kingii, Forbes. Lamellaria, Montagu. perspicua, Linn. tentaculata, Mont. Velutina, Fleming. flexilis, Mont. levigata, Linn. ? Otina, Gray. otis, Turton. Trichotropis, Broderip. borealis, Brod. *Triton, Lamarch. cutaceus, Lam. nodiferus, Lan. Cerithiopsis, Forbes & Hanley. *Naiadis, Woodw. *nivea, Jeffr. media, Linn. marmore, Verany (media, var.). Sepia, Lenneus. officinalis, Linn. elegans, B/. biserialis, De Montfort. *pulchella, Jeffr. tubercularis, Mont. Odostomia, Fleming. acuta, Jeffreys. alba, Jeffreys. conoidea, Brocchi. conspicua, A/der. cylindrica, Alder. decussata, Monz. dolioliformis, Jeffreys. dubia, Jeffreys. eulimoides, Hanley. excavata, Philippi. glabrata, Mih/feldt. Gulsonx, Clark. insculpta, Mont. interstincta, Mont. minuta, Jeffreys. nitida, Alder. obliqua, Alder. pallida, Mont. plicata, Mont. rissoides, Hanley. spiralis, Mont. striolata, Alder. truncatula, Jeffreys. unidentata, Mont. Warrenii, Thompson. *Lukisii, Jeff. Eulimella, Forbes. acicula, Philippi. affinis, Philippz. clavula, Lovén. Scillx, Scacchi. Chemnitzia, D’ Orbigny. clathrata, Jeffreys. elegantissima, Mont. fenestrata, Jeffreys. —— LIST OF THE BRITISH MARINE INVERTEBRATE FAUNA. 219 formosa, Jeffreys. fulvocineta, Thomps. Mt indistincta, Mont. rufa, Philipp?. rufescens, Forbes, scalaris, Philippi. eximia, Jeffreys, Eulima, Risso. ome Linn. istorta, Deshayes. subulata, Donovan. bilineata, Alder. *stenostoma, Hanley. Stylina, Mleming. Turtoni, Broderip. Cerithium, Bruguiére. metula, Lovén. reticulatum, Da Costa. | adversum, Mont. | *niveum, Jeff. Aporrhais, A/drovandus. pes-carbonis, Brongniart. pes-pelecani, Linn. - Turritella, Lamarck. communis, isso. Aclis, Lovén. ascaris, Turton. supranitida, 8. Wood. 2? unica, Mont. nitidissima, Monzé. _ Ceeum, Fleming. trachea, Moni. glabrum, Mont. Scalaria, Lamarch. Turtoni, Turton. communis, Lamarch. clathratula, Monz. Greenlandica, Chemnitz. Trevelyana, Leach. Skenea, Fleming. ? costulata, Miiller. ? nevis, Philippi. Eemorbia, Fabr. ? nitidissima, Adams. ? rota, Forbes. Truncatella, Risso. Montagui, Lowe. Jetfreysia, Alder. opalina, Jeffreys. diaphana, Alder. globularis, Jeffreys. Rissoa, Frémenville. *Alderi, Jeffr. abyssicola, Forbes. anatina, Drap. Beanii, Hanley. calathus, Forbes. cingillus, Mont. _— Tornatella, Lamarck. fasciata, Linn. ulla, Lamarck. hydatis, Linn. Cranchii, Leach. costata, ddams. costulata, Risso. crenulata, Michaud. fulgida, Adams. inconspicua, Alder. labiosa, Mont. lactea, Michaud. littorea, Delle Chiaje. muriatica, Lam. parva, Da Costa. proxima, Alder. pulcherrima, Jeffreys. punctura, Mont. rubra, Adams. rufilabrum, Adder. sculpta, Philippi. semistriata, Mont. soluta, Philippi. striata, Mont. striatula, Mont. ulvee, Pennant. ventrosa, Mont. vitrea, Mont. Zetlandica, Mont. Assiminea, Leach. Grayana, Leach. Lacuna, Turton. crassior, Mont. vincta, Mont. puteolus, Turton. pallidula, Da Costa. Litorina, Férussac. fabalis, Turton. litoralis, Zinn. litorea, Linn. neritoides, Linn. tenebrosa, Mont. palliata, Say. patula, affray. rudis, Donovan. saxatilis, Johnston. Adeorbis, S. Wood. subcarinata, Montz. divisa, Meming. Trochus, Linn. alabastrum, Beck. cinerarius, Linn. conulus, Linn. exiguus, Pulteney. granulatus, Born. crassus, Pulteney (lineatus, Da Costa). magus, Linn. miliegranus, Philippi. Montagui, Gray. striatus, Linn. tumidus, Mon¢. umbilicatus, Mond. Akera, Miiller. bullata, Linn. Cylichna, Lovén. cylindracea, Pennant. conulus, Desh. lineatus, Da Costa. zizyphinus, Linn. Margarita, Leach. undulata, Sowerby. helicina, Fabr. pusilla, Jeffreys. Cutleriana, Clark. Phasianella, Lamarck. pullus, Linn. Tanthina, Lamarck. exigua, Lamarck. communis, Lamarck. pallida, Harvey. Scissurella, D’ Orbigny. crispata, Fleming. Haliotis, Linn. tuberculata, Linn. Emarginula, Lamarck. reticulata, J. Sow. rosea, Bell. crassa, J. Sow. Puncturella, Lowe. Noachina, Linn. Fissurella, Lamarck. reticulata, Donovan. Pileopsis, Lamarck. Hungaricus, Linn. Calyptrea, Lamarck. Sinensis, Linn. Acmea, Eschscholéz. testudinalis, Miiller. virginea, Miiller. Patella, Linneus. vulgata, Linn. athletica, Bean. pellucida, Linn. levis, Pennant. Pilidium, Forbes. fulvum, Miiller. zxopies Forbes (Lepeta, ancyloide, Forbes. Dentalium, Linneus. entale, Linn. Tarentinum, Lam. Chiton, Linneus. fascicularis, Linn. discrepans, Brown. Hanleyi, Bean. ruber, Linn. cinereus, Linn. albus, Linn. asellus, Chemmn. cancellatus, Sow. levis, Pennant. marmoreus, O, Fabr. Order OPISTHOBRANCHIATA. *Lajonkaireana, Basterot. mamillata, Philippi. nitidula, Zovén. obtusa, Mon. strigella, Lovén. 920 REPORT—1860. Bullxa, Lemarck. aperta, Linn. quadrata, S. Wood. scabra, Miiller. catena, Mont. punctata, Clark. pruinosa, Clark. Order NUDIBRANCHIATA. (From the Monograph of Messrs. Alder and Hancock, 1856.) truncata, Adams. umbilicata, Mont. Amphisphyra, Lovén. hyalina, Turton. Scaphander, Mon¢fort. lignarius, Linn. Aplysia, Gmelin. hybrida, Sow. Pleurobranchus, Cuvier. plumula, Mont. membranaceus, Mont. Diphyllidia, Cuvier. tineata, Otto, Doris, Linn. elegans, Leuck.. nana, A. & H. tuberculata, Cuv. Leachii, A. & H. stipata, 4. & H. flammea, A. f° H. aspersa, 4. & H. angulata, 4. & H. Zetlandica, 4. & H. ineequalis, Forbes. inornata, A. & A. millegrana, A. § H. pulchella, 4. & H. concinna, A. § H. Johnstoni, A. & H. quadricornis, Mont. olivacea, 4. & H. planata, 4. ¢ H. Tritonia, Cuvier. aurantiaca, 4. & H. coccinea, Forbes. Hombergii, Cuv. pustulata, 4. & H. ~ repanda, A. g H. aspera, A. & H. proxima, 4. 4 H. muricata, Miill. Ulidiana, Thomps. diaphana, 4. f H. oblonga, 4. ¢ H. bilamellata, LZ. depressa, 4. f H. inconspicua, 4. § H. pusilla, 4, & ZH. sparsa, A. § H. pilosa, Mil. subquadrata, A. & H. Goniodoris, Forbes. nodosa, Mont. castanea, A. & H. Triopa, Johnston. claviger, Mill. ABgirus, Loven. unctilucens, D’ Orb. Thecacera, Fleming. pennigera, Mont. virescens, A. f H. capitata, A. & H. Polycera, Cuvier. quadrilineata, Mudd. ocellata, A. & H. Lessonii, D’ Ord. Ancula, Lovén. cristata, Alder. Idalia, Leuckart. Hyalea, Lamarck. trispinosa, Lesweur. alba, A. & H. plebeia, Johnston. lineata, A. & H. Scylleea, Linn. pelagica, Linn. Lomanotus, Verany. marmoratus, 4. & H. flavidus, A. & H. Dendronotus, A. & H. arborescens, Miill. Doto, Oken. fragilis, Forbes. pinnatifida, Mont. coronata, Miill. JHolis, Cuvier. papillosa, Linn. glauca, A. & H. Alderi, Cocks. coronata, Forbes. Drummondi, Thomps, punctata, A. §& ZH. elegans, 4. & H. rufibranchialis, Johnst. lineata, Lov. smaragdina, A. & H. gracilis, A. & H. pellucida, 4. & H. Landsburgii, A. & alba, A. & H. carnea, 4. & H. glaucoides, 4. & H. Peachii, A. & H. PTEROPODA. HI. Flemingii, Forbes. Jeffreysii, Forbes. MacAndrei, Forves. Couchii, Cocks. ameena, 4. & H. Northumbrica, 4. & H. arenicola, Forbes. Glottensis, A. & H. viridis, Forbes. purpurascens, lem. cingulata, A. & H. vittata, 4. & H. cerulea, Mont. picta, 4. & H. tricolor, Forbes. amethystina, 4. & H. Farrani, 4. §& H. exigua, 4. § H. despecta, Johnst. Embletonia, 4. & H. pulchra, 4. & H. minuta, J. & G. pallida, 4. & H. Fiona, A. & H. nobilis, A. & H. Hermza, Lovén. bifida, Mont. dendritica, 4. & H, Alderia, Allman. modesta, Lovén. Proctonotus, A. & H. mucroniferus, 4. & H. Antiopa, 4. §& H. cristata, Del. Ch. hyalina, 4. & H. Spirialis, Lydoux & Soulcyet. Clio, Miiller. borealis, Zinn. LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. Pecten, O. F. Miller. *aratus, Gmelin. Danicus, Chemnitz. maximus, Z777. niveus, Macgillivray. opercularis, Linn. usio, Pennant. similis, Laskey. tigrinus, Miller. varius, linn. striatus, Miiller. furtivus, Lovén. Lima, Bruguiere. hians, Gmelin. Loscombii, Sowerby. subauriculata, Mont. Ostrea, Linneus. edulis, Linn. Anomia, Linneus. aculeata, Miiller. ephippium, Linn. striata, Lovén. patelliformis, Linn. LIST OF THE BRITISH MARINE INVERTEBRATE FAUNA, 221 Avicula, Bruguiére. Tarentina, Lam, Pinna, Linneus. _ pectinata, Linn. Mytilus, Linneus, edulis, Linn. Modiola, Lamarck. barbata, Linn. modiolus, Linn. *ovalis, G. B. Sdy. phaseolina, Philippi. tulipa, Lam. Crenella, Brown. costulata, isso, decussata, Mont. discors, Linn. nigra, Gray. marmorata, Forbes. _ rhombea, Berkeley. Area, Linneus. lactea, Linn. *nodulosa, Miiller. raridentata, S. Wood. _ tetragona, Poli. Pectunculus, Lamarck. __ glycimeris, Linn. - Nucula, Lamarck. decussata, Sow. nitida, Sow. nucleus, Linn. radiata, Hanley. tenuis, Afont. Leda, Schumacher. caudata, Don. emea, Miinster. Baiiam, Linneus. aculeatum, Linz. echinatum, Linn. edule, Linn. fasciatum, Mont. nodosum, Zurton. Norvegicum, Speng. *papillosum, Poli. pygmzxum, Don. rusticum, Linn. Suecicum, Reeve. meina, Bruguiére. borealis, Linn. divaricata, Linn. ferruginosa, Forbes, flexuosa, Mont. leucoma, Zurton. spinifera, Mont. iplodonta, Bronn. — rotundata, Mont. Kellia, Turton. suborbicularis, Monz. rubra, Mont. Purtonia, Hanley. ‘minuta, O. Fabr. ontacuta, Turton. bidentata, Mont. ferruginosa, Mont. substriata, Mont. epton, Turton. Clarkiw, Clark, “ nitidum, Turton. squamosum, Mont. *suleatulum, Jeff?. Galeomma, Twrton. Turtoni, Sow. Cyprina, Lamarck. Islandica, Linn. Circe, Schumacher. minima, Mont. Astarte, Sowerby. arctica, Gray. compressa, Mont. crebricostata, Forbes. elliptica, Brown. suleata, Da Costa. triangularis, Mont. Tsocardia, Lamarck. cor, Linn. Venus, Linneus, casina, Linn. fasciata, Don. ovata, Pennant. striatula, Don. verrucosa, Linn. Cytherea, Lamarck. chione, Linn. Artemis, Poli. exoleta, Linn. lineta, Puld. Lucinopsis, Forbes. undata, Penn. Tapes, Miihifeldt. aurea, Gmelin. decussata, Linz. pullastra, Wood. virginea, Linn. Venerupis, Lamarck. irus, Linn. Petricola, Lamarck. lithophaga, Retzius. Mactra, Linneus. elliptica, Brown. helvacea, Chemnitz. solida, Linn. stultorum, Zinn. subtruneata, Da Costa, truncata, Mont. Lutraria, Lamarck. elliptica, Linn. oblonga, Chemn. Tellina, Linneus. balaustina, Linn. crassa, Penn. donacina, Linn. fabula, Gronov. incarnata, Linn. proxima, Brown. pygmexa, Philippi. solidula, Pul¢. tenuis, Da Cosfa. Gastrana, Sch. (Diodonta, F. &§ ZZ). fragilis, Linn. Psammobia, Lamarck. costulata, Turt. Ferroensis, Chemn. tellinella, Lam. vespertina, Chemn, Syndosmya, Recluz. alba, Wood. intermedia, Thomps, prismatica, Mont. tenuis, Mont. Serobicularia, Schumacher. piperata, Gmelin. Ervilia, Turton. castanea, Mont. Donax, Linneus. anatinus, Lam. politus, Poli, Solen, Linneus. ensis, Linn. marginatus, Plt. pellucidus, Penn. siliqua, Linn. Ceratisolen, Forbes. legumen, Linn. Solecurtus, Blainville. candidus, Renieri. coarctatus, Gmelin. Mya, Linneus. arenaria, Linn. truncata, Linn. Corbula, Bruguiére, nucleus, Lam. ovata, Forbes. rosea, Brown. Sphenia, Zurton. Binghami, Turton. Newra, Gray. abbreviata, Lorbes, costellata, Desh. cuspidata, Olivi. Poromya, Forbes (=Thetis, Sby.). granulata, Myst. Panopxa, Menard dela Groye. Norvegica, Speng, Saxicava, Bellevue,” arctica, Linn. *fragilis, Nys¢. rugosa, Linn. Cochlodesma, Leach (=Peri- ploma, Sch.). preetenue, Pult. Thracia, Leach. convexa, Wood. distorta, Mont. phaseolina, Zam. pubescens, Pu/¢. villosiuscula, Macgill. Lyonsia, Turton. Norvegica, Chemn. Pandora, Bruguiére. obtusa, Leach. rostrata, Lan. Gastrocheena, Spengler. modiolina, Lam. Pholas, Linneus. candida, Linz. crispata, Linn. dactylus, Linn. 222 parva, Penn. striata, Linn. Pholadidea, Turton. lamellata, Turton. papyracea, Solander. Crania, Retzius. anomala, Miiller. Rhynchonella, Fischer. psittacea, Chemn. Aplidium, Savigny. ficus, Linn. fallax, Johnst. nutans, Johnst. Sidnyum, Savigny. turbinatum, Savig. Polyclinum, Savigny. aurantium, M.-Edw. Amouroucium, M.-Edw. proliferum, M.-Hdw. Nordmanni, M.-Edw. Argus, M.-Edw. Leptoclinum, M.-Hdw. maculosum, M.-Hdw. asperum, M.-Hdw. aureum, M.-Hdw. gelatinosum, M.-EHdw. Listerianum, M.-Edw. punctatum, Forbes. Distoma, Gaertner. rubrum, Savig. variolosum, Gaertner. Botryllus, Gaertner. Schlosseri, Pallas. polycyclus, Savig. gemmeus, Savig. violaceus, M.-Hdw. smaragdus, M.-Edw. virescens, 4. & H. bivittatus, M.-Edw. Stenorhynchus, Lamarck. phalangium, Pennant. tenuirostris, Leach. Achzeus, Leach. Cranchii, Leach. Inachus, Fabr. Dorsettensis, Penn. dorhynchus, Leach. leptochirus, Leach. Pisa, Leach (Arctopsis, Lam.). tetraodon, Leach. Gibbsii, Leach (lanata, Lam.) Hyas, Leach. araneus, Fabr. coarctatus, Leach, Maia, Lam. squinado, Herbst. Eurynome, Leach. aspera, Leach. Xantho, Leach. florida, Leach. rivulosa, Hdw. REPORT—1860. Xylophaga, Turton. dorsalis, Turton. Teredo, ddanson. bipennata, Turton. malleolus, Turton. BRACHIOPODA. Terebratula, Bruguiére. caput serpentis, Linn. cranium, Miller. capsula, Jeffreys. TUNICATA. rubens, 4. & H. castaneus, 4. & H. Botrylloides, M.-Hdw. Leachu, Savig. ramulosa, A. & H. albicans, M.-Hdw. radiata, 4. & H. rotifera, M.-Hdw. rubra, M.-Edw. Clavelina, Savigny. lepadiformis, O. F'. Miiller. Perophora, Wiegmann. Listeri, Wiegm. Syntethys, Forbes & Goodsir. Hebridicus, F. & G, Ascidia, Baster. intestinalis, Linn. eanina, O. F. Miill. venosa, O. F. Mull. mentula, O. F. Mill. arachnoidea, E. Forbes. scabra, O. F'. Miill. virginea, O. F. Miill. parallelogramma, O. F. Mill. prunun, Miil.? orbicularis, Mi7. depressa, 4. & H. aspersa, Miill. vitrea, Van Beneden. CRUSTACEA. BRACHYURA, tuberculata, Couch. Cancer, Linn. pagurus, Linn. Pilumnus, Leach. hirtellus, Leach. Pirimela, Leach. denticulata, Mont. Carcinus, Leach. meenas, Linn. Portumnus, Leach. variegatus, Leach (latipes, Penn.). Portunus, Leach. puber, Linn. corrugatus, Leach, arcuatus, Leach. depurator, Leach. marmoreus, Leach. holsatus, abr. pusillus, Leach. longipes, Risso. plicatus, Risso. megotara, Hanley. navalis, Linn. Norvegica, Speng. palmulata, Lam. Argiope, Deslongchamps. cistellula, Searles Wood. *decollata, Chemn. conchilega, O. F. Mill. echinata, Linn. sordida, 4. & H. albida, A. & H. elliptica, 4. & H. pellucida, A. & Z. Molgwia, #. Forbes. oculata, L. Forbes. arenosa, A. & H. Cynthia, Savigny. microcosmus, Savig. claudicans, Savig. tuberosa, Macgillivray. quadrangularis, Z. Forbes. informis, £. Forbes. tessellata, 2. Forbes. limacina, Z. Forbes. morus, £. Forbes. rustica, Linn. grossularia, Van Beneden. ampulla, Brug. mamillaris, Pallas. ageregata, Rathke. coriacea, A. & H. Pelonaia, Forbes & Goodsir. corrugata, Forbes & Hanl. glabra, Forbes & Hani. Salpa, Chamisso. runcinata, Cham. Appendicularia, Chamisso, sp. carcinoides, Kin. Polybius, Leach. Henslowii, Leach. Pinnotheres, Lazr, pisum, Penn. veterum, Bose. Gonoplax, Leach. angulata, Leach. Planes, Leach. Linnezana, Leach. Ebalia, Leach. Pennantii(tuberosa, Penn.). Bryerii, Leach (tumefacta, — Mont.). Cranchii, Leach. Atelecyclus, Leach. heterodon, Leach (septem- dentatus, Mont.). Corystes, Leach. Cassivelaunus, Leach. Thia, Leach. polita, Leach. —e ee LIST OF THE BRITISH MARINE INVERTEBRATE FAUNA. Dromia, Hdw. vulgaris, Edw. _ Lithodes, Latr. Maia, Leach. Pagurus, Fabr. Bernhardus, Linn. Prideauxii, Leach. Cuanensis, Thonvpson. Ulidianus, Thompson. Scyllarus, Fabr. arctus, Linn. Palinurus, Fabr. Homarus, Linn. Callianassa, Leach. subterranea, Leach, Gebia, Leach. stellata, Mont. deltura, Leach. Axius, Leach. stirhynchus, Leach, Calocaris, Bell. Macandrex, Bell. _ Astacus, Fadr. gammarus (Z.) (marinus, 7 Fabr.; vulgaris, Ldw.). Nephrops, Leach, S WN orvegicus, Linn. — Crangon, Fabr. ; vulgaris, abr. fasciatus, Pzsso. spinosus, Leach. sculptus, Bed/, _ Mysis, Lat. chameleon, V. Thompson. vulgaris, V. Thompson. Griffithsie, Beil. Lamorne, Couch. productus, Gosse. Oberon, Couch. Thysanopoda, Edw. Couchii, Bell. Macromysis, White(Themisto, Goodsir, Bell). longispinosus, Goodsir. brevispinosus, Goodsir, ynthilia, Whzte (Cynthia, V. Thomps., Beil). Orchestia, Leach. littorea, Mont. _Deshayesii, Savig. Mediterranea, Costa (levis, S. Bate; littorea, var., _ White). Allorchestes, Dana. Nilssonii, Kréyer (Danai, ‘Spence Bate). imbricatus, Spence Bate. ANOMOURA, Hyndmanni, Thompson. levis, Thompson. Forbesii, Bell. Thompsoni, Bell. fasciatus, Bell. Dillwynii, Spence Bate. Porcellana, Lamarck. platycheles, Penn. longicornis, Penn. MACROURA. trispinosus, Hai/stone. bispinosus, Westw., Kina- han. Allmanni, Kin. Pattersonii, Kin. Alpheus, Fabr. ruber, Hdw. affinis, Guise. Autonomea, Risso. Olivii, Risso, Nika, Risso. edulis, Risso. Couchii, Bell. Athanas, Leach. nitescens, Mont., Leach. Hippolyte, Leach. spinus, Sowerby. varians, Leach. Cranchii, Leach. Thompsoni, Bell. Prideauxiana, Leach. Gordoni, Spence Bate. fascigera, Gosse. STOMAPODA. Flemingii, Goodsir, Cuma, Edwards. scorpioides, Mont. unguiculata, Spence Bate. Vaunthomsonia, Spence Bate. Edwardsii, Kréyer. cristata, Spence Bate. Diastylis, Say (Alauna, Good- sir, Bell). Rathkii, Kr. (vostrata, Goodsir, Bell). Eudora, Spence Bate. truncatula, Spence Bate. AMPHIPODA NORMALIA. Nicea, Nicolet (Galanthis, Spence Bate). Lubbockiana, Spence Bate. Montagua, Spence Bate. monoculoides, Montagu (Lyphis monoculoides, White, Gossc). marina, Spence Bate. Alderii, Spence Bate. pollexiana, Spence Bate. Danaia, Spence Bate. dubia, Spence Bate. 223 Galathea, Faér. squamifera, Leach. dispersa, Spence Bate. strigosa, Fabr. nexa, Hmb. Andrewsii, Kinahan. Munida, Leach. Bamfica, Penn. (Rondeletii, Bell), Grayana, Thompson. Mitchelli, Thompson. Whitei, Thompson. Yarrellii, Thompson. Barleei, Spence Bate. pandaliformis, Beil. pusiola, Kroyer. Pandalus, Leach. Jeffreysii, Spence Bate, Kinahan. annulicornis, Leach. leptorhynchus, Kin. Palzemon, Fabr. serratus, Penn. squilla, Fabr. Leachii, Bell. varians, Leach. Pasipheea, Savigny. sivado, Risso. Pensxus, Fabr. caramote, Risso. Tphithoé, Spence Bate (Halia, Spence Bate, White). trispinosa, Goodsir, Bodotria, Goodsir. arenosa, Goodsir, Cyrianassa, Spence Bate (Ve- nilia, Spence Bate, White). gracilis, Spence Bate. longicornis, Spence Bate. Squilla, Fabr. Desmarestii, Risso. mantis, Rondelet. Phyllosoma, Leach. Cranchii, Leach, Lysianassa, M.-Edw, Coste, M.-Edw. Audouiniana, Spence Bate. longicornis, Lucas (Chau- sica, Sp. B., not M.-F.). Atlantica, Edw. (marina, Spence Bate). Callisoma, Hope (Scopelo- cheirus, Spence Bate). crenata, Spence Bate. Anonyx, Kréyer. Edwardsii, Kréyer, 224 Edwardsii, Kréyer. minutus, Krdyer. Holbolli, Kréyer. ampulla, Kréyer. denticulatus, Spence Bate. longipes, Spence Bate. obesus, Spence Bate. longicornis, Spence Bate. Opis, Kréyer. typica, Kréyer. Ampelisca, Kréyer (Tetro- matus, Spence Bate). Gaimardii, Kréyer (typica, Spence Bate). Belliana, Spence Bate. Westwoodilla (Westwoodia, Spence Bate). cxcula, Spence Bate. hyalina, Spence Bate. Monoculodes, Stimpson. carinatus, Spence Bate. Kréyera, Spence Bate. arenaria, Spence Bate. Phoxus, Kréyer. simplex, Sp. Bate (Kvéyeri, Spence Bate, not Stimp- son). plumosus, HoJdéll. Holbolli, Kréy. Suleator, Spence Bate. arenarius, Spence Bate. Urothoé, Dana. marinus, Spence Bate (Sul- cator marinus). Bairdii, Spence Bate. medius, Spence Bate. elegans, Spence Bate. Grayia, Spence Bate. imbricata, Spence Bate. Liljeborgia, Spence Bate. pallida, Spence Bate. Phiedra, Spence Bate. antiqua, Spence Bate. Kinahani, Spence Bate. Tsxa, M.-Edwards. Montagui, M.-Edw. Iphimedia, Rathke. Lestrigonus, Guérin. Fabricii, M.-Edw. REPORT—1860. obesa, Rathke. Eblanxe, Spence Bate. Otus, Spence Bate. carinatus, Spence Bate. Acanthonotus, Owen. testudo, Montagu. Dexamine, Leach. Loughrinii, Spence Bate. spinosa, Mont. Eusirus, Kréyer. ‘ Edwardi, Spence Bate. Helvetix, Spence Bate. Atylus, Leach. bispinosus, Spence Bate. Huxleyanus, Spence Bate. Gordonianus, Spence Bate. Pherusa, Leach. cirrus, Spence Bate. fucicola, Edw. Calliope, Leach. Leachii, Spence Bate. Lembos, Spence Bate. Cambriensis, Spence Bate. versiculatus, Spence Bate. Websterii, Spence Bate. Danmoniensis, Spence Bate. Adra, Kroy. (=Lalaria, Ni- colet). gracilis, Spence Bate. Eurystheus, Spence Bate. tridentatus, Spence Bate. tuberculosus, Spence Bate. Gammarella, Spence Bate. brevicaudata, M.-Edw. (= G. orchestiformis, Spence Bate). Crangonyx, Spence Bate. subterranea, Spence Bate. Amathia, Iathke. Sabinii, Leach. Gammarus, Fabr. locusta, abr. fluviatilis, Rese. gracilis, Rathke. camptolops, Leach. marinus, Leach. laminatus, Johnston. AMPHIPODA HYPERINA. Phronima, Lar. sedentaria, Fors. longimanus, Leach. ; palmatus, Mont. (insequi- manus, Spence Bate). grossimanus, Mont. maculatus, Johnston. Bathyporeia. Lindstrém (Thersites, Spence Bate). pilosa, Lindstrom. pelagica, Spence Bate. Robertsoni, Spence Bate. Leucothoé, Leach, not Kroyer. articulosa, Mont. furina, Savig. (procera, Sp. Bate). Pleonexes, Spence Bate. gammaroides, Spence Bate. Amphithoé, Leach. rubricata, Mont. littorina, Spence Bate. ? obtusata, Leach. ? dubia, Johnston. Sunamphithoé, Spence Bate. hamulus, Spence Bate. conformata, Spence Bate. Podocerus, Leach. faleatus, Mont. yariegatus, Leach. pulchellus, Leach. Jassa ?, Leach. pelagica, Leach. Siphonecetus, Kréyer. Whitei, Gosse. Erichthonius, M.-Edw, difformis, M.-Edw. Cyrtophium, Dana. Darwinii, Spence Bate. Corophium, Latreille. longicorne, Fabr. Chelura, Philippi. terebrans, Phil. Hyperia, Latreille. Galba, Mont. (Latreillii, Edw.=Metoechus medu- — sarum, Latr.). oblivia, Kréy. Typhis, Risso. nolens, Johnston. AMPHIPODA ABERRANTIA. (Lxmopipopa of Latreille.) Dulichia, Kréyer. porrecta, Spence Bate. falcata, Spence Bate. Proto, Leach. pedata, Leach. Goodsirii, Spence Bate. Protella, Dana. longispina, Kréyer. Caprella, Lamarck. linearis, Lar. Pennantii, Leach. tuberculosa, Goodsir. lobata, Miiller. acuminifera, M.-Edw. Cyamus, Lafreille, ceti, Linn. ovalis, Roussel. gracilis, Roussel. Thompsoni, Grosse, ISOPODA ABERRANTIA. (Anisopopa of Dana.) Arcturus, Zar. (Astacilla, Johnston; Leachia, John- ston.) longicornis, Sow, intermedius, Goodsir, gracilis, Goodsir. Anthura, Leach. gracilis, Mond, cylindricus, Mon¢. Tanais, 1f.-Edw. Dulongii, Aud. hirticaudatus, Spence Bate. ee LIST OF THE Apseudes, Leach. talpa, Mont. Anceus, Risso. mavyillaris, Mont. rapax, M.-Edw. Praniza, Leach. ceruleata, Mont. Munna, Kréver. Kroyeri, Goodsir. Whiteana, Spence Bate. Jzra, Leach. albifrons, Leach. Oniscoda, Lazreille. maculosa, Leach. Deshayesii, Lucas. Limnoria, Leach. lignorum, fathke (tere- brans, Leach). Idotea, Fabr. pelagica, Leach. tricuspidata, Desm. emarginata, Fabr. linearis, Lazr. Order I. PHYLLOPODA. Nebalia, Leach. bipes, O. Fabr. Artemia, Leach. salina, Linz. Order II. CLADOCERA. Eyadne, Lovén. Nordmanni, Lovén. Order IIT. OSTRACODA. Fam, I. Cytheride. _ COythere, Miller. flavida, Miill. reniformis, Baird. albo-maculata, Baird. alba, Baird. yariabilis, Baird. aurantia, Baird. ' nigrescens, Baird. Minna, Baird. angustata, Minster. acuta, Baird. pellucida, Baird. impressa, Baird. fusca?, Johnston. Edwardii, Spence Bate. Liriope, Kréyer. balani, Spence Bate. Tone, Mont. thoracica, Mont. ISOPODA (NORMALIA). acuminata, Leach. appendiculata, Risso. Ligia, Fabr. oceanica, Jinn. Sphzroma, Latr. serratum, abr. rugicauda, Leach. Hookeri, Leach. Cymodocea, Leach. truncata, Leach. emarginata, Leach. Montagui, Leach. rubra, Leach. viridis, Leach. Nerzea, Leach. bidentata, Adams. ENTOMOSTRACA. quadridentata, Baird. conyexa, Baird. Cythereis, Rupert Jones, Whitei, Baird. Jonesii, Baird. antiquata, Baird. Fam. II. Cypridinide. Cypridina, M.-Hdw. Macandrei, Baird. Brenda, Baird. Marix, Baird. interpuncta, Baird, Order ITV. COPEPODA. Fam. I. Cyclopide. Canthocamptus, Westwood. Strémii, Baird. furcatus, Baird. minuticornis, Mill. Arpacticus, M.-Edw. chelifer, Miil?. nobilis, Baird. Alteutha, Baird. depressa, Baird. BRITISH MARINE INVERTEBRATE FAUNA. 225 Bopyras, Latr. squillarum, Laz. hippolytes, Kréyer. Phryxus, Rathke. hippolytes, Rathke. paguri, Reathke. Campecopea, Leach. hirsuta, Mont. Cranchii, Leach. Cirolana, Leach. Cranchii, Leach. Eurydice, Leach. pulchra, Leach. fea, Leach. bicarinata, Leach. tridens, Leach. Conilera, Leach. cylindracea, Mont. Rocinela, Leach. Danmoniensis, Leach. monophthalma, Johnston. Fam, II. Diaptomidz. Temora, Baird. Finmarchica, Gunner. Calanus. euchzta, Lubbock. Anglicus, Lubbock. Anomalocera, Templeton. Patersonii, Templeton. Fam. III. Cetochilide. Cetochilus, Vauzéme. septentrionalis, Goodsir. Pontella, Dana. Wollastoni, Lubbock. Pontellina, Dana. brevicornis, Lubbock. Peltidium, Philippi. purpureum ?, Phil. Coryceus, Dana. Anglicus, Lubbock. Fam. IV. Monstrillide. Monstrilla, Dana. Anglica, Lubbock. On what ani- On what ani- Bpeaics, mals found. decree mals found. Order V. Miilleri, Zeach.............../various fishes. SIPHONOSTOMA. centrodonti, Baird ......... sea bream. ey minutus, Oto holibut. Fam. I. Caligide. curtus, Miil/. ray. Caligus, Miiller. |Lepeophtheirus, Nordmann. diaphanus, Nordm. ......... various fishes. Stromii, Baird. ........... on salmon. rapax, M.-Edw. .......1.05. various fishes. pectoralis, Mill. .......s000 yarious fishes. 1860. Q 226 Species. Nordmanni, M.-Edw. ...... hippoglossi, Kréy. ......... obscurus, Baird Thompsoni, Baird Chalimus, Burmeister. scombri, Burvit..........2.+. Trebius, Kroyer. caudatus, Kréy. ............ Fam. II. Pandaride. Dinemoura, Lafreille. alata; M-BOUEY. .....ccrsnes= lamnzx, Johnst............000. Fam. III. Cecropide. Pandarus, Leach. bicolor, Leach Cecrops, Leach. Latreillei, Leach Lemargus, Kroyer. muricatus, K7réy. ............ Fam. IV. Anthosomide. Anthosoma, Leach. Smithii, Leach ............... Fam. V. Ergasilide. Nicothoé, M.-Edwards. astaci, M.-Edw. ee eee Fam. I. Balanide. Balanus (Lister). tintinnabulum, Linn. spongicola, Brown. perforatus, Bruguiére. Amphitrite, Darwin. eburneus, dug. Gould. improyisus, Darwin. porcatus, Da Costa. crenatus, Bruguiére. balanoides, Linz. Hameri, Ascanius. Acasta, Leach. spongites, Poli. Order PODOSOMATA. Fam. I. Pycnogonide. Pycnogonum, Fabricius. littorale, Strozm. Phoxichilus, Latreille. spinosus, Mont. REPORT—1860. On what ani- On what ani- mals found. Species. mals found. sun-fish. Fam. VI. holibut. Chondracanthide. brill. Chondracanthus, De Za Roche. turbot. Zei, De la Roche ............ gills of dory. Lernentoma, De Blainville. on mackerel. cornuta, Miill. ...........0... gills of sole. SeeliMae,, ...ccsscseesseeee gills of gurnard. on skate. lophii, Johnst. ...1.1....080 pouches of an- Lerneopoda, De Blainville. gler. elongata, Grant ............ shark. harie. Galen Troy. ..... Jee shark. Br hake AalMIONEA TY, checidoeceeanee salmon, ‘Fam. VII. Anchorellide. 'Anchorella, Cuvier. on shark. uncinata, Mill. .........5.. on the cod. TUPOSH, MOY. ..use.seeeee ee on the cod. on sun-fish. Fam. VIII. Lerneide. on sun-fish, |Lernea, L. Pranchialts, Ji cic..3rces ae gills of cod. Lerneonema, M.-Edwards. Beate, SOY. oo... sce corks on the sprat. on shark. Baird, SGiernc acceso cteees herring. encrasicoli, Twrt. ............ sprat. on gills of lobster CIRRIPEDIA. Pyrgoma, Leach. Anglicum, G. B. Shy. Xenobalanus, Sfeenstrup. globicipitis, Steenstrup. Chthamalus, Ranzani. stellatus, Poli. _ Verruca, Schumacher. Strémia, O. Miiller. Alcippe, Hancock. lampas, Hancock. Fam. II. Lepadide. Lepas, Linn. anatifera, Linn. Hillii, Leach. ARACHNIDA. - Fam. Il. Nymphonide. Phoxichilidium, M.-Edwards. coccineum, Joknst. globosum. olivaceum. Pallene, Johnston. brevirostris, Johnst. ANNELIDA. anserifera, Linn. pectinata, Spengler. fascicularis, Ellis § Solander. Conchoderma, OZfers. aurita, Linn. virgata, Spengler. Alepas, Sander-Rang. parasita, Sander-Rang. Anelasma, Darwin. squalicola, Lovén. Sealpellum, Leach. vulgare, Leach. Pollicipes, Leach. cornucopia, Leach. Nymphon, Fabricius. gracile, Leach. grossipes, O. Fabr. femoratum, Leach. pictum. giganteum, Johnst. *,* The following list of British Marine Worms is copied, by favour of Dr. J. E. Gray, from an unpublished Catalogue by the late Dr. Johnston. Order I. TURBELLARIA. Fam. I. Planoceride. Leptoplana, Ehrenberg. subauriculata, Johnston. tremellaris, Miiller. flexilis, Dalyell. - atomata, Miiller. ellipsis, Dalyell. Eurylepta, Ehrenberg. cornuta, Miiller. Dalyellii, Johnston. . * LIST OF THE BRITISH MARINE INVERTEBRATE FAUNA. sanguinolenta, Quatrefages. vittata, Montagu. Planocera, Blainville. folium, Gruée. Fam. II. Planariade. Planaria, Miiller. ulvee, Oersted. affinis, Oersted. alba, Dalyell. variegata, Dalyell. ? gracilis, Dalyell. ? falcata, Dalyell. Fam. III. Dalyellide. Typhloplana, Ehrenberg. flustree, Dalyell. Convoluta, Oersted. paradoxa, Oersted. Doubtful species of this fam. Planoides fusca, Dalyell. Planaria hirudo, Johnston. Astemma, Oersted. rufifrons, Johnston. filiformis, Johnston. Cephalotrix, Oersted. lineatus, Dalyell. flustra:, Dalyell. Tetrastemma, Khrenberg. varicolor, Oersted. variegatum, Dalyell. alge, Dalyell. Borlasia, Johnston. olivacea, Johnston. octoculata, Johnston. purpurea, Johnston. Gesserensis, Miiller. striata, Rathke. Ommatoplea, Ehrenberg. gracilis, Johnston. rosea, Miiller. alba, Thompson. melanocephala, Johnston. pulchra, Johnston. Stylus, Johnston. viridis, Dalyell. purpureus, Dalyell. fragilis, Dalyell. fasciatus, Dalyell. Lineus, 7. W. Simmons, longissimus, Simmons, gracilis, Goodsir. lineatus, Johnston. murenoides, D. Chiaje. fasciatus, Johnston. _ viridis, Dalyell. _ albus, Dalyell. eckelia, Leuckart. annulata, Montagu. tenia, Dalyell. Serpentaria, H. D. S. Goodsir. fragilis, Goodsir. fusca, Dalyell. Order II. BDELLOMORPHA. Fam. I. Malacobdellide. Malacobdella, Blainville. grossa, Miiller. Valenciennxi, Blanchard, anceps, Dalyell. Order III. BDELLIDEA. Fam. I. Branchelliade. Branchellion, Savigny. torpedinis, Savigny. Fam. II. Piscicolide, Pontobdella, Leach. muricata, Linn. verrucata, Grube. areolata, Leach. levis, Blainville. littoralis, Johnston. campanulata, Dalyell. Order IV. SCOLICES. Fam. I. Lumbricide. Senuris, Hoffmeister. lineata, Miiller. Clitellio, Savigny. arenarius, Miiller. Valla, Johnston. ciliata, Miiller. Order V. GYMNOCOPA. Fam. I. Tomopteride. Tomopteris, Eschscholtz. onisciformis, Grube. Order VI. CHAATOPODA. Fam. I. Aphroditide. Aphrodita, Leach. aculeata, Linn. borealis, Johnston. hystrix, Savigny. Lepidonotus, Leach. squamatus, Linn. clava, Montagu. impar, Johnston. pharebratus, Johnston. cirratus, Fabr. semisculptus, Leach. pellucidus, Dyster. imbricatus, Linn. Species not defined. Aphrodita squamata, Dal- yell. lepidota, Pallas. | minuta,. Pennant. annulata, Pennant. 'e velox, Dalyell. Lepidonotus floccosus ?, Dalyell. Polynoé semisquamosa, Williams, 227 Polynoé, Oersted. scolopendrina, Savigny. Pholoé, Johnston. inornata, Johnston. eximia, Dyster. Sigalion, dud. § M.-Edwards. boa, Johnston. Fam. II. Amphinomenide. Euphrosyne, Savigny. foliosa, dud. §& M.-Edwards. borealis, Oersted. Fam. III. Euniceidee. Eunice, Aud. § M.-Edwards, Norvegica, Linn. annulicornis, Brit. Mus. antennata, Savigny. Harassii, dud. & M.-Edw. sanguinea, Montagu. margaritacea, Williams. Northia, Johnston. tubicola, Miiller. conchylega, Sars. Lycidice, Savigny. Ninetta, dud. § M.-Edw. rufa, Gosse. Lumbrineris, Blainville. tricolor, Leach. Fam. IV. Nereide. Nereis, Cuvier. brevimana, Johnston. pelagica, Linn. diversicolor, Miiller. cerulea, Linn. fimbriata, Miiller. imbecillis, Grube. - Dumerilii, dud. § M.-Edw. pulsatoria, Montagu. Nereilepas, Oersted. fucata, Savigny. Heteronereis, Oersted. lobulata, Savigny. renalis, Johnston. longissima, Johnston. margaritacea, Johnston. Fam. V. Nephthyide. Nephthys, Cuvier. cxca, Fabr. longisetosa, Oersted. Hombergii, Cuv. ? ? Fam. VI. Phyllodoceide. Phyllodoce, Cuvier. lamelligera, Turton. bilineata, Johnston. maculata, Linn. viridis, Linn. ellipsis, Dalyell. Griffithsii, Johnston. cordifolia, Dyster. Psamathe, Johnston. punctata, Miiller. Q2 228 Fam. VIT. Glyceridz. Glycera, Savigny. mitis, Johnston. dubia, Blainville. capitata, Oecrsted. nigripes, Johnston. Goniada, Aud. & M.-Edwards. maculata, Oersted. Fam. VIII. Syllide. Syllis, Savigny. armillaris, Miller. cornuta, H. Rathke. prolifera, Miiller. ? monoceros, Dalyell. Gattiola, Johnston. spectabilis, Johnston. Myrianida, M.-Hdw. pinnigera, Montagu. Toida, Johnston. macrophthalma, Johnston. Fam. IX. Amytideide. Amytidea, Grube. maculosa(Nereis), Montagu Fam, X. Ariciade. Nerine, Johnston. vulgaris, Johnston. coniocephala, Johnston. Doubtful species. Nerine contorta (Nereis), Dalyell. Spio, Turton. filicornis, Miiller. seticornis, Zurton. crenaticornis, Montagu. Leucodore, Johnston. ciliatus, Johnston. Ephesia, Rathke. gracilis, Rathke. Spherodorum, Oersted. peripatus, Johnst. Cirratulus, Lamarck. tentaculatus, Mont. borealis, Lamk. Dodecaceria, Oersted. concharum, Oersted. Fam. XI. Opheliade. Ophelia, Savigny. acuminata, Oersted. Ammotrypane, Rathke. limacina, Rathhe. Travisia, Johnston. Forbesii, Johnst. Eumenia, Oers¢ed. crassa, Oecrsted. Fam. XII. Siphonostomide. Siphonostoma, Cuvier. uncinata, dud. & M.-Edw. Trophonia, Cuvier. plumosa, Miiller. REPORT—1860. Fam. XIII. Telethusidez. Arenicola, Savigny. piscatorum, Lamk. branchialis, Aud. §&M.-Edw. ecaudata, Johnst. Fam. XIV. Maldaniade. Clymene, Savigny. borealis, Dalyell. Fam. XV. Terebellide. Terebella, Montagu. conchilega, Pallas. littoralis. Dalyell. cirrata, Mont. nebulosa, Mont. gigantea, Mont. constrictor, Mont. venustula, Mont. tuberculata, Dalyell. textrix, Dalyell. maculata, Dalyell. Venusia, Johnston. punctata, Johnst. Terebellides, Sars. Streemii, Sars. Pectinaria, Lamarck. Belgica, Pallas. granulata, Linn. Fam. XVI. Sabellariade. Sabellaria, Zamarck. Anglica, Ellis, crassissima, Lamk. lumbricalis, Mont. Fam. XVII. Serpulide. Arippasa, Johnston. infundibulum, Mont. Sabella, Savigny. pavonina, Savigny. penicillus, Linn. vesiculosa, Mont. bombyx, Dalyell. Savignii, Johnst. volutacornis, Mont. Doubtful species, Sabella unispira, Sav. rosea (Amphitrite)» Sow. luna (Amphitrite), Dal. curta (Amphitrite), Mut. Protula, Risso. protensa, Philippi. Dysteri, Hualey. Serpula, Linneus. vermicularis, Ellis. intricata, Linn. reversa, Mont. Berkeleyi, Johnst. conica, fem. armata, Jem. Dysteri, Johnst. Ditrupa, Berkeley. subulata, Deshayes. Filograna, Berkeley. implexa, Berk. Othonia, Johnston. Fabricii, Johnst. Fam. XVIII. Campontiade. Campontia, Johnston. eruciformis, Johnst. Fam. XIX. ? Meade. Mea, Johnston. mirabilis, Johnst. Fam. XX. ? Sipunculide. Syrinx, Bohadsch. nudus, Linn. papillosus, Thomps. Harveii, Forbes. Sipunculus, Linneus. Bernhardus, Forbes. Macrorhynchopterus, Rondel. Johnstoni, Forbes. saccatus, Flem. tenuicinctus, M‘ Coy. Forbesii, MM‘ Coy. granulosus, M‘Coy. Pallasii, Forbes. Fam. XXI. Priapulide. Priapulus, Lamarck, caudatus, Wem. Fam. XXII. Thalassemide. Thalassema, Cuvier. Neptuni, Gaértner. Echiurus, Cuvier. oxyurus, Pall. Species inquirende. Nereis, Cuvier. iricolor, Mont. margarita, Mont. lineata, Mont. maculosa, Mont. rufa, Penn. mollis, Linn. octentaculata, Mont. punctata, Eneycl. Méth. noctiluca, Linn. pinnigera, Mont. Aphrodita, Leach. annulata, Penn. minuta, Penn. Spio, Turton. seticornis, Twrt. crenaticornis, Mont. calcarea, Templeton. Branchiarius, Mont. quadrangularis, Mont. Diplotis, Mont. hyalina, Mont. Derris, Adams. sanguinea, Adams. — | . LIST OF THE BRITISH MARINE INVERTEBRATE FAUNA. 229 ENTOZOA. *,* From Dr. Baird’s British Museum Catalogue; and Dr. Bellingham’s List of Irish Entozoa, in the ‘ Annals of Natural History,’ 1844. In what ani- Species. mals found. Order NEMATOIDEA. Fam. Filariade. Filaria, Miiller. ? marina, Linn. ............ shad and cod. inflexo-caudata, Siebold ...|porpoise. Apiaceae eee cals hace antes o's + red gurnard and Trichosoma, Rudolphi. mullet. gracilis, Bellingh............- hake. Spiroptera, Rudolpht. BU earac asa tan ove sesebeos 00: skate. Fam. Ascaride. Ascaris, Linneus. osculata, Rud. ........0.0008- seal, [ny. Cyt P77) Ae eee viviparous blen- TIPIGA, PUA. ...0scosrcereesee: lophius. capsularia, Rud. ............ cod, &e. COMATIS, RUA. os cieaesescree ss flounder, &c. byatay Bud. ccs. es sce eee- cod, &e. constricta, Rud. ......6..65. sea-scorpion, Xe. rotundata, Rud. ............! skate. GREE OGHE Me acjs vobaa case's 0 herring. angulata, Rud.............6+ lophius. tenuissima, Zeder............ whiting. BUCCISA RUC cam siccsoies sees lump-fish. Fam. Sclerostomidz. Cucullanus, Miller. minutus, Rud. ...........08- flounder. heterochrous, Rud. ......... flounder. foveolatus, Lam. ........... plaice and dab. Stenurus, Dujardin. inflexus, Rud. (part.) ...... porpoise. Prosthecosacter, Diesing. inflexus, Rud. ........0.0.+4 porpoise. convolutus, Kuhn ......... porpoise. Order TREMATODA. Fam. Onchobothriadz. Octobothrium, Leuckart. lanceolatum, Leuck.......... shad. Fam. Capsalide. Capsala, Bosc. GCoccinea, CWV. ..cocseccdseees sun-fish. elongata, Nitzsch............. sturgeon. Fam. Distomide. Monostoma, Zeder. filicolle, Rud. ..........0.... sea bream. trigonocephalum, Rud. ...|turtle. Distoma, Retzius. appendiculatum, Rud. ...'shad, &c. hispidum, Viborg ......... sturgeon. megastomum, Fwd. ....:....'smooth shark. microcephalum, Baird .../spinous shark. ¢ In what ani- Species. mals found. tumidulum, Rud............. pipe-fish. fulvums Rud. .;Sei se skate. Varietm ....cib.cccuseeeeene salmon, gibbosum ?, Rud...........+. haddock. rufo-viride, Rud. ............ conger-eel. reflemuamn ?'25.cdecks «et seeenee eyclopterus. OXCISUM, UA. yose.cs.ckeeees mackerel. seabrum, Zeder .........04. whiting. contortum, Rud. ............ sun-fish, nigro-flavum, Fwd. ......... sun-fish, Hirudinella, Garsin. clavata, Menzies ............ Bonito. Order ACANTHOCEPHALA. Fam. Echinorhynchide. Echinorhynchus, Miller. proteus, Westrwmb ......... flounder. ACUS a JIU) Godies aye sven tence cod, &e. gibbosus, Rud. ...........0065 herring. strumosus, Rud. ............ seal, Order CESTOIDEA. Fam. Rhynchobothride. ||Rhynchobothrium, Blainville. corollatum, Aézldg.......... smooth shark, Tetrarhynchus, Rudolphi. megacephalus, Rud.......... spotted dog-fish. BOMAUSWIITUMs «0. t.c0snaccen salmon. GROSSUS; HUG, wcnncc>.cdecet: salmon. rugosus, Baird............0- salmon. Tetrabothriorhynchus, Dies. barbatus, Linn. ..........5. lemon sole. Fam. Teeniade. Bothriocephalus, Rudolphi. fragilis, Aad: t22 0s an sp-scenee shad. proboscideus, Bartsch. ...... salmon, &e. punctatus, Rud. ............ turbot, &e. tumidulus, Rud. ............ ray. microcephalus, Rud. ...... sun-fish. coronatus, Rud. ............ skate. corollatus, Rud. ...........- dog-fish, paleaceus, Rud. ............ dog-fish. Fam. Scolecide. Scolex, Miiller. polymorphus, Rud.......... turbot, &c. Order CYSTICA. Fam. Cysticide. Anthocephalus, Rudolphi. elongatus, Rud. ............ isun-fish. granulosus?, Rud. ......... whiting, &c. paradoxus, Drum. ......... turbot. 230 Order CRINOIDEA. Comatula, Lamarck. rosacea, Link. Celtica, Barrett. Sarsii, Diiben § Koren, Order OPHIUROIDEA. Fam. Ophiuride. Ophiura, Lamarck. texturata, Lamk. albida, Forbes. Ophiocoma, Agassiz. neglecta, Johnst. punctata, Forbes. filiformis, Miiller. securigera, D. & K. bellis, Link. brachiata, Mont. Ballii, Thonups. Goodsiri, Forbes. granulata, Link. rosula, Link, minuta, Fortes. Subfam. Euryalide. Astrophyton, Link. scutatum, Link. *Asteronyx, Miill. & Troschel. Loveni, M. & T. Order ASTEROIDEA. Fam. Asteriade. Uraster, Agassiz. glacialis, Linn. rubens, Linn. violacea, Miiller. hispida, Penn. rosea, Miiller. Echinaster, Miiller §- Troschel. oculatus, Penn. Solaster, Forbes. endeca, Linn. papposa, Linn. REPORT—1860. Palmipes, Link. membranaceus, Refz. Asterina, Nardo. gibbosa, Penn. Goniaster, Agassiz. Templetoni, 7omps. equestris, Gmelin. Abbensis, Forbes. Asterias, Linneus. aurantiaca, Linn. Luidia, Forbes. fragilissima, Forbes. Savignii, Audouwin. Order ECHINOIDEA. Fam. Cidaride. Cidaris, Leske. papillata, Leske. Echinus, Linneus. sphera, Miiller. Flemingii, Ball. miliaris, Leske. lividus, Lamk. melo, Lamk. Norvegicus, D. & K. neglectus, Lamk. Fam. Clypeasteride. Echinocyamus, Leske. pusillus, Miller. Echinarachnius, Leske. placenta, Gmelin. Fam. Spatangide. Spatangus, Klein. purpureus, Miller. Brissus, Klein. lyrifer, Forbes. Amphidotus, Agassiz. cordatus, Penn. roseus, Yorbes. gibbosus, Barrett. POLYZOA. Class ECHINODERMATA. Order HOLOTHUROIDEA. Fam. Pentactide. Cucumaria, Cuvier. frondosa, Gunner. ? fucicola, Forbes & Goodsir. pentactes, Miiller. ? Montagui, Flem. ? Neillii, Flem. ? dissimilis, Flem. t fusiformis, Forbes & Goodsir. Hyndmanni, Thomps. Ocnus, Forbes (=Cucuma- ria ?). brunneus, Forbes. lacteus, Forbes & Goodsir. Psolinus, Forbes. brevis, Forbes & Goodsir. Fam. Thyonide. Thyone, Oken. fusus, Mill. Abildg.) raphanus, Diiben § Koren. communis, F. & G. (Thy- onidium, D. ¢ K.) Portlockii, Forbes. Drummondii, Thomps. pellucida, Vahl (Cucuma- ria hyalina, F.). j Aolothuria, Linn. nigra, Couch. intestinalis. tubulosa, Linn. Fam. Psolide. Psolus, Oken. phantopus, Linn. Forbesii. (papillosa, Fam. Synaptide. Synapta, Esch. inherens, Mill. digitata, Mont. *,* Classified as in the British Museum Catalogue by Mr. George Busk. Order I. INFUNDIBULATA. Suborder I. Cheilostomata. Fam. II. Salicornariade. Salicornaria, Cuvier. farciminoides, Johnst. Johnstoni, Busk. sinuosa, Hassall. Onchopora, Busk. borealis, Busk. Fam. ITI. Cellulariade. Cellularia, Pallas. Peachii, Bus. cuspidata, Bush. Menipea, Lamourouzx. ternata, Ellis & Soland. Scrupocellaria, Van Beneden. scrupea, Bush. scruposa, Linn. Canda, Lamouroux. reptans, Pall. Fam. IV. Scrupariade. Scruparia, Oken. chelata, Linn. clavata, Hincks. Salpingia, Coppin. Hassallii, Coppin. Hippothoa, Lamourouc. catenularia, Jameson. divaricata, Lam, FEtea, Lamourouc. anguina, Linn. truncata, Landsb. recta, Hincks. Beania, Johnston. mirabilis, Johnst. Fam. VI. Gemellariadez. Gemellaria, Savigny. _loricata, hand * Notamia, Fleming. bursaria, Linn. ‘ F +4 x Z f # linearis, Hassall. LIST OF THE BRITISH MARINE INVERTEBRATE FAUNA. Fam. VII. Cabereade. Caberea, Lamourouzx. Hookeri, Ftem. Boryi, Aud. Fam. VIII. Bicellariade. Bicellaria, De Blainville. ciliata, Linn. Alderi, Bush. Bugula, Oken. neritina, Linn. flabellata, J. V. Thomps. avicularia, Pall. plumosa, Pall. Murrayana, Bean. turbinata, Alder. fastigiata, Fabr. Fam. IX. Flustrade. Flustra, Linn. foliacea, Linn. papyracea, Hillis. truncata, Linn. Barleei, Bush. Carbasea, Gray. papyrea, Pall. Fam. X. Membraniporide. Membranipora, De Blainville. membranacea, Linn. pilosa, Pall. coriacea, Esper. lineata, Linn. Flemingii, Bush. Rosselii, Audouin. Lacroixii, Savigny. monostachys, Bush. hexagona, Bush. Pouilletii, Audouin. spinifera, Johnst. craticula, Alder. unicornis, Fem. imbellis, Hincks. Lepralia, Johnston. Brongniartii, Aud. Landsboroviui, Johnst. reticulata, Macgillivray. auriculata, Hassall. concinna, Bush. verrucosa, er. violacea, ate spinifera, Johnst. trispinosa, Johnst. coccinea, Abildg. ciliata, Pall. Gattye, Landsb. _ Hyndmanni, Johnst. yariolosa, Johnst. hitida, Fabr. _ annulata, Fabr. bispinosa, Johns¢. Peachii, Johnst. yentricosa, Hassall. melolontha, Landsb. innominata, Couch. punctata, Hassall. figularis, Johnst. pertusa, sper. Pallasiana. labrosa, Busk. simplex, Johnst. . Malusii, Aud. granifera, Johnst. hyalina, Linn. ansata, Johnst. unicornis, F/em. ringens, Bush. fissa, Bush. Cecilii, Audouin. Barleei, Bush. canthariformis, Bush. umbonata, Bush. discoidea, Bush. bella, Bush. monodon, Bush. alba, Hincks. eximia, Hincks, Woodiana, Busk. Alysidota, Bush. Alderi, Busk. Fam. XI. Celleporide. Cellepora, Fabr. pumicosa, Linn. Hassallii, Johnst. vitrina, Couch. ramulosa, Linn. Skenei, Hillis & Soland. tubigera, Bush. armata, Hincks. avicularis, Hincks. Fam. XII. Escharide. Eschara, Ray. foliacea, Ellis & Soland. cervicornis, Soland. cribraria, Johnst. Retepora, Lamarck. cellulosa, Linn. Beaniana, King. Suborder IT. Cyclostomata. Fam. I. Tubuliporide. Tubulipora, Lamarck. patina, Zinn. hispida, Flem. penicillata, Johnst. truncata, Jameson. lobulata, Hassall. phalangea, Couch. flabellaris, Fabr. serpens, Linn. hyalina, Couch. Diastopora, Lamourouz. obelia, Flem. Idmonea, Lamourouz. Atlantica, Forbes. Pustulipora, De Blainville. proboscidea, M.-Edw. 231 deflexa, Couch. Orcadensis, Busk. Alecto, Lamourouc. granulata, M.-EHdw. major, Johnst. dilatans, Johnst. incurvata, Hincks. Fam. II. Crisiade. Crisia, Lamouroux. eburnea, Linn. denticulata, Lamk. aculeata, Hassall. geniculata, 1.-Edw. Crisidia, M.- Edwards. cornuta, Zinn. setacea, Couch. Suborder III. Ctenostomata. Fam. I. Aleyonidiadz. Alcyonidium, Lamourouz. gelatinosum, Pallas. hirsutum, FVem. parasiticum, Fem. mamillatum, Alder. albidum, Alder. hexagonum, Hincks. Cycloum, Hass. papillosum, Hass. Sarcochitum, Hass. polyoum, Johnst. Fam. IT. Vesiculariade. Amathia, Lamourous. lendigera, Linn. Vesicularia, Thompson. spinosa, Linn. Valkeria, Fleming. cuscuta, lis, uva, Linn. pustulosa, Johnst. Mimosella, Hincks, gracilis, Hincks. Avenella, Dalyell. fusca, Dalyell. Notella, Gosse. stipata, Gosse. Bowerbankia, Farre. imbricata, Johnst. Farrella, Ehrenberg. repens, Johnst. elongata. gigantea. " pedienlisie, Alder. ilatata, Hincks. Anguinella, Van Beneden. palmata, V. Ben. Buskia, Alder. nitens, Alder. Fam. III. Pedicellinidz. Pedicellina, Sars. echinata, Sars. Belgica. gracilis. 232 REPORT—1860. Subkingdom Ca@LenTerRata. Class HYDROZOA. *,* This list is compiled from Dr. Johnston’s “ British Zoophytes ” (2nd edit.), Forbes’s ‘“‘ British Naked-eyed Medusz,” and the works of Mr. Alder, Prof. Allman, Mr. Cobbold, Mr. Gosse, Professor Greene, Rey. Thomas Hincks, Professor Huxley, Dr. T. Strethill Wright, &c. Order CORYNIDZ. Fam. I. Coryniade. Clava, Gmelin. multicornis, Johnston (re- pens, 7. 8. Wright; dis- creta, Allman). cornea, T. S. Wright. membranacea, T. 8. Wright. Vorticlava, Alder. humilis, Alder. Lar, Gosse. Sabellarum, Gosse. Hydractinia, Van Beneden (Podocoryna, Sars). echinata, Flem. carnea, Sars. Mpyriothela, Sars. arctica, Sars. Clavatella, Hincks. prolifera, Hincks. Coryne, Gaértner. pusilla, Zhr. Sarsii, Lovén (decipiens, Dujardin). ramosa, Ehr. (Listerii, Van Beneden). sessilis, Gosse. gravata, T. S. Wright. eximia, Allman. implexa, TZ. S. Wright (Tubularia implexa, Alder; ?C. Briareus, Allman). Cerberus, Gosse. stauridia, Dujardin. [Should be referred to the next genus. ] Stauridia, T. S. Wright. producta, T. S. Wright. Trichydra, T. S. Wright. pudica, T. S. Wright. Fam. IJ. Tubulariade. Eudendrium, Ehrenberg. ramosum, Linn. rameum, Pail. capillare, Alder. arbuscula, 7. S. Wright. Atractylis, T. 8. Wright. ramosa, Van Beneden. repens, 7. S. Wright. sessilis, T. S. Wright. Dicoryne, Allman. conferta, Alder (Eudend. confertum, Alder). Garveia, T. S. Wright. nutans, 7. S. Wright. _ Bimeria, 7. S. Wright. yestita (Manicella fusca, Allman). Tubularia, Linneus. indivisa, Linn. Dumortierii, Van Beneden. larynx, Ellis. gracilis, Harvey. Corymorpha, Sars. nutans, Sars. nana, Alder. Order SERTULARID®. Fam. I. Sertulariade. Halecium, Oken. halecinum, Eilis. Beanii, Johnst. muricatum, Ellis & Soland. labrosum, -A/der. tenellum, Hincks. Sertularia, Linneus. polyzonias, Linn. tricuspidata, Alder. tenella, Alder. Gayi, Lame. rugosa, Ellis. rosacea, Linn. pumila, Linn. gracilis, Hassall. Eyansii, Ellis & Soland. nigra, Pallas. pinnata, Pallas. alata, Hincks. pinaster, Ellis & Soland. Margareta, Hassall. fallax, Johnst. tamarisca, Linn. abietina, Linn. filicula, Ellis & Soland. operculata, Linn. argentea, Ellis & Soland. cupressina, Linn. fusca. Johnst. Thuiaria, Fleming. thuia, Linn. articulata, Pallas. Antennularia, Lamarck. antennina, Linn. ramosa, Lame. Plumularia, Lamarck. falcata, Linn. cristata, Lamk. pennatula, Ellis & Soland. myriophyllum, Linn. tubulifera, Hincks. pinnata, Linn. setacea, Ellis. Catherina, Johnst. echinulata, Lamk. similis, Hincks. frutescens, Ellis & Soland. halecioides, Alder. obliqua, Saunders (Lao- medea obliqua, Johnst.). Fam. IT. _ Campanulariade. Laomedea, Lamourouz. dichotoma, Linn. longissima, Pallas. geniculata, Linn. flexuosa, Hincks. Lovéni, Ad/man. gelatinosa, Pallas. angulata, Hincks. neglecta, Alder. pulchella, Wyville Thomson. lacerata, Johnst. tenuis, Allman. acuminata, Alder. Campanularia, Lamarck. yolubilis, Linn. Jobnstoni, Alder. Hincksii, Alder. raridentata, Alder. integra, Macgillivray. caliculata, Hincks. verticillata, Linn. [intertexta, Couch—a very doubtful species. | Calicella, Hincks. dumosa, Flem. gracilluma, Alder. parvula, Hincks. syringa, Linn. fastigiata, Alder. humilis, Hincks. Reticularia, Wyville Thomson. serpens, Hassall. Grammaria, Stimpson. ramosa, A/der. Coppinia, Hass. [The position of this genus is doubtful.] arcta, Dalyell. Order CALYCOPHORID JE. Fam. Diphyde. Diphyes, Cuvier. appendiculata, Eschscholtz. Order PHYSOPHORID#. Fam. I. Stephanomiade. (?) Halistemma, Huxley. rubrum, Vogt. —_—— LIST OF THE BRITISH MARINE INVERTEBRATE FAUNA, Fam. II. Physaliadz. Physalia, Lamarck. pelagica, Eschscholtz. Velella, Lamarck. spirans, Forsk. Order MEDUSID. Fam. I. Willsiade. Willsia, Forbes. stellata, Forbes. Fam. II. Oceanidz. Turris, Lesson. digitalis, O. F. Miiller. neglecta, Lesson. constricta, Patterson. Saphenia, Eschscholtz. dinema, Péron. Titania, Gosse. Oceania, Péron. octona, Flem. episcopalis, Forbes, turrita, Forbes. globulosa, Forbes. duealis, Forbes & Goodsir, pusilla, Gosse. Fam. III. Ai’quoreade. Stomobrachium, Brand. octocostatum, Sars. Polyxenia, Eschscholtz. Alderi, Forbes. /&quorea, Péron. _ Forskalii, Forbes. Forbesiana, Gosse. vitrina, Gosse. formosa, Greene. sp., Greene. Fam. IV. Circeade. Circe, Mertens. rosea, Forbes. Fam. V. Geryoniade. - Geryonia, Péron. appendiculata, Fordes, Geryonopsis, Fordes. delicatula, Forbes, Tiaropsis, Agassiz. Patterson, Greene. Thaumantias, Hschscholéz. pilosella, Forbes. quadrata, Forbes. aéronautica, Forbes, octona, Forbes. maculata, Forbes, melanops, Forbes. globosa, Forbes. convexa, Forbes. gibbosa, Forbes. lineata, Forbes. pileata, Forbes. Sarnica, Forbes. Thompsoni, Forbes. hemispherica, O.F'. Miiller. inconspicua, Forbes, punctata, Forbes. lucifera, Forbes, Buskiana, Gosse. corynetes, Grosse. undulata, Forbes & Goodsir, confluens, Forbes 4 Goodsir. achroa, Cobbold. neglecta, Greene. typica, Greene. Slabberia, Forbes. halterata, Forbes. catenata, Forbes & Goodsir. Fam. VI. Sarsiade. Plancia, Forbes & Goodsir. gracilis, Forbes & Goodsir. Goodsirea, Strethili Wright. mirabilis, S. Wright. Sarsia, Lesson. tubulosa, Sars. pulchella, Forbes. gemmifera, Forbes, prolifera, Forbes, Hippocrene, Mertens. Britannica, Forbes. nigritella, Forbes. 233 crucifera, Forbes & Goodsir’ simplex, Forbes & Goodsir: dinema, Greene. Lizzia, Forbes. octopunctata, Sars. blondina, Forbes, sp., Claparéde. Modeeria, Forbes. formosa, Forbes, Diplonema, Greene. Islandica, Greene. Euphysa, Forbes. aurata, Forbes. Steenstrupia, Forbes, rubra, Forbes, flaveola, Forbes, Owenii, Greene. Order LUCERNARIDA. Fam. I. Lucernariade. Lucernaria, Miiller. auricula, Fabr. campanulata, Lame, fascicularis, Fem. Depastrum, Gosse. stellifrons, Gosse, Carduella, Allman. cyathiformis, Sars, Fam. IT. Pelagide. Aurelia, Péron. aurita, O. F. Miiller. campanula, O. Fabricius, Cyanea, Péron. capillata, Linn. Lamarckii, Péron. Pelagia, Péron et Lesueur. cyanella, Péron e¢ Lesueur, Chrysaora, Péron. hysoscella, Linn. Fam. III. Rhizostomide. Cassiopeia, Péron. lunulata, Fem. Rhizostoma, Cuvier. ima, Eschscholtz, pyramidata, Forbes & Good- pulmo, Gel. Bairdii, Johnst. sir. Class ACTINOZOA. *x* The list of Zoantharia is taken from Goase’a “ Actinologia.”’ ‘. Order ZOANTHARIA, Fam. I. Actiniade. inolobia, Blainville. dianthus, Blainv. agartia, Gosse, llis, Elvis, t Miniata, Gosse. __Yosea, Grosse. _ ornata, Holdsworth. ichthystoma, Gosse. Nivea, Gosse. _ sphyrodeta, Gosse, pallida, Holdsworth, ite pura, Alder. coccinea, Miill. troglodytes, Johnst, viduata, Miid/. parasitica, Johnst. chrysosplenium, Cocks, Adamsia, Forbes. palliata, Forbes, Phellia, Gosse. murocincta, Gosse. gausapata, Gosse. picta, Gosse. Brodricii, Gosse, Gregoria, Gosse. fenestrata, Gosse. Aiptasia, Cocks. Couchii, Cocks, Anthea, Gaértner. cereus, Hilis, Actinia, Linn. mesembryanthemum, Evlis, Bolocera, Johnst. Tuedix, Johnst. eques, Gosse. Bunodes, Gosse. gemmacea, Hilis, thallia, Gosse. 234 Ballii, Cocks. coronata, Gosse. Tealia, Gosse. digitata, Mill. tuberculata, Cocks. crassicornis, Miill. Hormathia, Gosse. margarita, Gosse. Stomphia, Gosse. Churchix, Gosse. Ilyanthus, Forbes. Scoticus, Forbes. Mitchellii, Gosse. Peachia, Gosse. hastata, Gosse. undata, Gosse. triphylla, Gosse. cylindrica, Reid. Halcampa, Gosse. chrysanthemum, Peach. microps, Gosse. Edwardsia, Quatrefages. callimorpha, Gosse. carnea, Gosse. Beautempsii, Quatref. Arachnactis, Sars. albida, Sars. Cerianthus, J. Haime. Lloydii, Gosse. vermicularis, Forbes. Capnea, Forbes. sanguinea, Forbes, Aureliania, Gosse. angusta, Gosse. heterocera, Thomps. Corynactis, Al/man. viridis, Allman. *,* This list of British Foraminifera is taken from Prof. Williamson's “Recent Foraminifera of Great Britain,” published by the Ray Society. Proteonina, Williamson. fusifornis, W2lliamson. pseudospiralis, W2ldéamson. Orbulina, D' Orbigny. universa, D’ Orb. Lagena, «Walker. vulgaris, Williamson. var. clavata. yar. perlucida. yar. semistriata. yar. striata. yar. interrupta. var. gracilis. yar. substriata. Entosolenia, Hhrenberg. globosa, Walker. yar. lineata. costata, Williamson. marginata, Walker. yar. lucida. REPORT—1860. Fam. II. Zoanthidee. Zoanthus, Cuvier. Couchii, Johnst. sulcatus, (Gosse. Alderi, Gosse. Fam. III. Caryophylleade. Cyathina, Ehrenberg. Smithii, Fem. Paracyathus, M.-Edwards Tamilianus, Gosse. Thulensis, Gosse. pteropus, Gosse. Desmophyllum, Ehrenberg. Stokesii, M.-Edwards. Sphenotrochus, M.-Edwards. Macandrewanus, M.-Edw. Wrightii, Gosse. Ulocyathus, Sars. arcticus, Sars. Oculina, Lamarck. prolifera, Linn. Hoplangia, Gosse. Durotrix, Gosse. Balanophyllia, Wood. regia, Grosse. Order ALCYONARIA. Fam. I. Pennatulade. Pennatula, Linneus. phosphorea, Linn. Virgularia, Lamarck. mirabilis, Linn. Payonaria, Cuvier. quadrangularis, Pail. Subkingdom Protozoa. FORAMINIFERA. var. ornata. yar. lagenoides. var. quadrata. squamosa, Mont. yar. scalariformis. yar. catenulata. var. hexagona. Lingulina, D’ Orbigny. carinata, D’ Orb. Nodosaria, Lamarck. radicula, Linn. pyrula, D’ Ord. Dentalina, D’ Orbigny. subarcuata, Mont. var. Jugosa. legumen, Linn. var. linearis. Frondicularia, Defrance. spathulata, W2lzamson. Archiaciana, D’ Ord, Fam. II. Aleyonide. Alecyonium, Linneus. digitatum, Linn. glomeratum. Sarcodictyon, Forbes. catenata, Forbes. agglomerata. Fam. III. Gorgoniade. Gorgonia, Linneus. verrucosa, Linn. pinnata, Linn. anceps, Ellis. Primnoa, Lamarck. lepadifera, Linn. Order CTENOPHORA. Fam. I. Cydippide. Cydippe, Esch. pileus, Miill. Flemingii, Forbes. infundibulum, Mill. lagena, Forbes. pomiformis, Paterson. Fam. II. Calymnide. Bolina, Paterson. Hibernica, Paterson, Fam. III. Beroide. Beroé, Miiller. cucumis, Fabr. fulgens, Flem. borealis, Less. Alcinoé, Cu. rotunda. Smithii. Cristellaria, Lamarck. calear, Linn. var. rotifera. yar. oblonga. subarcuatula, Walker. var. costata. Nonionina, D’ Orbigny. Barleeana, Williamson. crassula, Walker. Jeffreysii, Williamson. elegans, Williamson. — Nummulina, D’ Orbigny. planulata, Lam. Polystomella, Lamarck, crispa, Linn. umbilicatula, Walker. var. incerta. Peneroplis, Montfort. planatus, Ficht. & Moll. Patellina, Williamson. did h LIST OF THE BRITISH MARINE INVERTEBRATE FAUNA. _ corrugata, Williamson. Rotalina, D’ Orbigny. Beccarii, Linn, inflata, Mont. turgida, Williamson. oblonga, Williamson. concamerata, Mont. nitida, Williamson. mamilla, Williamson. ochracea, Williamson. fusca, Williamson. Sicbizerins, D Orbigny. bulloides, D’ Ord. Planorbulina, D Orbigny. 3 vulgaris, D’ Ord. ‘Truncatulina, D’ Orbigny. lobatula, Walker. apo D Orbigny. pupoides, D’ Ord. var. marginata. var. spinulosa. var. fusiformis. var. compressa. - . Tethya, Lamarck. cranium, Johnst. (not Mill.) lyncurium, Johnst. eodia, Lamarck. Zetlandica, Johnst. ‘Pachymatisma, Bowerbank. Johnstonia, Bowb. (Hali- ' chondria, Johnst.) Halichondria, Fleming. panicea, Johnst. coalita, Johnst. - coccinea, Bowh. MS. glabra, Bowb. MS. inconspicua, Bowb. MS. caduca, Bowb. MS. distorta, Bowb. MS. Dickiei, Bowb. MS. Batei, Bowb. MS. _ lingua, Bowd. MS. -corrugata, Bowd. MS. ulata, Bowb. MS. hompsoni, Bowb. MS. plumosa, Johnst. 1; - eniacidon, Bowerbank (Halichondria, Johnst.). 4 ii MS. Halina, var. convoluta. elegantissima, D’ Orb. scabra?, Williamson. Uvigerina, D’ Orbigny. pygmza, D’ Orb. angulosa, Williamson. Cassidulina, D’ Orbigny. levigata, D’ Ord. obtusa, Williamson. Polymorphina, D’ Orbigny. lactea, Walker. var. acuminata. . oblonga. . fistulosa. . concava. var. communis. myristiformis, Williamson. Textularia, Defrance. cuneiformis, D’ Orb, var. conica. variabilis, Williamson. yar. spathulata. var. difformis. rs albescens, Johnst. caruncula, Bowb. MS. Alderi, Bowb. MS. perlevis, Johnst. aurea, Johnst. pachyderma, Bowd. MS. crustula, Bowb. MS sanguinea, Johnst. armatura, Bowb. MS. floreum, Bowb. MS. earnosa, Bowb. MS. viridans, Bowh. MS. sulphurea, Bowb. MS. clavigera, Bowb. MS. subclavata, Bowb. MS. lactea, Bowb. MS. Dujardinii (Halisarca), Johnst. celata, Johnst. Bowerbank (Hali- chondria, Johmnst.). suberea (Halichondria), Johnst. ficus, Johnst. carnosa, Johnst. Bucklandi, Bowb. MS. Isodictya, Bowerbank (Hali- chondria, Johnst.). Peachii, Bowb. MS. rosea, Bowb. MS. permollis, Bowb. MS. indistincta, Bowb. MS. indefinita, Bowb. MS. Macandrewii, Bows. MS. dichotoma, Bowd. MS. cinerea, Johnst. ramusculus, Bowb. MS. sunulo, Bowb. MS. mammeata, Bowb, MS. 235 var. levigata. Biloculina, D’ F Orbigny. ringens, D’ Orb, var. carinata. Spiroloculina, D’ Orbigny. depressa, D’ Orb. var. rotundata. var. cymbium. Miliolina, Williamson. trigonula, Lamk. seminulum, Linn. var. oblonga. var. disciformis. bicornis, Walker. var. elegans. var. angulata. Vertebralina, D’ Orhigny. striata, D' Orb. Spirillina, Ehrenberg. foliacea, Philippi. perforata, Schultze. arenacea, Williamson. margaritifera, Williamson. sy LIST OF BRITISH SPONGES. fucorum, Johnst. Alderi, Bowd. MS. Normani, Bowd. MS. lobata, Johnst. Barleei, Bowb. MS. gracilis, Bowb. MS. Gregorii, Bowb. MS. Beanii, Bowb. MS. clava, Bowb. MS. infundibuliformis, Johnst. Desmacidon, Bowerbank(Ha- lichondria, Johnst.). zegagropila, Johnst. fruticosa, Johnst. Raphyrus, Bowerbank. Griffithsii, Bowb. MS. Dictyocylindrus, Bowerbank (Halichondria, Jolnst.). stuposus, Johnst. Howsei, Bowb. MS. ramosus, Johnst. aculeatus, Bowb. MS. ventilabrum, Bows. MS. fascicularis, Bowd. MS. rugosus, Bowd. MS. Haliclona, Bowerbank (Hali- chondria, Johnst.). palmata, Johnst. Montagui, Johnst. pygmza, Bowb. seriata, Johnst. simulans, Johnst. columbe, Johnst. gracilenta, Bowb. MS. Microciona, Bowerbank, MS. atro-sanguinea, Bowd, MS. armata, Bowb. MS. earnosa, Bowb. MS. ambigua, Bowb, MS. 2936 REPORT—1860. levis, Bows. MS. brevis, Bowb. MS. ciliata, Johnst. spinulenta, Bow: MS. robusta, Bowb. MS. ensata, Bowb. MS. Hymeraphia, Bowerhank,MS. Halicnemia, Bowerbank, MS. tessellata, Bowd. MS. vermiculata, Bows. MS. patera, Bowb. MS. Leuconia, Bowerbank (Gran- stellifera, Bowb. MS. Phakellia, Bowb. MS. (Hali- tia, Johnst.). clavata, Bowb. MS. chondria, Johnst.). nivea, Johnst. Hymedesmia,Bowerbank,MS. _ ventilabrum, Johnst. fistulosa, Johnst. Zetlandica, Bowb. MS. Dysidea, Johnston. Leucosolenia, Bowerbank, Halyphysema, Bowerbank, fragilis, Johnst. MS. (Grantia, Johnst.). MS. Spongia, Linneus, botryoides, Johnst. Tumanowiczii, Bowd. MS. pulchella, Johnst. coriacea, Johnst. Euplectella, Owen. limbata, Johnst. lacunosa, Johnst. mammillaris (Halichon- Grantia, Fleming. contorta, Bowb. MS. dria), Johnst, compressa, Johnst. ess _ > NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS, MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. MATHEMATICS. Address by the Rev. Prof. Price, 4.A., F.R.S., President of the Section. GENTLEMEN,—A custom has prevailed at our Meetings for some years for the Pre- sident of each Section to make a short address at the opening. The object of it I take to be twofold; first, to explain to new members the nature of the business which we have to transact; and, secondly, to suggest to all the course of rocedure, and the distribution of subject most convenient for the conduct of our business, The area of scientific research which this Section covers is very large, larger perhaps than that of any other; and its subjects vary so much, that while to some of those who frequent this room certain papers may appear dull, yet to others they will be full of interest. There are many and very good reasons why these subjects should be grouped. Some of them possess, probably in the highest degree attain- able by the human intellect, the characteristics of perfect and necessary science ; while others are at present little more than a conglomeration of observations, made indeed with infinite skill and perseverance, and of the greatest value ; capable probably in time of greater perfection, nay, perhaps, of most perfect forms, but as yet in their infancy, scarcely indicating the process by which that maturity will e arrived at, and containing hardly the barest outline of their ultimate laws, We have indeed sciences intermediate to these two extremes, in which some of the laws are already capable of mathematical expression, and from which results have been derived, and still many phenomena are as yet not brought within their comprehen- sion. But as all subjects which we regard in this Section are of one type, so are they rightly combined; and it will be, I venture to think, an evil day for natural Imowledge, when we cease to regard the forms of the sciences of space, number, and motion, as those to which all others ought to assimilate themselves. Now first of all in our Section stand Mathematics, both pure and applied. These, indeed, require very heavy and arduous study, inasmuch as they have peculiar nomenclature, language, and processes, and thus it is only to the few generally who have made them their particular study that they offer great interest. Mathematics have also now become so large in their grasp and so curious in their details, that I am, I am sure, only expressing the opinions of most analysts when I say that the whole of a man’s life is not sufficient for more than one branch of it. Indeed, and we are proud to say so, some members of this Association are devoting whole lives, and intellects too of the highest order, to the advancement of our knowledge in a particular direction. Take, for instance, the theory of homogeneous forms: in the history of science the names of Boole, Cayley, Sylvester will always be recorded, and in scientific treatises their labours will find a place. Or take again the theory of elliptic functions, or the calculus of probabilities ; the difficulties of these subjects require the utmost tension of the human mind, and even then they transcend its limits. To many of the usual attendants on this Section, these and __ kindred subjects may be dry and uninteresting. Well, if they are so to any of you, _ I must beg you to bear with us for a short time; these things have a deep and 1860. 2 REPORT—1860. significant meaning; and be assured too that they are not uninteresting to all; to many they give the purest pleasure; and I must ask you not to grudge them that during the few pale on the higher mathematics which we shall probably have. In passing, too, [ would remind you that very frequently our knowledge of natural phenomena depends on certain integrals, the properties of which can only be studied with a profound knowledge of the higher mathematics; and thus the pro- gress of one branch of knowledge depends on another, and is frequently stopped by our ignorance of that. _ To most of us, probably, the questions of applied mathematics will have greater interest; we are more familiar with the laws of nature, the mathematical interpre- tation of which, mixed mathematics, as they are called, take cognizance of ; we most eagerly catch at the results of those laws. Consider the Newtonian law of gravitation in its most general form; in its highest development in the lunar and planetary theories, a dry mathematical paper will thin our room; an astronomical paper will often fill it; and now too, perhaps, more than heretofore; for our interest in the subject has been keenly aroused of late. The lunar disturbances have been, as you know, calculated with greater precision, and new results have been arrived at, which exhibit certain discrepancies relatively to the old. I need do no more than allude to what has lately taken place at our own Royal Astronomical Society and at the French Academy; and express a hope that we shall have some communication on this subject from those who are here present, and are so well qualified to give it. Mathematicians, however, have been startled by an announcement that “ what is commonly called mathematical evidence is not so certain as many persons imagine; and that it ultimately depends on moral evidence ;” and moreover we are told that the “results of long and complicated mathematical calculations are not more than probably true.” This we can hardly believe; it takes us quite by surprise, and we hope for further light; if, however, we must wait for light, we must wait patiently; let us not forestal a conclusion which many of us venture to think is as yet, not to say more, unproved; let us wait for the new lunar theories, which are as yet unpublished, and for the new lunar tables, which are the results of these theories. I am told, however, already that Baron Plana has corrected his calculations, and that he finds the results arrived at by Delaunay and Adams to be in accordance with his amended formule. These new lunar calculations have taken us by surprise; but again I would say let us wait, “magna est veritas et preevalebit.” _ We are desirous, so far as is possible consistently with the convenience of con- tributors, to take the papers on mathematical subjects on the early days of our meeting ; and we shall es glad therefore if members who have papers on these sub- jects will announce them to the Secretaries without delay. And before I proceed further, we have a debt to pay, due by the cultivators of these branches of science, to those who have lately contributed reports on particular parts of our science to the British Association ;—to Mr. Cayley for his report on the present state of Theoretical Dynamics, and to Mr. Smith for the first part of his report on the Theory of Numbers. It is only they who have had to go through the existing literature in any one problem, say the Lagrangian equations, or the theory of the motion of a material system, that can form an adequate value of such papers as those I refer to: the literature is catalogued, indexed, and analysed; we know thereby all that has been done up to a certain point, and in our subsequent inves- tigations our commencement starts from the close of other men’s labours. We are hereby prevented from travelling over other men’s ground; and we avoid that most unsatisfactory plagiarism of them, “qui nostra ante nos dixerunt.” Vast and various are the benefits of our Association ; but I am inclined to consider as one of the greatest, the series of valuable reports which our published volumes contain ; and those last reports to which I have referred, for their learning, their deep re- search, their comprehensive views of the theories explained in them, will maintain the character shared by their predecessors. While we lament the loss of Dr. Pea- cock and others, to whom we owe the very able reports contained in the early volumes of our proceedings, we are proud to have worthy successors in our present talented contributors. We propose, next in order, to take those papers which treat of subjects within the grasp of mathematical symbols, at least partially, if not wholly; those whose laws iN cio an es TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3 are sufficiently general for functional symbols, and from particular forms of which by mathematical processes other truths may be derived. Such are the subjects of Light, Heat, Sound, Electricity, Magnetism ; we propose to take these subjects in the latter days of this week, and the first day of next. We shall, of course, con- sult the conyenience of contributors; but it will tend, we think, to the orderly arrangement of our business if this order can be adopted. Vast indeed in their subjects are these sciences; and as discoveries are being daily made in them, we have a right to expect some interesting communications, either in the way of mathematical deduction from received laws, or as mathematical explana- tions of observed phenomena, or as simple experiments. I cannot help observing here the advantage of combining these sciences in the same Section with pure mathematics ; it seems to indicate that the laws of all are to be brought to the same test,—to the never-failing, to the unerring accuracy of measurement and num- ber ; we show hereby the character of the knowledge we are in search of ; not for- tuitous observation, but precise laws. The mind will wander in its imagination ; there is, indeed, no boundary to it; once, however, bring it back to the severe test of number and weight and measurement, and the discovery or the observation becomes valuable for its precision ; it thus leads to general laws, and sound mathe- matical reasoning derives from them the results they are pregnant with. And, finally, we come to the facts of meteorology and its kindred subjects, man of which are scarcely yet brought within any law at all; analogies have been traced, and concurrent events have been indicated in many cases; little, however, has been done: towards a satisfactory proof of a connexion between cause and effect. It is true that curves are traced, which purport to exhibit these effects; and they do so most graphically ; but, as mathematicians say, these curves are traced only by points, and the law is not known, or, in other words, we do not know the equation of the curve; so long as this is the case, our knowledge lacks precision. ‘These papers, howeyer, are frequently valuable, because they supply us with accurately observed _ facts, which will doubtless hereafter be brought within a law. This, however, I _ Suppose at present to be the state of the case; but we must not despise the lesser light because we have not the greater. I cannot pass over this class of papers (papers : of observed facts) without alluding to the loss which we all feel in the death of the late able Professor of Geometry, Professor Baden Powell. For some years past _has he continued his reports on the meteors or falling stars, or whatever you call _ them ; this year we have his last report, which, indeed, he has not lived to finish, _ but has been placed in the hands of Mr. Glaisher, and completed by him. In some of these subjects we shall, I hope, obtain large accessions to our fre lodee. __ Some few years ago I remember reading a complaint made by an eminent philo- Sopher on the decay of mathematical knowledge in Great Britain, and especially in “that of physico-mathematical knowledge. It is not my duty to make invidious distinctions ; but I am sure I am repeating the now common opinion of foreigners when I tell you that that complaint was made in quite the infancy of some of our older philosophers, and before the days of Cayley, Sylvester, Boole, Mac- “eullagh, Stokes, W. Thomson, and Adams. To this revival of science amongst us, doubtless, many causes have contributed ; and I believe that the periodical Yneet- ‘ngs of this Association have done good service towards that revival; we have “hereby become acquainted with others who are engaged in the same pursuits as our- Selves, and stores of knowledge are communicated. Let us, however, bear in mind that our Association is formed for the advancement of science, and that we do not meet to hear of old things again in the old form; our motto is “progress.” Old things we do not discard, for they may be put before us in new forms: but we meet especially to promote the advance of the boundaries of natural knowledge, and we ask our members and others to lay before us the results of their investigations. And not mly in the papers which shall be read, but also in the elucidation of any difficulties which authors may favour us with, and in the discussions which it is my duty to nyite you to take upon these papers, will additions to our knowledge be made; and many remarks will, I venture to think, be made pregnant with matter for oughtful meditation hereafter. In all these discussions difference of opinion will doubtless arise ; but I am sure that a spirit of friendly and mutual concession l prevail ; and that in our search after truth we shall gladly and readily attribute 0 those who differ from us the same pure motives which we claim to ourselves, |* t 4: REPORT—1860. On some Solutions of the Problem of Tactions of Apollonius of Perga by means of Modern Geometry. By Dr. BRENNEcKE, of Posen. The author suggested a new solution, depending on a remarkable property of the centres of similitude of three given circles; e. g. a circle described around an exter- nal centre of similitude, with a radius equal to the geometrical proportional of its potential distances from the two circles, intersects all homogeneously touching circles orthogonally (around an internal centre all heterogeneously touching circles). Such a circle is called a potential circle. To get the two circles which touch the three given circles simultaneously internally or externally, take two external centres of similitude, draw the two potential circles, find their radical axis, which will contain the centre of similitude of the two circles which cut the three given circles in the same time externally or internally. By combining the three external centres of similitude, you find three potential circles and three radical axes, which all three coincide. Having found this straight line, which contains the centres, it is easy to find the centres themselves by introducing a fourth circle, the reHected mirror-image as it were of any of the three given circles, by means of the found radical axis, and finding out the two circles which touch the two symmetrical circles and any one of the three given circles. Dr. Brennecke has treated the subject at large in a book which has just now been published at Berlin, ‘ Die Bertthrungsaufgabe fur Kreis und Kugel,’ Th. Chr. Fr. Enslin, 1860, 8vo, illustrated by eighty-four diagrams, in which all information will be found concerning the most renowned problem of geometry, concerning the problem of tactions of three given circles or four given spheres. On a New General Method for establishing the Theory of Conic Sections. By the Rev. James Boorn, LL.D., F.RS. On the Relations between Hyperconic Sections and Elliptic Integrals. By the Rev. James Bootu, LL.D)., ERS. In this communication the author extended the analogies that the Continental and English geometers had established between elliptic integrals of the third order under the circular form, and the arcs of spherical conic sections, to the corresponding rela- tions between elliptic integrals of the third order and logarithmic form to the arcs of carves described in the surface of a paraboloid. On Curves of the Fourth Order having Three Double Points. By A. Cayrey, PRS. The paper is a short notice only of researches which the author is engaged in with reference to curves of the fourth order having three double points. A curve of the kind in question is derived from a conic by the well-known transformation of substituting for the original trilinear coordinates their reciprocals ; and the species of the curve of the fourth order depends on the pesition of the conic with respect to the fundamental triangle. Cn the Trisection of an Angle. By Parnricx Copy. Sx a aan 5 On the Roots of Substitutions. By the Rev. T. P. Kirkman, A.M, PRS. To determine the number of roots of a given degree, of a substitution @ made with n letters, and of the rth order. A substitution @ which has not two circular factors — of the same order, has no roots which are not found among the series of its powers, ~apellegt et A substitution which has two or more circular factors of the same order, will have roots of an order superior to its own, and therefore not among its power. | Thus the substitution of the 3rd order made with 9 elements, __ 231564897 ~~ 123456789" has 1 square root of the 3rd order, 9 square roots of the 6th order, 9 fourth roots of the 6th order, 18 cubic roots of the 9th order, and 18 sixth roots of the 9th TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. is) order. These roots can be enumerated by a simple general method for @ of any order, made with 7 letters. The fundamental theorem is the following :— If n=Aa+Bb+Cc+......, the number of different groups of the order K, which is the least common multiple of ABC... ., of the form Os Oo nerc Osa, whereé hasa circular factors of the order A, d of the order B, &c.,is (wmu=1.2.3...2), TN , Rx A“B’C’..aanbaec... Rx being the number of integers, unity included, which are !ess than K and prime to it. The partition n=9=3.3=Aa gives WOO ee 5.4 Rs 33. 73 phar groups, 166 ly ed Hy eerreei t0(G) j2 of the third order, which is that of 6 and of 6°. The partition n=9=6.14+3.1=Aa+Bb gives TO fic pra Pacer ee ttn ta groups, 1p’... $’, eit Ss Lee att arTs On wh eh teh CED) of the 6th order. Every group (H) contains a group (G), namely, 1 2 ht and ¢ of the 6th order is the square root of ¢? of the 3rd order, and the fourth root of * of the 3rd order. Also #” of the 6th order is the square root of ¢*, and the fourth root of d. The number of groups (H) being nine times that of the group (G), the group 166° will be comprised in nine different groups (H) ; that is, @ has nine square roots of the 6th order, and nine fourth roots of the same order. The partition n=9=9.1= groups, lyy? eee Vv’, . 28 @ e968, On Viewed te 8 eS le (J) of the 9th order. This comprises the group (G), f Wy where y’ has the cube roots p y' w" of the 9th order, and the sixth roots py? p’ 1p" of thesame order. ‘There are six times as many groups (J) as groups (G). Therefore 106? will be found in six groups (J), and either 6 or 6? has 18 cube roots, and 18 sixth roots all of the 9th order. Inthe same manner it is easily proved that the substitution of the 2nd order(n=8), g'— 34127856 12345678 which has four circular factors of the 2nd order, has twelve square roots all of the 4th order. These form with unity and 6’ the two groups following, 12345678 12345678 34127856 34127856 58763214 23418567 76581432 41236785 23416785 78561234 41238567 56783412 87652143 85674123 65874321 67852341 6 ; REPORT—1860. which are of the form (IV.) discovered by Mr. Cayley (Phil. Mag. vol. viii. 1859, p- 34), who there first enumerated the forms of groups of eight. Two such groups can be completed with unity, and any one of the 78 ee] Oh Ae R,. 4°. 7 2 substitutions of the form 6’, It is easy to form groups of Mr. Cayley’s form (II.) ; e. g., 12345678 34127856 23416785 41238567 56781234 78563412 67852341 85674123 which is-one of the grouped. groups whose general theory I have handled in a memoir which will shortly see the light. On a new Proof of Pascal's Theorem. By the Rev. T. Rennison, M.A. On Systems of Indeterminate Linear Equations. By O. J. Stepnen Suits, .A., Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. The object of this communication was to point out the connexion which exists between particular solutions of indeterminate linear equations, and their most gene- ral solution. The principle upon which this connexion depends may be explained in a very particular case. Let the sytem of indeterminate equations reduce itself to the single equation Ag By z=, 1 gcrdip s gutgialaiia als a ietais aia seal) in which we may suppose A, B, C to have no commun divisor; let also a, 6, c and a', b', c’ be two different solutions of that equation in integral numbers; then, if the three numbers be'—0'c,. eai—op', 0 abl—alb =... x). 2» oases erets (2) admit of %o0 common divisor, the complete solution of the indeterminate equation is contained in the formule x=at+a'u, ies OL te wots a tea mia igas's Cgasphasletia en) z=ct+c'u, in which ¢ and wu are absolutely indeterminate integral numbers; but if the condi- tion (2) be not satisfied, the formule (3) will not represent all, but only some of the solutions of the equation (1). If, therefore, by any method, as for example that of Kuler, we have arrived at formule of the type of the formule (3), which demonstra- bly contain the complete solution of the indeterminate equation, we may be certain that the three numbers analogous to the numbers (2) admit of no common divisor. Thus, by applying Euler’s method of solution, which is explained in most books of algebra, to the indeterminate equation Aw+ By+Cz=0, we obtain the solution of a celebrated problem, first considered by Gauss in the ‘ Disquisitiones Arithmetice,’ of which the following is the enunciation. “Given 3 numbers A, B, C, to find six others, a, b,c, such that eli 0 A=be'—b'c, B=ca'—ac', C=ab'—a'b.” Other methods more symmetrical, and perhaps not more tedious than that of Euler, — were also suggested in this paper for the treatment of indeterminate equations, and for the resolution of an important class of arithmetical problems which depend on those equations in the manner just explained. ee be eet TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7 On a Generalization of Poncelot’s Theorems for the Linear Representation of Quadratic Radicals. By Professor Sytvester, M.A., F.RS. The author explained the application of Poncelet’s theorems, to practical ques- tions of mechanics in the case of forces acting in a single plane as in the theory of bridges. He next referred to the mode of extension of this theorem, suggested by Poncelet, applicabie to the case of forces in space, and pointed out its insufficiency, and, ina certain sense, its incorrectness, The essential preliminary question to be resolved in the first instance (after which the matter became one of easy calculation), was shown to be that of cutting off by a plane the smallest possible segment of a sphere that should contain the whole of a given set of points lying on the sphere’s surface. Some years ago Prof. Sylvester had proposed in the ‘ Quarterly Mathematical Journal,’ without any suspicion of its haying any practical applications, the following question :—* Given a set of points in a plane to draw the smallest possible circle that should contain them all.” By a singular coincidence, Professor Pierce, of Cambridge University, U.S., had studied this question and obtained a complete solution of it, which he had communicated to the author during the present meeting of the British Association. A slight con- sideration served to show that precisely the same solution as Professor Pierce had found for the problem of points in a plane was applicable with a merely nominal change to the sphere also; and thus the solution of a question set almost in sport was found to supply an essential link for the complete development of a method of considerable importance in practical mechanics. The author stated that it would be easy to draw up tables of the values of the constants appearing in the linear function, representing the resultant of three forces at right angles to one another, for the principal cases likely to occur in practice, the values of these constants depending solely upon the condition of relative magnitude to which the component forces are supposed to be subjected, Licut, Heat. On the Influence of very small Apertures on Telescopic Vision. By Sir Davin Brewster, A.M, F.RS. [The manuscript of this paper has been lost. | On some Optical Illusions connected with the Inversion of: Perspective. By Sir Davin Brewster, K.H., F.RS. The term “Inversion of Perspective” has been applied to a class of optical illusions, well known and easily explained, in which depressions are turned into eleyations, and eleyations into depressions. One of the most remarkable cases of this kind, which has not yet been explained, presented itself to the late Lady Georgiana Wolf, and has been recorded by her husband Dr. Wolf. When she was riding on a sand-beach in Egypt, all the footprints of horses appeared as elevations, in place of depressions, in the sand, No particulars are mentioned, in reference to the place of the sun, or the nature of the surrounding objects, to enable us to form any conjecture respecting the cause of this phenomenon. Having often tried to see this illusion, I was some time ago so fortunate as not only to observe it myself, but to show it to others. In walking along the west sands of St. Andrews, the foot- prints, both of men and of horses, appeared as elevations, In a short time they sank into depressions, and subsequently rose into elevations. The sun was at this time not very far from the horizon, on the right hand ; and on the left there were large waves of the sea breaking into very bright foam. The only explanation which occurred to me was, that the illusion appeared when the observer supposed that the footprints were illuminated with the fight of the breakers, and not by the sun, -Haying, however, more recently observed the phenomenon, when the sun was yery high on the right, and the breakers on the left very distant, and consequently yery 8 REPORT—1860. faint, I could not consider the preceding éxplanation as well-founded. Upon attending to the circumstances under which they were now seen, I observed that the human footprints were all covered with dry sand that had been blown into them, so that they were much brighter than the surrounding sand, and than the dark side of the impression next the sun; and hence it is probable that they appeared to be nearer the eye than the dark sandin which they were formed, and consequently eleva- tions. After repeated examinations of them, I found the footprints appeared as elevations as far as the eye could see them; and they were equally visible with one or both eyes. But whenever the eye rested for a little while on the nearest foot- print, it resumed its natural concayity. I have observed other illusions of this kind, which are more easily explained, though they differ from any hitherto described. In the Church of Saint Agostino in Rome, there is above cach arch a painted festoon suspended on two short pil- lars; but instead of appearing in relief, as the painter intended, by shading the one side of them, they appeared concave, like an intaglio. In other positions in the church they rose into relief. Upon a subsequent visit to the church, I found that the festoon, or suspended wreath, was concave when it was illuminated, or rather when the observer saw that it was illuminated, by a window beneath it, and in re- lief when the eye saw that it was illuminated by a window above it, the object being similarly iluminated in both cases. In the common cases of inverted per- spective, the eye is deceived by looking at the inversion of the shadow in the cameo or intaglio itself; but in the present case the eye is deceived by perceiving that the body painted, supposed to be in relief, is illuminated by a light either above or below it. An optical illusion of a different kind presented itself to me in the Church of Santa Giustina at Padua. Upon entering the church we see three cupolas. The one beneath which we stood appeared very shallow; the next appeared much deeper, and the third deeper still. They were all, however, of the same depth, as we ascertained by placing ourselves under each in succession, and observing that it was always the shallowest. On Microscopie Vision, and a New Form of Microscope. By Sir Davin Brewster, KE, TRS. Io studying the influence of aperture on the images of bodies as formed in the camera, by lenses or mirrors, it occurred to me that in microscopic vision it might exercise a still more injurious influence. Opticians have recently exerted their skill in producing achromatic object-glasses for the microscope with large angles of aperture. In 1848 the late distinguished optician, Mr. Andrew Ross, asserted “that 185° was the largest angular pencil that could be passed through a micro- scopic object-glass,” and yet in 1855 he had increased it to 170°! while some observers speak of angular apertures of 175°. In considering the influence of aper- ture, we shall suppose that an achromatic object-glass with an angle of aperture of 170° is optically perfect, representing every object without colour and without spherical aberration. When the microscopic object is a cube, we shall see five of its faces ; and when it isa sphere or a cylinder, we shall see nine-tenths or more of its circumference. How then does it happen that large apertures exhibit objects which are not seen when small apertures with the same focal length are employed ? This superiority is particularly shown with test-ohjects marked with grooves or ridges, and obliquely illuminated. The marginal part of the lens will enlarge the grooves and ridges, and they will thus be rendered visible, not because they are seen more distinctly, but because they are expanded by the combination of their in- coincident images. Hence we have an explanation of the fact—well known to all who use the microscope,—that objects are seen more distinctly with object-glasses of small angular aperture. In the one case we have, with the same magnifying power, not only an enlarged and indistinct image of objects, but a false representa- tion of them, from which their true structure cannot be discovered; while in the other we have a smaller and distinct image, and a more correct representation of the object: But these are not the only objections to large angular apertures and short focal lengths. 1. In the first place, it is extremely difficult to illuminate objects when pw’ Os See ee ae eee TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9 so close to the object-glass. 2. There is a great loss of light, from its oblique in- cidence on the surtace of the first lens. 3. The surface of glass,—with the most perfect polish,—must be covered with minute pores, produced by the attrition of the polishing powder ; and light, falling upon the sides of these pores with extreme obliquity, must not only suffer diffraction, but be refracted less perfectly than when incident at a less angle. 4. When the object is almost in contact with the anterior lens, the microscope is wholly unfit for researches in which mechanical or che- mical operations are required, and also for the examination of objects enclosed in minerals or other transparent bodies. 5. In object-glasses now in use, the rays of light must pass through a great thickness of glass of doubtful homogeneity. It is a question yet to be solved whether or not a substance can be truly transparent, --in which the elements are not united in definite proportion,—in which the sub- stances combined have very different refractive and dispersive powers; and in which the particles are so loosely united that they separate from one another, as in the various kinds of decomposition to which glass is liable. If the best microscopes are affected by these sources of error, every exertion should be made to diminish or remoye them. 1. The first step, we conceive, is to abandon large angular apertures, and to use object-glasses of moderate focal length, effecting at the eye-glass any additional magnifying power that may be re- quired. 2. In order to obtain a better illumination, either by light incident verti- cally or obliquely, a new form of the microscope would be advantageous. In place of directing the microscope to the object itself, placed as it now is almost touching the object-glass, let it be directed to an image of the object, formed by the thinnest achromatic lens, of such a focal length that the object may be an inch or more ~ from the lens, and its image equal to, or greater, or less than the object. In this way the observer will be able to illuminate the object, whether opake or trans- parent, and may subject it to any experiments he may desire to make upon it. It may thus be studied without a covering of glass, and when its parts are developed by immersion in a fluid. 3. The sources of error arising from the want of perfect polish and perfect homogeneity of the glass of which the lenses are composed, are, to some extent, hypothetical; but there are reasons for believing,—and these reasons corroborated by facts,—that a body whose ingredients are united by fusion, and kept in a state of constraint from which they are striving to get free, cannot possess that homogeneity of structure, or that perfection of polish, which will allow the rays of light to be refracted and transmitted without injurious modifications. If glass is to be used for the lenses of microscopes, long and careful annealing should be adopted, and the polishing process should be continued long after it appears perfect to the optician. We believe, however, that the time is not distant when trans= parent minerals, in which their elements are united in definite proportions, will be substituted for glass. Diamond, topaz, and rock-crystal are those which appear best suited for lenses. The white topaz of New Holland is particularly fitted for optical purposes, as its double refraction may be removed by cutting it in plates perpendicular to one of its optical axes. In rock-crystal the structure is, generally speaking, less perfect along the axis of double refraction than in any other direc~ tion, but this imperfection does not exist in topaz. On the decomposed Glass found at Nineveh and other places. By Sir Davin Brewster, K.H., PRS. The different kinds of glass which are in common use, consist of sand or silex combined by fusion with earths or alkalies, or metals which either act as fluxes, or communicate different colours or different degrees of lustre or refractive power to the combination. In quartz or rock-crystal, which is pure silex, and in other regularly crystallized bodies, the molecules or atoms unite in virtue of regular laws, the pole of one atom uniting with the pole of another. Such substances, therefore, do not decompose under the ordinary action of the elements. The lens of Rock- Crystal, for example, found by Mr. Layard at Nineveh, is as sound as it was many thousand years ago when in the form of a crystal. * In the case of glass, however, the silex has been melted and forced into union 10 REPORT—1860. with other bodies to which it has no natural affinity; and therefore its atoms, which have their similar poles lying in every possible direction, have a constant tendency to recover their crystalline position as when in a state of silex. For the same reason, the earths, alkalies and metals, with which the atoms of silex have been constrained by fusion to enter into union, all tend to resume their crystalline position and separate themselves from the silex. Owing to the manner in which melted glass is cooled and annealed, whether it is made by flashing or blowing, or moulding, the cohesion of its parts is not the same throughout the mass; and consequently its particles are held together with different degrees of force, varying in relation to points, lines, and surfaces. An atom of the flux, or other ingredient, may be less firmly united to an atom of silex in one place than in another, depending on the degree of heat by which they were combined, or upon the relative positions of the poles of the atoms themselves when combined. There are some remarkable cases where flint-glass without any rude exposure to the elements has become opake, and I haye seen specimens in which the disintegration had commenced a few years after it was made. In general, how- ever, the process is very slow, excepting in stables, where the prevalence of am- monia hastens the decomposition and produces all the beautiful colours of the soap-bubble. It is, however, from among the ruins of ancient buildings that glass is found in all the stages of decomposition ; and there is perhaps no material body that ceases to exist with such grace and beauty, when it surrenders itself to time and not to disease. In damp localities, where acids and alkalies prevail in the soil, the glass rots as it were by a process which, owing to the opacity of the rotten part, it is difficult to study. it may be broken between the fingers of an infant; and we often find in the middle of the fragment a plate of the original glass which has not yielded to the process of decay. ~ In dry localities, where Roman, Greek, and Assyrian glass has been found, the process of decomposition is exceedingly interesting, and its results singularly beau- tiful, At one or more points in the surface of the glass the decomposition begins. It extends round that point in spherical surfaces so that the first film is a minute hemispherical cup of exceeding thinness. Film after film is formed in a similar manner, till perhaps twenty or thirty are crowded into the 50th of an inch. They now resemble the section of a pearl or of an onion, and as the films are still glass, the colours of thin plates are seen when we look down through their edges which form the surface of the glass. These thin edges, however, being exposed to the elements, suffer decomposition. The particles of silex and the other ingredients now readily separate, and the decomposition goes on downwards in films parallel to the surface of the glass, the crystals of silex in one specimen forming a white ring, and the other ingredients rings of a different colour. (See the Figure.) Such is the process round one point, but the decomposition commences at many points, and generally these points lie in lines, so that the circles of decomposition meet one another and form sinuous lines. When there are only two points, these eircles, when they meet, swround the two points of decomposition like the rings round two knots of wood; and in like manner, when there are many points, and these points near each other, the curves of decomposition unite as already mentioned, and form sinuous lines. When the decomposition is uniform and the little hemi- spheres have nearly the same depth, we can separate the upper film from the one below it, the convexities of the one falling into the concavities of the other. This general description was illustrated by drawings on the table, all of which were executed by Miss Mary King, of Ballylin, now the Hon, Mrs. Ward. But beautiful and correct as these drawings are, they convey a very imperfect idea of the brilliant colours and singular forms which characterize glass in a parti- cular stage of its decomposition, and of the optical phenomena which it exhibits in common and polarized light, When the decomposition has gone regularly on round a single point, and there is no other change, a division of the glass into a number of hemispherical films within one another takes place, the group of films exhibiting in the microscope cir- cular cavities, which under different circumstances become elliptical and polygonal. In salt water the decomposition of glass goes on more rapidly, as I haye found in —s TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 11 examining one of the bottles brought up in the wreck of the ‘ Royal George ;’ and the same effect may be produced by a quicker process. M. Brame*, of Paris, having seen a notice of the decomposed glass from Nineveh which I read at the Association some years ago, succeeded in producing, in a very short time, regular and irregular circles of decomposition, in the centre of which there was always a small cavity or nucleus, This effect was obtained by immersing fragments of thick glass in a mixture of fluoride of calcium and concentrated sulphuric acid, or by exposing them to the action of the vapour of fluorhydrique acid. Such are some of the general phenomena of decomposed glass when seen by light reflected from its exposed surfaces ; but when we separate the films and examine them in the microscope, either by common or polarized light, a series of phenomena are seen of the most beautiful kind,—so various and so singular that it would be a vain attempt to describe them. A general idea of them, however, may be obtained from the drawings, and from a description of three varieties of these films. I. The first of these varieties has rough surfaces,—the roughness arising from an almost infinite number of hemispherical cavities on one side of the film, and hemispherical convewities on the other side. When these cavities are separated by flat portions of the film, they are perfectly circular; but when they are crowded together, they are irregularly polygonal, the sides of the polygons forming a sort of network, the cavities or convexities forming the meshes of the net. The convex and concave surfaces are not rough but specular, and reflect and transmit white light, exhibiting none of the colours of thin plates. In polarized light, each of the cavities, whether circular or polygonal, act as negative uniaxal crystals, exhibiting by the interference of the refracted and trans- mitted pencils the black cross, and the white of the first order in Newton’s scale, rising sometimes to yellow or falling to the palest blue, or disappearing altogether, according to the number or curvature of the films which compose it. Il. The second variety of these films has perfectly specular surfaces, in conse- quence of having almost no cavities. They exhibit in common light, and in a very beautiful manner, the colours of thin plates, the transmitted being complementary to the reflected light. This variety is exceedingly rare. In a specimen on the table the reflected light is blue and the transmitted yellow. In some of the fragments a few insulated circular cavities with the black cross occur, the tints which surround it being modified by the general tint of the film. lil. The third variety of decomposed glass consists of films containing cavities of all sizes and forms, from the 30th of an inch to such a size that they are hardly visible by the microscope, giving to the film which they compose a sort of stippled appearance, or an imperfectly specular surface. These cavities or combinations of hemispherical films are circular, elliptical, or irregularly polygonal. The colours which they reflect and transmitare complementary, and the tints and rings which in polarized light surround the black cross are curiously modified by the general tint of the fragment, and the curvature of its component films,—the black cross itself varying its shape with the form of the cavities. “When the cavities are flat, the black cross disappears as in thin slices of uniaxal crystals ; but the tints reappear, rising to higher orders by inclining the plate. The cavities are often arranged in sinuous curves, and encroach upon one another, so that the polarized tints appear only at the margin of the line which they form. They frequently run in perfectly straight lines, and when they are very small and invisible as cavities, their margins form in polarized light brilliant lines, which are often grouped in bands like the stripes in a ribbon. Sometimes they are only a few thousands of an inch in diameter, and might be used as micrometers in the micro- scope, every trace of the cavities which form them having disappeared. These lines of polarized light all disappear when they lie in the plane of polarization of the incident light, or perpendicular to that plane. Tn some specimens a decomposition has taken place on several points of the con- yex or concave surfaces of the cavities, so as to form new cavities ; and each of these minute cavities, often ten or twelve in number, exhibit the black cross with its tints, but disfiguring, of course, those of the cavity upon which they have encroached. In the three varieties of decomposed glass which I have described, the films are * Comptes Rendus, &c., Noy, 2, 1852. 12 REPORT—1860. pure glass,—deriving their colour from the individual films of which they are com~- posed. This is obvious from the fact of their becoming colourless by a sufficient inclination of the plates, and also by the introduction of a drop of water or alcohol. When the fluid has evaporated, the films recover their original colour; and though a film of fluid has separated each of the almost infinitesimal layers of the glass, yet they adhere as firmly as ever after the fluid has evaporated. If an oil or balsam is introduced, it passes slowly and unequally between the layers, so that the retreating colour is bounded by a spectrum of the various tints which the film combines. But though the films themselves are glass, yet I have often found between them beautiful circular crystals of sélex, which are finely seen in polarized light, and exhi- bit many of the regular and irregular forms which I have represented in a paper on Circular Crystals lately published in the ‘ Transactions of the Royal Society of Edin- burgh.’ They are sometimes dendritic, and assume, round the ‘black cross, foliated shapes like the leaves of plants. At other times, but very rarely, they occur in circular groups,—related to a crystal of silex in their centre. One of these groups is so remarkable as to merit particular notice. Around a minute speck of silex there is formed, at a considerable distance from it, a circular band of equally minute crystalline specks, and at a greater distance a second circular band concentric with the first, and consisting of still smaller siliceous particles, hardly visible im the mi- croscope. By what atomic force, or by what other cause, the central crystal has laced its attendant crystals in regular circles around it, remains to be discovered. I ave already described a similar phenomenon, as produced during the formation of circular crystals under constraint, and when crystallizing freely ; but I am not aware that any other person has either seen the phenomenon or attempted to explain it. The films of decomposed glass, as I haye long ago shown, absorb definite rays of the spectrum like coloured media. They change, in the most distinct manner, the colours of different parts of the spectrum, and frequently insulate bands of purely white light, in or near its most luminous division. [The drawings referred to in this commnnication were laid before the Section, and some of the specimens of decomposed gluss were exhibited in the Museum in the course of the evening.] On his own Perception of Colours. By J. H. Gravstone, Ph.D., PRS. The author described himself as in an intermediate position between those who have a normal vision of colours, and those who are termed ‘‘colour-blind.”” These latter are usually unacquainted with the sensations of either red or green, and it becomes a desideratum to have good observations on those who are capable of acting somewhat as interpreters between them, and those who perceive every colour. By means of Chevreul’s chromatic circles and scales, Maxwell’s colour-top, coloured beads, &c., the author was able to determine the following points in respect to his own vision. He sees red, in all probability, like other people, but it requires a larger quantity of the colour to give the sensation than is usually the case; hence a purple appears to him more blue, and an orange more yellow, than to the generality of observers. He is perfectly sensible of green, or rather of two distinct greens, the one yellowish, the other bluish ; but between them there lies a particular shade of green, to which his eyes are insensible as acolour. This modifies his perception of many greens that approximate to what is to him invisible. ‘The shade occurs in nature on the back of the leaf of the variegated holly, and it may be produced in Max- well’s top by certain combinations of the coloured disc; the simplest being 94°5 Brunswick Green (Blue Shade) + 5°5 Ultramarine =94 Black-+ 6 White. He finds that this shade, though invisible to him as green, is yet capable of neu- tralizing red when viewed simultaneously, but it does not neutralize so much red with him as with observers of o1dinary vision. While able perfectly to distinguish between red and green, the contrast does not readily catch his eye, especially at a distance; in fact, he is somewhat short-sighted in respect to these colours. He has reason to believe that, in his case, there has been a gradual improvement in his actual perception of colours, independently of his greater knowledge of them, though this is in opposition to the general experience of eS ee a TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 13 those whose vision is in any way abnormal, and no other stance was known to the late Prof. George Wilson, whose book is the standard one on the subject of colour- blindness. On the Chromatic Properties of the Electric Light of Mercury. By J. H. Guapsrone, PA.D., F.RS. While examining the brilliant electric light produced in an interrupted current of mercury in the apparatus contrived by Professor Way, the author was struck by the strange manner in which it modified the apparent colours of surrounding objects, and especially with the ghastly purple and green hues which it imparted to the faces and hands of the spectators. This led him to an investigation of the subject, and a prismatic analysis of the light itself. Chevreul’s ‘cercles chromatiques ” showed yellow, green, and blue distinctly, but very little red, while the violet became remark- ably luminous. The modifications of colour in many bodies of known composition were then related, as for instance the green sulphate of iron which appeared colour- less, and the scarlet iodide of mercury which assumed a brownish metallic appear- ance. Substances capable of fluorescing exhibited that phenomenon with remark- able beauty. On analysing this light by means of a refractive goniometer, the author found it to consist of a great number of separate rays, and not to present in any part a continuous band of light. This was exhibited by means of a diagram in coloured chalks on black paper, by the side of a solar prismatic spectrum. The position of the different rays had been measured, and their relative intensity deter- mined. There are red and orange rays, but they are of the most feeble intensity ; some yellow rays of great brilliancy; two bright green rays; one blue ray of great luminosity ; and a number of violet rays. One of these latter is situated far beyond the limits of the visible solar spectrum, in fact at about Becquerel’s line N, and was bright to the eye, although it had passed through several pieces of glass—a medium that does not easily transmit the extra-violet rays. Its colour appeared to differ considerably according to its intensity, but might be described generally as a red- violet. The prismatic analysis explained fully the changes that red substances un- dergo when exposed to it—sometimes to brown, and at other times to purple, green, or whatever other colour in addition to red is principally reflected by them: it also explained all the other chromatic phenomena. Professor Wheatstone in 1835 de- scribed the spectrum of the electric light of mercury as containing seven definite rays ; and Angstrom has recently given a drawing of the lines that coincides closely with the observations of the author on the more luminous rays, and shows that the Swedish physicist had not seen the extra violet lines. From his figures also it appears that the air is excluded from the luminous cone of mercurial vapour in Way’s apparatus. On a New Instrument for determining the Plane of Polarization. By the Rev. Professor JELLErT. Professor Jellett described to the Section a new analysing prism, by which the plane of polarization of polarized light may be determined with great precision. This instrument consists of a long prism of cale-spar, which is reduced to the form of a right prism by grinding off its ends, and sliced lengthwise by a plane nearly but not quite perpendicular to its principal plane. he parts into which the prism is thus divided are joined in reversed positions, and a diaphragm with a circular opening is placed at each end. The light which passes through both diaphragms produces a circular field divided by a diametral slit into two parts, in which the planes of polarization are slightly inclined to one another. If then light which has been previously plane polarized be transmitted, it will be extinguished in the two parts of the field of view in positions which lie close together, and the light will become uniform in a position midway between these. This position determines the plane in which the incident light was polarized, with a precision much greater than has been otherwise attained. Professor Jellett stated that the different observations did not differ from one another by an angle greater than a minute, and that the instrument was equally applicable to the case of homogeneous light, 14 i REPORT—1860. Note on the Caustics produced by Reflexion. By L. L. Linvexor, Professor at Helsingfors. There are, no doubt, few branches of mathematical physics that have been more often discussed than the reflexion and refraction of light, and the theory of these phenomena has consequently been gradually reduced to the greatest simplicity. The whole doctrine of catoptrics and dioptrics may indeed be said to be implicitly con- tained in the elegant principle successively developed by Dupin, Quetelet, and Gor- gonne, namely, that a system of rays that can be cut orthogonally by a particular sur- face, preserves this property after any number of reflexions and refractions. Never- theless, it appears to me that the theory of caustics has been somewhat neglected. Not but what there are many interesting researches on this subject that have been conducted with abundance of care, but because these, for the most part, refer to cer- tain very restricted cases, as for example, to reflecting surfaces of a particular kind. In examining from a somewhat more general point of view the theory of caustics produced by reflexion, I have arrived at certain results, which appear to me to be sufficiently curious to deserve a short notice. I suppose the reflecting surface to be of any kind whatever, and that it is illumi- nated by a bundle of parallel rays. Suppose, now, that two of these rays impinge on the surface at two points A and A! infinitely near each other. Unless certain par- ticular conditions are fulfilled, the corresponding reflected rays will not be in the same plane. In order, therefore, that the two rays may meet after reflexion so as to form a point in a caustic, the points A and A! must be related in a certain manner. Now it will be found that, starting from any point A, there will always be two different directions in which the consecutive reflected rays intersect, and by following these directions from point to point, certain curves will be traced on the surface, which play an important part in the theory of caustics, and which may be called catoptrical lines. These lines bear some analogy to the lines of greatest and least curvature, with which they sometimes coincide. Their form and situation depend not only on the nature of the surface, but also on the direction of the incident rays. Each point of the surface is the intersection of two catoptrical lines, which possess the remarkable property that their projections on the plane perpendicular to the incident rays, cut each other at right angles. ‘To each catoptrical line there is a correspouding caustic formed by the rays reflected from the catoptric, and these caustic lines themselves form a caustic surface, which in general consists of two sheets, corresponding to the two systems of catoptrical lines. Let a, y, and z be the coordinates of any point in the reflecting surface, and let the axis of z be parallel to the incident rays. Calling, as usual, the partial differential coefficients of s with respect to a and y of the first order p and gq, those of the second r, s, and #, we have for the catoptrical lines the simple equation dp . dy=dq .dr, dy CY Retain Wy Saati ia, which may be put in the form since dp=rdx+sdy, dg=sda-+ tdy. The quantities p, g, 7, s, and ¢ being all expressible in terms of x and y by means of the equation to the reflecting surface, the two values of =~ derived from the above a equation can also be expressed in terms of w andy. If this differential equation can be integrated, the resulting relation between 2 and y, together with the equation to the surface, determine the catoptrical lines. The point &, n, and ¢ of the caustic corresponding to x, y, z of the reflecting sur- face, is determined by the following equations :— dy t—s— sor ae tea ¢ 2s dz 2p 2g pte] 2@=rt)’ Eliminating x, y, z by means of these three equations and that of the given surfaces, we obviously get the equation to the caustic surface ; and eliminating the same quan- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ‘15 ‘tities between the same three equations, and the two equations of any catoptrical line, we get the equations to the corresponding caustic line. As to the application of this theory it offers no difficulty. On directing my aig fon more particularly to surfaces of the second order, I obtained the following results :— (1) In the case of a sphere illuminated by parallel rays, the first system of catop- trical lines consists of great circles passing through the same point, the second of small citcles cutting the former at right angles. The equation to the caustic surface that corresponds to the first system is [4 +7?+0)—a* P= 2708 (E+7°), a being the radius of the sphere, while the second system has for its caustic a straight line passing through the centre of the sphere. (2) If the reflecting surface be an ellipsoid or a hyperboloid, either of one or of two sheets, and the incident rays are parallel to one of the axes, the projections of the catoptrical lines on the plane of the other axes are either ellipses or hyperbolas, whose foci coincide with those of the section of the surface by the same plane. (3) In the case of an elliptic paraboloid illuminated by rays parallel to its axis, the catoptrical lines form parabolas whose planes are parallel to one or the other of the principal sections of the surface. The caustic surface is reduced to two parabolas lying in the planes of the principal sections, and having the axis of the paraboloid for their common axis, but situated in opposite directions. ‘That which lies in the plane of the greatest of the principal sections is turned in the same way as the paraboloid, that lying in the perpendicular plane is turned in the opposite direction. Each of these parabolas has the same focus as the principal section to which it is perpendicu- lar, and a parameter equal to the difference of the parameters of the principal sections. Lastly, each of these caustic lines is perpendicular to the corresponding system of catoptrical lines. (4) In the case of a hyperbolic paraboloid illuminated by rays parallel to its axis, the catoptrical lines also form two systems of parabolas in planes parallel to the planes of the principal sections, and the caustic is again reduced to two parabolas situated in the same two planes, and turned in opposite directions, each having a parameter equal to the sum of the parameters of the two principal sections. There would be no difficulty in applying the above formule to surfaces of revolu- tion, to cylindrical conical developable surfaces, &c., but the preceding will suffice to give an idea of the results that may be deduced in certain cases. On the Results of Bernoulli's Theory of Gases as applied to their Internal Friction, their Diffusion, and their Conductivity for Heat. By Professor Maxwe tt, F.R.S.E. _ The substance of this paper is to be found in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for January and July 1860. Assuming that the elasticity of gases can be accounted for by the impact of their particles against the sides of the containing vessel, the laws of motion of an immense number of very small elastic particles impinging on each other, are deduced from mathematical principles; and it is shown,—1st, that _the velocities of the particles vary from 0 to o, but that the number at any instant having velocities between given limits follows a law similar in its expression to that of the distribution of errors according to the theory of the ‘‘ Method of least “squares.’’ 2nd. That the relative velocities of particles of two different systems are ‘distributed according to a similar law, and that the mean relative velocity is the ‘Square root of the sum of the squares of the two mean velocities. 3rd. That ‘the pressure is one-third of the density multiplied by the mean square of the ‘Velocity. 4th. That the mean vis viva of a particle is the same in each of two Ryaterns in contact, and that temperature may be represented by the vis viva of a ‘Particle, so that at equal temperatures and pressures, equal volumes of different gases must contain equal numbers of particles. 5th. That when layers of gas have a motion of sliding over each other, particles will be projected from one layer into another, and thus tend to resist the sliding motion. The amcunt of this will depend on the average distance described by a particle between successive collisions. From the coefficient of friction in air, as given by Professor Stokes, it would appear that 16 REPORT—1860. this distance is a inch; the mean velocity being 1505 feet per second, so that each particle makes 8,077,200,000 collisions per second. 6th. That diffusion of gases is due partly to the agitation of the particles tending to mix them, and partly to the existence of opposing currents of the two gases through each other. From experi- ments of Graham on the diffusion of olefiant gas into air, the value of the distance described by a particle between successive collisions is found to be =m of an inch, agreeing with the value derived from friction as closely as rough experiments of this kind will permit. 7th. That conduction of heat consists in the propagation of the motion of agitation from one part of the system to another, and may be calcu- lated when we know the nature of the motion. Taking sonaaa of an inch as a pro- bable value of the distance that a particle moves between successive collisions, it ap- pears that the quantity of heat transmitted through a stratum of air by conduction would be aa of that transmnitted by a stratum of copper of equal thick- ness, the difference of the temperatures of the two sides being the same in both cases. This shows that the observed low conductivity of air is no objection to the theory, but a result of it. 8th. That if the collisions produce rotation of the parti- cles at all, the vis viva of rotation will be equal to that of translation. This relation would make the ratio of specific heat at constant pressure to that at constant volume to be 1°33, whereas we know that for air it is 1°408. This result of the dynamical theory, being at variance with experiment, overturns the whole hypothesis, however satisfactory the other results may be. On an Instrument for Exhibiting any Mixture of the Colours of the Spectrum. By Professor Maxwe tt, F.R.S.L. This instrument consists of a box about 40 inches long by 11 broad and 4 deep. Light is admitted at one end through a system of three slits, of which the position and breadth can be altered and accurately measured. This light, near the other end of the box, falls on two prisms in succession, and then on a concave mirror, which reflects it back through the prisms, so as to increase the dispersion of colours. The light then falis on a plane mirror inclined 45° to the axis of the instrument, and is reflected on a screen in which is a narrow slit. On this screen are formed three pure spectra, the position and intensity of each depending on the position and breadth of the slit through which the light was admitted. The portions of these spectra which fall on the slit in the screen pass through, and are viewed by the eve placed close behind it. A colour compounded of these three portions of three different spectra is seen illuminating the prisms, and can be compared with white reflected light seen past the edge of the prisms, ‘The advantage of the instrument over that described to the Association in 1859 is, that by the principle of reflexion the rays return in the same tube, so as not to require two limbs forming an awkward angle; while at the same time, by doubling the dispersion, the necessary length of the instrument is diminished. By means of this instrument many observations of colours have been taken. Some of these by a colour-blind person are published in the ‘ Philosophical ‘lransactions ’ for 1860. Further Researches regarding the Laws of Chromatic Dispersion. By Munco Ponron. In this paper the author has revised, and improved in its details, his method of expressing the refractive index of a medium as a function of the wave-length. He employs A to denote the ratio of any particular wave-length referred to that of the fixed line B as unity. The numerical values of the wave-lengths of the lines C, D, E, F, G, H are given, as calculated from Fraunhofer’s measures. The author’s formula for expressing the refractive index (1) as a function of d is x” a TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 17 -where » must be found by the method of trial and error for each medium in parti- cular, and e*, a» are certain known functions of and of the observed indices. Thus the formula contains three arbitrary constants, which must be determined from the results of observation. When these constants are properly determined for any medium, the formula, even in the case of the most highly dispersive media which have been observed, is found to represent very accurately the observations, the utmost error being only a few units in the fourth place of decimals. Experiments and Conclusions on Binocular Vision. By Professor Witt1aM B. Rocers, Boston, U.S. The following experiments, intended to test the theory of the successive com- bination of corresponding points in stereoscopic vision, are I believe in part new, and are in part modified repetitions of experiments already described by Professor Wheatstone and Professor Dove. 1. Let two slightly inclined luminous lines, formed by narrow slits in a strip of black card-board, be combined into a perspective line, either with or without a stereoscope. Looking at this for a few seconds, so as to induce the reverse ocular spectrum, and then directing the eyes towards the opposite wall of the apartment, a single spectrum will be observed having the attitude and relief of the original binocular resultant. As a strong illumination of the lines is necessary to bring out the full effect, the card-board should be held between the eyes and some brilliantly white surface, as the globe of a solar lamp or a strongly illuminated cloud, care being taken to pre- vent the entrance of extraneous light. 2. Using the same arrangement, let the luminous lines be regarded ¢n succession each by the corresponding eye, the ether eye being shaded so that no direct bino- cular combination can be formed. On looking towards the wall, it will be seen that the two subjective images unite to form a single spectral line, having the same relief as of the lines had been directly combined by simultaneous vision, either with or without a stereoscope. While the perspective image continues distinctly visible, let either eye be closed, the other being still directed towards the wall.’ The image will instantly lose its relief and take its position on the plane of the wall as an inclined line, corre- sponding to the subjective image in the eye that has remained open. When the subjective impressions have been sufficiently strong, it is easy to alternate these etlects, by projecting first the picture proper to the right eye, then that of the left, on the plane of the wall, with their respective contrary inclinations; and _ then looking with both eyes, we see the resultant image start forth in its perspec- tive attitude. d It is hardly necessary to say that to obtain these effects satisfactorily the lines _ should be very strongly illuminated, and the observer should have some practice in experiments on subjective vision. Under these conditions I have found the results to be perfectly certain and uniform. In these experiments, according to the theory of Sir David Brewster, the result- ant spectrum, instead of being a single line in a perspective position, ought to pre- sent the form of two lines inclined or crossing, situated in the plane of the wall without projection or relief. The conditions of the experiments are such as te exclude all opportunity of a shifting of the image on the retina, and such shifting is obviously essential to the successive combination of pairs of points required by the theory in the production of perspective effect. In reference to the first experiment, it might perhaps be maintained that, as the perspectiveness of the original resultant on which the eyes were converged formed part of the direct perception in first combining the lines, it would be likely through association to be included also in the spectral or subjective perception. But this consideration, which at best appears to me of little weight, is entirely inapplicable to the conditions of the second experiment. For here the eyes are in the first place impressed in succession with their respective images, and are not allowed to see the resultant ; and yet when they are together directed to the wall, the percep- tion of the single perspective resultant is at once originated. 1860. 2 Y ' ‘ 18 REFORT—1860. 3. Without resorting to these troublesome efforts of subjective vision, the fol- lowing experiment furnishes, as I think, conclusive proof that pictures successively eae on the respective eyes are sufficient for the stereoscopic effect. et an opake screen be made to vibrate or revolve somewhat rapidly between the eyes and the twin pictures ofa stereoscopic drawing, so as alternately to expose and cover each, while it completely excludes the simultaneous vision of any parts of the two. The stereoscopic relief will be as apparent in these conditions as when the moving screen is withdrawn. Here at each moment the actual impression in the one eye and the retained impression in the other, form the elements of the per- spective resultant perceived. {t seems clearly inferrible from these experiments, that the perception of the resultant in its proper relief does not require that each pair of corresponding points should be combined by directing the optic axes to them pair by pair in succession, as has been maintained. Nor is it necessary for the singleness of the resultant perception, that the images of corresponding points of the object should fall on what are called corresponding points of the retin. The condition of single vision in such cases seems to be simply this, that the pictures in the two eyes shall be such and so placed as to be identical with the pictures which the real object would form if placed at a given distance and in a given attitude before the eyes. 4, I have of late years frequently repeated Dove’s experiments with instantaneous illumination, leading, as is well known, to similar conclusions. In these I have found it most convenient to use the momentary bright flash of the Leyden bottle, con- nected with the Ruhmkorff coil according to Grove’s plan. With a powerful coil of Ritchie’s construction, and a brass disc 8 inches in diameter having the usual concentric striation, I am able, even with a single flash, to see the luminous line in perspective, and by a quick succession of flashes, I can have it as steadily before me as if illuminated by the sun. A twin-drawing of a simple geometrical solid, placed in the stereoscope, and illuminated by the same means, appears single and in just relief in all cases where the flashes recur at short intervals, and very frequently presents the same appear- ance even with a single momentary light. To be assured that the effect was not due to the recollection of a previous stereo- scopic impression, I have caused slides to be introduced, of which the form could not be thus anticipated, and still have had no difficulty in describing the perspec- tive resultant as exhibited by the instantaneous illumination. 5. On the inability of the eyes to determine which retina is impressed.—Let a small disc of white paper be fastened on a slip of black pasteboard of the size of a stereoscopic slide, and let this be so placed in the instrument as to bring the disc centrally in front of one of the glasses, the person who is to view it being kept in ignorance of the position of the spot. On looking into the instrument he will think he sees it with both eyes equally, and, without resorting to the expedient of closing his eyes alternately, will be entirely unable to determine whether the spot is before his right eye or his left eye. The spot appears to be placed in the mesial or binocular direction, and in the same position as that of the resultant image of two such discs, presented severally to the two eyes. It may be concluded from this that the mere retinal impression on either eye is unaccompanied by any conscious reference to the special surface impressed, and that the visual perception belongs to that part of the optical apparatus near or within the brain, which belongs in common to both eyes. This experiment is moreover interesting from its bearing on the law of visible direction. It shows that the sense of direction is just as truly normal to the central part of the retina that has received no light from the object, as to the part of the other retina upon which the white spot has been actually painted by the rays. In truth it is normal to neither, but is felt to be in the middle line between the two, that is, in the binocular direction. This experiment therefore contradicts the law, which assumes that the direction in which an object appears is always in the normal to the point of the retina impressed. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 19 Régulateur Automatique de Lumiére Electrique. By M. Serr. To form the electric arch of light, it is first necessary to bring the charcoal points into contact, then gently to separate them by degrees, as they glow, afterwards to cause them to approach constantly, as they are wasted by use, carefully avoiding bringing them into contact. In order to keep the point of illumination fixed in space, each charcoal point must simultaneously approach the other, and that in the pro- portion in which each is wasted by use. In fine, for rendering the electric light useful, all these conditions must be self-produced with the utmost regularity, with- out any intervention of the human hand, that is to say, in a manner completely automatic; and this was the object the regulator was invented for. In a simple and easy manner, this apparatus, which may be compared to an extremely sensible balance, is composed of two mechanisms connected the one with the other, and yet independent ; when one acts the other is in repose, and reciprocally. One of these consists of an oscillating system,—the chief feature of the regulator destined to pro- duce the separation of the charcoal points, and also to determine their re-approach. The other mechanism, composed of wheel-work, has for its object to ensure the re- approach of the charcoal points in the proportion of their waste by use. The two port-carbons which carry the charcoal pieces are placed vertically one above the other. The superior is in connexion with the wheel-work, and is the positive elec- trode of the battery; the inferior depends as well on the wheel-work as on the oscillating system, and is the negative electrode. The superior port-carbon, by its weight, causes the inferior to ascend. The oscillating system forms a parallelogram, of which the angles are jointed, one of the vertical sides of which is suspended bya spring, and carries at its lower part a soft iron armature, placed over a horizontal electro-magnet. When the apparatus is in repose, the charcoals are in contact ; on the contrary, they separate when the circuit is completed and the voltaic arc ap- pears. As the wasting by use of the charcoals increases the length of the voltaic arc, the armature increases its distance from the electro-magnet, become less powerful, and the charcoals re-approach by a quantity frequently less than the one-hundredth of a millimetre; but according as they re-approach, the electro-magnet recovers its original power, the armature is attracted anew, and the charcoals stop until a new wasting gives rise to a new re-approach followed by a new stoppage, and so on in succession. In consequence of its extreme sensibility, it will work either with a voltaic pile or an electro-magnetic machine. On some Recent Extensions of Prevost’s Theory of Exchanges. By Barrour Stewart, M.A. On Rings seen in viewing a Light through Fibrous Specimens of Cale- spar. By G. Jounstone Stoney, M.A, F.R.A.S. Sc. The author mentioned that Sir David Brewster had drawn the attention of the Association, at the York meeting, to the beautiful display of four rings which may be seen on looking at a luminous point through fibrous specimens of calc-spar. In the present communication the forms of the rings were traced asa consequence of Huygen’s construction, and the points where rings vanish, or where irises pass into one another, were determined. The state of polarization was also examined, and the positions, in which two of the rings, which are faint, will be most conspicuous. The author drew particular attention to the great range of brightness of these faint rings, and to the circumstances attending the disappearance of one of them, in con- Sequence of a curious case of impossible reflexion, as offering peculiar facilities for testing rival hypotheses. On Thin Films of Decomposed Glass found near Oxford. By R. Tuomas. The films were observed on bottles of the form called magnums, which had been lying in the Cherwell above a century. The films formed by decomposition on the QF 20 REPORT—1860. surface were easily detached, and submitted to observation. The reflected and trans- mitted tints were complementary to each other when held perpendicularly; they varied when the position was changed and the path of the rays became oblique. By examination under the microscope the films were found to be composed of a series of still thinner films, several of which were required for manifesting colours by trans- mitted light. In some cases as many as sixteen of these thinner laminz were counted. The colour is brightened in proportion to the number of lamine. When two films overlap, the tint produced is the mixture of the two—yellow and blue, for instance, producing green. In general the layers are flat and the colour uniform, but some- times undulated over bubbles, and then the colour is varied. Some specimens with a few bubbles show a difference of colour at the bubble with common light, and with polarized light the black cross and complementary colours appear. Ecvectricity, MAaGnertismM. On certain Results of Observations in the Observatory of His Highness the Rajah of Travancore. By Joun ALLAN Broun, F.RS. The following were noticed by the author. lst. With regard to the mode in which the diurnal law of magnetic declination varies from place to place, and the probable position and epoch of the line of least diurnal variation near the equinoxes. For this object two stations were chosen—one near the magnetic equator, 90 miles north of Trevandrum, the other about 40 miles south at Cape Comorin, where con- tinuous hourly observations were made during several months about the periods of the equinoxes. The most marked of the conclusions arrived at from these observa- tions were, that the minimum diurnal variation near the March equinox occurred earlier in the year at Trevandrum than at Shertally 90 miles north, and on the mag- netic equator ; that the law presented marked differences at the two places, near the epoch of minimum variation; and that the difference of the variations at the two stations occurred almost whoily between midnight, sunrise, and noon, the difference between noon, sunset, and midnight being comparatively small. 2nd. Projected observations were exhibited in proof of the results communicated by the author to the Leeds Meeting of the Association, that the daily mean inten- sity of the earth’s magnetism increases as a whole or diminishes as a whole; so that if at any point on the earth’s surface the daily mean intensity increases, it will be found that it increases similarly at all other places in proportion to the absolute in- tensity at each place, allowance being made in cases of great disturbance to the greater value of disturbances in high latitudes. 3rd. Projected observations were also exhibited, showing that the mean daily easterly declination of the north end of a magnet followed on the whole the same law of variation in both hemispheres, differing from the diurnal variation, where the north end moves east in the southern hemisphere, while it moves west in the north- ern hemisphere. 4th. The author had investigated the laws of the diurnal variation of the baro- meter within the tropics. He had endeavoured to determine whether the chain of the Indian Ghats had any influence on the great atmospheric semidiurnal wave moving westward. Hourly observations had been made for a month in 1857, at a station on the eastern base of the Ghats, on the highest peak in Travancore, on the western base (all within a few miles), and at Trevandrum 20 miles distant, near the sea shore. Similar observations had been made in 1858, at four stations on the western face of the Agastier Malley, differing by 1500 to 1700 feet from each other in height, in correspondence with the Trevandrum Observatory. In these observations the greatest care was taken to have the best instruments, the times of observations were pre- cisely simultaneous, and instruments of all kinds were observed likely to give results related to the question examined : fifteen observers were employed, and the observa- tions continued hourly during a month. From these observations, it appears that —_—— TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21 the semidiurnal law of atmospheric pressure is the same at all heights up to 6200 feet (on a sharp peak), from 9 p.m. to 9 a.m., both as regards epoch and range. The day variation (9 a.m. to 9 p.m.) is greatest for the lowest station, depending evidently on the temperature. The author connected these facts with the hypothesis proposed by Dr. Lamont and himself, that the semidiurnal variation is due to the inducing electrical action of the sun on our earth and its atmosphere. These and several other results, at present only partly worked out, would be pub- lished soon in detail. The printing of the observations made in the observatory of His Highness the Rajah of Travancore was proceeding as rapidly at Trevandrum as could be expected in Jndia, and the first sheets were in the author’s hands. On the Diurnal Variations of the Magnetic Declination at the Magnetic Equator, and the Decennial Period. By Joun ALLAN Broun, F.R.S. Solar-diurnal Variation.—The author stated that the observations made at the intertropical observatories had shown the fact that the law of solar-diurnal variation was opposite, or nearly opposite, at two seasons of the year; this result was made generally known to the scientific world by General Sabine, in his discussion of the St. Helena Observations. St. Helena, however, is too far from the magnetic equator to show the change from one law to the other, otherwise than as a shifting move- ment of the maxima and minima, which seem to slide in the course of a month or two from one position to the other; the whole range of the variation being consider- able at all seasons. Mr. Broun offered to the Section the results of five years’ observations made at the Trevandrum Observatory, about 90 miles south of the magnetic equator, which showed perfectly the mode of variation of the diurnal law. In the months of December, January, and February, the minimum of easterly de- clination occurs at 7; A.m., in the months from April to September, the mazimum occurs at exactly the same time. In the months of March and October a period of indifference is attained, when the variation becomes nearly zero, or the variation is a series of maxima and minima at different hours, and the range or total angular movement is reduced to about thirty seconds (0'5) when the mean of a few days is taken. The epochs at which this change takes place are neither those of the sun’s crossing the equator nor the zenith, and the epoch seems to vary from year to year. The March epoch is not distant from the vernal equinox, but the other occurs nearly a month later than the autumnal equinox. So far is the second epoch for the change from one law to the other from tliat of the sun’s crossing the zenith or equator, that August and September are the months of greatest diurnal range. Although Trevandrum is in 83° north latitude, it has a magnetic dip of 23° south; but the diurnal variations affect the character of the northern hemisphere more than that of the southern hemisphere,—the mean range for the months from May to September being nearly three minutes (3’), while for the months of December and January the range is only about two minutes (2’). Mr. Broun was the first to point out that the diurnal law at any place might be represented by the superposition of two variations, one resembling that peculiar to high north latitudes, the other resembling that peculiar to high south,—the northern part being always in excess in high magnetic north latitudes, and in excess for places in low magnetic north latitudes only for the sun north of a given line. It is evident that we may, by descending towards the magnetic equator, reach a station where for a given position of the sun the two variations will be equal or nearly equal, in which case for that position of the sun the complete extinction of the diurnal law may be expected ; this occurs approximately at Trevandrum. - When the diurnal range is examined with reference to the decennial period, it is found that the mean range had a minimum in the year 1856, the exact epoch of minimum being, perhaps, about January of that year; but when the ranges for given months are considered, some curious differences from the law are discovered. The yearly mean of monthly mean ranges, with the mean ranges for the months of March and October, are as follows :— 22 REPORT—1860. Yearly Mean. March. October. i U i USHA sisi ejsismie POLO ZO. ogee ele se OOO US5Gs.,0jaye ini eyes (te OOGs ota cle w wininin Ol OS Datel cle iwinys ate aut Oype 1857... cceccece 2IBO.. cece e oe O'9AB..sereeeee O'989 © USD Gives diaicleiereye MAA LAs] oe viovsiapeya BL: DO Darden [= chess eumiesOut It will be perceived from this Table that the range for the month of March has gone on increasing from 1854 till 1858, the range for the latter year being more than double that for the former ; that while the minimum for the whole year occurred in 1856, that for March occurred in 1854, or before that year. In the case of the month of October, the ranges differ little, that for 1854 being the greatest, and that for 1857 the least. It is conceived by the author that this curious variation in March and October is connected with a shift in the epoch of minimum diurnal variation. If this epoch happen near the middle of the month, the range for the mean of the month will be least; if it happen earlier or later, the greater range of the preceding or succeeding periods will preponderate in the monthly mean. Should this be the cause of the variation of range for March and October, it would follow that the two superposed variations which produce the total variation may change their relative values from year to year for a given place and for a given position of the sun. Lunar-diurnal Variation.—This variation, which was first remarked by M. Kreil, and afterwards, though quite independently, by the author, has since been discussed by General Sabine. The latter gentleman has made it a subject of inquiry, first, whether the lunar-diurnal variation within the tropics obeyed different laws for the moon north and south of the equator, like the solar-diurnal law; and 2nd, whether the decennial period could be perceived in the former as it is in the latter. His con- clusions in both cases have been in the negative. Mr. Broun has discussed five years’ observations at Trevandrum, from which he arrives at the following results. lst. That the lunar-diurnal law varies with the moon’s declination, but not to the extent of inverting the law. In all cases there are two maxima of easterly de- clination near the superior and inferior transits, and two minima for the moon near the horizon. If we consider the period about the solstice of December, we shall find that the greatest maximum occurs at the inferior transit for the moon furthest north, and at the superior transit for the moon furthest south. ‘The greatest minimum is near moonrise for the moon on the equator going north, and near moonset for the moon on the equator going south, while the minima are equal for the moon furthest north and furthest south. The epochs also vary slightly. 2nd. The lunar-diurnal law, which remains nearly constant as regards epochs for all positions of the moon at any given season of the year, is the inverse in June of what it is in December ; so that, for the sun furthest north, the lunar-diurnal Jaw has its maximum where for the sun furthest south it has its minima, the latter occurring near the epochs of transit in June and July. In this way the Junar-diurnal law de- ee on the position of the sun relatively to the ecliptic, and not (or little) on that of the moon. The range of the lunar-diurnal variation is greatest near perihelion, which is just the reverse of the solar-diurnal law ; this appears to depend on the moon’s greater proximity to the sun as the cause of its magnetic action. The range is least near the epochs of the equinoxes, as for the solar-diurnal law. The cause of the great differences found by General Sabine in the laws for dif- ferent places in the same hemisphere, is attributed by the author partly to the com- bination of laws which vary considerably at the same place for different seasons. The author also pointed out that General Sabine’s failure to discover the decennial period in the lunar-diurnal variation may be due to the fact that, before he com- menced his discussion, he had first cut out all the disturbances beyond a certain limit, so that a greater proportion were rejected in the years of greatest disturbance. The decennial law is one affecting the regular diurnal variations, chiefly, through the disturbance; so that if the latter be omitted the effect should not appear (or appear but slightly) in the former. The projected observations were exhibited to the Section. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 23 On a New Induction Dip-Circle. By Joun ALLAN Broun, F.R.S. The idea of determining the earth’s magnetic intensity by its inducing action on soft iron was employed by Dr. Lloyd for the purpose of obtaining the magnetic in- clination. A soft iron bar being placed vertically, so that the induced magnetism of one end should act on a freely suspended magnet, the deflection thus produced was observed, and considered proportional to the vertical component of the earth’s mag- netic intensity ; the bar was then placed horizontal, and, the same end acting, the deflection was observed, which was in the same way considered proportional to the horizontal component : were there no sources of error, the inclination might be determined from these two angles. The iron bars employed always possess or acquire a certain amount of induced magnetism, the effect of which is eliminated by inverting the bar for the different deflections ; there are, however, still two sources of error which remain. The most important is that due to the different actions of the different parts of the bar in the vertical and horizontal positions. If the whole mag- netism were accumulated in one point at the acting end of the bar, this source of error would not have existed; but as the magnetism is distributed over the whole length, that part whose action is equal on both ends of the suspended magnet when the bar is in the vertical position, becomes greater on one end of the magnet than the other when the bar is in the horizontal position. It was probably for this rea- son that Dr. Lloyd’s method has never been put into practice. Last year, while observing with Dr. Lamont’s theodolite magnetometer, Mr. Broun employed a method for the determination of the absolute magnetic inclination, to which it is believed there can be no objection in low magnetic latitudes, and which, with the modifications proposed, may probably be used in all latitudes. In Dr. Lamont’s apparatus the variations of magnetic dip from place to place are determined by means of two soft iron bars clamped to a horizontal ring, the ring surrounding a freely suspended magnet, one bar vertically above the ring, the other vertically below it. By a series of observations of the deflections produced by the bars in different positions, inverted and exchanged from side to side, the effect of per- manent magnetism is eliminated, and the deflection due to the earth’s force is obtained ; the sine of this angle, multiplied by a constant, gives the dip for each place; the constant, however, requires the aid of the usual dip apparatus for its determina- tion, It is evident, however, that if we can incline the bars moving in the plane of the magnetic meridian till the observed deflection be zero (should there be no per- manent magnetism), and observe the angle through which the bars have been moved from the vertical, this angle will evidently be that of the magnetic inclination, for the bar will have been moved into the direction at right angles to that of the total force. This method, as thus stated, requires the determination of the vertical posi- tion of the bars ; and itis supposed that there is no permanent magnetism : as far as the latter supposition is concerned, the error is eliminated by reversing the bars; in order to render the determination of the vertical position unnecessary, it is only re- quired to observe the angular inclination of the bars, which (for each position) diminishes the deflection by an amount equal to the mean deflection previously ob- tained. It will be observed that for low latitudes, where the bars are moved little from the vertical, the objection applying to Dr. Lloyd’s method exists to so small a degree as to be negligible. This method, which Mr. Broun employed in Sndia, is, however, liable to error in high magnetic latitudes ; and the following is proposed for use in all positions. A small magnet, 2 inches long, is suspended by a silk fibre as with the usual declination Magnet; a small mirror attached to the magnet allows the determination of the magnetic meridian by means of a telescope having a prism near the wire at the eye- piece, as in Dr. Lamont’s apparatus. When the wire coincides with its image re- flected by the mirror (no disturbing cause being near), the magnet is in the magnetic meridian. A vertical circle in the magnetic meridian parallel to the magnet, and 3 inches distant, centre to centre, has a soft iron bar clamped to the alidade, so that the acting pole of the bar is opposite the centre of the circle and the middle of the Magnet. The reading of the circle is first obtained for the bar vertical: the ver- ticality of the axis of the bar may he determined in different manners; the best, 24 F REPORT—1860. perhaps, is to have the bar hollow, and to employ reflexion of a cross wire from a surface of mercury. ‘The bar is then moved in the magnetic meridian from the ver- tical position till the deflection of the magnet is zero; if the permanent magnetism acts with the induced magnetism, the movement of the bar will he greater than the inclination by a given angle; in turning the bar in the opposite direction (So as to invert it), the angle from the vertical will be less by the same amount. Since in the position at right angles to the magnetic force the induced magnetism is zero, the objection applying to Dr. Lloyd’s method does not exist ; there is, how- ever, still a source of error remaining that applies to both: as the magnetic inclina- tion increases, the position at right angles to the force can only be attained by moving the bar nearer and nearer to the horizontal, and as it approaches the horizontal, a certain amount of magnetism is induced in the bar by the small suspended magnet. Different methods have been imagined by the author to destroy or balance this action; but the best method he thinks will be to make observations with the bar at two different distances. ‘The magnetism induced by the small magnet in the bar may be represented by a weak magnet, whose force will vary inversely as the cube of the distance: as the action of this weak magnet will also vary inversely as the cube of the distance, the effect may be determined and eliminated by observations at two or more distances. Any error of the observation for the vertical position of the bar due to the non- coincidence of the axis of magnetism and of figure may be eliminated by turning the bar on its vertical axis of figure through 180°. The author remarked that the error due to the inducing action of the small suspended magnet might be rendered as small as we please, by employing a modi- fication of the method used by him in India. If the total deflection due to the bar vertical (direct and inverted) be determined, and we then observe the change of de- flection due to a given angular movement of the bar from the vertical, we may com- pute the movement necessary to render the deflection zero: the angular movement may be taken of such magnitude as to render the effect of the inducing action negli- gible. This modification requires, however, the determination of the angles of deflection, and therefore is far from the simplicity of the first method. The author pcinted out, that, since when the bar is at right angles to the direction of the total force any small movement of the bar will produce induced magnetism in proportion. to the size of the small angle of movement, this position is that best fitted to give the true position of the magnetic meridian with the least error of inclination. The author coneluded by stating that he had learned since his return to Europe that Dr. Lamont had also proposed a method differing from that of Dr. Lloyd. Dr. Lamont employed an astatic needle, and turned the bars into different azimuths by movement on a vertical axis, so as to produce different amounts of induced magnet- ism without changing the position of the bars relatively to the vertical. ‘This method, Dr. Lamont informed the author, had failed on account of the bars receiving different amounts of permanent magnetism in changing from azimuth to azimuth. This difficulty does not exist in Mr. Broun’s method, as the bar is always kept in the meridian, and is always brought to the position where the inducing action is zero. On Magnetic Rocks in South India. By Jouxn Avan Broun, £.R.S. The Moocoonoomalley is a granite hill rising about 800 feet above the sea, 5 miles south-east of Trevandrum, and about 35 miles north-west of Cape Comorin. General Cullen, the late British Minister at Travancore, had observed several anomalies in the magnetic dip in ascending this hill. The dip near Trevandrum and about the base of the hill was from 2° 30’ to 2° 40’ S.; on the top he found the dip to be from 5° 52’ to 11° 23’ in different years, in which he probably slightly varied the position of observation. In December 1855 I examined the rock masses constituting the hill. The plain around the base is formed of a stratified rock known to Indian geologists by the name of laterite. The first rocks in the ascent are dark syenites, containing a con- siderable proportion of hornblende (in some cases the appearance is more like a greenstone) ; towards the middle of the ascent light-grey syenites become common, Paes “(elem i ts ee TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 25 and at the top the rocks are pegmatites or granites. I first examined a small frag- ment of the rock presented to me by General Cullen, of a greyish-red tint, composed chiefly of felspar and quartz with particles of magnetic iron ore disseminated ; these particles were of about ;; to 34 inch in diameter, and without any regular form or smooth face (as far as my examination went), when a magnet was presented to one of these particles, detached from the specimen, it showed its polarity by tumbling over, if the homonymous pole was at first nearest the magnet. The specimen alluded to was about 5 inches long, 23 inches broad, and 12 inch thick, tapering and thinning off to one end (A). On presenting the different extremities to a freely suspended magnet (the declination magnet of the Trevandrum Observatory), the following results were obtained :— Se. div, Specimen away. Declination reading................ 0°00 End A presented......... ais ous] dieiola alates aysTalers\inictalst voles aL se bigs re nieile) 0061 0jn aje «, 2 ciaie) ssw 6is/e'S ie ea/sielas e'sb'es “fo be SideC ,, WiatwyaYeheielesieveleyaieieketsWereiiveketeler aie Wes CCR ICY eal tas Wf aD eee aalaininls feipibisuate ehafelevalajainieiel ais eisitir leieliicie) ain: €S where the negative sign signifies repulsion of the north end of the magnet, and the positive sign attraction of the same pole. The changes of magnetic declination occurring during the experiments were observed by another instrument, and have been subducted. As the line of the magnetic axis of the specimen was evidently towards the direction of its greatest length, the northern end being towards A and C, it was desired to determine whether the same relation would hold true for any fragment ; for this purpose, two ends of the specimen were knocked off, leaving a fragment in the middle with a distance of a (towards A) to 6 (towards B) of nearly 2 inches, while the breadth from C to D was nearly 3 inches; so that the longest dimension was now nearly at right angles to that of the whole specimen. The cen- tral fragment being placed at the same distance from the suspended magnet as in the previous experiment, the following were the results :— , Sc. div. Fragment away. Declination reading...........«+++. 0°00 Binal as PreSenbed ore mie oso siahals;o)s-opcfeie) ovo) ajaicia/sje cicie’ heres: efeie = O79 ” 6 5 aie) e\agalelio.a alae ei bls\'eelclepatel's ¥aterp ales aiateeie sletek aL Side C = siat slat blaletel steel Yelatarciaverd al viciovetelechamiaecsrd Ory 5) D 3 so MaaNetele itciet allan. a/ah etotayatial eypeyeigce’ ‘epajape\ stale MCE LE The ends and sides show the same polarities as in the whole specimen, but with the north end of the magnetic axis turned more to the side D, for which the deflec- tion has increased. Upon presenting the small fragment constituting the end A of the specimen, the results were as follows :— : : Sc. div. Fragment away. Declination reading................ 0°00 NGRASPLESENEEM 5 S40\ejsi0, 0/6 2:512t0. ears foinisiants szaoiefoys, sy e{e ate, —-OsSO Prac! = Rieke lal aefausieualal ¢ o¥e,a-a/oinis (ai c¥ 6, desta tela sie tern, 0°30 SideC ,, selvinis[eletiois)olate'e\a| ois cial) esiecn eG) sitethec ian Oo LA © aD ee Bia ole cies sewccsicscswecsvenccceesue - O14 Here it will be observed that the broken fragments of the specimen acted exactly as the broken parts of a magnet ; thus the end a in the central fragment gave a repul- sive effect of 0°79 scale divisions, while the end a’, the opposite face of the fracture, gave an attractive action of 0°36. Several questions of interest presented themselves in connexion with these rocks. Whether the hill as a whole would give results similar to those obtained from this specimen? Whether the lines of magnetic force in it had any relation to the lines of crystallization, or to those of the earth’s poles? Whether any particular direction was most favoured? or whether the magnetic axes vary from spot to spot, and the magneticules, possessing their present magnetism when tossed up in the liquid mass, had their positions determined by chance? On the 11th of December, 1855, I visited the hill, making observations with a 6-inch 26 REPORT— 1860. dip-circle by Robinson ; the following differential results were obtained without reversing the poles of needle :— Oo 7 10th December, 1855, 65 a.m. Base of Bill oy. 88 crc ccee econ 70 (9) Top of hill. Circle 43 feet above rock A 3 34 oF, Circle 4 foot FF 1 6 8» to 10 a.m. ae Circle 42 feet be B 130 e Circle 4 foot fy, 1475 Noon. Base of hill over laterite............ 1 50 4" pM. Trevandrum Observatory ..,....... oo The bearing of the Trevandrum Observatory was observed approximately by a hand compass at the stations Aand B. At 43 feet above the rock the error was small ; but when placed on the rock A, the declination was found 10° west, while on B (9 feet W.N.W. of A) it was 35° east, the true declination over laterite being about 3° east. The pegmatite and granite on the top of the hill seemed to form kinds of dykes running parallel to each other nearly north and south, and crossed by lines nearly at right angles to the direction, so as to form large blocks, between which the decaying rock has allowed the accumulation of soil to some depth. Blocks of about 9 inches diameter were cut out of the rock at A and B, having previously marked the direc- tion of the true north and south upon the upper surface, which was nearly horizontal. With these specimens I made the following observations. A specimen was placed with its centre at about 2 feet from the centre of the freely suspended magnet, and in the line at right angles to the direction of the magnet ; the points of the compass marked on the upper surface, when the specimen was in situ, were successively pre- sented to the centre of the magnet, and the scale readings of the instrument were observed. The direction of the plane of greatest force being found, the specimen was inclined at different angles to the horizontal, till the direction of the line of greatest force was determined. Specimen A: elliptic cylinder, axes 93 inches and 8 inches, average height about 5 inches; a granite containing a small quantity of hornblende, colour reddish grey ; from about 1 foot west of the position A for the dip observation. The numbers fol- lowing are in scale divisions, each equal 15" nearly :— N. deflection ........ +21°4. S. deflection... .... —17°8 ININ:ES 5 Ss oes feet a LOPE SIS W oka ee cco —17°3 NEES PO aac ese! lbs “Have een, —15°3 E. ry Su erevete'e -+o8s W. en bt atelaetets . — 2:3 S.E. os Oe ee 193% ON Ws ay bere areata +14°5 SiS Be yp ss altec eas — 15745 CIN Weiss Pe eaG ee -. +19°9 S of lGae nse FeRe RING Wig sivaclaveinte « +21°4 The direction of the plane containing the magnetic axis is in this case nearly north and south. On raising the point S. presented to the magnet, it was found that the north end of the magnetic axis dipped from 10° to 20° below the south horizon ; the exact position could not be determined, from the difficulty of keeping the centre of the specimen always at the same distance from the magnet. The result agrees with the fact that the dip observed on A was diminished, since the rock mag- net having here its south end uppermost, would necessarily attract the north end of the dipping needle. Specimen B: cylinder 10 inches diameter, 9 inches deep; upper surface red and weathered, interior bluish grey; contains besides the bluish felspar and quartz a large quantity of hornblende. The observations for B were made only for the north end of the axis. INGING We defection’: toc sie ccuviane © tou —36°4 N. + aieleteyeteivia nidte'sretetele — 38°8 TS iy eget Re Sere ae —44:0 N.N.E. ar ie want recto Tense ats —42°4 N.E. US MMR Ate cnetere eater oh eee. —36°0 ‘ TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 27 The north end of the magnetic axis was here evidently nearly in the direction N. by E.3 E. Upon raising this point of the stone, presented to the centre of the magnet, the deflection diminished ; on lowering it, the deflection increased to 10°; su that the north end of the axis here inclined 10° above the horizon to N. by E. 3 E. This result also agrees with the increase of dip found at B. - In a third specimen examined, which was weakly magnetic, the north end of the axis made an angle of 80° above the N.W. by W. point of the horizon. From these results it is evident that though the direction of the magnetic axis may not vary much in small specimens, it does so in parts of the rock separated by a few feet only from each other; and it appears probable that it may be considerable for smaller distances than those under experiment. Neither do the directions of the axis seem to have any relation to the lines of crystallization. Another question was examined by me, namely, whether the magnetic intensity of the rock varied with the temperature. For this question I chose a specimen of about 6 inches long by 4 broad and 3 thick, taken from near the middle of the ascent of the hill. The observations were made in the same manner as for the temperature coefficient of a magnet. The specimen was placed in a wooden trough, into which water of different temperatures was poured: the deflections of the declination mag- net by the specimen at different temperatures were noted ; the variations of declina- tion during the experiments were eliminated by means of another instrument. The results are contained in the following Table :— Scale reading Be VER | comer ot | ene | tania ot hm ; Se. div. Dec. 20. 19 Ze war eae +88° 1:07 A ee eee ea 52 | Stone away 81°82 The result is that the magnetic rock, like a steel magnet, loses force by an increase of temperature ; and, using the notation employed for steel magnets, the temperature coefficient is approximately g=0'000214, nearly the value obtained for steel magnets used in the British and Colonial Obser- vatories. The following may be considered as the conclusions at which I have arrived :— Ist. The rock fragments have determinate magnetic axes. 2nd. Broken fragments resemble broken magnets, showing opposite polarities at the two surfaces of fracture. 3rd. The magnetic axis varies from place to place within small distances. 4th. The action of the whole hill on magnets freely suspended at moderate di- stances is nearly imperceptible; the opposite directions of the magnetic axis in the rocks rendering the total action nearly zero. 5th. As in some cases the north end of the magnetic axis was found to the south- ward (as with specimen B), we cannot suppose that the magnetism of the small magnets has been due to the inducing action of the earth in their present position or since the rock mass became solid. 6th. The directions of the magnetic axis have no relation to the lines of division of the rock masses. 7th. The magnetic force of the rock masses varies with temperature like that of steel magnets. On a Magnetic Survey of the West Coast of India. By Joun ALLAN Broun, F.R.S. This survey was undertaken at the expense of His Highness the Rajah of Travan- 28 : REPORT— 1860. core, for the purpose, in the first instance, of determining the exact position of the mag- netic equator (which passes through his territory) and the variations of intensity about the line of no inclination. This part of the survey was performed with considerable care, stations being chosen along the line of coast, at distances of from 10 to 15 miles, generally far from the chain of the Ghats, and in a flat country, covered in many places by backwaters or lagoons. The instrument employed was the excellent theo- dolite magnetometer of Dr. Lamont. The results were, that the magnetic south in- clination, instead of diminishing regularly from Cape Comorin northwards to the line of no dip, diminished through a space of 30 miles, increased through a similar space, and again diminished in the most capricious manner. The same irregularities were observed north of the estimated position of the equator. Some irregularities had been already observed by Mr. Caldecott, Mr. Taylor, and General Cullen; but the author had confirmed his results by observations at many different stations, and had come to the conclusion that a belt of disturbance for this element existed near the line of no dip. This disturbance could not be attributed to the influence of hills or of rocks, as no ground of greater elevation than 30 to 40 feet existed within several miles of those stations showing the greatest irregularities, no rocks were reached by borings of 30 to 50 feet deep, and none appeared upon the surface above the sandy soil near these stations. The survey was extended by the author on his way to Europe by observations at stations further north than those in Travancore, as Kodungalur, Kalikut, Mangalur, Goa, Rutnagherri, Bombay, and Aden. From this and the first part of the survey, the author found that the horizontal intensity was nearly the same from Cape Comorin to Bombay, showing, as the author conceived, that the lines of equal inten- sity followed (somewhat like the isothermal lines) the line of the Indian coast. This result agrees with that obtained by the Messrs. von Schlagintweit, whose previous observations indicate a great bend of the isodynamic lines from the Himalayas and towards Cape Comorin. The whole question, the author conceived, required careful examination by means of observations at more numerous stations, as the theory of the causes of the earth’s magnetic intensity, and the arrangement of the magnetic lines, were evidently involved in results which differed so much from what had been found elsewhere, especially from the results obtained by Dr. Lamont from his admi- rable magnetic survey of the greater part of the European Continent. On the Velocity of Earthquake Shocks in the Laterite of India. By Joun ALLAN Brown, F.R.S. (See GEoioey.) On a Mode of correcting the Errors of the Compass in Iron Ships. By A. Crarke, New South Wales. On Electrical Force. By Sir W. Snow Harris, F.RS. The author adverted to the assumed existence in nature of an electric fluid or fluids, an idea entertained by philosophers from the earliest periods of the history of electricity. Many thought that all bodies expire or inhale this fluid. In modern times less ambiguous views have been resorted to, and the doctrine of an electric fluid or fluids has been employed principally as aiding to link the phenomena into an intelligible and connected chain. The author thinks the time is fast approaching when it may be found desirable to abandon all idea of electrical fluids as the agency concerned in the development of electrical force, and treat this species of force as Newton did gravity, without any care as to its occult quality. For although it may be convenient and perhaps useful to employ analogical expressions in interpreting the phenomena and to facilitate description, as when we speak of the quantity of electric matter, of its tension, density, or thickness of stratum, &c., yet it must ever be remembered that, in using this figurative language, it is force and the laws of force with which we are dealing, and not with electrical fluids or other assump- tions as to its occult nature or quality. ———._ ose. |.) = a TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 29 The author proceeded to say that the foundation of all exact science is number, weight, and measure ; and that, as observed by an eminent writer, no branch of phy- sical knowledge could be held as being out of its infancy which did not in some way or the other frame its theory, or correct its practice with reference to these elements. He here described and explained the nature of a series of very beautiful instruments, by which the quantity of the electrical agency, its attractive force, its explosive power, and the effects produced, could be accurately measured. Having thus en- deavoured to bring the unknown agency we term electricity under the dominion of number, weight, and measure, the leading characteristics of electricity as a force were next brought under consideration. And first, we observe electrical power exhibits itself under two forms, usually termed vitreous and resinous electricity, or positive and negative electricity. These have been usually considered as arising out of two distinct and separate fluids, or of a single elementary fluid in a greater or less state of condensation. They are, however, one and the same force, and have the same relation to each other as the forces of compression and extension in the case of a bent bow or spring. We cannot have one without the other; and as in the latter instance we should gain but little by assuming the existence of elastic fluid or fluids as the source of elasticity, so in the case of electrical force we may as well look at once upon positive and negative electricity as elementary facts of which we have no adequate explanation. Secondly, we observe that whatever be the nature of electricity as a physical agency, it cannot exert itself equally in all directions at the same moment. In the case of gravity, the sun does not attract the earth with less force because it is exerting its gravitating power on the other planets. Such is not the case in the development of electrical force. The author here introduced a striking experiment in illustration of this; showing that a delicate electroscope, attracted toward an electrified circular plate placed vertically, became less forcibly drawn toward the plate from a distance when a second body was brought to share in the action. This is the result of a third characteristic of electrical force, termed electrical induction or influence, the laws and operation of which were now further explained and illus- trated. It is solely upon this species of electrical action, apparently of a sympa- thetic kind, operating at a distance, probably by propagation through the intervening medium, that electrical attractive force altogether depends: without it no exertion of power is possible. In electrical force bodies are first rendered attractable before they become attracted, and for the regular and full exertion of the attraction, both the bodies must be susceptible of unlimited electrical change. When this is the case the development of force is easily traced ; and the force will be found to vary as the square of the quantity of electricity in operation directly, aud as the squares of the distances inversely : of this some striking and very interesting experimental illustra- tions were given through the instrumentality of the electrical balance, delicately set up with complete means of adjustment for distance and force; and it was with re- markable precision the beam descended when under the influence of two attracting surfaces ; the quantity of electricity and the weights being given, the force of in- duction, upon which the resulting force depends, varies in the simple inverse ratio of the distance between the attracting surfaces, and depends, first, upon the direct in- fluence of the electrified surfaces, secondly, upon a reflected induction thrown back upon the excited body. The total force is in a compound ratio of these forces, and it is in this way we obtain a force in the inverse duplicate ratio of the distances. If from any cause either or both of the previous elementary actions be interfered with, then we have no longer this law ; so that any law of electrical force is possible, as found in the experiments of many eminent philosophers of past days—Muschenbroek, Brook, Taylor, Whiston, Martin, and others. The author thinks that the results of the experiments of these eminent men have been called unjustly in question; every result they arrived at is producible by careful manipulation. The author now brought under consideration the question of electrical force be- tween spheres, one charged with electricity, the other neutral and in a free state. This question had been often elaborately treated, and had been hitherto considered a physico-mathematical question of great intricacy. An analysis of the elements of this question was here entered upon. Upon the proved facts that the force varies with the quantity of electricity and is in the duplicate inverse ratio of the distance, 30 REPORT—1860. two points may be found within the opposed hemispheres in which we may con- ceive the whole force to be collected, and to be the same as if proceeding from every point of the opposed hemispheres. These points approach the surface, and become the touching points when the spheres touch ; as the spheres separate they approach the centre, and reach the centre when the distance is infinite. If we call a the distance between the points of contact, and r=the radius of sphere, we have, putting F=the total attractive force, F « ; and calling the points of centre 1 a(a+ 2r) of force=gq q’, we have distance q q’=the tangent from either of the touching points to the opposite sphere; or if distance ¢ q'=D, we have Fz pt a 5° Several very remarkable experiments were now adduced in evidence of the truth of these formule. Spheres of variable diameters were put in opposition in the balance, the quantity of electricity measured, and weights placed in the scale-pan, as deter- mined by calculation; the distances being regulated accordingly, the scale beam bowed in obedience to the given law of force with extreme and wonderful exactitude : the experiments elicited much commendation. The author thinks that every observed operation of electrical action is reducible to simple and elementary laws free of complication, and may be investigated and ex- pressed by an easy mathematical analysis and forms of expression. He thinks that all the laws of nature are of the most simple kind, and only involve a simple rela- tion of cause and effect; if we double the cause we double the effect. To suppose an effect to be as the square or cube of its cause, is to suppose the effect to depend partly on the cause and partly on nothing. There is probably, taken as a simple elementary law, no such a law in nature as that of a force being in the inverse duplicate ratio of the distance. Take, for example, the case of gravity as central force, and assumed to be a species of emanation from a centre, it is true that at twice the distance we have only one-fourth the force ; but this is because the areas of the concave spherical surfaces, which we may imagine the emanation to fall upon at these distances, are to each other as 1:4; so that in any one point of the outer sphere there is only one-fourth the agency upon which the force depends, conse- quently only one-fourth the attraction; but this is a simple relation of cause and effect. Taking light as an emanation from a centre, the same result ensues. If there be only one-fourth the quantity of the emanation in any point, we can only have one-fourth the light, and thus light or gravity may be said to be in the inverse duplicate ratio of the distance. On the different Motions of Electric Fluid. By the Rev. T. Rankin. The author, from several very striking and vividly-described thunder-storms and their permanent effects, concludes that sometimes the electric fluid moves downward, sometimes upward, and sometimes horizontally. On one occasion, some years since, about two o’clock, on a night on which it had thundered almost incessantly, a loud whizzing sound was heard to pass over the rectory-house, which he judged to be an aérolite; a tree in the direction it had passed was struck; and from the nature of the injury inflicted, the conclusion was drawn that the motion of either the aérolite or of the electric fluid had been nearly horizontal. On the Phenomena of Electrical Vacuum Tubes, in a letter to Mr. Gassiot. By Professor W. B. Rocers, Boston, U.S. I send you, by my brother, a printed abstract of remarks made some months ago on the phencmena of the vacuum tubes, and a hypothesis as to the condition and cause of the stratifications. You will see that, with the aid of Mr. Ritchie and our skilful photographer, Mr. ~ Black, I have been experimenting on the actinism of these electrical discharges. _ In some more recent trials I have obtained beautiful photographs of the stratifica- tion, of which I send youa specimen, The tube, as you will see, is a straight one, of se a oe eS TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 31 uniform calibre. It is about 15 inches long, by $ inch diameter, and is marked by Geissler as containing phos. hydrogen. As you have perhaps observed, it gives the strata with extraordinary di- stinctness ; and after the action has been continued a little while, the strata near the blank end arrange themselves in pairs, consisting each of a bluish and a more reddish layer, separated by a blank interval from the next, as seen very plainly in the photograph. By a steady, rapid motion of the ratchet-wheel of Mr. Ritchie’s coil, it was easy to keep the strata almost perfectly stationary. The picture was obtained with eighteen turns of the wheel, each giving twelve sparks. With six turns a tolerably clear picture was secured. You see that the unilluminated space at one end made no impression, and that the intervals between the strata are also as devoid of actinic as they are of luminous rays. The picture of the winding tube, with bulbs, shows how superior is the actinism of the faint blue light of the negative end compared with the brighter and less refrangible rays of the opposite bulb. The third photograph was produced by the two slender Geissler tubes, containing re- spectively N and CO,. The former was placed below the latter as they were presented before the camera, and the current was sent through them in succession. To the eye the intense whitest light of the voit cai ies CO, tube was more dazzling than the crimson colour- ing of the other. Yet you will observe the picture made by the latter is far the stronger of the two, as indeed might have been expected from its more re- frangible illumination, This photograph was produced with half a turn of the wheel, that is, six successive flashes of the light. I am unable to state the aggregate time of exposure to the rays, as I have not yet ascertained the duration of a flash. This I hope, with Mr. Ritchie’s aid, to ac- complish at an early day. But if we assume the time to be as much as tenfold the duration of the electric spark, as measured by Wheatstone, we should have less than saath of a second for the entire time which the light required for producing this intensely clear picture. I believe that.a single flash would suffice, but I have not yet made the trial. 32 REPORT—1860. General Abstract of the Results of Messrs. de Schlagintweit’s Magnetic Sur- vey of India, with three Charts. By M. H. von ScHLacintwEIt. M. Hermann de Schlagintweit gave a general report on the results obtained during MM. de Schlagintweit’s magnetic survey of India and High Asia, from 1854 to 1857. He presented three charts, showing the lines of equal declination, dip, and inten- sity, from Ceylon up to Turkistén. Also the details of their observations as con- tained in the first volume of their work, ‘ Results of a Scientific Mission to India and High Asia,’ undertaken by order of the Hon. East India Company, was laid upon the table. The magnetic results were preceded by a communication of those latitudes and longitudes, particularly to the north of the Himalayas, which were either new as to localities or found to differ from previous determinations. For the construction of their charts, they most carefully compared also the previous observations ; such as, for the intensity in Northern India, Taylor’s and Caldecott’s, and particularly those recently made by Mr. Broun; for the declination along the coasts, the determination of the Indian Navy; but Capt. Elliot, their predecessor, having died before he could extend his survey from the Indian Archipelago to India, and the only detailed observations in the outer Himalaya (General Boileau’s, at Simla) being destroyed in the last mutiny, their observations must be considered as made in a territory novel for this branch of science; and a great part of them was besides made under circumstances so difficult, that unhappily one of the three brothers was killed in Turkist&n. The following results are particularly to be mentioned :— I. Declination.—1. A zone of too little easterly declination, of considerable ex- tent, was found inAssam. 2. In the north-western part of India the declination was found to vary more rapidly than in the surrounding territories. 3. In the region of the Kuerluen the declination was found more easterly than given by the approximate form of the isogonic lines as provisionally laid down till now for these regions. Il. The Dip.—This was found, of the three elements, the most regular in its general forms; though local deviations are not unfrequent, they are small and very limited. III. Total Intensity.—Two unexpected results presented themselves:—1l. A de- cided inflection of the isodynamic lines in the central and southern parts of India, 2. A zone of depression all along the outer ranges and the base of the Himalaya. In reference to the first, M. de Schlagintweit pointed out, as particularly import- ant, that the very careful observations of Mr. Broun all along the western coast of India, made quite independent of, and subsequent to, their own, perfectly coincided with the lines based on their observations. The magnetic influence of a large surface of soil exposed to the physical action of a tropical insulation, and the non-existence of such an influence in the rainy and much more clouded regions of the outer Himalayas, were named as perhaps not un- connected with this phenomenon, so particularly characteristic in India. Outline of the Principles and Practice involved in dealing with the Elec- trical Conditions of Submarine Electric Telegraphs. By M. Werner and C.W. SteMENs. The authors, who have had very extensive experience in dealing with submarine and other electric telegraphs, state that the failures of the more extensive submarine lines commence generally by a gradual decrease of insulation. The cause of this failure has been found, in repairing these lines, to consist in a disintegration of the gutta percha by the electrolytical action of the currents employed in working the line in such places where the insulating covering was much below the average thick- ness, owing to excentricities, cavities, &c. In other places, where the gutta percha had been of uniform and sufficient thickness, not the slightest destruction took place ; but it might be laid down as an axiom, that “so long as there are any thin places b v é ‘s 7 d > TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. aa allowed to remain in the gutta percha coverings of a submarine conductor, so long will their insulation fail by slow degrees.” Great improvements have of late been effected, which may be estimated by the fact that the covering of the Rangoon and Singapore cable, now in process of manu- facture, insulates ten times better if reduced to the same thickness of coating than the covering of the Red Sea and India cable did before it was laid; and these marked improvements are due to the greater care used by the Gutta Percha Com- pany, assisted by stringent electrical tests which the authors are charged by the British Government to apply. The chief characteristic of these tests is, that the conductivity of both the con- ducting wires and the surrounding coating, which is regarded in the light of an in- ferior conductor, is expressed in numerical units, capable of direct comparison. The unit of resistance adopted is that of a column of mercury, 1 metre in length and of One square millimetre sectional area, taken at the freezing-point of water (as de- scribed by Werner Siemens in Poggendorft’s ‘ Annalen,’ vol. cx.). In expressing the degrees of conductivity of both the wire and the insulating medium in definite units of resistance, not only the advantage of a more accurate comparison between the results of different indication is obtained, but subsequently, when the separate coils are united together to a single cable, it affords an admirable means of judging its electrical condition in comparing the total resistances of both the conductor and insulating medium with the sum of the resistance previously obtained in testing each coil separately ; but the principal advantage derived from this system of measuring, consists in the facilities it affords in determining the position of a fault in a cable while it is being Jaid and after submersion. In carrying this system into practice, MM. Siemens constructed coils of definite resistance variable from 1 to 50,000 units of resistance. The cables to be tested are placed for twenty-four hours in water regulated to 75° F.; they are then removed into the testing tank of the same temperature, which is hermetically closed, and hydraulic pressure of at least 600 lbs. per square inch applied, in order to force the water into the cavities or fissures that may present themselves. It is a remarkable fact, which is also borne out by observation upon cables in process of submersion, that the application of hydrostatic pressure sensibly decreases the conductivity of gutta percha; which, however, increases again slightly beyond the former rate when the pressure is relieved. For a full description of the methods of testing employed, we must refer our readers to the paper itself. The authors give a description of a new instrument by means of which they test the inductive capacity of cables, which has also to be accurately ascertained for the purpose of detecting faults; and have affixed a Table containing many satisfactory results, and proving the correctness of a formula for calculating the specific induc- tion of cables, which was obtained by Professor Thomson and M. Werner Siemens by different scientific deductions. The specific inductive capacity of all gutta percha is shown to be nearly the same, and to be entirely independent of the specific conductivity of the gutta percha ; while India-rubber and Wray’s mixture are far inferior in specific inductive capacity, being equal to 0'7 and0°8 respectively, gutta percha being taken = 1. In this way the cable is examined repeatedly at the earliest stages of its manu- _ facture, in lengths of one knot, during the joining and covering of the cable, and finally during the paying out. The paper next gives a full description of the electrical tests to be applied during the paying out, and numerous formule by means of which faults in the cable are ascertained under various circumstances. By these means Messrs. Siemens were _ enabled to determine with great accuracy faults in the Indian cable, both during the “paying out and afterwards, which enabled the contractors, Messrs. Newall and Co., _ to effect the necessary repairs with a certainty which could not formerly be obtained. _ Respecting the prospects of success of new lines of submarine cables, the paper _ States that, owing to the great care used, the conductor of the Rangoon and Singa- pore cable is fully ten times more perfectly insulated than the best cable hitherto submerged ; and that it may confidently be expected that the result in practice will 1860. 3 4 34 REPORT—1860. also greatly exceed that of previous experience; still the insulating material em- ployed remains the same, and is therefore liable to be affected by the same causes of failure. The frequent failure of gutta percha has given rise lately to several projects of substituting India-rubber and its compounds for the same, which, owing to the higher insulating properties and lesser inductive capacity of India-rubber, and above all, owing to its greater homogeneity and resisting power to effects of heat, give promise of valuable results in making electric telegraphs less liable to failure, The chief difficulty consisted hitherto in working India-rubber in such a way as to obtain uniform and perfect coatings upon the conductor without injury to the con- ductor itself. The authors have endeavoured to remove this difficulty in construct- ing a covering machine, which they brought before Section G of the Association. They conclude,—‘ We do not wish, however, to rest upon our individual efforts for the further development of this important new branch of applied science. Our object in writing this communication has been to show that, although submarine electric telegraphs have often failed, the experience gained has not been lost; and that in bringing the present stock of knowledge to bear upon the subject more com- plete success may be ensured.” ASTRONOMY. On the Forms of certain Lunar Craters indicative of the Operation of a peculiar degrading Force. By W. R. Birt, F.RAS. There are on the surface of our satellite three well-marked classes of lunar craters, those that are more or less complete in the outlines of the mountainous rings by which they are surrounded, having in many cases a somewhat deep interior, and appearing as excavations on the surface of the moon. Cleomedes, Geminus, and others in their neighbourhood are examples. We have also among the perfectly surrounded craters those that have their rings somewhat considerably elevated above the general level of the lunar surface. Tycho may be cited as the most perfect instance of the raised craters. Both these kinds agree in a very important particu- lar; the surrounding ring (whatever may be the varying altitudes of different peaks, or however certain portions may rise higher than others) is in this class complete ; there is no evidence of the operation of the peculiar degrading force, to which | shall presently allude—certainly not to any very great extent—in breaking down any por- tion of the surrounding annulus. A second class of lunar crater consists of those that, having the surrounding ring complete, do not exhibit the depth of such craters above specified, or the gradual rising from the general surface as seen so distinctly in Tycho; they stand out as it were above those portions of the surfaces of the moon where they occur—generally the Maria—as if the smooth undulating plains had come quite up to the rings which rise abruptly from them. Most of these craters have smooth level interiors; and there are instances of the first class situated in rugged mountainous districts possessing also a smooth interior. Plato may be quoted as an example. Many instances of this class occur in which the ring is but slightly raised above the interior and exte- rior surfaces. The third class, to which I am particularly desirous of referring, consists of such | craters as having apparently at some previous period of their history possessed a perfect ring; 2 degrading force, not such as may have produced the terraces and ravines which we notice in Copernicus, but something of a different character, has — invaded them from without, breaking down certain portions of the annulus, and ~ leaving only a portion of the walls standing: these craters mostly occur on the bor- — ders-of the Maria; and it is not a little significant that the broken portions are in- variably, so far as my observations extend, on the side next the Maria, the parts of the annuli opposite the Maria being more or less in their earlier state. The two undermentioned craters appear to be interesting examples of this class— Fracastorius, situated on the border of the Mare Nectaris, and Hippalus on the —— TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 35 border cf the Mare Humorum. The ring of Fracastorius is so much broken down towards the Mare Nectaris as to give the crater the appearance of a small bay, un- less viewed under a suitable illumination—a very early one—when the edge of the crater towards the Mare is seen as a series of low points or peaks casting very short shadows. The floor of the interior appears to be somewhat different from the sur- face of the Mare, and seems to be slightly depressed below its level. The crater Hippalus is highly interesting; seen under a very early illumination: the western half of the floor is rngged, having a number of hillocks scattered over it and two minute craters ; the eastern half is smooth, very like in appearance to the surfaces of the Maria; but the most remarkable feature is the line separating the crater from the Mare, just as though the Mare had come up to and swept away half the ring of the crater and a portion of its floor, the two extremities of the semicircular range of mountains being very distinct, especially the north-eastern, which terminates ab- ruptly ; not the vestige of a shadow is observed between the two, the light passing between them unobstructedly. On the Possibility of Studying the Earth's Internal Structure from Pheno- mena observed at its Surface. By Professor Hennessy, F.R.S. This the author showed to follow as a result from the comparison of the level surface, usually called the earth’s surface by astronomers and mathematicians, with the geological surface which would be presented if the earth were stripped of its fluid coating. He had made several comparisons of the arcs of meridian measured in different countries, and had been thus led to the conclusion that the surfaces in question were not only dissimilar, but that the former derived many of the irregular. ities which it is known to present from the influence of the obvious irregularities of the latter. In the absence of precise knowledge of the true figure of the surface of the solidified crust of the earth, as well as of the assumed level surface perpendicular to gravity, theory was necessarily somewhat in advance of observation upon this particular question. At present the number of unknown quantities involved in an inquiry as to the earth’s internal structure was greater than the number of condi- tions ; but by knowing the true surface, and adopting the results of established physical and hydrostatical laws relative to the supposed internal fluid mass*, we should be able to form as many equations as we have unknown quantities, and thus ultimately obtain a solution. On some Recorded Observations of the Planet Venus in the Seventh Century before Christ. By the Rev. Epwarp Hincxs, D.D., of Killyleagh, Ireland. There is a tablet of baked clay in the British Museum, the inscription on which, if I interpret it aright, contains a series of observations of the planet Venus, and a series of predictions grounded on the observations. The latter are of no value; but the former may in great measure, if not altogether, determine the law by which the Assyrio- Babylonian lunar year was regulated in respect to its intercalary months. The knowledge of this law, again, will either establish or disprove the view which I have Jong entertained, and repeatedly expressed, that the era of Nabonassar was an astronomical, and not a political one; and I may add, it is not impossible that it may furnish a test of the genuineness of the works attributed to Quthami and other _ supposed ancient Babylonian writers. For these reasons I am desirous that the observations which I suppose to be recorded should be submitted to astronomers. I now offer two, which will suffice to test the correctness of my interpretation of the records. If any astronomer will take the trouble to calculate whether what is here stated to have happened would have actually happened, and will communicate the result to me, I will, if he desire it, communicate to him other records of observations, as to the interpretation of which I feel less confidence than I do as to these. I observe _ that the Babylonian months are expressed by monograms, for which I substitute _ Hebrew names of months. The Babylonian day began at noon; and that day in _ the evening of which the new moon was first seen was considered to be the first day of the month. I suppose, but am not very confident, that the year of the first obser- -* See Reports for 1859, Trans, Sect. p. 5. : 3% 06 ae REPORT—1860, vation was —685. The month of Thamuz would begin in the spring. The second observation was some years later. ‘‘ On the 25th of Thamuz, Venus ceased to appear in the west, was unseen for seven days, and on the 2nd of Ab was seen in the east.” “On the 26th of Eiul, Venus ceased to appear in the west, was unseen for eleven days, and on the 7th of the second Elul was seen in the east.’”? This being an em- bolismatic year, the day last mentioned was necessarily its 184th day, and was 200 days before the first day of the new year. If, then, this day can be determined from what is recorded of Venus, the commencement of two Babylonian years out of a cycle of eight will be determined. The foregoing had been communicated to the Royal Astronomical Society, but is not yet published. Dr. Hincks now added his conviction, that by combining those observations with that of the equinox, recorded on another tablet, a translation of which was given by him in the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, the determination of the year in which any of those obser- vations took place would determine the commencement of every Babylonian year. The Babylonians were acquainted with the approximate equality of eight tropical years, five synodic revolutions of Venus, and ninety-nine synodic revolutions of the moon. The first observation, if in the seventh century before Christ (which is pro- bable, though not quite certain—later than this it could not be), must have been in a year of the form —685 = 87. On the brilliant Eruption on the Sun's Surface, 1st September 1859. By R. Hoveson, F.R.A.S. While observing a group of solar spots on the Ist of September, I was suddenly surprised at the appearance of a very brilliant star of light, much brighter than the sun’s surface, most dazzling tothe protected eye, illuminating with its light the upper edges of the adjacent spots, not unlike in effect the edging of the clouds at sunset: the rays extended in all directions, and the centre might be compared to the dazzling brilliancy of the bright star « Lyre, when seen in a large telescope with a low power. It lasted five minutes, and disappeared instantaneously about 11525" a.m. Telescope used an equatorial refractor, 6} inches aperture, carried by clockwork. Power single convex lens 100, with pale neutral tint sun- glass. The whole aperture was used with a diagonal reflector. The phenomenon was of too short a duration to admit of a micrometrical drawing, but an eye-sketch was taken from which the enlarged diagram was made. The only other observer was Mr. Carrington at the Red dill Observatory, but a drawing was made of the spot by the Rev. William Howlett of Hurst Green, at noon, within half an hour of the occurrence. From a photograph taken at Kew the previous day, the size (length) of the entire group appears to have been about 2 minutes 8 seconds, or say 60,000 miles. ' The magnetic instruments at Kew and Greenwich were simultaneously disturbed at the same instant to a considerable extent. Prospectus of the Hartwell Variable Star Atlas, with six Specimen Proofs. By Joun Let, LL.D. The work announced is to form one of a series of quarto volumes, of which Admiral Smyth’s well-known ‘ A‘des Hartwelliane’ and ‘ Speculum Hartwellianum’ may be regarded as the commencement. It is to comprise maps of the vicinity of all stars of established variability, —at the present moment 102 in number. The light ratio or magnitude scale employed was explained, and six specimen proofs ex- hibited to the meeting. The scale of projection is unusually large and clear; 3 inches to one degree, to avoid crowding and confusion. After dwelling at some length upon the unsatisfactory state of our knowledge of the variable stars, and making allusion to the most recent researches and discoveries, especially to those of Professor Argelander, Sir John Herschel, Mr. Hind, and Mr. Pogson, and to the annual ephemeris of the variable stars published by the last named astronomer for four years past, Dr. Lee remarked,— “A variable star usually remains unchanged for several nights, sometimes even for weeks, when either at maximum or minimum; and yet, owing to the difficulty of estimating absolute magnitudes correctly, and still more to the prevalence of haze TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. iA and other uncertain atmospheric fluctuations, the most practised eye would fail to fix at all satisfactorily, either the time or amount of greatest or least brilliancy. By comparing the variable with neighbouring stars, which are of course similarly affected by atmospheric influences, most of this uncertainty is however avoided; and by careful consideration of the rapidity of increase and of decrease, the time of maximum or minimum is very closely and easily limited. In order to make such comparisons, it is requisite to know the absolute magnitudes of the stars of reference pretty cor- rectly. A convenient number of stars in each map will therefore have the magni- tudes annexed in plain figures, omitting the decimal points to prevent their being mistaken for faint stars; and it is to render this aid to future observers of variable stars that the ‘ Hartwell Atlas’ is now being constructed.” On the Physical Constitution of Comets. By Professor B. Prerce, of Cambridge, United States. On the Dynamic Condition of Saturn’s Rings. By Professor B. Pierce, of Cambridge, United States. On the Motion of a Pendulum in a Vertical Plane when the point of suspen- sion moves uniformly on a circumference in the same Plane. By Professor B, Pierce, of Cambridge, United States. METEOROLOGY. On a Plan for Systematic Observations of Temperature in Mountain Countries. By Joun Bari, MRLA. Several members of the Alpine Club have agreed to unite in a plan of systematic observations of temperature in the Alps, and such other mountain countries as they may visit. It is possible that the plan of combined action may eventually be extended to other objects, but for the present it embraces only such observations as may be made with thermometers. As the intention of the present paper is merely to invite the suggestions, and if possible the cooperation, of members of the Physical Section, it seems unnecessary to state in detail the arrangements which are proposed ; and it will be sufficient to indicate generally the points to which it is believed that the observations about to be commenced may most usefully be directed. Ist. The condition of the upper parts of high mountains in regard to temperature is most imperfectly known. It may not be possible to learn much by direct con- tinued observations, but it is thought that by means of self-registering instruments we may add considerably to the little which is now known. It is proposed to place such instruments, and especially minimum thermometers, on as many of the higher peaks of the Alps as possible, and to register their indications in succeeding seasons. The chief practical difficulty in carrying out this branch-of the proposed plan is to find positions at great heights that are free from winter snow. It will be necessary to select vertical or nearly vertical rocks in order to attach the instruments thereto, and these are not always to be found very near to the highest summits of great mountains. 2nd. It is a matter of much interest, but of considerable difficulty, to obtain measures of the effect of the lower strata of the atmosphere upon the radiant heat of the sun. The general opinion of mountain travellers is adverse to the use of the actinometer in any of the forms in which that instrument has yet been devised, and the same may be said in regard to other instruments proposed for the same purpose, The objections to observations with the black bulb thermometers are obvious and well known, but it is thought that observations made on a uniform plan, and with instruments of exactly the same dimensions and construction, would give compara- tive measures which would have some positive value, If it should be possible to obtain series of such observations made at two stations very different in elevation, and exactly simultaneous, they could scarcely fail to give valuable results. 3rd. We are very ignorant at present as to the mode in which disturbances of 38 REPORT—1860. temperature are propagated from one place to another in mountain countries. Con- siderable variations of temperature are not unfrequent, and sometimes occur very rapidly, usually if not always in connexion with changes of wind ; but we know very little of the way in which a disturbance of this kind is transmitted eitker in the horizontal or the vertical direction. It is conceived that a network of observations made by a considerable number of observers scattered over a district, such as Swit- zerland and Piedmont, would lead to some increase of our knowledge in this respect. 4th. Observations on the temperature of the surface and upper layers of the soil have a considerable bearing on many questions connected with the distribution of plants. One difficulty in investigating these questions arises from the difficulty of comparing observations not made upon a uniform plan. It is thought that the adoption of uniform instruments, and a plan of observations previously agreed upon by all the members of the party, will much increase the value of their results. All the instruments used in these observations are exactly of uniform construction, and made by Mr. Casella with the utmost practicable regard to lightness and convenience. Each instrument is numbered for purposes of future reference. On Atmospheric Waves. By W.R. Birt, F.R.A.S. The object of this communication is rather elucidatory than otherwise. It is now twelve years since I had the honour to lay before this Association the last of my reports on the subject. During the interval it has doubtless occupied the attention of other minds, and some degree of misconception may have arisen which may call for some elucidatory remarks on my part, especially as the series of reports in our annual volumes has been referred to on the Continent, as establishing a priority of investigation into these phenomena on the part of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. It is now several years since Professor Dove announced as his conviction that the equilibrium of the atmosphere was maintained in the extra-tropical zones, more by parallel than superposed currents, that these currents had a shifting transverse or lateral motion, and in consequence, so to speak, they advanced “‘sideways.” I am not aware that Professor Dove connected these shifting parallel currents with baro- metric phenomena, although he did with thermometric. In the course of my inves- tigations into those phenomena termed atmospheric waves, I ascertained, by carefully discussing the records of the wind for the greater portion of November 1842, that not only such parallel compensating currents existed as stated by the Professor, but that during the period under inquiry, a similar system of parallel and compensating winds were blowing and moving at right angles to them. The arrangement of these cross winds was N.E.—S.W. and N.W.—S.E. I also found that these winds were intimately connected with barometric pressure, so that when the barometric curve Was projected and presented the wave form, the mind was led to group under the general term ‘‘ atmospheric wave,” at least ¢wo if not three distinct classes of phe- nomena. First, the winds succeeding one another, as we know they do with more or less regularity. Second, the pressure, a more or less continuous fall of the barometer generally succeeding a gradual and continuous rise: both these phenomena are capable of being represented by curves, the rising barometer mostly coinciding with the decreasing force of wind, and the falling barometer with its increase, so that a rising and falling curve will with more or less fidelity represent the passage over a station or a tract of country of the two compensating currents of Dove. It is not the mere rise and fall of the barometer, as such, that constitutes an atmospheric wave; the barometric curve itself is doubtless the complex result of two or more distinct variations of pressure connected with variations of wind as above. When these are disentangled, the mind is able to grasp the onward march of the two par- allel winds, accompanied by their respective pressures; so that true waves of press- ure really, I apprehend, sweep over a country; and applying the wave nomenclature, low pressures have been characterized as troughs and high pressures as crests. As illustrative of these remarks, I beg to exhibit on this occasion the most com- plete instance of opposite pressures that has come under my notice ; it is the opposite barometric curves at Alten and Lougan during the early part of November 1842: the curves will be found on page 39, ‘ Report,’ 1848. Iam indebted to Dr. Lee for the observations furnishing the curve at Alten. ; : ‘ =e ere TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39 Observations on the Meteorological Phenomena of the Vernal Equinoctial Week. By M. Du Boutay. The author has been engaged for the long period of thirty years in endeavouring to ascertain whether there could be traced in the winds or weather prevailing about the equinox, in any given locality, a counexion with, or resemblance to, the winds and weather generally prevailing during the ensuing summer in the same locality, He infers from his observations that such is the case, and that the probable character of the summer in England may be predicated about the 25th of March, by noting the weather in the equinoctial week then just ended. He gave examples in support of his views. On the Effect of a Rapid Current of Air. By R. Dowven. On British Storms, illustrated with Diagrams and Charts. By Admiral FirzRoy, F.R.S. It is well known that no year passes in which the British islands are not visited by storms, and that they vary in degree of force from what seamen call a gale to a hurricane irresistible in violence. Only of late years, however, has it been supposed, and but recently proved, that nearly all, if not indeed the whole, of these remarkable tempests, by which a very notable amount of injury has been done, have been so much alike in character, and have been preceded by such similar warnings, as to warrant our reasoning inductively from the well-ascertained facts, and thence inferring laws. Every one looks back to some extraordinary storm as exceeding all others in his lifetime; but a tempest that is severely felt in one part of the country is not always extensive, but usually the reverse,—more or less limited in area, varying in range, direction, and force. It would be tedious to advert to some of even the most devastating tempests in much detail, therefore I propose to take three only as types, and glance summarily over their most marked features, hoping that the diagrams suspended around or lying on the table will supply enough additional facts. The first storm to which I would ask attention in passing is that so well and so fully described by De Foe, in 1703. He calls it (page 11) ‘‘ the greatest, the longest in duration, the widest in extent of all the tempests and storms that history gives any account of since the beginning of time... . . Our barometers,” he continues, “ in- formed us that the night would be very tempestuous; the mercury sank lower than ever I had observed it on any occasion” (page 25) ; it fell to 28°47 (page 30). This storm began at south and veered through the west towards north, round to the scuth, and then continued between south-west and north-west, with more or less strength, for a whole week! Very remarkable it is that not only did De Foe suppose this storm began near the southern coast of North America, but that it traversed England, France, and the Baltic, to lose itself in the Arctic regions. He recurs afterwards to its shifting from south-west to north-west, and coming from the west like other storms in the south of England, but does not advert to any corresponding north- easterly wind, nor had he evidently any idea of a rotatory or circulating atmospheric current. Probably accounts from the north of England were much less attainable then ; but it is noted that the north of England escaped the violence of that storm. I cannot now take more from De Foe, but venture to say that his graphic accounts of many storms, and the more comprehensive views of Dampier, are well worth the notice of even scientific meteorologists. To Franklin, Capper, Redfield, Reid, and Dove, besides other authorities, seamen may well be grateful; for their works, and those compiled from them, are facts and inferences at present trusted because demon- strated to be indisputably true. It is now necessary that other storms should be noticed, and in a much more precise manner ; but two alone will probably suffice as types. The ‘Royal Charter’ gale, so recent in our recollection, so remarkable in its features, and so complete in its illustrations, I may say, from the fact of its having been noted at so many parts of our coast, and because the storm passed over the middle of the country, is one of the easiest to deal with which has occurred for some length of time. I would therefore ask for a few minutes’ attention to this particular instance. There are four diagrams among those on the wall which refer particularly to the 25th and the 40 REPORT—1860. 26th of October last. Referring to the charts and the diagrams, it will be seen that the lowest barometer and a corresponding or simultaneous /ull prevailed over ten, fifteen, or twenty miles successively in the direction I have pointed out. But at the time that this comparative lull existed, there was around this central space what by some is called a vortex, but can hardly be appropriately termed a vortex, because there was no central disturbance : there were only variable winds or calm for a short time in the middle of this space, which was about ten or fifteen miles across. ‘The wind obtained a maximum velocity of from sixty to one hundred miles an hour, ata distance of twenty to fifty miles from this comparatively quiet space, and in suc- cessive meteoric eddyings crossed England towards the north-north-east, the wind blowing from all points of the compass around the lull, so that while at Anglesea the storm came from the north-north-east, in the Straits of Dover it was from the south-west; on the east coast it was easterly ; in the Irish Channel it was northerly, and on the coast of Ireland it was from the north-west. The charts show that there was a similar circulation, or cyclonic commotion, going or passing northwards from the 25th to the 27th, being two complete days from the time of its first appearance in (what is called) ‘the chops of the Channel,” while outside of this circulation the wind became less and less violent; and it is very remarkable that, even so near as on the west coast of Ireland, they had fine weather, with light winds, while in the British Channel it blew a northerly and westerly gale. At Galway and at Limerick on that occasion there were light winds only, I repeat, while over England the wind was passing in a tempest, blowing from all parts of the compass around a central similar “lull.’”’ The next storm that occurred was similar in its features, though it came from aslightly different direction. This storm was on the Ist and 2nd of No- vember, and its character was in all respects like that just described, now usually called the “Charter Gale.’? It came more from the westward, passed across the north of Ireland, the Isle of Man, the north of England, and then went off across the North Sea towards Denmark. Further than that distance facts have not yet been gathered; but, no doubt, in the course of a few months they will be. The general effect of these storms fell unequally on our islands, and less inland than on the coasts. Lord Wrottesley has shown, by the observations made at his Observa- tory in Staffordshire, that the wind is diminished or checked by its passages over land; and looking to the mountain ranges of Wales and Scotland, rising 2000, 3000, or 4000 feet above the level of the sea, we see they must have great power to alter the direction, and probably the velocity of wind, independently of the alterations caused by the changes of temperature. The very remarkable similarities of this storm of the 1st and 2nd of November and that of the 25th and 26th of October, the series of storms investigated by Dr. Lloyd during ten years, and the investigations of Mr. William Stevenson in Berwickshire, require especial notice on this occasion. There is no discrepancy between the results of the ten years’ investigations published by Dr. Lloyd in the Transactions of the Irish Academy, the three years’ investigations published by Mr. W. Stevenson, and all the investigations which have been brought together during the last four years. They all tell the same story. Dr. Lloyd only found in ten years one instance even of a partial storm which differed; namely, one storm that came from the north in the first instance. Storms from the south-west are followed by sudden and dangerous storms from the north and east ; and these storms from the north and east do much damage on our coasts. Upon tracing the facts, it is proved that the storms which come from the west and south come on gradually, but that storms from the north and east begin suddenly, and often with extraordinary force. The barometer, with these north-eastern storms, does not give so much warn- ing upon this coast, because it ranges higher than with the wind from the opposite quarter. But though the barometer does not give much indication of a north-east storm, the thermometer does; and the known average temperature of every week in the year affords the means at once, from the temperature being much above or below the mean of the time of the year, of showing whether the wind will be northerly or southerly (thanks to Mr. Glaisher’s Greenwich observations). Now to revert to a few of the signs which preceded the ‘Charter gale.’ Fora few days before that storm came on, the thermometer was exceedingly low in a great part of the country; there were north winds in some places, and a good deal of snow; but nothing else extraordinary. There had been a great deal of exceed- ingly dry and hot weather previously. These facts, of course, require consider- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 41 ation, but not now. I may just mention, that over our islands, and especially in the north of Ireland, at that time, on the 22nd and 23rd of October, barometers were very low. Many days preceding the ‘Charter storm,’ an extraordinary clear- ness in the atmosphere was noticed in the north of Ireland—the mountains of Scotland were never seen so prominently as they were in the few days preceding those on which the great storm took place. Every one is aware that last summer was remarkable for its warmth: it was exceedingly dry and hot. All over the world, not only in the Arctic, but in the Antarctic regions, in Australia, South America, in the West Indies, Bermudas, and elsewhere, auroras and meteors were more or less prevalent, and they were more remarkable in their features and appear- ances than had been noticed for many years. There was also an extraordinary dis- turbance of the current along the telegraph wires. They were so disturbed at times, that it was evident there were great electric or magnetic storms in the atmosphere which could be traced to no apparent cause. Lord Wrottesley, in his Address, adverted to some extraordinary facts respecting various circulating substances apparently absorbed by the sun. Perhaps these electric disturbances were connected with the peculiar action of the sun upon our atmosphere. Electrical wires above ground, as well as submarine wires, were unusually disturbed, and these disturbances were followed within two or three days hy great commotions in the atmosphere, or by some remarkable change. I will now refer to another subject—the question of areas or lines of barometric pressure. Professor Espy, of the United States, contends for a long line from north to south, or from one direction straight to another, and not only Espy but also some among our own countrymen. The principal object of making these sections, as it were soundings, of the atmosphere, shown in the diagrams, was to prove whether lines of pressure, or whether areas of pressure prevailed; and I think, when they are all closely looked into, they go to prove that while the atmosphere in the British islands varied in its pressure from time to time, such variation was not on a particular line, but extended over a large area. Before I leave this part of the subject, I may say, as some of the remarkable exceptions to the force of these particular storms, that at some places there was little or no wind; the barometer fell much, but there was no storm, for the wind circulating around these districts did not affect them, while at other places the storm was tremendous. It has been often asked whether the ship that was lost—the ‘ Royal Charter ’"—might have been saved ; and I will give an instance of what another ship did which took ordinary pre- cautions on that night. Whether the ‘ Royal Charter’ did take the right course it is not for me to say, but I hold in my hand the details of another kind of manage- ment within ten miles of the ‘ Royal Charter’ that night. The commander of this vessel, a sailing-ship and not a steam-ship (the ‘Royal Charter’ had the double advan- tage), was guided by the instructions laid down by Capt. Maury, who has treated the subject of winds in a practical manner, and has brought together a large amount of useful information; and although, as I am aware, he occasionally theorises when he has not facts enough for philosophy, as a practical man he has been guided by plain principles, intelligible to seamen generally. Unquestionably, Maury has brought together a great deal of valuable information, and made it generally avail- able. The following paper has come into my hands within the last few days very opportunely :-— _ “ Having had many threatenings of bad weather for several days past, I began to apply your views as to storms; and not having much sea-room, I considered them more closely. For three or four days before the 26th of October, we had very squally weather, with frequent sharp flashes of lightning from east to north-east. During the night of the 24th, I stood to the northward, and till noon of the 25th, with the wind strong from east-north-east. At noon I tacked, thinking that if the gale should come on, I might take the off-shore tack in the night, and have the vortex of the gale to the south-eastward. I stood on, therefore, till half-past five p.m., and then wore ship under short sail, when ina line with Holyhead and Bardsey, about ten miles or so distant from Holyhead, as near as I could judge, being thick and dark. At eight p.m., gale increasing, I took in close-reefed main topsail, and fore topmast stay-sail, having nothing then set but the main spencer and a small storm-mizen. It blew a complete West-India hurricane, but I drove off-shore, and I thought the force of the storm did not increase. I now think, from what other 42 REPORT—1860. ships suffered which were to the northward of me at the same time, that further from me it blew harder. I did not suffer any damage whatever more than usual in ordinary blows; only a little chafe and some spray. The lightning alluded to above was very unnatural in its appearance, being of such a sharp flashing glare, without leaving off. Unless looking at the exact place of its flash, you could not tell from where the light actually came. (Signed) ‘‘ Witur1am J. Jouns, Commanding the Ship.’? ** William Cumming, U.S.” These two instances are important; one of a ship managed in accordance with instructions published for seamen, being saved, while the other, which adopted a different course, was lost. ‘There is one special instance on which not only private but public interests were at stake, and where the ship to which I allude was seriously injured. There wasone of Her Majesty’s ships, a 90-gun ship, fitted up with steam- engine and other appliances, in the Atlantic, in the early part of October last. That ship had very bad weather near the edge of the Gulf-stream. A succession of circling storms occurred, and in every instance the ship was managed in direct opposition to the known laws of storms, was considerably damaged, and obliged to return. Now, that is a fact which ought not to have occurred in the British Navy at the present day. It might have been that there was some reason for such usually in- correct proceeding in one instance; but that there should have been any reason in three successive instances is more than we can conceive: any one can estimate the amount vf expense caused by a ship so brought back to England from her destination, The simple rule of seamanship is when facing the wind the centre of the storm will be to the right or on the right hand, therefore you should go to the left. In the southern hemisphere the centre is on the left hand, and you must go to the right. supposing that sea-room and circumstances enable you to choose. But these simple results are the consequence of very great consideration on the part of scientific persons,— particularly Sir W. Reid, Redfield, Capper, Espy, Dr. Lloyd, and others,—especially those in India, who have done so much, viz. Piddington and Thom. In this country no one has effected more than Sir W. Reid, who collected together all that had been done for many years, and published in a clear manner the results of his accumulated investigations. A very remarkable storm has been lately traced by Mr. Rowell, of Oxford, and his description published within the last few days. This storm occurred near Calne in Wiltshire, cutting through fields and trees, and in one place actually lifted a broad-wheeled waggon from the road over a hedge into the neat field! The violence of the wind was confined to a limited line. The downward and onward pressure of the wind was so great in that locality, that it acquired such elasticity as to lift opposing weights and carry them on. I have known such things myself. I have known the wind lift a boat into the air and shake it to pieces. We have all heard of houses being unroofed, of trees torn up by the force of the wind ; but this is the first time I have heard of a heavy waggon being lifted up and hurled over a hedge. I will only venture to make one or two observations in reference to the theory of these subjects. Dove, in his work, shows how currents of wind, parallel cur- rents, as he calls them, co-exist. A great polar current coming from the north and east is passing in one direction, while a current from the tropical regions is going in the other direction, nearly opposite; but to follow the theoretical consider- ations of how these great currents move from the Arctic regions towards the tropics and return to the Arctic regions, is a subject too large for the present limited time. Dove has shown most clearly in his work (which is translated into English), that circulation of the atmosphere in great polar and equatorial or tropical currents, pre- vail not only in our hemisphere, but everywhere. I can bear witness that his reasonings and particular views can be corroborated in every part of the world. The British Association has made application to Her Majesty’s Government to authorize arrangements for communicating warning of storms from one part of the country to the other; and, in conclusion, I will read the details of that arrange- ment which promises to he so beneficial. Arrangements have been authorized by the Board of Trade (under a minute from the President, dated June 6), in conse- quence of which a daily and mutual interchange of certain limited meteorological information will be transmitted between London and Paris, the results of five —— TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43 subsidiary communications to the central stations of Paris and London. Authority being thus given to collect and communicate, by the telegraph, particular meteoro- logical intelligence, a commencement may be made on the Ist of September, as the plan proposed is simple, and the machinery is ready. Once a day, at about nine A.M., barometer and thermometer heights, state of weather, and direction of wind will be telegraphed to London, from the most distant ends of our longest wires,— namely, Aberdeen, Berwick, Hull, Yarmouth, Dover, Portsmouth, Jersey, Plymouth, Penzance, Cork, Galway, Londonderry, and Greenock. Facts sent thus from five of these places, will be put into one telegram, and sent to Paris immediately, when a corresponding communication will be made from the southward Atlantic coasts. When threatening signs are not apparent, no further notice will be transmitted to or from London on taat day, respecting weather. But when indications are such as to warrant some cautionary signal at a certain part of, or along all our coasts, the words ‘‘ Caution,—North” (or ‘‘South’’) will be sent to some of the thirteen places specified, or to all of them, on the receipt of which a cone (or triangle) will be hoisted at a staff (point up for north, down for south), indicating the side whence wind may be expected. ‘This signal will be repeated along part of the coast by the Coast Guard, at such of their stations as may be authorized (at most of their stations flagstaffs are visible to coasters). Danger will be implied by a drum (or square), a cone, and perhaps, in addition, very great danger by a cone, a drum, and a second cone. [Thecones and drums may be made with hoops and black canvas, to collapse, without top or bottom. They will be the same in shape from all points of view, and unlike any other signal, such as a time-ball, used ordinarily.] As the Coast Guard extends all along the frequented parts of our shores, and as the telegraph companies are liberally willing to have instruments and signals placed at their ex- treme stations, in charge of and used by their officials, only the necessary materials and instructions will be required, all of which are ready or in progress. By vigilance at the central station, and by taking great care to avoid signalling too frequently, much may be done towards diminishing the losses of life on our increasingly crowded coasts. Property alone may be duly insured, but every wise precaution for the safety of life should, of course, be used. As an auxiliary measure, a concise Manual of Instructions for the Barometer will be circulated among maritime communities ; who, though they may have frequent access to ‘‘ weather-glasses ” of various kinds, do not generally know how to use them most advantageously. The following details may be useful, as well as interesting, to those who wish to investigate these subjects and examine the diagrams more critically :—The probable limits of error of the barometric curves on the synoptic sheets, 21st of October —2nd of November 1859. The observations at the regular observatories, such as Greenwich, Oxford, Cam- bridge, Highfield House, Kew, &c., have had all corrections applied, and have been reduced to sea-level, and the temperature of 32°. The returns from members of the British and Scottish Meteorological Societies (nearly ninety in number) have nearly all been corrected for the exact height above sea-level, all within a few feet. The corrections due to instrumental errors and reduction to 32° have (in most cases I believe) been applied by the observers. The Continental observations have been collected partly from the Dutch papers and partly from the ‘ Moniteur.’ Those from the former have been reduced to 32°, and, it may be presumed, have also beet cor- rected for instrumental errors. The heights of some stations are known ; the cor- rections due to those heights have been applied, and others are known to be little, if at all, above the sea-level. Any error in laying down a curve from such data can scaicely exceed two or three hundredths of an inch. The observations obtained from the ‘ Moniteur’ itis assumed are givendulycorrected. The heightsot the stations of ordinary observers are known for the most part pretty nearly, and corrections for such heights have been applied to the returns. Other corrections have only been applied in a few cases—observations sometimes recorded only to the nearest tenth, not being deemed worthy of any further correction. Those returns, however, of which the barometrical observations are evidently erroneous (from comparison with other more reliable neighbouring and contemporaneous obsevations), have been rejected altogether. On the whole, we may safely assume that even these observations, as laid down, are less than a tenth inerror. The heights of the lantern above the sea-level and of the tower, from the base to the vane, being known, the probable height of the barometer can be ascertained, The proper correction for the height 44 REPORT—1860. thus estimated has been applied, and all returns suspected of being erroneous rejected. On the Similarity of the Lunar Curves of Minimum Temperature at Green- wich and Utrecht in the Year 1859. By J. Park Harrison, M.A. The author showed that, on the mean of twelve lunations, in 1859 the greatest amount of cold displayed itself at both the above-named stations between full and new moon: the difference between the mean minimum temperatures of the first and second halves of the lunation at Greenwich being 2°°4; at Utrecht 2°°0. There were two minima for night temperature both at Greenwich and Utrecht; they followed on full moon and last quarter. The least amount of cold was at first quarter. The difference between the minimum temperatures at first quarter and shortly after last quarter, on a mean of twelve observations taken at both stations, was nearly 7°. The difference in the means of the mean temperature of the day for forty-three years for the two periods of fourteen days, at the former place had been previously found to be 1° 1. Mr. Harrison expressed increased conviction that effects so contrary to expectation must be due to the presence or absence of cloud, or to its height above the earth,— to whatever cause this phenomenon may ultimately be assigned. On the Principles of Meteorology. By Professor Hennessy, F.R.S. The author contended that the principal object of meteorology was the prediction of the weather within certain probable limits. The great complication of atmospherical phenomena, and the influence of remote causes of disturbance, would undoubtedly render this extremely difficult. Although the atmosphere is itself one of the best examples of an unorganized body to which we could refer, yet its complicated and fluctuating phenomena suggest to us the mode in which such phenomena should be investigated. Any success could be expected only by treating the atmosphere very nearly as an organized body, and studying its abnormal conditions with the same continuity and generality of observation as is usually employed in physiology. Ob- servations made at stated hours have been found by themselves rarely capable of affording means to foretell the future conditions of the weather for even short periods of time. A careful study of the appearances of the sky, such as has been so long familiar to mariners and others interested in the conditions of our atmo- sphere, would, when made by men well prepared with preliminary knowledge of the principles of physical science, throw far more light upon the chief object of our search. Mr. Hennessy illustrated this remark by referring to some such observations which he had made during the month of June. Although he had at first consi- derable scepticism as to the possibility of obtaining correct results from the continuous photographical registration of atmospherical conditions, Mr. Hennessy was satisfied, from what he had witnessed during 1856 in the Radcliffe Observatory, that such a system was not only possible, but that it sometimes disclosed important changes which would have escaped the method of observation at stated hours. He instanced the connexion between the phenomena of thunder-storms and sudden barometric depressions, as pointed out by the late Radcliffe Observer at the Glasgow Meeting, and the connexion between days of great solar irradiation and minute vertical atmospheric currents, as pointed out by himself*. He concluded by pointing out the manner in which, from the increasing knowledge we possess of the influence of the ocean upon climate, the greater stability of its currents, compared to those of the atmosphere, may under the peculiar conditions of the British islands enable us to foresee many important changes within comparatively extended periods of timef. On Antarctic Expeditions. By Captain Maury, U.S. Navy. Observatory, Washington, 20th May, 1860. My pear Lorp Wrorrestry,—I hope the time is not far distant when circum- stances will be more auspicious than at present they seem; for, as soon as there appears * Report for 1858, Trans. Sect. p. 36. + Report for 1859, Trans. Sect. p. 50. Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. ix, p, 324. Atlantis, yol. i. p. 396. Philosophical Magazine, April 1846, and October 1858, ; — TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45 the least chance of success, I shall urge the sending from this country an exploring expedition to the eight millions of unknown square miles about the South Pole. I hope that my letter to you upon the subject was sufficiently clear to satisfy your mind, and conclusive to enlist your influence with Her Majesty’s Government and the English people in the cause of Antarctic exploration. It is an enterprise in which the British nation may well take the lead, for it is nearer to them than to the rest of the world. There is Melbourne, your great commercial mart, that is already, in amount of shipping, a rival of Liverpool. It is within less than two weeks’ run by steamer from the borders of this unknown region. So, you observe that these eight millions of unknown square miles lie at your door, and the responsibility of permitting them so to lie longer will lie there too, ‘You go; we'll come.” An expedition might be sent from Australia with little or no risk. Two propellers, or even two vessels with auxiliary steam-power, might be sent out, so as to spend our three winter months in looking for a suitable point along the Antarctic Continent to serve as a point of departure for over-land, or over-ice parties. Having found one or more such places, vessels, properly equipped for land and ice and boat expeditions, might be sent the next season, there to remain, seeking to penetrate the barrier, whether of mountain or of ice, or both, until the next season, when they might be relieved by a fresh party, or return home to compare notes, and be governed accordingly. You know the barometer at all those places which have a rainy and a dry season, stands highest in the dry, lowest in the wet. Now, I do not find any indications that the Antarctic barometer has months of high range: it is low all the year. Therefore— if | be right in ascribing the apparent tenuity of the air there to the heat that is liberated during the condensation of vapour, from the heavy precipitation that is con- stantly taking place along the sea front of those “ barriers ””—we should be correct in inferring that the difference in temperature between the Antarctic summer and winter is not very marked. If, in a case like this, we might be permitted to indulge the imagination, we might fancy the “‘ barrier” to be a circular range of mountains, and that beyond these lies the great Antarctic basin. Beyond this range, as beyond the Andes, we may fancy a rainless region, as in Peru,—a region of clear skies and mild climates. Though the air in passing this range might be reduced below the utmost degree of Arctic cold, yet being robbed of its vapour, it would receive as sensible the latent heat thereof. Passing off to the Polar slope of these mountains, this air then would be dry air; descending into the valleys, and coming under the barometric pressure at the surface, it would be warm air. Leslie has explained how, by bringing the attenuated air down from the snow-line, even of the tropics,-and subjecting it to the barometric weight of the superincumbent mass, we may raise its temperature to intertropical heat by the mere pressure. In like manner, this Ant- arctic air, though cold and rare while crossing the “ barrier,” yet receiving heat from its vapours as they are condensed, passing over into the valleys beyond, and being again subjected to normal pressure, may become warm. We have abundant illustrations of the modifying influences upon climate which winds exercise after having passed mountains and precipitated their vapour. The winds which drop the waters of the Columbia river, &c. on the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains, make a warm climate about their base on this side, so much so that we find in Pied- mont Nebraska the lizards and reptiles of Northern Texas. Indeed, trappers tell me that the Upper Missouri is open in fall long after the Lower is frozen up, and in spring long before—several weeks—the ice in the more southern parts has broken up. The eastern slopes of Patagonia afford even a more striking illustration of climates being tempered by winds that descend from the mountains, bearing with them the heat that their vapour has set free. Thus you observe, that an exploring party after passing the barrier might, as they approach the pole, find the Antarctic climate to grow milder instead of colder. It would be rash in the present state of our in- formation to assert that such is the case ; but that such may be the case should not be ignored by the projectors and leaders of any new expedition to those regions, The existence of an open seain the Arctic ocean has, with a great degree of proba- bility, been theoretically established. But the circumstances, as strong as they are, which favour the existence of an open water there, are not so strong and direct as are the proofs and indications of a mild polar climate in the Antarctic regions. I have examined the immense library of log-books here for the lines of Antarctic ice- 46 REPORT—1860. drift. There appear to be two, both setting to the north-east, one passing by the Falkland Islands, the other having its northern terminus in the regions about the Cape of Good Hope. Further south, icebergs are found all around; but in these lines of drift they are found nearest the equator. The space between the Falkland drift and the Good Hope drift is an unfrequented part of the ocean. It may there- fore be one broad drift, the edges of which only I have pointed out, The most active currents from the south do not run with this ice. Humboldt’s current is the most active, but it does not get its icebergs as far north as they come by these lines. This circumstance has suggested the conjecture that one part of the Antarctic Con- tinent must be peculiarly well situated for the formation of glaciers and the launching of icebergs. These lines of drift point to such a place. The facts stated in my former letter will, I trust, when considered in connexion with these views, impress you with the importance of the subject. So, trusting, and hoping that you will join with me in the cry, ‘ Ho for the South Pole!” On the Climates of the Antarctic Regions, as indicated by Observations upon the Height of the Barometer and Direction of the Winds at Sea. By Captain Maury, U.S. Navy. In the course of my labours connected with the wind and current charts, I had caused to be grouped 1,213,933 observations upon the direction of the wind at sea. Each one of these observations embraces a period «of eight hours, and aims to give the prevailing direction of the wind during that time. Thus each individual of my group is, in fact, itself the mean of many. ‘The result of the whole is presented diazrametrically in Plate I., in which the mean direction of the wind in each belt, and for the four quarters, is represented by the arrows correctly, both as to mean direction and average duration. From the labours of Lieut. Andrau and his colleagues at the Meteorological In- stitute of the Netherlands *, I obtained 83,332 observations upon the barometer be- tween the parallels of 50° N, and 36° S, at sea. This fine series was enriched by the observations at Greenwich, St. Petersburg, and Hobart Town on shore, and by Dr. Kane, Sir James Clark Ross, and Lieut. Wilkes at sea, du:ing their Arctic and Ant- arctic explorations. From these the barometric profile of the atmosphere (Plate I.) was constructed. The barometric observations on shore were not found in all cases to accord with those at sea. Moreover, those of Wilkes and Ross were the means of observations for only a few days. Our ‘ Marine Magazine,’ as the precious store of abstract logs may be called, con- tained many more, and which, by their great numbers, and in consequence of their having been made at all seasons of the year, would afford better mean results. In extension of Andrau’s series, I therefore added 6915, between the parallels of 40° and 60° south, from the log-books of this office. These, Andrau’s, and Dr. Kane’s in the ice, form the elements of the Barometric Curve, Plate II. Proceeding upon the supposition that, with regard to the general movements and the mean status of the atmosphere, we should have at sea the rule, on land the ex- ceptions, I commenced to group these observations for discussion. As the North Indian Ocean, the China and West India seas, where the monsoons blow, are known to present exceptional cases to the general movements of the winds at sea, the observations for them were excluded from the general summing up. Thus premising, the winds were taken from the pilot charts and grouped in belts 5° of latitude broad. As a rule, the vessels that are cooperating with us seldom go on the Polar side of 60° north or south; for our fleet of observers consists for the most part of merchantmen, whom the channels of trade do not carry beyond these parallels; consequently the observations of the winds were arranged in 24 belts (12 on each side of the Equator) ; all the observations between the Equator and 5° north, for example, being in one belt; and so on for every 5° of latitude. Now, considering that the general movements of the atmosphere, as exhibited by * Maandelijksche Zeilaanwijzingen van Java naar Het Kanaal. Als Uitkomsten Weten- schap en Ervaring Aangaande Winden en zeestroomingen in sommige Gedeelten van den Oceaan Uitgegeven Dour Het Koninklijk Nederlandsch Meteorologische Instituut. Utrecht, 1859. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 47 the winds at sea, are to and fro between the Equator and the Poles, all these obser- vations were arranged in two groups for each belt, and classed either as winds with northing, or as winds with southing, in them, as per Table, showing the average annual duration in days of winds. Winds with Northing, and Winds with Southing in them. Northern Hemisphere. Southern Hemisphere. Belts. No. of | Northing. | Southing. | Excess in days. || No, of | Northing. | Southing. | Excess in days. observa-|——— |__| ——__—_— ] obs erva-, ——__, —_______}—_______—_ tions. Days, Days, North. | South. || tions. Days. Days. | North. | South. Between 0° & 5° | 67,829 79 268 w= | 189° || 72,945 83 269 .. | 186 5&10 | 36,841 158 183 stele 25 || 54,648 72 283 Pregclten | 10 & 15 | 27,339) 278 73 | 205 43,817 82 275 Sep 193 15 & 20 | 33,103} 273 9] 182 46,604 9] 266 aoe 175 20 & 25 |44,527| 246 106 | 140 66,395} 128 227 ve 99 25 & 30 | 68,777) 185 163 22 66,635 147 208 rae 61 30 &35 | 62,514) 155 195 “ah 40 || 76,254; 150 204 ies 54 35 & 40 | 41,233) 173 179 a 6 107231) 178 178 0 0 40 & 45 | 33,252) 163 186 oe 23 || 63,669) 202 155 47 45 & 50 | 29,461 164 189 aaa 25 || 29,132) 209 148 61 50 &55 |41,570) 148 203 oas 55 || 14,286) 208 151 57 55 & 60 [17,874 142 213 308 71 =|13,617} 224 132 92 6 Ey SPLIT LE AE eS {t thus appears that we have, as we already well knew, in each hemisphere a medial belt—a barometric ridge in the air—from which the prevailing direction of the wind on one side is towards the Equator, and from the other towards the Pole. In the southern hemisphere this ridge is sharp, being included between the parallels of 35° and 40°; in the northern hemisphere, however, it seems to be less sharply de- fined, for the debateable ground, or helt, within which neither wind appears to have a very marked ascendency as to prevalence, extends from lat. 25° to 50° N. Proceeding from these belts towards the Equator, equatorial-bound winds become more and more prevalent ; or if we proceed towards the Pole, the polar-bound winds become more and more prevalent, — thus indicating the existence both near the Equator and in the polar regions of a permanent degree of aérial rarefaction suf- ficient to produce an indraught from a medial line or belt towards each. To ascertain the degree of rarefaction about the Poles, as far as the observations on the barometer at sea would indicate a result, the Barometric Curve (Plate Il.) was constructed from the data expressed in this Table, showing The Mean Height of the Barometer. No. of ob-|/ ratitude. |Barometer,| No- of ob- servations,|| servations. a Oto 5N/ 29-915 | 5114 || Oto $s.| 29-940 | 3692 5 to 10 ,,| 29922 | 5343 || 5to10,,| 29-981 | 3924 10 to 15 ,,| 29964 | 4496 ||10t015 ,| 30-028 | 4156 15 to 20 ,,| 30-018 | 3592 ||15 to 20 ,.| 30060 | 4248 20 to 25 ,,| 30081 | 3816 |/20 to 25 ,,/ 30-102 | 4536 25 to 30 ,,| 30149 | 4392 || 25 to 30 .,| 30.095 | 4780 30 to 35 ,,| 30-210 | 4989 ||30to 36 .,| 30052 | 6970 35 to 40 ,,| 30124 | 5103 || 40 to 43 || 29-88 1703 40 to 45 ,,| 30-077 | 5899 || 43 to 45 || 29-78 1130 45 to 50 ,,| 30060 | 8282 || 45 to 48 ,,| 29°63 1174 78° 37’ ,,| 29:759 |Dr. Kanel| 48 to 50 ,,| 29°62 672 50 to 53 ,,| 29-48 665 53 to 55 ,,| 29°36 475 563 ,,| 29:29 1126 | Latitude. (Barometer. It would seem from this curve, which by its regularity shows the observations at 48 REPORT—1860. sea to be remarkably accordant, that the atmosphere is much more attenuated in austral than in boreal regions; and that the high barometer, with the light airs and baffling winds of the tropical calm belts, is the dividing atmospherical ridge, so to speak, between the low barometer about the Pole on one side and near the Equator on the other; and that the position of this ridge is determined by the degree of polar in contrast with the degree of equatorial rarefaction. The trade-winds rushing in on one side, and the counter trades on the other—as the polar-bound winds may be called—supply the indraught for these places of attenuated air and low baro- meter. It thus appears that the equatorial calm belt is a sort of thermal adjustment be- tween the calms of Cancer and Capricorn; which in turn are in adjustment to the dynamical power of the ascending columns of air in the equatorial and polar calm laces. The low barometer off Cape Horn has long attracted the attention of navigators. The low barometer in other longitudes south caused Wilkes, Ross, and others, to remark upon the diminished pressure in high southern latitudes, and upon the ap- parent inequality in the distribution of the atmosphere north and south of the Equator. The barometric observations between 40° and- 60° South, and which are quoted in the preceding Table, were collected in three groups—first, from the logs between the Cape of Good Hope and Australia, next from Australia to 80° West, and then about Cape Horn. The result showed that a low barometer is not peculiar to Cape Horn regions, but that it is general and circumferential in austral latitudes, dimi- nishing rapidly as we approach the Pole. The great extent of the austral water surface, with the vapour with which it keeps the “ brave west winds” of these regions loaded, and the heat which with the condensation of these vapours is liberated there, suggests the cause of this low barometer. If it be the vapour and the liberation of its latent heat that cause the permanent expulsion from Antarctic regions of so much of the atmosphere as this curve and these observations indicate, then should we not follow the argument up, and infer that the extreme cold of the Antarctic climate is by no means so seyere as that of the north? The unexplored regions of the south embrace an area of more than eight million square miles, or about one-sixth of the whole extent of the dry land surface that is contained on our planet. Since the attempts to penetrate those unknown regions, steam has been intro- duced upon the ocean, and the modern explorer has at his command a power which enables him to defy wind and tide. Hygiene on board ship has been so improved, that the sailor may now keep the sea for almost an indefinite period of time. The invention, the discoveries, and the improvements of the age, place in our hands the means of fitting out Antarctic expeditions, and of endowing them with powers that would have made any previous expedition there doubly effective. Under these circumstances, would it not be areproach upon the Christian nations, and especially upon those great governments who have agreed to unite ina common plan of physical research at sea, if so large a portion of the earth’s surface were permitted to remain unexplored ? Plate III. shows the furthest reach of Antarctic exploration. The tracks of Ant- arctic explorers, from Cook down to the present day, go to make up these limits. It is not the object of this paper to elaborate the views suggested by the observations offered with this paper; but rather to present the observations themselves, with such explanation as seemed necessary to enable others to understand them. If I have succeeded in doing this, all who will take the trouble to study them will find them very suggestive. M. F. Maury. Observatory, Washington, 11th May, 1860. On the Cause of the Descent of Glaciers. By the Rev. Henry Mose tey, F-.R.S., Canon of Bristol, Inst. Imp. Se. Paris Corresp. The fact of the descent of a body, when placed upon an inclined plane, due to the Plate 1. 1 : 420 inch —1 month ith the wind ) eS — \ No indy = da, do, 30 Report British Association, 1960. ¢ ETN Polar REAS 7 6 Coute Ae ny Te NS Oe to ei TRON Netrait Wir ie ea oo ~ Yeo tide <1 month Mio indy =o. do [ \ WS < > S > = & LL = ms S) w = = S { S z ~ & = S ™_~ ee =) % & BS Pa) SS a) ~ ~ S S : itis Association, 1860. 30% Report British Association, 1860. J a A REGI Plate 3. OG TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 49 variations in its temperature, first observed in the descent of the lead which covers the south side of the choir of Bristol Cathedral, and communicated by me to the Royal Society in the year 1855, I have since confirmed by the following experi- ment. I fixed a deal board, 9 feet long and 5 inches broad, to the south side of my house, so as to form an inclined plane, and upon it placed a sheet of lead, turning its edges down over the edges of the board, and taking care that it should not bind upon it, but be free to move with no other obstruction than that which arose from its friction. The inclination of the board was 18° 32’, the thickness of the lead was one-eighth of an inch, and its weight 28 lbs. The lower end of the board was brought opposite to an upper window, and a “ vernier’’ was constructed which could be read from within, and by which the position of the lead upon the board could be determined to the 100th of aninch. I began to measure the descent of the lead on the 16th of February, 1858, and recorded it every morning between seven and eight o’clock, and every evening between six and seven until the 28th of June. The lead had descended between the 16th of February and the 30th of April (a period of seventy-four days) 10°61 inches, being an average daily descent of °1433 inch. On the 4th of May it was drawn up the board again to its first position. Between that date and the 28th of June (a period of fifty-five days) it had descended 11°97 inches, being an average daily descent of -2176 inch. Its descent was far from uniform, being on some days scarcely (if at all) perceptible, and on others amounting to nearly half aninch. The average daily descents in successive months from February to June were in inch. ODRUALY (¢: &graiejs-e-eroleln's 10; thele.0\ i clale eisiaielefeyelsi sien “LOOOO IVEAECH si avn, s\exaheieisre(sYeisiwioie, ele 'aloereaiciefeialre ini sen etF SOOG SNSUILesracele sie cecelm inate elmtoisrshate tole slvisieterstots aieieteintesll Otley. Rg dg arecayale Cues wcbsa a Genre clas “emia Soke es HEL pUAATD Gis «quo bs alada Feb ated evale: oxaieyerairass rola! ale. aro: oftttasat abs tere to ea ee Every variation in the temperature of the lead contributed to its descent. The extreme temperatures of the day and the night could not therefore determine its daily motion ; for with the same extremes of day and night temperature, there may be great differences in the number and amount of the intervening variations of tem- perature. It is the effect of these daily variations of temperature, up and down, by which the descent of the lead totalizes. Although, therefore, we are to look for the influence of the extremes of day and night temperature upon the daily descent, we are also to look for that of the variations between each two extremes. I accordingly remarked that it was on days when a thermometer in the sun varied its height rapidly and often, that the lead descended most. On the contrary, when the sky was open and the heat advanced and receded uniformly, the descent was less, although the difference of the extreme temperatures might be greater. It was least of all when there was continuous rain. During the night the descent of the lead was often imperceptible. I have explained the descent of the lead in a paper published in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society’ for April 1855. If we suppose the sheet of lead to become ice, and its dimensions to be incfeased 20,000 times, and if for the board on which it rests we substitute a mountain side lying at a slope of 183°, we shall have a glacier 14 mile broad, 200 feet deep and 34 miles long, and which in no other respect than as it regards its length will be an exaggera- tion. By converting the lead into ice, its physical properties will, however, have been in some important particulars changed. It will have become twice as dilatable as lead is, that is, it will dilate twice as much by a given variation of temperature when un- opposed as lead does*. It will have become a more elastic substance than lead is, that is, it will be capable of overcoming a greater force opposed to its dilatation under a given change of temperature. It will have lost its ductility and have become friable, that is, its parts will have become more liable to separation from one another and its mass to disintegration. But, together with the last-mentioned quality, it will have acquired the property (called regelation) of easily, and under a moderate press- ure, returning from a state of disintegration to one of solidity; which qualities of * See the experiments of Schumacher at Pultowa, as detailed in the paper of W. Struve, “ Sur la dilatation de la Glace,” Mém. de l’Académie de St. Pétersbourg, ser. 6. tom. iv. 1848. 1860. 4: 50 REPORT—1860. friability and regelation have been shown by the experiments of Professor Tyndall to be sufficient (the requisite force ‘‘a tergo’’ being supposed) to account for its crushing its way through contractions in its channel, and reconstructing itself at the bottom of ice-cataracts. Now such a glacier, if it be supposed penetrable to external heat as lead is, could not but descend as lead does. In its descent portions of it would be thrust forward and compressed, and others would be dragged behind and crevassed. The melting of the lower part of such a glacier would favour its descent as compared with the lead whose mass remains unchanged. All these conditions might, however, be influenced by variations in the form of its channel and the incli- nation of its bed. Its motion would be like that of a snail clinging, but descending. The whole question, however, depends upon the penetrability of the glacier to external heat. On this point we have the high authority of Professor Forbes, founded on three series of observations on the motions of the Mer de Glace and the Glaciers des Bossons and des Bois. Of these observations, made in the summers of 1842 and 1844, he has recorded the results in his ‘Travels in Savoy’ (2nd ed. p. 141), and in his recent work entitled ‘On the Theory of Glaciers’ (p. 131) ; and he has compared them with the mean daily temperatures of the air as recorded at Geneva and the Great St. Bernard. He has, moreover, represented the relation between the average daily motions of these glaciers, and the average daily tempera- tures of the air at the corresponding periods by means of diagrams, which it is im- possible to look at, however cursorily, without being struck with the fact (not to be better expressed than in the words of Mr. Forbes himself), that they establish a “close relation between the mean temperature of any portion of the year, and the velocity of the glacier corresponding to it*.’’ Moreover, it is not only on the sur- face of the glacier that this relation may be considered to have been observed. The glacier moves with different velocities at different depths; but all are related to its surface motion, so that the influence of variations of temperature, if felt on its sur- face, must penetrate throughout its depth. Being dilatable as lead is (but in a higher degree), and being thus shown to be sensible to variations of temperature throughout its mass, it cannot but descend as lead under the like circumstances does. Every variation of temperature, however slight, cannot but produce a corresponding descent, and such small variations, often enough repeated, might produce a descent, however great, even although at each change the glacier returned to the same tem- perature. The oscillation of the heat backwards and forwards is all that is required. For the purpose of this argument, the fact that a relation exists between the motion of a glacier and the external temperature is all that is required. It is not necessary to enter on a discussion of the causes out of which that relation arises. On Meteorological Observations for 1859, made at Huggate, Yorkshire, East hiding. By the Rev. T. Rankin. This communication was in continuation of similar observations and general remarks furnished, by the same author, to the Association for upwards of twenty years. ; On Thermo-barometers, compared with Barometers at great Heights. By M. R. de ScuitacintWEIr. M. Robert de Schlagintweit communicated some of the results which he had de- duced from comparisons of the boiling-point with direct barometric readings. These observations, taken by his brothers and himself during their journeys in India, the Himalaya, &c., at various heights and different periods, were chiefly made to test by direct experiments the correctness of the tables of the boiling-point of water corre- sponding to barometric pressure, of which the latest and the most detailed ones are those of Magnus, Regnault, and Moritz. Direct observations had been previously made in India, particularly by Colonel Sykes-; in America, Mr. Wisse made such experiments up to 14,000 feet; in High — Asia, Messrs. de Schlagintweit had occasion to carry on such observations up to heights exceeding 18,600 feet. A resulting Table of comparison was presented, an examination of which showed * Forbes, Theory of Glaciers, p. 130. 3 7 TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 51 that, for all practical purposes, the tables quoted above are quite accurate enough, though for great heights, they contain an error; the correction to be applied is small, and additive. The instruments with which Messrs. de Schlagintweit made their observations, were expressly made for the purpose; they ranged from 100° Cels. to 78° Cels., but had a length of 1 foot 9 inches, so that it was possible to divide each degree into fifty parts directly. M. de Schlagintweit drew attention to the accuracy of the results obtainable by these delicate thermo-barometers, which, as far as his experience goes, he considered to be quite comparable to the barometer, if used with all the necessary precautions, though for daily variations the barometer is preferable on account of the greater facility of reading. The circumstance that the thermo-barometer is much less liable to get out of order, makes it a most valu- able instrument for travellers. Messrs. de Schlagintweit’s Comparison of Boiling-pomts. Simultaneous baro- metric readings. Thermos! ' Name of the place of Wearand Dates barometer Millims. bd Fg observation, readings, es reduced to C. degrees. C. degrees. sah oiling |" 8 point, C. degrees, Group I.—100° to 96°: Correction —0°-09 of the Thermo-barometer*. oO ° ° RAMU rete evisccnnr sce s TSG PAP Messen asa 97-99 7046 97:90 | —0:09 BORGEDDE NG ccs -cict eset is ozsnes 1855, Sept. 12 ......... 96°84 675°7 96-75 | —0:09 AARON Es racs 7a cers ve oes 1855, Sept. 12 ......... 96:73 6735 96:66 | —0:07 RORAMMACH 0... scec cee escere es 1855, Sept. 15 ......... 95°85 652°9 95:81 | —0-04 PORAMATD 50. sis sce ececaeces 1855, Sept. 16 ......... 95°85 651-7 95:76 | —0:09 Group II.—95:99 to 94: Correction — 0°10 of the Thermo-barometer. EHOSIMALH .......csscersre- 1855, Sept. 9 iiveses-sn 94:06 610°4 93:99 | —0:07 BEMOUKESEL,......0.00050004- 1855, Sept.8 .......<-.-« 93:99 | 6082 | 93:39 | —010 MHOSIMAtH so... se... 1855, Sept. 9 ............ 93°98 607-0 93°84 | —0:14 Gaurikind) <3.6.6..6..c8is0s 1855, Sept. 24 ......... 93:78 | 6033 | 93°67 | —O-11 IGBNTIKUNA). S60. 05.s..ce.. 1855, Sept. 23 ......... 93:73 | 601-2 | 93:58 | —O-15 Garand .........06.00c00- 1855, Sept. 19 ......... 93°64 601:0 93°57 | —0:07 RUIUTALN Maio nis ceis's «a sis'eic'enels 1855, Sept. 29) .:.....-: 93:13 5873 92:95 | —0-18 BAM Abs aca ncdstshcsevosecens. 1856, April 12 ......... 93-00 585°7 92:88 | —0-12 Trichugi Narain............ 1855, Sept. 24 ......... 92:96 585-2 92°86 | —0:10 Group III.—93:99 to 92: Correction—0°11 of the Thermo-barometer. IMIMASAUTA ......0650.000000- 1855, Sept. 28 ......... 90:76 | 537-9 | 9062 | —0-14 Badrinath ..........0s00000 1855, Sept. 7 ....ss00000 90:20 5275 90:10 | —0:10 PSBOTINAE « cass0 00 55 sfeyeltyorseleele 36°56 IWiatere cca Gre mee cpiatercieisls acfeute een terne 11°49 99°94 Connemara Garnet.—Occurs in rhombic dodecahedrons with bevelled edges; faces of crystals have a metallic Justre, colour resembling bronze. The matrix appears to consist of the same mineral mixed with epidote. Specific gravity 3°585, 39°77 Sbtei Als doc seve Sen toto boe AAO i\linitnzy. Bptiadigao aac oeopouepoe . 15°49 Sesquioxide of iron ........00+-000. 16°27 LU ido. CApOOR SOOSHOTOG cur oO. ». 20°98 VEL ORESIA boyy vuptc; afer) efecev els fol stalo' Ada ge cKO Minnganese ters e's io. « aie ale > seseeee *48——100°05 Analysis of the Matrix. Specific gravity 3°404. Si ieeaa wacveys basen foieimverassbel svolovalsielerensienere tise am. Alumina ........- stew sets's vlc clle > ve LOrok Sesquioxide of iron ........: ..+.-. 1511 Gimie!. 2 sya leite. pe aseeenee Bteis islets state) eae Magnesia ......... Secetiahice aiecenanicceone PL Traces of manganese ..... wesc vets ——99°21 On the Composition of Jet. By Tuomas H. Rowney, Ph.D. F.CS., Prof. of Chemistry, Queen's College, Galway. The following results were obtained by the analysis of two specimens of jet and of a very pure coal, a portion of a fossil plant :— Jet No. 1. Jet No. 2. Specific gravity 1:2655 Specific gravity 1:1743 Coke. dates cha APE O! een cscs core atv aehe tliye 27°38 Volatile matter.. 58°81 Srscaas ae tele ; 72°62 100:00 100:00 Gaxbon, bi. bh.ccc ND GON sis oekaateeie hiesote choles 80:05 Hydrogen...... GZ erryaita = save taps fohrrasohe) sis 7°21 Nitrogen ..... aig dled tae eral sis rs. « usaeaeveves els 1-44 say pe diLAN- Cea tiaiiri es meee 2 10°50 .. xygen PASH tees s\a'0)5 810 23.0 iS MOA PP ete BS teteissa sys SOM. 100:00 100°00 On Waterproof and Unalterable Smatll-arm Cartridges. Coal. 1:2860 71°65 28°35 100-00 82°70 5°42 1:77 imams UL cles 100-00 By T. ScorFern. On a New Form of Blowpipe for Laboratory Use. By Dr. HerMANN SPRENGEL. Mr, Symons exhibited some forms of Alkalimeters suggested by Mr. Wiers, On Thiotherine, a Sulphuretted Product of Decomposition of Albuminous Substances. By Dr. Tuupicuum. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 73 On the Occurrence of Poisonous Metals in Cheese. By Professor VoELCKER. The author stated that he had detected both copper and zinc in cheese: in some specimens copper, in others zinc, and in some both copper and zine were found. The description of cheese in which these poisonous metals were found was double-Glou- cester cheese. Skimmed-milk cheese, which was likewise examined for copper and zine, did not contain any metallic impurity. Stilton, and other varieties of cheese, have not as yet been examined; it must not therefore be inferred that cheese made in other districts than Gloucestershire contains poisonous metals. Inquiry in the dairy districts of Gloucestershire and Wiltshire has led to the discovery that in many dairies in these counties sulphate of copper, and sometimes sulphate of zinc, are employed in the making of cheese. The reasons for which these prejudicial salts are added to the cheese are variously stated. Some persons added sulphate of zine with a view of giving new cheese the taste of old; others employed sulphate of copper for the purpose of preventing the heaving of cheese. Dr. Voelcker also stated that he had found alum in Gloucester cheese, and mentioned that he had Jearnt that in some dairies alum was employed to effect a more complete separation of the caseine from the whey. On the Causes of Fire in Turkey-red Stoves. By Dr. W. WALLACE. GEOLOGY. Notes on two newly discovered Ossifevous Caves in Sicily. By Baron F. Anca. Founp in the Grotta de Olivella, near Palermo. Molar of Eleph. Africanus (the existing species), amidst bones and teeth of an extinct species of Hippopotamus, both in a well-marked fossil state, and infiltrated with hydrate of iron. Grotta de San Feodora, Molar of Eleph. Africanus, with abundant remains ; upper and lower jaws of Jiyena crocuta, determined by M. Lartet. Facts go to prove continuity of land between Sicily and the African continent, pro- bably along the line of the Adventure Bank of Admiral Smyth, stretching between Capo Bono, the promontory of Tunis and Marsala. The Admiral found only 75 fathoms sounding upon the bank; but a deep sea to the north and to the south. Proofs of continuity with Sicily are found at Malta. Details respecting a Nail found in Kingoodie Quarry, 1843. By Sir Daviv Brewster, K.H., D.C.L., F.RS. On the Stratigraphical Position of certain Species of Corals in the Lias. By the Rev. P. B. Bropiz, IA., F.G.S. The author first alluded to the exact position of a species of Coral found in the Hippopodium bed near Cheltenham, and another locality near Evesham, where the same form was equally abundant. Another and distinct genus, a Monilivaltia allied to M. Stutchburyz, was procured in the same bed in Warwickshire, associated with numerous other fossils, and a section of the pit was given, Other and distinct species of Corallines, one of which frcm Gloucestershire belongs to the genus Cladophyliia, were known to occur lower down in the ‘ Lima beds,’ the probable position of the fine Isastrea Murchisoni, found occasionally in Worcestershire and Warwickshire. One or more additional species have been met with in the bottom beds of the Warwickshire Lias, which had not been previously observed so low down. The divisions of the Lias, which seem to be characterized by the presence of Corals, are—1, the Hippo- podium bed; 2, the Lima bed; 3, the White Lias; and 4, the Guinea bed. So that it would appear that Corals are more numerous in the Lias than has been usually supposed, and that they occupy certain zones in it, which future investigations may show to be as well marked and distinctive as that of any other particular organisms. 74 REPORT—1860. A few Corals have been recorded from the Upper Lias, but they are smaller and less frequent than the above. On the Velocity of Earthquake Shocks in the Laterite of India. By Joun ALLAN Broun, F.RS. Mr. Mallet’s interesting observations on the velocity of earthquake shocks had drawn my attention to the subject ; and when earthquakes were remarked in Travan- core, the part, South of India, where I resided, I endeavoured to add something to our knowledge of the subject. Four earthquakes were perceived in Travancore during the year 1856; that to which I am about to allude was observed at the Trevandrum Observatory, August 22, where the commencement of the shock was noted accurately by the Observatory clock, at 4" 25™ 10° of Trevandrum mean time. The magnets in the magnetic observatory were dancing up and down with sharp jerks, but without any change of mean positions; a vessel containing water was wetted highest on the points to W.N.W. and E.S.E. The vibration of the bifilar magnet was 3°0 scale divisions a few minutes after the shock. On the 11th of the same month a shock had been felt at Trevandrum, and I had addressed a circular to several persons in the district for information as to the time, direction, and character of the shock: this circular had drawn attention to the questions of interest in connexion with such shocks. One gentleman at Quilon (thirty-seven miles N.W. of Trevandrum) was writing an account of the former shock when the shock of August 22nd occurred. Four gentlemen and one lady noted the time of the shock at Quilon; these times were as follows :—Mr. D’Albed’yhll and Mr. Newas (same watch), 45 20"; Capt. Carr, 4h 95™; Mr. Stone, 4°19"; Mrs. Wilkins, 4" 16". A box chronometer by Dent was sent by me to Quilon, for the purpose of comparing it with the different watches or clocks used in the determination of the time of the shock: the rate of the chronometer was +8 seconds, and the error was determined before and after the comparisons, which were made August 27th. The following are the facts connected wth the observations :—Mr. Newas had set his watch, on the 17th of August, to 6" 0” at sunrise; allowing for the height of the chain of Ghats where the sun rose, I have computed that sunrise must have been about 3 minutes before six o’clock : the watch had been allowed to run down after the shock, so that it could not be compared with the chronometer. Supposing the watch without any marked rate, the Trevandrum mean time of the shock was 4" 183™. Mr. Stone had set his watch August 17, by the time of the Trevandrum Observatory (where a ball is dropped daily at eleven o’clock). When compared with the chronometer, it had gained 3™ 35° giving a daily rate of about +21°°5; so that on the 22nd the error of the watch must have been about 1™ 47%, and the shock must have occurred about 4" 171™ Trevandrum mean time. This is by far the most important observation; the others can be considered only as approximate determinations. Capt. Carr’s watch was found fourteen minutes fast of Trevandrum time on the 27th; supposing the rate zero, the time of shock was 4" 11”. Mrs. Wilkins’s clock had been compared with the mess clock of the native regiment at Quilon, which was regulated by persons proceeding from Trevandrum, with the Observatory time, and which was found correct when compared with the chronometer. Mrs. Wilkins’s clock was three mi- nutes slow of Trevandrum mean time, making the time of the clock 4" 19", The four observations, therefore, corrected to Trevandrum mean time, gave— hm hm Mr. NewaS..eeseeeeeees 4 183 | Mrs. Wikins+.i..c..sc00 4005 Stones. ces geepreen a lee The mean gives.......... 4 16% Capt. Catre..seeeeeeeee 4 11 There can be no doubt that Mr. Stone’s observation is the most trustworthy, as his time depends on two comparisons with the Trevandrum Observatory, viz. on the 17th and 27th; and the deduced error for the middle of the interval (the 22nd) can- not be far from the truth. Mr. Newas’s observation, which agrees with it within about a minute, depends wholly on the observation for the sunrise ; it is so far con- firmatory. Rejecting Capt. Carr’s observation, as differing too much from the others, the mean of the remaining three is 4" 18}. If we suppose the shock to have travelled in the direction from Quilon to Trevan- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 75 drum, which does not differ much from that indicated by the vessel of water, and take the distance at thirty-seven miles, we obtain a velocity of propagation of 470 feet per second; and if we take the latest result at Quilon, or 4" 19™, we have still a velocity of only 530 feet per second—-little more than three-fifths of that found. by Mr. Mallet in wet sand. If we take the W.N.W. as the direction of propaga- tion of the shock, or any other than that direct from Quilon, the velocity will of course be diminished. It should be remarked that the laterite, which forms the upper stratum (about 30 feet deep) between Quilon and Trevandrum, is a clayey rock, in a semi-pasty condition of perhaps the lowest degree of elasticity ; and the laterite reposes in some places on strata of sand and clays. On the Course of the Thames from Lechlade to Windsor, as ruled by the Geological Formations over which it passes. By the Rev. J. C. CLurTer- Buck, M.A. The tortuous course of the Thames between Lechlade and Windsor shows that there must be some physical cause which obliges it to deviate from the straight line it would naturally take to its outfall. This is found in the obstructions encountered in its passage over or through the various strata, From Lechlade to Sandford the river finds its bed in the Oxford clay; it then passes through a narrow gap in the middle oolite to the Kimmeridge clay, holds its course on that clay, under the escarpment of the Iron-sand in Nuneham Park, turns the escarpment at Culham, passes to the Gault at Appleford, touches a ledge of the Iron-sand at Clifton Hamp- den, returns to the Gault, enters the Greensand near its junction with the Thame stream, passes to the Chalk, in which it finds its bed to the point,—which is the limit proposed for consideration, The natural obstructions are found at the junction of the different strata. The quantity of water flowing down the river, whether issuing in perennial springs, or thrown from the surface in flood, is due to the geological condi- tion of the district. The tributaries or feeders discharge more or less of perennial or flood water, as they carry the water from permeable or impermeable strata. The flooding of the district necessarily affects the sanitary condition of Oxford. The city itself is placed on a bed of gravel, overlying the Oxford clay, the surface of which undulates so that the water is stanked back in the gravel ; it was cutting through one of these undulations, in carrying out the Jericho drainage, that deprived many wells in Oxford of their water. As this bed of gravel extends beyond the limits of the city, on the subsidence of the floods, the water filtrates through the gravel, and thus noxious evaporation is diminished. Considerable accumulations have raised the bed of the river in many places, evidence as to the date of which is found in antiquities which have been discovered when constructing locks or weirs, or in dredging for gravel. At Sandford, arms of the time of Charles I. have been found 8 feet below the river- bed, relics of greater antiquity and at various depths have often been found in other places, where the bed of the river has been raised, or, as in some cases, entirely changed its course. The phenomenon of the formation of ice at the bottom of the stream, when the temperature falls to 20 Fahr., and the transportation of stones from the bottom by the ice rising to the surface, adds to the natural obstructions in the stream, and hinders the passage of the flood-waters by which so much damage has been done at various times in the neighbourhood of Oxford. The paper, which entered into full details, was illustrated with a map, sections, and diagrams, Photographs of a Paddle of Pliosaurus of great size, found at Kimmeridge, were exhibited by Mr. R. Damon, of Weymouth. = Remarks on the Elevation Theory of Volcanos. By Professor Dauseny, M.D., F.R.S. This paper was chiefly intended as a protest against the assumption of certain geo- logists, that because it had been shown, more especially by Sir Charles Lyell in his memoir published in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ for 1858, that sheets of compact lava have been formed on steep inclines, it therefore followed, that all voleanic moun- tains have been built up by a series of successive eruptions. Not denying that this explanation may serve for the oldest, as it certainly does for the more recent beds, which constitute such mountains as Etna and Vesuvius, the 76 REPORT—1860. author contended that it is not applicable to the celebrated case of Jorullo, as described by Humboldt, nor yet to the volcanic islands thrown up in deep water at various times during the historical period. He was also disposed to refer the four trachytic Puys near Clermont, in Auvergne, as well as the still loftier Cones composed of the same material in the Andes, which Humboldt describes, rather to the upheaval of a softened mass of rock, than to the outburst of liquid lava. He appealed also to the crater-lakes in the Eifel country and elsewhere, as furnish- ing cases of upheaval, even where no lava had been ejected; and argued, that so long as the idea of paroxysmal action continued to be entertained with reference to rocks in general, it was probable that volcanic countries, above all others, would be subject to such operations. On the Mode of Flight of the Pterodactyles of the Coprolite Bed near Cam- bridge. By the Rev. J. B. P. Dennis, F.G.S. Coprolitic remains of Pterodactyle bone have afforded an opportunity of studying its microscopic characters, and this had led to the present attempt to show from the ana- logy of other flying animals, from the different modes of flight among birds, from the apparent adjustment of the haversian canals thereunto, and the harmonious perfection of the skeleton with the adaptation of the pectoral muscle to the same (so that even the humeral process of its attachment has its marked characteristics), that these and other analogies lead to the inference that considerable knowledge even of the mode of flight of this extinct reptile may be obtained from the study of its microscopical bone struc- ture. In elucidation of this subject, a brief account was given of the structure of the wing-bones of a bird, and of the mode of flight of the Gull, a bird distinguished for its elasticity and endurance on the wing, and in other respects very suitable for illus- trating the subject. A description was then given of fragments of Pterodactyle bone obtained by Mr. Barrett from the coprolite bed, most of which were portions of wing-bones of very thin texture. It was also shown that the Pterodactyle required not to be encumbered with muscular legs, and thus the vastus was only sufficiently developed to enable the animal to spring from the ground preparatory to flight (as the form of the femur also seemed to indicate); also the biceps, semitendinosus, &c., or their analogues, did not require any great development; while the gastrocnemius, as it would assist in the spring, was probably on that account fairly represented. The pectoral muscle, follow- ing the saurian type, must have been less voluminous than that of birds, flatter, with its greatest development in front, and in position comparing somewhat with that muscle in gulls and owls, birds of elastic but not rapid flight. The Pterodactyle was also shown to agree more with birds than with bats, especially in its omoplate, while the absence of a fercula implied no similar volume of muscle; the bones in like man- ner were permeated by air, or if some were not, they were yet filled with a light fatty substance or marrow to give additional strength to their light texture; and though the natural weakness of its muscular powers was considerable in comparison with birds, yet this was balanced by an extremely light framework, the weight of which predomi- nated in front, where the muscular force was more directly antagonistic; and above all, the admirable microscopic structure of its bone eminently conduced to its powers of flight, Delicate in the extreme to the unassisted eye, when examined under the microscope, the bone is found to contain numerous and large haversian canals in a very marked degree, comparing in their arrangement with those seen in the wing-bones of gulls; also lacunz well displayed, larger than those of a bird of flight, long and fusiform. From this correspondence of the characters of the haversian canals, of which illustra- tions were given, an inference seems capable of being drawn in reference to the flight of these large Pterodactyles, which, if they did not possess the dash of the falcon or the impetuosity of the wood-pigeon, yet sailed gracefully over primzeval seas with a lizht- ness and buoyancy, as it would seem, analogous in some degree at least to the con- spicuous grace of the gulls, which are the present ornament of our coasts. So in every respect is seen the wisdom displayed in the adaptation of means, each inadequate in itself, and the result is the production of one of the strangest anomalies, of which, if we had not had the clearest testimony, the imagination would have failed to picture,—a true Pterosaurian, in some respects perhaps more wonderful in its con- struction than bats or even birds, and being as fully capable of flight as they, teaching TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 77 us how great are the resources and how infinite the wisdom of Him who has done all things well, On the Corrugation of Strata in the Vicinity of Mountain Ranges. By the Rev. J. Dineie. This paper was in continuation of an attempt to determine the mechanical causes of the formation of the earth’s crust, and to trace its progress. The author described the varying forms of flexure, diminishing in intensity with their distance from the igneous axis, which characterizes the strata in the neighbourhood of the mountain chains; and showed how this form would arise from the action of the molten interior, by referring to the result of experiments upon the action cf fluids under like condi- tions. He expressed his obligations to Professor Rogers for the valuable information which he had derived from a paper of his in the Edinburgh Transactions, but de- murred to some of his hypotheses. Flexures at definite points must be produced by repeated or continued pressures, and not by paroxysmal action. The latter chiefly spends itself in earthquakes and volcanoes, which, upon the whole, can produce no continuous change of form, ‘The two forces, however, seem to be intimately related to each other; and if we suppose the one to be only the other in excess, we are supplied with a simple explanation of the connexion between the corrugated moun~ tain chains and the lines of earthquakes and volcanoes. As a corollary from the above views, it might be observed that they destroyed the idea of any distinct theory of volcanoes of elevation or eruption, as the quantities of elevated or ejected matter in the case of a fissure or a ruptured corrugation might be in any proportion whatever to each other. Remarks on the Ichthyolites of Farnell Road. By Sir Purrip ve M. Grey Ecerton, Bart., F.R.S. At the Meeting of the British Association last year at Aberdeen, I had an oppor- tunity of examining several speciimens of the small fishes found in the Old Red Sand- stone deposits of Farnell, and in the discussion which ensued upon the reading of Mr. Mitchell's paper, I took occasion to remark upon their several characters. I then stated that all the specimens I had seen belonged to the family Acanthodei, and the great majority of them to the genus dcanthodes, representing, however, a new species of the genus. I proposed inconsiderately to name this species 4. antiquus, a very inappropriate title, inasmuch as two contemporaneous species were subsequently ex- hibited by Mr. Peach. As, however, this name has not appeared in print, I propose to cancel it, and substitute 4. Mitchelli, as the original or type-specimen is in the possession of the Rev. Hugh Mitchell, of Craig. The other specimens I described as constituting a new genus corresponding in many characters with Diplacanthus, but differing in the shortness and position of the spines of the fins. I proposed for this genus the name Brachyacanthus. The specimens from the same locality recently received from Mr. Powrie are of the same species as those examined at Aberdeen. I learn, however, in a letter received from Mr, Powrie since I have examined his specimens, that he has in his possession others comprising at least two’ very distinct species of Dipiacanthus, one remarkable for its very strong anterior dorsal spine, and fragments belonging probably to other species. Mr. Mitchell also writes that another locality has been found rich in remains of Acanthodian and other fishes. Under these circumstances it would be premature to enter into any detailed account of these interesting ichthyolites. As the materials, how- ever, are sufticiently complete, I append a short description of Acanthodes Mitchelli. The specimens I have examined vary in length from 2 to 23 inches. The one I have selected for description attains nearly the latter dimensions. The greatest depth of the trunk occurs in advance of the ventral fins, where it measures rather more than half an inch, The head is small and elegantly sculptured. It measures about 1th of the total length. ‘The outline of the body is very graceful. It is fusiform anteriorly, and tapers gradually posterior to the insertion of the highly heterocerque tail. The orbit is placed very forward, and is embraced by the remarkable bony plates described by Romer as characteristic of the genus. ‘The peculiar structure of the gill-covers also corresponds with that of other species of 4canthodes, The pectoral spines are long and curved. The other fin-spines are slender and straight. The species differs from all others of the same period in the ornament of the head-bones and the form of the 78 REPORT—1860. body. It is distinguishable also from Acanthodes Peachi, a new species discovered last year by Mr. Peach in the Caithness flags, by the form of the spines, the pectoral spines in the latter being straight, and the dorsal and anal spines curved. Photographs of Fishes, from Farnell in Fifeshire, were exhibited by Mr. W. Rocers, of Montrose. On a New Form of Ichthyolite discovered by Mr. Peach. By Sir Pattie Ecerton, Bart., M.P., F.RS. This fossil fish, discovered by Mr. Peach in the Caithness flagstones, is chiefly re- markable for the structure of the fins. The dorsal and anal fins are supported upon three interspinous bones in each organ, from which the fin-rays spread in tufts. A similar structure prevails in the caudal fin, It is nearly allied to Dipterus, and pro- bably belonged to the Ccelacanthoid family. The name Tristichopterus alatus has reference to the peculiar structure characteristic of the genus. On Circular Chains in the Savoy Alps. By M. A. Favre, Professor at the Academy of Geneva. The object of this memoir is to describe the peculiar structure of the mountain chains in Savoy, on the left bank of the river Arve. This region may be divided into several districts, which, in passing from Mont Saléve to Mont Blanc, are as follows: (1) the Tertiary, (2) the Cretaceous, (3) the Jurassic, and (4) the district of crystalline rocks. M. Favre treats of the second of these, in which the mountain chains surmounted by precipitous peaks are composed in great part of cretaceous rocks. This district is about 49 kilometres long from the river Arve to the lake of Annecy, by 24 broad. The loftiest mountain attains the height of 2760 metres above the sea-level, and there are several other summits be- tween 2300 and 2400 metres high. The geological formations which constitute this district are,—1. the Jurassic which occupy a very limited space; 2. the Neocomian; 3, the Urgonian, which forms enormous escarpments, and constitutes the crest of the mountains; 4. the green sandstone; 5. the chalk; 6. the nummulite limestone ; fis the alpine macigno, which at its base contains various marls with fish scales, and above marls and sandstones associated with the Taviglianas freestone which is a species of volcanic cinder. One of the valleys of this district, that namely of Thones on Grand Bornant, is a longitudinal valley ; the others are transverse valleys watered by rivers arranged almost like the radii of a circle. This peculiarity in the direction of these rivers depends on that of the mountain chains; for the rivers in general cut the chain perpendicularly to their axes, and with the exception of Mont Charvin a la Pointe Percée, all the mountain chains of this district, and especially those on the borders, are in the shape of a quadrant, and lie in every direction that can be found in a quadrant. It is to these chains that M. Favre has given the name of circular chains. Mountain chains have long been remarked whose axes are more or less undulatory, others separating from a common trunk like the branches of a tree; strata, moreover, have been observed that rise to the surface of the ground in the form of the bottom of a boat; and the opposite phenomenon has likewise been observed, that namely of a mountain chain in the form of a vault or half cylinder sinking so as to disappear in the plain; but M. Favre is of opinion that the fact to which he has called attention is different from any of these, insomuch as it refers to entire chains, which are not only curved, but curved to such a degree that their extremities are at right angles to each other, M. Favre concludes his essay by calling attention to the fact that the chains of the Alps display the closest orographical resemblances to those of the Jura, which are now well known. Although the displacement of the soil is much greater in the Alps than in the Jura, in both are found groups either entire or broken, which in the latter case disclose in their interior, one, two, or three of the strata below that which forms their crest; in both are found combes, ravines, and valleys of the same form. M. Favre believes that the identity of these forms leads to the conclusion that the eleva- tion of the Alps and the Jura is due to causes of the same nature. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79 On some Transformations of Iron Pyrites in connexion with Organic Remains. By AvPuonse GAGEs. I have to direct the attention of the Section to some facts regarding the transforma- tion of iron pyrites connected with fossil graptolites from Tinnaglough, Co. Wexford. These peculiar characteristic fossils of the Lower Silurian schists are found very often transformed into rhombic iron pyrites. This transformation into pyrites is now, since the observations of Pepys and others, easily accounted for, and therefore I have not to dwell upon it. Looking over some of those schists, we may observe the various transformations the fossil has passed through until it entirely disappears from the schist. I. Fossil] exhibiting some traces of organic matter, and not mineralized by pyrites. II. The same fossil transformed into rhombic iron pyrites. III, The transformation of the pyritic fossil into a corresponding fossil of aluminite. 1V. A mere cast of the fossil, or indication of one only remaining. And lastly, in some neighbouring joints of the schist, a thin layer of sesquioxide of iron, alum, or of aluminite generally accompanied by free sulphur. Analogous phenomena may be observed in other fossils of the carboniferous form- ation, and especially in the lower limestone shale near Drogheda. One may observe in some points in which the fossil has been completely obliterated, a thin mineral layer of aluminous compounds, varying more or less in their chemical constitution. These facts are very suggestive in this sense, that if the processes of mineralization going on for ages have served to preserve many forms of organic beings, so also they serve to destroy them. We witness every day the destruction of a great number of pyritic fossils hy the mere action of air, and their transformation into sulphates, and sometimes, according to local circumstances, into sulphates and free sulphur. Whenever sulphur occurs in deposits containing organic remains, we are induced to believe that it has been formed in somewhat a similar way. On Snow Crystals observed at Dresden. By Dr. GEIN1Tz. On the Silurian Formation in the District of Wilsdruff. By Dr. GrtniTz. The discovery of Graptolites in the Lydit and Phthanit, lately made in the district of Wilsdruff, near the villages of Limbach, Lotzen, and Lampersdorf, a neighbour- hood where the azoic and metamorphic clay-slates, sometimes with true chiastolith, are predominant, now combines a considerable part of the most northern part of the Saxon Erzgebirge with the Silurian. : These black schists of Graptolites, with Monograpsus triangulatus, Harkness, Mon. priodon, Bronn, Mon. Becki, Barrande, and Mon. nuntius, Barrande, are continued in the schists of Graptolites on the northern slope of the Erzgebirge near Langenstriegis, not far from Frankenberg, Ober-Cainsdorf near Zwickau, Ronneburg, Oelsnitz, Hein- richsruhe near Schleiz, and various places of the district called Voigtland, where they indicate the same geological horizon as in Bohemia, the upper part of the Lower Silurian, or the base of the Upper Silurian of M. Barrande. All the species found in Saxony are described in the author’s ‘ Monograph of Graptolites,’ Leipzig, 1852. On the Metamorphic Rocks of the North of Ireland. By Rosert HarK- yess, F.RS., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in Queen's College, Cork. Almost the whole of the county of Donegal is occupied by rocks which appertain to the metamorphic series, consisting of gneissose rocks associated with limestones and quartz rocks. ‘The relation which these several rocks bear to each other, and to the syenitic masses which in some cases are found accompanying them, is well exhi- bited in the sections along the north side of Lough Foyle, from Malin Head to Inis- howen Head. On the S.W. side of Malin Head a protrusion of syenite is seen, which forms an axis in this portion of Ireland; and reposing on this axis there are found, first and lowest, quartz-rocks, succeeded conformably, on the north side, by flaggy gneiss; and on the southern side a like occurrence commonly takes place, In somé 80 REPORT—1860. localities, on the southern side of this axis, limestone frequently intervenes between the underlying quartz-rocks and the overlying gneissose strata; and the limestones, scattered in small patches among the metamorphic rocks of the north of Ireland, oc- cupy this position with reference to the rocks of this character. The arrangement of these rocks in this part of Ireland, as regards position, is as follows: the lowest quartz- rocks succeeded by limestones, which are not persistent, but upon which, when present, great masses of chloritic gneiss are seen having usually a S.E, dip, often the result of reversed flexures. ‘Through these rocks, which are the Irish representatives of the strata of the Grampians, numerous trap dykes occur. Notes on the Geology of Captain Palliser’s Expedition in British North America. By Dr. HeEcror. The following remarks are explanatory of a section commencing at Lake Winnipeg, continued along the basin of the Saskatchewan River to the Rocky Mountains, and from thence to Vancouyer’s Island. his section is only intended to represent the more general results of this geological exploration, as a preliminary to the reports which are in preparation. The rocks east of Lake Winnipeg have been fully described by geologists. They are a part of the so-called Laurentine chain, and consist of granite and metamorphic rocks. On these lie Silurian limestones, cherty, and of magnesian character, with corals and shells, easily referable to Silurian types. Above these Mr. Hind has found Devonian strata, of which, however, I saw no trace farther south. The supposed line of their outcrop is marked by salt springs. The first well-defined strata in the Prairie country occur 150 miles west of Red River, and are indurated olive shales, with ferruginous bands and traversed by veins of clay ironstone, with a few small fossils, chiefly fish-scales, and a small, neat species of nucula. They are a deep-water deposit. At the elbow of the Saskatchewan River, the banks are formed of purple laminated clays, with lines of Septaria of various sizes, These Septaria yield fossils, which are truly cretaceous forms. ‘The most common are Baculites and Inocerami, These Septaria clays are also deep-sea deposits. ‘hey are again met with on the north branch of the Saskatchewan, 150 miles to north-west, and the course of this river is for some distance determined by these soft beds. At the Snake Portage, in lat. 54° N., L thought I observed them overlaid by thick grits and clays, which must be next de- scribed; but of this junction I am not certain, and the dip is so slight that they may be even underlaid by these grits. The latter strata, in beds often 200 feet thick, form high ridges, which range north and south, crossing both Saskatchewans, and also the Red Deer River, at the Nick Hills. They form mainly two parallel ranges, and between them occur clays with coal or lignite beds from 2 to 10 feet thick, and consistent in their strike from north- west to south-east. This coal is used at Fort Edmonton, and burns pretty well. Some vegetable impressions, like those of cypress and dicotyledonous leaves, are found in the shale, but no other fossils. As these coal-beds and shales occur in the river-beds, and at low levels compared with the surrounding prairie, it is manifest that the surface-beds of which these are composed, are of later age; but whether conformable with them or not, I am unable to say. To the south-east of the elbow of the Saskatchewan, at the base of the Coteau de Prairies, and at a locality on the Souris River known as the Roche Percée, is a group of marls, with limestone bands, containing so much iron as to weather of a bright ver- milion colour, and ash-coloured arenaceous clays, with their bands of lignite and silicified wood. Selenite crystals are abundant in these marls, often clustered in stel- late forms. ‘They are mixed with bands of grit, from a few feet to 30 feet in thick- ness; and these being generally of a soft nature, with indurated portions, weather out in the most grotesque forms. On the higher grounds traversed by Battle River, and again on Red Deer River, where they are seen to rest on the great lignite group, are also beds of marl, lime- stones with iron like those of the Roche Percée, beds of lignite and true brown coal, with silicified trees, and abundance of fossils of an estuarine character. Among these latter are oysters, a good deal like the Pacific species, Mytili, Cyprina, and other TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81 marine forms in some beds; and in others Paludina is the prevalent fossil. On the very high grounds (such as the Ochéschis or Hand Hills and the Cyprees Hills), these strata pass up into sands, gravel, and beds of coarse shingle, which, at the same level (4000 feet above the sea), skirt the base of the Rocky Mountains, and there rest on the edges of upturned strata of various ages, All the strata which I have mentioned are covered with a mantle of drift, which does not rise much above 3000 feet; but near Battle River there seems to be a group of deposits which I have termed Tertiaries of the low grounds, The strata composing the Rocky Mountains may be briefly described as follows : —lIn crossing from the east, thirty or forty miles before entering the range, beds of grits and shales are observed much disturbed, but obviously dipping to the east. From a level of 4000 feet above the sea, the mountains rise as parallel ranges of cliffs from 3000 to 4000 feet in height. The first five or six of these ranges are composed of blue crystalline and earthy limestone in bold plications, including portions of the same grits and clays that are seen along the eastern base. ‘This group of strata must be several thousand feet in thickness, and contain fossils of Carboniferous age. To the west, and forming the range which in general determines the water-shed, is an immense thickness of quartzite and conglomerates, not much altered, and apparently horizontal. A wide longitudinal valley marks the line between this formation and the Jast mentioned, and is probably the site of a great fault. On descending the western slope of the mountains, while in the bottom of the valleys are vertical talcose slates, the higher parts of the mountains are composed of the same strata which form the eastern ranges, until the great valley is reached, which the Columbia and Kootanie rivers traverse, while their course is parallel to the range. West of this a belt of slates and semi-metamorphic rocks was crossed, followed by granite with true metamorphic rocks containing serpentine and marble, which brings us to Colville. South and west of this plain commence the great superficial floes of basalt with beds of tufa, which have emanated from the flanks of the Cascade range. The Cas- cade range itself consists of syenite and slates, with volcanic rock of recent date. The greater mass of Vancouver's Island is composed of the same metamorphic strata as at Colville; but along both sides of the Gulf of Georgia, which separate it from the mainland, and also forming the islands in that gulf, occur beds of grits and coarse conglomerate, much disturbed and resting on volcanic rocks, and containing the well-known deposits of coal and lignite as at Nanaimo and Bellingham Bay. These coal-bearing grits at Nanaimo, I found to be overlaid by Septarian clays, such as those I have found to the eastward of the Rocky Mountains, and containing the same cretaceous fossils, comprising Baculites and Inocerami. These clays are ob- served, again, to be covered by grits. Fossils were obtained at some distance below the coal at the base of the whole group, which have not yet arrived in England for examination, ‘They are, however, either lower cretaceous or oolitic forms. Remarks on the Geology of New Zealand, illustrated by Geological Maps, Drawings, and Photographs. By Prof. F. von HocustTerrer. Some Observations upon the Geological Features of the Volcanic Island of St. Paul, in the South Indian Ocean, illustrated by a Model in Relief of the Island, made by Capt. Cybulz, of the Austrian Artillery. By Prof. F. von HocusrEtrer. On the Six-inch Maps of the Geological Survey. By E. Hutt, B.A. BGS. On the Blenheim Iron Ore ; and the Thickness of the Formations below the Great Oolite at Stonesfield, Oxfordshire. By Epwarpv Hutt, B.A, F.G.S. The author described the position of this iron ore as occurring in the upper part of the Marlstone or Middle Lias, along the valley of the Evenlode, near Charlbury ; its 1860. 6 82 REPORT—1860. outcrop being traceable for some distance along both banks of the river. It is identical in geological position with the Cleveland ore of Yorkshire, and similar in its mineral character. ‘Che bed varies in thickness from 10 to 15 feet, and the ore is capable of being worked to an unlimited extent by tunneling into the hilly side from the outcrop. The fossils, which are local, consist of the usual Marlstone species, as Rhynchonella tetrahedra, Terebratula punctata, &c. Mineral Character.—At the outcrop, the iron-bed presents a rich ferruginous aspect ; but when followed to some depth below the surface, the original colour is found to be olive-green, and under the magnifying glass the stone appears oolitic. In this state the ore is probably a carbonate and silicate of iron—the latter imparting a green tinge. When exposed, it passes into a hydrated peroxide of iron. The remaining constituents are carbonate of lime, 10 per cent. ; silica, 12 per cent.; alumina, 7°8 per cent. Phosphoric acid is only present in minute quantity, viz. 0°55 percent. The chief market for the ore is expected to be South Wales*. Thickness of the Formations below the Great Oolite at Stonesfield. For the purpose of ascertaining the depth of the iron-bed below the Stonesfield slate, the Duke of Marlborough directed that one of the slate pits should be continued downwards till the ore was reached. This has not been accomplished ; for on reach- ing at a depth of 120 feet the Upper Lias Clay, the water flowed in so plentifully that the men were drowned out. With the assistance of numerous sections near Fawler, the deficiency in the series may be supplied; and the following are the results :— Succession of Strata at Stonesfield. feet. Great Oouire. 1, Upper Zone.—White limestone, resting on caleareous shales and marls (total thickness about) ............eceeseseevees itseadduwenl sascsttcae MOG 2. Lower Zone.—Sandy shales, flags, and shelly oolite, with a band of “« Stonesfield slate” at 10 feet from the top ....... sh Debts cbecadee ss ocawub treet 80 Inrerton Oorire. Upper Ragstone (zone of Ammonites Parkinsoni).—Large- grained, rubbly oolite, very fossiliferous, with Trigonia costata, Lima gibbosa, Terebratula globata, Clypeus Plotii... ........4. cadedvdasaceeeeepeees 30 Urrer Lias Cray.—Blue laminated clay..........scccseseeseees Siiessaisvinteas inane sre Martstone. 1. Zron-bed.—Massive ferruginous rock, with Rhynchonella tetra- Peed, Cress bee ee Ee Perens re caaeaccsederssenobort e 10-15 2. Sands, with iron concretions atop .........6...000e: vateeaee PTT Ce ace Lower Lirias Cray.—Thickness unknown. Comparing the development of these formations with that which they attain in Gloucestershire, the author showed that they all tended to decrease in thickness when traced from the north-west towards the south-east of England, and contended that these facts bore out the theory which he had on previous occasions endeavoured to demonstrate, that all the secondary rocks of England undergo attenuation towards the south-east. The following comparison had been arrived at from carefully mea- sured sections :— Comparative Sections. Gloucestershire. Oxfordshire. Maximum thickness. Minimum thickness. feet. feet. Fuller’s Earth ...... ae 40 0 Inferior Oolite ........ . 264 5 Sands... 20-50 0 Upper Lias Shale ... 380 6 Marlstone ..:...3.05.06-. 250 25 Wowerdviasie ccs scree --- 600 (nearly) g The author considers it probable that under Oxford the Great Oolite is separated * As this ore extends under the property of the Duke of Marlborough, theauthor has named it the “ Blenheim iron-ore;” and for fuller details refers to his memoir, ‘‘The Geo- logy of the Country round Woodstock,” Mem. Geol. Survey, 1857. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83 from the Lower Lias by not more than 25 feet of strata, of which the Marlstone forms the greater part. Notes on some Points in Chemical G'eology. By T. Sterry Hunt, F.L.S., of the Geological Survey of Canada. Dolomites and Gypsum.—Mr. Sterry Hunt has shown, from the mode in whick dolo- mites occur and from the phenomena presented by their associated fossils, that these magnesian rocks cannot have been formed by the alteration of pure limestones, so that the theories of Von Buch and Haidinger, proposed to explain their formation, are really in nowise applicable. He has further shown, that in the famous experiment suggested by Haidinger and performed by Von Morlot, who asserted that by the action of sulphate of magnesia, in presence of water in an excess of carbonate of lime, at 200° C. under pressure, there is formed sulphate of lime and a double carbonate of lime and magnesia, the fact has been overlooked that in reality no double carbonate is obtained, but only a mixture of anhydrous carbonate of magnesia with carbonate of lime, and consequently not a dolomite, which is a chemical compound of the two. In Marignac’s modification of Von Morlot’s experiment, where the chloride is sub- stituted for the sulphate of magnesia, Mr. Hunt finds that a variable portion of this double carbonate is really formed, and remains mingled with the excess of carbonate of lime and anhydrous carbonate of magnesia, which is also a result of the reaction as before. Charles Deville’s late experiments, in which fragments of limestone were im- pregnated with magnesian solutions, and heated at the ordinary pressure, with forma- tion of soluble lime-salts and magnesian carbonate, are but imperfect repetitions of Von Morlot’s and Marignac’s processes, and none of these are applicable to the great majority of cases in which pure and magnesian limestones are associated in such ways as to show that they have been successively deposited from water, the latter sometimes enclosing pebbles and fossils of pure carbonate of lime. Mr. Hunt proceeds to show that, when mixtures of amorphous hydrated carbonate of magnesia with carbonate of lime are heated under pressure to a temperature of 300° to 400° F., direct combination ensues, and dolomite is formed; and he gives reasons for supposing that this combination may take place slowly at much lower temperatures. It was, however, necessary to find a source for the magnesian carbonate which had formed these magnesian sediments, and here Mr. Hunt has signalized a remarkable and hitherto undescribed reaction, by which carbonate of lime decomposes sulphate of magnesia, not with the aid of heat and pressure as in Von Morlot’s experiment, but at the ordinary temperature. When a solution of bicarbonate of lime is mingled with a liquid containing sulphate of magnesia, a double decomposition takes place, and by evaporation at temperatures between 90° and 180° F., the lime is deposited in the form of gypsum, a very soluble bicarbonate of magnesia remaining dissolved, which is precipitated by further evaporation, If we conceive the carbonate of lime to be furnished by springs falling into a closed lake or basin, the carbonate of magnesia would be precipitated in a state of mixture with carbonate of lime, thus giving the elements of the dolomite which is always associated with stratified gypsum. Mr. Hunt has further shown that, by the action of waters containing alkaline carbo- nates upon sea-water, the lime is first precipitated, and at length there is formed a solution of bicarbonate of magnesia. To this agency he ascribes the vast deposits of magnesian rocks which exist independent of gypsum, and which sometimes contain ‘an excess of carbonate of magnesia over that required to form dolomites, or lime being absent, are magnesites, The part which carbonate of soda has played in giving rise to carbonates of lime and magnesia must, according to Mr. Hunt, have been very important in former periods, The source of this has been the decomposition of felspar, which, in being reduced to ‘clays, have lost the whole or a part of their soda in the form of silicate, which, converted into carbonate by the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, is now represented by the sea~ ‘salt of the ocean and the carbonates of lime and magnesia of the rocky strata. Clays ‘and argillites are unknown in the vast thickness of crystalline rocks which constitute in Canada the Laurentian system, lying beneath the Lower Silurian series. In these oldest rocks, the alumina exists in the form of felspar, in great part with a base of ‘soda; but in the Silurian rocks, when altered, aluminous silicates abound, such as 6* 84 REPORT—1860. chlorite, epidote, and alumina-garnet, and in those strata where lime and magnesia are absent, chloritoid Andalusite, staurotide, and kyanite. These minerals, which are only formed in aluminous sediments that have lost their alkalies, become more and more abundant on the newer strata. ‘The consideration of the composition of mineral springs, as Mr. Hunt has remarked, shows that the solvent action of water removes from sediments chiefly soda, lime, and magnesia, and with the concurrence of organic matter, oxide of iron, so that the more permeable strata, and generally more siliceous, retain scarcely any other bases than alumina and potash; the argillaceous and less permeable beds, on the contrary, retain the whole of their bases. ‘The operation of processes continually going on in nature therefore tends to divide the silico-argillaceous rocks into two classes, whose meta- morphism and displacement will give rise, on the one hand, to granites and trachytes, and on the other, to rocks made up of basic felspar and pyroxenes. : The author regards all the so-called igneous rocks as altered and translated sedi- ments, and distinguishes them by the name of exotic rocks, from the same sediments altered in situ, which may be called indigenous plutonic rocks. He insists upon the fact that the chemical composition and, for the most part, the lithological characters of all the varieties of intrusive rocks may be found represented in metamorphosed sedi- ments. Mr. Hunt has called attention to the fact, that as long ago as 1834 Keferstein advanced the opinion that all plutonic rocks are only altered sediments, and thus anticipated in part Sir John Herschel’s theory of earthquakes and volcanic pheno- mena, to which Mr. Hunt has given a wider extension, connecting it with Mr. Bab- bage’s speculations on the result of the rising of the isothermal lines in the earth’s crust, consequent upon the accumulation of sediments. ‘The first result of this heat would, as Mr. Babbage has shown, produce expansion and elevation ; but when meta- morphism takes place, the contraction attendant upon the conversion of the sediments into the denser silicates, such as chloritoid pyroxene, garnet, epidote staurotide, and chiastolite, must produce an effect directly opposite. In this way Mr. Hunt conceives that while the earth’s nucleus may be a solid, although incandescent mass of anhydrous silicates, we may suppose that the inferior strata, which are undergoing metamorphism and igneo-aqueous fusion, agreeable to the views of Poulett Scrope, Herschel, Scheerer, and Sorby, are contracting in such a manner, that we may possibly admit with Elie de Beaumont a shrinking of the fluid mass beneath, which will explain the great plica- tions of the earth’s crust, and thus reconcile this theory with the view of a solid nucleus. At the same time he is inclined to refer the great movements of elevation and subsidence, for the most part, to what Herschel has described as “ the disturbance of the equilibrium of pressure” consequent upon the transfer of sediments, while the yielding mass reposes upon a mass of matter partly solid and partly liquid. These views will be found in the ‘ Reports of the Geological Survey of Canada for 1857 and 1858,’ where the experiments upon gypsum and magnesian rocks are given in detail. Also in a memoir published in the ‘Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society’ for Nov. 1859. On the Igneous Rocks interstratified with the Carboniferous Limestones of the Basin of Limerick. By J. Beetz Juxes, M.A., F.RS. The author called attention to some of the lately published sheets of the ‘ Geological Survey of Ireland,’ including this district, and stated that the ground had been sur- veyed by Messrs. Kinahan, Foot, O’Nelly, and Wynne. He gave a brief sketch of the physical structure of the country around Limerick, and then proceeded to describe its igneous rocks. These are of two kinds, trap and trappean ash. The trap varies greatly in texture and aspect, more perhaps than in mineral composition, ‘The trappean ash (or tuff) is the result of the mechanical ero- sion of the igneous rock, either during the time of its eruption or immediately after, and before it was buried under other aqueous rocks, It consists of grains or frag- ments of trappean material, varying from the finest powder to a coarse conglomerate, with blocks several inches in diameter, and often contains large and small fragments of limestone, and sometimes of other matters. It is perfectly stratified, lying in regular beds, interstratified both with the limestone TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 85 and with the trap, and blends, almost insensibly, sometimes into one, and sometimes into the other rock. In the centre of the district, about Ballybrood, is a small hill of the lower coal-mea- sure shales, resting upon the upper limestone on one side, and on trap on the other. This trap attains a thickness of 800 or 1000 feet, and is chiefly contemporaneous bedded trap, but has some intrusive parts, which cut like dykes into the coal-measures. It rests on a bed of ash, and at its eastern end, at Nicker Hill, near Pallas, the most curious and complicated interstratifications of limestone, ash, and trap may be distinctly ob- served. Beneath this upper trap comes a regular band of upper limestone, 600 or 800 feet thick, surrounding the trap and coal-measures on all sides, and forming an oval basin. From underneath this another great belt of trap and ash crops out, forming a cor~ responding outer basin, the dimensions of which are about 12 miles from E. to W., and 6 miles from N. to S. The lower limestone rises from underneath this, and undulates for some miles over the adjacent country. Towards the N.W. some of these undulations are sufficiently great to bring the upper limestone in again, underneath the present surface of the ground, and with that large parts of the lower trap and ash. ‘here are thus formed three considerable detached outlying basins of trap and ash, one round Cahernarry and Roxborough, another about the eastern side of the city of Limerick, and a third round Carrigagunnil. ‘There are also one or two small exhibitions of similar rocks towards the north, apparently on a rather lower horizon. The above igneous rocks are all bedded and interstratified with the limestones, except in a few places, where they seem rather to occur as small intrusive dykes, cutting through the other traps as well as the aqueous rocks. In many places the bedded traps become quite vesicular and scoriaceous, the vesi- cles being often filled with carbonate of lime and other minerals, and thus forming an amygdaloid. In some places these vesicular parts occur as irregular bands intermediate between bands of solid, compact, or even crystalline trap, precisely resembling the figures given by Sir C, Lyell of the junctions of different flows of lava on Mount Etna. There are, however, six other detached masses of igneous rock, five on the south and one on the north of the basin above spoken of, which are clearly intrusive masses rising up through the limestone, and not now connected with any overlying contem- poraneous sheets of trap. It is probable that these mark the sites of the volcanic foci or funnels, through which some of’ the sheets of trap flowed to the then surface, such sheets, with the upper limestone including them, having been long ago removed by denudation. It is also probable that similar small detached foci or funnels lie still concealed beneath the areas occupied by the contemporaneous traps and ashes. One of these detached masses, called Knock Dirk (not the hill which is called merely Dirk), is a true syenite, having crystalline particles of quartz mingled with felspar and hornblende. It is difficult to give any precise name to the rock comprising the other masses. Some of the traps, both intrusive and contemporaneous, would be commonly called felspar porphyry, others gréenstone, and others basalt. When the felspar porphyry loses its distinct crystals of felpar, it might perhaps be called felstone. Felstone, however, as understood by the author, means a rock composed of a trisilicated fel- spar, mingled with an overplus of silica in a state of paste; and it seems diflicult to suppose that silicated rocks proceeding in a molten condition through and over sucha basic substance as the carboniferous limestone, should still contain any uncombined silica, except in the heart of a large mass like Knock Dirk. It would seem, therefore, advisable to apply some other name, such as aphanite, for instance, to the compact felspathic rocks above spoken of. In the absence of precise chemical analysis, which the author regretted that he had been unable hitherto to procure, it had seemed better to speak of all the igneous rocks collectively under the vague but sufficiently intelligible designation of trap. Mr. Jukes also stated, that he was much struck with the very great resemblance between these trappean ashes and some of the traps, and those which he recollected to have observed in the volcanic islands in Torres Straits, where small detached yol- canoes have broken through the coral reefs, and formed rudely conical accumulations of stratified ashes containing lumps of coral limestone together with flows of horn-. 86 REPORT—1860. blendic lava. It is probable that beneath the sea-level sheets of such lava and vol- canic ash lie interstratified with the coral limestone. Certainly, if Torres Straits were depressed, and these islands exposed to the breakers, horizontal beds of the ash and voleanic conglomerates would be derived from them, and spread over the surface of the coral reefs. On the Tynedale Coal-field and the Whin-sill of Cumberland and Northumber- land. By J. A. Knipe. The author points out the interesting fact of the true Newcastle coal being worked, and that most successfully, at a distance of about 40 miles west of the Great Northum- berland and Durham coal-fields at the locality named. The history of this and an ad- joining coal-field, called the Stublick, are both similar, viz. the stvata are thrown down many hundred feet by the prolongation of the 90 Fathom Fault, which is well known and may be well observed on the Northumberland coast at Cullercotes. The principal shaft sunk on this outlying coal-field, on the line of railway from Haltwhistle to Ald- stone Moor, is named the “ King Pit,’’ Midgeholm Colliery. The depth of the shaft is 506 feet 6 inches; there are five workable seams of coal, the aggregate thickness of which is 23 feet. The Great Whin-sill, or interstratified trap, may be traced, more or less, for many score miles in the counties of Cumberland and Northumberland, to its termination on the coast of the German Ocean, at Dunstanburgh Castle. At Wall Town, situated on the old Roman Road, north by west from Haltwhistle, a town and station on the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway, about 23 miles, the Whin-sill assumes a very bold bluff appearance, after emerging from the superincumbent limestone rock. In places it has a columnar structure, but has now much of its mural appearance changed by trees growing amongst the ruin and debris of the rocky structure; on the summit there is still a very perfect portion left of the Roman wall. ‘The author described the section through the limestone grit shales, ironstone, and Blenkinsop Mines to the King Pit and Tynedale Fault. On the Eruption in May 1860, of the Kotliigjé Volcano in Iceland. By W. Lauper Linpsay, I.D., P.LS. It may interest the Geological Section of the British Association to be informed that an eruption has recently occurred of the Kétltigj4 voleano, Iceland, from a visit to which island I have just returned, Had time permitted (which it does not) I in- tended to have drawn up for the British Association a brief account of the chief phe- nomena of the eruption in question, accompanied by drawings made on the 13th June inst., and a map of the district, and preceded by a summary of the preceding erup- tions of the same volcano, which are fourteen in number. I hope at greater leisure to prepare such a notice for some of the journals, Meanwhile I may concisely state that the volcdno in question is situated in the south of Iceland, about twenty miles from the coast, near, but considerably to the east of, the well-known Hekla, which has been quiescent since 1846. Kotltigj4 is part of a range, fifteen to twenty miles long, of glacier-covered mountains or “ Jokuls,” which include Eyafjalla, Myrdals and Godalands Jékuls; the average elevation above the sea being between 4000 and 5000 feet. The eruption began on the 8th of May last; it was preceded by earthquakes of a local character; the first indication of its advent being a dark cloud hovering over the summit of the mountain. The usual chief ejecta of K6tligj4, when in a state of eruption, are hot water, pumice, and ashes. On the occasion of the last, or fifteenth eruption, in May last, the most noteworthy pheno- menon was the enormous water-flocd sent forth, a flood which bore with it pieces of ice so large that they were stranded in the sea (twenty miles distant) at a depth of 20 fathoms. ‘The flames which issued from the crater were on the 12th of May visible in Reykjavik, the capital of Iceland, which is at least eighty miles distant; and on the 16th smoke rose to the height of 24,000 feet, this column of smoke being also visible in Reykjavik. I left Scotland for Iceland on the 8th of June inst., expecting to find K6tliigja still giving forth its fire and pouring out its floods of water. On the 13th we sailed close to the south coast of Iceland from Portland’s Hak westward, the wea- ther being beautiful and our view of Myrdals-Jokul and the neighbouring Jékuls ex- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87 cellent: but all was quiet; not a vestige of smoke even was to be seen. Touching at the Westmanna Islands, we were informed that the Kétltigj4 eruption had ceased a few days previously, having done comparatively little mischief to the farms in its vicinity. [Derails of the eruptions above referred to, as well as an account of the Geology and Topography of K6tltigja, will be found in a paper by the author “On the Erup- tion in May 1860, of the Kotltigj4 Volcano, Iceland ”—accompanied with a Map “illustrative of the Physical Geography of that part of the South of Iceland in which Kotliigj4 is situated "—in the ‘ Ndinburgh New Philosophical Journal’ for January 1861, p. 6, and pl. 2; and also in his “ Contributions to the Natural History of Vol- canic Phenomena and Products in Iceland” in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh’ for 17th December 1860.]—June 1860. On some Reptilian Foot-prints from the New Red Sandstone, north of Wolverhampton. By the Rev. W. Lister. The object of this paper is simply to announce the discovery, in a fresh locality, of foot-prints of the Labyrinthodon, Rhynchosaurus, and of another animal, or animals, with which I am not acquainted. Hitherto, I believe, the remains of the Laby- rinthodon have only been found in Warwickshire, and the north of Cheshire and its neighbourhood ; and the Rhynchosaurus in the Grinsel quarry near Shrewsbury*. The foot-prints now discovered have been met with in Staffordshire, in a quarry of the New Red Sandstone, on the very borders of the Red Marl, at a place about six miles north of Wolverhampton, in the parish of Brewood, on the road between “The Stone House”’ and Somerford. “‘The Stone House,” which is given on the Ordnance Map, is near to Chillington Avenue Gates, and within 200 yards of the quarry. The bed in which the foot-prints occur is about 12 feet from the surface. One of the slabs was so thickly covered with impressions, resembling those of the Rhynchosaurus, as to make one feel that the animals which made them must have been very numerous on the spot. These were smaller than most of the others, and I have a strong im- pression that they were those of young animals, they were so uniform in size and form. But unfortunately, the slab, whick was from 5 to 6 feet long by from 3 to 4 broad, was removed before I had an opportunity of re-examining it. The ripple-mark is very beautifully preserved on some of the slabs, and so is also the rain-drops; while in many cases the amount of sand deposited by each tide is readily discovered by the thickness of its layers, which lie one on the other, and which, by means of the ripple-mark, show also the direction in which the water flowed, or the wind blew, at the time they were deposited. The deposits of two, three, and, in some cases, of even four tides are easily seen. Some of the foot-prints of the Labyrinthodon are 10 inches in length; those of the Rhynchosaurus are from 1 to 2 inches. On the Koh-i-Noor previous to its Cutting. By the Rev. W. Mircuett and Prof. Tennant, F.G.S. On the Contents of Three Square Yards of Triassic Drift. By C. Moors, F.G.S. The author stated that several years ago he suspected the presence of triassic rocks in the neighbourhood of Frome, from accidentally finding a single block of stone on a roadside heap of carboniferous limestone, containing fish remains of the former age; but that for a long time he was unable to discover it in situ. More recently, when examining some carboniferous limestone quarries near the above town, he observed certain fissures which had subsequently been filled up by a drift of a later age. One of these was about a foot in breadth at the top, but increased to 15 feet in breadth at the base of the quarry, 30 feet below, at which point teeth and bones of triassic reptiles * After the reading of the paper, it was stated by Mr. Hull of the Government Survey, that impressions of the Labyrinthodon have been discovered in two or three other fresh localities, but they haye not, as I understand, been published.—W. L. ; 88 REPORT—1860. and fishes were found. Usually these infillings consisted of a material as dense as the limestone itself, and from which any organic remains could only be extracted with difficulty. In another part of the section he was fortunate enough to find a de- posit consisting of a coarse friable sand, containing similar remains, In order that this might receive a more careful examination than could be given to it ou the spot, the whole of it, consisting of about 3 tons weight, was carted away to the residence of the author, at Bath, a distance of twenty miles; all of which had passed under his observation, with the following results:—The fish remains, which were the most abundant, were first noticed. Some idea might be formed of their numbers when he stated that of the genus dcrodus alone, including two species, he had extracted 45,000 teeth from the three square yards of earth under notice, and that they were even more numerous than these numbers indicated, since he rejected all but the most perfect examples. Teeth of the Saurichthys of several species were also abundant ; and, next to them, teeth of the Hybodus, with occasional spines of the latter genus. Seales of Gyrolepis and Lepidotus were also numerous, and teeth showing the pre- sence of several other genera of fishes. With the above were found a number of curious bodies, each of which was surmounted by a depressed, enamelled, thorn-like spine or tooth, in some cases with points as sharp as that of a coarse needle; these the author supposed to be spinous scales, belonging to several new species of fish, allied to the Squaloraia, and that to the same genus were to be referred a number of hair-like spines, with flattened fluted sides, found in the same deposit. There were also present specimens, hitherto supposed to be teeth, and for which Agassiz had created the genus Ctenoptychius, but which he was rather disposed to consider (like those previously referred to) to be the outer scales of a fish allied to the Squa- loraia. It was remarked that, as the drift must have been transported from some di- stance, delicate organisms could scarcely have been expected; but, notwithstanding, it contained some most minute fish-jaws and palates, of which the author had, either perfect or otherwise, 130 examples. These were froin a quarter to the eighth of an inch in length, and within this small compass he possessed specimens with from thirty to forty teeth; and in one palate he had succeeded in reckoning as many as seventy- four teeth in position; and there were spaces where sixteen more had disappeared, so that in this tiny specimen there were ninety tecth! Of the order Reptilia there were probably eight or nine genera, consisting of detached teeth, scutes, vertebra, ribs, and articulated bones. Amongst these he had found the flat crushing teeth of the Placodus ; a discovery of interest, for hitherto this reptile had only been found in the muschelkalk of Germany,—a zone of rocks hitherto wanting in this country, but which, in its Fauna, was represented by the above reptile. But by far the most important remains in the deposit were indications of the existence of triassic mam- malia. Two little teeth of the Microlestes had, some years before, been found in Germany, and were the only traces of this high order in beds older than the Stonesfield slate. The author’s minute researches had brought to light fifteen molar teeth, either identical with, or allied to, the AZicrolestes, and also five incisor teeth, evidently be- longing to more than one species. A very small double-fanged tooth, not unlike the oolitic Spalacotherium, proved the presence of another genus and a fragment of a tooth, consisting of a single fang, with a small portion of the crown attached, a third genus, larger in size than the AZicrolestes. Three vertebrae, belonging to an animal smaller than any existing mammal, had also been found. The author inferred that if twenty-five teeth and vertebrae, belonging to three or four genera of Mammalia, were to be found within the space occupied by three square yards of earth, that por- tion of the globe which was then dry land, and from whence the material was in part derived, was probably inhabited at this early period of its history by many genera of Mammalia, znd would serve to encourage a hope that this family might yet be found in beds of cven a more remote age. Remarks on Fossil Fish from the North Staffordshire Coal Fields. By Witt1am Mouynevx. The author of this paper stated that little more than two years ago the fossil fish of the coal-field in question comprised, so far as was then known, a list of eight genera only, and those of a kind most commonly found in other home-representatives of the system. J.ast year, at Aberdeen, he had the honour, in connexion with Mr. Garner, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 89 of exhibiting before this Section a collection of such remains, the generic number of which amounted to upwards of twenty, including some new to science, and others of a rare and interesting order. On the present occasion his principal object was to draw attention to some specimens obtained since the period alluded to. One of these, Ctenacan/hus hybodoides (Egerton), was in a perfect state of preservation. Another specimen was a lower jaw of Rhizodus, whose long powerful teeth, arranged in pairs, resembled in their curved points R. incurvus of the Ohio coal-field; but as there appeared to be doubts of its specific identity, probably it would prove to be a new species. There was also a fragment of a massive jaw of the same genus which presented features of much interest to the ichthyologist. Of the smaller ganoids exhibited, one represented a new genus, obtained from the deep mine ironstone shale at Longton, at the pit where ironstone was first worked for the purpose of manufacture in North Staffordshire. The specimen measured four inches in length, but was scarcely one inch in its greatest depth immediately behind the head ; the form being tapering and elegant. ‘The dorsal fin was placed but half an inch before the bifurcating point of the caudal, and slightly in advance of the anal fin, the rays being strong and articulated. The scales were rhomboidal in form, and profusely ornamented with raised lines, which assumed the character of a series of Gothic arches ranging from the centre of the scale. Some undescribed spe- cimens of Paloniscus, with many large teeth of Placoid fish, were also exhibited. __ The coal-field in question was found to be particularly rich in fish-remains ; and although little more than two years had been actively devoted to the subject, the generic list had during that time increased from eight to thirty-three in number, and the author felt sanguine that it would ultimately prove quite as rich in species as the Old Red of Scotland. These remains, it was stated, occur very irregularly ; some beds of ironstone in the upper division of the measures contain considerably more than others, but it was only in one instance, that of the new mine, that they were found forming a stratum from one to three inches in thickness. Though anything like perfect specimens were comparatively rare, the fine compact shales of the knowls and deep mine ironstones had lately produced some well-preserved specimens of Palzoniscus and Platysoma, Notice of a Fossiliferous Deposit near Farnell, in Forfarshire, N. B. By J.Pownrts. (Communicated by Sir R. Murcuison.) This deposit, which is situated on the south-east bank of the Pow Burn, about half a mile south-west of the Farnell Station of the Scottish North-Eastern Railway, mostly consists of fine greyish argillaceous shales, the lower portion splitting into laminz nearly as thin as writing-paper, and when first opened of a delicate cream- colour; the upper beds are thicker, and vary from a cream-colour to dark grey: in many places these are considerably stained by the infiltration of iron in solution. The dip is, at an angle of about 12°, in a nearly north-west direction, the strike thus following that of the Great Anticline which runs through Forfarshire, a little to the south-east, in a direction of from north-east to south-west nearly. This deposit rests conformably on a thick-bedded coarse dark red sandstone, and varying from 4 to 6 or 7 feet in thickness, is overlaid by coarse broken shales, above which is a considerable thickness of boulder clay and soil. Both from its position and peculiar organic remains, it can at once be recognized as occupying the same position in the Forfarshire formations as the Turin Hill and Carmyllie flagstones. Cropping out on the banks of a small stream, it was first noticed as affording indications of being fossiliferous by the Rev. Henry Brewster of Farnell, and pointed out by him as such to the Rev. Hugh Mitchell, who first discovered that, besides Parca decipiens and remains of Pteryyoli, &c., it contained small fishes in astate of wonderful preserva- tion; these being, with the exception of Cephalaspis and afew veryimperfect ichthyolites, the first fishes found in the Forfarshire sandstones: a paper was read, and a selection of these exhibited by Mr. Mitchell at the Meeting of the British Association held at Aberdeen last August (1859). Indisposition has prevented him continuing to aid in these explorations. The Earl of Southesk, on whose estates this deposit is situated, has lately most liberally opened up this deposit, and placed the examination of its contents under the 90 REPORT—1860. superintendence of Mr. Brewster and myself: already a considerable portion has been carefully looked over, and has yielded to our researches some most interesting remains: these lie scattered through the whole deposit, but in the upper and coarser beds are for the most part both badly preserved and very fragmentary; in the lower fissile portions they are more perfect, and the state of preservation is generally very fine: no painting could equal the beautiful appearance some of the smaller fishes exhibit when the little slab in which they have been entombed is first opened up, and still damp. From the fragile nature of the matrix, great care is required in splitting it up; and in afterwards fitting up the specimens for preservation they are exceedingly apt to be destroyed. The Parca decipiens is the most abundant organism found; finely sculptured frag- ments of Plerygotus Anglicus and other Pterygoti are by no means uncommon ; and one or two varieties of as yet unnamed Eurypteride have been found, and are now in the collections of Mr. Brewster and Mr. Mitchell. But by far the most interesting feature of this deposit is the comparative abundance of small-sized fishes not found elsewhere in Forfarshire ; although Cephalaspis is frequently found in other localities along with Plerygotus, as yet not a fragment of this fish has been disinterred. All the fishes I have as yet examined, in a state of preservation sufficient for identification, belong to the family Acanthodii, and, in so far as I am able to ascertain, to the genera Acanthodes and Diplacanthus. Of the latter genus (Diplacanthus), two, if not more, very distinct species have, up to this time, been found; unfortunately these are very rarely entire, the deposit being a good deal fractured and faulted; although the largest of the Diplacanthus yet found does not seem to have been over 6 inches in length, only one nearly complete fish of that genus has as yet turned up; the other specimens show merely portions of the body, tail, &c. Of Acanthodes, the fishes, being small, are generally much more entire: of this genus I can only discern one species, and this, although provisionally named at the Aberdeen Meeting ‘ Acanthodes antiquus,” in no way differs, in so far as I can see, from the specimens of Acanthodes pusillus I have been able to procure for comparison (these, however, have all been very imperfect), further than the condition of the sediment in which they had been laid down, and similar natural causes might readily explain. : Although by no means prepared to assert the positive specific identity of the Far- nell fishes with those of the same genera found in Cromarty, Morayshire, &c., yet their general resemblance to these fishes found in our more northern deposits, in- my opinion, strongly points to the probability of our Forfarshire flagstones belonging to an epoch more nearly approximating in geological time to the fish-beds of the northern counties than has as yet been generally thought likely. Besides these, some very imperfect remains of fishes, evidently belonging to other families, have been found; it is to be hoped that further explorations may throw some additional light on the nature of these fragments (see p. 78). Sir R. I. Murcutson exhibited the New Geological Map of the Vicinity of Oxford. On the Geology of the Vicinity of Oxford. By Professor Puriuies, M.A., F.RS. On some New Facts in relation to the Section of the Cliff at Mundesley, Norfolk. By Josery Prestwicu, F.R.S. Se. The object of the author was to correct an opinion which prevailed regarding the superposition of the freshwater depusit at Mundesley. In the interesting sections of the Norfolk coast, given by Sir C. Lyell in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine ’ for May 1840, the freshwater beds of Mundesley are represented as intercalated in the Boulder Clay. The wearing away of the cliff since that period has exposed a clearer section, from which it appears to the author that there is no intercalation of the beds; but that the freshwater beds overlie the Boulder Clay, and that they are newer than any portion of the cliff except a bed of the gravel which passes over them. They lie in a hollow worn through the upper beds and the Boulder Clay down to the sands beneath, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91 and they are clearly separated from all these older beds by another and underlying bed of gravel. The author further noticed that the lower sands and gravels under the Boulder clay contained a layer of marine shells in a perfect state of preservation, consisting of Mytilus edulis (some with Balani attached) and Littorina littoralis, and traces of others. Again, below this is a seam of dark clay containing freshwater shells, chiefly the Pisidium amnicum, and a Unio, while a short distance lower is the well-known Forest bed with its elephant and other mammalian remains. He concludes by call- ing attention to the Mundesley deposit as being probably synchronous with the flint- implement bearing deposit of Hoxne. On Slickensides. By J. Price, On the Chronological and Geographical Distribution of the Devonian Fos- sils of Devon and Cornwall. By WiiLiaM PENGELLY, F.G.S. The limestones, slates, and associated sandstones of North and South Devon and Cornwall have, as is well known, caused much perplexity as to their real place in the chronological series of the geologist. Thanks, however, to the labours of Professor Sedgwick, Sir R. I. Murchison, Mr. Lonsdale and others, the problem is now gene- rally admitted to be solved; the rocks in question are the equivalents of the Old Red Sandstones of Scotland and elsewhere ; they belong to what is known as the Devonian age of the world. Some little difficulty, however, exists—or rather once existed—in the way of the full and unqualified acceptance of this decision. The rocks of Devonshire are crowded with the remains of invertebrate animals, especially sponges, corals, and shells; whilst the supposed contemporary deposits of Scotland and the adjacent isles are so rich in fossil fish, that, in the language of the late Hugh Miller, ‘‘ Orkney, were the trade once opened up, could supply with ichthyolites, by the ton and the shipload, the museums of the world*;” but the fossils characteristic of either of these districts are not found in the other. Scotland does not yield the mollusks and zoophytes of Devonshire, nor is there recorded in the Jatter district more than the faintest trace of the ichthyolitic wealth of the North. Though this fact may still have difficulties connected with it, they have ceased to be chronological; for Sir R. I. Murchison tells us that ‘‘ The same fossil fishes, of species well known in the middle and upper portions of the Old Red of Scotland, and which in large tracts of Russia lie alone in sandstone, are in many other places found intermixed, in the same bed, with those shells that characterize the group in its slaty and calcareous form in Devonshire, the Rhenish country, and the Bouionnais,” ‘‘ The fact of this intermixture completely puts an end to all dispute respecting the identifi- cation of the central and upper masses of the Old Red of Scotland with the calcareous deposits of Devonshire and the Eifel+.” Professor Sedgwick has proposed the following threefold division of the Devonian rocks of Devon and Cornwall :— «The first and oldest of these groups may be conveniently called the Plymouth group, using these words in an extended sense, so as to include all the limestones of South Devon and the red sandstones superior to the Plymouth limestones. The equivalent to this group in North Devon includes, I think, the Ilfracombe and Linton limestones as well as the red sandstones of the north coast. i «The second group includes the slates expanded from Dartmouth to the metamor- phic group of Start Point and Bolt Head, and is, so far as I know, without fossils: it may be called the Dartmouth group, and its equivalent in North Devon is found in the slates of Morte Bay, which end with beds of purple and greenish sand-rock and coarse greywacke. It ranges nearly east and west across the county. : “The third group is not, I think, found in South Devon; but in North Devon it is well-defined, commencing on a base-line of sandstone beds which range nearly east and west from Baggy Point (on the western coast) to Marwood (which is a few miles north of Barnstaple), and thence towards the eastern side of the county. This group * Footprints of the Creator, p. 2. T Siluria, Third Edition, p. 382. 92 REPORT—1860. is continued in ascending order to the slates on the north shore of Barnstaple Bay ; but its very highest beds are seen on the south shore of the bay, dipping under the base of the culm-measures. “The equivalent of this third and highest Devonian group is found to the south of the great culm-trough in a group, near the top of which appear the limestone bands and fossiliferous slates of Petherwin. It may be called the Barnstaple or Petherwin roup*.” : Ponfesser Sedgwick recognizes the Plymouth group in the slates of Looe, Polperro, and Fowey in Cornwall f. Accepting, at least provisionally, these divisions, we have, when considered chro- nologically as well as geographically, what, as a matter of convenience, may be called five fossiliferous areas; namely, a deposit of the age of the Plymouth group in each of the districts, South Devon, North Devon, and Cornwall; and one of the Barnstaple age in each of the two latter. To avoid undesirable repetition, they will be spoken of throughout this paper as Lower South Devon, Lower North Devon, Lower Cornwall, Upper North Devon, and Upper Cornwall. ‘The terms ‘‘ Lower’’ and “‘ Upper”’ are to be understood as applied relatively only to the rocks of Devon and Cornwall, and not as embodying or implying any opinion respecting the co-ordination of these rocks with deposits of the Devonian age elsewhere. Had existing materials warranted it, it would have been desirable to have made a farther division, namely, one having reference to the mineral character of the depo- sits, as well as to time and place; for it is certain, as might have been expected, that, in the same area, some fossils are peculiar to the argillaceous beds, and others are found only in the calcareous strata; thus, for example, I learn from Mr. Godwin- Austen that he has found the remarkable coral Pleurodictyum problematicum in the slates, but not in the limestones, at Ogwell in South Devon. My own experience is in harmony with this; the same fossil occurs in the slates at Torquay and, in great abundance, at and near Looe in Cornwall; but not in limestone anywhere. At pre- sent, however, it would be premature to attempt a division of this kind. The object contemplated in the present paper is to give some account of the ancient population of the five areas, especially with reference to their distribution, so far as it was known when the Census was last taken. Amongst the things which have recently drawn my attention to this subject may be mentioned the following passage in the address of Professor Phillips as President of the Geological! Society of London. ‘‘ Only a small proportion of the fossils of North Devon occur in South Devonf.” And also the following statement by Professor Haughton:—“I do not believe in the lapse of a long interval of time between the Silurian and Carboniferous deposits, in fact in a Devonian period. «« The same blending of corals bas been found in Ireland, the Bas Boulonnais, and in Devonshire, where Silurian and Carboniferous forms are of common occurrence in the same localities §.” It should be remembered that the statement with which we have here to deal is that the ‘blending of corals” (the word is not fossils) “of Silurian and Carboniferous forms is of common occurrence in Devonshire.” I have consulted such registers as I have been able to command, and have thrown so much of their contents as bear on the questions before us into the following tabular form, for which, of course, no higher value is claimed than attaches to the original documents. The materials have been in a great degree derived from Professor Morris’s ‘ Cata- logue of Fossils.’ Every geologist must, of course, be aware of the numerous and elaborate Tables which Professor Phillips has introduced in his ‘ Paleozoic Fossils of Devon and Cornwall,’ when discussing subjects akin to those at present under consideration. In the preparation of this paper the author has in no way made use of the valuable data these Tables contain. * Quarterly Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. viii. p. 3. t Ibid. p. 14. t Quarterly Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xvi. p. xl. § Voyage of the ‘ Fox’ in Arctic Seas, Appendix, No. IV. p. 387. 93 TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99 89 (pe) ae SS : 88 }8 1 t (Tt ,¢ , 19 |ezszetist oz Fre ola eee |og tesla belt egcle es Ui My 9 6 Jott || #¢ lle Pole reo pes g pital iee Stale Me rz | 1 T | 08 llogisalr |6 |-eg lz |t ot oferta dele flr |g te te I eee vee . eee I ro I (é; \ 6 eee Balu swwes| ess | xen Te line lee eealegy Sh eee wee tT TMS ee Le teeics Easier pt | cree |iomah oy olleeg cet ealaee he li 2] 2 | avpoyP my} ag | SSE Ey & | = |-my| = | -ng a z/9} 2) 2 | 22 B.| 8 | "a ol lo} Pole Be: ; oo): g ale gv a|2 o 0} WOOD *s[e}O, Eh OGL |G TET |Zhe)26)6F ¥ \O19 , T T Gj wily [pep ares ectieates = ETE east le, Ena Las adele eat | eet eae alte © je /€ |" | °° Ir l¢ WZ lee |¢ 18s Se [Ese swe | aie Nate eee seth: peladetedalal of bailey cgeed tbs pe lena cat om wile bechaetlp clot sete eateales ie A bese baler Ce FIRS} eo Aleleidiale|s| BA) en) ca} cal | eal call ll O} zo DS SSS Sictsi jo} jos aciels|Shorls|e ZlalZiT 9) Zolz b} |o b} | 0} uomM0D 0} AvINOeg 8F |¢ I¢ LP IPLIG 6F |Z116 B0T/9T\Z | IT |Z |¢ |" IL |8 {Z crt 19 |€ 6F 02/9 6° IF Io nm) QQ) @ | e| 5 *s[eqoy, ‘ttiersaeree es esseneeeres epodoreydag Peer rece eeesastteeeeee eens epodo.szaysey “*"BAvVITOURAG [owe T et eereecce epodomorrg sreeeersessessee BOZOAIG Seer eee eeeewnseetetesesetess va0RqSNID tM e were e eet eeetttaes eee eyeUapoulyoq seasereeseeseeeecrsrrseees pahtdooy, eeecucce vozoydiowy wee tte wee tees tt eeee *[PMULOD pue OAT Jo s[issoq uvtuoAac oy} Jo ‘aovdg pue oulry, ur ‘uorNqIYysIC] aynposgy ay} Surmoyg “[ a71aVyJ, We learn from the three left-hand columns of figures headed “Totals” in the 94 REPORT—1860. Table, that, taken together, the five areas have yielded 347 species of fossils belong- ing to 97 genera and 49 families, of 9 classes of animals; namely, three classes of the subkingdom Radiata, one of Articulata, and five of Mollusca; hence 15 of the 24 classes into which the existing animal kingdom is commonly divided are totally unrepresented in the series, as is the entire vegetable kingdom also. It is scarcely necessary to remark that the fossils of Devon and Cornwall do not fully represent the organisms of the Devonian age, as six other classes—Pisces, Pteropoda, Cirripedia, and Annelida amongst animals, and Cellulares and Monoco- tyledones amongst plants—have been found in rocks of this age elsewhere; and of these the last and first two have been met with in British localities. The most important class numerically is Brachiopoda, to which 108 species belong ; that is 31 per cent. of the entire series. The families and genera of Cephalopoda are richer in species than those of any other class, averaging 16 for each family and 10 for each genus. The most striking fact in this connexion, is the abundance of Brachiopoda and Cephalopoda, and the paucity of Lamellibranchiate and Gasteropod species, as com- pared with the numerical rank of the same classes in the existing British fauna; this will, perhaps, be most strikingly exhibited by the following Table :— Taste II. Devonian Mol- Existing lusca of Devon British _and Cornwall. Mollusca. BYYOZB4) (55, Gisscinee ieee bed 42 PE gies 72 Brachiopoda ......... pier NB iese th sis ag 15°5 Lamellibranchiata ...... 186 abs car 359°5 Gasteropoda......... Eat palidige a i ae 5215 Cephalopoda sig iiahsbacn? L828. SM Aeash ceed 315 1000 1000 which has been thus computed ; in the left-hand column the aggregate number of the species of fossil Mollusca found in Devon and Cornwall has been put=1000, and the numbers belonging to each class equated to this; the right-hand column has been formed on the same principle, and is based on the data given by Forbes and Hanley in their ‘ History of British Mollusca.’ It appears then that within existing British seas, the Lamellibranchiates are about twenty-four times more numerous, specifically, than the Brachiopods, whilst within what may be called the same area, the latter were to the former during the Devonian period somewhat more than as 2 to 1; that is, they were then 50 times more abun- dant than at present in comparison.with the other great class of Acephala. In like manner it is seen that, relatively to the Gasteropoda, the Cephalopoda were, in this early age of our planet, seventeen times more numerous than now. It may be added that, within the district under notice, the registered species of Devonian Brachiopoda and Cephalopoda absolutely, and in a high ratio, exceed those belonging to the same classes within existing British seas. The five columns of Table I. headed “ Peculiar to,” and distinguished from one another by the initials of the five areas, show the number of fossil species which, so far as England is concerned, are peculiar to each; from which it appears that 296 species are peculiar to one or other of them, leaving no more than 51 distributed amongst them. Lower South Devon monopolizes no fewer than 19] species in this way, whilst Lower North Devon is equally remarkable for its fossil poverty. Five areas, taken two, three, four, and five together, are capable of being formed into twenty-six different combinations. Not a single species is common to the five areas, and only one, Cyathophyllum celticum, is found in each of four of them. The well-known coral Favosites cervicornis is the only fossil found in each of the three contemporary deposits of Lower North and South Devon and Cornwall. Of two areas only, Upper North Devon and Upper Cornwall have the greatest number-— fourteen—in common.* _ * See in Table I. the ten columns headed “Common to,” and distinguished by combina- tions of initials of two or more areas. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95 It must be understood that any one of the ten columns just noticed shows, not the total number of species common to the areas the initials of which stand at its head, but simply the number at once common and restricted to them collectively; thus the second of these columns, headed L. S. D., L.C., shows that five species are common and restricted to Lower South Devon and Lower Cornwall; but in the third column we find one species common to them and also to Lower North Devon, in the fourth one common to them and to Upper North Devon, and in the eighth one found in each of them and also in Upper North Devon and Upper Cornwall; hence there are eight species common to the two areas instanced, five being restricted to them collectively and three not. The same explanation applies to the other areas. Hence the total number of species found in any area will be ascertained by adding the figures in all the columns marked ‘“ Peculiar to”’ and ‘Common to” at the head of which the initials of the area are found; thus, for example, a total of 47 species of Zoophyta occurs in Lower South Devon, of which 40 are not found elsewhere in Devon and Cornwall. Moreover, as the column marked “Species” shows that the two counties have yielded a total of 49 species belonging to this class, it is evident that two of this total number have not been met with in Lower South Devon. And so on for the other classes and areas, as is shown in the five columns headed “Totals” and distinguished by the initials of the areas. Of the 347 species, 67 are met with in various parts of Continental Europe, and 7 in North America; 6 of the latter being included in the European 67, and one of the 6 is also found in New South Wales; thus making a total of 68 common to Deyon and Cornwall and to districts beyond the British Isles*. Comparatively few of the Devonian fossils of the two counties appear to have been derived from the Silurian fauna ; eight species only are referable to that earlier period+. Amongst these are the three corals, Favosites fibrosa, Emmonsia hemispherica, and Chonophyllum perfoliatum. The first has been found in Lower Silurian rocks at Llandovery ; in the upper deposits of the same system in various parts of the typical Silurian country, in eight counties of Ireland, in Russia, and in three North American localities ; during the Devonian era it existed in several parts of Devonshire, in France, and in Germany. The second, Emmonsia hemispherica, dates its origin in Upper Silurian times, when it seems to have been confined to the area of modern North America, ranging from the State of Ohio to Tennessee; having outlived the Silurian period, it sent colonies to Spain and Britain and greatly extended its range in America. Chonophyllum perfoliatum differs from the two former in having always lived within narrow geographical limits; it occurs in Upper Silurian beds at Wenlock, and in Devonian in one quarry near Newton in Devonshire; but its appearance is not recorded elsewhere. The wide geographical range of the first two would seem to imply hardy plastic constitutions, fitting them for distant travel, and existence under varied circumstances; there is, therefore, nothing very surprising in their extended vertical range; it is, perhaps, worthy of remark, that the second seems to have disappeared at the very zenith of its widely extended power. The very limited distribution, in space, of the last of the trio would scarcely suggest the thought that such an organism would be likely to be capable of enduring physical and thermal changes such as, there are reasons for believing, considerable lapses of time have always introduced into any given area; changes probably similar to those which an organism would experience in passing to a distant locality in any one and the same period. On the other hand, the well-known fossil coral Favosites Goldfussi occurs in Devo- nian rocks in Devonshire, at Nehou and Visé in France, at Millar in Spain, in the Oural, in the States of Ohio and Kentucky in North America, and in New South Wales. It seems to have successfully struggled with the varying conditions of change of place, and might have been expected to be equally capable of contending with such as depend on lapses of time; nevertheless, the facts do not harmonise with such * See in Table I. the columns headed Eu. (Continental Europe), Eu. Am. (Europe and America), Am. (America), Eu. Am. Au. (Europe, America, and Australia). > + See in Table I. the column headed “ Silurian,” 96 REPORT— 1860. inferences ; Chonophyllum perfoliatum formed part of the Silurian and Devonian faunas, but was confined to the British area; Fuvosites Goldfussi was at home in every part of the world, yet it commenced and terminated its career within the De- vonian period. The rocks of Devon and Cornwall have 58 species of fossils in common with those of the Carboniferous group*, but no corals or sponges amongst them; so that it cannot be said that “there is a blending of Silurian and Carboniferous corals in Devonshire,” whatever there may be elsewhere; for though, as has been stated, three Silurian corals have been found, not one referable to the Carboniferous fauna has been exhumed there}. The species which thus passed from the Devonian into the Carboniferous period are found in the three principal fossiliferous deposits of Devon and Cornwall, as exhibited in the following Table :— Taste ITI. Totals. | L,S.D.| U.N.D.} U.C. iEehinodermatary, tie cieeis sis e poles 6 3 2 cv ee Cristaceain, hychieelisasde cite 1 1 see sae EVGzGWa sla agen eet gates tooo. 6 3 2 2 Brachiopudateeauiner sy creeks 24 15 9 7 Lamellibranchiata,..........08. 4 2 aoe 2 Gasteroportats isis cise eg nc 6 tei 10 6 3 3 Cephalopoda 3), Sivenca epic sees > ss 7 = 2 3 The populations of the three areas seem to have been thus composed :— South Devon :—6 Silurians+220 new species (7. e. Lower Devonian)=a total of 226, of which 34 passed into the Carboniferous. Barnstaple :—1 Silurian + 13 Lower Devonians + 64 new (Upper Devonians) = a total of 78, of which 18 passed into the Carboniferous. Petherwin :—1 Silurian + 15 Lower Devonians + 57 new (Upper Devonians) = a total of 73, of which 18 passed over to the Carboniferous. Of the ‘new forms” in the Barnstaple and Petherwin areas (64 and 57 respect« ively) 14 are common, : It is perhaps worthy of remark that the five areas have a smaller number of organic forms in common—closely connected as they are both in time and space—than with Devonian deposits in Continental Europe and elsewhere beyond the British Isles, or with the Carboniferous rocks of Ireland and Central and Northern England. Table I., to which attention has so frequently been directed, represents, so far as is at present known, the absolute distribution of the fossils in the two counties in which they occur ; but, for purposes of geological chronology, it is probably of greater importance to ascertain their relative distribution; this is shown in Table 1V., which has been calculated from Table I. thus : the total number of species in each class is put=1000, and the figures in the other columns equated to this, * See in Table I. the column headed “ Carboniferous.” + See ‘Monograph of British Fossil Corals,’ by Messrs. Edwards and Haime, pp. 150 and 212. 97 TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. *snotaziuoqiz9 | : 19 “aeLINTTS : see one eee aoe 0} uowm09 6aF| C12 eee ‘C'N’ oes SRO NGC) 00 “a 'N‘O | *s[}0., eee levtleee 16 wee [eeeleee! eee ar Sear eee | leet evelogz| cor foe lel gg learltg | a eareoen “sal 0G 6 |9F/S9 | O€1| 8s | 8% ol Loma Lm! 0} UOMIUIOD 0} ielNoeg Lik 099 906 Les teeseesererersseneees apodoreydag sersereeeeeereeeeeses pyodo19}9e0) TrreeeeeseeseespaBITOURAGI [Ue] MalelstaaVesiets e ciiWicte attr vpodotyorrg stteeerersesensnsessetesers gazo rer tereeeeeeeaneeeeneesees waguasnag tsteeeeereeseees pavaT@pOULYOG rereteeeeeeeeereseeeseoe Ba iUdOOT Feta wereereerneeeeses vozoydiouy “TPMUIOD PUL MOAI] JO S]Isso] URrUoAaT a3 Jo ‘aovdg puv awry, ur ‘uorNqIystq sarmjagy oy Surmoyg “Ay atavy. 1860. 98 REPORT—1860. Each area is marked by some class being relatively most abundant in it, as is ex- hibited below, thus* :— L. 8. D. L.N. D. L. C. U.N. D. U.C. Zoophyta. | Bryozoa. | Amorphozoa. | Lamellibranchiata. | Cephalopada. When ranged, in descending order, so as to show, relatively, the migration of their species from the Devonian to the Carboniferous era, the classes stand thus: Bryozoa, Echinodermata, Brachiopoda, Gasteropoda, Cephalopoda, Crustacea, Lamellibran- chiatat. The distribution of the genera is just as marked as that of the species; 92, out of the total 97, are found in Lower South Devon, and of these 45 are, in Britain, pecu- liar to it. Every genus of the classes Zoophyta and Brachiopoda occurs in it; the genera thus limited, however, are usually poor; 33 of the 45 contain each but a single Devonian species. The richest genus not found elsewhere is Acervularia, a group of corals belonging to the great Palaeozoic family Cyathophyliide ; it contains 7 species, all peculiar to this area. One of the richest genera in the entire series is Clymenia, belonging to the class Cephalopoda; of this genus 11 species are found at South Petherwin, and not one is met with elsewhere in Britain. The genus Cyrto- ceras, with the single exception of C. rusticum (probably a synonym for Orthoceras arcuatum), is restricted to Lower South Devon, where it isrepresented by 12 species. The chronological range of the Devonian genera of Devon and Cornwall is shown below. Tasre V. pe eee Common to Ses re ees| 22 eB Aa oO ze Devonian, Cerponteriity Carboniferous, 2 fat Silurian, Silurian.’ Devonian. Amorphoz0a ....-...++ 4 3 1 So ese Zoophyta sse...cssessseee 20 10 5 3 2 Echinodermata ......... 6 2 50 3 1 Crustacea ....ersesessess 8 1 5 sie 2 Bryozoa......- scauacstece 7 0 ne 5 2 Brachiopoda............. 16 3 2 8 3 Lamellibranchiata...... 17 2 1 9 5 Gasteropoda. ..........4+ 14 2 aes 11 1 Cephalopoda ............ 5 1 2 2 a Se ees jee ee as 1f 07a ee 14 41 18 Some of the genera common to the Devonian and Carboniferous eras, are found also in more recent deposits, and even in the existing fauna. Such appear to be the prominent facts in connexion with the subjects under con- sideration. What is their interpretation? This is a problem more easily proposed than solved. Are we to believe that our knowledge of the geological record is too imperfect to warrant any important generalizations? Do our museums fully repre- sent the fossilized remains of bygone forms of life? Have all the extinct organisms already in our possession been registered in the published lists? Is the record itself so incomplete as to be altogether incapable of revealing to us the physical and organic history of our planet? Are the notions of biologists respecting specific distinctions sufficiently mature and uniform to warrant a reliance on their decisions? Some- thing must doubtless be conceded on each of these points; still there cannot but be a * See in Table IV. the columns headed “ Totals.” + See in Table IV. the column headed “ Carboniferous.” TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99 large outstanding amount of fact incapable of being thus explained away ; the problem demands some other solution. Suppose it true that in some cases the organic dissi- milarity, which has been described, was due to differences in the mineral character of the ancient sea-bottoms; still when we have two areas like Lower South and North Devon, consisting of contemporary, almost contiguous, and scarcely dissimilar depo- sits, one rich and the other poor in the variety of its organic remains, having together 233 species yet no more than 8 in common, some other solution is obviously needed. Was there a terrestrial barrier separating the two areas? Was that which is now Central Devon occupied by dry land, which stretched far both east and west, while the waves of the Devonian ocean rolled over the north and south of the county? All the known physical facts are opposed to such a hypothesis. Moreover, 8 species actually did migrate from one area to the other; eight proofs, then, that a passage did exist, unless we suppose that both areas Were peopled from some more distant centre or centres of dispersion. It may be asked, were not these eight the remnants of an earlier (a Silurian) fauna? forms of life whose localization had been determined by an earlier distribution of land and water? Eight Silurian forms do make their appearance amongst the Devonians of Devon and Cornwall; are not these the very eight thus common? Nowit so hap- pens that they are not; in fact there is not a single Silurian form in the Lower North Devon series. This hypothesis then fails. Shall we hold with Professor Phillips, that “this unequal diffusion of definite forms of life may often be ascribed to eceanic cur- rents*?” 1 cannot but think that fewer difficulties attach to this than to any other hypothesis which has been proposed. It simply requires us to suppose that a per- sistent oceanic stream, flowing through Central Devon, separated the contemporary deposits of the north and south, and formed, by its thermal or other qualities, an all but impenetrable barrier to the marine tribes. Though, as we have seen, at least so far as Devonshire is concerned, the basis entirely fails on which scepticism respecting the existence of a Devonian period has been founded, namely, that ‘the blending of Silurian and Carboniferous corals is of common occurrence,” yet if the word “ fossil” be substituted for “ coral,” a blending of this kind certainly does occur, and doubiless the fact is not without a meaning. Eight species from the older and 58 found in the more modern (a total of 66) meet in Devon. Are they necessarily so many proofs that the rocks in which they were inhumed are not Devonian? It must be borne in mind that there are 281 species that are neither Silurian nor Carboniferous, but of an intermediate character. The paleontological argument then stands thus: there are 66 witnesses supposed to testify that the rocks are not Devonian, and 281 (upwards of 4 to 1) emphatically declare that they are. But the adverse witnesses are by no means agreed amongst themselves ; eight of them claim the rocks as Silurian, and fifty-eight as Carboniferous, Is there no way of interpreting their evidence, but that of sacrificing the Devonian system altogether? Are they not so many arguments in favour of the gradual pas- sage of system into system? so many difficulties in the way of a belief in catastrophes? by which I mean convulsions (or call it by any other name) which, from time to time, shook the very life out of the world, causing a series of universal and synchro- nous depopulations of our planet. May we not regard them as so many tints inter- mediate, both in quality and in place, between the extreme bands of the rainbow, uniting them into one beautifully graduated chromatic spectrum, so softly blending as to render it impossible to define the exact place of lines of demarcation? which perhaps have not, and never would have been supposed to have, a physical existence, had not observers hastily generalized from the imperfect evidence obtained during a period of colour blindness. But if the Devonshire rocks were handed over to the Carboniferous system, we should not be quit of the doctrine that some of the forms of one period have, at least’ in some instances, lived through it into the next; for the opponents of a Devonian period not only admit this, but rest their case on the alleged fact that “ Silurian and- Carboniferous forms are found blended together in Devonshire and elsewhere.” When, nearly a quarter of a century ago, Mr. Lonsdale first suggested that the fossils of South Devon, taken as a whole, exhibited a peculiar character intermediate to those of the Silurian and Carboniferous groups, he was perfectly aware that amongst them * Quarterly Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xvi. p. xl. Als 100 REPORT—1860. were forms referable to each of these faunas, yet this did not deter him from making the suggestion, even in the face of a physical difficulty connected with the culmiferous beds of North Devon—subsequently removed by Prof. Sedgwick and Sir R. I, Mur- chison. And what has been the effect of the recent progress of discovery and nicer discri- mination on this question? Has it increased or decreased the evidence in favour of a Devonian period? In 1846 Sir H. De la Beche, discussing this subject, gave a total of 190 species noticed in South Devon which he disposed of thus: 75 Carboni- ferous forms, 10 Silurian, 8 common to Silurian and Carboniferous, and 97 peculiar to Devonshire*. At present—confining ourselves also to South Devon—the lists give a total of 226, of which 34 are Carboniferous, 6 Silurian, not one common to both, and 186 peculiar to the district; or putting the totals at each period =1000, and equating the separate numbers to this, the figures stand as in the following Table, and show a decided advance Devonianward. Taste VI. 1846. 1860. Silurian..... BS Hate riebave ale eae 53 27 Carboniferous.......... Cnet siete 395 150 Silurian and Carboniferous ......... 42 0 Pecnlrarthe re cette tte Cae eee hee 510 823 1000 1000 Doubtless the fact that the Carboniferous forms so greatly outnumber the Silurian has a meaning. Does not this greater organic affinity betoken a closer chronological connexion with the more recent than the more ancient period? Is it not an intima- tion that the lowest beds of Devonshire do not constitute the basement of the Devo- nian system? That the county has an ample development of Upper and Middle, but not of Lower Devonian rocks?” . Hitherto we have accepted the hypothesis that the South Devon rocks are more ancient than the Barnstaple and Petherwin groups, and that the two last are contem- poraries. It may perhaps be well before concluding this paper to glance at the bear- ings of the palzontological evidence at present before us on this point. Putting the entire series of fossils found in each of the three districts =1000 and equating accord- ingly, the numbers stand as below. Tarte VII, South Devon, | Petherwin. | Barnstaple. Rihana: a Nucula Menkii, Roemer. variabilis, Sow. Limopsis ooliticus, D’ Archiac. - Cardium subtrigonum, Mor. and Lye. ~ —— Stricklandi, Mor. and Lyc. —— incertum, Phillivs (fide Lycet?). new sp. Lueina striatula, Buvign. cardioides, D’ Archiac. Sphera Madridi, Mor. and Lye. Cypricardia rostrata, Sow. ~ Astarte squamula, D’ Archiac. ~ —— Wiltoni, Mor. and Lye. -* extensa, Phillips. _Cyprina Loweana, Mor. and Lye. depressiuscula, Mor. and Lyc. Tancredia, new sp. Corbula inyoluta, Goldf. ~ new sp. ~ Nezra Ibbetsoni, Morris. *Myacites Scarburgensis, Phillips. calceiformis, Phillips. *Pholadomya Heraulti, Agass. ~ * solitaria, Mor. and Lyc. ~ Actzonina oliveformis, Dunker. bulimoides, Mor. and Lye. parvula, Roemer. *Cylindrites brevis, Mor. and Lye. new sp. Bulla, new sp. Patella cingulata, Goldfuss. Phasianella elegans, Mor. and Lye. Leymeriei, D’ Archiac. Monodonta Labadyei, D’ Archiae. Trochus spiratus, var., D’ Archiae. —— Ibbetsoni?, Mor. and Lye. Nerita minuta, Sow. Nerita hemispherica, Roemer. Rissoina acuta, Sow. new sp. Chemnitzia, new sp. Eulima communis, Mor. and Lye. Natica intermedia, Mor. and Lye. > Ceritella rissoides, Bur. unilineata, Sow. Nerina Eudesii, Desi. Voltzii, Des. funiculus ?, Des/. Cerithium, new sp. Alaria trifida, Phillips. levigata, Mor. and Lye. * — decurtatus, Phillips. *Ammonites subcontractus, Mor, and Lye. Until the publication of the Monograph on the Mollusca of the Great Oolite (by Messrs. Morris and Lycett), but little was known respecting the fossils of this forma- tion. This monograph, too, was not so much an account of English Great Oolite fossils in general, as of a particular assemblage, restricted for the most part to a limited area around Minchinhampton. ‘The above lists of species appear to me chiefly interesting as tending to remove the apparent isolation of the Minchinhampton fauna. As in Gloucestershire, so in Oxfordshire, the Cephalopoda seem to be but sparingly distributed in the Great Oolite ; and but few species of carnivorous Gaste- ropods have yet been detected in the same formation near Oxford. As compared with the same zone of life at Minchinhampton, the upper beds of the Oxfordshire Great Oolite would seem apparently to have been deposited in seas of greater depth and of more tranquillity, Bivalves are commonly found with the valves united and the ligament preserved, and large reef-like masses of coral are not unfre- quent. In Oxfordshire a large proportion of the Great Oolite fossils range upwards into the Forest Marble and Cornbrash, and no inconsiderable series occur even as high as the €oralline Ovlite. Five species have not previously been detected in this for- mation, and eleven shells are quite new to science. From the Forest Marble at Islip and Kidlington I have collected the following species :— Placunopsis socialis, Mor. and Lyc. - Gervillia acuta, Sow. - Pteroperna costatula, Desi. ~ Lima cardiiformis, Sow. - duplicata, Sow. « Arca minuta, Sow. ~< Nucula variabilis, Sow. - Leda lacryma, Sow. ~- Limopsis ooliticus, D’Arch. ~ Trigonia Moretoni, Mor. and Lye. ~ costata, Sow. - Cardium Stricklandi, Mor. and Lye. ~ Cypricardia rostrata, Sow. — Astarte interlineata, yc. < Anabacia orbulites, Lame. Cricopora straminea, Phillips. Rhynchonella concinna, Sow. Terebratula cardium, Lam. var. bifurcata. Ostrea Sowerbyi, Mor. and Lyc. ~ acuminata, Sow. : Pecten rigidus, Sow. - — annulatus, Sow. ° lens, Sow. =» — arcuatus, Sow. « —— personatus, Goldf.- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 107 —Astarte minima, Phil. Eulima communis, Mor. and Lye. —— new sp. Rissoina duplicata, Sow. —Cyprina Loweana, Mor. and Lyc. levis, Sow. Corbis, new sp. new sp. -Tancredia truncata, Lye. Nerita minuta, Sow. Corbula inyoluta, Goldf. Brochus spiratus, D’ Arch. — Macneilii, Morris. - Ibbetsoni, Mor. and Lyc. —— new sp. Crossostoma discoideum, Mor. and Lyc. —— new sp. Pagodus nodosa, Mor. and Lyc. Pholadomya acuticosta, Sow. — Patella cingulata, Goldf. Cerithium quadricinctum, Goldfuss. Emarginula scalaris, Sow. Ceritella acuta, Mor. and Lye. Cylindrites acutus, Sow. — longiscata, Buv. Actzonina Luidii, Mor. The similarity between the fossils of this group and those of the Great Oolite is very remarkable ; many Minchinhampton fossils occur in it which, as yet, I have been unable to detect in the Great Oolite of this district. Teeth of fishes, which are so abundant in the Wiltshire Forest Marble, appear to be somewhat rare in the same beds in Oxfordshire. The Cornbrash at Islip and Kidlington has yielded the following assemblage. Cidaris Bradfordiensis, Wr. (plates and Lima impressa, Mor. and Lye.- spines). Mytilus sublevis, Sow. Pedina Smithii, Fordes. Modiola Sowerbyana, Bronn. - Acrosalenia hemicidaroides, Wr. — compressa, Portlock. — spinosa, Agassiz. —— bipartita?, Sow. Stomechinus intermedius, Agassiz (with —— aspera, Sow. spines attached). — imbricata, Sow. ~ Holectypus depressus, Leske. Lithodomus inclnsus, Phillips. - Echinobrissus clunicularis, Lihwyd. Macrodon Hirsonensis, D' Archiac. — Clypeus Plotii, Klein. Arca emula, Phillips. Pygurus Michelini, Coteau. Nucula Menkii, Roemer. ~ —— variabilis, Sow. - Anabacia orbulites, Lama. Leda mucronata, Sow. — ———— lacryma, Sow. - Alecto dichotoma, Lama. Trigonia Moretoni, Mor. and Lye. ~ costata, Sow. ~- Goldfussi, dg. - if Cardium Buckmani, Mor. and Lyc. - Stricklandi, Mor. and Lyc. — subtrigonum, Mor. and Lyc. — > Peastopora diluviana, Milne-Edw. Cricopora straminea, Phillips. Rhynchonella Morieri, Dav. concinna, Sow. Terebratella hemisphzrica, Sow. Terebratula cardium, Lamarck. Cypricardia rostrata, Sow. (casts). ~ : intermedia, Sow. Bathonica?, D’Oré. = obovata, Sow. Cyprina Loweana, Mor. and Lyc. ~ Ostrea Sowerbyi, Mor. and Lyc. ~ Tsocardia minima, Sow. ~- acuminata, Sow. - Corbula involuta, Goldf. - costata, Sow. Macneilii, Morris. Placunopsis socialis, Mor. and Lye. ~ new sp. Pecten vagans, Sow. « Ceromya ——? — hemicostatus, Mor. and Lyc. ~ Pholadomya lyrata?, Sow, — arcuatus, Sow. « deltoidea, Sow. lens, Sow. Myacites gibbosus, Sow. annulatus, Sow. “ — decurtatus, Phillips. ~ — personatus, Goldfuss. ~ securiformis, Phillips. Gervillia acuta, Sow. « Gresslya peregrina, Phillips. - - ovata, Sow. - Patella cingulata, Goldfuss. new sp. Trochus ? Lima duplicata, Sow. ~ Monodonta, new sp. gibbosa, Sow. ~~ Chemnitzia variabilis, Mor. and Lyc. cardiiformis, Sow, < Actzonina Luidii, Morris. A careful study of the fossils of the Oxfordshire Cornbrash appears to me by no means favourable to that theory of Professor Buckman, that the Cornbrash assemblage of fossils, on the whole, more strongly resembles the fauna of the Inferior than that of the Great Oolite. 108 REPORT—1860. Very few of the fossiis common to both the Cornbrash and Inferior Oolite are not found in the intermediate formation ; and in the above list of Cornbrash fossils, a large per-centage are well-known Great Oolite species. The great comparative rarity of the Cephalopoda is also noticeable, both in the Cornbrash and Forest Marble; one solitary, mutilated fragment of an ammonite in the Islip Cornbrash is the only example of this class I have seen from these two formations during several years active collecting. On the Intermittent Springs of the Chalk and Oolite of the Neighbourhood of Scarborough. By Captain Woovatt, M.A. F.G.S. On the Avicula contorta Beds and Lower Lias in the South of England. By Tuomas Waieut, M.D., F.R.S.E. and GS. The black shales, with their interstratified sandstones and bone-beds which lie at the base of the Lias, have by one class of observers been grouped with the Lias, by others with the Trias; the author had made a series of observations on these beds, where they are exposed at Westbury, Wainlode, and Aust, on the banks of the Severn; and at Penarth and Watchet, on the shores of the Bristol Channel: in all these sec- tions he had found several species of Conchifera, which are special to the beds, as Avicula contorta, Portl., Pecten Valoniensis, Defr., Mytilus minutus, Goldf., Cardium Rheticum, Mer., Lima precursor, Quenst., Neoschizodus posterus, Quenst., Cardium, sp., Cypricardia, sp., Anomya, sp., with several other small bivalve shells which he was unable to determine. He found the same beds at the base of the Lias in War- wickshire and Worcestershire ; and they have recently been found in Staffordshive by Mr. Howell, and several years ago were discovered by General Portlock in Ireland. In Germany Quenstedt calls these beds Vorlaufer des Lias; they are the true repre- sentatives of the Upper St. Cassian beds of German geologists, aud the Késsener- schichten of the Tyrolese. Since they were first described by Von Buch thirty years ago, they have formed the subject of many interesting observations by conti- nental geologists, although up to this time it has not been settled whether they belong to the Trias or to the Lias. ‘The Conchifera found in these beds in England are special to them, and none of the species pass into the true Lias; whereas it has been asserted by Sir Philip Egerton and Professor Agassiz that the species of fishes found in the Bone-beds of England and Ireland are ‘I'riassic forms. Should this statement hold good, the evidence for the triassic character of the Avicula contorta series will greatly preponderate over their liassic affinities. M. Jules Martin, in an able memoir, ‘ Palé— ontologie Stratigraphique de l’Infra-Lias du Département de la Céte-d’Or,’ has exa- mined these beds in the departments of Cote d’Or, Rhone, Ardeche and Isére, and has placed them all as Infra-lias. The absence of the Bone-bed from the French deposits, although found in Luxembourg, is remarkable; and therefore the evidence afforded by the fossil fishes is excluded from M. Martin’s estimate of the Paleontological afti- nities of these Infra-Liassic deposits. Dr. Wright divides the Lower Lias into six zones of life, each characterized by certain species of mollusca which are special to it; these are—lIst, the zone of Am- monites planorbis; 2nd, the zone of Ammonites Bucklandi; 3rd, the zone of Ammo- nites Turneri; 4th, the zone.of Ammonites obtusus; Sth, the zone of Ammonites oxy~- notus; and 6th, the zone of Ammonites raricostaius. Each of these zones was sepa- rately described, its fauna enumerated, and the localities where it was developed ointed out. ‘The Lower Lias in the South of England was compared with the Lower Tage of Wurtemberg, and the correlations of that formation in both countries pointed out. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 109 BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY, tnctupinc PHYSIOLOGY. GENERAL. On the Progress of Natural Science in the United States and Canada. By Purie P. Carventer, B.A., Ph.D. THe principal part of this communication was devoted to_an explanation of the principles and working of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, D.C. It was founded “ for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men,” and was not restricted either by nation or “red tape.” It gives aid to students in prose- cuting any branch of research ; carries on an extensive series of meteorological observations over the North American Continent; directs the Natural History observations of the various governmental Exploring Expeditions of the U.S. Govern- ment; superintends an intricate system of exchanges of books and specimens between individuals or Societies in Europe or America, in conjunction with the Royal Society, and with special exemption from customs; and gives to the world a large amount of original matter through the press. The entire Museum depart- ment of the United States Government, till lately deposited at the Patent Office, is now the property of the Smithsonian Institution, with authority to exchange duplicates. The publications consist of three classes—(1) the “ Smithsonian Con- tributions to Knowledge,” expensive works sold at cost price ; (2) the ‘Miscellane- ous Collections” of pamphlets, which are freely distributed; and (3) an annual yolume of Reports, &c. published at Government expense. In regulating exchanges, whether of books or specimens, the directors do not require a guid pro quo, but simply a friendly reciprocity ; their first desire being to make their materials useful to science, wherever that can best be done*. The Federal Government, as well as most of the Sovereign States, have published Reports on Geology and other branches of science, many of which are of the highest value. The ten quarto volumes on the ‘ Pacific Railroad,’ abounding in plates, contain a complete réswmé of the Natural History of the great western deserts and the Rocky Mountains, and may be purchased in Washington for about £5. The State of Massachusetts is giving liberal aid to Professor Agassiz in forming a magnificent museum at Cambridge University, which will be arranged geographi- cally. There is already a vast amount of material accessible to students, and of duplicates for exchanges. The State Museum at Albany is under the direction of the Regents of the University of New York. They have a large number of dupli- cate palxozoic fossils, available for exchange. The Academy of Natural Science of Philadelphia, the Lyceum of New York, and the Natural History Society of Boston, are well known by their publications. The Colleges of Yale, Amherst, and Charleston, 8.C., have also dore good service to science. In Canada, the Geologi- cal Survey under Sir W. Logan is not surpassed by any for admirable arrangement. The Natural History Societies both of Montreal and of Toronto publish periodicals. In M‘Gill College, Montreal, under Professor Dawson, and in the University of Toronto, under Professor Hincks, the study of natural science is steadily increasing, The importance of the magnetic observations at Toronto is well known; and a system of recording meteorological information, at the public grammar schools of Canada West, is now being organized in connexion with the Smithsonian Institu- tion. Remarks on the Final Causes of the Sexuality of Plants, with particular refer- ence to Mr. Darwin’s Work ‘ On the Origin of Species by Natural Selec- tion, By C.J. B.Dauseny, UD. LL.D., F.RS., Professor of Botany in the University of Oxford. Dr. Daubeny began by pointing out the identity between the two modes by which the multiplication of plants is brought about, the very same properties being im- parted to the bud or to the graft, as to the seed produced by the ordinary process of fecundation; and a new individual being in either instance equally produced. * All communications to the Smithsonian Institution should be addressed to ‘‘ Professor Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.” 110 REPORT—1860. We are therefore led to speculate as to the final cause of the existence of sexual organs, in plants, as well as in those lower animals which can be propagated by cuttings. Que use, no doubt, may be the dissemination of the species ; for many plants, if propagated by buds alone, would bein a manner confined to asingle spot. Another secondary use is the production of fruits which afford nourishment to animals. A third may be to minister to the gratification of the senses of man by the beauty of their forms and colours. But as these ends are only answered in a small proportion of cases, we must seek further for the uses of the organs in question; and hence the author suggested, that they might have been provided, in order to prevent that uniformity in the aspect of Nature which would have prevailed if plants had been multiplied exclu- sively by buds. It is well known that a bud is a mere counterpart of the stock from whence it springs, so that we are always sure of obtaining the very same description of fruit by merely grafting the bud or cutting of a pear or apple tree upon another plant of the same species. On the other hand, the seed never produces an individual exactly like the plant from which it sprung, and hence by the union of the sexes in plants some variation from the primitive type is sure to result. ~ Dr. Daubeny remarked, that if we adopt in any degree the views of Mr. Darwin with respect to the origin of species by natural selection, the creation of sexual organs in plants nlight be regarded as intended to promote this specific object. Whilst, however, he gave his assent to the Darwinian hypothesis, as likely to aid us in reducing the number of existing species, he wished not to be considered as advo- cating it to the extent to which the author seems disposed to carry it. He rather desired to recommend to Naturalists the necessity of further inquiries, in order to fix the limits within which the doctrine proposed by Darwin may assist us in distinguishing varieties from species. Botany. Dr. DAUBENY invited the Members to visit an experimental garden under his superintendence in the neighbourhood of Oxford, in which he had been carrying on some investigations connected with Agricultural Chemistry, the nature of which he proposed to explain on the spot. On a Plant Poisoning a Plant. By R. Downey. On Abnormal Forms of Passiflora cerulea. By Dr. C. Dresser. On the Morpholegical Laws in Plants. By Dr. C. Dresser. On the supposed Germination of Mummy Wheat. By the Rev. Professor Henstow, W.A., F.LS. The author introduced his observations by reading a letter from Professor Wartmann, of Geneva, who had recently found that seeds might be exposed to a temperature of 198° below zero of Fahrenheit’s scale, without losing the power of germination. Professor Henslow had himself exposed seeds to the tempe- rature of boiling water, and they germinated. The question of how long seeds would retain their vitality was one of great interest; and a Committee of this Association had reported on the subject, but they had not succeeded in making seeds grow which had been kept more than two centuries. He then showed that experiments recorded on the growth of mummy wheat were not trustworthy; and especially noticed the case which had been relied on so much, of the growth of mummy wheat by Mr. Tupper from seeds supplied him by Sir Gardner Wilkinson. He alluded to a sample of mummy wheat which he had carefully inspected grain TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 111 by grain, and found among it two grains of a different variety from the rest ; these were perfectly fresh, whereas the others were dark-coloured, with decided indica- tions of decomposition and partial charring. Upon inquiry he was able to ascer- tain that this sample was a portion of a large stock, which had been taken from a catacomb some years previously, and had been exposed for sale in the jars of a corn merchant at Cairo, There could be no doubt an accidental admixture of a few recent grains left in the jars had taken place. In samples supplied by Sir G. Wilkinson to the late Robert Brown for the purpose of experiment, the latter had found in it a few grains of Indian corn! He thought it not at all improbable that the samples he had examined, and those furnished by Sir G, Wilkinson, might have formed portions of the same stock. On the Distinctions of a Plant and an Animal, and on a Fourth Kingdom of Nature*. By Joun Hoce, M.A, F.RS., PLS. &e. The author stated the great difficulty he had long experienced when examining some of the simpler living beings, in defining the characters of those primary forms of life, whether they belone to the vegetable or animal kingdom; and he considered that there may strictly be no distinction in nature between those king- doms; and that life in the lowest animal, as well as in the simplest plant, may be the same; still that it is necessary to draw a line of demarcation between them, for the purpose of classifying the numerous creatures or organisms existing in the world. Mr. J. Hoge then showed that he had, more than twenty years ago, demonstrated that locomotion, although apparently spontaneous, was no distinction of animality. Neither could the presence of iodine nor of starch be accounted a satisfactory test of vegetability. So the four chemical elements, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, have been regarded for the same objects, though without positive success ; and even the green colouring matter, called “chromule,” or “ chlorophyll” (once supposed to belong exclusively to vegetables), has been shown to be likewise pre- sent in certain of the lower animals. But the author observed that the “two prin- cipal characteristics of an animal are undoubtedly the muscular and nervous systems, which do not exist in a plant, and which Prof. Owen has not included in his de+ finitions of a plant and an animal given in his new work on ‘ Paleontology,’ ” Mr. J. Hoge then referred to Linnzeus’s arrangement of all natural bodies into three kingdoms, and, after quoting his definitions of Lapides, Vegetabilia, and Animalia, said that they must at this day be accounted as insufficient and too concise; and, considering the great extension of science, both in Zoology and Botany, which had taken place since the time of Linnzus, he attempted to enlarge the definitions of those three divisions of natural bodies thus :—Minerals are bodies, hard, aggregative, simple, or component, haying bulk, weight, and often regular form; but inorganic, inanimate, indestructible by death, insentient, and illocomo- tive. Vegetables are beings, organic, living, nourishable, stomachless, generative, destructible by death, possessing some sensibility, sometimes motive, and some- times locomotive in their young or seed state; but inanimate, insentient, immus- cular, nerveless, and mostly fixed by their roots. Animals are beings, organic, living, nourishable, having a stomach, generative, destructible by death, motive, animate, sentient, muscular, nervous, and mostly spontaneously locomotive, but sometimes fixed by their bases. Further, as regards a fourth kingdom of Nature, the author having perused Prof. Owen’s ‘ Paleontology,’ published this year, found that he had introduced the “Kingdom Protozoa,” and placed it before the ‘‘ Kingdom Animalia.” He roved that there were objections to the term “ Protozoa,” which was formed by a foreign naturalist, and that it could not include those lower organisms, whose nature partook more of plants (Phyta) than of animals (Zoa) without creating errors; and since it appears tv many desirable to place those organic beings which are of a doubtful nature in a fourth or an additional kingdom, he suggested one under the title of the Primigenal Kingdom,—Regnum Primigenum continens Protoctista, ¢. e. Protophyta et Protozca. This would comprise all the lower creatures, or the primary organic beings—* Protoctista,” from mpdros, first, and * This entire paper, with the coloured Diagram, is published in the ‘Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal,’ yol. xii. (new series) for October 1860, pp. 216-225, 112 REPORT—1860. krista, created beings—hoth Protophyta and Protozoa; and would also include the Sponges or Amorphozoa of M. de Blainville, although Mr. J. Hogg thought it better to substitute for the latter the name of Amorphoctista, derived from apophos, formless, and xriora, creatwres or organisms. ; ‘ Some having compared the Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms to éwo pyramids, which diverge from each other as they ascend, but are placed on a common base, the author conceived that that base might fairly represent the Primigenal King- dom, which embraces the lower or primary organisms of both the former, but which are of a doubtful nature, and can, in some instances, only be considered as haying become blended or mingled together. An accompanying diagram was exhibited, which represented the two pyramids springing from the same base: one, coloured yellow, denoted the Vegetable King- dom; the other was tinged blue, and signified the Animal Kingdom; whilst the base, common to both, was coloured ereen, which was intended to show by the union of the two former colours the blending of the two natures of the lower created beings comprised in the fourth, or Primigenal Kingdom. These pyramids, with their base, stood on a foundation tinged brown, thereby signifying the earth and the Mineral Kingdom. On the Normal and Abnormal Variations from an assumed Type in Plants. By M. 'T. Masters. The paper was illustrated by a large number of recent and dried forms of mon- strous plants and parts of plants. In this paper there was an attempt to show that no definite limits could be drawn between what are termed Variations and Monstrosities. Numerous instances of extreme degrees of variation and of polymorphism in plants, apparently depend- ent on external circumstances, were exhibited; among them two specimens of Ficus stipularis, the one taken fromaplant grown against awall, the other from a plant of the same species, and derived from the same original stock, but which had been treated as a standard. The differences in habit, size, form and texture of the leaves and other parts were such, that had the two specimens not been taken from the same plant, it would have been difficult to believe that they could have belonged to the same species. Allusion was made to the changes that naturally take place during the growth of some plants, and to the fact that a condition which is unnatural in one plant is the common condition in another. So also irregularity of growth, as it is the constant condition in some plants, and for many other reasons, cannot be considered an abnormal variation. On the other hand, Peloria, or a return to typical regularity, can hardly be considered abnormal. Again, certain changes which are physiologically abnormal are not so morphologically. ‘The paper concluded with a review of the principal points of distinction between variations and malformations, areyiew which showed that no arbitrary line could be drawn between them. On the Structure of Fern Stems. By G. Octrvie, M.D. The object of this communication was to determine the arrangement and rela- tions of those tissues in Ferns commonly regarded as analogous to the vascular and woody elements of the stems of the higher plants. In the case of the former the correspondence may be admitted without much hesitation, from the close resemblance of the vascular bundles of ferns to those of endogenous stems ; the fasciculi in both being imbedded separately in the general parenchyma, and each surrounded by a layer of soft cambium tissue. The peculi- arities of the Fern consist in the polygonal form and ladder-like or scalariform markings of its elongated cells or vessels, and in the disposition of the fasciculi, so as to form, by their anastomosis, the reticulated wall of a hollow cylinder, imbedded in the general parenchyma of the stem—an arrangement which is rarely departed from in our British ferns, though in Pter’s aquilina we find in addition two broad vascular bands in the central part of the stem, and in Osmunda and Hymenophyllum we have the netted cylinder replaced by a central vascular cord, as in the Lycopo- diacez. The correspondence of the hard tissues to the true stem-wood of the higher plants is more open to objection, notwithstanding the occasional resemblance in their minute structure, The so-called woody fibres of ferns are never, like those TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 113 of the Phanerogamia, associated with the vessels in the same fasciculus or layer ; nor are they ever surrounded by a stratum of cambium tissue ; but they are merely indurated and transformed portions of the general parenchyma, and this even when, as in some species, they form a sort of outer sheath to the fasciculi. Its great variability is another point which assimilates this element rather to such sclero- genous formations of the higher plants as nut-shells and other husky tissues, than to the proper wood of their stems. In some it occurs only as a thin cortical coating (Polypodium, Lastrea Filix-Mas, Asplenium Filic-Femina) ; in others it constitutes the entire mass of the rhizome, except a thin sheath of soft tissue surrounding the vascular bundles (Blechnwin, Osmunda, Hymenophyllum) ; while there are various intermediate forms in which it occurs in the guise of isolated nodules or filaments (Lastrea dilatata, L. oreopteris) of sheaths to the vascular bundles (Asplenium), or of one or more longitudinal tracts (Allosorus, Pieris). [These variations were illus- trated by magnitied sectional views of thirteen species, mostly British. ] The true homologue of the stem-wood of the Phanerogamia is to be sought, it haz been suggested, in a fibrous stratum which occurs in the fasciculi of some tree ferns, immediately within the cambium layer; for though these fibres have nothing of a woody character, and are mostly represented in our indigenous species only by an outer series of small and imperfectly developed scalaritorm vessels, it is the outer layer corresponding to them which is woody in the fasciculi of the endogenous stem, and in all the cases its development seems to show that it arises from a peculiar transformation of the cells of the cambium tissue. ZOOLOGY. On the Acclimatization of Animals, Birds, &c., in the United Kingdom. By Frank T. Buckianp. Remarks on the Respiration of the Nudibranchiate Mollusca. By CUTHBERT Cottincwoop, M.B., F.L.S., §¢., Professor of Animal Physiology in Queen’s College, Liverpool. The author described and exhibited drawings of a remarkable immature form of Z'riopa claviger, which had led to the observations he was about to make, more especially on account of the entire absence of the branchial plumes. He canvassed the various definitions given by authors of the term Nudibranchiata, and showed that, although it might with accuracy be applied to the family Dori- didee, the Molidide could not with propriety be called Nudibranchs, inasmuch as their papille were neither anatomically nor morphologically to be regarded as gills. These mollusks all respired by the whole surface of the body, more or less; and the author suggested that in the Doridinz the appendages to the body were supplementary to the branchial plumes; which, as a rule, were less developed in them than in the true Dorids, which were without such appendages. The fact, however, that there was no specialized apparatus for respiration in the A¥olidide, coupled with many analogies which that family bore to animals much lower in the scale of organization, seemed to separate them much more widely from the Nudibranchiata proper than was generally allowed. On the Nudibranchiate Mollusca of the Mersey and Dee. By CuTuBert Cottinewooo, M.B., F.L.S., &c., Professor of Animal Physiology in Queen's College, Liverpool. The author dwelt particularly upon the richnes3 of the estuaries of these rivers in this beautiful group, and especially referred to some very interesting forms, such as Doris depressa, D. subquadrata, D. proxima, and Eohs Landsburgi, E. concinna, &c., which were found in them. The most interesting of all, however, was Antiopa hyalina, a yery local species, only found at Hilbre Island, in the Dee, 1860. 8 114 REPORT—1860. where it was discovered by Mr. Byerley, and where the present writer had found it in the same rock-pool, with its congener A. cristata. He submitted the following Catalogue of the Nudibranchiata of the Mersey and Dee. Doris tuberculata. Mersey and Dee; common. Johnstoni, Mersey and Dee; once or twice. proxima. Mersey and Dee; common (nowhere else). — bilamellata. Mersey and Dee; abundant. pilosa. Mersey and Dee; not uncommon. — subquadrata. Dee; once (the second known specimen). depressa. Dee; once. Polycera Lessonii. Mersey; occasional. ocellata. Mersey and Dee; occasional. 10. Ancula cristata. Mersey and Dee; common. 11, Tritonia Hombergii. Mersey and Dee; occasional. plebeia. Mersey and Dee; occasional, 18, Dendronotus arborescens. Mersey and Dee; common. 14. Doto coronata. Mersey and Dee; very common. 15. Eolis papillosa. Mersey and Dee; common. coronata. Mersey and Dee; common. 17. —— Drummondi. Mersey and Dee; very common. 18. —— rufibranchialis. Mersey and Dee; not uncommon. Landsburgii.. Mersey and Dee; rare. concinna. Mersey; common (the second known locality). 21. —— olivacea. Dee (once taken), aurantiaca. Mersey and Dee; common. picta, Mersey and Dee; not uncommon, 24, —_—exigua. Mersey; apparently rare. : despecta. Mersey; common. 26. Embletonia pallida. Mersey (the only known locality); very rare. 27, Antiopa cristata. Dee; occasional. 28, —— hyalina, Dee (the only known locality); very rare. $9: GON SD Sup CO LS ps On Recurrent Animal Form, and its Significance in Systematic Zoology. By Curusert Cotiincwoop, M.B., F.L.S., §c., Professor of Animal Phy- siology in Queen’s College, Liverpool. The object of this paper was to call attention to the frequent recurrence of similar forms in widely-separated groups of the animal kingdom; similarities, therefore, which were unaccompanied by homologies of internal structure. These analogies of form had greatly influenced the progress of classification, by attracting the atten- tion of systematizers, while as yet structural homologies were imperfectly under- stood ; and, as a consequence, many groups of animals had been temporarily located in a false position, such as bats and whales by the ancients, and the Polyzoa and Foraminifera in more modern times. These resemblances in form were illustrated generally by the classes of Vertebrata, and more especially by the various orders of Mammalia,—the Invertebrata affording, however, many remarkable examples. Since no principle of gradation of form would sufficiently account for these ana- logies, the author had endeavoured to discover some other explanation, and had come to the conclusion, that the fact of deviations from typical form being accom- panied by modifications of typical habits, afforded the desired clue. Examples of this were given, and the principle educed, that agreement of habit and economy in widely separated groups is accompanied by similarity of form. This position was argued through simple cases to the more complex, and the conclusion arrived at that, where habits were known, the explanation sufficed; and it was only in the case of animals of low organization and obscure or unknown habits, that any serious difficulty arose in its application ; so that our appreciation of the rationale of their similarity of form was in direct ratio to our knowledge of their habits and modes of life. In conclusion, by a comparison of the Polyzoa with the Polyps, it was TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 115 shown that the economy of both was nearly identical, although they possessed scarcely anything in common except superficial characters; and this identity of habit was regarded as the explanation of their remarkable similarity of form. This it is published (as read before the Section) in the ‘ Annals of Natural History, for August 1860; and still more at length in the volume of ‘ Proceedings of the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society’ for the past Session. Dr. DavBEny gave an account of some experiments he had performed on the subject of Equivocal Generation. He described the apparatus he had employed, and stated that, even after vegetable matter had been exposed to a temperature exceeding 300° of Fahr., and had been subsequently brought into contact with nothing but water carefully distilled, and with air that had been passed through sulphuric acid, indications of organic life were discoverable in it. r. Daubeny stated that Dr. Bowerbank and other gentlemen had examined the flasks in which he had performed his experiments on Equivocal Generation. No animal life was to be found, but a few filaments of fungi were visible. As the latter might possibly have been derived from the cork and linseed-meal, as was suggested by Dr. Bowerbank, he proposed to repeat the experiment under circum- stances which would eliminate these sources of error, ——_ On the Intellectual Development of Europe, considered with reference to the views of Mr. Darwin and others, that the Progression of Organisms is de- termined by Law. By Professor Drarer, M.D., New York. The object of this paper was to show that the advancement of Man in civilization does not occur accidentally or in a fortuitous manner, but is determined by im- mutable law. The author introduced his subject by recalling proofs of the dominion of law in the three great lines of the manifestation of life :—first, in the successive stages of development of every individual from the earliest rudiment to maturity; second, in the numberless organic forms now living contemporaneously with us, and con- stituting the animal series; third, in the orderly appearance of that grand succes- sion, which in the slow lapse of geological time has emerged, constituting the life of the earth, showing therefore not only the evidences, but also proofs of the domi- nion of law oyer the world of life. In these three lines of life he maintained that the general principle is to differ- entiate instinct from automatism, and then to differentiate intelligence from instinct, In man himself three distinct instrumental nervous mechanisms exist, and three distinct modes of life are perceptible, the automatic, the instinctive, the intelligent. 2 piey occur in an epochal order, from infancy through childhood to the more per- ect state. Such holding good for the individual, it was then affirmed that it is physiologi- cally impossible to separate the individual from the race, and that what holds good for the one holds good for the other too, and hence that man is the Archetype of Society, and individual development the model of social progress, and that both are under the control of immutable law; that a parallel exists between individual and natural life in this, that the production, life, and death of an organic particle in the _ person, answers to the production, life, and death of a person in the nation. Turning from these purely physiological considerations to historical proof, and selecting the only European nation which thus far has offered a complete and com- pleted intellectual life, Professor Draper showed that the characteristics of Greek mental development answer perfectly to those of individual life, presenting philo- sophically five well-marked ages or periods, the first being closed by the opening of Egypt to the Ionians ; the second, including the Ionian, Pythagorean, and Eleatic et, was ended by the criticisms of the Sophists ; the third, embracing the ocratic and Platonic, by the doubts of the Sceptics ; the fourth, ushered in by the Macedonian expedition and adorned by the splendid achievements of the Alex- andrian School, degenerated into Neoplatonism ; and imbecility in the fifth, to which the hand of Rome put an end. From the solutions of the four great problems of Greek philosophy, given in each of these five stages of its life, he showed that it is 3” 116 REPORT—1860. possible to determine the law of the variation of Greek opinion, and to establish its analogy with that of the variations of opinion in individual life. Next, passing to the consideration of urope in the aggregate, Professor Draper showed that it has already in part repeated these phases in its intellectual life. Its first period closes with the spread of the power of Republican Rome, the second with the foundation of Constantinople, the third with the Turkish invasion of Europe ; we are living in the fourth. Detailed proofs of the correspondence of these periods to those of Greek life, and through them to those of individual life, are given in a work now printing on this subject by the author in America. Having established this conclusion, Professor Draper next briefly alluded to many collateral problems or inquiries. He showed that the advances of men are due to external and not to interior influences, and that in this respect a nation is like a seed, which can only develope when the conditions are favourable, and then onl in a definite way; that the time for psychical change corresponds with that for physical, and that a nation cannot advance except its material condition be touched, this having been the case throughout all Europe, as is manifested by the diminution of the blue-eyed races thereof; that all organisms, and even man, are dependent for their characteristics, continuance, and life, on the physical conditions under which they: live; that the existing apparent invariability presented by the world of organization is the direct consequence of the physical equilibrium ; but that, if that should suffer modification, in an instant the fanciful doctrine of the immutability of species would be brought to its proper value. The organic world appears to be in repose because natural influences have reached an equilibrium. A marble may remain motionless for ever on a level table, but let the table be a little inclined, and the marble will quickly run off, and so it is with organisms in the world. From his work on Physiology, published in 1856, he gave his views in support of the doctrine of the transmutation of species, the transitional forms of the animal and also the human type, the production of new ethnical elements or nations, and the laws of their origin, duration and death. On some Specimens of Shells from the Liverpool Museum, originally from the Pathological Collection formed by the late Mr. Gaskoin. By the Rev. H. H. Hicerns, W.A., Rainhill, Liverpool. The late Mr. Gaskoin had in his museum a series of specimens, collected for the purpose of illustrating the pathology of the Mollusca, This series was in course of formation in the year 1835, from which period, to the time of his decease, Mr. Gaskoin devoted considerable attention to the selection, from various sources, of specimens of shells in any wise remarkable for distorted growth, or for the repair of injuries received during the life of the animal. Iam not aware that Mr. Gaskoin published or left in manuscript any account of the result of his observations in this department of Natural History. 1t is evident that in any case of abnormal growth a second, and still more a third or a fourth, instance of the same kind may afford a fair ground for a conclusion, which, if based upon a single instance only, would be of little or no value. ‘he extensive character of the series was in this respect very valuable. In the course of more than twenty years’ collecting, Mr. Gaskoin had enriched his pathological cabinet, not only with a great variety of mended fractures and distorted growths, but with many duplicates, sometimes of cases apparently altogether exceptional, and likely to be unique. A select series of specimens was then exhibited to the Section, and remarks were made upon them, which can scarcely be presented intelligibly apart from the specimens themselves. Notice of British Well Shrimps. By the Rev. A. R. Hocan, WA. The author exhibited specimens of some remarkable additions not long since made to our British Crustacea. They consisted of two species of Miphargus (Fon- tanus and Kochianus), and the new genus Crangonyx, with its single species swb- terrancus of Spence Bate. These species have been described and figured in the volume of the ‘ Natural History Review and Quarterly Journal of Science’ for last yea (1859). They are of great interest, as examples of a subterranean Fauna in ngland, analogous to that long known on the Continent and in America, The ea Or a TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 17 first established instance of the occurrence of Niphargiin England, was Mr. West- wood's discovery at Maidenhead, Berkshire, of a well containing numbers of IV. aquiler. They have more recently been obtained from Corsham and Warminster, Wiltshire, and also from Ringwood, on the borders of the New lorest, Hampshire. Crangonyx subterrancus has occurred at the two latter places, but not at the first named, Miphargus fontanus is found at both Corsham and Ringwood, but with a difference in the shape of the gnathopoda and posterior pleopoda, amounting to a pro- bably distinct variety, if not species. The form of the gnathopoda, or hands, is worthy of attention, being each armed with a moveable claw of large size, forming a prehensile organ of great power. NV. fontanus is also possessed of small, yellow eyes, which distinguish it in a very marked way from the allied species (of the genus Gammarus) found on the Continent. Every member of the subterranean Fauna hitherto found has been destitute of eyesight. The movements of Niphargi, when kept in captivity, are interesting to observe; but Mr, Hogan states that ia has found great difficulty in preserving them alive. The longest period during which even the strongest specimens survived its capture was three wecks. ‘The average temperature of the water in which Miphargus and Crangonya are found is about 50° Fahr., and they seem to propagate in recently-formed wells as freely as in old ones. In no case have any species of this family been found, either in this country or abroad, in open wells or other than artificial ones,—pumps, in fact. They are found at all seasons of the year, but most abundantly towards the end of the autumn. The largest size known among the English species (that of NV. fontanus) hardly exceeds half an inch. Mr. Hogan hoped that more extended observations would be made in Great Britain on this interesting family of Crustacea, as their economy and struc- ture are as yet very imperfectly known, and an accurate examination would be sure to reward the investigator with results at least as interesting as those already obtained regarding their allies by Vontinental naturalists. Mr. J. G. Jurrreys exhibited several specimens of the conmon whelk (Bucctnwm undatum) having double opercula; in one instance, a second or supplementary operculum being piled on the usual one ; and in the others, there being two separate opercula, instead of one, in each whelk. He adverted briefly to the different kinds of monstrosity which occur in animals and plants, and said he believed this to be the first case of a similar monstrosity in the Mollusca. He observed that the monstrosity under consideration appeared to be congenital, and not to have arisen from an accidental loss of the original organ, because in some of the specimens both opercula were cases of hypertrophy, and in the others of atrophy ; and he mentioned that all the specimens came from the same place (Sandgate in Kent), showing a repetition, and perhaps an hereditary transmission, of the same abnormal pheno- ‘nenon ; and he suggested that thus permanent varieties might in course of time be formed, and constitute what some naturalists would call “ distinct species.” He adduced in support of this view, the case of a reversed monstrosity of the common garden snail (Helix aspersa), having been bred for many years in succession by the late M. d‘Orbigny in his garden at Rochelle, as well as many instances of a reversed form of almond whelk (Luss antiguus) having occurred in the same localities on the coasts of England and Portugal, such bemg the normal form in the crag. On the British Teredines, or Ship-Woris. By J. G. Jerrreys, PRS. After observing that his researches had not been confined to the British Tere~ dines, but that he had recently had an opportunity of meeting all the French naturalists who had published on the subject, as well as of studying all the access- ible collections and books, he treated the matter first in a zoological point of view, and gaye a short history of the genus Zeredo, from the time of Aristotle and his pupil Theophrastus to the present time ; especially noticing the elaborate mono- raph of Sellius, in 1733, on the Dutch ship-worm; the valuable paper of Sir Hverard Home and his pupil Sir Benjamin Brodie, in 1806 ; and the physiological essays of Quatrefages, in 1849, 118 REPORT—1860. He showed that the Teredo undergoes a series of metamorphoses ; the eggs being developed into a sub-larval form after their exclusion from the ovary, and remaining in the mantle of the parent for some time. In its second phase (or that of proper larve) the fry are furnished with a pair of close-fitting oval valves, resembling those of a Cythere, as well as with cilia, a large foot, and distinct eyes, by means of which it swims freely and with great rapidity, or creeps, and afterwards selects its fixed habitation. The larval state continues for upwards of 100 hours, and during that period the fry are capable of traversing long distances, and thus becoming spread over comparatively wide areas. The metamorphosis is not, however (as Quatrefages asserts), complete ; because the young shell, when fully developed, retains the larval valves. He then discussed the different theories, as to the method by which the Teredo perforates wood, giving a preference to that of Sellius and Quatrefages, which may be termed the theory of “ suction,” aided by a constant maceration of the wood by water, which is introduced into the tube by the siphons. This process, according to Quatrefages, is effected by an organ which he calls the “ capuchon céphalique,” and which is provided with two pairs of muscles of extraordinary strength. Mr. Jeffreys was of opinion that the foot of the Teredo was the sole instrument of perforation. He instanced, in illustration of this theory, the cases of the common limpet, as well as of many bivalve mollusks, Echinus lividus, and numerous annelids, which excayate rocks to a greater or less depth; and he cited the adage of “ Gutta cavat lapidem non vi sed seepe cadendo,” in opposition to the mechanical theory. The Teredo bores either in the direction of the grain or across it, according to the kind of wood and the nature of the species ; the Teredo Norvegica usually taking the former course: every kind of wood is indiscriminately attacked by it. The Teredines con- stitute a peaceful, though not a social community; and they have never been known to work into the tunnel of any neighbour. If they approach too near to each other, and cannot find space enough in any direction to continue their operations, they en- close the valves or anterior part of the body in a case, consisting of one or more hemi- spherical layers of shelly matter. Sellius supposed that the Zeredo ate up the wood which it excayated, and had no other food ; and, labouring under the idea that it could no longer subsist after being thus voluntarily shut wp, he considered it to be the pink of chivalry and honour, in preferring to commit suicide rather than infringe on its neighbour. In this enclosed state the valves often become so much altered in form, as well as in the relative proportion of their different parts, as not to be easily recognizable as belonging to the same species ; and one species ( 7. divaricata) was constituted from specimens of Z. Norvegica which had been so deformed. The food of the Teredo consists of minute animalcula, which are brought within the vortex of the inhalant siphon, and drawn into the stomach. The wood which has been excavated also undergoes a kind of digestion during its passage outwards through the long intestine. The animal has been proved by Laurent and other observers to be capable of renewing its shelly tube, and of repairing it in any part. It is stated by Quatrefages (and apparently with truth) that the sexes are separate, impregnation being effected in a similar mode to that which takes place among alm-trees and other dicecious plants. There appear to be only five or six males in one hundred individuals. The Teredo perforates and inhabits sound wood only, but an allied genus (Xylophaga) has been recently found to attack the submarine telegraph cable between this country and Gibraltar at a depth of from sixty to seventy fathoms, and to have made its way through a thick wrapper of cordage into the gutta percha which covered the wire. The penetration was fortunately dis- covered in time, and was not deep enough to reach the wire. He gave several instances to show the rapidity of its perforating powers,—one of them haying been supplied by Sir Leopold M‘Clintock while he was serving with the author’s brother in the North Pacific. Mr. Jeffreys traced the geographical distribution of the Teredines, and showed that at least two species, which are now found living on our own shores, occurred in the post-pleistocene period; and he inferred from the circumstance of one of these species having been found in fossil drift wood, that conditions similar to the present existed during that epoch. Some species inhabit fixed wood, and may be termed ittoral,” while others are only found in floating wood, and appear to be “ pelagic.” Each geographical district has its own “littoral” species, and the old notion of he ship-worm (which Linnzus justly called “ Calamitas Navium”) haying been TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 119 introduced into Europe from the Indies was contrary to fact as well as theory, be- cause no “littoral” species belonging to tropical seas has ever been found living in the northern hemisphere, or vice versd. 1t is true that some species have been occasionally imported into this and other countries in ships’ bottoms, and that others occur in wood which has been wafted thither by the Gulf and other oceanic currents; but the former cases belong to littoral species, and never survive their remoyal, while the latter may be said to be almost cosmopolite. Every species of Teredo has its own peculiar tube, valves, and pair of “ pallets,” the latter serving the office of opercula, and by their means the animal is able at will to close completely the entrance or mouth of the tube, and thus prevent the intrusion of crustacean and annelidan foes. The length of the tube is, of course, equal to that of the animal, which is attached to it by strong muscles in the palletal ring, and varies in the different species from three inches, or even less, to as many feet. The in- ternal entrance or throat of the tube is also distinguishable in each species by its — transverse laminz, and it has frequently a longitudinal siphonal ridge. onstrosities occasionally occur in the valves and pallets; and in one instance the pallet-stalk is double, showing a partial redundancy of organs, as exemplified by the author with respect to the operculum of the common whelk. More than one species often inhabit the same piece of wood; and want of sufficient care by natu- ralists in extracting the valves with their proper tubes and pallets may account in a great measure for the confusion which exists in public and private collections, and which has thence found its way into systematic works. The Zeredines have many natural enemies. In the South of Italy, and on the North African coast, they are esteemed as human food. In Great Britain and Ireland, four species occur in fixed wood, and eleven others in drift wood, the latter being occasional visitants. Of these, no less than six have never yet been described, and two others are now, for the . first time, noticed as British. The number of recorded exotic species only amounts to six more, making a total of twenty-one ; but it is probable that, when the subject has been more investigated, a considerable addition will be made to this number. Mr. Jeffreys then explained the distribution of the littoral species on the shores of Great Britain and Ireland, and produced a synoptical list with descriptions of the new species. He believed all the Teredines were marine, except, possibly, Adanson’s Senegal species, and one which had lately been found in the River Ganges, the water of which is fresh for about eighteen hours out of the twenty-four, and brackish” during the rest of the day; but as a well-known exception of the same kind occurs in a genus of marine shells (47a), and the transition from fresh to brackish, and thence to salt water, is very gradual, such exceptions should not be regarded with suspicion or surprise. He concluded this part of the subject by exhibiting some drawings and specimens, and acknowledging his obligations to Dr. Lukis and other scientific friends. He afterwards treated the subject in an economical point of view, and remarked that, although the French Government had issued two commissions at different times, and the Dutch Government had lately published the report of another com- mission, which was appointed to inquire into the mode of preventing the ravages of the Zeredo in the ships and harbours of those countries, our own Government had done nothing. He alluded to the numerous and various remedies which had been proposed, during the last two or three centuries from time to time, some of which were very absurd; but he was of opinion, from a study of the creature’s habits, that the most effectual preventive would be a siliceous or mineral composi- tion, like that which has been proposed by Prof. Ansted for coating the decompusing stones of our new Houses of Parliament, or simply a thick coat of tar or paint, continually applied, which would not only destroy any adult ship-worms then living in the wood, but prevent the ingress of the fry. The Zeredo never com- mences perforation except in the larval state *. A Committee of the Association was formed, at the suggestion of Mr. Jeffreys to inquire and report as to the best mode of preventing the ravages of Teredo an other animals in our ships and harbours. * See also Papers by Mr. Jeffreys on this subject in the ‘Annals of Natural History’ for August and October 1860, 120 REPORT—1860. Dr. LanxkesTer called attention to the completion of the first part of Mr. Black- wall’s work on British Spiders,—a copy of which he placed on the table. The work contains twelve coloured plates, and is one of the most complete monographs hitherto published of the class of animals to which itis devoted. It forms the Ray Society’s volume for 1859. —_—— On the Statistics of the Herring Fishery. By Cuanrtes W. Peacu. On Cydippe. By Joun Price, Chester. I will only remind my fellow-naturalists that the Cydippe (which has been, like everything else, retarded by this cold season) was pretty abundant in the Mersey on the 16th of June, and may therefore be looked for confidently on the coast henceforward. In order to enjoy the sight of this most enchanting Oceanid, I advise them— 1. To provide tall glass jars, or, faute de mieux, the largest size of “sample bot- tles,” que¢e transparent, and with large mouths. The last can be taken to the shore in a frame like a cruet stand to hold several bottles, corked during carriage. . 2. To catch the animals in some cup or ladle large enough to take up a gill of water with them, to prevent damage. Best of all, ina 3 spherical ladle, with tubular handle. In either case, plunge it in a full inch in advance of the swimming Cydippe, to save the trains, which easily break. 3. To keep them, when transferred to their permanent Jodging-jar, glass or a Ppebyeas as cold as possible; and never (except when examining them) in a ull light, ‘ 4, ‘lo watch minutely for the ova (grey specks smaller than “Noctilucee”) floating near the surface; and ladle them out (say with a salt-spoon) as most interesting microscopic objects before and after hatching. 5. To microscope, with a low power, Cydippes containing food ; easily known, as they are transparent. And if you get the right kind of prawn, they will capture and swallow them, but not shrimps. 6, If Beroes are to be had, and Cydippes are “as plenty as blackberries,” re- member that the dutter are the natural food of the former, who will bolt as many as five, one after the other. 7. By wniting the two last hints, my curious friends may see, by virtue of the ts ara of both animals, two digestions going on ( for a short time) at once. The Cydippe digests the prawn, whilst the Beroe digests the Cydippe. Qu. Inges- tion ?, Digestion ?, Indigestion ?. : 8. To remember that a number of these creatures were kept in the “good old times” for 13 weeks, without plants, and only changing the water occasionally ; that these perished after all by mere accident, and that it is the pleasing duty of the rising generation to keep them all the year round under the improved régime. On the Aspergillum or Watering-pot Mollusk. By Lovett Reeve, F.L.S., F.G.S. The Aspergillum is a siphoned bivalve mollusk which ceases in an early stage of its existence to live free, and while yet no more than the eighth of an inch in length, sinks into the sand, or adheres to shell or stone, and directs its calcifying functions to the formation of a comparatively large tubular sheath. Upwards the sheath enlarges with the growth of the siphons for their special protection ; downwards the animal closes in the sheath by a disc like the rose of a watering-pot, fissured and erforated and bordered by a frill of small tubes.. The mantle of the animal, which as been observed once, and only once, on the shores of the Red Sea, enlarges on commencing its sheath growth, and a number of tentacles are emitted, each corre- sponding with a perforation or tube of the disc. Frequent distortion is imparted to the shell, more especially to the disc end of it, the scat of the mollusk, according to the circumstances of its place of habitation ; and when adhering to shell or stone the disc may be scarcely recognizable. Shells with the strength of growth even of Spondylus, hecome distorted by their inability to contend against the outward press- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 121 ure of foreign bodies. Shells, therefore, of the delicate and comparatively fragile growth of Aspergillum would be liable to extreme contortion. Asperyillum vagini- ferum, inhabiting the shores of the Red Sea, sinks into the sand, as may be seen by the particles of sand and shell débris that become agglutinated to the sheath, to the depth of eight to twelve inches and more ; the sheath is comparatively straight and symmetrical, and the protruding end becomes furbelowed. A season of rest ensues, another effort is made to extend the sheath, but the calcifying functions either have done their part, or are enfeebled. A little is added to the sheath, and the end is again furbelowed ; and in some specimens the process has been as many as eight times repeated. In adherent species, only one of which, 4. Strangez, inhabiting the shores of N.E. Australia, has been discovered, the disc is very much pressed in, Two speci- mens only have been collected, one affixed to the inner cleft of a mussel hinge, and one attached to stone. The peculiarity of this form of Aspergillum is that the sheath is formed in a square, and being formed, not in sand, but free, is tortuous and enveloped by a slight periostracum. Dr. Gray has stated his opinion in a recent memoir in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society,’ that the sheath of A. Stranget is an enlargement of the primi- tive pair of valves, and that it differs in this respect from the rest of the Aspergila, I incline to dissent from this opinion. Whether by a stretch of induction 1t be regarded as an enlargement of the primitive valves, or not, the relation between them [ hold to be the same in the sand-inhabiting species, as in the adherent species. Dr. Gray also draws a distinction between species which have a wavy depression in the sheath around the circumference of the valves, regarding the wavy depression as a part of the valves, of which only the umbones are seen. My own view is that at the time of the metamorphosis of the mollusk, the valves are not larger in any species than are defined by the smaller outline. When it is considered that the valves are discarded at this time, but not entirely, inasmuch as they are appropriated as material for a nucleus from which to develope a sheath, it is only reasonable to suppose that the new sheath matter would, in some species, obtain a wavy deposit corresponding with the outline of the nucleus. Remarks on the Geographical Distribution of recent Terrestrial Vertebrata. By P. L. Scrater, M.A., Ph.D., See.ZS. After enunciating the principles of the distribution of organic beings according to certain laws, independent of the influences of climate and other external conditions, and that of the “continuity ” of generic areas, which might, as a general rule, be extended to all natural groups, small and large, the author proceeded to point out what appeared to be the most natural primary divisions of the earth’s surface, as deducible from a careful study of the distribution of the terrestrial vertebrates. These were :— }. The Palearctic Region, embracing Europe, Asia north of the Himalayas, and a strip of Africa north of the Atlas. 2. The Athiopian Region, embracing Africa inclusive of Madagascar, and Arabia. 8. The Indian Region, including Southern continental Asia, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and other islands down to the Straits of Macassar. 4, The Australian Region, including New Guinea and adjoining islands, Australia, New Zealand, and Pacitic Islands. 5. The Nearctic Region, including America down to the Southern limits of the Mexican Table-land. 6. The Neotropical Region, including the rest of the New World and the West India Islands. These Regions were well characterized by their striking zoological peculiarities, as shown by the preponderance of certain types and the absence of others in each ; and by the fact that many of the families, more of the genera, and nearly all the species found in each were as a general rule distinct, of which numerous examples were given. These greater divisions of the earth’s surface or regions were subdi- visible into lesser areas or provinces, characterized by being the abode of distinct species, which in many cases represented one another in their different localities. An inquiry into the meaning of these laws of geographical distribution was then 122 REPORT—1860. entered upon, and the question asixed, whether it was possible in the present state of our knowledge of the subject to arrive at any explanation of them. It was remarked that the only hypothesis yet put forward which would explain these laws, was that of “ genetic relationship ” between species or their descent from a common ancestral form. It was an acknowledged fact that the best naturalists were at issue as to the precise limits between representative species and local varieties. It was generally allowed that the latter were descendants of a common progenitor, and the reasons given for the belief in the case of “local varieties ” might be shown to be equally applicable to “representative species.” Specific differences being once granted to have originated from natural causes, it would be impossible to stop here, and it must follow that greater divergences may have resulted from the operation of similar agents acting through longer periods of time. On some Peculiar Forms amongst the Micro-Lepidopterous Larve. By H. T. Sratinron, FLAS. It is well known that the normal form of a ci ne et larva is a cylinder, flat- tened beneath, and slightly tapering and rounded at each end. To this, the typical form of a Lepidopterous larva, we have abundant exceptions in most groups; thus we have the woodlouse-shaped larvee amongst the butterflies, and again amongst the Bombycina; and in the latter group we have also numerous instances of larvee adorned with humps or large protuberances on several of the segments, and in some of the Noctuze larvee we observe a protuberance on the eleventh segment. The normal number of legs is sixteen, that is, six true legs and ten prolegs; but two of the latter are wanting in some of the Bombycina and in some of the Noctuina, and in the whole group of the Geometrina from four to six of the prolegs are wanting. In the group of the Torticina there are very few deviations from the typical form of the larva; but amongst the Tineina we find many genera which give instances of very considerable deviation from the regular cylindric form. Among the most curious forms in this family, the larvee of the genus Phyllocnistis may be mentioned; in these the hinder extremity is so drawn out that it reminds us of the rat-tailed larvee amongst the Diptera, though the object of the prolonged tail in the Phylloenistis larvee is very different. These larve are also perfectly apodal, and the structure of the mouth is peculiar: the jaws of all other Lepido- pterous larvee terminate in two sharp-pointed mandibles; the mandibles of a Phyl- locnistis are perfectly blunt and rounded, like the points of lace-scissors. The reason of this singular formation is pretty evident; the larve of the genera Coleo- phora and Lithocolletis, which mine in the interior of leaves, feed on the parenchyma, which they detach piece by piece by their sharp mandibles and swallow; but the larvee of Phyllocnistis, though feeding beneath the cuticle of the leaf, do not eat the parenchyma, and a leaf eaten by one of these larvee, if held up to the light, shows no trace of the attacks of the larva. On what then do they subsist? The larvae mine rather rapidly forwards beneath the cuticle, raising the cuticle from the epi- dermis, and they apparently devour something which they find between the two, which, as they do not seem to remove any solid matter of the leaf, must be of a juicy nature. It is no doubt essential to the comfort of these larve that the cuticle should not remain detached from the parenchyma in those parts of the leaf which the larva has passed over, and accordingly we find that the cuticle again becomes attached to the parenchyma immediately behind the larva, and that the cuticle may be let down gradually and gently is, I believe, the cause of the prolonged attenuated tail. The object of the blunt mandibles, in like manner, appears to be to avoid any risk of the larva piercing the cuticle, which by letting in the external air would probably be fatal to the existence of the larva, as these lary have to move their jaws in constant juxtaposition to the cuticle, which, in the aspen tree (which is frequented by the commonest species of the genus, P. sufiusella), is re- markably thin;; it must be a great convenience to the larva that the structure of its jaws is such that it can eat its fill without any danger of piercing the cuticle. Sharp-pointed jaws are necessary to a larva which feeds on the harder parts of leaves ; but to this, which only, as it were, sucks up the juice, sharp-pointed jaws are quite unnecessary, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 123 If a leaf eaten by this larva be held to the light no symptoms of its operations will be apparent; but if, instead of holding the leaf between us and the light, we look down on it slantways, we shall perceive some slightly iridescent tracks, which have very much the appearance as though a snail had been crawling across the leaf. Another peculiarity of this larva is that it never moults; its skin is apparently of so elastic a nature, that it grows with the larva; most larve cast their skins four or five times in the course of their lives, but this larva never once undergoes that operation. Besides this, it never sleeps; most larvee, after enjoying a hearty meal, may be found inactive and inert, in a position which conveys to us precisely the idea of sleep, but a Phyllocnistis larva never sleeps, it is always eating; from its exclusion from the egg to its being full-fed, night or day, its jaws are perpetually at work. This is not true only of the larva of Phyllocnistis, it occurs throughout the extensive genus of Nepticula. I have had abundant opportunities of observing these larvee at all hours of the day and night, and, unless they are ill or dying, they are invariably eating. Their jaws have certainly solved the problem of per- petual motion. Ehrenberg expressed surprise that the Infusoria never sleep; and Owen, after long watching the motions of the Polygastrica, concluded they were generally of the nature of respiratory acts, and not attempts to obtain food orayvoid danger. He adds, “ Very seldom can they be construed as voluntary, but seem rather to be automatic; governed by the influence of stimuli, within or without the body, not felt but reflected upon the contractile fibre; and therefore are motions which never tire.” But the motions of these small larve are certainly not automatic; you frequently see the larva turning its head about from side to side of its mine, as though con- sidering where it should eat a bit next, and immediately it has determined that point it sets to work with a will, little indicative of involuntary action. On the Effect of Temperature and Periodicity on the Development of certain Lepidoptera. By Dr. VERLOREN, of Utrecht. A Table was exhibited showing the period at which the pupe of the Sphing Tigustri were hatched. From these tables it appeared that the great proportion of the insects was produced in the middle of June, independent of the state of the temperature of the season ; and it appeared that in cases where the development of the insects had been retarded beyond the fixed period in one year, they appeared only during the limited period in the succeeding year. The observations had been extended through a number of years, and had enabled Dr. Verloren to establish seyeral other interesting physiological facts connected with the species in question. Mr. WEstwoop gave an account of an insect which, on account of its anomalous character, had been referred to three different orders of the class Insecta, and which forms the genus Acentropus of Curtis, the type being the Phryganea nivea of Oliver, regarded as Trichopterous by Curtis, and as Neuropterous by Stephens: Mr. West- wood had many years ago endeavoured to prove it to be Lepidopterous from a con- sideration of the structure of the perfect insect alone. The transformations of the ae having, however, been recently observed by Mr. Brown of Burton-upon-Trent, the opinion of Mr. Westwood had been fully borne out, as was shown by a series of highly magnified diagrams representing the details of the insect and its metamor- phoses, contrasted with those of the orders Trichoptera, Lepidoptera, and Neuro- ptera. The genus appears to be most nearly allied to the family Crambiz. On Mummy Beetles. By J.O. Westwoon, M.A, F.L.S. The object of this paper was to show that no change had taken place in the struc- ture and habits of several species of insects during the period which had elapsed since the embalment of the mummies buried in the pyramids of Egypt. A number of species of such insects had been recorded by Latreille in the work upon Egypt by M. Calliand; and Mr. Westwood exhibited species of the genera Necrodia and Dermestes found within the bodies of mummies by Dr. Pettigrew, and which must have found their way into such bodies during the process of embalment and before 124 REPORT—1860. the final cere-cloths were applied. These insects were not specifically distinguish- able from existing species, although of a somewhat paler colour. On a Lepidopterous Parasite occurring on the Body of the Fulgora candelaria. By J. O. Westwoopn, M.A. F.L.S. After some general remarks on parasitism, the author gave a detailed account of the occurrence of the larvee of a species of moth on the body of the firefly (Fulgora candelaria), for which the name of Epipyrops anomala had been proposed by Mr. Bowring, by whom the transformations of the insect had been observed in China. Not only was the fact of the parasitism of the species as a Lepidopterous insect extremely unusual, but also the circumstance that it was not upon the ligaments of the body that the larva of this moth fed, but evidently upon the white waxy secre- tion so common amongst the Fu/goride, with which their abdomens are enyeloped, was quite anomalous, although wax-feeding habits were known to occur in the larvee of the species of wax-moths. The insect in question appeared to belong to the great family Bombycidz, and specimens were preserved in the British Museum and Hopeian Collection at Oxford. Notes on Tomopteris onisciformis. 2y Dr. E. Percevat Wricut, A.M. Dub. Owon., F.L.S., Lecturer on Zoology, Dublin University. In the summer of 1858, while investigating with Professor J. Reay Greene of Cork, the marine zoology of the south-west coast of Ireland, I had an opportunity of examining somewhat in detail the structure of that puzzling little annulose animal, called Tomopteris onisciformis. ‘The tidal current sets in very strongly from the Atlantic into the narrow entrance between Bere Island and the main land, and carries along with it, in the summer season, whole fleets of oceanic swimming creatures. ‘The number of naked-eyed Medusze and free Actinozoans is almost pass belief to those who haye not witnessed similar phenomena. Various little bays with hollow caverns line the sides of this channel, and in these the water lies very still and quiet ; here, too, vast numbers of the ocean swimmers congregate, imparting to the water almost a milky hue, which sometimes changes and presents an appear- ance as if oil had been cast upon it, owing to the highly prismatic colouring of the various Beroes, Aquoreas, Cydippes, Kc. A retired nook of this sort is a very aradise to the marine explorer, and such were to us places of very frequent resort. After a little practice, one’s eye got accustemed to the varied kinds of locomotion that distinguished more or less each species, so that when I first perceived T onisciformis swimming swiftly with its very peculiar wriggling movements, small as it was, I perceived it to be something new; and afew seconds served to transfer it to a glass collecting-jar. While the whole body was more or less employed, by successive wrigglings, in locomotion, yet it was quite obvious that true locomotion was assisted by the bipinnated series of paddle-shaped organs which are attached at each side of the body. When compared with the graceful floating and umbrella movements of an A%quorea, or the headlong paddle-wheel-like moyements of a Beroe or a Cydippe, it could not be truthfully described as graceful ; nevertheless, there was something about it very characteristic—something that even seemed to point out its proper natural affinities. One of the little creatures lived in apparently good health with me for about twelve hours, though incarcerated in a small glass jar holding but ten ounces of water; and it would have probably lived longer, but wanted its tail for examination, and the necessary compressicn of such an agile and slippery creature between two pieces of thin glass hastened its end. ‘lhe author then alluded to the papers by Dr. Carpenter, Messrs. Leuckart and Pagen- stecher and others on this creature, and gave an outline of its anatomy, alluding to the presence of cilia on the pharyngeal portion, to the peculiar structure of the central portion of the antenna-lke organs, to the tail-like extremity, and the presence therein of masses of Spermatozoa; and finally expressed his conviction that there could be no doubt as to its being a complete creature, and that its tail is not a zooid form, as hinted by Dr. Carpenter. 7 TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 125 PuysioLoey. On the Ultimate Arrangement of Nerves in Muscular Tissue. By Professor Beare, M.B., F.RLS. On the Leptocephalide. By Professor V. Carus, Leipzig. Dr. Kaup places the European species of this highly interesting family in four generic groups,—Esunculus, Hyoprorus, Tilurus, and Leptocephalus. 1t strikes at first, to find amongst the “ Apodal” fishes a form with well-developed ventral fins, viz. Esunculus, similar to the rest only in its transparency, and in wanting the generative organs, differing from them also in the distinctness of the dorsal and anal. Among the rest there are two well-established genera, Ziduwrus with its hair-like tail, and Leptocephalus. According to Dr. Kaup, Tilurus contains two species, tri- chiurus and Rissoi, but both are probably the same, as Risso? is most likely founded on a mutilated specimen. The chief character is taken from the tail here being shorter; Dr. Kaup adds, however, himself, “ perhaps defective in the tail.”” The species of the genus Leptocephalus are to be classed in two groups ; the type of the first is Z. Morrisii, that of the other is Helmichthys diaphanus ot Ratinesque. The former have the body compressed, the latter rounder, earth-wormlike body. Z. Mor- risti and ZL. Spallanzanii differ only by the height of the former, upon which argument one cannot lay much stress, as exact measurements of many individuals give very considerable differences in the relative height and length of the whole body, as well as of the head and the other parts. The species of the second group, L. punctatus, diaphanus, Kollikert, Gegenbauri, Bibroni, and Yarrelli, are representa- tives of at most two species, punctatus and diaphanus. The chief distinction is taken from the relative position of the intestinal outlet. I did not find in two specimens out of some dozens the same position of this orifice ; nor are the row of black points, which characterize the Z. punctatus, always so well developed, that they could be taken as a good character. However, the habits differ in some respect from that of the rest. L. longirostris reminds of Hyoprorus ; the latter is probably nothing but a further developed or an earlier form of the Z. longirostris, L. stenops, and ZL. brevirostris : the two last Muropean species of Dr. Kaup’s Synopsis I know only by his figures, but I am very much inclined to believe that they are to be judged like the others. Taking together the anatomical structure of the whole group, the absence of ge- nerative organs, the structure of their skin, their skull, their vertebral column, taking furthermore into consideration the variability of both the zoological characters and the proportional measurements, I cannot but come to the conclusion that all these fishes are nothing but /arval forms of others. The developed full-grown species to which all of them, except the Lsunculus Costar, belong, are most likely among the Ophidians, or other compressed forms (Cepola, and so on). Although Iam not yet able to state with certainty what species or even genera are to be studied in their development as giving Leptocephalideous larvee, yet I feel quite sure that the family under consideration will ere long be erased from the Systema Nature, just as the Ammoccetes has been excluded from the benefit of being reckoned a full- erown member of the Animal family. On the Value of “ Development” in Systematic Zoology and Animal Morphology. By Professor V. Carus, Leipzig. Although there may be some who will object to my bringing forward a topic of general bearing, and who would prefer to have stated some special facts and details new to science, yet I think that meetings of this kind afford the best opportunity of clearing up, or at least recalling to mind, questions which we are all familiar with, the true bearing of which, howeyer, we are very apt to lose sight of. Since Cuvier laid the foundation-stone of our modern classification of animals, there has been within the last thirty-three years much labour bestowed upon the mending his system, and looking for new characters by which his classes and orders may be either altered and arranged in a somewhat different manner, or still better founded. However, we look up to him not only as the reformer of the classificatory branch of 126 : REPORT—-1860. zoology, but moreover as the founder of the natural system and of the science of comparative anatomy. As I intend to inquire into the value of one of the most striking characters of animals with regard to their classification, as well as to their typical organization, I may. be allowed to state, first, what is meant by a Systema Animalium, or in other words, what place the classification of animals takes among the branches of zoolo- gical inquiry. We are scarcely aware that we use the word system of animals in quite a differ- ent sense from thatin which Linneeus used it, and which was intended even by Cuvier when he arranged the animal kingdom anew according to its organization. Even Cuvier compares the system to a great catalogue of animals, in which every single one can easily be found and named. There is, however, one great feature stamped upon all forms of organized beings, which, although implied and even indicated in the system of Cuvier, yet has given to the system of animals quite another aspect, —I mean the relationship between different animals. Cuvier, and some later natu- ralists, and I may say some of the best, considered the system only as a servant to true science. Classification, according to them, is nothing more than, as Stuart Mill says, acontrivance for the best possible ordering of the ideas of objects in our minds, and at most “for causing the ideas to accompany or succeed one another in such a way as shall give us the greatest command over our knowledge already acquired.” Although a classification worked out in the most perfect manner in this way must also be one of the aims of our endeavours, yet I may say that our present classifi- eatory inquiries go further. They start from the very fact that the oldest forms, and for this reason the forms nearest to the original creation, do not represent any of those groups of individuals which we are used to call species ; nor can all of them be classed under the nowestablished genera, families, and orders, but only under the type to which all succeeding species belong. And although we cannot give the direct ex- erimental proof, yet we are bound by logicand by truths forced upon us from all other ranches of natural history, to say that these oldest original forms are the primeval forms of all living animals, which originated from them by continued generation and by accommodation to external circumstances continually and progressively changing*. Hereby the general bearing of the system of animals is totally changed. We consider it not only as an arrangement of the animals in such a manner as may help us best in gaining a general view of the animal world, and in placing and finding certain forms of it; but we try to make it the faithful expression of the state of our knowledge respecting the relation of all animals to each other. Passing from the much spoken of differences between artificial and natural systems, I may only state, that even that arrangement, which is mainly founded on the internal structure of animals, is nothing more than a somewhat modified form of artificial system, taking only one set of properties as basis of the classification. However, it is the best form hitherto proposed, because it takes into consideration more characters than any other arrangement, and leads us naturally forward in the study of animal life. There is as yet one great chasm which seyers the classifi- cation of minerals from that of animals. In the mineral world we are justified in speaking of species, as the identity of physical and chemical properties grants us the identity of all bodies endowed with these. In the animal world we have nothing but individuals, and all sorts of groups are entirely and totally artificial. The law of equal production of like from like through generations and generations, upon which the notion of the species mainly is based, cannot be trusted to, as we have no experience whatever that it holds good for the same animals under different circum- stances. Passing in review the leading characters upon which the different subkingdoms of the animal world are founded, we perceive at once that they change almost in every class. For although the general headings may be taken from the same system of organs, yet the splitting of the classes and orders into minor divisions is de- pendent on characters especially modified by these very classes and orders. And even here our classification is not quite consistent. Amongst the lower classes of animals, the comparatively simpler organization allows us to take the general form of the bodies as a character to be relied upon, yet no person would be able to calla * T first made the foregoing remarks in my ‘System of Animal Morphology,’ 1853, Tntroduction. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 127 etenophorous medusa a radiated animal. Similar instances may be taken from the higher divisions of the animal kingdom ; as they are known to all who are familiar with our zoological system, I should go too far if I were to specify what a little attention paid to different orders of animals will tellin a moment. The simple result of carefully looking through the established classes and orders of animals, is that there is only a relative weight to be laid upon the different groups of zoolo- gical characters. It depends entirely upon the whole typical organization, and on the correlation of parts as modified by that type. This correlation of parts, which allows us to draw a conclusion from the nature of one organ as to the nature of another, must naturally be changed by the physiological dignity of an organ, which in different types is not always the same; and it will become uncertain whenever the characters which we call specific are becoming indistinct themselves. I thought it necessary to state first in few words, that there is a difference in the value of zoological characters according to different classes, and I am of opinion that the progress of zoology as science depends mainly on the determination of this value in a sharper manner than it has been stated. I published some years ago some general remarks on this subject in a small pamphlet which will scarcely haye reached England. Since then my opinion has become still stronger, as I saw that the progress, which zoology owes of late years especially to some eminent British naturalists, was chiefly dependent on the circumstance that the point men- tioned was, with or without purpose, taken into consideration. The structure of animal bodies shows three different relations of complexity ; com- mon to all three are these two points; first, that a structure, at first simple, becomes more and more diversified ; secondly, that all the differences which appear one after the other make their appearance on a basis fundamentally equal and in itself not changing. They differ according to the difference of this substratum. In one case there is one and the same body changing and becoming more and more complex ; in the second case different members of one great fundamental type of organization constitute a series of forms, some less, some more diversified ; in the third case the very types themselves are to be regarded as members of one great series, showing less and greater complexity. The practice of scientific inquiry has severed these three different points of view into three different branches of science. The first is the history of development, which may just as well be called the comparative anatomy of the individual; the second is the comparative anatomy of the different types ; the third is the general morphology of the animal kingdom. These are the three different bearings which animals generally present to the zoologist with regard to their structure. Now we must ask, what use can we make of them, and of the first-mentioned especially ? As the zoologist has nothing before him but individuals, it is no wonder that the comparative anatomy of these will throw much light on their nature, their life, and their morphology. As long as it is kept in mind that all the facts of the history of development have relation to the individual, and to nothing else, so long nobody will object to the manner of inquiring, which is quite properly called the genetic method. All our zoological classification, however, tends toward the establishment of larger groups and types, and here comparative anatomy has its place. It is very significant, that in the Cuvierian system, which we all follow, its later alterations being quite irrelevant to the grand truths upon which it is founded, there is no use whatever made of the history of development, not even in one instance. It has been said that the emendations of this system, and the whole progress of systematic zoology, depend, if not chiefly, yet for a great part, on the employment of the genetic method. On this I may he allowed to make the following remarks, As comparative anatomy rests entirely on the knowledge of the structure of indivi- duals, everything which throws light on the individual will also throw light on comparative anatomy. But with regard to systematic zoology, we have not to deal with larval forms and immature individuals, but only with such as are able to propagate their individual, or if you like it better, specific form. We cannot, of course, put aside all embryological data in our systematic endeavours. How- ever, there is great danger in overrating the help they give us. A system based on anatomy alone is an artificial one, however true it may be; but its value is always great, and the more attention is paid to the physiological and biological bearings of structural facts, the greater will this value be. A classification of 128 REPORT—1860. animals from embryonic data, however, is still more artificial; it takes only one small group of properties of the animals, and just a group which, by its being con- fined exclusively to individuals, forbids by itself the taking account of other pro- perties. There are so many striking examples of different development in animals related as nearly as possible, that by these alone the exclusive use of embryology a3 a basis for classification is defended. And if the fact of frogs developing with- out the intermediate stages of tadpoles be true (and I have no reason to doubt it), we have in one and the same species differences of development which would in other classes suffice to establish urders. B, this very instance it is shown that embry- ology also ha3 only a relative value as zoological character. Ournext inquiry ought to be directed here, a3 well a3 in all other cases, towards the establishment of the characteral standard of embryology. Nature herself assists us in the rightly weighing of this character of animal bodies, as almost in all cases it serves only to contirm and strengthen relations which have been found by other methods. While there is scarcely any ditficulty in giving to embryology amongst the other sets of properties its right place with regard to the classification of animals, there is, I should not like to say difficulty, but some seemingly perplexing complexity of phenomena and relations, when we are to make out the true bearing of embryology on animal morphology. Here I have to answer two questions: How must we look upon animal forms? and secondly, Are we allowed to explain analogous pheno- mena by methods not correlate to each other? Animal morphology, as the science of animal forms, has to explain these, that is to say, to bring them back to Jaws. A law manifested on different forms cannot be that of cause and effect, but only one of a constant repetition of the same phenomena under seemingly different conditions. The object of animal morphology therefore will be to show the constancy with which certain organs appear in certain groups of animals, and to showthat the relative posi- tion of these organs is always one and the same in the larger and lesser groups. With regard to the first part of these inquiries, there can be no doubt as to the utter failure of embryology. Nothing buta simple anatomical investigation can tell us whether a certain organ or system of organs is present in a certain division of the animal kingdom or absent ; and respecting the second part of our morphological researches, { am equally inclined to doubt whether embryology gives us an insight into the anatomical specialities of a somewhat more complex animal by anything else, but by bringing before us certain forms which are not quite as complex as the animal which we dissect. And here we need not take embryological data; we have before us in every type of animals a whole series of more and more diversified forms, which by themselves offer that same series of simpler forms which we find in the indi- vidual, and even more clearly manifested, because an embryo is always endowed with certain individual or specific peculiarities, which we cannot at present account for at all. With respect to my second question, the embryologists say that two organs which are developed in two different ways cannot be considered homologous. Now, here I have to give a somewhat similar answer to that which I gave with respect to the embryological classification. The homology of parts is determined by the constant relative position of the organs in one andthe same type. An artery which runs up along the mesial line of the cervical vertebree, is homologically dit. ferent from an artery which runs along the jugular vein and the pneumogastric nerve. The morphological relations of a certain class cannot be determined but by comparing full-grown individuals, as all the organs do not work to the purpose of these individuals before the development is finished. And in this respect I must deny any influence of embryological researches on morphological questions. There is, however, another set of questions frequently brought betcre the morphologist, namely, whether two homologous organs are developed in the same way. It is easily seen that their homology must have been determined beforehand. It is of course of the greatest interest to know the differences of the development of the same organ in different representatives of the same type. But they show nothing more than the wonderful facility with which Nature arrives at the same results by different ways. They give us additional proofs of that immense richness of means with which the Creator of all animal bodies works out his plans, On the Deglutition of Alimentary Fluids. By Professor Cornett, M.D. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 129 On the Formation of Sugar and Amyloid Substances in the Animal Economy. By Dr. Roperr M*DonneE tt. After briefly noticing the history of the discovery by Bernard and Hensen of the matter named by the former “ glycogene,” the writer observed that the term now very generally adopted to indicate this substance, viz. “ amyloid matter,” seemed in the present state of our knowledge preferable, as it did not involve any theory con- cerning the ultimate destination of the material in question. It was proposed to embrace under the generic term amyloid substance, two varieties of the starch-like material known to exist in the animal economy, viz. that of the first species, or the amyloid substance of Bernard, a ternary compound isomeric with dried erape- Sugar, convertible by contact with animal ferments into sugar capable of fermenting on the addition of yeast—and that of the second species, or the amyloid substance of Virchow, a material, which, although in histological characters analogous to cellulose and starch, yet as met with in the prostate gland, spleen, choroid plexus, &c., has not yet been shown to be capable of conversion into sugar undergoing fermentation, and which cannot be considered free from the intimate admixture of azotized matters. Dr. M*Donnell discussed at considerable length the question as to whether the liver is endowed with the function of converting its amyloid substance into sugar during life and health, or whether some at least of this substance has not another destination, viz. that of becoming nitrogenized, and thus being, so to speak, raised from the class of ternary to that of quaternary compounds. Admitting that this is one of the most delicate questions in physiology, and being most unwilling to appear to dogmatize on the subject, the writer detailed a consider= able number of experiments on blood drawn from the right side of the heart of animals variously fed, which seem, on the whole, to support the view that trans- eon into sugar is not the normal destination of the amyloid substance formed in the liver, An Experimental Inquiry into the Nature of Sleep. Sy Arruur E. Durwam. Contributions to the Theory of Cardiae Inhibition. By Dr. Micuart Foster. On certain Alterations in the Medulla Oblongata in cases of Paralysis. By Rozert Garner, F.L.S. Tn this paper it was shown, and the fact illustrated by specimens, that in old paralytic cases the crus cerebri on the side of thecerebral lesion and the corresponding anterior column below the pons, but only to the decussation, are both found much atrophied, and this very frequently, though it has been almost entirely overlooked. In such cases the corresponding olivary body retains its plumpness, and these anglia, therefore, rather appertain to the columns to be seen on the floor of the ourth ventricle, and to the posterior or tezumentary portion of the crura. This con- nexion may be well seen by tearing down the hardened medulla oblongata through the locus niger, when it will be found that below the pons the posterior torn portion comes forwards and is firmly connected with the olives, The author appreciates the remarks of Turck and Van der Kolk, and goes on to notice how the olfactory and optic nerves are, in different animals, connected, some- times with the cerebrum principally, in other cases with the cerebral ganglia, or in others with the medulla oblongata; as they are subservient to the intellectual, the animal, or to the locomotive, respiratory and automatic functions. Some remarks on the origin of a few of the cerebral nerves in animals, and a denial that there is any well-marked distinction of an upper and lower tract in the ganglionic cord of such animals as the scorpion and scolopendra, as indeed was long ago shown in the last animal by Mr. Lord, form the conclusion of the paper. 1860. g 130 REPORT—1860. On the Structure of the Lepadide. By R. Garner, F.L.S. In this paper the author bore testimony to the high regard for truth with which Mr. Darwin has recorded his labours, in respect to these animals, though further observation has modified some of his conclusions, and indeed is still wanted. From finding fragments of shells, small pebbles, &c. in the cesophagus of the Lepas anatifera, the author supposes that this part acts as a gizzard, comminutin the food. With Poli he believes in the existence of a heart, situated on the back, a little posterior to the base of the second pair of cirri: however, these observers stand alone with respect to this point. The heart can only be seen in some speci- mens, according to the state of the tissues, which vary much. It receives its supply at the sides, and gives off vessels before and behind: other large and lon- gitudinal vessels exist. With respect to the canal running along the abdominal side of the peduncle, and communicating with the body of the animal, on each side, behind the adductor muscle, the author thinks that by means of it the cavity of the prosoma is distended with fluid, thus acting as an antagonist to the adductor, parting a little the shelly valves. The communicating opening lies betsveen the nerves and oviducts as they course between the peduncle and the body. Mr. Darwin thought that these oviducts conyeyed the ova from his ovaries, or the salivary glands of Cuvier, into the peduncle, where ova are found sure enough. But in some specimens, where they are distended with ova, the oviducts are easily traced from the peduncle down into the body of the animal, making a sweep, and apparently ending at the cavities and apertures called acoustic by Mr. Darwin, who informs us that Krohn has also made out this point. The little membranous, buskin-shaped follicle, found in this acoustic cavity, is sometimes wanting. Cuvier did not often use the microscope, or he would haye soon discovered that his so-called ovaries are, in reality, testes. Little need he said, after Mr. Darwin, respecting the nervous system. The sub- oral ganglion, besides being connected by a ring with the supra-oral ganglia, supplies the salivary glands, the adductor muscle, the viscera, and the mantle by means of a large anterior branch ; also it gives others to the mouth and first cirri, and is con- nected of course with the chain of ganelia between the other cirri. From the supra-oral pair of ganglia, which are in close apposition, two large nerves (anten- nary of Mr. D.) go to the peduncle, and two minute twigs to the eye, described exactly in the “ Lepadidie.” With respect to this eye Mr. Darwin observes, “in all the genera the double eye is seated deep within the body ; it is attached by fibrous tissue to the radiating muscles of the lowest part of the cesophagus, and lies actually on the upper part of the stomach; consequenly a ray of light, to reach the eye, has to pass through the exterior membrane and underlying corium connecting the two scuta, and to penetrate deeply into the body.” This is not quite all; the little organ is made perfect in its adaptation, by a small oval or lozenge-shaped trans- parent spot in these coverings to admit the light, and exactly behind this spot the eyelet may always be easily seen or found. In specimens of Conchoderma Hunteri, parasitic on the carapax of a crab from Amoy, this visual organ is situated between the mouth and the adductor. The so-called proboscis appears to act as an ovipositor, and probably in the pre- hension of the food. The ova are finally attached to the “ovigerous fraena” as broad sheets, with the assistance of a cement, which sometimes glues them unna- turally together. The fatty matter with which the mantle abounds appears to go to their nutrition, and is apparently taken in at the roots of the frana. In this mantle, in some species, the young animals are imbedded, and within its cavity ‘impregnation takes place. The author’s specimens of Zepas came on shore last January at Kimmeridge, attached in vast quantities to a beam of pine. Some were a foot and a half in leneth; mostly simple, but others springing one from another. They are tenacious of life, and appear to be generally cast on shore upon our coasts in rough winter weather. The author has had large living Balani picked up in the Mersey, and has Lepadidse attached to nuts of China, the small shells of a Sepia, and minute ones on the shells of Zanthina and Spirula from the Gulf-weed, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 131 On Saccharine Fermentation within the Female Breast. By Georce D. Giss, M.D., W.A., F.G.S. After referring to Vogel’s discovery of vibriones in human milk, and the suspicion he entertained that their origin was due to fermentation of the milk, but which was denied by subsequent observers, the author proceeded to state that his own researches into this question commenced in the latter part of 1854. At that time an infant seven weeks old was brought to him in the most extreme state of emaciation, whosé mother had the appearance of good health. The child, although but skin and bone, was healthy and piump at birth, and was in no way diseased; it had plenty of its mother’s milk, but never was satisfied, and seemed ravenous. The most profuse diaphoresis and diuresis had worn it toa shadow. ‘The mother’s milk was found to be rich in cream, neutral, sp. gr. 1032, and contained a large quantity of sugar. Examined under the microscope upon the instant of withdrawal from the breast, it revealed numbers of living animalcules, those known as the Vibrio baculus, but which he proposed to change to Vibrio lactis as more appropriate. These he con- sidered the result of fermentation of the saccharine element within the eland. There was an absence of mammary congestion and heat, which are usually present in such cases, but much general nervous excitement, which it was necessary to control by proper treatment. The child was supplied with an abundance of: good cow’s milk, and gradually weaned, after the lapse of some weeks, and ultimately completely recovered. The mother’s condition also improved ; the milk continued to be rich in cream and sugar for some time, varying in sp. er. from 1032 to 1035, and always neutral; the animalcules remained for some weeks, and finally disap- peared; and when drawn from the breast, the milk invariably turned sour much sooner than other examples of cows or healthy human milk. From 1854 to the present time the author has examined many hundred specimens of human milk, chemically and microscopically, and has occasionally found twospecies of animalcules to be present in the glands of those whose general health was dis- ordered from various causes during lactation, or where the process of lactation was unusually prolonged, or again, where the quantity of milk secreted was small and insufficient to satisfy the wants of the infant. At early lactation also, where the milk was good and plentiful, but with constitutional symptoms present as already referred to, both species were found, but not in the same individual. These creatures consisted, first, of the Vibrio lactis, resembling little rod or minute hair-shaped bodies, similar to those found in some of the other fluids of the body ; and secondly, of monads, which he has found to be far more frequent and com- mon than vibriones, and which he proposed to call Monas lactis, Both species were noticed at all periods of lactation, froma few days to upwards of twelve months; the colour and specific gravity of the milk varied, but it was inva- riably alkaline or neutral. The children were mostly skin and bone, resembling little old men, and soon died of inanition unless other food than the mother’s milk was supplied to them. It was not these little bodies that disagreed, but the healthy properties of the milk for assimilation were destroyed, by constitutional causes in the mother, which imparted as it were a galvanic shock through the agency of the uterine nervous system, at the moment of its secretion, giving rise to fermentation in the sugar alone, a substance the author believed the only one likely to produce it within the breast. This process did not necessarily give rise to the formation of lactic acid ; had it done so, it would have destroyed the animalcules ; moreover, in no single instance was the milk ever found acid. ' He referred to some experiments of Berthelot to show that fermentation of sugar could take place in alkaline fluids; and the rapidity with which milk containing these animalcules is decomposed and turns sour out of the breast, now generating a large quantity of lactic acid, the author considered a strong proof of fermentation having previously commenced within the breast. He believed it very probable that the animalcules were generated from the sur- face of the mucous membrane of the lactiferous tubes, by the fermentation of the sugar at the moment of its secretion from the blood, and this in some cases explained the large numbers present. The necessary connexion subsisting between the mam- mary glands and uterine organs, explained the influence of the latter in producing the heat and internal congestion of the former by reflex nervous agency, giving rise to the conditions described, in which the vitality of the milk was much impaired, * 132 REPORT—1860. The author then briefly entered into the general question of treatment to be pur- sued, both for the parent and child, under the circumstances detailed. On Asiatic Cholera. By Sir CHARLES Gray. A Word on Embryology, with reference to the mutual relations of the Sub- kingdoms of Animals. By J. Rray Greene, B.A., Professor of Natural History in the Queen’s College, Cork. Tn a communication bearing the above title, the author endeavoured to explain that any real improvements in the arrangement of the animal kingdom which have been made since the time of Cuvier accorded well with the corresponding advances of comparative embryology. Thus only, indeed, were they shown to be true; for the method of gradations, whatever might be its value in suggesting affinities, could not, of itself, be deemed sufficient to prove them ; while its exclusive employ- ment had already, in too many cases, engendered errors, the further multiplication of which could alone be kept in check by a continual appeal to the test of develop- ment. From this point of view, the mutual relations of the five sub-kingdoms of animals appear as in the accompanying analytical Table :— THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. The organism does not exhibit a A blastoderm is formed, which division into true layers. divides into inner and outer Subkingdom 1. PROTOZOA. layers. The two layers of the blastoderm The blastodermal layers become undergo no further funda- further differentiated. The mental differentiation. There organism exhibits neural and is no distinction into neural heemal regions. and heemal regions. Subkingdom 2. CAALENTERATA. he hemal region is first deve- The neural region is first deve= loped. There is no segmenta- loped. tion of the blastoderm. Subkingdom 8. MOLLUSCA. SS ee The blastoderm may become an- The blastoderm divides into so- tero-posteriorly segmented, but matomes, A primitive groove, there is no formation of pri- dorsal and visceral plates are mitive groove, dorsal and vis- formed. ceral plates*, Subkingdom 5, VERTEBRATA. Subkingdom 4. ANNULOSA. The generalizations here expressed may, to a certain extent, be regarded as cO- rollaries from the well-known proposition of J. F. Meckel :—d. h. das hohere Thier in seiner Entwickelung dem Wesentlichen nach die unter ihm stehenden, bleibenden Stupen durchliuft, wodurch also die periodischen und Classenverscheidenheiten auf einander zuriickgefiihrt werden}. Fora Vertebrate ovum, before segmentation, differs but little, essentially, from an astomatous Protozoon. At a later stage, when the division of the blastoderm into serous and mucous layers has just taken place, it admits of easy comparison with the permanent forms of Celenterata, the simpler organisms of this group being little more than double-walled sacs of peculiar form, with one extremity open for the purpose of alimentation. * This proposition is stated and commented on by Professor Huxley in his recent memoir “On the Agamic Reproduction and Morphology of Aphis.” See especially § 5 of the same paper, entitled ‘‘The Embryogeny of the Articulata, Mollusca, and Vertebrata compared” (Linn. Trans. vol. xxii.). ft System der yergleichenden Anatomie, Erster Theil, p. 396. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 133 Recent researches on the structure of the Infusoria show that some members of that group, for example Vorticella, present a more or less obvious differentiation of their primitively homogeneous tissue into imperfect layers. A mouth, also, is con- stantly present. In these characters the higher Protozoa pre-indicate, as it were, certain structural features which are seldom absent among the members of other sub-kingdoms. So also do the more advanced Cclenterata, and especially the Ctenophora, foreshadow, in a manner, the anatomical peculiarities of some of the higher types. All this may be admitted as true, without in any way neglecting the fundamental distinction insisted on by Von Baer between the grade of development and the type of organization. t is to be observed with reference to the Annulosa, that the difficulty of enun- ciating propositions which shall be equally applicable to the Articulata properly so called (Arthropoda), and those lower annulose forms known collectively as Annuloida or Vermes, is still so much felt, as to render it doubtful whether these two great divisions should not be raised to the rank of separate subkingdoms. This, at resent perhaps the most important question in systematic zoology, has already ean answered in the affirmative by J. V. Carus, Gegenbaur, R. Leuckart, Siebold, and Vogt. The threo first-mentioned of these naturalists regard the Echinodermata as con-= stituting a seventh subkingdom. Of the propriety of separating this group from the Celenterata no doubt can any longer be entertained, although Prof, Milne- Edwards and a few other zoologists of repute still continue to unite these widely different forms under the oldname of Radiata. So long, however, as the arguments brought forward by Prof. Huxley remain unanswered, the author can see no reason to dissent from his conclusion, that the Echinodermata, while forming a distinctly circumscribed class, are nevertheless connected by true affinities with the division Annuloida. On the Mode of Death by Aconite. By Evwarp R. Harvey, M.A., B.M., Oxon. Death by aconite has been attributed by different observers to its influence upon each of the three vital organs, the heart, lungs, and brain. The following experiments were made with a view of determining, if possible, the organ whose functions were most directly interfered with by the poison. Fleming’s tincture was always used. In experiment 1, two minims of the tincture were injected beneath the skin of a dog. In 23 hours after injection the dog died. There had been no convulsions, no loss of consciousness, no apparent loss of sight, no change in the pupils, and no disturbance of the respiration: the two marked symptoms were vomiting and great prostration. On examination after death, the veins of the neck were seen to be enormously distended. The heart contained blood partially clotted in both auricles. The other organs were healthy. In experiment 2. on a rabbit, the heart was the organ first affected (its pulsations falling in 5 minutes from 140 in a minute to 100, and soon becoming laboured and irregular) ; the breathing then became distressed, and just before death there were convulsions. Post-mortem examination directly after death :—The veins of the neck and brain were distended with blood. The heart gave, when exposed, two very slight quiverings, not to be called contractions; all the cavities contained blood. The other organs were healthy. In experiment 8, similar symptoms during life and appearances after death were observed. Experi- ment 4, The heart of a frog having been exposed by removal of a portion of the sternum, the pulsations numbered 60 in a minute, and were forcible and irregular. After three or four drops of the tincture had been let fall into the thoracic cavity, the pulsations became very rapid, feeble, and irregular, and soon could no longer be felt: the beating here ceased: 10 minutes after death the heart was again pulsating, though much more feebly than in another frog killed by pithing. Ex- net 5. A young rabbit was killed by aconite, and another young one by a low behind the ears. In the animal killed by aconite, there was aslight fluttering movement of the heart, but there were no regular contractions, and galvanism pro- duced no effect whatever ; in the other rabbit, the heart was contracting regularly after death ; and when all contraction had ceased, galvanism occasioned slight but decided contractions, Experiment 6, Fiye minims of the tincture were injected 134 : REPORT—1860. beneath the skin of a rabbit. In 40 minutes the pulse was intermittent, and had fallen from 168 in a minute to 36. The temperature within the ears, which at the time of injection was 97°, was 93°. The animal at this time was ex- tremely weak, and unwilling to move; twenty minutes later it was more lively; the pulse beat 60 in a minute, and the temperature within the ears was 96°. The heart’s pulsation slowly and steadily increased, and the animal recovered. Experiment 7. In a very young rabbit which received beneath the skin four minims of the tincture, similar symptoms terminated in recovery. In the latter case the temperature fell from 97° to 89°. In each case the only sign of cerebral disturbance was an extreme weakness of the hind legs, which perhaps amounted to temporary paralysis ; the breathing was never distressed, and but little hurried. Loss of power of the heart and of the muscles generally, with a fall of temperature, was the marked symptom, and the condition of the animals improved or deterio- rated coincidently with the state of the heart. Experiments 8 and 9. In two rabbits poisoned by aconite the heart and large veins were distended with blood. In experiment 10, where there had been during life no symptoms of asphyxia, the right side of the heart alone contained clots; a little liquid blood escaped from both ventricles. This is the only evidence throughout the experiments of death from asphyxia. With this exception, all the preceding experiments led to the conclusion that aconite kills by its action upon the heart, and that the disorder of the brain and lungs, when present, is due to the congestion consequent upon the heart’s failure. To discover if the circulation was affected by the outward application of the tincture to an inflamed part, a frog’s web was placed under the microscope, and inflammation excited by a little mustard; the whole web was then moistened with a few drops of the tincture; no effect whatever was observed for two hours during which the web was under the microscope. It remained to be seen if the poison acted directly upon the muscles or nerves. For this purpose experiments were made upon frogs: galvanism was applied under various circumstances, and though the experiments were not sufficiently numerous to decide the point, the conclusion arrived at was, that aconite acts immediately upon the nerves, and through them upon the muscles—the heart among the number—and that that organ is the first of the vital organs whose function is interrupted. The latter experiment will be repeated, as well as others which have been instituted on the antidotes of aconite. Several very careful analyses of the blood and urine of animals under aconite were made, but beyond the increased quantity of urine, nothing worthy of parti- cular comment was discovered. On the Anatomy of Stenops Petto, Perodicticus Geoffroyi of Bennett. By Professor Van per Hoeven. . It is not for the first time that I make a communication on this species to the British Association (see Report of the British Association for 1850, Trans. Sect., p: 125*). On a former occasion I proved that this species, first described, or rather commemorated, at the beginning of the foregoing century, by Bosman, in his Dutch work on the coast of Guinea, belongs to the group of the genus Stenops of Iliger or Nycticebus of Geofivoy. I haye now the pleasure of bringing here to the meeting a nearly complete anatomical monograph of this species. It was in the begin- ning of 1857 that I received two well-preserved male specimens of the Potto, pre- sented to me by a Surgeon in the service of the army of the Netherlands, then residing at George d’Elmina. I placed them in the hands of a Candidate of Medicine, F. A. W. van Campen, to procure him a good argument for his disserta- tion. That able young man, who had devoted himself to the study of anatomy, died * In the few lines inserted at that page the name Lemur Pollo occurs twice, but is a mis- print for Lemur Potto. 1 avail myself of this opportunity to correct another fault, not of the printer, but of myself. ‘The late excellent zoologist E. T. Bennett has not stated in his de- scription of the Perodicticus (Proceedings of the Zoological Society, part 1, 1830, pp. 109, 110) that the tarsus was elongated. For the words, ‘* The tarsal bones were of the same shape as in Svenops, and the statement of Bennett, that the tarsus was elongated, is incorrect ” read ‘* The tarsal bones were of the same shape also in Stenops, and my former opinion, that the tarsus was elongated, is incorrect,” TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 135 before he could obtain his degrees. I received his notes and wrote after them the Monograph, which was edited in 1859 by the Royal Academy of Sciences of the Netherlands in its seventh volume (Ortleedkundig Ondersock yan der Potto van Bosman door F. A. W. van Campen, Med. Cand. Uit zesse nagelasen aan seekeningen byeen gebragt door J. van der Hoeven (Met due Platen Amsterdam, Ato, 77 pp.). Except the female organs of generation, a species, scarcely known thirty years ago, is now more completely investigated than many species of the mammalia living in Europe. : The little but very natural group of Mammalia called Lemuride, is one with whose investigation I have been often and at different times engaged. It is well known that zoologists have given the name of a hand to every extremity in which the thumb is opposable to the other fingers. Some haye such only on the posterior ex- tremities, as the opossum (Didelphis) of America and the Chiromys of Madagascar. Those are called Pedimana, or hind-handed, Others haye this structure both in the anterior and posterior extremities, as in the case in the greatest number of monkeys, and in the lemurs (Quadrumana). Man is the only species of the order Bimana where the opposable thumb exists on the anterior extremities only. Amongst the Quadrumana the Lemuridx are distinguished by the nail of the second finger of the hind feet, which is erected, compressed and sharp (of a subulate shape), while the other fingers have flat nails. I found that in all the species the fourth finger, both of the anterior and posterior feet, is the longest. In the apes, on the contrary, as in most other mammals having five fingers, the third is the longest of all. To those characters, sufficient perhaps for the systematic zoologist, we may add, after what is known by the investigations of Cuvier, Fischer, Meckel, W. Vrolik, Burmeister, A. Smith, Kingma and myself, several anatomical characters, as, for instance, that the lower jaw is divided into two distinct lateral parts (as in many other mammals, but neyer in the monkeys); that the orbit is notclosed by the interposition of the ala magna ossissphenoidei between the malar and frontal bones, so that the fisswwa orbitalis inferior is not distinct from the temporal fossa*; that there exists a flat, mem- branaceous or aponeurotic tongue-shaped appendage beneath the tongue, terminated in slender slips forming a pectinated tip; that the first pair of cerebral nerves is represented by large corpora mammillaria, and that the uterus (in those of which the anatomy is known) has two cornua, and not that pyriform shape which it assumes in the monkeys and in woman. The whole group is confined to the eastern hemisphere of our planet. The greatest number of species lives only in Madagascar; some are found on the continent of Africa in tropical regions; and some in East India, chiefly in the isles at the south and east coast of Asia. I distinguish the Zemurina into two groups. In the first there is only one nail of the hinder feet erected and subulate; in the other, not only the second, but also the third has that shape. To this second group belongs only the genus Tarsius, living in Celebes, Borneo, and the Philippine Isles. It scems not to be proved that there is more than one species of that genus. ‘The tarsus is very elongated, To the first group belong all the other Zemurina. In those the superior inci- sors are placed by two pairs, and a vacant space is left between them in the middle. Some of those have the tarsal bones elongated like Zursiws; the calcaneum and navicular bone forming two slender elongated bones placed near cach other like the radius and ulna in our fore-arm. This genusis Ofolionus or Galago. In others the tarsus is not elongated. Some have only two incisors in the lower jaw (Lichanotus, Propithecus); others have four in both jaws. To this last subdivi- sion belong the genus Lemur (stricto sensu) and Stenops. The first has a long tail, the second a short, or only rudimental tail, or no tail at all. The last is the case in the slender and small Ceylonese species (Stenops gracilis). All species of Stenops have a short index to the fore-hand; i Stenops Potto there is an exaggeration of this generic peculiarity, and the index has only two phalanges. The species is further distinguished by the peculiarity that some spinous processes of the neck, covered * In Tarsius the orbit appears to be closed behind, but the deviation from the other Lemurid@ is more apparent than real; the great ala of the sphenoid bone is not concerned in the formation of the hind wall of the orbit, but the malar bone is enlarged. + Propithecus seems to make an exception, but it ismore an apparent than arealone. See Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1832, p. 21. 136 REFORT—1860. only by a thin corneous epiderm, pierce through the fur like prickles. They are those of the fifth to the last cervical, and of the first two dorsal vertebree. Observations on the Teredo navalis, and the Mischief caused by it in Holland. By Professor vAN DER HoeEven. It is well known that the Zeredo has been greatly destroying the piles which were employed in the construction of the dykes of Holland in the beginning of the preceding century, chiefly in the years from 1730 tol733. Since that period it is scarcely recorded that any mischief has been produced by that bivalve till the year 1827, when in the province of Sealand it again became noxious. But it was chiefly in the years 1858 and 1859 that the species increased very much, and the destruction produced by it was the cause of a committee of members of the Royal Academy of Science being formed, with the view of inquiring concerning the damages in different localities, and as to the best means of protecting timber against their ravages. I have the pleasure to place the Report of those gentlemen, published some weeks before I left Leyden, in the hands of the gentleman who has given such an elaborate dissertation on the Ship-worm to this meeting of the British Association. He will I hope make known hereafter the chief contents to the English naturalist. From the comparison of different records, it seems to result that the species, which it is well known now was not imported from foreign and warmer seas, exists always on our coasts, but that there are some periods of greater occurrence, produced as it seems by high temperature of the year and by dry summers. Different experiments have proved that some proposed means of preserving tim- ber against the ship-worm are only useful for a short time, or even not useful at all ; such are mixtures of fine fragments of broken glass and fat, different oil-paintings and the like ; such is also the imbibition with different solutions of salts, sulphate of copper, acetate of lead, and others. The best success, on the contrary, yet obtained was by creosoting timber, a result also obtained in this country, as is stated in the ‘Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers.’ I think myself fortunate in having the opportunity of placing the book I have brought with me in the hands of a Member of this Association who has such a great knowledge of a subject, to the elucidation of which, in a practical point of view, the Committee of the Academy of Amsterdam has given its conscientious and laborious consider- ation. On the Development of Pyrosoma. By Professor Huxtey, F.R.S. On the Nature of Death from the Administration of Anesthetics, especially Chloroform and Ether, as observed in Hospitals. By Cuar.es Kipp, M.D. The author haying collected and tabulated 109 deaths from chloroform, 22 from ether, and 2 from amylene, believes himself to be in a position to offer some ex- planation of these accidents. Of these 133 deaths, 90 occurred in male patients, and 43, or less than half that number, in females, though anesthetics have been largely used in midwifery practice, Such occurrences are very rare in children. From 250,000 to 300,000 operations of all kinds have been performed under the influence of anesthetics, and chiefly of chloroform, and in some hundreds of severe cases the patient has been more than an hour in a state of deep anesthesia. In all these latter cases not a single well-attested instance is on record in which death has taken place from simple stoppage of the functions of life, or narcotism of the system by the chloroform. Fully 80 per cent. of all the deaths, and nearly all those from chloroform, have occurred from trivial operations, from very small doses, and suddenly before the anesthetic had produced its full effect. The author does not contend that death cannot occur in the human subject from long-con- tinued inhalation of chloroform, but only that it has not been observed to do so in hospital practice. It seems probable that when anesthesia is once established in a favourable surgical subject, respiratory action is diminished, and the breathing for a definite interval proceeds on a diminished scale, almost as it does in the case TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 137 of hybernating mammals. On the other hand, if respiration by fresh pungent chloroform, vomited matter, &c., be disturbed, slight spasm of the glottis may take place through the recurrent laryngeal nerves. This occurs occasionally in strong and healthy, but nervous subjects, and especially in trivial cases; and the occurrence of death in such instances from a few drops of chloroform is to be attributed to this disturbance and stoppage of the respiratory muscles at the end of the irritant or second stage—this being the dangerous point in administration of chloroform. It may be considered almost as an established law, that patients suf- fering under old disease and severe nervous irritation or neuralgic pain bear chlo- roform best. Dr, Kidd thinks that statistics for future use ought to be examined in two ways: first inductively, and then by comparing the several groups of facts collected, and deducing from them conclusions applicable to practice. Single “ positive instances ” lead only to false conclusions. Though a single instance in a case of pure physical science may be all that is requisite, as in the case of measurements of atomic ele- ments, angles, &c., this is not the case in so complicated a matter as the one under discussion, in which it is necessary to generalize, not from single facts, but from a comparison of groups of facts. In surgical practice under chloroform we have to fear, not so much deep insen- sibility as the production, first, of apnea from muscular inaction, or spasm of the Berta of the neck by irritation of the excito-motor respiratory apparatus. The eaths from chloroform may be proved to be of an accidental character, and many deaths during operations are charged to chloroform which would have occurred equally before chloroform was used, and would then haye been put down to some other cause. For instance, of 45 deaths recorded by Dr. Snow, 6 were attributable to fright. Those which really follow chloroform commonly occur before the ope- ration, and seldom or never as the result of a long tedious operation: of 85 deaths which have been classified, 9 were cases of delirium tremens, and of the remainder not one followed a capital operation. The fact also that in 300,000 operations of all kinds chloroform has saved from 6 to 10 per cent. of lives, as held by Prof. Simpson and the author, also tends to eer that the cause of death, at least in hospitals, is of an accidental character, rom ageneral survey of the facts, the author finds that the deaths from chloroform are all sudden, and many of the nature of “ fit.” Chloroform has a powerful irritant action upon the pneumogastric nerve; and it is found that a similar irritation by electricity causes vomiting and stops the action of the heart. Hence syncope may possibly occur, if this irritation or (tetanoid ?) apnea of the respiratory muscles and laryngeal nerves be reflected to the heart through the cardiac nerves of the same pneumogastric trunk : this mode of death is most remarkable, for instance, under the analogous agent—amylene. The general effect of the introduction of chloroform into surgical practice has been good; and where it acts badly the author believes that the cause may often be found in the tendency in patients themselves to defer sub- mitting to an operation till too late. Upon a comparison of the present surgical death-rate with that of 1846 immediately before the introduction of chloroform, it appears 10 per cent. lower; and further, of the deaths which have taken place, one-fourth have been in persons who have previously taken chloroform without ill effect. Both these facts support the author’s view of the accidental nature of death from chloroform. The fact of death from chloroform occurring in slight operations and early in the administration, has been remarked by all the chief observers, viz. MM. Robert of Paris, Denonyilliers, Paget, Snow, and Brown-Séquard. The opinion that this is due to disease of the heart is erroneous. In most fatal cases the heart has not been found diseased. Thus in 4 cases in London hospitals, the post-mortem ex~ aminations of which were attended by the author, the heart-fibres were examined and found healthy, though one of them (at Guy’s) was reported in the medical Journals as a marked case of fatty heart. In 18 deaths reported in Journals which presented some visible lesion, 8 only showed diseased heart. Again, in 24 deaths. from ether, the cause appears to have been extreme hebitude, muscular relaxation and exhaustion, and in some consequent hemorrhage following operations. On the other hand, numerous patients known to have diseased hearts have taken chloroform without any bad result, and in hundreds of animals death has been. 138 REPORT—1860. observed to take place through the respiratory muscles first, the heart suffering as a mere consequence. There have been probably 100 deaths from chloroform, and twice as many patients saved from impending death by the proper use of restora- tives, the chief of which is artificial respiration, which ‘ wakes up ” the respiratory muscles. These restoratives have been directed so as,to excite the reflex and respi- ratory system of nerves. Some patients have probably been lost by means used on the theory of fatty or obstructed heart. Intoxication, delirium tremens, and hysteria all contraindicate the use of chloroform; and it was also found during the Crimean war, and more recently at three several seats of war in Italy, that nervous fright- ened prisoners were particularly bad subjects for it. Any condition of violent emotion (“exaltation of sensibility”) would appear to approach that state which causes spasm of the glottis, trachelismus, Xc., while depressing emotion (fright ?) may lead tosyncope. Dr. Snow does not seem to have noticed the effect of delirium tremens; but in 85 fatal cases, collected by the author in the hospitals, 9 appear due to it, or to intoxication ; the mischief is probably owing to the cerebral hemi- spheres, medulla, and reflex system in the spinal cord being weakened by alcohol. In 4 well-authenticated cases the heart was still beating after respiration had ceased ; this is also very often seen in experiments on animals; and probably obser- vation only is wanting to establish the more frequent occurrence of this phenc~ menon in man. In the author's opinion the heart is one of the very last organs which is depressed by chloroform, and this fact it is which renders its use compa- ratively safe. He fears rather the implication of the “respiratory tract.” The chief conclusions at which Dr. Kidd arrives are as follows :— 1, Ether is little if at all superior to chloroform. In “ ether mixtures” the ether is first inhaled pure. Ether causes the pulse to intermit, and is to be avoided where we fear excessive hemorrhage or muscular relaxation ; but in dislocations and in midwifery it has some points in its favour, but not in a mixture with chloro- form. Ether, too, in a sick room may take fire, but chloroferm does not. 2. There is less reason to fear the effect of anesthetics in women and children and in severe operations, than on robust men ; especially if given to the use of intoxi- eating liquors, or when the operation is connected with tendinous parts, in which cases syncope often follows when no chloroform is used. 3. Hospital experience tends to prove that chloroform is less dangerous in pro- portion as the operation for which it is used is more severe. When once the pai- pebral conjunctiva is insensible, there is a period of safety during which the respira- tory action is diminished like that of hybernating mammals ; the heart remains unaf- fected, but the pulse becomes larger. The many instances in which this has been seen, seem to overpower isolated cases of death from diseased heart and chloroform, and should encourage hopeful views on the use of anesthetics. 4. Idiosyncrasy has probably little or nothing to do with deaths from anesthetics, if we omit habits of intoxication, hysteria, and tendency to “fits.” Thus re- peated trials of chloroform (“ trials Cessai”) on a patient are a mistake, and nowise affect the chance of his safety on any given occasion. 5. There are two, or perhaps three modes in which anesthetics may cause death, and which require watching. (a) Ether may do so at some uncertain interval of time during the first twenty-four hours after an operation. (8) Chloroform in- stantly, by an action on the laryngeal-recurrent and double respiratory centre in the neumogastric nerves. In half these cases, probably, as in apnea or asphyxia, the fieart is still beating; and (y) in other cases by syncope (as a coincidence ?). 6. In several cases, e g. those of delirium tremens, the death probably occurs because ordinary restoratives fail to act in consequence of the imperfect reflex ner- vous system; but in cases of impending death, we are to have recourse to artificial respiration by pressure (rather than the Marshall Hall plan), since this also acts upon the engorging cavities of the heart; tracheotomy if we have reason to fear spasm of the glottis or asphyxia; sudden dashing (not too long continued) of cold water; fanning of fresh air on the face, &c.; but as the spasm may subside, we are not to do too much at first. Acupuncture, quickly done, of the muscles of the neck is recommended in order to irritate the spinal accessory and phrenic nerve, but not the eighth pair; and “ Faradisation ” here also is most valuable. 7. Our experience of oxygen gas, common galvanism, &c. as restoratives is not encouraging at present. Injection of port wine into the rectum is better, or the iP. nied TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 139 transfusion of any simple saline fluid into the veins, as has been tried in the case of animals poisoned with chloroform, and as in the analogous collapse of cholera. On a Hydro-spirometer. Ly Dr. Lewis. On the Development of Buccinum, By Joun Lussock, LR, PLS, In the year 1851 MM. Koren and Danielssen published a memoir* on the Development of the Eggs of Buccinum undatum and Purpura lapillus, in which they gave an interesting account of the development of the young mollusks, and especially excited the surprise of naturalists by certain statements regarding the amalgamation of several eggs to form one embryo. The two above-mentioned species produce peculiar capsules, each containing several hundred eggs. The capsules of Purpwra are bottle-shaped, those of Buc- cinum are like around cushion, and are attached to one another in clusters, and fastened to rocks, shells, or sea-weeds. Often, however, they are detached and thrown up on the shore, so that they are familiar to all those who ever walk along the beach near high-water mark. The egg-capsules of Purpura are attached singly to the rocks. It was already known that, although each capsule contained a great number of eggs, only a small number of embryos, from fifteen to thirty, came to maturity. MM. Koren and Danielssen gave a very extraordinary account of the phenomenon, According to them the eggs grouped themselves in masses, round which a common skin was formed, and thus numerous ova combined to form one embryo. This account of a process, so different from that with which we are familiar in other animals, was not likely to pass long without either confirmation or opposition ; and accordingly Dr. Carpentert, having studied the development of the eggs of Purpura lapillus, disputed some of the statements made by MM. Koren and Danielssen, gave a very different explanation of the whole phenomenon, and added the high authority of Messrs. Busk and Huxley in confirmation of his view. Dr, Carpenter had no opportunity of making any observations on the embryology of Buccinum, but he convinced himself that the egg-capsules of Purpura lapillus contain two sorts of bodies, namely true eggs and “ yolk-spheres,” which, however, are at first undistinguishable from one another. After a while, however, “all the egg like bodies in the capsule begin to show signs of cleavage. In the greater part of them, the two segments produced by the first cleavage are equal, or nearly so; and each of these again subdivides into other two, which are alike equal ;” after which the division becomes irregular. These are the so-called “ yolk-spheres.” Some few of the egg-like bodies, on the contrary, divide into two wnequal segments, These are the true eggs, and each embryo takes its origin from one of these. The embryo then developes rapidly in itself a central hollow or stomach, a wide ceso- phagus, and two lobes covered with cilia. It then commences to swallow the yolk matter around it, and this is the reason that the number of embryos is so much smaller than that of the egg and yolk-spheres. MM. Koren and Danielssen by no means gaye up their theory, but after repeat- ing their observations, they reiterated their statements }, giving, however, it must be confessed, figures much more nearly resembling those of Dr. Carpenter than the ones contained in their first memoir. Finally, Dr. Carpenter, in the ‘Annals and Magazine of Nat. Hist.’ for 1857, has published some further remarks on the subject, and adds, in addition, the testimony of Dr. Dyster to the truth of his assertions. This is the present state of the ques- tion; and considering how common are the egg-capsules of Buccinum, it is remark- able that no one has tested MM. Koren and ces wee’ statements in reference to that genus. The whole subject is one of great interest; and though I could not doubt the truth of statements made from independent observations by four such excellent authorities as Messrs. Carpenter, Bush, Huxley, and Dyster, yet MM. Koren and * Bitrag til Pectinibranchiernes Udviklingshistoire. I have not seen the original work but there is a translation of it in the Ann. des Sc. Nat. for 1852. t Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, vol. iii. p. 17. { Fauna Littoralis Norvegiz, vol. ii, 140 REPORT—1860. Danielssen, though wrong as to Purpura, might still be quite correct in the case of Buccinum, and I was very anxious to repeat their observations. It could not be denied that it was @ priori probable that what was true of Purpura, would also apply to Buccinum. Still, if I had any bias, it was in favour of MM. Koren and Danielssen. Many insects present us with a case in many respects parallel. In Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, Neuroptera, and the Geodephagous beetles, each ege is accompanied by several vitelligenous cells, or as we might call them in the words of Dr, Carpenter, yolk-spheres. After a while the walls of the vitelli- genous cells disappear, and the whole group unites to form an egg. Here we have undoubtedly a certain similarity with that which, according to MM. Koren and Danielssen, occurs in Purpura and Buccinum. Buccinum undatum has been stated * to lay its eggs from the beginning of January to the end of April. On our south coast of England, howeyer, it begins earlier, for I found some fresh ones at Brighton last November. I was not then able to examine them with much care, but in February last I received from My. Lloyd two packets of egg-capsules, in which I have succeeded in tracing the development of the embryos. When I received them, the germinal yesicle had already disappeared, and the’ eges consisted of yelk-particles immersed in a viscid substance. According to MAL. Koren and Danielssen, each egg is surrounded by a chorion and a vitelline membrane, but I was as little able in the case of Buccinum, as Dr. Carpenter was in that of Purpura, to discover any trace of these structures; and I think I can safely say, from the appearance of the eggs, and from their behaviour when crushed, that they were surrounded by no definite membrane. Many of the eggs, indeed, resembled MM. Koren and Danielssen’s fig. 16 (Ann. des Se. Nat. 1852, vol. xviil.), in which a thick outer membrane is apparently present ; but this arises, as will be presently described, from a condensation of the yelk-particles leaving a clear border of the viscid substance. The presence of a vitellime membrane certainly seems to me improbable, but about the so-called chorion Iam more doubtful. MM. Koren and Danielssen men- tion (i. ¢. p. 258) that it early disappears, and this may haye already taken place in my specimens as well as in those of Dr. Carpenter. The eggs in my egg-capsules did not coalesce. They collected certainly in a heap, but they remained quite separate from one another, and showed no tendency to unite. Very few showed any trace of segmentation. In this respect my observations, so far as they go, are quite in accordance with those of MM. Koren and Danielssen. There is, however, always a certain amount of suspicion attached to negative evi- dence, and it seems a priori very improbable that Purpura and Buceinum, which agree so closely in most points connected with their embryology, should differ in such an important matter. Dr. Carpenter considers that the capsules of Purpura contain two sorts of egg- like bodies, which, however, can be distinguished from one another only by their modes of segmentation. I was not able to perceive any difference in the eggs of Buccinum, except that in some the yolk-granules were condensed, so as to leave a margin of the clear, glairy substance; but it must be remembered that in each capsule only a very few eggs undergo segmentation at one time; and the process appears to be altogether so irregular, that my observations do not enable me to come to any satisfactory con- clusion on this point. It would be desirable to investigate the formation of the eggs in the ovary, both of Buecinum and Purpura, in order to determine whether or no they are all originally alike, and if not, to determine the points of difference, It would also be well worth while to ascertain the relation which the segmenta- tion of the yolk bears to the development of the embryo. It is so generally present throughout the animal, and apparently so universal in the Mollusca, that strong evidence would be required to show that Buecinum forms any exception to the general rule; and yet, as far as my observations went, the process certainly seemed to be subject to considerable irregularities. The whole subject of yolk-segmentation is one of great interest. Among the Entozoa, it appears to occur in certain species of Strongylus, Ascaris, Gordius, Mermis, and Echinorhynchus, and in Filaria, Filaroides, and Spherularia. * Ann. des Sc, Nat. 7. c. p. 258, ‘ TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 141 Van Beneden asserts that it occurs in the Cestoids generally ; but this is denied by Kolliker, as far as concerns Tenia and Bothriocephalus. There is a similar differ- ence of opinion as regards Cucullanus elegans, in which species Siebold (misled, according to Kolliker, by the large size of the two primary embryo cells) supposed that there was a true segmentation. The figure given by Kolliker sufficiently explains how such a mistake might have occurred*, Van Beneden also denies that any segmentation occurs in Echinorhynchus, a difference of opinion which may have arisen from different species having been examined, since, while segmentation has been observed in Ascaris nigrovenosa, acuminata, succisa, osculata, labiata, brevi= caudata, &c., it appears, according to Kolliker, to be absent in Ascaris dentata. It is evident therefore that this species cannot be naturally included in the same genus as the others, and that the two groups, however similar, are in reality very remote from one another. Oxyuris ambigua and Gyrodactylus have been also asserted to develope without yolk-segmentation, though in the case of the latter there appears to be some doubt. In the Annelids it has been observed in Polynoe, Exogone, Clepsine, Nephelis, Protula, Hermella, &c., and is not known to be absent in any, Ithas also been observed in the Tardigrada and in Lacinularia. Among the Articulata, it has been noticed in Nicothoe by Van Beneden, in Diaptomus and Cyclops by Claus (which I also can confirm). On the other hand, in Insects} and Daphnia I have sought for it in vain, and it is unmentioned by Rathke and Heroldt in their works on the development of Asellus, Oniscus, Astacus, and the spiders, though in the two latter cases it may perhaps be represented by the dispersion and reunion of the “ Keimscheibe.” Among the Mollusca it has been described in Acteon, Aplysia, olidia, Dentalhium, Doris, Limax, Limnea, Planorbis, Teredo, Tergipes, Tritonia, &e. Among the Bryozoa it occurs in Aleyonella. In Salpa it has been observed by Kolliker, while in Pyrosoma it would appear, according to the recent researches of Huxley, to be impossible. All this, however, is a digression, and I must return to my Buccinum. The ege-capsules were sent to me on the 19th of February, at which date the eggs in most of them were diffuse, though in some they had already begun to collect together. At this time no embryos had appeared. On the 29th the eggs were more closely compacted, and each capsule contained from five to twenty embryos. The eggs now adhered together in a more or less compact mass, but showed no tendency to amalgamate, and were very easily separable from one another by the point of a needle, Imbedded in and about the mass were the embryos; the smallest consisting apparently only of a clear substance, surrounding the almost unaltered yolk, and having on one side an enormous orifice or mouth leading into a central cavity. The more advanced embryos already showed traces of the ears and the salivary glands, and began to swallow the other eggs whole. In spite of a careful search, I never found any collections of eggs simply surrounded by a mem- brane, as described by MM. Koren and Danielssen and figured, /.c. fig. 17. Embryos containing more than three or four eggs always possessed the salivary glands and auditory organs. Nevertheless, were Messrs. Koren and Danielssen’s theory correct, such masses ought to be tolerably frequent. Nevertheless, the young embryos were so voracious and swallowed so many other eggs that they became greatly distended, and on a superficial view appeared some- times as in MM. Koren and Danielssen’s fig. 17 (Ann. des Sc. Nat. 1852, pl. 5). By turning these over, however, with a little care, the ciliated lobes could always be discovered. At this period also the eggs sometimes adhered together so as to form rounded masses; but in such cases they were quite separate, were surrounded by no membrane, and were easily separable from one another. Nevertheless, if masses such as those described and figured by MM. Koren and Danielssen formed one stage in the normal development, it is very unlikely that I should never have come across a single specimen in this stage. Moreover, even in the smallest embryos we see already a broad cesophagus, and * Van Beneden appears also to have fallen into the same error. See Mém. sur les Vers Intestinaux, p. 275, 1858. + Leuckart supposed that he had found it in Diptera, but he was doubtless misled by the vitelligenous cells. 142 REPORT—1860. laree that a needle can easily be introduced into it. If, however, the in- pwnage? be simply by imbibition through the skin, these would be of no use. Moreover it is very common to see other eggs actually in the cesophagus of the embryos in the act of being swallowed ; or we might almost say that an embryo is seldom seen without an egg in its cesophagus. - In Purpura, according to Dr. Car- penter, the yolk is swallowed particle by particle ; in Buecinum, on the contrary, the ecos not having undergone any segmentation, are swallowed whole, and the process of deglutition is therefore probably less rapid and more easily seen. The presence of yolk matter in the cesophagus of Purpura may also be more plausibly ascribed to accident than in Buceinwm, where, from the large size of the egg com- pared to that of the embryo, it cannot take place without a considerable tension of the i and the swallowing must therefore apparently be a work of some ate tae ee suggests (Ann. des Se. Nat. J. c. p. 26) that the so-called eggs are probably only “des spheres vitellines, dont l’envelope utriculiforme présenté un peu plus de consistance que d’ordinaire, et que, par conséquent, Vagregat dont nait le corps de Yembryon est le résultat du groupement des sphéres vitellines d un seul ceuf, et non le produit de la reunion de plusieurs ceuts primitivement distincts. Tt will be seen, however, from the preceding description, that iitoug M. Milne- Edwards was fully justified in the scepticism with which he regarded the descrip- tion given by MM. Koren and Danielssen, he was not equally happy in his attempt to explain away the supposed anomaly. L 2 Fig. 1. Embryo in outline, to show the mouth and digestive cavity. Fig. 2. Young embryo in the act of swallowing an egg. On the Influence of Systematized Exercise on the Expansion of the Chest. By ArcuiBaLtp MacLaren. Exercise is the most important agent in physical growth and development, inas- much as it qualifies the condition, the action and the influence of all the others. This importance is not always appreciated, because the effects of exercise on any part of the body but the muscular system are imperfectly understood. All exercises may be classed under two heads, Recreative and Educational. ‘The first of these em- braces all our school games, sports and pastimes,—a most valuable list, but quite in- sufficient to produce the perfect development of the body :—1st, because the parts of the body chosen to execute the movements of the game are those which can do them best, not those which need the exercise most ; 2nd, because it isa distinc- tive feature in the bestand most ardently practised of them, that they give a large share of employment to the lower half of the body, and but little (some not at all) to the upper half; and 3rd, the little which they do give is almost monopolized by the right side, The tendency of these exercises is therefore to develope the lower half of the body to the exclusion of the upper. It must always be remembered that while in developing a limb to its full power and perfect conformation, we do that and nothing more ; in developing the trunk of the body, we do that and a great deal TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 143 more, we directly aid in the development of all the organs which it contains, The oint to be desired is the uniform and harmonious development of the entire body; ecause the strength of a man is but equal to that of his weakest part, while the natural tendency is to gauge and estimate the general strength by the power of the strongest part. This equal development is to be obtained only from systema- tized exercise, prepared upon a clear comprehension of what is required, and based. upon a knowledge of the structure and ascertained functions of the parts of the body to be employed, and of the laws which govern growth and development. The inadequacy of recreative exercise to produce this development is fully borne out by the frames of the youths who yearly arrive in this University from our public schools. As the case now stands, every one who so arrives here does so with the upper part of the body greatly in arrears. So distinctly is it in arrears, that an average of 2 inches in girth of chest is obtainable in the very first term of his prac- ticeinthe Gymnasium. This rate of increase is not sustained beyond the first term, therefore it must be chiefly expansion of the cavity of the chest; and it must be an arrears of expansion, otherwise it would be sustained, secing that the process which produced it is increased and accelerated in the advancing courses of exercise. The operations of systematized exercise are equally important and decided in other directions, and especially in the rectification of abnormal spinal developments. On the Artificial Production of Bone and Osseous Grafts. By M. Outter. M. Ollier exhibited some specimens illustrating the results of his experiments on the production of bone, and summed up in the following propositions :— 1, When the periosteum is detached from a bone, one end remaining attached, bone is formed in the direction of the periosteum, its form and size being deter- mined by the size and position of the membrane. 2. After union has begun to take place between the periosteum and the soft parts, the pedicel may be divided, but bone will still continue to form. 3. If the periosteum be removed altogether and inserted among the soft parts, it will make an attachment, and bone will be developed. 4. If the inner surface of the periosteum be scraped off in part, no bone will form on the portion so treated. 5. If the matter scraped from the inside of the periosteum be brought into con- tact with soft parts, bone will be developed from the periosteal cells. 6. Ifa bone be taken out of its periosteal sheath, new bone will be produced ; but if a segment of such sheath be removed, no bone forms in that space, 7. Ifa bone be removed entire with its periosteum and inserted into soft parts, eo will take place, and new bone will be deposited from the periosteum on the old. 8. If, in a piece of inserted bone, a part be deprived of periosteum, that part dies or is absorbed. Thislatter process may take place by the denuded portion becoming either encysted or ecciel, to suppuration; as a general rule, in animals that are healthy, and live in the country, the process of encysting takes place; while in feeble animals and those living in towns, suppuration is the ordinary result. Experiments on Muscular Action from an Electrical point of view. By Dr. C. B. Ravcwirr. On the Process of Oxygenation in Animal Bodies. By B. W. Ricuarpson, M.A., M.D. So soon as the discovery of oxygen by Priestley became an established fact in the world of science, inquiries were set on foot as to the influence of this substance on animal bodies. The term by which it was long known, “vital air,” indicates sufficiently the interest that was attached to it ina physiological point of view. Priestley himself made various physiological experiments with oxygen, in which line of research he was followed by Lavoisier, Beddoes, Sir Humphry Davy, Hill and several other celebrities of the declining eighteenth, and rising nineteenth century. From the researches of various experimentalists, it had been concluded 144 REPORT—1860., that the inhalation of oxygen in the pure state, by giving rise to a greater absorption of the gas, sets up an increased oxygenation in the body,—hypercausis, and inflam- matory conditions, general and local. This view, first promulgated by Dr. Beddoes, and followed up by many contemporary writers, was probably the basis of the chemical nomenclature of disease invented by Baumé, in which disorders were divided into those of oxygenation, of calorification, hydrogenization, azotification, and phosphorization, with remedies of the same names for their treatment, A second conclusion as to the influence of oxygen on animals, intimated (also from experiment) that oxygen, when inhaled in the pure form, is even less active than as it exists diluted in common air; that, instead of increasing the combustion of the body and its activity, it lessens these, and that animals exposed to it too long die from coma attended with a steady and undiminishing exhaustion. The idea that less oxygen is absorbed when the gas is breathed in the undiluted state was supported by Davy: the statement that the gas destroys by narcotic exhaustion was doubtfully suggested by Priestley, and openly by Broughton. For years this view of the question has been the one most commonly taught in this country. The last conclusion that had been drawn from experiment relative to the effects of pure oxygen was, that it has no injurious influence on life. Lavoisier, in his later a ie aie seems to have drawn this inference, and Regnault has greatly con- rmed it. In 1852, with these conflicting data before him, those of Regnault only excepted, Dr. Richardson commenced an inquiry into the whole subject, which he had con- tinued, with intermissions, to the present time. The author here narrated his earlier experiments, from which he came to the conclusion that animals of active respiration, as dogs, cats, and pigeons, on being subjected to a constant stream of freshly made oxygen, become subject to inflammation, owing to the rapid destruction of the tissues,—hypercausis. In further experiments, he found, however, that his rule was not common to all animals; for rabbits and frogs were kept by him even for weeks in oxygen without apparent injury. On the data, therefore, he gaye the following as the first major proposition of his paper :— The influence of pure oxygen, as an excitant, differs according to the animal ; being most marked in animals of quick respiration and high temperature, and least marked or nil in those of feeble respiration and lower temperature. Up to 1856 the author had felt assured that oxygen, when it destroys life in the ‘actively breathing animals, does so by causing a too rapid oxidation of tissue and the so-called inflammatory process ; and he believed that the symptoms of narcotism and paralysis, named by Broughton, were due without doubt to one or other of two possible errors, introduction of carbonic acid, or modifications of the air-pressure exerted on the animal. In 1857 he began to suspect that his view was not strictly correct; but he had no proof either one way or the other until the present year, when a new observation opened a new phase of the question. Having made on one occasion forty gallons of oxygen, and having, by the side of the reservoir containing the oxygen, another reservoir of equal size filled with water, Dr. Richardson deter- mined, in order to economise both labour and material, to collect the oxygen from the supplying reservoir, after it had passed through the chamber containing the animals. He arranged also to wash the oxygen in alkaline solution until it was free of carbonic acid altogether, to pass it over sulphuric acid to remove any am- monia, and finally to charge the second reservoir with it and to use it again, sending it thus backwards and forwards from one reservoir to the other until it was all used. When the apparatus was complete, he placed four warm-blooded animals, a cat, a dog, a pigeon, and a rabbit, with two frogs, in a large chamber, and at 11 o’clock in the morning commenced the transference of the oxygen, passing it through the chambers at the rate of 2000 cubic inches per hour. In six hours the whole of the primitive oxygen, minus nearly 1000 cubic inches which had been lost in respiration, was transferred into the second reservoir. The gas was now tested, and having been found to give no reaction to lime-water, it was driven back through the chamber and washed again thoroughly with potash, to he received once more into the reservoir number one. As the first charge of oxygen was passing through the chamber, there were exhibited no signsdifferent from those of excitement, which had before been seen; but as the second charge passed through, all the Aen TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 145 animals became depressed and drowsy. After an interval of four houts, the current was again changed, and the oxygen, purified most carefully of extraneous matter, was a third time given to the animals. It now became more obvious that every animal was under some peculiar depressing influence ; even the rabbit did not escape. The symptoms were entirely different from those arising from carbonic acid. The breathing was quick, but easy and tranquil. There was not the slightest approach to convulsion. ‘The pigeon buried its head under its wing, and simply drooped and slept. The four-footed animals sat with their four lees straight and their heads between them, nodding as if in profound and pleasant sleep; they were aroused with difficulty, and fell off again in an instant. ‘Then the fore-legs slowly gave way forward, as if paralysed ; and, before the third charge of the oxygen was three parts over, the pigeon was dead, and the kitten was so nearly dead that it was not easy to detect its chest movement; the dog gaye no sign of sensibility, but breathed softly ; the rabbit was fast asleep. ‘The frogs alone were unaffected. At this crisis, a little air was pumped out of the chamber through lime-water ; it gave less indication of carbonic acid than the common air which the experiment- alist was breathing. The animals were then removed, and a lighted taper was placed in the chamber. The taper burnt with more brilliancy than in the air, but with a slight yellowness of flame. The animals were all nearly dead. The kitten died a few minutes after removal ; the rabbit recovered in two hours; the dog seemed paralysed in the limbs for the preaterpart of the day, but recovered. When the bodies of the pigeon and the kitten were opened, there was found no indication of asphyxia. The lungs were inflated and red; the heart contained blood on both sides, but the blood in each side was of the same hue, neither being very dark; the brain was bloodless; the other organs were natural. The appearances in the pigeon corresponded with these with the most minute accuracy. ; Dr. Richardson next narrated the histories of several other experiments, from which he derived, apparently to demonstration, the following and second major proposition :—Oxygen, when breathed over and over again, although freed entirely from carbonic acid or other known products of respiration, loses its power of sup- porting life ; the process of life ceasing, not from the introduction of a poison, but as by a negation, or a withdrawal of some principle extant in the primitive oxygen, which is essential to life. The last section of the paper had reference to the influence of oxygen on muscular irritability; and various experiments were again given. On them the author founded the third major proposition. Oxygen, while it is essential to muscular irritability and muscular power, exerts its influence over muscle, not as a direct excitant of muscular contraction, but by supplying to the muscle an agent or force by which the muscle is fitted for contrac- tion on the application of an exciting cause. The Action of Tea and Alcohols contrasted. By Kowarv Smitu, M.D., EL.B., F.RS., Assistant Physician to the Hospital for Consumption and Diseases of the Chest, Brompton, §c. In this paper the author stated the results of a series of original inquiries into the influence of these two substances which appeared in the Philosophical Trans- actions for 1859. The general expression of the action of tea is, that it increases all vital actions, and causes the elimination from the body of more material than it supplies. It inereases the ease, frequency and depth of respiration, but does not much affect pulsation. It increases the action of the skin, as shown by the increase of perspiration; and as in the conversion of fluid into vapour there is a thousand-fold increase in the absorption of latent heat, perspiration must cool the body. It wnereases, and does not disturb, nervous, mental and muscular action, and it is not followed by reaction. Small doses often repeated have fourfold the effect of a large dose. 1860. 10 146 REPORT—1860. Large doses cause nausea and narcotism. The addition of acids and fat, as cream, lessens its action on the skin and increases pulsation. The addition of an alkali, as soda, increases the action upon the skin and renders it more soothing, but a caustic alkali destroys it. Hence the author considers that it is inapplicable in the following conditions of the system, viz. :— In the absence of food (except when a large meal has been recently taken), and therefore at breakfast, unless the system be replete with food, as from a late and large supper, In the ill-fed, and in those of spare habit. In prison or other dietaries, in which it is a duty not to allow the supply to ex- ceed the real wants of the system, except in the cases in which the powers of assimilation are defective, and then as tea, like other nitrogenous matters, has been shown by the author to promote the assimilation of starchy food, it may prevent the waste of undigested food. When unusual muscular exertion is made, unless there be also an abundance of food and the skin acting insufficiently. In those who perspire too easily and profusely. In low temperatures, except in connexion with abundance of fat, since then the action of the skin should be reduced to a minimum. In very early life, when all the vital actions are rapidly performed. He considers also that it is more suited to the following states :— Tn the after part of the day, when the powers of assimilation have been shown by him to be enfeebled, and when food has accumulated in the body, In old persons, In hot climates, with lessened powers of assimilation; with excess of heat and excess of food. In those who usually transform food imperfectly. In those who take too little exercise, and eat too much. In conditions in which. gout is likely to occur. In those who haye the skin inactive. In all states in which there is excess of food, not, perhaps, in relation to the wants of the system always, but in relation to the power to transform it, and especially where there is excess of heat, as to soldiers on march exposed to the eastern sun, The author then compared these deductions from science with the actual instinct- ive habits of mankind in different climates—the test to which all such inquiries must be ultimately subjected—and showed that there is a most striking correspond- ence, as, for example, the frequent use of tea alone by the sedentary, corpulent, fat and starch-eating Chinese, and, with the addition of an acid, by the industrious poor -and exposed classes in that country, and by all classes in the cold of Russia ; the addition of milk or cream in our climate; our habit of taking food with tea when we regard it as a meal, and of drinking it after dinner in hot weather when we would perspire more freely ; the enjoyment of it by the poor, who live chiefly on bread, which is imperfectly digested; and the large appetites of teatotallers. __ Hence he was of opinion that tea had a more powerful action upon the body, both for good and eyil, than has hitherto been understood, and believed it to demand the regulation which attends the administration of a medicine; and especially urged it to be supplied to soldiers in hot climates, to be drunk cold or hot in small -doses during exposure to heat. In reference to alcohols, the author showed that ales, wines, and spirits differ in their action, not only because they contain varying amounts of alcohol, but have other ingredients, as volatile oils and ethers, salts, gluten and sugar, and thence each must always be discussed separately. He showed that neither the public nor the medical profession substitute a given amount of alcohol and water for these various substances, but admit that each substance has a special action, and that even impurity and newness are held to be deteriorations in any member of the a same class. s He showed that all alcohols lessen the action of the skin and increase the force medicinal actions, and frequency of the action of the heart, and that these are their true dietetic and 5 ; TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 147 __ When the usual dose of a spirit or alcohol was taken duly diluted with water, _ he had found, by numerous experiments, that the following sequence of pheno- - mena took place :— _ L Upon the heart, probably by the direct contact of the alcohol, and occurring in 2 to 4 minutes, 2. Upon the brain, in from 3 to 7 minutes, as shown by the effect upon conscious- ness, mental and sensual perceptions, . 3. Upon the spinal cord, as shown by lessened tone, lessened power of controlling and lessened desire to use the muscles, a sense of purring through the whole system, and the sensation of heat and cold. 4, Upon the respiratory nervous tract. 5. Upon the secretory (sympathetic nervous) system. The exhilaration of spirits, accompanied by sense of heat, swelling and redness of the skin, occurred in the first stage, and continued about 30 minutes, and this was gpanged for taciturnity, chilliness, and sense of miserable depression in the second stage. Alcohol usually increases the activity of the respiratory actions in a moderate degree ; as did also whisky in many instances, and rum commonly, whilst brandy and gin lessened them. Beers he believed to act also by their sugar and gluten, and thus tend to pro- mote the digestion of starchy food; but for this purpose only small quantities, as by an ale-glass, should be taken ata time, so as to obtain this action apart from the alcoholic action. The author also appended a few remarks on the action of coffee, on account of its parallel use with tea, and proved that whilst both agree in increasing vital action, they differ in the important particular of their action upon the skin, Coffee usually lessens the action of the skin, and thereby renders it dry and hot, at the same time increasing the action of the heart, and, as a further consequence of the former, increasing the action of the kidney, or failing that, inducing diarrhoea, Hence it is applicable in conditions widely differing from those suited to the use of tea. Tn contrasting tea and coffee with alcohols, the author found only one analogy with tea, viz. that of beers, since both tend to promote the digestion of starchy food, and therefore both the teatotallers and the anti-teatotallers may be equally right. There is no similarity whatever between the action of tea and alcohols ; but both are in their essential actions opposed, whilst there is an important correspond- ence in the action of alcohols and coffee. The use of tea in the arctic regions must be associated with that of alcohols, or the substance having an equivalent but less perceptible and more enduring action upon the skin, viz. fats, whilst rum is less injurious to the sailor of all countries than brandy or gin would be, by its special power of increasing the respiratory and other vital actions, When it is conjoined with milk, it is the most perfect restorative known. - The author did not regard any of these substances as true food, viz. substances which by their own elements directly nourish the system, but haying the special _ power of curtailing the power of assimilating other food. Hence, although there may not be “more nutritive matter in a pint of beer than will lie upon a sixpence,” there is a power whereby other food is made more useful to the system. Pe ee se lel ,lrlC eee eet tial thd Ven Ieee Bile ek 4 The Physiological Relations of the Colouring Matier of the Bile. 4 By J. L. W. Tuupicuum, M.D. The author having convinced himself by experiment that the ordinary method of purifying cholochrome (the colouring matter of bile) does not give a uniform material, has sought for such a reaction as would give the rational composition of this substance in order to establish its formula by metamorphoses. Such a reaction he has obtained with nitrous acid, which, when passed in the gaseous state into water, alcohol, or ether containing cholochrome in suspension in a finely divided state, decomposes the latter with effervescence due to the evolution of nitrogen. There remains in the vessel a new acid, viz. cholochromic acid, insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform, and yery changeable on exposure to air, It crystallizes in dark-red rhombic octohedra when its solution in chloroform ; 7 Lo S 10 x 148 REPORT—1860. is evaporated in a current of hydrogen or coal-gas, and the crystals much resemble those of hematoidine. The hematoidine extracted by Valentiner and Briicke from gall-stones and ox-bile has some resemblance to this new acid. From the above reaction it is evident that cholochrome, like the other acids of the bile and like hippuric acid, leucine and tyrosine, and many other substances connected with the human economy in health and disease, is an amido-acid, i. e. an acid in which the nitrogen is contained in the form of amide (NH?) ; this radical replacing one equi- valent of hydrogen in the hypothetical acid, of which the cholochromic is the oxy- acid, the radical (N H’) in the amido-acid being replaced by peroxide of hydrogen (110?) in the oxyacid. With nitric acid, cholochrome yields an amorphous yellow substance, little soluble in water, nitro-cholochrome, a crystallizable acid easily soluble in alcohol, perhaps nitrocholic acid ; and a colourless syrupy acid easily soluble in water, and yielding a crystallized salt with ammonia, perhaps cholesteric acid or a homologue. Chlorine transforms the brown matter, cholophaine, into the green cholochloine in the space of a few minutes. The process of Heintz required several weeks for effectine the same transformation. The continued influence of chlorine produces the red cholochromic acid, which exists, however, only for a moment, being trans- formed into white chlorocholic acid, little soluble in water, more soluble in alcohol. These researches have been undertaken by Dr. Thudichum, partly with a view of ascertaining the pathological process which gives rise to certain casts of the biliary ducts, previously described by him in the ‘ British Medical Journal.’ He believes it to resemble the putrefaction of bile in a stoppered bottle. If the process is acute, it constitutes “ biliosity or biliousness;” if more chronic, it gives rise to casts of the ducts and gall-stones; if it extend to the liver-cells, it constitutes ma- lignant jaundice. The author further intimates that, since the above reaction with nitrous acid is now ascertained, the therapeutic eflects of nitric and nitro-hydrochloric acids in various forms of jaundice, which are already recognized by many practitioners, are deserving of further investigation and trial, His own experience is in favour of these remedies, GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. Opening Address by the President, Sir Ropericx Impey Murcuison, D.C.L., F.RS., V.PR.GS. & V.P.R.GS., Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Durine the last two years only, the President of each Section of the British Asso- , ciation having usually opened the business of the Meeting by a short address, it fell to my lot to offer a few words to the Geographers and Ethnologists who were as- sembled at Lecds in 1858. I there expressed the satisfaction I felt in proposing, at the Edinburgh Meeting in 1850, the formation of a separate Section for Geography and Ethnology, to occupy the place left vacant by our Medical Associates who had seceded to found an Association of their own. ; Until that year Geography had been attached exclusively to the Geological Section, in which it was almost submerged by the numerous memoirs of my brethren of the rocks, whilst Ethnology, forming a Sub-Section, with difficulty obtained a proper place of meeting. Now, however, both these sciences are, [ am happy to say, fully represented, and I trust that the result of the coming week will show that the sub- jects to be illustrated will attract so many members to our hall, as will prove that Geography in its comprehensive sense is as popular in Oxford as it is in the metro- polis. Before I enter upon the consideration of any memoirs which may be laid before us, let me allude to a few of the subjects of deep interest which have been illustrated by British Geographers in various parts of the world in the two years which have elapsed since I had the honour of last presiding over you. In Africa, the earlier discoveries of that great traveller Livingstone have been fol- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 149 lowed by other researches of his companions and himself, which, as far as they go, have completely realized his anticipation of detecting large elevated tracts, truly Sanatoria as compared with those swampy and low regions near the coast, which have impressed too generally on the minds of our countrymen the impossibility of sustaining a life of exertion in any intertropical region of Africa. The opening out of the Shire river, that grand affluent of the Zambesi, with the description of its banks and contiguous lofty terraces and mountains, and the discovery of the healthfulness of the tract, is most refreshing knowledge, the more so as it is accompanied by the pleasing notice, that the slave trade is there unknown except by the rare passage of a gang from other parts. Again, this portion of the country so teems with rich vegetable products, including cotton, and herds of elephants, as to lead us to hope that the spirit of profitable barter, which powerfully animates the natives, may lead to their civilization, and thus prove the best means of eradicating the commerce in human beings. Whilst Livingstone was sailing to make his last venture, and to realize the promise he had given to his faithful Macololo friends, that he would return to them, and bring them kind words from the Queen of the people who love the black man, Cap- tains Burton and Speke were returning from their glorious exploits in a more central and northern region of South Africa, where they had discovered two great internal lakes or freshwater seas, each of not less than 300 miles in length. I may here notice, to the honour of our Government, and particularly to that of the present Secretary of Foreign Affairs, that the undaunted Captain Speke, associated with another officer of the Bengal army, Captain Grant, has received £2500 to enable him to terminate his examination of the great Nyanza Lake, under the equator, and we have reason to hope that he will find one of the chief feeders of the White Nile flowing out from its northern extremity, and thus determine the long-sought pro- blem of the chief source of that classic stream. I also trust, that in the last and most arduous portion of his efforts in proceeding northwards, he will be assisted through the cooperation of Her Majesty’s Consul at Khartum on the Upper Nile in traversing the country immediately to the north of the equator, where notraveller, ancient or modern, has ever penetrated, and which is inhabited by wild and barbarous natives. After a residence of sixteen years in that region, and having made many trading expeditions to the confines of this unknown region, that bold and experienced man, Consul Petherick, is, I am persuaded, the only European who can afford real assistance to Captains Speke and Grant; and if by their united efforts the true source or sources of the Nile should be discovered, Britain will have attained a distinction hitherto sought in vain from the days of the Roman Empire. During the week of our meeting, Mr. Petherick will bring before us his project, which I trust you will support*, either for ascending the Nile to its source or affording effective assistance to Captain Speke, without which it is much to be feared that the gallant officer will never be able to traverse the savage tracts which intervene between the Nyanza Lake and the highest part of the Nile yet visited by any traveller. If we turn to the Polar Circle, we see what individual British energy has been able to elicit from the frozen North. There, indeed, notwithstanding many a well- found expedition sent out to ascertain the fate of Franklin, all our efforts as a nation had failed, when the energy and perseverance of a woman, backed only by a few zealous and abiding friends, accomplished the glorious end of satisfying herself, and of proving to her admiring country, that in sacrificing their lives, her heroic husband and his brave companions had been the first discoverers of the North West Passage. For her noble and devoted conduct in having persisted through so many years to send out expeditions at her own cost, until she at length unravelled the fate of the ‘Erebus’ and ‘Terror,’ the Royal Geographical Society of London has rightly judged in awarding to Lady Franklin one of its Gold medals, whilst the other has been appropriately given to that gallant and skilful officer Sir Leopold M‘Clintock, who in the little yacht the ‘ Fox’ so thoroughly accomplished his arduous mission. He not only ascertained the death of Franklin, and the subsequent abandonment of '* A Subscription List in furtherance of this great object is opened, headed by Lord Ash- burton and Sir Roderick Murchison, 150 REPORT—1860. his ships, but also showed that the great navigator had discovered vast breadths of Arctic lands and seas which were entirely unknown when he left our shores, and had even remained so until the truth was revealed by the expedition of the ‘ Fox.’ The geographer who compares the map of the Arctic regions as laid down by Parry and others up to the year 1845, when Franklin sailed, and marks on it all that he is now known to have added in the two brief summers before he was beset, and then inspects any one of the most recent maps, even up to the year 1858 inclusive, and traces the discoveries made by M‘Clintock and his associates, Hobson, Young, and Walker, will see what vast additions to geographical knowledge have been made by the last expedition of Lady Franklin. Such services are indeed worthy of the highest national reward, and I have, I am happy to say, reason to know, that a monument in commemoration of the glorious deeds of Franklin and of his having been the first to discover a North West Passage will be erected, and also that the officers and crew of the ‘ Fox’ will receive that recom- pense to which they are so justly entitled at the hands of their admiring countrymen. Whilst on this subject, I may well express the satisfaction and pride I felt as the President of this Section, when the officers of the British Association asked us, the Geographers, to bring forward one of our distinguished men to deliver a lecture on one of our manifold subjects, before the body of men of Science assembied at Oxford. As this is the first occasion since our foundation on which geographical: discovery has been considered to be of sufficient scientific importance to occupy the attention of the whole meeting, I rejoice in the fact, and also in the knowledge that Captain Sherard Osborn, so well known to us through his charming ‘ Arctic Stray” Leaves,’ and other books, as well as by his laurels won in the Crimea and the Sea of Azof, is to be the lecturer, and that he who is so experienced an ice-man is to give us a sketch of the discoveries of Franklin, as laid open by the last researches of Sir Leopold M‘Clintock. ; And here I may well say, that every justice will be done to any subject connected with the conditions of icy seas, including the proposed submarine telegraph by the Faroe islands, Iceland and Greenland to Labrador ; for never at any of our former meetings have I seen so many explorers met together who have rendered their names eminent through Arctic and Antarctic discoveries. Under their observation the paper which is to be brought before us by Captain Parker Snow of the Merchant Marine, warmly urging a further search after the missing crews and scientific records of the ‘Erebus’ and ‘ Terror’, will be ably scrutinized. The names of Admiral Sir James Ross, Sir Edward Belcher, Captains Ommaney and Sherard Osborn, when united with those of Sir J. Richardson and Dr. Rae, are truly guarantees that the question will have so much light thrown upon it, as will either satisfy the public that no additional important results as respects the lost expedition can be achieved, or they will stimulate us to fresh exertions. For, though all the Arctic voyagers with whom I have conversed are satisfied that there is now no longer the hope, which I long cherished, of saving a human life, still every man of science must wish that strenuous efforts should be made to recover, if practicable, some more of the many scientific records of the lost expedition which may have been left in various places around the spot where Franklin breathed his last. In the vast possessions of British North America much additional knowledge has been gained by the successful explorations of Palliser and his associates, Hector, Blakiston, and Sullivan, not only as respects the great fertile prairies watered by the Saskatchewan and its affluents, but also touching the practicability of traversing the Rocky Mountains within our territories by passes lower than any which exist to the south of the boundary of the United States. At this stage of our inquiries it would be very hazardous to speculate on these passes being rendered available for railroads ; the more so, as the wild region lying to the west of the Rocky Mountains—i. e. between them and those parts of British Columbia which are gold-bearing, and are beginning to be inhabited by civilized people - —is as yet an unexplored woody region. We may hope, however, that such routes of communication will be established as will connect the Red River settlements with the prairies of the Saskatchewan, and these last with the rich auriferous tracts of- British Columbia. And if the most northern lines be found too difficult for railway communication, through the severity of the climate and physical obstacles, let us _— oe TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 151. hope that by giving and taking ground in an amicable manner with our kinsmen of the United States, we may be enabled by a more southern railroad to traverse the prairies on either side of the neutral boundary, and then pass down the river Co- Jumbia to Vancouver Island. By this operation the great Gulf of St. Lawrence and Hudson’s Bay on the east, may eventually be placed in communication with the noble roadsteads of Vancouver Island and the adjacent mainland on the Pacific. At all events, Britain will doubtless not be slow in establishing communications between the Atlantic and Pacific, first by the electric telegraph, next by ordinary roads, and finally, it is to be hoped, in part at least, by railroads. On these subjects we are to be favoured at this Meeting with a paper by Captain Synge, in addition to the vivdé voce communications of Captain Palliser and his asso- ciates. Having not as yet had access to many of the papers which are to be communi- cated to this Section, I can allude to a few more of themonly. In a Memoir on the Geographical Distribution of Plants in Asia Minor and Armenia by my distinguished friend M. Pierre de Tchihatcheff, you will find some remarkable results as flowing from the long-continued researches of that ardent and successful traveller. After accounting for the absence of some plants and the profusion of others in given localities as dependent on climatal conditions (an example of which is, that the grape there flourishes in one tract at the great height of nearly 6000 feet above the sea), M. de Tchihatcheff brings out some striking statistical data, showing the vastly greater abundance and variety of vegetation in Asia Minor compared with that of any other country. He points out that the plants of five mountains only amount in number to double the entire quantity of British plants, and concludes with an eloquent regret that these classic regions, so blessed by the hand of the Creator, and which in the earlier history of mankind were replete with highly civilized communi- ties, should now, through misgovernment, be the scene of oppression and barbarity. Another distinguished Russian geographer, M. N. Khanikoff, who has explored large portions of Persia and the adjoining countries, will bring before us his maps and descriptions of the mountainous tracts of the countries of the southern parts of Central Asia, where the lofty mountains.ef Ararat, Demavend, and Savalan form the chief elevations of the region to which we look as the cradle of our race. But, to revert to subjects connected with Britain. In no portion of the surface of the globe have we made such great and rapid advances as in Australia. Doubtless much of this progress in settlement and civilization, particularly in Victoria, is due to the discovery of those enormous masses of gold which are producing far and wide such powerful effects. But looking to the work of purely geographical pioneers, I can declare, that some of the most valuable and daring researches from the earliest days to the present time have been completed, wholly irrespective of profits gained through the attraction of the precious metal. The great discoveries of Sturt, Eyre, and Leichhardt were made before the existence of gold was known; and even now, when it is the most seductive of baits to entice the traveller, see what vast regions the brothers Gregory have laid open in Northern, Eastern, and Western Australia without the recompense of a single yellow nugget. Again, look to South Australia, where gold is scarcely known, at least in any appreciable quantity, and see what its_ inhabitants have done in pushing far into the interior, simply to acquire fresh pas- ture-lands. In contemplating these recent discoveries, we read with astonishment of what one individual, Mr. M‘Dougall Stewart, has accomplished in so short a time,’ and of the privations he underwent to realize the existence of freshwater streams and oases on the borders of the great interior saline desert. Still more were we surprised when we learned that this great continent, the rivers of which were so long considered to be useless, has had its one mighty stream, the Murray, rendered navigable for 1800 miles. With its affluents, the Darling and Murrimbidgee, this river may indeed be said to have been laid open for 2500 miles, i. e. between many new towns which have sprung up in the interior and the sea— and all this by the clearing away of the stems and stumps of trees, the result of ages of decay. There are now indeed in England some of the eminent men, whether governors, statesmen, or explorers of this great colonial region, who will, I hope, before we’ atljourn, throw fresh light on these recent discoveries, 152 REFORT—1860. Having presided for several years over the Royal Geographical Society, it has been my duty to pass in review the progress made by the sons of Britain in different parts of the world, and it has ever been to me a source of the sincerest gratification to watch the rapid strides made by the colonists of Australia, and to observe how they have carried with them all the energy of our race into the land of their adoption. if I traced with deep interest the explorations of their boldest travellers through the bush—and witnessed with delight the working out of that golden wealth, of which perhaps, because I was a Highlander as well as a geologist, I had a sort of second sight—or if I revelled in seeing their ports filled with ships, and abounding in com- merce—not all these attributes have rejoiced me more than the knowledge | acquired, that our Australian colonists are truly and sincerely attached to Britain and their Sovereign. As it is out of my power on the present occasion to advert to all the recent ad- vances in ethnology, I will now only say, that, besides many communications from other gentlemen, including Mr. Lockhart’s excellent notes on China, my eminent and valued friend, Mr. John Craufurd, will give us two memoirs; the one, “On the Relation of the Domesticated Animals to Civilization ;” the other, “‘ On the Aryan, or Indo-Germanic Theory ;” each of which will, I doubt not, be worthy of the Pre- sident of the Ethnological Society of London. Let me, however, offer a few general observations on those sciences, to the culti- vation of which the business of this Section is devoted. Geography, regarded only as the description of the outlines of the earth, and the determination by astronomical observations of the relative position of hills, rivers, valleys, and coasts, to be laid down by the topographer on a map, is but the key-stone of that splendid science when viewed in its most comprehensive bearings. For, of how much real value is it deprived if not followed in its train by all the affiliated sciences which relate to the phenomena of our,mother earth! How infinitely is the important basis of our science enriched by the descriptions of the animals and plants which, living on the surface of our planct, are distinguished by forms peculiar to each region—such dis- tribution being coincident with relative differences of climate! Again, as a weather-beaten geologist, 1 know full well, that the science which I have most cultivated would be void of a foundation if it did not rest on the principles of physical geography ; for much of the labour of the geologist consists in restoring, not in imagination, but by a positive appeal to data registered on tablets of stone, the former outlines of sea and earth at different successive periods, whilst he marks the various oscillations of land and Avater as well as the necessary accompaniments of grand meteorological changes. If therefore the geographer is guided to the relative position of his localities by the lights of astronomy, he also knows that accurate observation of all terrestrial changes is of the highest value in enabling his ally the geologist to interpret and read off the former conditions of the crust of the earth. Just as geography in its present phase is necessarily connected with ethnology, so its earliest features as a science can best be thoroughly comprehended by the geologist. His is the province to bring to the mind’s eye various relations of land and water through the olden periods, when most of our present continents were fermed bencath the sea; and to trace the successive elevations and depressions which characterized epochs long anterior to the existence of man. Even in those remote times when some lands were elevated and others depressed, we have ascertained that the waters and the earth were occu- pied by various animals which successively lived and died to be followed by other and more highly organized races, until at length a being endowed with reason was created. And when, having gone through all the long epochs of geological time, we ap- proach the period when man appeared, how interesting is it to endeavour to unravel the changes which our lands underwent from that recent geological date when the British Isles formed part of the terra firma of Europe! ‘Then at a later period, how inviting is it to mark the signs of the commixture of the rudest and earliest works of man with the remains of animals, most of which are now extinct, yet mixed up with others which have lived on to our own day! Thus, whilst the geological geographer visits the banks of the Somme, and sees such an assemblage of relics beneath great accumulations formed by water (as I have recently witnessed myself), he is compelled to infer, that at the period when such a TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 153 phenomenon was brought about, the waters which have now diminished to an ordi- nary small river, rose in great inundations to the height of 100 feet and more above the present stream, and swept over the slopes of the chalk on which the primeval inhabitants were fashioning their rude flint instruments —when, as I would suggest, they might have escaped to the adjacent hills, and saving themselves from the sweep- ing flood, have left no traces of their bones in the silt, sand, or gravel. This linking on of geology with human history and the works of primeval art comes legitimately under our consideration, and here we have just as full right to discuss and test this question as my dear friends the geologists, the more so as it was to this connexion between geology and history that Lord Wrottesley has called the attention of the Association in his Presidential Address. Then, again, as we descend with the stream of time until we reach historical records, the geographer next endeavours to throw light on the marches of the great generals of antiquity and the sites of ancient cities; and then truly the geologist, geographer, and ethnologist become united with the antiquary and historian. Taking our recent British example of the discovery of the Uriconium of the Romans at Wroxeter in Shropshire—where is the geographer who has looked at the mounds of earth which till recently covered that ancient city, and is not convinced, that causes arising from the combined destruction by man and natural decay, have produced the mass of overlying matter on the shores of the Severn, which has hidden from our vision one of the famous Roman towns of Britain ? As I have delighted in tracing the sites of the battles of our great British chief Caractacus*, and in unravelling the age of those Silurian rocks in which he made the chief defences of his own kingdom, so I can now bring back to my imagination how the legions of Ostorius may have been reinforced from that Uriconium, which has just been disinterred from its earthy covering by the zealous labours of the enlightened antiquary Wright, now a Secretary of this Section. In this manner we see, that as our inquiries necessarily stimulate us on the one hand to recede to the very earliest traces of man upon the globe, so, on the other, we are led on into that department of Art and Archeology which connects the present with the past, and are thus enabled to offer to the consideration of our associates and auditors, subjects of prevailing and universal interest—subjects which will, I doubt not, be handled with redoubled zest, now that we are again happily met together for the third time in this very ancient seat of learning. In conclusion, Ladies and Gentlemen, I have now only to congratulate you on the recent rapid extension of geographical science throughout the enlightened classes of our countrymen. Brought up with a profound reverence for the works of God, and a due admiration of the fivest efforts of man, those sons of our gracious Sovereign who are of sufficient age to profit by extensive travel, are already proving, that in their spirit of adventure they are true Englishmen. The heir to the crown, after rambles in our Scottish Highlands and travels on the continent, is about to quit this his Alma Mater, and, to the great joy of our colonists, to visit North America, and there rivet still more strongly the link which binds the loyal people of those pro- vinces to the mother country ; whilst Prince Alfred, after cruizing in the Mediter- ranean, is now sailing across the Southern Atlantic to Bahia, not without having ascended on his way to the very summit of the Peak of Teneriffe. The willing co- operation of the last and present President + of the Royal Geographical Society demonstrates that our nobility are as much alive to the vast importance of our subject as the middle classes of the community. On my own part, having laboured zealously in diffusing geographical knowledge among my countrymen, I can truly say that my gratification is now complete in seeing that this Section is second in popu- larity and utility to no branch of the British Association. On the Caravan Routes from the Russian Frontier to Khiva, Bokhara, Kokhan, and Garkand, with suggestions Sor opening up a Trade between Central Asia and India, By 'V. W. ArxKtyson. * See the Preface to the ‘ Silurian System.’ t Earl de Grey and Ripon, and Lord Ashburton. 154 REPORT—1860. On the Caravan Route from Yarkand to Mai-matchin, with a short account of this Town, through which the Trade is carried on between Russia and China. By T. W. AtKinson. On the Manufacture of Stone Hatchets and other Implements by the Esqui- maux, illustrated by Native Tools, Arrow-heads, §e. By Captain Sir EI. Bencuer, NV. Sir Edward commenced by setting forth his belief in the connexion of the north- ern littoral tribes of Asia, America, and Greenland in habits, customs, and language, differing less in this latter point than in our counties in England, Wales, or Scotland. Comparing the American with tlie Asiatics, the Tchutchi, he found the latter more experienced or accomplished in music, manufacturing their own violins, and per- forming wonderfully, imitating @ la Paginini on one string the sounds of various animals ; they were also good buffoons and actors as imitating the anctics of bears, &c. But as regards the useful arts, or those calling for invention or energy in over- coming difficulties, improving tools, weapons, &c., they were much inferior to the Esquimaux of America, and certainly far below them in mental acquisitions. Sir Edward then gave an interesting description of the habits and manners of the tribes with which he lived in contact near Icy Cape. He obtained great influence over them, and so long as he continued to teach them any new mode of working they submitted to his direction. He had no doubt, if necessity had compelled him to re- main there (as he was wrecked there), he might have existed and possibly become one of their chiefs. This disposition on their part to associate with and be instructed by white men, confirmed him in the notion he had entertained, that possibly one or two of the crews of the ‘Erebus’ and ‘Terror’ might have escaped and be now willingly living among them. The principal object of the paper was to explain the stone implements found among them, and similar to those of Celtic origin, as well as their mode of manu- facturing them from a vein of chert at hand. Sir Edward saw them obtain the chert from the stratum, work them into spear and arrow-heads, and there purchased the articles as well as the tools employed which were explained in detail to the Meet- ing. No hammer or blow is used in splintering off the conchoidal splinters to form the serrated edges, but a tool of deer antler effects this by pressure on the faces alter- nately. Sir Edward also observed that the same process is adopted by the Indians of Mexican origin in California, by the natives of the Sandwich Islands, as well as Tahiti, 2300 miles asunder. Other curiously wrought and interesting instruments, as planes, drill bows, &c., were exhibited, all manifesting great skill and a higher degree of mechanical ability than we could expect from an untutored race—indeed a race taking the lead pre-eminently in meeting scientifically those wants occurring in savage life. With reference to their ornamentation of their drill bows, &c., Sir Edward maintained that they exhibited proofs of record, which Dr. Rae considered to be wanting in the tribes encountered by him some degrees to the eastward. Steam, and the mode of using it, to bend or straighten bows or arrows, was constantly em- ployed by them; and Sir Edward concluded by expressing his conviction that these people were in a condition to be rendered useful by civilization, and thus epen more lucrative trade with the western and southern nations in the Pacific. On the Aryan or Indo-Germanie Theory of Races. By Joun Crawrourp, FAS. The object of the writer of this paper is a refutation of the Aryan or Indo- Genial theory, or that which supposes all the peoples from the eastern confines of Bengal to the western shores of Spain and Britain to be of one andthe same race of man, on the evidence of a fancied identity of language. A few of the main objections advanced by the author may be stated. The theory supposes a people, whose language was the Sanskrit, to have migrated at some unknown time, spreading east in one direction and west in another, and to have performed these prodigious migrations, although an agricultural people, or in other words, one of fixed habits. ~The theory makes men aS ae ee Oe; ee TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ‘ "455 who are black like the Hindus, brown like the Russians, and fair like the Standina- vians, to be of one and the same race, insisting that the Greeks of Alexander and the Englishmen of Clive had the same blood in their veins as the Hindus whom a hand- ful of them vanquished. As to the supposed identity of race from the evidence of language, the author considered it sufficiently disposed of by the notorious fact that many of the languages of Hindustan spoken by people asserted to belong to the Aryan stock, had no fundamental relation to the Sanskrit tongue of the supposed Aryans. In Europe, the isolated Basque language was evidence to the same effect. On the Influence of Domestic Animals on the Progress of Civilization (Bir ds). By Joun Crawrurp, F.R.S. The object of this paper, one of a series on the same subject, was to show the effect of the domesticated animals in the civilization of man, and was confined to birds. The author showed that out of the vast variety of the feathered creation, not above nine or ten species had been domesticated, while there was a wide range in the quality and amount of the domestication which even this small number had attained. The origin of a few of the species only could be traced to particular countries, as the common fowls to India and China, the turkey to Mexico, and the gallinze to Africa. But he seemed to think that the first domesticated of the greater number was common to several countries, as the grouse, pigeon, duck, to most countries of Europe and Asia. The author further showed that the numbers of birds domesticated by a people might be considered a measure of their relative civilis zation. Thus savages possessed no domestic bird at all; barbarians very few, and the most advanced only the whole number. Thus the savage tribes of America pos- sessed none at all. The Mexicans possessed but one. The more advanced tribes of the South Sea had one, the common fowl, while the Australians had none. The Malayan nations were possessed of two, the common fowl and duck; the Persians of these and the pigeon, and Hindus of the last three with the peacock ; and the Chinese of five, the common fowl, the goose, the pigeon, and two species of pheasant, It is the more civilized nations of Europe alone that possess the entire number, On certain remarkable Deviations in the Stature of Europeans. By R. Curt. On the Existence of a true Plural of a Personal Pronoun in a living European Language. By R. Curr. On a Set of Relief Models of the Alps, §c. By Captain Cysurz, Imperial Austrian Artillery. The author desires to introduce to the notice of this Meeting a set of models, in- tended to facilitate instruction in the manner of delineating the features of the ground on topographical maps, and lately introduced into the technical schools of Austria. It is the first aim of the author to lead the pupil, by means of these models, to a correct understanding or appreciation of form, as the only way of producing a first- rate topographical draftsman. Instead, therefore, of setting him to imitate drawings from paper, his studies and copies will be made from models, and, at a more advanced stage, from nature itself. These models represent, first, inclined planes or slopes, separate, in combination, or intersecting each other. It is from these the pupil acquires the first idea of the principle upon which depends a correct delineation of the ground.. Secondly, we have three models which represent the most characteristic and most widely distributed features of the ground. Having acquired from the preceding a thorough knowledge of fundamental principles, the pupil will proceed to delineate upon paper the following models. ‘These represent, first, an undulating country ; secondly, a plateau formation, with deeply-cut valleys; thirdly and fourthly, some mountainous tracts. Contour lines have been laid down upon the whole of these models with mathematical accuracy. The horizontal projection of some of the most difficult sections has also been added, to illustrate the manner of filling up the con- 156 REPORT—1860. tour lines and laying down auxiliary contours. It has not, however, been thought advisable to do more, as otherwise the pupils would avail themselves of these facilities to too great an extent. A small instrument for measuring the gradients, and a scale showing the intensity of the shading (hachorres) for various degrees of acclivity, are to be made use of in copying the models. ‘The author believes that the use of models, judiciously selected, will engage the pupil’s uninterrupted attention ; he will overcome mechanical difficulties with greater facility, and will not be so wearied as by the tedious, but abortive, and, in reality, useless attempts to copy a topographical drawing placed before him, ‘The author would add, that his models have been made of galvanoplastic copper, and are therefore not so liable to breakage as plaster-of- Paris models. On the Arrangement of the Forts and Dwelling-places of the Ancient Irish. By the Rev. Professor Graves, M.A. On certain Ethnological Boulders and their probable Origin. By the Rev. Epw. Hincxs, D.D. The author began by observing that, if a geologist were to see a mass of stone lying in a place where all the rocks around were of a totally different character, he would not be satisfied till he had accounted for its being there; till he had found whence it came, and at what period, and by what agency it was brought. He be- lieved that like inquiries should be made, and might be answered, respecting ethno- logical boulders ; by which he understood words ‘occurring in writings of remote antiquity, which were of a totally different character from the words of which the writings were mainly composed. He believed that it would be possible, by help of these boulders, to trace the people to whose Janguage the words belonged, along the line by which they must have travelled, forward to the point where their migration terminated, and backward to that where it must have commenced. In the pre- sent paper he proposed to do this in a particular case, the discussion of which was peculiarly appropriate to the present meeting, as it related to that language, a proficiency in which was the acknowledged glory of Oxford. The language of the Assyrian inscriptions is of the family called Semitic, that is, of the same family with Hebrew; and by the way it resembles this language in some important particulars, such as having a Niphhal conjugation, more closely than it does any other known language of that family. It is remarkable also that the copious inscriptions which exist in this language were all written between the writing of the earliest and the writing of the latest books of the Old Testament; so that it would seem that no language could be expected to clear up what is obscure in these books so well as the Assyrian. In these Semitic inscriptions, however, numerous words are to be met with which are evidently not Semitic. One class of such words was pointed out several years ago by Sir Henry Rawlinson. They belonged to the language of Chaldea or Accad, which was spoken to the south of Assyria, and which he pronounced to be an Hamitic language, akin to the Egyptian. In a paper read at the Dublin Meeting of the British Association in 1857, of which a copious abstract is given, pp. 134-143 of the Report, Dr. Hincks took a very different view of the matter. He maintained that this Accadian language represented a sister language to that which is the common parent of all the Indo-European lan- guages ; the common parent of these two, which he called the Japhetic language, being a sister to the Egyptian language and to the common parent of all the Semitic languages. He now aflirmed that the views contained in that paper (with which he must, for brevity, assume that his hearers were acquainted) were fully confirmed by his subsequent researches, and that he had met with nothing inconsistent with them. The linguistic pedigree there laid down was so fully established by induction from a number of verbal pedigrees that it needed no further confirmation. Still, comparisons of Indo-European words with words of one of the languages above named, which was not Indo-European, would be found useful, and that in three ways :— 1, Such a comparison might establish the fact of a word having been in use in the TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 157 original family from which the Indo-European races have sprung. This fact may be inferred from the word being used by remote subfamilies ; but its being used by two subfamilies (or even by a siagle one), and being also found in one of the languages that are cognate to the original Indo-European, but not derived from it, is still stronger evidence. Thus the word horse, which is peculiar to the Teutonic family, but which is cognate to the Latin curro, ‘‘I go like a horse, 7. e. I run,” is shown to have been in use in the original Indo-European family from its evident connexion with the Accadian kurra. The original Indo-European root must have been kurs. 2. Such a comparison may determine the original form of an Indo-European root, which varies in the different languages known to us; as it may also determine the original Semitic form. For example, in p. 141, Report for 1857, the facts that the original Indo-European form of the second numeral was iwi and the original Semitic form thni, could only be established by a comparison of the different forms known to exist with the Accadian mi, as explained in that paper. In treating of the words for “lion,” No. 14, he was ignorant that the Assyrian word was libbu. Comparing this with the Accadian /ig, he now thinks that the Semitic form must have been ligh, and that this was also the Japhetic form. The Indo-European root would be ligw. In Latin this would be declined lix, livis; and, as (s)nix, (s)nivis gives snow in English, and snig, sneg in the Letto-Sclavonian languages, so /éwe in modern and lew in older German correspond to lix; and lig might be the ancient Letto-Sclavo- nian root, equivalent to these. 3. An etymological relation between Indo-European words may possibly be established if both can be shown to correspond to the same word in a language which is not Indo-European. ‘Thus, the relation between yAvkis and yAéaca is not generally admitted by Greek lexicographers ; though if the words be written as they would be in the Cadmean alphabet (see p. 142 of the former paper), yAok-Fes and yox-1a, the resemblance is easily seen. But this relationship is established when we find that ghlu is used in Egyptian both for “sweet” and for “tongue.” The Latin dulcis, originally dlucvis, is cognate to these. Enough, however, on the subject of the Accadian words occurring inthe Assyrian inscriptions. They present no ethnological difficulty, as the people who spoke the language to which they belonged lived close to Assyria. The case is the same with the Semitic words which occur in the Egyptian inscriptions. He pointed out one in 1845; MID“ achariot;” used also for “ chariots ;’’ the Egyptians not generally expressing the vowels, and thus writing the terminations eth and 6th alike. Mr. Birch has since found another meaning, ‘‘ round bucklers,’’ which appears to be the Arabic we pe These are Canaanitish words, expressing objects brought from Canaan. There were words, however, in the Assyrian inscriptions which Dr, Hincks be- lieved to be Indo-European; and as no Indo-/uropean people had been hitherto recognized as existing on the west of Assyria, their existence presents an ethnolo- gical difficulty which the author seeks to explain in this paper. The words in question were ligwindinas and ldsanan. The former occurs on a great slab or altar in the north-west palace at Nimriid (B. M. Series, pl. 44, I. 17). Every other word in the sentence is of known signification. ‘“ Z. alive I took cap- tive.” From the context it must necessarily be the name of an animal, in the plural number (being joined toa plural adjective) and in the accusative case (being governed by a transitive verb). Every one who has the slightest knowledge of the grammar of the Semitic languages must see that ligwindinas cannot be a Semitic accusative plural; and every one that knows anything of the grammar of the Indo-European languages must see that it is a regularly formed Indo-European accusative plural. Taking it as Sanskrit or Zend, the nominative singular would be ligwind?; taking it as Greek, it would be ligwindis or ligwindin. Whatever be the particular language to which it belongs, and whatever be the meaning, its being Indo-European ought uot to be questioned. The other word, /dsanan, has puzzled the interpreters of the Assyrian inscriptions as much as any other word. It occurs in several contexts : «king ldsanan’’ after ‘‘ king of Assyria” on Bellino’s cylinder, 1. 1; ‘ ruler of the tribes /dsanan,” on the Tiglath Pileser cylinder (I. 29), “ wielder of the sceptre ldsa- nan,” same cylinder (VI.56). ‘Assur the great lord has made me to possess (? yusad- limanni ; the first radical may be 7, 0 or 4) the kingdom ldsanan,” Bellino’s cylinder, 158 REPORT—1860. 1.4. In all these contexts, a genitive of the name of a people who were not Assy- rian seems required. Yet ldsanan is an impossible form for a Semitic genitive. The word }W), “a language, i. e.a people speaking a language,”’ suggests itself at once; but its genitive plural would be disandti. The idea that ldsanan should be resolved into two words, the first being Jd, the negative particle, suggested itself also; but to this also there were insuperable objections. Sanan is, no doubt, the theme of an adjective; but when joined to a noun it must have a case ending. In the first con- text the rules of grammar would require sannu, in the second sanndii, in the third sanatii euph. for sanandi. In the fourth sarrut is in construction, and would require a genitive after it, and not an adjective. The same might be said of kissat in the second context. Besides, /é sanan would mean “ not fighting,’’ and would be the very last title that a king of Assyria would apply to himself. The translation “‘ unchanging,”’ which has been suggested, would require Jd sanah, in place of Id sanan, if the case ending were to be omitted, which, however, it could not be.- Whether, therefore, ldsanan be regarded as one Assyrian word or as two, it presents insuperable diffi- culties. These, however, disappear at once if it be considered as an Indo-European word. It has all the appearance of an Indo-European genitive plural from a nomi- native /dsas; and such a word is just what will suit all the contexts. Accordingly, the recognition of ligwindinas as Indo-European led immediately to the recognition of ldsanan as so too. The next question to be considered is to what country the Indo-European people who used these words belonged. The account of the hunting expedition in which the Assyrian king took the lig- windinas is preceded by that of his receiving tribute from the people on the coast of Syria, beginning with the Tyrians and ending with the Arvadites. This renders it probable that his hunting was on the west of Assyria; and indeed he states in the Payement Inscriptions that he hunted on the banks of the Euphrates. Again, if the word ldsanan signified a people, other than the Assyrians, over whom Tiglath Pileser acquired dominion, they must have been to the west or north of Assyria; for he mentions no conquests towards the south; and we know from the inscription of Sennacherib at Bavian that he was defeated by his southern neighbours, his capital taken, and his gods carried off by them. He could have had no dominion over the Medians, or any neighbouring people that have been hitherto supposed to be Indo- European. This. leads to the inquiry whether the Egyptian or Assyrian inscriptions afford any grounds for the supposition that an Indo-European population was located in Syria. Fifteen years ago Dr. Hincks pronounced certain names published by Champollion as those of the chiefs of the Khita, to be Indo-European. Four names terminating with stro, as Champollion read the characters, were published by him, the former part of the first name, which was that of the chief of the nation, being Khita, the name of the nation. Dr. Hincks affirmed in 1845 that this name must be Indo- European, and must mean ‘lord of Khita.’”’ He read the latter part of the name swar, connecting it with kipios. M. de Rougé adopted this interpretation of the name, but said that the second element in it was the Semitic sar; to which it was replied that no Semitic compound could be formed as M. de Rougé supposed. « Lord of Khita”’ would be Sar-Khitti, not Khita-sar, according to the mode of arrangement of the elements of a compound name adopted by all Semitic people. From the fact of these names being Indo-European, Dr. Hincks at first inferred that the enemies of Rameses 11. were Scythians, as Champollion had supposed; but it was subsequently proved that they lived within a short distance of Egypt; and their capital Kadish, formerly read Atish, was identified with a place on the Orontes, south of Emessa. They were, in short, the AKhattaya of the Assyrian inscriptions, and the Hittites of the Old Testament; and their religion, as shown by the Egyptian inscriptions, was clearly Canaanitish. How then could they have Indo-European names? Conceiving it to be certain that some of their chiefs had such names in the time of Rameses II., Dr. Hincks reconciled this fact with the other by supposing that Indo- Europeans had previously overrun their country, and acquired dominion over it; but that they had adopted the religion and probably the language of the conquered people; at any rate they had failed to impose upon them their own language. The Kita had chiefs with Indo-European names, and doubtless of Indo-European race; ee acer a TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 159 just as the English in the twelfth century had Norman chiefs with Norman names; but the great body of the people had in both instances remained unchanged. There was thus evidence that a body of Indo-Europeans had conquered the coun- try north of Mount Lebanon before the reign of Rameses II.; and on the other hand, there was evidence that at the marriage of Amenholp III. the Egyptian empire extended to Naharina or Mesopotamia. During this interval a peculiar form of sun-worship was introduced into Egypt, and obtained a temporary superiority. That this worship was of Aryan origin and that its introduction synchronized with the loss of the foreign conquests of the Egyptians, are generally admitted by Egyptologists. The middle of the reign of Amenholp III. must therefore have been about the time when the Indo-European invasion in question took place; 7. e. according to Lepsius, 1506 u.c.; according to Bunsen, 1468; according to Dr. Hincks, about 1390. Of the four proper names of Hittite chiefs which, according to Champollion, ended in siro, three are supposed by Dr. Hincks to signify lords of different people ; the fourth (Sopa-siro of Champollion) he reads Asp-iswar, ‘lord of the horse.”’ This reading (which, as well as the worship of the sun which these Indo-Europeans prac- tised, suggests their close connexion with Persia) is confirmed by the name of Kus- taspi, king of Kummukh, or Commagene, who, along with Razin of Damascus and Minikhimi of Samaria, paid homage to Tiglath Pileser II]. It would appear that this Indo-European immigration took deeper root in uorthern than it did in southern Syria. The name Kustaspi is evidently a compound, signifying, like that of the father of Darius, ‘‘ having .. . . horses ;”’ the meaning of the participle wista or kusta being uncertain. In Sanskrit and Zend such compounds require no suffix at the end. Assuming that kusta signified “chosen,’’ kustaspa gen. kustaspahyd would signify ‘‘ having a chosen horse, or chosen horses.’’ Here, however, a suffix isadded. The name is kustaspi, which would have for its genitive kustaspinas. This marked difference is an argument for the diversity of the Indo-Europeans of Syria from the Persians, though they resembled them in their sun-worship and in using aspa for ‘‘horse.’’ Another argument to the same effect is derived from the impossibility of a Persian population making an incursion into Syria. Not only is the Semitic population of Assyria interposed, but either Media or Elymais would have to be traversed, in the latter of which the language was of a totally different character from any Indo-European one; while in the former a dialect of Persian was used, in which we know that aspa did not signify “a horse.”” In the Behistun inscription, which was in this dialect, ‘horse”’ is expressed by asma, instead of by aspa, as at Persepolis. See lines 86, 87 of the first column, where dasha and asma (in pure Persian dasti and aspa) are translated in the Scythic, or rather Elymean version, published by Mr. Norris, by the well-known Accadian words habba and kurra, which are constantly used in the Assyrian inscriptions for ‘‘elephants”’ and “ horses.” The true translation of the passage is this: ‘‘ I divided the army. A part I made to be carried by elephants. The other part I made to swim with the horses.” These considerations lead to the conclusion that the Indo-Europeans in Syria did not come from Persia; but that the Persians and they formed part of the same body of immigrants, which divided into two bodies inArmenia or the neighbouring country. ‘The next thing to be considered is the evidence which may exist of such a people having been settled in northern Syria and the country to the north of it. This evidence consists of proper names of men preserved in the Assyrian inscrip- tions, which appear to be Indo-European compounds; and of names of districts which end in a sibilant which disappears when the word is inflected, and which must therefore be the sign of the Indo-European nominative singular ; also of names of districts in the genitive singular, which also terminates in s. A series of proper names of princes which all terminate alike is found in the Tiglath Pileser cylinder; namely, Kaltantiru, Kiliantiru, and Sadiantiru. The fact of the latter parts of the three names being the same, is strong presumptive evidence that those names are Indo-European. ‘To determine their respective meanings is, how- ever, the part of philology and not of ethnology. The name Kashkash, which oc- curs in the Sallier Papyrus No. 3, as that of a country in alliance with the Khita, is manifestly the Kaskaya of the Assyrian inscriptions; and the Muskaya of these last, the 7W/ of the Hebrew Scriptures, is the Mushush of the Egyptian inscriptions, or, as it should rather be written, the Muskusk ; for in ancient times the Egyptians, like 160 REPORT—1860. the Assyrians, had no SH. They expressed that sound in foreign words by their double letter SK. In both these instances the final sibilant, which is preserved in the Egyptian, disappears in the Assyrian gentile adjective. Inthe name of Carche- nish (Gargamusk of the Assyrian and Egyptian inscriptions) the case ending is pre- served in Hebrew, Assyrian, and Egyptian. In Tarshish it is preserved in Hebrew, but lost in Egyptian. This name has not been met with in the Assyrian inscrip- tions; but the Greek form Tapo-ds shows that the second sibilant in the Hebrew word is acase ending. In the Tiglath-Pileser inscription names of districts are always expressed in the genitive, the character signifying ‘‘ country ”’ which precedes them, being to be read as a noun in construction, mat. Some of these genitives are Assy- rian, as Kummukhi, ‘‘ (the landof) Kummukh;”’ but others are to all appearance Indo-European, as Ligrakhinas, Ammaus, Adaus, Skaraus. These last three have a strong resemblance to the genitives of the Persian nouns in ush, such as Margaush, Babilaush. The aw was pronounced as two syllables. The next point investigated was the interpretation of the words of this language, ligwindinas and Idsanan, and their connexion with like words in other languages. The former word was supposed to be equivalent to Acovroeidets, and the latter to Aady. It was observed that Aéwy was a secondary word for “lion,”’ the participle of a verb, which was itself derived from the primitive word Nis, originally AceFs. The words first introduced were nouns, from which verbs were derived. Thus mus, mouse, expressed the idea to which the name was first assigned. It had been stated, and assigned as a reason why the Sanskrit language ought to be acknowledged as the parent of the European languages, that Sanskrit was the only language in which the verb “to steal,’ from which mouse, ‘‘the stealer,’”? was derived, was known to exist. It is very true that the Sanskrit noun signifying ‘a mouse” was derived from a Sanskrit verb signifying “to steal ;’’ but this verb was itself derived from a primary noun signifying ‘‘a mouse,’”’ which was preserved in Greek, Latin, and Teutonic, though unknown in Sanskrit. As in English we say “‘ to ape a person,” meaning ‘‘to do to him what an ape does,” 7. e. “to imitate him ;” so we might say ‘‘to mouse a thing,” meaning ‘to do to it what a mouse does,” i, e. “to steal it.” In Wilson’s Sanskrit dictionary four different forms of the verb ‘‘ he mouses it” are given; but the roof, the primary noun mus, is not to be found in the language at all. So much for this argument in favour of the antiquity of Sanskrit, as com- pared with the European languages cognate to it! Whatever weight it has is in the opposite direction. Using the primary for the secondary Greek word for “ lion,” and the uncontracted form, we should have AvoeSéas. In the Cadmean alphabet, in which ¢ was only used as a semivowel, this would be written \eFoFevdéas ; and the word preserved in the Assyrian inscriptions, if expressed in the same alphabet, would be deyFevdevas. The other word ldsanan, expressed in this alphabet, would be Aagovor, or at least might be so rendered; for, as long a expressed the sound of a in fall or in father, the corresponding short a might have the sound of 0 in folly (which would be ex- pressed by 0) as well as that of ain fat. So the Assyrian Aranta became ’Opdvrns in Greek. In this same Cadmean alphabet, \aév would be Adadoy: the o being here “ «iBSndov,”’ or deceptive ;—written, but not pronounced; as it was so late as the time of Pindar. The dropping of the sibilant between two vowels being admitted to have taken place in a great number of instances (if not in every instance where it was originally unaccompanied by a consonant or semivowel) by all Greek grammarians ; and the wv of the genitive plural being also admitted by Bopp and others to have been originally ovov and then oov (as pei¢@ was originally pei{ova and then pei{oa), there is no difficulty whatever in deriving the second Greek word in classical use from that preserved in the Assyrian inscriptions. The former of the two words, however, requires some remarks. In the first place, it is not generally admitted that -éas, from a nom. sing. -7s, has sprung from évas. It is commonly supposed to be from evas. The point suggested is, that the Ur-Griechisch word now discovered is evidence that this supposition is not altogether correct. It is admitted that a compound adjective in -7s, the latter element of which is a noun in -os -eos, such as dvo-jrevns, b1-erns, would have originally formed its genitive in -écos. Such a word would correspond to a Sanskrit noun in TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 161 ds, as dur-mands. But the question now raised is whether there may not be com- pounds, the last element of which is a verbal root, or a primary noun from which this is derived, to which the suffix.in was attached as implying possession; and whether the in of such compounds has not become in the nominative -7s, -és; so that these adjectival terminations are in some instances the equivalents of the Sanskrit adjectival terminations 7,7. his is supposed by Dr. Hincks to have been the case in such instances as pudo-erd-7s, d-hyd-ns, tTpt-np(er)-ns, &c.; the roots being 1d (Fed), AaO and epes. ‘The original form of the suffix implying possession he supposed to be ith, which was liable to pass both into ts and intoin. Thus, in the first person plural of active verbs the original form meth, written -yer, -ped (retained in the pas- sive, where we have in classical Greek -<8a), became pey and dialectically wes. Itis this ¢h, written in the old alphabet r or 6, which is so apt to be dropped between vowels, and at the end of a word, and which in the latter position, if not dropped, must be changed into c or y. In reality, the root which is above written epes was eped, ereth. The addition of the suffix in, implying possession, to a compound, is unusual in Sanskrit; but instances may be produced. One is, according to Bopp, dmndya-sdr- iz. In Lithuanian, however, a suffix is generally added to the compound. It ap- pears in the present languages as 7, which Bopp supposes to have been za, but which may have been originally ix, The usual form ofa Lithuanian compound is did-burn-is, rot-pon-is, tri-kamp-is; na-baga-s, without the suffix, is spoken of by Bopp as exceptional. This is one reason for supposing that the language to which these words belong was of Lithuanian origin. The suffix in, which appears not only in ligwindinas, but in the proper names nom. Kustaspi, gen. Ligrakhinas, may be connected with the Lithuanian is and the Greek js, but is abhorrent to the genius of both the Sanskrit and Zend languages. The difference between Fevd and Fe.d seems also to require some observations. The root is fed ; and according to the custom of the Indo-urcepean languages, and especially of the eastern family, or families of them, a nasal may be introduced between a short vowel and the consonant which follows it. The Greek ec and oF were in the old Cadmean alphabet the representatives of the long vowels # and @%. They are equivalent to iy and ww, ¢ and F being in that alphabet semivowels; and these long vowels were substituted for « and o followed by a nasal, when that nasal was omitted. It is worthy of notice, however, that in the inscription on a broken obelisk in the British Museum, in the first column, where the king enumerates the animals that he had taken or killed, or rather designed to do so (blanks for the number being left before each name of an animal, which were never filled up), men- tion is made in the twenty-third line of “ ligwidini’’ followed by the plural sign. The omission of the nasal in the word, as here written, shows that it was not essen- tial. ‘The plural sign after mi is here substituted for the Indo-European termination nas. Possibly digwidini is intended for the nominative singular feminine ; or it may be the nominative ligwidi with the Assyrian termination of the accusative plural. The word wida is used in Old Prussian for ‘likeness ;”’ sta-wida and ka-wida representing the Latin ¢alis and qualis. This is another indication of a connexion between the languages to which these words belong, and the old Lithuanian. A third indication of this is derived from the name /dsanan. As used in the Assyrian inscriptions, it denoted the Indo-European tribes on the west of Assyria ;— those who called themselves by this name. Exactly in the same way, the Egyptians applied the name )3) to the Semitic tribes in whose language this word signified “the peoples.”” Now this word /édsanan was originally /d/hanan; and while its stern is the same as that of the name of the Lithuanian people, it has other affinities, which are very remarkable. The Lydians, AvSoi, were evidently a branch of the same people; notwithstanding the mythic derivation of their name given by Hero- dotus. but their identity with the Lutan or Ludan of the Egyptian inscriptions is equally certain, and still more important, as it shows us that fora considerable time before they pushed their conquests to the neighbourhood of Egypt (viz. to Mount Lebanon), they had been warring against them on their northern frontier, when their empire extended to Mesopotamia. The termination of this name requires some remarks. It may be the Semitic- 186°. 11 162 REPORT—1860. plural ending, which the Egyptians borrowed from those tribes which intervened between them and these Ludan; or it may be the accusative plural of the Indo- European name. It may be well, however, to compare it with the termination of another proper name, which occurs in the Sallier Papyrus No. 3, and which appears to refer to the very same people. A name is found there, which Champollion read Iwan and took for the Jonians. It has since been ascertained that the character which Champollion read has for its value ari or ivi. The name therefore is driwan, the Aryans or noble people, a title which the Indian and Persian branches of this people which descended from the north applied to themselves, and which (it would seem) the Syrian branch of the same people also used. The an at the end of these two names is probably the same element; and the fact of its being preceded by w, when not preceded by a consonant, suggests a third explanation of it. It may be the suffix which appears in rdjan (nom. rdjd), Saiwewr, latron (nom. latro) and ahman (nom. ahma), which suffix was probably the theme of the first numeral, denoting a noun of unity. Thus Ariwan would be ’Apior, or ‘Ipiwy, from the latter of which it is just possible that ”"Ioy may be derived. Whatever may be thought of this last derivation, it seems clear that the Indo- European glosses, found in the Assyrian inscriptions, are in the language of a people which had separated, some centuries before the date of the earliest Assyrian inscrip- tion, from the Aryans of Persia, and which had probably accompanied these in their migration from the northern region which they originally inhabited; and that while a portion of these western Aryans remained in Syria and the adjacent countries, the main body of them proceeded westward through Asia Minor and across the Bospho- rus or Hellespont, forming the Hellenic or Ionic people of the Greeks ; which mingled with the Pelasgians (a more ancient Indo-European race akin to the Italian tribes), and by their union formed the different dialects of Greek with which we are acquainted. It is probable, but not so certain, that the language of the people from whom all these Aryan tribes were derived, was Lithuanian in its oldest form. A New Map of the Interior of the Northern Island of New Zealand, con- structed during an Inland Journey in 1859. By Professor F. von Hocu- sTETTER ( Vienna), Geologist of the Austrian Novara Expedition. On the Antiquity of the Human Race. By Dr. J. Hunt. On the Geographical Distribution and Trade in the Cinchona. By V. Hurtavo. The different species of the tree which yields the bark known in commerce as Peruvian bark, and from which the sulphate of quinine is obtained, grow on the slopes of the Andes, at a height which varies according to the latitude and the topo- graphical situation of the mountains where this precious vegetable production has been found. In New Grenada it grows on the central branch of the Cordillera, which extends from the province of Paito, and separates the two valleys of the Cauca and Magdalena, being most abundant in the districts of Pitay6 and Almaguer. It is also found on the mountains above Finagamga, near Bogota. The Pitayo bark has been the richest in quinine; and as in that locality the cuttings have been carried on to the greatest extent, the article is nearly exhausted. The same may be said of the Finagamga variety, which, although not so rich as the Pitay6, is prized on account of its being of easier labour. The Almaguer bark, which at first was hardly saleable, is now used to a great extent in Philadelphia and London, on account of the scarcity of the two former species. The best bark is found on the Pitay6 mountain, at a height of from 8000 to 11,000 feet above the level of thesea. ‘The tree grows among the numerous species of Alpine vegetation which cover those mountains with thick forests, either in clusters or scattered about. For that reason it varies in size. Like all trees of a cold climate, it is of slow growth, and requires a great many years to arrive at a good height. Some of them have been found so large as to yield forty arrobas of green bark, which, when dried up, is reduced to about a third of its weight. Others only produce about ten arrobas, As this tree is chiefly found in TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 163 wild, cold, uninhabited mountains, constantly covered by clouds, there has been no system in cutting, nor any study made to ascertain how long a spot should be left at rest before undertaking new cuttings. It is known that the roots produce a great many shoots after a tree is cut down, and that these require about fifty years to be- come of a middling size. Young trees are also found growing from seeds, The nature of the soil seems to determine the qualities of the alkalies contained in the bark, quinine being most abundant in Pitayd, and cinchonine in Almaguer. But rocky mountains and ravines are the spots where nature has placed this vegetable species, The author is not aware that any bark trees have been found on the western Cordillera, which separates the valley of Cauca from the Pacific coast, which ridge never attains the elevation of perpetual snow in those latitudes. It only remains to state, that the price of good sound Pitay6é bark, which had gone down in London to 1s. 8d. per pound, is now as high as 2s. 6d., and some very inferior lots have been sold at 3s. The Almaguer sort, which was entirely neglected two years ago, is now accepted by manufacturers at from 1s. to 1s. 4d, per pound. No mention is made of the Bolivian bark, the most esteemed in commerce, as the author is not personally acquainted with that trade. On Alphabets, and especially the English ; and on a New Method of Mark- ing the Sound of English Words, without change of Orthography. By the Rev. Professor JARRETT, M.A. On the Origin of the Arts, and the Influence of Race in their Development. By R. Knox. A brief Account of the Progress of the Works of the Isthmus of Suez Canal. By D. A. Lance. On the Jaczwings, a Population of the Thirteenth Century, on the Frontiers of Prussia and Lithuania. By R. G. Laruam, M.D. F.R.S. In the middle of the thirteenth century, the Jaczwings were a powerful nation, between the Vistula, the Niemen, and the Upper Dnieper. At the present moment, a small population, called by the neighbouring Lithuanians Jodwezhai, and distin- guished by a dark complexion and certain peculiarities of dress and manners, is the chief representative of the name. A few localities—(1) Jaévis Pol=Jaczving Land, (2) Jatvis Stara= Old Jatvis, (3) Jatvis Nova=New Jatvis, (4) Mogilki-Jadzhvin- gowski=Jacxving Graves, and (5, 6, 7) three villages named Jatvesk, complete the fragments. The name, having come to us through Latin, Polish, German, Bohemian, and Russian mediums, is hardly twice spelt alike, e. g. we have Jazuingi, Jasuingi, Jacuingi, Jacwingi, Jaczwingi, Jatwingi in the German and Polish; Jatvyagi, Jatviazhi, Jatviezie, &c., in the Russian. To these add Getwezeu, Getuinzete, and even Geta. In speculating upon the ethnological affinities and the former extension of these tribes, in the direction of both the Gothini and the Gothones of the classical writers, this multiplicity of variations must be borne in mind. In respect to the immediate affinities of the nation at the particular time under notice, the evidence is very decided to their being members of the same family, and to their speaking the same language with the Prussians (i.e. the occupants of East Prussia before the German Conquest), the Lithuanians, the Samogitians, and the Letts. Their locality supports these statements, as do the few words which have come to us from their language. Whe- ther they were equally Lithuanic in blood, is another questiun. The few, but ia- portant details of their history derive their interest (as do those of the Lithuanic family altogether) from the peculiar character of the great religious contest which they represent. With the Greek Christianity of Russia on the east, and the Papal influences on the west, Lithuania and Finland were not only the last strongholds of Paganism, but were acted upon as such in two directions. The resistance, however, of the Lithuanians was most obstinate; and the most obstinate of the Lithuanians were the Jaczwings. Their annihilation, too, was most complete. In 1264, a great battle broke their power. In the fifteenth century not even the — of the 11 164 REPORT—1860. Jaczwings remained. A more moderate notice simply says that the name of the Jacz- wings was very rare and known to few. Conjointly with the special details of the Jaczwings themselves, those of the populations with which they came in contact should be studied—those of Russia and Poland, cut up into duchies; of Gallicia, a powerful principality ; of Lithuania, a kingdom under Mindovy, vacillating both in creed and politics; of North-Eastern Ger:nany under the Knights of the Teutonic order; and, finally, of Volhynia occupied by Comanian Turks, and partly overrun by Mongols. Details, however, of this kind are beyond the pale of the present notice, which is chiefly made for the sake of drawing attention to the history of a nation— the pre-eminently Pagan nation of Europe—once powerful, but now fragmentary, the blood of which must still be found in more than one district where the language is German, Lithuanic, Polish, or Russian. On the latest Discoveries in South-Central Africa. By Dr. D. LivincsTone. The following letter from Dr. Livingstone was read to the Section :— River Shiré, Nov. 4, 1859. The River Shiré has its source in the green waters of the great Lake Nyassa (lat. 14° 23'S., long. 35° 30’ E.). It flows serenely on in a southerly direction, a fine navigable stream, from 80 to 120 yards in breadth, expanding some 12 or 15 miles from Nyassa into a beautiful lakelet, with a well-defined water horizon, and perhaps 5 or 6 miles wide; then narrowing again, it moves quietly on about 40 miles, till it reaches Murchison’s Cataracts. After a turbulent course of 30 miles, it emerges from the cataracts a peaceful river capable of carrying a large steamer through the remaining 112 miles of its deep channel, and joins the Zambesi in iat. 17° 47'S., 100 miles from the confluence of that river with the sea. The valley through which the Shiré flows is from 10 to 12 miles broad at the southern extremity of Lake Nyassa, but soon stretches out to 20 or 30 miles, and is bounded all the way on both sides by ranges of hills, the eastern range being remarkably lofty. At Chihisas (lat. 16° 2' 3S., 35° 1'E.), a few miles below the cataracts, the range of hills on the left bank of the Shiré is not above 3 miles from the river, while the other range has receded out of sight. If from Chihisas we proceed in a north-easterly path, a three hours’ march places us on an elevation of upwards of 1000 feet. This is not far from the level of the Upper Shiré valley (1200 feet), and appears to be its prolonga- tion. Four hours’ additional travel, and we reach another plateau, 1000 feet higher, and in a few hours more the highest plateau, 3000 feet above the level of the sea, is attained, and we are on an extensive table-land, which, in these three distinct divi- sions, extends to Zomba (lat. of southern end 15° 21’ S.). It is then broken; and © natives report that, north of Zomba, which is 20 miles in length from north to south, there is but a narrow partition between Lakes Nyassa and Tamandua (Shirwa). Three islands were visible on the west side of what we could see of Nyassa from its southern end. The two ranges of hills stretch along its shores, and we could see looming through the haze caused by burning grass all over the country the dim out- lines of some lofty mountains behind the eastern hills. On the table-land are numerous hills and some mountains, as Chicadgura, perhaps 5000 feet high, and Zomba (which was ascended), from 7009 to 8000 feet in altitude. From this table- land we can see, on the east of Lake Tamandua, the Milanje Mountains, apparently higher than Zomba and Mount Clarendon, not unworthy of the noble name it bears. All this region is remarkably well-watered; wonderfully numerous are the streams and mountain rills of clear, cool, gushing water. Once we passed eight of them and a strong spring in a single hour, and we were then at the end of the dry season. Even Zomba has a river about 20 yards wide, flowing through a rich valley near its summit. The hil! is well wooded also; trees, admirable for their height and the amount of timber in them, abound along the banks of the streams. ‘Is this country good for cattle?” the head man of the Makololo, whose business had been the charge of cattle, was asked. “‘ Truly,” replied he ; “‘ don’t you see the abundance of such and such grasses, which cattle love, and on which they grow fat?”” And yet the people have only a few goats, and still fewer sheep. There are no wild animals in the highlands, and but few birds; and with the exception of one place, where we — > tw el PS? OL TS Oe ra TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 165 saw some elephants, buffaloes, &c., there are none on the plains of the Upper Shiré, but the birds, new and strange, are pretty numerous. In the upper part of the Lower Shiré, in the highlands, and in the valley of the Upper Shiré, there is a somewhat numerous population. The people generally live in villages and in hamlets near them. Each village has its own chief, and the chiefs in a given territory have a head chief, to whom they owe some sort of allegiance. The paramount chief of one portion of the Upper Shiré is a woman, who lives two days’ journey from the west side of the river, and possesses cattle. The chief has a good deal of authority ; he can stop trade till he has sold his own things. One or two insisted on seeing what their people got for the provisions sold to us. The women drop on their knees when he passes them. Mongazi’s wife went down on her knees, when he handed her our present to carry into the hut. One-evening a Makololo fired his musket without leave, received a scolding, and had his powder taken from him. “If he were my man,” said the chief, “I would fine him a fowl also.’’ The sites of their villages are selected, for the most part, with judgment and good taste. Astream or spring is near, and pleasant shade-trees grow in and around the place. Nearly every village is surrounded by a thick high hedge of the poisonous Euphorbia. During the greater part of the year the inhabitants could see an enemy through the hedge, while he would find it a difficult matter to see them. By shooting their already poisoned arrows through the tender branches, they get smeared with the poisonous milky juice, and inflict most -painful if not fatal wounds. The constant dripping of the juice from the bruised branches prevents the enemy from attempting to force his way through the hedge, as it destroys the eyesight. The huts are larger, stronger built, with higher and more graceful roofs than any we have seen on the Zambesi. The Boabab (spreading place) is at one side of the village; the ground is made smooth and level, and the banians, the favourite trees, throw a grateful shade over it. Here the people meet to smoke tobacco and bang; to sing, dance, beat drums, and drink beer. [In the Boabab of one small village we counted fourteen drums of various sizes, all carefully arranged on dry grass.] Some useful work, too, is performed in this place, as spinning, weaving, making baskets and fish-nets. On entering a village, we proceeded at once to the Boabab, on which the Strangers’ hut is built, and sat down. Large mats of split bamboo are politely brought to us to recline on. Our guides tell some of the people who we are, how we have behaved ourselves since they knew us, where we are going, and what our object is. This word is carried to the chief. If a sensible man, he comes as soon as he hears of our arrival; if timid or suspicious, he waits till he has thrown his dice, and given his warriors, for whom he has sent in hot haste, time to assemble. When the chief makes his appearance, his people begin to clap their hands, and continue clapping until he sits down; then his councillors take their places beside him, with whom he converses for a minute or so. Our guides sit down opposite them. A most novel scene now transpires ; both parties, looking earnestly at each other, pronounce a word, as ‘‘ Amhinatu” (our chief or father), then a clap of the hands from each one— another word, two claps—a third word, three claps—and this time all touch the ground with their closed hands. Next, all rise clapping—sit down again, and—clap, clap, clap—allowing the sound gradually to dieaway. They keep time in this most perfectly, the chief taking the lead. ‘The guides now tell the chief all they please, and retire, clapping the hands gently, or with one hand on the breast; and his own people do the same, when they pass the chief, in retiring. The customary presents are exchanged, after a little conversation with the chief, and in a short time his people bring provisions for sale. In some villages the people clapped with all their might when they approved what the chief was saying to us. In others, the clapping seems omitted in our case, though we could see it was kept with black strangers who came into the village. The chief at the Lake, an old man, came to see us of his own accord,—said he had heard that we had come, and sat down under a tree,—and he came to invite us to take up our quarters with him. Many of the men are very intelligent-looking, with high foreheads and well-shaped heads. ‘They show singular taste in the astonishingly varied styles in which their hair is arranged. ‘Lheir bead necklaces are really pretty specimens of work. Many have the upper and middle as well as the lower part of the ear bored, and have from three to five rings in each ear. The hole in the lobe of the ear is large enough to admit one’s finger, 166 REPORT—1860. and some wear a piece of bamboo about an inch long init. Brass and iron bracelets, elaborately figured, are seen; and some of the men sport from two to eight brass rings on each finger, and even the thumbs are not spared. They wear copper, brass, and iron rings on their legs and arms; many have their front teeth notched, and some file them till they resemble the teeth of a saw. The upper lip ring of the women gives them a revolting appearance; it is universally worn in the highlands. A puncture is made high up in the lip, and it is gradually enlarged until the pelelé can be inserted. Some are very large. One we measured caused the lip to project two inches beyond the tip of the nose; when the lady smiled the contraction of the muscles elevated it over the eyes. ‘‘ Why do the women wear these things?” the venerable chief, Chinsurdi, was asked. Evidently surprised at such a stupid ques- tion, he replied, ‘‘ For beauty! ‘They are the only beautiful things women have; men have beards, women haye none. What kind of a person would she be without the pelelé? She would not he a woman at all with a mouth like a man, but no beard.”” One woman having a large tin pelelé with a bottom like a dish, refused to sell it, because, she said, ker husband would beat her if she went home without it. These rings are made of bamboo, of iron, or of tin. Their scanty clothing—the prepared bark of trees, the skins of animals (chiefly goats), and a thick strong cotton cloth—are all of native manufacture. They seem to be an industrious race. Iron is dug out of the hills, and every village has one or two smelting houses; and from their own native iron they make excellent hoes, axes, spears, knives, arrow-heads, &c, They make, also, round baskets of various sizes, and earthen pots, which they orna- ment with plumbago, said to be found in the Hill Country, though we could not learn exactly where, nor in what quantities: the only specimen we obtained was not pure, At every fishing village on the banks of the river Shiré men were busy spin- ning buaze and making large fishing-nets from it; and from Chihisas to the Lake, in every village almost, we saw men cleaning and spinning cotton, while others were weaving it into strong cloth in looms of the simplest construction, all the processes being excessively slow. This is a great cotton-growing country. The cotton is of two kinds, ‘‘ Tonji manga,” or foreign cotton ; and ‘ Tonji cadji,”’ or native cotton. The former is of good quality, with a staple from three-quarters to an inch in length. It is perennial, requiring to be re-planted only once in three years, The native cotton is planted every year in the highlands, is of short staple, and feels more like wool than cotton. Every family appears to own a cotton patch, which is kept clear of weeds and grass. We saw the foreign growing at the Lake and in yarious places for 30 miles south of it, and about an equal number of miles below the cataracts on the Lower Shiré. Although the native cotton requires to be planted annually in the highlands, the people prefer it, because, they say, “‘it makes the stronger cloth.” It was remarked to a number of intelligent natives near the Shiré lakelet, ‘‘ You should plant plenty of cotton, and perhaps the English will come soon and buy it.” ** Surely the country is full of cotton,” said an elderly man, who was a trader and travelled much. Our own observations convinced us of the truth of this statement. Everywhere we saw it. Cotton patches of from 2 to 3 acres were seen abreast of the cataracts during the first trip, when Lake Tamandua was discovered, though in this journey, on a different route, none were observed of more than half an acre. They usually contained about a quarter of an acre each. There are extensive tracts on the level plains of both the Lower and Upper Shiré, where salt exudes from the soil. Sea island cotton might grow well there, as on these the foreign cotton be- comes longer in the staple. The cotton-growers here never have their crops cut off by frosts. There are none. Both kinds of cotton require but little labour, none of that severe and killing toil requisite in the United States, The people are great cultivators of the soil, and it repays them well. All the inhabitants of a village, men, women, and children, and dogs, turn out at times to labour in the fields. The chief told us all his people were out hoeing, and we saw in other parts many busy at work, Ifa new piece of ground is to be cultivated, the labourer grasps as much of the tall dry grass as he conveniently can, ties it into a knot at the top, strikes his hoe through the roots, detaching them from the ground with some earth still adhering, which, with the knot, keeps the grass in a standing position. He proceeds in this way over the field. When this work is finished, the field exhibits a harvest-like appearance, being thickly dotted all over with these shocks, which are 3 feet high. 5 oe TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 167 A short time before the rains several of these shocks are thrown together, the earth scraped over them, and then the grass underneath is set on fire. The soil is thus treated in a manner similar to that practised in modern times among ourselves on some lands. When they wish to clear a piece of woodland, they proceed in precisely the same way as the farmers in Canada and the Western States do,—cut the trees down with their axes, and, leaving the stumps about 3 feet high standing, pile up the logs and branches for burning. They grow lassaver in large quantities, preparing ridges for it from 3 to 4 feet wide, and about a foot high. They also raise maize, rice, two kinds of millet, beans, sugar-cane, sweet potatoes, yams, ground-nuts, pumpkin, tobacco, and Indian hemp. Near Lake Nyassa we saw indigo 7 feet high. Large quantities of beer are made, and they like it well. We found whole villages on the spree, and saw the stupid type of drunkenness, the silly sort, the boisterous talkative sort, and on cne occasion the almost up-to-the-fighting- point variety, when a petty chief, with some of the people near, placed himself in front, exclaiming, “TI stop this path; you must go back.’’ Had he not got out of the way with greater speed than dignity, an incensed Makololo would have cured him of all desire to try a similar exploit in future. It was remarked by the oldest traveller in the party that he had not seen so much drunkenness during all the years he had spent in Africa. The people, notwithstanding, attain to a great age. One is struck with the large number of old grey-headed persons in the highlands. This seems to indicate a healthy climate; for their long lives they are not in the least indebted to frequent ablutions. ‘Why do you wash yourselves? our men never do,” said some women at Chinsurdi to the Makololo. An old man told us he remembered having washed himself once when a boy, but never repeated it; and from his appearance one could hardly call the truth of his statement in question. A fellow who volunteered some wild geographical information followed us about a dozen miles, and introduced us to the chief Moena Moezi by saying, “‘ They have wandered ; they don’t know where they are going.”” ‘‘Scold that man,” said a Makololo head to his factotum, wha immediately commenced an extemporary scolding ; yet the singular geographer would follow us, and we could not get quit of him till the Makololo threatened to take him to the river and wash him. The castor-oil with which they lubricate themselves and the dirt serve as additional clothing, and to wash themselves is like throwing away the only upper garment they possess. They feel cold and uncomfortable after awash. We observed several persons marked by the small-pox. On asking the chief Mongazi—who was alittle tipsy, and disposed to be very gracious,-—if he knew its origin, whether it had come to them from the sea, ‘‘ He did not know,”’ he said, “but supposed it must have come to them from the English.”’ Like other Africans, they are somewhat superstitious, A person accused of bewitching another and causing his death, either volunteers or is compelled to drink the Maiori, or ordeal. On our way to the lake a chief kindly led us past the next two villages, whose chiefs had just been killed by drinking the Maiori. When a chief dies his people imagine that they may plunder any stranger coming into their village. A chief, near Zomba, at whose village we took breakfast on our way up, drank the Maiori before our return, and vomiting, was therefore innocent. His people we found manifesting their joy by singing, dancing, and beating drums. Even Chibisa, an intelligent and power- ful chief, drank it once, and when insisting that all his numerous wars were just, and that his enemies were always in the wrong, said to us, “‘ If you doubt my word, I am ready to drink the Maiori.’”” On the evening of the day we reached Moena Moezi, an alligator carried off his principal wife from the very spot where some of us had washed but a few hours before. We learned on our return that he had sent messengers to several villages, saying, “ He did not know whether we had put medicine on the spot, but after we had been there his wife was carried off by an alligator.’’ The first village refused to sell us food, would have nothing whatever to do with us, and the chief of the next village, who happened to be reclining in the Boabab, ran off, leaving his wooden pillow and mat behind. The women seldom run away—baving more pluck perhaps than the men. When a person dies, the Women commence the death-wail, and keep it up for two days, A few words are chanted in a plaintive voice, ending by a prolonged note: a—a, or o—9, or ea, ea, e—a. ‘The corpse is buried in the same hut in which he dies. It is then closed up and allowed to fall into decay. We found one village in mourning, on the banks of 168 REPORT—1860. the Upper Shiré. The chief’s father had died some time previous. They had not washed themselves since, though washing is practised more or less on these plains; and they would not wash until some friends at a distance, who possessed muskets, had come and fired over the grave. The badge of mourning consists of narrow strips of Palmyra leaf, tied round the head and arms, sometimes round head, neck, breast, knees, ankles, arms, and wrists. They have the idea of a Supreme Being, whom they name Pambé, and also of a future state. The chief Chinsurdi said they all knew that they lived again after death. ‘‘ Sometimes the dead came back again, —they appeared to them in dreams, but they never told them where they had gone to.”’ This is an inviting field for benevolent enterprise. There are thousands needing Christian instruction, and here are materials for lawful commerce, and a fine healthy country, with none of the noxious insects with which Captains Burton and Speke were tormented, and, with the single exception of 30 miles, water communication all the way to England. Let but a market be opened for the purchase of their cotton, and they can raise almost any amount of it, and the slave trade will speedily be abolished. On the Mountain Districts of China, and their Aboriginal Inhabitants. By W. Locxuart. Much of the empire of China with which we are best acquainted, consists of the plains that lie near the mouths of the rivers, as they find their way to the sea-board, and it is here that the important ports for our trade are situated. The interior of the country is richly diversified ; the land rises considerably towards the hilly districts, that slope from the chains of mountains that traverse all the western provinces and spread themselves out through the central part of the country, being in fact the east- ern spurs of the Kwan-lun and Himalaya ranges, that rise in Northern India to a vast height, and gradually pass down through the north and south of Tibet towards China. The Kwan-lun range passes into the northern and central provinces of China, and the Himalaya into the southern and south-western provinces, while the Tien-shan or Celestial Mountains and the Altai chain pass into Mongolia and Mantchouria, commonly called Chinese Tartary. In the mountainous regions of China the country is very beautiful, and combines the varieties of scenery found in other similar districts ; many of these portions of the empire are brought into communication with the sea coast, by means of the large rivers that flow through all the rich and fertile central provinces, offering great facility for the interchange of the various commodities of different parts of the em- pire. These rivers form in fact the high roads of the country. For purposes of communication in the mountain districts, and to facilitate the transit of goods, many roads have been cut at great expense and with much labour over the passes between the high ridges. The great road from Pekin to the south- west through Shen-si to Sze-chuen, is by amountain route, whichrequired great ability and skill to make passable; many years were spent in this work, and it is a monu- ment of the patience and perseverance by which it was accomplished; by this road merchants and officers constantly travel between the capital and the western frontier. The road from Shan-si to Kan-suh is one of the most extensive works of the kind in China. Besides these great trunk roads, there are several other mountain routes, by which goods are carried from province to province across the mountains, one of which may be mentioned, as the well-known Mei-ling pass between Kwang-tung and Kiang-si; it is 24 miles long, and over it all the tea and silk that go to Canton are carried on men’s shoulders. Much might be said regarding these mountain roads of China, Lut it is impossible to enter on the subject here. It is among these mountains and in the valleys they enclose, that many tribes of people dwell who are probably the aborigines or natives of the land. The great mass of the people who inhabit China are those who dwell in the cities and villages, cultivating the land, following the pursuits of commerce, and acknowledging the authority of one emperor; these may be considered to be the Chinese of the present day; but in the islands of Formosa and Hainan, as well as in the western frontier, dwell those native savage tribes, who acknowledge no submission to the Emperor of China, dwell among their owr hills, and have ever maintained their independence. SE ee = Ss va Se PD ee TF Pe “a TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 169 The island of Formosa is divided from north to south by a chain of mountains that cuts the island in two. On the western side live the Chinese, who passing from the opposite coast of Fuh-kien, have gradually driven away the aborigines to the eastern side ; some barter is kept up between these two parties, but they are generally in a state of hostility, and constant vigilance is required on the part of the Chinese to guard against the attacks of the natives, and this interferes very much with their intercourse. The natives are governed by their own chiefs, who keep up a kind of government. The occupations are tilling the ground, working in the mines in the mountains, weaving coarse cloth, fishing, and washing the sand of certain districts for gold. The Aurelia Papyrifera, from the pith of which rice paper is made, grows in For- mosa. These native tribes also inhabit the mountain districts of the island of Hai- nan. The Chinese live on the eastern coast, where they have large fishing stations, for the supply of Southern China with salt fish ; and the natives dwell by themselves on the western side, and maintain their independence and separation from the in- truders on their coast. The mountainous regions of the Nan-ling and Mei-ling between Kwang-si and Kwei- chau give lodgment to many clans of these aborigines, who are called Miau- tsze, or “children of the soil,’’ which they no doubt are. It is singular that any of these people should have maintained their independence so long and not been com- pelled to submit to Chinese rule, surrounded as they are by the Chinese people. This race presents so many physical points of difference to the Chinese, as to lead me to infer that they are a more ancient people than the latter, and the aborigines of Southern China. They are smaller in size and stature than the Chinese, have shorter necks, and their features are more angular. The degree of civilization they have obtained is much below that of the Chinese. It is not known what language they speak, but the names given to the parts of the body and the common articles about their boats, by some boatmen who visited Canton some years since, showed that it was evidently not Chinese. There are about forty tribes of these Miau-tsze scattered over the mountains of Kwang-tung, Kwang si, Hu-nan, and Kwei-chau, speaking several dialects, and dif- fering among theniselves in their customs, government, and dress. The Chinese government keep troops at the foot of the mountains to restrain these tribes, who, though often hostile, are on the whole inclined to live at peace, but resist every attempt to penetrate into thcir fortresses. ‘The tribes are often at strife among themselves, which becomes a source of safety to the Chinese, who are ill able to resist these hardy mountaineers. It would appear that the race called the Chinese people, spreading over the magnificent country they had found, drove back the Miau-tzse or ‘‘sons of the soil,’ those on the coast taking refuge on the islands of Formosa and Hainan, while those to the westward sought their homes among the mountains in their neighbourhood ; and there they have remained a separate people, divided into various tribes, ruled over by governors or chiefs of their own; the larger number of these Miau-tsze have maintained their independence, but some have taken office in the Imperial army, and have associated themselves with the Chinese. Various opinions are entertained as to the religious doctrines of these Miau-tsze, who appear not to be wholly idolaters; some of the tribes have a tradition of a Supreme God, who created the world, but their knowledge is very indistinct and imperfect. The chief source of information about these people is derived from a series of coloured draw- ings ; one of the most perfect of such series that has been obtained was exhibited in the Section; the drawings were evidently taken by some Chinese traveller who visited the mountain tribes. Each drawing illustrates one of the tribes, and presents a group of the people in sume characteristic occupation or amusement, and is accom- panied by a short description of the tribe to which it refers. These people are interesting from the fact that they must have a variety of ancient customs among them, and also because they are the sons of freedom; and however great may be the difference between us and them, they have a certain affinity with us, and may some day bid us a hearty welcome to the Jand of their forefathers. They are dispersed over the mountains cf Southern and Central China, and live in a changeable state of relationship to the Chinese around them ; sometimes they fight in open war, at others they rob and plunder, and sometimes they buy and sell. 170 REPORT—1860. These Miau-tsze live to a great extent on the eastern slopes of the mountains, whose western slopes, in South-Eastern Asia, are peopled by the numerous tribes of Laos and Shans, and more particularly of the Karens, who are our tried and faithful adherents in the territory of Burmah; and there are probably strong marks of simi- larity of origin and identity of race between the Miau-tsze of China and the Karens of Burmah and Pegu. Journey in the Yoruba and Nupé Countries. By D. May, RN, History of the Ante-Christian Settlement of the Jews in. China. By Dr. Maccowan, U.S. Critise in the Gulf of Pe-che-li and Leo-tung (China). By J. Mickie. On the Formation of Oceanic Ice in the Arctic Regions. By Captain Suerarp Ossory, #.N., F.R.G.S. On the Course and Results of the British North American Exploring Expe- dition, under his Command in the years 1857, 1858, 1859. By Captain J. PALLISER. The first part of this paper was occupied with a sketch of the course of the expedi- tion, illustrated by a large map. — Starting from England in May 1857, the expedi- tion reached Lake Superior by New York and the United States, from whence they travelled in canoes to the Red River settlement, then with horses and carts across the Plains to the north-west to Carlton, where the first winter was spent. During that season Captain Palliser travelled back to the States on business, and Dr. Hector reached as far west as the Rocky Mountains. In June 1858 the expedition resumed its westward course, and in August reached the line of the Rocky Mountains. The remaining two months before the winter set in was occupied in exploring the Moun- tains, resulting in the discovery of four passes. ‘The second winter was spent at Edmonton, where the expedition reassembled in October. Captain Blakiston returned to England from this place. The winter of 1858-59 was spent in various explo- rations into the Rocky Mountains with the purpose of learning their winter aspect, The furthest of them reached almost to Mount Brown. In spring of 1859 M. Bourgeau returned to England, his term of engagement having expired ; and the rest of the party, accompanied by two English gentlemen, the late Captain Brisco and Mr. Mitchell, proceeded through the Blackfoot country along the South Saskatchewan and bound- ary line, till in August they again separated to explore the mountains; Captain Palliser and Mr. Sullivan undertaking the west slope, and Dr. Hector to endeavour to pass direct to the valley of Fraser River. The party again rejoined at Fort Colvile, and from thence descended the Columbia river to the sea. A necessary delay at Vancouver Island allowed of a visit to the coal mines at Nanaimo, and also to Fraser River, after which the expedition returned to England by California, Panama, and the West Indies, having been absent exactly three years. The territory which has now been examined and mapped by this expedition ranges from Lake Superior to the eastern shore of the lesser Okanagan Lake, and from the boundary line to the watershed of the Arctic Ocean. This large belt of the continent was explored in three seasons. The first season was devoted to the examination of its south-eastern portion between Lake Superior to the elbow of the south branch of the Saskatchewan, and from the British boundary line or 49th parallel to Fort Carlton, in lat. 52° 52’ N., long. 106° 18’ W. The second season was devoted to the examination of the territory between the two Saskatchewans, to the exploration of the Rocky Mountains, and to the discoyery of the passes available for horses in the British territory. The third season commenced with a long journey from our winter quarters at Ed- monton in lat. 53° 34’ N., long. 113° 20’ W., through the Blackfoot country to the TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 171 most western point in the neighbourhood of the boundary line, previously reached by the expedition from the eastward in 1857. A westward course was then resumed along the country between the South Saskatchewan and the British boundary line, thence once more across the Rocky Mountains. Finally, the connexion of a route practicable for horses was effected the whole way from Red River settlement across the continent to the Gulf of Georgia, entirely within British dominions. This large belt of country embraces districts, some of which are valuable for the purposes of the agriculturist, while others will for ever be comparatively useless, The extent of surface drained by the Saskatchewan, and other tributaries to Lake Winipeg, which we had an opportunity of examining, amounts in round numbers to 150,000 square miles. This region is bounded to the north by what is known as the “ strong woods,” or the southern limit of the great circum-arctic zone of forest, which occupies these latitudes in the northern hemisphere. This line, which is in- dicated in the map, sweeps to the north-west from the shore of Lake Winipeg, and reaches its most northernly limit about 54° 30’ N., and long. 109° W., from where it again passes to south-west, meeting the Rocky Mountains in lat. 51° N., long, 115° W. Between this line of the “strong woods” and the northern limit of the true prairie country there is a belt of land varying in width, which at one period must have been covered by an extension of the northern forests, but which has been gradually cleared by successive fires. It is now a partially wooded country, abounding in lakes and rich natural pasturage, in some parts rivalling the finest park scenery of our own country. Throughout this region the climate seems to preserve the same character, although it passes through very different latitudes, its form being doubtless determined by the curves of the isothermal lines. Its superficial extent embraces about 65,000 square miles, of which more than one-third may be considered as at once available for the pur- poses of the agriculturist. Its elevation increases from 700 to 3500 feet as we ap- proach the Rocky Mountains, consequently it is not equally adapted throughout to the cultivation of any one crop; nevertheless at Fort Edmonton, which has an altitude of 2000 feet, even wheat is sometimes cultivated with success. The least valuable portion of the prairie country has an extent of about 80,000 square miles, and is that lyingvalong the South Saskatchewan, and southward from thence to the boundary line, while its northern limit is known in the Indian languages as ‘ the edge of the woods,” the original line of the woods before invaded by fire. On tae western side of the Rocky Mountains, in the country which we examined, there were but few spots at all fitted for the agriculturist, and these form isolated patches in valleys separated by mountain ranges. As the next result of our explorations, I shall briefly mention the different passes through the Rocky Mountains which we explored, alluding to the chief advantages and disadvantages of each. The Kananaskis Pass and the British Kootanie Pass were examined by myself, Of these I consider the Kananaskis Pass the preferable one, both on account of its direct course through the mountains and its easier ascent. The ascent to the height of land from the east is through a wide gently sloping valley, and the immediate watershed is formed by a narrow ridge, which, if pierced by a short tunnel, would reduce the summit level to about 4600 feet above the sea. The descent to the west, into which Kananaskis Pass opens, is comparatively easy. The British Kootanie Pass also opens out into the Kootanie River valley, but the altitude here to be overcome is much greater, amounting to 6000 feet. ‘Chere are likewise two ridges to be passed, which fact would form a very strong objection to this pass. The Vermilion Pass, which was traversed by Dr. Hector, presents on a whole the greatest natural facilities for crossing the mountains without the aid of engineering work, as the rise to the height of land is gradual from both sides, a feature which seems to be peculiar tothis pass. It would thus be impossible to diminish its summit level (which is less than 5000 feet), as is proposed in the case of Kananaskis Pass, but on the other hand it would be the most suitable for the construction of an easy waggon road. This, like the other two passes I have mentioned, also strikes the Kootanie River close to its source; but last summer Dr, Hector crossed the mountains by another 172 REPORT—1860. pass from the head of the north branch of the Saskatchewan, directly to the Columbia River, in the vicinity of the boat encampment. Leaving this latter pass out of consideration for the present, as all of the others open to the Kootanie River, it becomes necessary to consider the course by whch it may be practicable to reach the coast of the Pacific without crossing to the south or American side of the boundary line. It was with great difficulty for this purpose even a partial examination of the country could be effected, owing to the rugged valleys which intersect it in a direction parallel to the mountains, and which, though not formidable themselves, are covered with such dense forest as to present obstacles tothetraveller. Notwithstanding these difficulties, Mr. Sullivan succeeded in making his way on the north side of the boundary line, and at the same time following a system of transverse valleys, which might allow of the construction of a road with- out much trouble from the mouth of Kananaskis Pass to the Columbia, above Fort Colvile. From this point westward I myself ascertained that it would be possible to reach the valley of the Okanagan, by which I believe the Americans have already commenced to connect the waggon road of the Columbia with the upper country cf the Frazer River. While pointing out the circumstances that seem to favour the possibility of carrying a road.through British territory, from the Saskatchewan to the Pacific, I wish to refrain from expressing any opinion as to the expediency of undertaking at the present time a work which would involve a vast amount of labour and a corresponding heavy expenditure. For how long a time in the year such a road would remain open, is a question as yet unanswered, and which has a most important bearing on the subject. In addition, the difficulty of direct communication between Canada and the Saskatchewan country, as compared with the comparatively easy route through the United States by St. Paul’s, renders it very unlikely that the great work of constructing a road across the continent can be solely the result of British enterprise. Not the least important results of the expedition are the meteorological observa- tions, which have been carefully conducted during the whole period of the explorations, both in the winters and summers, whether we were stationary or travelling. I lay stress upon this fact, as it affords materials for ascertaining the exact nature of the climate, and means for a correct comparison between its nature and that of Canada. The hourly magnetic observations were conducted by Lieutenant Blakiston, R.A., assisted by the other members of the expedition, during the winter of 1857-58. These were not, however, carried on during the winter 1858-59, owing to the return of Lieutenant Blakiston with the instruments; the magnetic declinations however were attended to. The astronomical observations and computations were placed in the hands of Mr. . Sullivan, and the geographical position of the several salient points of the map are determined principally by his lunars, the rates of chronometers being, of course, too . unsteady to be depended on while travelling through so rough a country, The large botanical collection of our botanist, M. Bourgeau, has already been sent to Kew Gardens, where the specimens have been carefully arranged by himself under the inspection of Dr. Hooker, who highly values them. Dr. Hector’s specimens of fossils, &c. were from time to time transmitted to Sir Roderick Murchison at the Jermyn Street Museum, but from the nature of the subject much time must elapse before the results can be laid before Her Majesty’s Government. In conclusion, I have great pleasure in bearing testimony to the unceasing zealand energy of my companions, whose valuable assistance has been instrumentalin bringing the expedition to so successful a termination, i AppENDUM 1.—Remarks concerning the Climate of the Saskatchewan District. By Dr. Hector. The winter temperature is about 21° Fahr., ranging, however, in regular succes- sions from high to low temperatures. In January 1858 it was as high as 40° above zero for a few hours, accompanied by rain and high wind*. In that instance, how- ever, between 4 p.m. and 9 P.M. it fell from +37° to —13,a difference of 50° in five hours. The greatest depression of the thermometer in both years was about the 12th * January 3rd, 1858, at Fort Edmonton. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 173 of February. Throughout the winter the snow falls in storms, which seldom last more than two tothree days. The first fall generally occurs in the month of October, but that always disappears again before the snows of November commence, which are permanent for the winter. From the open country the snow evaporates very rapidly, so that the prairies are never deeply covered ; but in the woods it accumulates till spring. In some districts of the country more snow falls than in others; for instance, at Fort Pitt, about 400 miles east of the mountains, there is generally 3 feet to 4 feet of snow in spring, while close along the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains it seldom exceeds 6 inches, and disappears very early. At Fort Edmonton the snow always disappears fully a fortnight sooner than at Fort Pitt, although both places are in the same latitude, but the former 3° further to the west. The rivers generally freeze up about the 12th of November, and it is curious that the Saskatchewan “ ¢akes,’’ as the local term has it, on the same day both at Edmonton and Carlton, places distant from one another nearly 500 miles. In 1858 the ice broke up on the 7th of April, but in 1859 not till the 26th of that month. But this does not show the whole of the remarkable difference in those two seasons ; for in the former the ice rotted away gradually, while in the latter it “‘gave”’ in a single night from a sudden flood which followed the first warm weather. A spring season hardly exists in the Saskatchewan, for in a few days everything bursts into full verdure after the breaking up of winter. June is generally a wet month; and much rain also falls during the first half of July, but atter that period the summer is very dry. There is little or no thunder in the higher country, unlike the Red River settlement, where for a certain season thunder-storms are of daily occurrence. The nature of the snow-line on the Rocky Mountains gives a clew to the climatal arrangement of the country to the east. Although there are many of the mountains in the eastern part of the range which exceed those to the west in altitude, only few of their valleys are filled with glaciers. The great glaciers at the source of the north branch of the Saskatchewan are fed from fields of ice and perpetual snow, that may be considered as lying on the western slope of the range. The diminished altitude of the snow-line towards the west is thus proved. The reasonis, that the prevailing winds are from the west, and in rising to cross the mountains they are cooled, and so deprived of their moisture, which ceases to be deposited after they pass over the greatest altitude. Concerning the Indians of the west side of the mountains, he stated that the tribes are very numerous, and principally support themselves on fish. In most of the tributaries of the Columbia the salmon swarm in such numbers as to taint the air at a certain season of the year when their bodies are cast up on the banks. These fish- eating Indians are of very low grade, as wherever Indians obtain their living easily they invariably become debased. Thus the Indians to the east of the Rocky Moun- tains, that dwell! in the strong woods, and live by the chase of animals, such as the Moose-deer, which requires great skill and sagacity, are vastly superior to the Indians of the plains, who, living on buffalo, with ease obtain abundance of food. He adduced the case of the Sarcees, who belong to a tribe of M°Kenzie River Indians, called the Chepeyans, who are perhaps the finest Indians on the continent ; and yet these Sarcees, from havirg left their natural course of life some centuries back, and taken to the plains, where they live among the Blackfoot tribes, have be- come the worst Indians of the Saskatchewan. Their constitutions have become en- feebled, as is shown by the prevalence of goitre among them, the whole tribe being affected with this disease almost without exception, whereas it seldom or never occurs among other Indians. The half-breeds who live in the Forts of the Upper Saskat- chewan are very subject to goitre, the cause for which is very obscure. ADDENDUM 2.—Remarks concerning the Tribes of Indians inhabiting the Country examined by the Expedition. By Mr. Sutuivan. Mr. S. pointed out that the northern portion was occupied by the Crees, which are ‘the most prominent tribe of the country, and best known to white men. The district along the South Saskatchewan and towards the boundary line, he stated was inhabited by a collection of allied tribes, all speaking nearly the same language, and known as 174 REPORT—1860. the Blackfoot. This term comprises the Blackfoot proper, the Blood Indians, Peagans, Gro Ventres, Sarcees, and several others. ‘The Sarcees, however, are really very different Indians, and have their relations far to the north on M‘Kenzie River. He next spoke concerning the languages of the tribes, of which he has prepared voca- bularies, stating that that of the Crees is very perfect, having a very effective system of grammar, which has been ably developed by the missionaries, who have also invented a system of syllabic characters, by which the Indians soon learn to read and write in their own language. These characters could also be applied to all the other Indian languages he examined east of the mountains, excepting Sarcee, which is too guttural. He remarked that a very interesting, though small tribe, known as the Mountain Stoneys, had been induced by the Wesleyan missionary to commence a little agricul- ture. It does not amount to much, however, their principal crop being turnips, which they generally pull and eat raw before they are nearly grown. Of the very different habits of Indians which inhabit the woods from those of the plains, he men- tioned in addition the curious circumstance, that in a camp of the former Indians there is never any noise ; and even in conversation they talk almost at an inaudible pitch, a habit derived from their stealthy habits in hunting; whereas a camp of Plain Indians resembles a fair, as drums beating, whooping, and singing is continued all day and all night. On his proposed Journey from Khartum in Upper Egypt to meet Captain Speke on or near the Lake Nyanza of Central Africa. By Consul PETHERICK. On the Formation of Icebergs and Ice Action, as observed in the Hudson's Bay and Straits. By Dr. J. Rar. The manner in which icebergs are generally formed is so well known that it would be out of place to mention it here, but I have observed in Hudson’s Bay and Straits these ice-islands formed in a mode different from that usually described. Along these shores there are high and steep cliffs fronting the sca, and having deep water at their base. Many of these cliffs face to the south-eastward. In the winter falls of snow are frequent, and as almost every snow-storm is followed or accompanied by a gale of northerly or north-westerly wind, the snow is blown over the cliff and deposited in deep drifts at the cliff- foot on the ice, which is forced down by the weight. As I have known a drift-bank of 20 or 30 feet formed by one gale of wind of as many hours’ duration, it may be readily understood how in the course of a winter an accumulation of snow to the depth of several hundred feet may be formed, extending in a sloping direction to seaward thus :— As soon as warm weather comes on in spring the surface snow is thawed; the water percolates downwards until it reaches the snow, which is colder than the freezing-point, and the whole is frozen into a solid mass of ice. This process goes on to a greater or less extent according to the severity of the season, the quantity of snow, and the amount of windy weather, until the snow- formed ice attains great thickness and breaks off in large masses in the form of ice- bergs. In Hudson’s Bay the icebergs formed in this manner are small and scarcely de- serving the name, but in the Straits they are large and lofty. When passing through the Strait near to the north shore, J have seen some of these lying close to the cliff from which they had become detached, and showing projections and hollows corresponding to the form of the rocks from which they had broken away. I : TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 175 Whilst wintering at Repulse Bay on the Arctic circle in 1846-47 and 1853-54, I had an opportunity of observing the manner in which boulders are taken up and transported by ice. In the early part of winter, when the sea-ice has attained considerable thickness, it adheres at low water to any stones it may rest upon, and as the tide flows, raises these from the ground. As the ice increases in thickness, these stones, some of them 3, 4, or 5 feet in diameter, are gradually imbedded in the ice, which attains a depth of 8 feet or more. In the spring the surface-ice wastes away by the combined action of thaw and evaporation, whilst it is still acquiring fresh thickness underneath. In the month of June, the boulders, which in the autumn were under the ice, now appear on its surface, and may be floated off to great distances, when the ice is broken up whilst still strong, by the action of winds and currents. On the Aborigines of the Arctic and Sub-Arctie Regions of North America. By Dr. Raz. Remarks on some of the Races of India and High Asia (in connexion with Casts exhibited). By Ropert von SCHLAGINTWEIT. Mr. Robert de Schlagintweit gave a short sketch of the aboriginal tribes of Cen- tral India, as also of the race inhabiting the country between the Karakorim and Sayan Shan, which go by the name of the Turks. He also presented, in illustra- tion of his remarks, some metal casts* of native faces taken from life. The tribes composing the population of the mountain regions of Central India are the Kols, the Gods, the Bils, and the Santals, In physical conformation these people differ most distinctly from either Hindoos or Mussulmans. In their religious observances also, and the habits of domestic life, they have nothing in common with their neighbours. The language originally spoken by them is now almost entirely lost, and it was only with great difficulty that we could collect from old people any remains of their former idiom. Though there exist many affinities amongst the four tribes above mentioned, yet each preserves its peculiar and characteristic features. The complexion is remark- ably dark, nearly approaching the colour of Negroes; the mouth is extremely large, though the lips, which are scarcely ever parallel to each other, are not very fleshy ; the nose is broad and flat, and the hair, which is generally shaved off or cut very short, stands out stiff and straight. Though at first glance these tribes may show a superficial resemblance to the African race, yet a closer examination will disclose characteristic differences, especially with reference to the lower part of the head, which is more prominent and considerably stronger with the Negroes. By some ethnographers a remote affinity with Australian tribes has been pointed out; but the likeness, on closer comparison, proves merely an apparent one. The mountainous countries inhabited by the Kols, Bils, and Santals are, for the greater part, covered with dense jungles, and at certain seasons of the year become so unhealthy as to prove extremely dangerous for every one except the natives them- selves,—a most remarkable instance of the fact, that some human tribes are capable of living under conditions altogether fatal, or nearly so, to others. Cultivation can only be carried on to a very limited extent; and the inhabitants chiefly occupy themselves in cutting down trees, and in hunting the wild animals with which their country abounds. The clothing of this rude people is very scanty, consisting merely of a small piece of unbleached cloth for the loins, and another piece of the same wound round the temples, so as to leave a great part of the head exposed to the powerful rays of the sun. They have no shoes, but sometimes wear a kind of sandal made of rough wood, and shaped to the foot, with another small round covering of wood at its upper end, to afford a hold for the toes. Their sole weapons are axes, in the use of which they display considerable experts * These casts are a selection from Messrs. de Schlagintweit’s collection of 275 heads, published (1859) by T. A. Barkt at Leipzig. 176 REPORT—1860. ness. For dwellings, they erect for themselves miserable huts constructed of bam- boo and the leaves of various trees. The contempt with which they are universally treated by their neighbours, the Hindoos, has rendered them extremely shy and suspicious ; whenever I approached one of their villages, they invariably left their huts and tried to conceal themselves in the dense jungles of the neighbourhood. Though I had the necessary supply of guides with me, yet their services in this respect were indispensable on many occa- sions. M. de Schlagintweit passed on to the Turks, a people particularly recommending themselves to his notice, as presenting marked differences from all the tribes he had had occasion to observe. This remarkable race inhabits those parts of Central Asia which to the north of Tibet are interposed between the Komakorinn, the Sayan Shan, and considerably to the east of it. In many respects they show points of resemblance to the Mongols, but nevertheless form a separate and distinct tribe, and may be considered as the original stock from which the Turks in Europe have sprung. Even at the present day the true Tarkish language holds its ground amongst them ; and though, on com- parison with the kindred idiom used by the European Turks, there are many dialectic deviations to be observed, yet it is evident that the Turks in Central Asia have pre- served the purity of the original tongue, whilst the related race in Europe have modified it with a considerable ailmixture of Persian and Arabic words. Like their European brethren, the Asiatic Turks are fanatic Mussulmans, honest, active, and hospitable, and far more civilized than their neighbours the Tibetans. Their manners are characterized by the strictest observance of punctilious etiquette, some of the ceremonies being so complicated as to raise up an almost impassable barrier for all strangers. The native dress is rather handsome and rich, varying according to the seasons. For winter, or when travelling over the mountains, the Turk wears a Jong fur coat, woollen trowsers, and a round fur cap. The stockings are of felt, and so long that they can be drawn over the trowsers, when they are fastened by an ornamental ribbon above the knee. So far, the dress, which we had to assume ourselves when disguised, is very convenient; but the shoes are so thin as to offer but a slight protection to the feet. The summer costume consists also of a coat and trowsers, a light cap for the head, and boots reaching up to the knee worn without any stock- ings. Yarkand, their chief place, as also Kashgar, is one of the most important and flourishing places of Central Asia. ‘The population is in general a wealthy one, and live in good solid houses. The inhabitants of the mountainous parts are mostly shepherds; the principal occupation of those in the plains is trade, which they carry on with horses and Bactrian camels along routes apparently impracticable for loaded animals. The merchants travel as far south as Ladak and Pesham, and to the north find their way to the shores of the Issikul lake. On the west they penetrate beyond the Russian frontier ; but towards the east commercial intercourse is restricted by the large desert, stretching along the eastern part of the Kuenluen. It may here be mentioned, that the caravan route from Yarkand to Ladak leads for more than fourteen days’ march over uninhabited mountain country, at an eleva- tion of from 14,000 to 16,000 feet. Passes above 18,0U0 feet in height occur; and the whole district is so bare and sterile, possessing so little vegetation, that the traders are obliged to carry with them even the food for their animals. By far the greater part of the trade between India and High Asia, including the adjoining parts of Russia, is carried on by the Turks. In conclusion we may remark that, besides our special geographical observations, we had occasion to collect various specimens of manufacture, mostly from Turkish and Tibeto-Indian parts; and we consider ourselves fortunate in being able to add more than 207 specimens to the splendid general collection now accumulated, under the energetic direction of Dr. Forbes Watson, within the walls of the India House Museum. er aS -..-~-~-~ . TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 177 On the Tribes composing the Population of Morocco. By Lieutenant Epvwarp ScuLaGintweIr. This paper was read by Mr. Hermann Schlagintweit, who stated that his brother Edward, First Lieutenant in the Bavarian Army, had joined the Spanish forces during their iate campaign in Morocco. Subsequently he had made a second visit to Morocco in furtherance of certain scientific purposes of his own, when he received the most valuable assistance from the well-known British Resident in that country, Mr. James Drummond Hay*. The principal population of Morocco, the Moors, are a mixed race, deriving their origin partly from the Berbers and partly from the Arabs. They form the most numerous section of the inhabitants of the towns. Their complexion is compara- tively fair, not unlike that of the inhabitants of Southern Europe, while the colour of their hair is various, comprising both light and dark shades; the form of the face, as well as of the figure in general, betrays a tendency to stoutness. With regard to character, but little can be said in the way of praise. Like most Orientals, the Moors are false and covetous, grovelling in the lowest servility before their superiors, and full of arrogance and cruelty to those below them. This race took very little part in the late war, while the following ones showed themselves as possessing much greater energy, and capable, under proper guidance, of quitting themselves well in active service. The various tribes of the Berbers or Brabers must be considered as the original inhabitants of this district. They were found already in possession of the country on the arrival of the Romans, as appears from the geographical terminology used by the latter in reference to these parts. The interesting work of “Al Hasem” of Granada—better known under his name, when a Christian, of ‘‘ Leo Africanus,’”’— shows, moreover, that during their conquests in North-western Africa (650-700 A.D.) the Arabs were frequentiy engaged in conflict with these primitive tribes. Like the Fellahs in Egypt who have succeeded in preserving the ethnographical type of the ancient inhabitants, so here also it occurs that, in spite of the many changes in the dynasties of the country, the pure type of the Berbers is still repre- sented by a considerable proportion of the population. They chiefly inhabit Mount Atlas and its spurs, but have also extended themselves as far as Fez, Mekinéz, and the towns along the sea-coast. ‘ In Morocco two principal tribes of the Berbers can be distinguished: the Shlockhs, who are settled in villages and towns; and the Amazirgens, forming a migratory and unsettled population. The Kbilas (Kabiles) and the Shayvas in Algiers must also be considered as be= longing to the Berber race. [n person they are thin, but sinewy; their hair brown, occasionally reddish, and with those from the southern provinces rather dark. Though in general character not unlike the Moors, they are a much more active people, are good cultivators of the soil, and make hardy soldiers. One tribe in par- ticular of the Berbers, the Hudnyas, have played an influential part at various times in the military history of Morocco. Like the Ianichars, they formed a strong and formidable guard, though often in opposition to the government; but were at last disbanded and scattered throughout various cantonments of the country. The Riffers inhabit the mountain ranges along the Mediterranean, which begin at Tetuan and reach to Cape “Tres Forcas.’’ Confined as they are to their almost inaccessible mountains, they form a distinct and well-marked race, their language even differing considerably from the Arabic. There are six principal tribes into which they are divided,—the Ghoniaras, Aksenayas, Bukone’a, Tems’manes, Gvelayas, and Kebdanas. They are almost entirely independent of the Emperor of Morocco, the small yearly tribute paid to him being offered rather to the head of their church than to their Emperor. The greater part of them are robbers and pirates ; and, in- deed, in the late war, when posted in the town of Tetuan for its defence, they exercised their native calling with a zeal and cruelty which considerably accelerated the surrender of the place. The Sis race. These tribes approach the Negro type in respect of complexion * During his stay in the country Mr. Edward Schlagintweit took many facial and cranial _ casts, besides making numerous detailed measurements. 1860. 12 178 REPORT—1860. and general proportions, but their character is better than that of the preceding races. They are very active both in trade and agriculture, and evince great dexterity in the manufacture and use of arms. Their dependence upon the Emperor is of the same nature as that of the Riffers. Geography of the North Atlantic Telegraph. By Colonel Ta. P. SHAFFNER, of the United States. The Route—Lands and Seas.—The route of the telegraph is from Scotland vid Farée Isles, Iceland, Greenland, and Labrador, to Quebec, there connecting with other lines to different parts of America. The sea sections of the proposed telegraphic route are as well known to nautical geographers, excepting, perhaps, the places sounded by the Telegraphic Expedition last autumn (1859) between Labrador and Greenland, and between Greenland and Iceland. The bottoms of those seas were found to be deep mud, and acable once laid thereon will lie undisturbed for all time. Icebergs float, and there is no part of the sea in which the cables will be laid where the bergs will reach the bottom. Arcfic navigators, with whom the author has had the pleasure of conversing since his arrival from the voyage of last autumn, agree that if the cable can be carried into deep fiords on the respective coasts, there will be no danger of interruptions from icebergs. The author has seen such fiords on the coasts of Labrador and Greenland, and therefore regards the problem as solved. The land sections are not of serious importance. A telegraph line can be con- structed on land wherever the foot of man can be placed. Lines have been built over hills and valleys where neither waggon nor beast could go, and these regions were in the great Mississippi valley, a country having great variety of soil, surface, and climate. Farée Isles.—The cable wiil be landed at Thorshaven, the capital of the Farde group, and from thence a few miles by land to Westerman’s haven. ‘The island is hilly, the roads inferior; there is but little cultivation; pasturage good ; the people intellectual; religion Lutheran ; it sends one member to the Danish Parliament; it has a governor, sheriffs, and other officers of state: the climate is about the same as Copenhagen, more mild than Stockholm, Quebec, Montreal, or Boston. Icelund will be traversed by the line from Berufiord or Portland to Reikiavik. The people are highly educated, and a considerable trade is carried on between them and the Europeans. The French have some 120 vessels fishing on the south coast. They have free trade with foreign countries, and all the fisheries are free. The in- habitants are industrious and religious, and have their own local Parliament. The country is partially cultivated, but much of the island is covered with lava. The climate is moderate ; the ice never interrupting navigation on the south and west coasts. There will be no difficulty whatever in running the telegraph across Iceland. Labrador.—The cable will be landed in Hamilton Inlet, lat. 54°30’ N. The line will then be run either to the Gulf or to the River St. Lawrence. This country is rolling or hilly, and covered with timber, principally pine, spruce, and juniper. The trees are large, many being 15 or 20 inches in diameter at the base. ‘There is much grass where the country is open. Turnips,- potatoes, and other vegetables are cultivated to a limited extent. The inhabitants are mostly Esquimaux. They are civilized, under the teachings of the Moravian missionaries. ‘There is a station of the Hudson’s Bay Company on Hamilton Inlet, about 50 miles from the sea, The coast is hilly and barren. Fishermen from Newfoundland are scattered along the coast, and many are employed in Hamilton Inlet. The cod and herring fisheries are the most profitable. The country is not much settled. There will be difficulties to be met in the construction of the line, and maintaining it across Labrador; but these difficulties will not be so great as those which have been overcome in other countries; for example, in Newfoundland, and the Southern and Western States of America. The line across Newfoundland traverses marshy and uninhabited regions, wholly unknown to the world until a few years ago, when it was explored for the — telegraph. Greenland.—The section of the route the least known is Greenland; and -although that part of the country proposed to be traversed is not so cold as the climate of St, Petersburgh, a city of some 700,000 inhabitants, yet-there prevails TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 179 the most erroneous impressions in regard to the temperature of that interesting and wonderful country. Whether it is a continent, or numerous islands extending to the North Pole, is a problem yet to be solved. In the southern portion we find green valleys, covered with grass and vegetation, surrounded with mountains towering into the heavens ; and these in the morning are covered with white glittering snow, which with the mid-day sun disappears, leaving exposed their blackened minarets and spires. The scenery is grand and picturesque. The coasts of Greenland are barren hills and mountains. Along the shore are many islands. The fiords penetrate to the interior 10, 20, or 30 miles. Some of these bring out ice, others do not. Into one of the fiords which are free of ice will be carried the telegraph cable, as indicated inthe map. The water is very deep, and no iceberg can reach the bottom, or go far up their meanderings to their heads. They do not freeze, except in narrow places, where there is still water. A cable can be easily laid from the sea into one of these fiords, and when brought to land it can be well secured against native ice, as is the case at many places in America, and on the belts and sound of the Baltic Sea. The exact locality where the line is to cross Greenland has not been determined, but it will be in the southern portion, not 60 miles north of Cape Farewell. The particular kind of surface to be traversed—whether green valleys, or mountain ranges —is not fully known, but in either case no insuperable difficulties can be foreseen. What it is in the interior, or whether there be ice there or not, no one knows. Col. S. found alluvial soil on the ice several miles distant from the sea, and it may have been blown there from the interior. Some 12,000 deer are killed in the Holsten- berg district every year. They disappear in winter, Whither do they go? The ice travelled over by Colonel Shaffner was solid freshwater ice. The snow falls in small quantities. On the plateau some considerable collections of water were seen. There were many deep crevices. The thickness of the ice no one has been able to determine. The author does not believe it entirely rests upon the earth, but _ it forms bridges, and perhaps where he went it was 4000 feet above the level of the sea; or perhaps there was a cavern beneath, 1000 feet between the ice and the earth, exceeding in grandeur the great Mammoth Cave of America, with its 200 subterranean avenues. This may seem most wonderful, but he had many reasons for believing _ that it was possible. He had been in some of the caverns, and heard a waterfalt resembling the rushing of a river over rocks. The bergs from the fiord blinks, he noticed were clear and clean ice; no gravel or earth either in or on them, excepting those that were near the shore. If the ice were upon the earth in the interior, we might expect to find some earth in the bergs. He has seen boulders on bergs, but they came from the glaciers of the north, or from the sides of the blinks crushing” against the mountains as the ice moved from the interior. The inhabitants are Danes and Esquimaux. The Julianahaab District is the most southern in Greenland, and has about 2600 Esquimaux. They are all civilized, and mostly members of the Lutheran Church. There are afew Moravians. The children are baptized, and at fourteen years old confirmed. They have churches and schools, and they preach, sing, and pray. In the principal churches they have organs and some fine paintings. The town of Julianahaab has about 300 inhabitants. The people received the yisit of the party last autumn with much joy. The houses were stone and frame, and covered with slate. It is not cold enough for double windows. They had cows and sheep. The Esquimaux lived in stone huts covered with earth, fully as com- fortable as many log cabins that Colonel Shaffner has lived in when in the western forests of America. _ The Esquimaux are honest and good-hearted. They never steal unless on the verge of starvation. The men treat their wives well. The children are never whipped. Peace, love, and domestic happiness seem to be more common to them than to the more civilized races. It will not be difficult to have a telegraph line Maintained in Greenland, with the aid of such people; and, in fact, a telegraph line can be constructed across the hills, the valleys, and the fiords of Greenland, and _ it can be maintained thereafter with much more facility and certainty than has been done across the plains of Russia, the mountains of Norway, the swamps of New- foundland, the inundated lands of the Mississippi, the uninhabited forests of America, or the Alpine ranges of Europe. 19*- 180 REPORT—1860. On the Lost Polar Expedition and Possible Recovery of its Scientific Documents. By Captain PARKER Snow. Captain Parker Snow, in addressing the audience upon the subject of his paper, stated that the great object he had in view was to keep before the public the fact that we had not yet done all that might be done as regarded the lost polar expedi- tion. Thuse who went out in that expedition ought, none of them, ever to be for- gotten ; and it was our duty to persevere in ascertaining their real fate until posi- tive evidence came forward concerning it. This evidence, he asserted, had not yet been found; and he was prepared to show that more could be obtained if right mea- sures were taken. He then commenced his arguments by giving an analysis of Franklin’s instruc- tions, and pointed out how certainly numerous scientific observations of great value must have been made by the officers in that expedition. He enumerated the differ- ent searching expeditions, and with much pleasure dwelt upon the exertions made by the several leaders and subordinates engaged upon this work, many of whom he named. He next pointed out Dr. Rae’s discuveries, and then those of the ‘ Fox’ under the present Sir Leopold M‘Clintock, doing full justice to one and all. After this, he dissected the whole information that had been obtained by making the fol- lowing remarks :— « First of all,’’ said he, ‘‘ what do we know for a certainty concerning the lost expedition? Why this: 105 persons landed at Point Victory in April 1848, and Captain Crozier (one of their chiefs) said that he or they, or some of them, were going to start on the 26th for Back’s Fish River. They do not say a word about being in want of assistance, nor yet that they are suffering. They have abandoned their ships and are going southward, even as Captain M‘Clure had intended to do with a part of his crew. “This is all we positively know from any written evidence. What else we know is from other testimony. It is as follows :—Three skeletons—perhaps belonging to the 105, perhaps not—have been found; also a boat. Forty of our countrymen were seen by the natives in the spring of 1850 walking to the Fish River, where, later in the year, it is said that some of them died. ‘Traces of others have been found part of the way up the Fish River, and along the Boothian Isthmus, the coasts of Boothia, and King William Island. Rumours of white men, going westward along the coast of America, have been heard for several years past. To Cape War- ren, the Peel River, the Fish River, and, about the Melville Peninsula, strange tales attach great interest. These places have yet to be searched, and the mystery con- nected with them examined. “‘Such.is what we know. Now what is it we suppose? Briefly this:—From April 1848 to the spring of 1850 is two years. Clearly the party must have been wandering about during that interval. What so likely as that, in the summer of 1848, they found open water for their boats, and went away to the westward (or at all events one party did), and tried to reach the Mackenzie or Peel River. Some may have perished, some have gone another way than by the coast (possibly by a direct channel yet undiscovered by us), and finally, being unsuccessful in their western route, they return to the eastward for Fish River, and perhaps a few of them to- wards Lancaster Sound, or the channels leading into Baffin Bay; in fact, to any place, where a hope of relief, and where good hunting would be presented. “This hypothesis would explain away the lapse of time, and account for only forty being seen by the natives in 1850. It is further strengthened by other circum- stances founded on negative facts. “They did not take away any of the Fury Beach stores, though well known to them as existing at only about 200 miles’ distance: they did not send information of distress through the Esquimaux or Indians, as we now know could have been done, even as Captain Collinson and Captain Maguire sent notices of relief: they did not say a word about being starving or in want of immediate aid; and many other things they did not do, which we should expect would have been done, in case of great distress. Hence we may infer that in April 1848 they were not so badly off as is supposed. Had they been so, why did they not visit the Fury Beach stores and get relief? Those stores are even now in excellent order, as may be known from Captain M‘Clintock’s published Journal. Yet we find them unused, at all events TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 181 for any large supply, though it is possible they may have been visited by a few of the lost party. «Remarks have been made about the Franklin Expedition suffering from Goldner’s provisions. But, independent of all other argument on this point, there is one fact to be got over, before we can agree to such an idea ;—the ships wintered at the threshold of their explorations, yet afterwards went onward into unknown regions instead of returning, as wisdom would have dictated, on finding their stores defective! “« Another fact to be well considered is, that close attention to all the information obtained from the natives, leads to a belief that the actual ground where the whole truth could be known has not yet beenexamined. The natives told Captain M‘Clin- tock that the white people had gone to a place where there was plenty of salmon. Now we know the lakes of South Boothia abound in salmon. “* Again, the Esquimaux referred to parts known by certain names ; as, for instance, Amitoke, Neitchillee, and Akkollee. ‘These parts, however, were not visited by our late explorers, perhaps from not knowing where they were. But a careful reading of the various Arctic Voyages of Parry, Ross, Simpson, and Back, would have shown that the places named, all exist about the Boothian Isthmus southward; and it is there, and in adjoining localities, we find all the plate and other articles in pos- session of the natives. “More argument could be brought forward; but it is enough to call attention to one other important fact, viz. that Ross and his small crew, after being frozen in for three years, managed to escape from a position almost identical with that of Franklin’s ships, and then get home by way of Lancaster Sound. “That we have no traces of the Franklin crews attempting the same thing is very singular. We must therefore infer either that they were not in absolute distress, or else that one party did visit Fury Beach without being able to leave a notice. Be it as it may, assuredly the Expedition would never have abandoned their journals and other documents, without first placing them in some sort of security. When Ross escaped he carried even minerals with him! These with other things he had to abandon ; but he deposited them in a secure place, and they were afterwards brought home to England in a whaling ship sent expressly to the locality for them. Can we suppose that the officers and crew of a national expedition like Franklin’s—and withal a scientific one—would not take equal care to preserve the records of their labours ? The question needs no answer. There can be little doubt about it in the minds of all impartial persons; and it only requires a good summer search to know the truth.” Captain Snow then brought forward evidence to show that life could be prolonged in the arctic regions, and that the place was not so destitute as generally supposed. Sir R. Murchison himself had given good reasons in support of this view; and Lord Wrottesley, Baron von Humboldt, Sir Francis Beaufort and others had ex- pressed something similar. The burial of the dead, too, was another thing not to be forgotten. Three sailors were buried suitably on shore, therefore it is almost certain Sir John Franklin would have been interred in like manner; and as the Esquimaux are very. superstitious concerning the dead, it is possible important records can be found near the locality where the illustrious chief is known to have died. Other arguments were brought forward by Captain Snow, who stated that he had a committee formed of well-known names to aid him in a renewed search he was prepared to make in a small vessel of from 75 to 100 tons if sufficient means could be raised. A brave American (Mr. Hall) was already on his way there to try and do the work ; and it was for our credit and honour that another attempt should be made by our own flag to complete that which comparatively could now be easily done. On the Proposed Communication between the Atlantic and Pacific, via British North America. By Captain M. H. Synce, R.E. On the Geographical Distribution of Plants in Asia Minor. By PuerrE DE TCHIHATCHEF, On the Excavations on the Site of the Roman City of Uriconium at Wroxeter. : By Tuomas Wricut, F.S.A. 182 REPORT—1860, STATISTICAL SCIENCE. Opening Address by Nassau W. Senior, M.A., President of the Section. In 1856 the General Committee of the British Association decided that the Section over which I have the honour to preside should be entitled “The Section of Econo- mic Science and Statistics.” I have looked through the papers which since that time have been commu- nicated to us, and I have been struck by the unscientific character of many of them. I use that word not dyslogistically but merely distinctivingly, merely as ex- pressing that the writers had wandered from the domain of science into that of art. * I need scarcely remind you that a Science is a statement of existing facts, an Art a statement of the means by which future facts may be brought about or in- fluenced. A Science deals in premises, an Art in conclusions. A Science aims only at supplying materials for the memory and the judgment. It does not pre- suppose ash purpose beyond the acquisition of knowledge. An Art is intended to influence the will: it presupposes some object to be attained, and it points out the easiest, the safest, or the most effectual conduct for that purpose. The subjects to which the British Association has directed our attention are Economic Science, and Statistics. Economic Science, or, to use a more familiar name, “The Science of Political Economy,” may be defined as “ The Science which states the laws regulating the: production and distribution of wealth, so far as they depend on the action of the uman mind.” I say, “so far as they depend on the action of the human mind,” in order to mark to which of the two great genera of sciences, the Material, or, as they are usually called, the Physical, and the Mental, or, as they are frequently called, the Moral, sciences, Political Economy belongs. Unquestionably the political economist has much to do with matter. The phenomena attending the production of material wealth occupy a great part of his attention; and these depend mainly on the laws of matter. The efficacy of ma- chinery, the diminishing productiveness, under certain circumstances, of successive applications of capital to land, and the fecundity and longevity of the human species, are all important premises in political economy, and are all laws of matter. But the political economist dwells on them only with reference to the mental phenomena which they serve to explain; he considers them as among the motives to the accumulation of capital, as among the sources of rent, as among the regulators of profit, and as among the causes which promote or retard the pressure of popula- tion on subsistence. If the main subject of his studies were the physical phenomena attending the production of wealth, a system of political economy must contain a treatise on me- chanics, on navigation, on agriculture, on chemistry—in fact, on the subjects of almost all the physical sciences and arts, for there are few of those arts or sciences which are not subservient to wealth. All these details, however, the political economist avoids, or uses a few of them sparingly for the purpose of illustration. He does not attempt to state the mechanical and chemical Jaws which enable the steam-engine to perform its miracles—he passes them by as laws of matter; but he explains, as fully as his knowledge will allow, the motives which induce the mechanist to erect the steam-engine, and the labourer to work it. And these are laws of mind. He leayes to the geologist to explain the laws of matter which occasion the formation of coal, to the chemist to distinguish its component elements, to the engineer to state the means by which it is extracted, and to the teachers of many hundred different arts to point out the uses to which it may be applied. What he reserves to himselfis, to explain the laws of mind under which the owner of the soil allows his pastures to be laid waste, and the minerals which they cover to be abstracted ; under which the capitalist employs, in sinking shafts and piercing galleries, funds which might be devoted to his own immediate enjoyment ; under which the miner encounters the toils and the dangers of his hazardous and laborious’ occupation; and the laws, also laws of mind, which decide in what proportions the +4 tein) eed se ae —— eo ere) Oe ee TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 183 produce, or the value of the produce, is divided between the three classes by whose concurrence it has been obtained. When he uses as his premises, as he often must do, facts supplied by physical science, he does not attempt to account for them ; he is satisfied with stating their existence. If he has to prove it, he looks for his proofs, so far as he can, in the human mind, Thus the economist need not explain why it is that labour cannot be applied to a given extent of land to an indefinite amount with a proportionate return. He has done enough when he has proved that such is the fact; and he proves this by showing, on the principles of human nature, that, if it were otherwise, no land except that which is most fertile, and best situated, would be cultivated. All the technical terms, therefore, of political economy, represent either purely mental ideas, such as demand, utility, value, and abstinence, or objects which, though some of them may be material, are considered by the political economist so far only as they are the results or the causes of certain affections of the human mind, such as wealth, capital, rent, wages, and profits. The subject matter of political economy is, I repeat, wealth. The political economist, as such, has nothing to do with any of the other physical or moral. sciences, or with any of the physical or moral arts, excepting so far as they affect the production or distribution of wealth. Whether wealth be a good or an evil, whe- ther it be conducive to human morality or to human happiness, that it be hoarded or that it be consumed, that it be accumulated in masses, or that it be generally diffused, are questions beyond his science. His business is to state what are the effects on the production and distribution of wealth, or, to use a shorter expression, the economic effects, of accumulation and of expenditure, of the different kinds of con- sumption, and of the aggregation in a few hands, or the division among many, of the things of which wealth consists. Whenever he gives a precept, whenever he ad- vises his reader to do any thing, or to abstain from doing anything, he wanders from science into art, generally into the art of morality, or the art of government. The science of statistics is far wider as to its subject matter. It applies to all phenomena which can be counted and recorded. It deals equally with matter and with mind. Perhaps the most remarkable results of the statistician’s labours are those which show that the human will obeys laws nearly as certain as those which regulate matter. here are countries in which we find year after year the same number of marriages at the same ages and in the same proportion to the population, the same number of children to a marriage, the same number of bankruptcies, and the same number of crimes and suicides, committed at the same ages, and by each sex in permanent proportions; in which the average height, the average weight, the average con- sumption and production of commodities, and the average longevity, of men and of women, continue for long periods unaltered. There are others in which the number or the proportion of these events varies; in which marriages, births, deaths, crimes, consumption and production, and even the average stature are different at different periods. This uniformity, or these differences, are detected by the statistician. His task is over when he has stated and recorded them. It is the business of the legislator to draw from the figures of the statistician, practical inferences. To ascertain the circumstances, moral, commercial, or political, under which the tribute paid by his countrymen to insolvency, crime, . sickmess and death, has been increased, has been diminished, or has remained stationary—these circumstances will often appear to be under control, and by watching the statistical results of every attempt to control them, he will ascertain whether they we under control or not. We have been told that a statesman “reads his history in a nation’s eyes.” I should rather say that he reads it in a nation’s figures. But it is not only to the statesman that statistics are useful, many of the most important and most useful employments of capital depend onthem. Vital statistics are the base of life insurance. They decide the value of annuities, of life estates, and of reversions. Every man in the management of his property has to consult them. The statistics of fires regulate fire insurance, those of wrecks regulate marine insurance, Wherever the success or failure of an undertaking depends on 184 REPORT—1860. the calculation of chances, and wherever the events subject to those chances have been observed and recorded in numbers sufficient to afford an average, the prudence or imprudence of the undertaking depends on that average. To give that average is the business of the statistician. ‘To act on it is the business of the speculator. If in London one house in two thousand were burnt down every year, nothing would be gained or lost by insuring houses in London at a shilling per cent. per annum. If one in a thousand were burnt down, such insurance would beruinous. If only one in three thousand, it would be very profitable. But, I repeat that the observation, the recording and the arranging facts, which is the science of statistics, and the ascertaining, from observation and from consciousness, the general laws which regulate men’s actions with respect to production and exchange, which is the science of political economy, are distinct from the arts to which those sciences are subservient. We cease to be scientific as soon as we advise or dissuade, or even approve or censure. I said, that I had been led into this train of thought by looking through the papers which have been communicated to this Section since 1856. I find that we received during that year ‘“ Suggestions on the education of the people.” We had a paper, “On the general principles by which Reformatory Schools ought to be regulated.” We had another, “On the importance of open and public Competitive Examinations.” In 1857 we had one on the prevention of crime ; one on the reasons for extending limited liability to joint-stock banks; and one on the apprenticeship system in re- spect to freedom of labour. In 1858 we had one on the principle of open competition ; one on public service, academic and teacher’s examinations; one on the importance of a colonial penny os to the advancement of science and civilization ; and one on the race and anguage of the gypsies. If it be said that in all these papers, except indeed the very last, there was a reference to statistical facts, or to economic principles, and that therefore they were properly communicated to this Section, the answer is, that there is no province of the great arts of legislation, of administration, of commerce, of war, indeed, of any of the arts which deal with human feelings, in which frequent reference must not be made to political economy, and occasional reference to statistics. There is scarcely a moral art therefore of which we should not be able to take cognizance. But I do not think that such an extension of our jurisdiction would be advi- sable. I believe that in mental, as in manual arts, the division of labour is useful. Within the strict limits of economic science and statistics a large field is open to us. It appears to me that we shall do well, if, as far as may be practicable, without much inconvenience, we confine ourselves within it, and deviate as little as we can into the numerous arts to which those sciences afford principles. On the True Principles of an Income Tax. By the Rey. J. Bootu, LL.D., F.RS. On Educational Help from the Government Grant to the destitute and neg- lected children of Great Britain. By Mary CARPENTER. The educational movement, as such, is of comparatively recent date in our country. ‘The importance of popular education was not generally acknowledged in England fifty years ago: but yet as early as in the sixteenth century there were distinct efforts made to give instruction to the very poorest, as is proved by the King Edward and many other endowed Charity Schools. These gradually became employed by a higher class than the children for whom they were originally in- tended, and a part of the population were uncared for. In 1781 Raikes began the first Sunday school for outcast children; in 1800 Bell and Lancaster began day schools, to give gratuitous instruction to the very lowest. Now the Sunday schools no longer receive the vagrant children, and the Bell and Lancaster schools have gradually merged into the National and British pay schools. A large class of the people are instructed by these schools, but those who most need instruction are not able to attend them. “At the Educational Conference in 1857, H.R.H. Prince Albert stated that there’ Rs TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 185 are 2,200,000 children in England and Wales not at school, whose absence cannot be traced to any legitimate cause. If Government educational help is given to any portion of the population, it ought, for the good of society, to be directed efficiently towards these. From this uneducated mass spring the pauperism and crime which are so great a national burden. Union Inspectors find the state of degraded ignorance in which children usually come to the workhouse indicative of the existence of a large portion of the population untouched by existing institutions; in Liverpool, out of 19,386 persons apprehended in 9 months, only 3 per cent. could read and write. Industrial and Ragged Schools alone have attempted distinctly to act on this class. Wherever they have been well conducted and efficiently supported they have completely effected the object intended, but many have failed from want of teaching power. The children of this class, in addition to ordinary instruction, must have much moral and industrial training, and schools capable of acting on them must be adapted to their wants, and of a very different character from the ordinary pay schools. The Committee of Council on Education, in administering the Parliamentary Grant, have adapted their regulations to the pay schools; in 1859, 6222 Certiti- cated Teachers for them were partially paid, receiving £86,528 ; Assistants, £6244; Pupil Teachers, £252,550; thus providing a good teaching power for 9555 schools. No teaching power (except a gratuity to certified masters, who very seldom are qualified for such schools) and no educational help is allowed to the schools for the destitute and neglected children. The importance of giving an efficient teaching power to the lowest and most ignorant children was acknowledged by Parliament in 1849, when an annual grant of £30,000 was made to teachers in union schools, with a much lower test than that required for certificated masters. The Parliamentary Committee of Inquiry, in 1853, into the Condition of Criminal and Destitute Juveniles, reported the “ bene- ficial effects produced on the most destitute classes” by the Ragged and Industrial schools, and their need of help from the Educational Grant; that aid is still re- one to carry out efficient action on the destitute and neglected children of rreat Britain. On the Economical Results of Military Drill in Popular Schools. By Evwix Cuanvwicx, Esq., C.B. On the Physiological as well as Psychological Limits to Mental Labour. By Enwin Cuapwick, £sq., CB. The business of education still requires for its successful prosecution, scientific ob- servation, and the study of the subject to be operated upon—the human mind, Even to empirical observation, it should have suggested itself that the mind has conditions of growth which are required to be carefully noted, to adapt the amount of in- struction intended to be given to the power of receiving it. It is a psychological law that the capacity of attention grows with the body, and that at all stages of bodily growth the capacity is increased by the skilful teacher's cultivation. Very young children can only receive lessons of one or two minutes’ length. With increasing growth and cultivation, their capacity of attention is increased to five minutes; then to ten, and at from five to seven years of age, to fifteen minutes. With growth and cultivation, by the tenth year a bright voluntary attention may be got to a lesson of twenty minutes; at about twelve years of age to twenty-five minutes; and from thence to fifteen years of age, about half an hour: that is to say, of lessons requiring mental effort, as arithmetic, not carried beyond the point at which the mind is fatigued, with the average of children and with good teaching. By very skilful teachers and with very interesting lessons, the attention may be sustained for longer eriods; but it is declared by observers that prolonged attention beyond average imits is generally at the expense of succeeding lessons. The preponderant testimony which I have received in the course of some inquiries into educational subjects, is that with children of about the average age of ten, or eleven, or a little more, the capacity of bright voluntary attention, which is the only profitable attention, is exhausted by four varied lessons to subjects and exer- cises requiring mental effort of half an hour each in the forenoon, even with inter- 186 REPORT—1860. vals of relief. After the mid-day meal the capacity of voluntary attention is gene- rally reduced by one-half, and not more than two half-hour lessons requiring mental elfort can be given with profit. The capacity of attention is found to be greater in cold weather than in hot, in winter than in summer. I collect that the good ventilation, lighting, and warming of a school-room will augment the capacity of attention of the pupils by at least one-fifth, as compared with that of the children taught in school-rooms of the common construction. Talso collect, that the capacity of attention varies with bodily strength and weakness, It is reported to me that school-boys, of nearly the same ages and con- ditions, of the same school-rooms, and under the same tuition, being weighed, and divided into two classes, the light and the heavy, the attainments, as denoted by the number of marks obtained, were found to be the greatest with the heaviest, that is to say, those of the greatest health and bodily strength. These were chiefly of town-born children, of common habits. The robust children of rural districts, of less cultivated habits of attention, are found to be slower in receiving ideas; but with cultivation they are brought up to equal capacities of attention, and to greater retentiveness of the matter taught, than the common classes of town-born children. There are differences in the capacities of attention in different races, or in the habits of attention created previously to the school-period by parents of different races. The teacher of a large school in Lancashire, who had acted as a school- teacher in the southern counties, rated the capacity of attention of the native Lanca- shire children as 5 to 4, as compared with those in Norfolk. In other instances the differences were wider. Experienced teachers have testified to me that they can and do exhaust the capacity of attention, to lessons requiring mental effort, of the great average of children attending the primary schools in England, in less than three hours of. daily book instruction, namely, two hours in the morning, and one hour after the mid-day meal. Infants are kept in school, and the teacher is occupied in amusing and instruct= ing them, for five or six hours, but the duration of mental effort in the aggregate bears only a short proportion to the whole time during which they are kept together. So in schools for children of more advanced ages. Even the smaller amount of mental effort in infant schools is, however, subject to dangerous excess. I am assured by a teacher in the first infant school established in Scotland, that he did not know a pre-eminently sharp child who had in after life been mentally distinguished. In common schools, on the small scale, the children will frequently be not more than one-half the time under actual tuition; and in schools deemed good, often one-third of their time is wasted in changes of lessons, writing, and operations which do not exercise, but rather impair the receptive faculty. It may be stated generally that the psychological limit of the capacity of attention and of profitable mental labour is about one-half the common school-time of children, and that beyond that limit instruction is profitless, This I establish in this way. Under the Factories Act, whilst much of the in- struction is of an inferior character and effect, from the frustration of the provi- sions of the original bill, there are now numerous voluntary schools, in which the instruction is efficient. The limit of the time of instruction required by the statute in these half-time schools for factory children is three hours of daily school teaching, the common average being six in summer and five in winter. There are also pauper district industrial schools, where the same hours, three daily, or eighteen in the week, or the half-time instruction, are prescribed; which regulation is in” some instances carried out on alternate days of school teaching and on alternate days of industrial occupation. Throughout the country there are now mixed schools, where the girls are employed a part of the day in needlework, and part of the day in book instruction. Now I have received the testimony of school inspectors and” of school teachers, that the girls fully equal in book attainments the boys who are. occupied during the whole day in book instruction. The preponderant testimony is that in the same schools, where the half-time factory pupils are instructed with the full-time day scholars, the book attainments of the half-time scholars are fully equal eee 7 aaa a — = SS ee eee eee TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 187 to those of the full-time scholars, 7. e. the three hours’ are as productive as the six hours’ mental labour daily. The like results are obtained in the district pauper schools. In one large establishment, containing about six hundred children, half 7 and half boys, the means of industrial occupation were gained for the girls efore any were obtained for the boys. The girls were therefore put upon half- time tuition, that is to say, their time of book instruction was reduced from thirty- six hours to eighteen hours per week, given on the three alternate days of their industrial occupation, the boys remaining at full school-time of thirty-six per week —the teaching being the same, on the same system and by the same teachers, the same school attendance in weeks and years, in both cases. On the periodical examination of the school, surprise was expressed by the inspectors at finding how much more alert mentally the girls were than the boys, and in advance in book attain- ments. Subsequently industrial occupation was found for the boys, when their time of book instruction was reduced from thirty-six hours a week to eighteen; and after a while the boys were proved upon examination to have obtained their previous relative position, which was in advance of the girls. The chief circumstances to effect this result, as respects the boys, were the introduction of active bodily exer- cises, the naval and the military drill, and the reduction of the duration of the school teaching to within what appear to me to be the psychological limits of the capacity of voluntary attention. When book instruction is given under circumstances combining bodily with mental exercises, not only are the book attainments of the half-time scholars proved to be more than equal to those of the full-time scholars, but their aptitudes for applying them are superior, and they are preferred by employers for their superior alertness and efficiency. In the common course of book instruction, and in the average of small but well- managed long-time schools, children after leaving an infant school are occupied on the average six years in learning to read and write and spell fairly, and in acquiring proficiency in arithmetic up to decimal fractions. In the larger half-time schools, with a subdivision of educational labour, the same elementary branches of instruc- tion are taught better in three years, and at about half the annual expense for superior educational power. The general results stated, I have collected from the experience during a period of from twelve to fifteen years of schools, comprising altogether between ten and twelve thousand pupils. From such experience it appears that the general average school- time is in excess full double of the psychological limits of the capacities of the ayerage of children for lessons requiring mental effort. _ LT haye not hitherto been enabled to carry my inquiries to any sufficient extent for astatement of pees results, to the schools for children or youth of the higher ages, but I believe it will be found that the school and collegiate require- ments are everywhere more or less in excess of psychological limits. I gather that the average study, continuous and mental labour, of successful prizemen at the uni- yersities is from five hours and a half to little more than six hours of close mental labour or exertion from day to day. An able Oxford examiner informs me, that if he ever hears that some one is coming up for examination who has been reading twelve or thirteen hours a day, he is accustomed to exclaim, “that man will be lucked!” and during his experience of thirteen years a3 an examiner at Oxford, e has never known an instance to the contrary. In respect to the mental labour of adults, it is observed by Sir Benjamin Brodie in his ‘ Psychological Inquiries,’ “A man in a profession may be engaged in professional matters for twelve or thirteen hours daily, and suffer no very great inconvenience beyond that which may. be traced to bodily fatigue. The greater part of what he has to do (at least it is so. after a certain amount of experience) is nearly the same as that which he has done many times before, and becomes almost matter of course. He uses not only his previous knowledge of facts, or his simple experience, but his previous thoughts, and the conclusions at which he had arrived formerly; and it is only at intervals that he is called upon to make any considerable mental exertion. But at every step in the composition of his philosophical works Lord Bacon had to think, and no one can be engaged in that which requires a sustained effort of thought for more than a very limited portion of the twenty-four hours, &e. r But great things are accomplished more frequently by moderate efforts persevered. 188 REPORT—1860. in with intervals of relaxation during a very long period. I have been informed that Cuvier was usually engaged for seven hours daily in his scientific researches ; but these were not of a nature to require continuous thought. Sir Walter Scott, if my recollection be accurate, describes himself as having devoted about six hours daily to literary composition, and his mind was then in a state to enjoy some lighter pursuits afterwards. After his misfortunes, however, he allowed himself no relaxa- tion, and there can be little doubt that this over-exertion contributed as much as the moral suffering which he endured to the production of the disease of the brain, which ultimately caused his death. Sir David Wilkie found that he was exhausted, if employed in his peculiar line of art for more than four or five hours daily; and it is probable that it was to relieve himself from the effects of too great labour that he turned to the easier occupation of portrait-painting. In fact, even among the higher grades of mind there are but a few that are capable of sustained thought, ete day after day, for a much longer period than this.”—P, 9-13. Sir Benjamin Brodie has stated to me that he subsequently ascertained that in the above passage he had rather exceeded the limits of the mental labour of Sir Walter Scott, who, in a conversation on the topic, in the presence of Sir Charles Lyell and Mr. Lockhart, had declared that he worked for three hours with pleasure, but that beyond about four hours he worked with pain. Sir Benjamin states to me that he is of opinion “that for young children three or four hours’ occupation in school must be even more than sufficient, and that they will be found in the end to have made greater progress, if their exertions are thus limited, than if they are continued for a longer period.” In large public establishments in which I have had an executive direction, I have not found it practicable to sustain, on the average, for longer than six hours per diem, from day to day, continuous and steady mental labour on the part of adults. I find ground for the belief that as more and more of mental effort and skill is required in the exercise of the manual arts, the hours of work must be more and more reduced for the attainment of the best economical results without waste of the bodily power. The psychological limits to mental labour are governed by phystological limits, which in the case of young children are first indicated by bodily pain experienced, in continued sedentary constraint, from suppressed muscular activity, or from mus- cular irritability. As respects children, the physiological case is put in the follow- ing letter which I wrote to Professor Owen, and in his answer :— “Dear OwEN,—Permit me to submit to you for your consideration and for my instruction, some questions on topics of observation made from time to time offi- cially on the common practice of popular education, whether, in the duration of sedentary attention which its theory requires, it is not at variance with elementary principles of physiology ? “First, let me observe upon the very young of our species, their mobility at the periods of growth, particularly in infancy,—their constant changes of bodily position, when free to change,—their incessant desire for muscular exertion,—their changes, short at first, longer as growth advances,—these changes being excited by quickly varying objects of mental attention, and forming incessantly varying alternations of exertion and repose, with manifestations of pleasure when allowed free scope for them, of pain when long restrained. Now to what physiological conditions do these alternations of exertion and repose subserve ? “ When obstructed and subjected to constraints for long periods, and when pain and mental irritation and resistance are excited amongst classes, are not the pain and resistance to be taken as a remonstrance of nature against a violation of its laws ? “The theory of the common practice of school instruction is of five and as much as six hours’ quietude, and for intervals of three hours each, perfect muscular inac- tivity and stillness of very young and growing children from seven to ten years old, and during this constrained muscular inactivity, continuous mental attention and labour. “To ensure these conditions of continued bodily inactivity and prolonged mental labour, the common office of the schoolmaster is everywhere a war for the repres- sion of resistances and incipient rebellions. But are not these resistances excited by nature itself? Are not dase cutting, whittling with knives, mischief, conditions en wae = | atte caine ey ee TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 189 of irritability, manifestations of excessive constraints against physiology? If the condition of muscular inactivity were completely enforced, what does physiology tell us may be expected from these restraints? I might ask you, indeed, whether much of the insanitary conditions of our juvenile and very young populations are not consequences following from them ? “First, there is the proverbial pale-facedness of the young scholar, and a lower bodily condition of those who are subject to the confinement of schools, even of the best construction and ventilation, than of those who are free from them and at large, at liberty to follow natural instincts. “ When the weakly fail in health in a marked degree under the restraints of the school, the remedy 1s restoration to natural freedom, which commonly leads to improved health. I cannot but attribute to the lowering of the system and bodily debility produced by this excessive school constraint (even where there is good ven- tilation), and the consequent exposure to epidemic conditions and other passing causes of disease, a large share of our juvenile mortality, especially between seven and ten years of age, when the opportunities of retrieving the effects of the school constraints by athletic exercises are less than at later periods. “But the constraints of a school are accomplished most fully in girls’ schools, more especially in boarding schools, where the sedentary application of young children is extended to eight hours daily, and diseases are attendant upon them, which I cannot help ascribing largely to violations of the laws of physiology. In Manchester, with the increase of prosperity, an increased proportion of females have been sent to boarding schools and high class schools with long hours; and I am assured by Mr. Roberton, who is especially conversant with the diseases of females, that the proportion of the mothers of the middle class who cannot suckle their own children is increasing. He has shown me statistically that, with all the care be- stowed upon females who have been so highly educated, the failures and deaths in childbirth are full sevenfold greater than amongst females of a lower condition in life, who have had less school restraint and sedentary application, and more freedom and muscular development in childhood. Cases of spinal distortion, ner- vous disorder, nervous mania, and hysteria, prevail peculiarly amongst the middle and higher class of females, whose education has been of prolonged sedentary occu- pation, even under the best sanitary conditions in other respects. As applied to them, it is a proverbial observation that ‘ailing mothers make moaning children.’ A lady who was eminent as a boarding-school teacher, but who has retired from business, has observed painful evidence of the injury done by the prolonged hours of sedentary application which custom and the demands of parents require, and she confirms the experience of the best half-time schools, that better instruction might be given in shorter hours. I have received a body of evidence from able teachers, that they can and do exhaust the capacity of attention to book instruction in half the time for which sustained attention to such instruction and bodily in- activity is demanded by custom. “But what I seek is the sanction of your opinion, as to whether, if the laws of physiology be duly consulted for providing a sound body for a sound mind, other treatment is needed than that which prevails in schools, of requiring five or six hours of sedentary occupation for children in the infantile stage, and seven or eight for those in the juvenile stage? I appeal to you more particularly from the fact, that in lectures and papers the teaching of physiology is insisted upon as an addi- tional element of popular education, and an additional demand of time in those schools, the whole condition and theory and attempted practice of which, though not yet so recognized generally by professors of the science, appears to me to be a large violation of it, and an offence against infantile nature. “ Yours ever, &e.” “My pEAR Cuapwicx,—I have perused and carefully considered every point in the inquiry which you have addressed to me, and I concur completely with your belief in the agreement with nature of the changes you recommend in the distribu- tion and change of the periods devoted to school restraint and studies, and to bodily exercise and relaxation. “All the nutritive functions and actions of growth proceed more vigorously and rapidly in childhood and youth than in mature life,—not merely as regards the 190 ; REPORT—1860. solids and ordinary fluids, but also in the production of those imponderable and interchangeable forces which haye sometimes been personified as ‘ nervous fluid,’ ‘muscular force,’ &c. Using the latter term to exemplify my meaning, the excess of nervous force is in the child most naturally and healthily reduced by its conversion into muscular force ; and at very short intervals, during the active or waking period of life, the child instinctively uses its muscles, and relieves the brain and nerves of their accumulated force, which passes, by the intermediate contraction of the mus- cular fibre, into ordinary force or motion, exemplified by the child’s own movements, and by those of some object or other which has attracted its attention, “The tissues of the growing organs, brain, muscles, &c., are at this period of life too soft to bear a long continuance of their proper actions; their fibres have not attained their mature tone and firmness; this is more especially the case with the brain-fibre. The direct action of the brain, as in the mental application to learn- ing, soon tires; if it be too long continued, the tissues are unhealthily affected ; the due progress of growth, which should have resulted in a fibre fit for good and con- tinuous labour at maturity, is interfered with; the child, as an intellectual instrument, is to that extent spoiled by an error in the process by which that instrument was sought to be improved. “The same effect on the muscular system is exemplified in the racers that are now trained to run, at 21 or 3 years’ old, for the grand prizes at Doncaster or Epsom. The winner of the ‘ Derby’ never becomes an ‘ Eclipse’ or ‘ Flying Childers,’ because the muscular system has been overwrought two or three years before it could have arrived at its full development, which development is stopped by the premature oyer-exertion. “Tf the brain be not stimulated to work, but is allowed to rest; and if, at the same time, the muscles be forbidden to act, there then arises, if this restraint be too prolonged, an overcharged state of the nervous system. It is such a state as we see exemplified in the caged quadruped of active habits, when it seeks to relieve it by converting the nervous into the muscular force to the extent permitted by its rison, either executing a succession of bounds against the prison-bars, like the agile eopard, or stalking, like the lion, sullenly to and fro. “Tf the active child be too long prevented from gratifying the instinctive impulse to put in motion its limbs or body, the nervous system becomes overcharged, and the relief may at last be got by violent emotions or acts, called ‘passion’ or ‘naughti- ness,’ ending in the fit of crying and flood of tears, “ But all these impediments to a healthy development of the nervous system might be obviated by regulations, based on the system which you rightly advocate, providing for more frequent alternations of labour and rest, of study and play, of mental exertion and muscular exercise ; in other words, by briefer and more frequent periods allotted to those phases of educational procedure, and modified to suit two or three divisions of the scholars, according to age, “The powers and workings of the human frame concerned in the complex acts and influences, which you have asked me to explain physiologically, are amongst the most recondite and difficult in our science. You will therefore comprehend and excuse my short-comings in trying to fulfil your wish. But, on the main point, T have no doubt that your aim is in close accordance with the nature of the delicate, and, for good or evil, easily impressible organization of the child. “ Believe me, ever truly yours, * RICHARD OWEN,” It is difficult to separate distinctly the evils arising from the excess of simple bodily inactivity, from the results of the common insanitary conditions of schools— bad ventilation, bad lighting, bad warming, and overcrowding. These, however, are attended by epidemic and eruptive diseases, which ravage the infantile com- munity, Simple constraint appears to be attended by eneryation and obstructed functions, and thence maladies of another class. The preventive of these is the occupation of children, with means of physical training, with systematized gym- nastics, including swimming, and the naval and military drill. Where there have been good approximations to the proper physiological as well as the psychological conditions, as in the half-time industrial district schools, epidemic dossei have been banished, and the rate of mortality reduced to one-third of that which prevails — a TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 191 amongst the general community, and in England and Wales alone, where upward of a quarter of a million of children are annually swept away from preventible disease, which enervates those who survive. Four labourers, who have had the advantage of this improved physical and mental training, are proved to be as effi- cient as five or more of those who have not. I am prepared to show that by ad- ministrative improvements in the application of the principles in question, double the population may be physically and mentally trained well at the expense of educating the existing numbers ill. On Local Taxation for Local Purposes. By R. Dowven. Dr. Whewell on the Method of Political Economy. By Henry Fawcert, W.A. On Co-operative Societies, their Social and Political Aspect. By Henry Fawcett, M.A. On the Province of the Statistician. By J. J. Fox. On Sanitary Drainage of Towns. By J. Hircuman. On the System of Taxation prevailing in the United States. By E. Jarvis, Boston, U.S. On Serfdom in Russia. By Dr. MicuEtsen. On the Economical History and Statistics of the Herring. By J. M. Mitcue ty, F.R.S.S.A., one of the Secretaries for Foreign Correspondence - of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, &c. _. The author said that he read this paper with the view of drawing public atten- tion to the great national importance of the Herring F ishery on the British coasts; and stated that the propriety of affording every encouragement and protection to it has been already affirmed by this Association, in its roposing for one of its objects “The improvement and extension of the British Fisheries ;” and the author, im pointing out its importance, quoted the following extract from Baron Cuvier's ‘Natural History of Fishes,’ vol. xx. pp. 30, 31:— “ Par son inépuisable fécondité le hareng est une de ces productions naturelles dont l'emploi décide la destinée des empires. La graine du cafier, la feuille du thé, les épices de la zone torride, le ver & soie, ont moins influé sur les richesses des nations que le hareng de l’océan septentrional; le luxe ou le caprice demandent les premiers, le besoin réclame le second. La péche de ce poisson fait partir chaque année, des cdtes de France, de Hollande, des Iles Britanniques, des flottes nombreuses pour aller chercher dans le sein d’une mer orageuse, la moisson abondante et assurée que les légions innombrables présentent & la courageuse activité de ces peuples. Les evandes politiques, les plus habiles économistes, ont vu dans la péche du hareng la plus importante des expeditions maritimes; ils ]’ont surnommées la grande péche. Elle forme des hommes robustes, des marins intré+ pides, des navigateurs expérimentés. L’industrie que s’empare des produits de ce péche sait en faire l'objet d’un commerce, source des richesses inépuisables.” Many Acts of Parliament for the purpose of encouraging the fishery, from an early period downwards, had been passed by the Legislature; but, owing to the want of the knowledge of the natural history and habitat of the herring, they proved either injurious or abortive, although bolstered up with bounties and pre- miums ; and the fishery would not have become of any importance had not a local board of unpaid Commissioners been established, with efficient officers acquainted with the localities, so that the fishery might be prosecuted with success at the 192 REPORT—1860. properly ascertained seasons. The Board was established in 1808, and its beneficial operations would be proved by the statistics of the progress of the fishery; and it will be seen that this fishery became, and is now, one of the greatest and most rosperous in the world, and is now only in danger from improper interference, if it is not guarded and controlled by the influence and opinions of scientific and intelli- gent men, such as are found at this Association. To prove the great interest that is taken by other maritime nations in the Herring Fishery, he stated that an interesting discussion took place at the French Academy in 1855, on the question of the migration of the herring, with no satisfactory results, from the want of the knowledge of facts: also, that the Government of Norway had been occupied for several years past in legislating with the view of promoting the Herring Fishery on the coasts of that country; and that in Sweden an elaborate report had been prepared, by the authority of the Government of that country, by one of the heads of the civil department, M. von Wright, with the view of obtaining information as to the cause of the total disappearance of the vast shoals of herrings that formerly visited the Swedish coasts; and that the Govern- ment of Holland is anxiously occupied in obtaining information on the subject, and has employed scientific men to investigate the subject of the visits of the feria and to prepare reports. The results of these observations, made on board of forty- five of the Dutch fishery busses, are given in a work published by the authority of the Dutch Government, which has been thought of such importance that the British Board of Trade has ordered a translation of it to be made and published for general information ; and it is important that it should be known that this move- ment of the Government of Holland is caused by the lately rapid declension of the Dutch Fishery, and that Government, seeing the rapid progress of the British Fishery on our coasts, has established a system of superintendence and regulation similar to that so successfully promoted by the Fishery Board. He said that there were many subjects for inquiry which do not properly belong to our Fishery Board, the Commissioners of which and their officers have special duties to perform under legislative enactments, and it may therefore be considered as a reproach to this country, which gains so abundant a supply of food of the best description, while at the same time securing a large force of useful mariners ready to detnd our coasts, and in the day of peril to man our navy, that no efficient efforts have yet been made to elucidate the natural history of the herring. At the present time we seem to pay too little attention to the fostering of our native industry; it is surely obvious that in encouraging the search for gold in our colonies, we are losing, or sending away from our own country, some of the most enterprising and industrious of our inhabitants, not easily to be replaced ; while by encouraging the search for the golden treasures on our own coasts, as truly said by the distinguished author, Cuvier, we create those men of so much yalue to a maritime country—“ INTREPID AND ROBUST MARINERS,” besides adding every year additional suPPLIEs OF FOOD and “INEXHAUSTIBLE RICHES.” To prove the great advantage of the system of superintendence and inspection of the Fishery Board and their officers, some statistics were given of the progress of the Fishery : among others the following :— When the Fishery Board was first established in 1808, the quantity of herrings cured and salted in barrels was 99,185 barrels, while in 1855 the quantity cured was 766,703 barrels; and adding the quantity sold fresh, 130,759 barrels, we find the total quantity of herrings caught in that year was 897,462 barrels—yielding at a moderate calculation the value of one million sterling, which may be safely taken as the average annual value of the herrings fished on the coasts of Scotland, without calculating the quantity caught at Yarmouth and other places on the English and Trish coasts, which are principally sold fresh or smoked. Before an efficient system of legislation and regulation was adopted in this country, the demand from abroad was inconsiderable, but it has annually increased since: for instance, in 1812 the quantity exported to the Continent was only 4720; in 1815 it amounted to 35,891; in 1840 to 82,351; in 1845 to 143,754; in 1850 to 257,103; and in 1855 the quantity exported was 344,029. And to show how rapid the progress has been in foreign markets of the sale of British herrings, he gave the amount of the British, Dutch, Danish and Norwegian herrings imported into one of the largest exporting towns in Prussia (Stettin) in successive years. — I TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 193 In 1825 there was imported there—from Great Britain. Holland. Denmark, Norway. 18,160 A295 1960 6,758 In 1845 81,189 2457 307 44,264 In 1850 = 116,53 508 470 12,567 and in 1855 the quantity of British herrings amounted to 160,572 barrels—about nine times the quantity sent in 1825 to Stettin; and as the herrings are carefully separated, assorted and packed into proper-sized barrels, cured under the eye of the inspecting officers, the British herrmgs have become known, in consequence, as a safe and staple article of commerce, and are imported into various other ports; for instance, there were exported to the following ports in 1855— sed Soa HQ gp Or iSnNEnes SOOD GS DIC . 14,417 PIE, FO ean ek fee tame natinie «has mte 59,204 Eipnpere’. fsck cerhutiace coe ee 26,774 aerate POF: Set eee hae ee ee 60,577 IreTnen 24 PL Se ee Soe ee es salen 6,754 Rotterdam, for the Rhine ......,.......5% 7,955 Chater Paris, NEU etree ta etal tsa 8,244 SLOG , Were hiked oer a Sofia PG SEA ies 160,572 Maleate artoteler VE P55 0 es bee 344,207 And it is interesting to know that at the fishery stations in Scotland there were . employed in the year referred to, Fishing Boats 11,251, the tonnage being 77,794; and the fishermen, coopers and others employed, amounted to 91,139, of which 91,189 people directly employed, 39,266 were fishermen. These statistics apply to the Scottish coasts only, where the greatest shoals of herrings resort ; but there are other places, as already stated, such as Yarmouth, where many of the fishermen are occupied in fishing herrings in the usual seasons. Tt is necessary that the truth should be known as to the progressive prosperity and increase of the Herring Fishery, because there are some authors who are in- clined to depreciate our national productions and progress; for instance, we find McCulloch, in his ‘ Dictionary of Commerce,’ which is considered a text-book and standard work by a certain class of readers, saying “the Dutch have uniformly maintained their ascendency in the Herring Fishery since the earliest period,” and that “ ours remains in a very unhealthy and feeble state.” _ As already stated, the Dutch Herring Fishery is in a declining state, and instead of 300 busses proceeding annually to the fishery, as was the case not many years ago, the number has been gradually decreasing, and does not now exceed 60 busses ; but on our coasts great prosperity is evident from the progress of the population, the increase of towns ‘and villages, and from the comfortable state of the fishermen and their families, and the great circulation of wealth that must exist by an annual increase of one million sterling taken out of the sea on our own coasts. The value of this great fishery should teach us the propriety of carefully fostering and protecting it; and to enable us to do so efficiently, we must have some know- ledge of the natural history and habits of the herring, as well as accurate statistcis. He said he was prepared to prove that the herring was a native of the seas adjacent. _ to the coast to which it resorted; and in conclusion, he said that to promote its prosperity, or even to protect it, legislation was necessary, and power should be given to prevent the disturbance of the spawn, and the indiscriminate destruction _ of the young herring or fry. The fishery grounds during the proper season shonld _ be attended by the proper number of ships of war, to prevent disputes and disturb- ance among the fishermen, and to prevent the large fishing vessels from driftin into the smaller ones. He recommended that the Fishery Board established in Scotland, should be extended to England and Ireland, as calculated to increase the rosperity of the fisheries and the number of fishermen and seamen suitable for e€ navy. _Betore concluding he produced a copy of a letter written by him to the Right. Hon. the Lord Adyocate of Scotland, to prove that it is absolutely necessary for 1860. i 194 REPORT—1860. the protection of the fishermen and the merchants that the system of inspection by the Fishery Officers be continued to preserve order among the fishermen during the fishing season, to prevent the fishermen using illegal nets, and to prevent the fishermen being defrauded by illegal measures; and more particularly as the merchant buys perhaps several thousand barrels at a time, that the necessity of opening the barrels and seeing the herrings may be avoided; and the various onerous duties of the officers he thus enumerates : — “J, They are the police of the fishery, who maintain and have the power to en- force order. Much fraud and disorder existed before the officers were appointed ; at ae such cannot exist without being repressed. [This may be said to be the only constabulary force paid out of the national funds in Scotland, and costs only £14,000 per annum. The constabulary force in Ireland, paid out of the national funds, costs £650,000 per annum. | “2, They protect the fishermen in this way,—the measure or cran by which they are paid for their fish must be of legal size and branded. Formerly it was often made too large, and the fishermen were defrauded. “3, They prevent the meshes or squares of the net from being made below the proper size, which, if so made, would take the young and inferior herring. “4, They see that the fishermen do not fish during the day and on Sunday. In a paper I read at the Literary Institute the other day, I proved that three im- portant fisheries were annihilated by this practice of fishing during the day. “5, They prevent, as far as they are authorized by law, the destruction of the fry and spawn, which would diminish or annihilate the herrings. “6, They point out to the tyro fish-curer the mode of cure. “7, They see where the fishing localities rise into importance, so that they can point out where creeks may be improved, by forming fishing harbours and shelter for the fishermen. “8, They see that the herrings are cured within twenty-four hours after being caught. «9, They see that the different kinds of herrings are properly separated and packed in different barrels. “10. They see that they are properly gutted. ; “11. They see that a sufficient quantity of salt is put into the barrels with the errings. “12. They see that they are properly packed in the barrels. “13. They see that they are, after ten days, properly filled up with a sufficiency of herrings and pickle. “14, They see that the barrels are of the proper legal size. “15. They see that the barrels are of the requisite materials and strength, which they formerly were not. ° é ‘ie They see that no branded barrel is used a second time to cover inferior sh. “17. And when all the requirements are attended to, they apply the brands to the various descriptions of herrings as they have been assorted. There are several brands applicable to the different kinds—the highest being the crown brand and the word ‘full.’ The applying the crown brand isa proof of the officer having watched the progress of the cure. It is, in short, the mere Finis coronut opus—the opus, or work, has been going on since the herrings were fished, and the crown proves that the herrings are merchantable; but the various operations require careful attention during the whole year.” On some suggested Schemes of Taxation, and the Difficulties of them. By W. NewMarcu. Hints on the best Plan of Cottage for Agricultural Labourers. By Henry Joun Ker Porter, MRA. The present condition of the dwellings of farm labourers requires, I believe, with some exceptions, improvement no less than the abodes of the labouring classes in larye towns. The drainage and ventilation are generally admitted to be imperfect ; but the eyil of too much cold air is severely felt in some districts with which 1 am TRANSACTIONS OF TIE SECTIONS. 195 acquainted ; I have found cottages built of what I have seen in New Zealand and Australia, and there called “ wattle and dab” or wicker work, covered with untem- pered mortar: these walls cannot keep out the piercing cold in winter; the frame- worl: on which the roof rests frequently gives way, and the doors and windows can- not be kept water-tight. Ihave turned my attention towards their improvement. I haye had the large heayy thatched roofs, where they are good, supported, while new brick walls have replaced “the wattle and dab,” and new doors and;windows have been added. I found this alteration cost from £10 to £12 each cottage, and the occupiers were quite willing to have 5 per cent. on the outlay added to their rent. With reference to new buildings, I have the pleasure to present to this Section of the British Association the drawings of a cottage which I found from practical experience to be the best suited to the labourer in rural districts. It combines the advantages of at least three airy bed rooms, a lofty kitchen or living room, and an apartment which may be turned either into a parlour or a bed room, where the family is large ; or if neither of those apartments are required, it may form an outer kitchen or scullery. A lean-to is added to the end of the house, which forms a barn to hold the gleaning, the fuel, or other matters, without which no labourer’s cottage can be kept neat and comfortable. Two peculiar features in the cottages I have built I beg to refer to. Ventilation is secured by a4-inch square opening near the ceiling in each apartment; this opening leads the foul air into a small flue of the same size carried up to the gable of the house, and finding egress in a narrow open- ing in the outer side of the wall. When the cottage is built of brick, this adds nothing to the expense; when built of stone, it is only the additional cost of the round tiles for forming the flues. Several of these flues may lead to the upper one, which of course must be proportionably enlarged to carry off the increased quantity of air. In Ireland I built twenty dwellings in a double row of houses, at one side opening into a court yard, the other into the street of alarge market town. Fevers prevailed in the following year, and several deaths occurred amongst the labouring classes, and not one death amongst the 100 individuals occupying those houses. I built two villages on the same estate, and the medical gentleman whose duty it was to visit the labouring classes on that property, bore testimony to the value of the system adopted for ventilation. The other peculiarity in these houses was the mode in which the window-sashes were made, Hvery one acquainted with English cottages of the last half-century, is aware of the misery and expense of lead lights, neyer keeping out cold and always wanting repair. Metal has been substituted, and these are often so imperfect that they fit badly and neither exclude wet nor cold; it is the case in school-houses in the parish in which I reside, and there was no expense spared in their erection. To avoid these difficulties, I adopted wood for the outer part of the sash, the inner divisions being formed of 3 inch hoop iron cut half through where they intersect, and thus forming one of the strongest sashes possible, with the advantage of being able to add to or take from the outer sides of the sash, to make them fit tightly ; they open on a pivot let into the sash on each side, thus giving the whole size of the window, when necessary, for the admission of fresh air. “I have made a very rude attempt at a model before breakfast this morning, but it will serve to show the plan of forming the window with the hoop iron. I have erected one such cottage in the county of Huntingdon, upon the estate which is placed under my management as agent; and so many tenants have requested 4wo houses each on their farms, that I am about to build several more, the money being advanced by the Land Improvement Society, to be paid by instal- ments in 31 years, thus giving the estates, the tenants, and the labourers the imme- diate benefit of the improvement, while the proprietor of the estate, who is only tenant for life, will not be obliged to expend so very large a sum, which might have the effect of curtailing other improvements. The tenants in every case have agreed to pay 5 per cent. increased rent for the outlay, and these rents will be paid by labourers, who gladly settle down where they find constant employment and comfortable and healthy dwellings. On the Systems of Poor Law Medical Relief. By ¥. Purvy. 13* 196 REPORT—1860. Notes on various Efforts to improve the Domiciliary Condition of the Labouring Classes. By Henry Roserts, FSA. It is only within the past fifteen or twenty years that much attention has been di- rected to this subject, and considering its importance in regard to a very numerous class of the community, I trust that a brief statement of facts, drawn from experience, and tending to show by what means the object is most likely to be obtained, will not be deemed foreign to the investigations of that branch of the British Association which is devoted to Economic Science and Statistics. That an undertaking which in its commencement may appear very easy should in its progress encounter some unexpected difficulties, is of such common occur- rence, that it would be almost an exceptional case were it otherwise in this instance. But to be daunted by difficulties is foreign to the character of Britons, and it should be so especially when the object aimed at is the benefit of our fellow- creatures. I assume that something of the actual domiciliary state of vast masses of our fellow-subjects is known to most, though but few have sounded the depths of its misery or of its degradation, and none can fully estimate its evil results. Whilst on the Continent for the recovery of health, I have seen and heard it so often referred to, that, when recommending the subject to the attention of influential persons in different countries, I could not but think of those words, “ Physician, heal thyself.” The first associated efforts of a practical character were commenced in England, shortly after the investigations made by Government authority into the state of the poor, subsequent to the first outbreak of cholera in the metropolis. Two societies were then formed by philanthropic individuals, with a view to work out and to exhibit a practical remedy for the great social evils resulting from the con- dition of the dwellings of the working classes,—a remedy which would commend itself to extensive adoption, and be the means of stimulating the owners of existing houses from self-interested motives, to improve and render them healthy abodes, and afford the evidence of practical results in support of an appeal to the legisla- ture for a somewhat unprecedented interference with private property. The first established of these Societies, though the second to commence building, which it did in 1845, is the Metropolitan Association for Improving the Dwellings of the Industrious Classes. Up to the present time it has expended on its ten distinct ranges of dwellings £89,613 14s. 10d., of which £71,528 2s. 6d, has been laid out on six separate blocks of dwellings in different parts of the metropolis, which accommodate 395 families ; the net return received from them, for the year ending 31st March last, after deducting all current expenses and repairs, amounted to £2687 4s. 4d., being about 33 per cent. on the outlay. On two lodging houses for single men,—one of them new, which has accommodation for 234, and the other old, which provides for 128,—the return, owing to the want of sufficient occupants, has been very unsatisfactory ; such indeed as to involve a considerable loss, which proves that the buildings are’either too large, or in some way unadapted to the class of men frequenting their neighbourhood. It is worthy of observation that the same result has attended a similar lodging house at Marseilles, built outside the town, for 150 men, too far from their daily occupation, whilst many such houses elsewhere, on a smaller scale, accommodating from 50 to 100 men, and near to their work, have fully succeeded; in some instances they have been gradually increased, which is the case at Leeds and at Liverpool. Of two adjoining houses, built on the Boulevard de Batignolles in Paris, to accom- modate together 203 men, and having on the ground floor a restaurant and café, one was closed two years since. In this instance, however, the failure is doubtless in some degree attributable to defective management. The second established Society in London, that for Improving the Condition of the Labouring Classes, commenced its first building in 1844. It has constructed — four distinct ranges of new buildings, which accommodate .97 families in separate — dwellings, provide 94 rooms for single women, and lodgings for 104 single men, as well as a public wash-house with baths. It has also renovated and fitted up, in — three distinct localities, old houses which lodge 158 single men. These several dwellings and lodging houses have all been im full occupation since 1851, Within —————— ee Ul hl ee TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 197 the past six years, three entire courts in different localities have been taken by the same Society; and the condition of the houses, which were indescribably filthy, and occupied by the lowest class of tenants, has been completely changed. The number of rooms collectively contained in these courts is 275, and there is also a single men’s lodging house with 40 beds. The total expenditure on these new and old buildings, with the land, has been £43,631 17s. 3d. The form in which the accounts of this Society are presented does not afford the same facility for ascertaining the pecuniary return on the capital invested, as those of the Metropolitan Associations do; and one of its undertakings,—that in Portpool Lane, the Thankseiving Model Buildings, which was commenced in 1850 with contributions received after the removal of the cholera,—was avowedly of so experimental and mixed a character, that the pecuniary results are not a criterion applicable to other cases, excepting as a caution against providing largely in one building for single women. The average occupation of 64 rooms, which progressed very slowly at the commencement, has not exceeded 50 to 52; and more stringent regulations, with regard to the hours of closing, and more constant supervision than in the men’s lodging houses, are proved to be indispensable. The public wash- house and baths, though a boon to the neighbourhood, have not been remunerative. The receipts and expenses of the different buildings during the year 1852, for which I can personally speak to the management of this Society, having then acted on its committee and as its honorary architect, were,— Bagnigge Wells: self-contained houses and flats for 23 £ 8 ds families, and rooms for 30 aged females. Outlay on} Receipts 875 7 7 land £1045, building £5025. Expenses 82 6 9 Net return 203 0 10 Streatham Street: houses for 54 families built on flats : r - fire-proof, and with galleries. Outlay, ground rent panaiat Sea 5 ; £50, building £8916 16s, Od. PP 2 ; Net return 499 9 3 George Street: lodging house for 104 men, six stories . high, including basement offices, and four floors of ssh os 7 ‘ dormitories. Outlay, land £1200, building £5226, P Net return 812 5 2 Charles Street : lodging house for 84 men formed out of . three old houses, ‘renovated and thrown into one. Bs — ae Hs 4 Outlay on repairs and furniture £1163 14s, 2d. P Net return 184 15 2 King Street: lodging house for 22 men. An old house, on the repairing and furnishing of which £135 was expended. Receipts 111.9 8 Expenses 73 13 11 Netretun 3715 9 The rents received from these houses have varied but slightly since they were opened, up to the present time, and they are generally well-filled, the families chan- ging but seldom. The cost of repairs is not included in the expenses which are above stated ; they should be taken as averaging $ per cent. on new, and generally from 1 to 2 per cent. on old buildings. Calculating 4 per cent. interest on the cost of the land, the clear return on the out- lay of £19,467 16s. Od. on the three first-named piles, which are new buildings, is 5; per cent., from which, deducting ~ per cent. for repairs, leaves 4} per cent. net. It should, however, be observed, that the return from the Streatham Street family houses is higher than from the other two, amounting to 5 per cent. net, and the rents of the family houses were mostly fixed below those usually paid for similar accommodation. The two lodging houses, which were old buildings and lease- _ hold, yielded a return of about 17 per cent. ; and deducting 2 per cent. for repairs, _ they gave a net return of 15 per cent. The outlay in putting the three old courts into a good sanitary state, with suit- 198 REPORT—1860. able fittings, including the lodging house, has been £7226 1s. 4d.; and the clear return for the year ending 31st December 1858, was £203 14s. 3d., from which deducting 14 per cent. for the expense of repairs, leaves about 1} per cent. net on the outlay. From these figures it would appear that whilst in the metropolis old buildings may be renovated and fitted up for men’s lodging houses, with the prospect of at least a fair remunerative return, although this has not been the case invariably, the putting of old courts and blocks of dwelling houses for families into a good sanitary condition, unless they are obtained at an unusually low price, is not likely to yield a satisfactory return on the outlay, even taking 4 to 5 per cent. as the lowest rate of interest which such investments should yield, after provision has been made for repairs, and a sinking fund to pay off the capital, which there should be, espe- cially in the case of leasehold property. It is well also to notice that the actual benefit resulting from these efforts has not been conferred to the extent which might be supposed, on those who were the occupants of the courts, when they were taken by the Society, as a considerable portion of them have been ejected, in order not only to reduce the number of occu- pants to a due limit, but also to secure a more eligible set of tenants. It may, however, be stated here, that a Society has for the past three years been successfully in operation at Hastings, established mainly through the instrumenta- lity of Dr. Greenhill, and called the Hastings Cottage Improvement Society, which avowed “the fixed determination to spare no pains in securing the main object of benefiting the tenants, and at the same time not to discourage the good cause by a commercial failure.” With an expenditure to the present time of £9246 in pur- chasing and putting old dwelling-houses into good condition, a dividend of 6 per cent. has been paid.. Judging from what I have seen of the Society’s labours at an early stage, it is simply that of putting the acquired property into the condition which any kind-hearted considerate landlord would desire for his own tenants; and this has been done with as little disturbance of the existing occupants as pos- sible. The operations of this Society derive much advantage from the seg Ba of two visitors, whose duty is to inspect the houses every fortnight. The forma- tion of a reserve fund at the rate of 1 per cent. per annum, and also of a beneyo- lent fund amongst the tenants, deserve notice. The physical results obtained by the two Societies in the Metropolis have been of a very marked character. For the four consecutive years 1850 to 1853, the average number of deaths in all their houses was only 15-6 per 1000, as compared with 27 to 28 per 1000 in the districts immediately around them, and of 26 per 1000 in the Metropolis generally, whilst there has been an almost entire freedom from the special diseases to which the lower classes are more peculiarly subject, not even excepting cholera. That such returns should not have been regularly continued by the second named of these societies, is cause for regret. A very beneficial influence has been exercised on the localities in which the houses are situated, especially those occupied by families; and it may be confidently asserted that the most sanguine expectations of their projectors have been realized in every respect, excepting that of their financial returns, and the extent to which it was anticipated that the example would be followed. Had the returns generally proved more remunerative, doubtless a greater number of similar houses would have been built; yet, although they are but a drop in the bucket, when the extent and vast population of London is considered, they are not, as compared with what has been done at Paris, encouraged by a large government subvention, by any means as insignificant as might be inferred from a remark made in the last number of the Quarterly Review, that “the wants of the displaced poor have with us been utterly neglected.” It is too true that in the Metropolis of Great Britain, as well as in that of France, the formation of new streets, and the removing masses of miserable dens, has only increased the evil, by crowding yet more those that remain. I can, however, after minutely examining all which had been done or commenced in Paris two years ago, and ascertaining the additions since made, confidently assert that Ingland, which took the lead in this effort of prac- tical benevolence, has done much more through the unaided force of that motive, than has been accomplished in France, with the stimulus of a government subyen- tion of 10,000,000 francs. OO ——— orrererree oe TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 199 The number of improved dwellings for working people which have been con- structed in London, either by local associations, or by individuals, following more or less closely the plans of those built by the two societies before referred to, for- bids their detailed notice ; they may be learnt from my paper on “ the Improvement of the Dwellings of the Labouring Classes,” given in the Transactions of the National Association for the promotion of Social Science for 1858. On this occa- sion I shall only allude to such of them as especially illustrate the points which it is the main object of this paper to prove. At Shadwell, close to the line of the Blackwall Railway, a number of miserable dwellings, tenanted by the lowest class of persons, came by inheritance into the foo of a private gentleman, W. E. Hilliard, Esq. of Gray’s Inn: actuated y the most philanthropic views, he decided on endeavouring to improve, not only his own property, but also by example the immediate neighbourhood, and his efforts have been crowned with signal success. The old dwellings have been replaced by an entire street of considerable length ; on both sides of which houses for accommodating in the whole 112 families have been built, on the general plan of H.R.H. The Prince Consort’s Exhibition Model Houses 1851, with an open stair- case, giving access to each pair of upper floor tenements. The twenty-eight blocks of four houses cost £487 each ; and after allowing for ground rent and all charges, I can state, on the authority of the owner, that “they continue to pay upwards of six, in fact nearly seven per cent. asa net return on the investment; and what,” he adds, “is perhaps of more consequence, they are almost constantly let, and are ap- preciated by the tenants, who, as a rule, are pretty stationary, and not migratory, as that class frequently are. - “We have before us in this case, an outlay of nearly £14,000 on new buildings which contain 448 rooms, kitchens or sculleries included, yielding from 6 to 7 per cent., whilst we have seen that the cost of obtaining and putting into sanitary con- dition three old courts, which contain 275 rooms, and a lodging house with 40 beds, has been upwards of £7000; and in that instance the return on the outlay has been 1} per cent., after deducting 14 per cent. for repairs, but making no allowance for a sinking fund.” ' The Strand Building Company, on their houses for 25 families in Eagle Court, has last year paid a dividend of 4} per cent. to the shareholders. The Victoria Lodging House for married soldiers, built by an association of officers of the battalion of Guards, near the Vauxhall Bridge Road, and containing 54 tene- ments or 112 rooms, was the first practical result of the interest manifested in this object by H.R.H. The Prince Consort in connexion with the Great Exhibition. I allude to it partly as showing how justly the late Duke of Wellington estimated the probable effects of placing that small building in the barrack yard at Knights- bridge, when, as Commander-in-chief, he objected to the situation lest it should cause a feeling of dissatisfaction in the army, with the want of any accommodation for married soldiers ; an evil which the Marquis of Anglesea told me His Grace apprehended the country to be then unprepared to remedy. Since that time, separate dwellings for the married non-commissioned officers and men of the regiment stationed at Chatham garrison, as well as for the engineers, have been built; and during the present session of Parliament £30,000 have been voted for married soldiers’ quarters. The Windsor Royal Society, established in 1852, has now £9000 invested in new cottages and in two lodging houses, the net returns from which enable them to pay a dividend of 4 per cent. to the shareholders. ata aets ? _ At Liverpool, on a range of dwellings for 23 families, built in Upper Frederick Street after the general plan of The Prince Consort’s Exhibition model-houses, 43 per cent. is realized. The Association at Brighton has also built one block of six houses on the same plan, and they pay a fair return on the cost. Not fewer than twenty societies for providing improved dwellings for the work- ing classes have, to my knowledge, been established in various provincial towns in England; and whilst their operations are, without exception, beneficial in regard to the occupants, the pecuniary results have varied considerably. In such under- takings, competent skill and watchful supervision are most important elements of success. In order to show what may be done with sound judgment and care- ful management, I instance one example, in addition to those already given; and 200 REPORT—1860. as that is taken from Scotland, I may observe that the urgent necessity for such efforts is as great in the two sister kingdoms as it is in England. The Pilrig Model Buildings, near Leith Walk, Edinburgh, were commenced in 1850 ; they consist of forty-four dwellings in three blocks, with access on both sides, the upper floor tenements being approached from the opposite side to that on which the ground floor tenements are entered. The greatest economy, consistent with fitness and durability, was maintained in the construction, so that the total cost of the forty-four houses, including drains, &c., was only £4052 15s. 9d., being on an average about £92 per house, with scarcely any extras. The rent of the whole is £303 19s. Od., varying from £5 5s. per house up to £9 15s., one half of them not exceeding £6 6s, per house. Higher rents might have been charged had not the committee desired to benefit a class of persons who could not afford to pay more. After deducting all expenses,—feu duty £22 14s, 10d. ; insurance £6 12s, 6d, ; rates and taxes £13 11s. 23d. ; repairs £13 4s. 7d.; management £21 6s, 3d., and paying a dividend of 5 per cent. (less income tax) amounting to £196 16s, 6d.,—a balance of £30 15s. 1d. was last year added to the sinking fund, from which a expenses, such as painting and papering, are defrayed. This fund now amounts to about £150. Having had the opportunity of seeing these houses when returning from the Aberdeen Meeting last year, I refer to them with pleasure, as in many respects worthy of imitation, and am not surprised at hearing that the demand for them is generally at least six times equal to the supply. The facts given thus far, refer exclusively to buildings in towns: with regard to country districts, in which there is an equal necessity for exertion, the number of improved cottages built by landed proprietors, as well as by other large em- ployers of working people, such as manufacturers, railway and other public com- panies, owners of collieries, mines, quarries, &c., has within the past twelve years been very considerable; and it is to the increased feeling of responsibility in this respect, as well as to more enlarged views of their own interest on the part of employers, that we must mainly look for the much needed improvement in the domiciliary condition of our rural population, and of those whose industrial em- ployments are remote from towns. In thus saying I do not forget that in many places Benefit Building Societies present a useful machinery for enabling the working classes to obtain improved dwellings, and that much good may result from judicious advice given to their members in the selection of such plans as will enable them to obtain a healthy and convenient home. In many places on the Continent, societies haye, within the past ten years, been formed by philanthropic persons to build suitable houses for working people, and likewise to afford facilities which enable their occupiers, by small periodical payments in addition to the rent, to become the owners of their own dwellings; the parties who advance the money being satisfied with 4 per cent. interest, and the security of a sinking fund to pay off the capital. Such buildings act as a savings’ bank, promoting sobriety and habits of forethought. The beneficial effects resulting from a diffusion of sanitary knowledge amongst the working population generally, and the importance of their being led to under- stand and feel how greatly they are personally interested in the possession of a wholesome dwelling, ought on no account to be overlooked by those who seek to promote this object. Great evils which have arisen out of the selfish system, pursued in some close parishes, of pulling down cottages in order to obtain relief from a burden which is thereby thrown on a neighbouring parish, loudly call for legislative interference. In regard to populous towns, and the metropolis more especially, the facts which have been stated lead to the conclusion, that the evils of overcrowding which result from a demolition of large masses of dwellings of the working classes, effected for the carrying out of popes improvements, can only be prevented by a parlia- mentary enforcement of the construction of suitable buildings in the place of those destroyed. A standing order of the House of Lords for the investigation of such cases exists, but it appears thus far to have been practically a dead letter. Whilst the pressure consequent on these destructions is felt by all classes of the working population within their influence, facts have been brought to light by experience, which conclusively prove that no efforts of societies, or of individuals, can remedy the existing state of wretchedness, which is a consequence of sanitary. ey he eer pg, Bie TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 201 defects and of overcrowding in the lowest class of dwellings. Nothing can effect this much-needed remedy, but the extension to all tenements in towns and thickly populated neighbourhoods, which are let at low weekly rents, of such legislative interference as is universally admitted to have been of the greatest benefit in the case of common lodging houses. Within the limited jurisdiction of the Corporation authorities in the City of London, such a power was conferred in 1851, and it is judi- ciously exercised under the supervision of the Medical Officer of Health, to the great benefit of the poor, and with a marked diminution in the returns of mortality, which have fallen since that date from 25 to 23 in 1000. In the case of all new buildings, proper drainage should be enforced by authority, prior to their commencement; the want of it is a most fruitful source of sickness, and consequent expense to the public. In the preceding notes my aim has been to draw only such conclusions as are fully supported by the facts adduced. I cannot, however, omit glancing at this subject from one other point of view, and that the most important in which it can be presented for consideration, its bearing on our fellow-creatures as moral and accountable beings. The experience of a right rev. prelate, when formerly rector of St. Giles-in-the-Fields, one of the most thickly-populated and poverty-struck parishes in London, must give peculiar weight to the following words: “The physical circumstances of the poor paralyse all the efforts of the clergyman, the schoolmaster, the scripture reader, or the city missionary, for their spiritual or their moral welfare. .... Every effort to create a spiritual tone of feeling is counteracted by a set of physical circumstances which are incompatible with the exercise of common morality. Talk of morality amongst people who herd, men, women and children together, with no regard of age or sex, in one narrow confined apartment! You might a talk of cleanliness in a sty, or of limpid purity in the contents of a cesspoo Our prisons are no longer hot beds of fever* and of moral contagion as they formerly were: may it not be asked in this Association, whether, with the advance of science, the reproach to which England is justly amenable on account of the domiciliary state of our labouring population, ought not to be effaced ? and, whilst self-interested motives might be urged on many, the divine command, “thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself,” lays a serious responsibility on all who have it in their power to promote an object so indispensable to the well-being of our poorer neighbours. MECHANICAL SCIENCE. Tue President, mm opening the business of the Section, took occasion to refer to the great loss Mechanical Science had sustained, since: the last Meeting, in the deaths of Brunel and Stephenson. He then made some brief remarks on the recent progress of Mechanical Science, especially in the use of heat to produce motive power. On the Mechanical Effects of combining Suspension Chains and Girders, and the Value of the Practical Application of this System (illustrated by a Mo- del). By P. W. Bartow, F.R.S. * At the black assizes held in Oxford in July 1577, the gaol fever spread from the prisoners to the court, and within two days had killed tne judge, the sheriff, several justices of the peace, most ofthe jury, as well as a great number of the audience, and afterwards spread amongst the inhabitants of the town. 202 REPORT—1860, of successful small ones, which had given satisfactory results in every way, except that they had failed after a short time for want of strength. Mr. J. Lawrence, in 1855, rifled a 63-inch gun with three shallow broad grooves, like an Enfield, and fired a lead and zinc bullet, like the Infield. At an elevation of 5°, the range was 2600 yards—150 more than Sir W. Armstrong’s; but the gun burst after about 50 rounds. Mr. Whitworth, after making some excellent small arms and nine- ounders, tried a large gun with 4 inches bore, and sides 9 inches thick; but it burst. He then tried another, 11 inches thick, and it too burst. He had, how- ever, since made a stronger cannon, whose success was absolute proof that the one thing wanting in the other was strength. Capt. Blakeley explained his own method of obtaining strength, which consists simply of building up the gun in concentric tubes, each compressing that within it. By this means the strain is diffused throughout the whole thickness of the metal, and the inside is not unduly strained, as in a hollow cylinder made in one piece. As the whole efficacy of the system depended entirely on the careful adjustment of the size of the layers, Capt. Blakeley said he was not astonished that Sir W. Armstrong had lately failed utterly in his attempts to carry it out, because he did not put on the outer layers and rings with any calculated degree of tension; “they were simply applied with a sufficient difference of diameter to secure effectual shrinkage,” to quote his own words at the Institution of Civil Engineers. To show that the late failure by Sir W. Armstrong did not disprove his, Capt. Blakeley’s, theory, he quoted oficial reports of a trial of a nine-pounder made by himself in 1855, which showed an endurance sevenfold that of an izon service gun, and threefold that of a brass gun, as well as of an 8-inch gun, from which bolts weighing 4 cwt. had been fired, and of a 10-inch gun which had discharged bolts weighing 526 lbs. Mr. Whitworth’s last new 80-pounder was another instance of the successful application of Capt. Blakeley’s pr:nciple. To quote Mr. Whitworth’s own words,—“ It was made of homogeneous iron. Upon a tube having an external taper of about one inch, a series of hoops, each about 20 inches long, were forced by hydraulic pressure. Ex- eriments had enabled him to determine accurately what amount of pressure each oop would bear. All the hoops were put on with the greatest amount of pressure they would withstand without being injured. A second series was forced over those first fixed.” This gun was so made at Capt. Blakeley’s suggestion, except- ing that the rings were put on too tight, which might prove a cause of weakness, The method of rifling adopted by Capt. Blakeley cannot be made intelligible with-- out a diagram; but it may be described as a series of grooves of very shallow depth, so arranged as to exert a maximum force in the direction of the rotation of the bullet with a minimum force in a radial or bursting direction. Capt. Blakeley exhibited in the court of the building in which the Section met, a 66-pounder, constructed on his own plans, from which he had thrown shells to a distance of 2700 yards, with only 5° of elevation, which was stated to be a range 300 yards greater than that of Sir W. Armstrong’s 80-pounder. On a deep Sea Pressure Gauge, invented by Henry Johnson, Esq. Read by the Rev. Dr. Bootu, F.R.S., §e. In deep sounding the pressure is too intense to admit of measurement by the com- pression of any highly elastic fluid in a small portable instrument. Water, however, possesses a slight degree of elasticity, and an instrument recording the compression of an isolated portion of water by the pressure of the sea, will show the compression of the water at the depth to which it has been lowered. Mr. Canton, who in 1761 communicated his observations to the Royal Society, found in water, compressed under a glass receiver, by the pressure of an additional atmosphere, a diminution in bulk equal to one part in 21,740; and in water placed under a receiver a similar expansion when the air in the receiver was exhausted. Mr. Perkins, more recently, found a diminution of bulk of “>ths in water under a pressure of 1120 atmospheres. The theory of increased pressure at great depths is corroborated by a very interesting experiment made by the distinguished voyager Rear-Admiral Sir James Clark Ross, who lowered, to a great depth, a bottle fitted with a tube, with a cork suspended so as to enter the tube, if, as anticipated, the water in the bottle, condensed under heavy pressure, should expand upon the raising of the bottle and the removal of the pressure. Upon the return of the bottle to the a a . cation of a pressure of 1000 lbs. to the square inch on TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 203 surface, it was found that the cork had been forced some distance along the tube, and the amount of compression and of subsequent expansion were thus roughly estimated. The pressure gauge exhibited, may, in its present form, be considered as a small hydraulic press ; of which the ram is forced into the cylinder by the increasing pressure of the sea when sinking, and expelled by the expansion of the water in the cylinder when rising. It consists of a small tube or cylinder having at one end a tap through which water is admitted; the tap having in addition to the opening admitting water, a smaller opening for the escape of air. At the other end of the cylin- der is a packing-box, through which a round bolt or solid piston passes. A scale by the side of the pis- ton contains the degrees of compression, and an index at the further end of the scale is drawn along the scale by the piston when forced by increasing pressure into the cylinder, and secured by a spring in its position, where it remains when the piston is pushed back by expansion of water in the cylinder to its former position. The scale and index are pro- tected by a tube screwed on to the cylinder, and the cylinder is protected from the risk of indentation by an outer tube. In an experimental instrument the packing-box has remained water-tight underthe appli- the piston; so that the isolation may be considered sufficiently perfect, as in actual use this pressure on water in the cylinder would be counterbalanced by the external pressure of the ocean. The packing-box is just large enough to admit the packing, which con- sists of vulcanized caoutchouc rings, stretched upon the piston, and consequently adhering closely to it. A moderate application of the packing-box screw presses these rings against the packing-box, and a perfect isolation of the water in the cylinder is thus obtained. A slight Jubrication of the rings, by the addition of a small quantity of lard between them, renders the amount of friction attending the motion of the piston very trifling. In ascertaining the pressure of water, the amount A—Cylinder. of friction overcome should be added to the com- p__Pp, pression recorded by the index, to obtain the total ¢_Opening in Tap for admission amount of pressure. Some portion of the diminu- of water. tion of bulk will probably be cccazioned by variation D—Opening in Tap for escape of of temperature, and which causes a greater variation air. in bulk at high temperature. As 4000 parts of sea- E—Packing-box. water at the temperature of 86° Fahrenheit, con- F—Packing-box Screw. tracted to 3987 parts at the temperature of 65°, G—Piston. 4 being ;}3;5 parts for 21°; while from the tempera- 5 hes of Se Pace ture of 65° to 35°, the diminution to 3977 parts ~ ceustenduder. was only at the rate of ;1°; parts for 30°,—the expansion and contraction of the cylinder by yariation of temperature counteract the variation of water to avery small extent, being about ;;4,5th parts for 40° Fahrenheit. ' The experimental instrument indicates a compression of about one part in 20,000 per atmosphere (estimated at 15 lbs.) at the temperature of 60° Fahrenheit. The experiments will be varied by the use of a glass bulb with a long stem, finely graduated, with a stopper of vulcanized caoutchouc, and in the tube an elastic ring which is pushed during compression by the stopper towards the bulb, and remains to mark the degree of compression. 204 REPORT—1860. On Road Locomotives. By the Earl of Caituness. The author referred to what had hitherto been done in this direction, and the importance of attention being given to the construction of them as feeders to the Railway system. He described the arrangement adopted in one which he had had built for his own use, and which was successful. The carriage was exhibited in action, and made several trips in the street under his Lordship’s guidance. In the discussion which took place, great stress was laid on the importance of Parliament reducing the turnpike tolls in respect of such carriages, which, in reality, were in no way injurious to the road, On Water Meters. By Davin Cuavwicx, Assoc. Inst. C.E., Manchester. After pointing out the defects in some of the water-meters at present in use, he described the high-pressure piston water-meter of Messrs. Chadwick and Frost, which obviated these defects, and secured the correct measurement of water at all pressutes and velocities of discharge, without the use of tumbling-levers, springs, or flexible diaphragms, by a more compact and simple arrangement than any other piston meter; but, without a diagram, it would be impossible to make its con- struction intelligible. A New Mode of obtaining a Blast of very High Temperature in the Manufacture of Iron. By E. Cowper. The blast is obtained by an adaptation of the principle of Siemens’s regenerative furnaces. A hot blast of a temperature of 1800° Fahrenheit can readily be obtained, and this without the destruction of iron tubes—-the substance used in contact with the air being the most refractory fire-brick. This mode of obtaining a blast was in successful operation at Messrs. Cochran’s iron-works. The temperature of the blast could be regulated to any required degree. The heat might be obtained with far greater economy than by any method hitherto known. The Cylindrical Spiral Boiler. By Joux Evver. {A communication ordered to be printed entire in the Transactions of the Sections.] The object of the construction of this boiler is to obtain a form with all the useful properties of the simple cylindrical high-pressure boiler on shore adapted to steam- ships. The following advantages appear to be attained over the ordinary marine boiler, namely :— 1. A form of boiler capable of carrying higher pressure, and presenting more heating surface, and of a more effective description from a given weight of material. 2. A boiler capable of being easier cleaned and repaired in both water and fire spaces. Wes A boiler capable of producing superheated steam to any practical temperature. 4. A less average specific gravity of water whilst working at sea with the usual amount of feed and blow-off, and a more perfect combustion chamber, and better formation of flue surface. 5. The pressures being altogether internal, the boiler is not liable to collapse, a danger lately ably demonstrated by Mr. Fairbairn ; and as the diameters of the various cylinders are reduced to the minimum size for permitting the tradesmen to pass through, clean and repair them, the boiler, when formed of ordinary thickness, possesses enormous strength without stays. 6. The expense of the boiler per square foot of heating surface is about the same as that of the ordinary boiler, and is capable of carrying five times the pressure.. The general construction_of this boiler is as shown in the accompanying plans, and as follows :— There are twenty-four round boilers or tubes, of not less than nineteen inches in diameter, twenty-two of these forming, when bound together, a cylindrical vertical shell; the twenty-third, a centre boiler concentric to that shell; and the twenty- fourth, a spiral coil-boiler winding spirally round between the centre boiler and those es a TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 205 composing the circumference shell: these boilers contain the water, and the spaces between them the fire. The feed water passes first into the spiral compartment, or No. 24, and from it into the centre compartment, or No. 23, and then into each in rotation, and blows off at the last compartment, or No. 1, thus rendering the water in No. 24 nearly pure sea-water, and gradually from compartment to compartment more dense, till it blows off at No. 1 at the usual density, and thus makes the average specific gravity of the water less than usual. The twenty-two outside boilers are 24 feet long, 19 inches diameter, and 55; of an inch thick; the bottom ends are conical for 3 feet, and kneed outwardly to give a larger diameter of furnace, say 12 feet diameter. There is a furnace-door for every alternate tube, or say, eleven furnace-doors, equally divided round the base of the boiler, giving great facility to the firemen for doing their work efficiently. In firing it is proposed to charge all the fresh coal round the circumference of the fire, in order that the hydrogen of the coal may be consumed separately from the carbon; and as the furnace has great altitude, the combustion will be completed in vertical flames from the coals, and will thus prevent the carbonic acid gas, given out from the com- bustion of the carbon, coming so much in contact with and preventing the com- bustion of the hydrogen, as is usual in ordinary furnaces. The centre compartment, or No, 23, is 30 feet long, 34 inches diameter, and 2 of an inch thick, with 3 feet at the bottom and top, conically reduced to 18 inches diameter, forming a man-hole door; the upper end of this vertical tube forms a reservoir for the steam of the whole twenty-four compartments, and acts as a super- heating apparatus, and may be carried up the funnel to the extent necessary to superheat the steam to 400 degrees; the steam-pipe is taken from the top of this boiler to the safety-valve chest, fastened on the front of the boiler low down, which serves as a water-trap during the discharge from the safety-valve chest, the steam- pipe to the engines being taken off the same pipe at a higher level than the escape steam. The spiral compartment, or No. 24, is about 100 feet long, 34 inches diameter, and 2 of an inch thick, made of best iron boiler plate ; the ends are conical for 3 feet, formed into man-hole doors; this spiral boiler makes four or five con- volutions close round the centre one, and is bound close to the circumferential boilers by hollow stay-bolts, and fastened to the centre one at each end only ; in the same manner the steam and water flow through the whole boiler by these hollow stay-bolts or rivets, and complete the entire circulation of water and steam; the whole of these twenty-four compartments or boilers terminate at the bottom, about 1 foot below the fire-grate, and are supported on six stanchions from the ash-pit beneath, making a free passage for the air under the great bar; the circumferential compartments or boilers terminate at the top 6 feet above the ship’s deck, and have each a man-hole door forming the cover; the funnel is made conical at the bottom to embrace the internal diameter of the boiler-shell and draw off the smoke in the usual manner: this completes the whole boiler proper; but in order to prevent radiation of heat, a thin outer casing of iron is made (9 inches) clear of the boiler all round, terminating about 7 feet from the stoke-hole floor ; and above, at the level of the galley or funnel-house, this casing is lined with felt and thin wood to keep the deck and the adjacent parts cool, and retain the heat. The twenty-two straight cylindrical boilers or compartments are constructed in the sides by four plates 24 feet long and 16 inches broad, rolled to a 93-inch radius curve at the iron works, leaving no plate setting for the boiler maker of this description. The plates of Loiler No. 24, or the spiral compartment, are delivered flat by the iron-maker, and are bent to the spiral curve by one blow of a large spiral concave block falling upon a counterpart convex one, prepared by the constructors of the boiler. This operation has been found to simplify the making of this spiral cylin- drical boiler to about the same amount as the straight cylindrical boilers. The conical ends are bent in the same manner as the spiral plates,‘and the whole work of plate bending is reduced as far as possible to machine work. The products of com- bustion, after leaving the furnace, have to travel spirally upwards a distance of 100 feet, and must of necessity be continually rotating during that time, and prevent the possibility of any portion passing off without being brought frequently in contact with the heating surface of the boiler; and will therefore be cooled down to the 206 REPORT—1860. minimum temperature compatible with a given amount of cooling surface, or the greatest quantity of heat extracted from the products of combustion, before their escape to the atmosphere. The soot forming usually inside of boilers will not be so injurious in this arrangement, as it will fall down through the external crevices, and also between the spiral and the centre boilers into the furnace below, and be thrown overboard with the ashes. This spiral coil and all the heating surfaces will keep more clear of flue dust than usual, and will consequently be more efficient in that respect, as well as save the usual trouble and loss by sponging experienced in the ordinary tubular boilers at sea. Also as the products of combustion must pass off at the rate of at least 7 feet per second in this as in the ordinary boilers, it will take upwards of 14 seconds from the time it leaves the furnace till it arrives at the top of the boiler; whilst if the boiler were of the ordinary tubular type, it would pass in about two seconds along the whole heating surface of the boiler; the gas has therefore seven times more time to give out its heat, and its revolving tendency will not admit of the same strata of gas passing along the passages after it is cooled down, as is the case with the ordinary boiler, but will bring the hot products of combustion usually occupying the centre of the tubes of a tubular boiler in contact with the cooling surfaces, and reduce the whole products of combustion to one temperature before entering the chimney. In cleaning the salt or sludge out of these boilers, the man- and sludge-hole doors are taken off the top and bottom (and the hose with fresh water may be played down through from the top, and the refuse run out at the bottom). ‘lhe man in charge can also pass down through the whole boiler, the dimensions necessary for this pur- pose being made the minimum and maximum of the various compartments of the boiler; and are specially constructed to maintain to the engines steam at much higher pressure than usual, in order to admit of a much larger amount of expansion to be developed by the engines, which are all on the double cylinder expansive prin- ciple. The constructors are now making the boilers for three steam-ships on this principle, two of which are for carrying Her Majesty’s mails on the Pacific between Valparaiso and Panama (as described by the writer at the meeting of the British Association at Leeds); and it has long been his desire to be able to construct boilers for marine purposes without stays, and with no surface exposed to the collapsing tendency, which in so many cases has been the cause of loss of life aboard of steam- ships. The boilers now described have no large flat surfaces and no stays, the whole tendency of the pressures being to inflate the boiler plates, and, if possible, to give them a stronger form; the smallest diameter is large enough to give access to the men in charge, and the largest diameter 34 inches and 3 thick,—dimensions that can carry several hundred pounds pressure on the square inch before rupture could take place. Such a form the writer adopts, with great satisfaction to himself, as a con- structor sending machinery abroad, where the usual form of boiler gives him consi- derable anxiety. In comparing the construction of this boiler with that of the ordinary tubular one, in the latter angle-iron ribs and stays now compose a large portion of the weight and expense; contribute no heating surfaces; and if one stay breaks, which is not an uncommon occurrence, the next is placed in great danger ; and if it gives way, the whole may follow in rotation, and a serious accident be the result. In the former boiler, however, the plates may be reduced to a very small amount of thickness by tear and wear before explosion could be expected. Having thus described the objects of the spiral boiler, it may not be out of place to give the following statement of the comparative evaporative power and temperatures of the gases in the furnace and chimney of the spiral boiler, with three of the ordi- nary types of boiler now in general use. Fig. 1 is a vertical section of the cylindrical spiral boilers as fitted on board the Pacific Royal Mail Company’s steam-ships ‘San Carlos’ and ‘ Guayaquil,’ by Messrs. Randolph, Elder, &c. Fig. 2 is a sectional plan of the same, taken near the level of the water-line in fig. 1. Fig. 3 is a vertical elevational view of the same— the exterior casings which surround the circumferential vertical tubes (and which are shown in figs. 1 and 2) being in this view removed. It will be seen from these figures that there are in these boilers 21 tubes in all, viz. 19 circumferential vertical tubes, 1 central and 1 spiral tube. The three types experimented upon were, first, a common cylindrical land boiler —) =" = TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 207 (figs. 1, 2, and 3) 33 feet long, 5 feet Ginches diameter, with two round flues 19 inches diameter through the centre ; this boiler had 40 feet of heating surface to the nominal horse-power of the engine: the two flues contained 20 feet, and the shell 20 feet per nominal horse-power ; the furnace was below the boiler at the fore-end, had a fire-grate of 26 square feet; the fire passed underneath the boiler to the opposite end from the furnace, and returned along the sides, and then passed back again through the flues to the chimney. The temperature above the centre of the fire was found to be, upon one occasion, 3200°; at the top of the bridge 1730°; the temperature of the gases Fig. 1. ; Fig. 2. 58 — a = SS EE =6\=—b2—s5s—B-— Ba deel tee Bay NESS gradually reduced as they passed back the remaining length of 26 feet under the boiler and along the side flues, till they entered the centre flues at 1163°, and left them at about 800°. Thus the furnace containing a surfece of 2 feet per nominal horse-power reduced the heat about 1500°; the shell of the boiler behind the furnace, of about 18 feet per nominal horse-power, reduced the temperature about 600°; and the flues containing a surface of 20 feet per nominal horse-power reduced the tem- perature about 350°. The temperatures of the gases in the flues were found to be about the same in the centre as at the top; but at the bottom of the flue the tempe- ratures of the gases were at the fore-end rather less than at the top, but towards the Fig. 4. Fig. 5. _ back end the temperature of the bottom of the flues reduced gradually below the temperature at the top to the extent of 300°. Upon another occasion the tempe- rature over the centre of the fire was found to be 3610°; at the top of the bridge 1739°; and the different temperatures of the flues were as indicated in fiz. 1, where the average temperatures of the flues at B‘=$26°, B’= 879°, B’= 937°, B'= 959°, and at B’ = 981°. Thetemperatures at the top of the flues at C? = 982, at C' = 1034°, at C?=1087. The temperatures at the bottom of the flues at A’= 571°, A? = 603°, A? = 678°, At=764°, A°=822°. It would therefore appear that, notwithstanding the large amount of surface in this boiler, the evaporative power is very inferior, as 208 REPORT—1860. \ the amount of heat taken out of the gases per square foot of heating surface is very small; and that the natural conclusion is that the gases pass along in straight lines, and only the thin stratum in contact with the surface is cooled down. In the results of the spiral boiler (fig. 6) three times the quantity of heating surface was found to reduce six times the quantity of gas from the same temperature of 3200°, to a tem- perature of 4800 instead of 800°, showing that a more complete turning over of the gases is much wanted in our land boilers. The water evaporated per hour in the land boiler referred to was found by meter to be 2000 lbs., and the coal, best Glasgow quality, found to be 300 lbs. per hour; making about 62 lbs. of water per pound of coal. During the measuring of the water evaporated by the meter, indicator diagrams of the engine were taken with a view to cal- culate the weights of steam by the ordinary method, and the calculations were found to agree with the meter; these calculations can be repeated and substantiated at any time. The second type of boiler tested was that of the ordinary steam-boat horizontal tubular boiler (fig. 4); the example chosen was one in a first-class ocean steamer; the temperature of the furnace was found to be 3200°, and the inside of the funnel about 1100°. The heating surface of this boiler was 22 feet per nominal horse-power, and the water evaporated about 83 lbs. per pound of coal, according to the calculation from the diagrams. The coal consumed was about 20 lbs. per square foot of fire-grate, of the best Glasgow coal. The next example taken was that of a first-class ver- tical tubular boiler (fig. 5), on Mr. David Napier’s principle, now universally selected on the Clyde for river steamers. This boiler had a surface of about 22 feet per nominal horse-power; the temperature of the fire was found to be about 3300°, and in the funnel 1160°; the weight of water evaporated was found by calculation to be 83 lbs. per pound of coal consumed, and the weight of combustion about twenty pounds square foot of fire-grate. In the spiral boiler (fig. 6) of the ‘San Carlos,’ ‘ Guayaquil,’ and ‘ Prinz van Orange’ the boilers were found to give the following peculiar results :—first, that even with Scotch coal there was no smoke emitted from the chimney, and no carelessness on the part of the fireman seemed to occasion the formation of smoke ; second, that the boilers showed a bright furnace, indicating first-class draught; the temperature of the funnel was found to be 480°, whilst the fire was at its greatest energy. ‘he heating surface was, in the case of the ‘San Carlos’ and ‘ Guayaquil,’ 2200 square feet, the coal consumed 1400 lbs. per hour, and the water evaporated 11 Ibs. per pound of coal consumed; the fire-grate contained about 76 square feet, and the rate of combustion about twenty pounds per square foot of fire-grate. The heating surface of the boiler was 18 feet per, nominal horse-power ; the coal consumed was Glasgow best steam coal. The stoke-hole was found to be remarkably cool, and the boiler, which was loaded to 52 lbs. on the square inch steam pressure, and tested to 150 lbs. on the square inch water pressure, was found to be perfectly tight. In the case of the ‘ San Carlos,’ I may mention that that ship has now steamed about 20,000 miles, and the vessel has not been in any one port more than three days ; during that time she has been consuming soft Chili coal for a considerable part of her voyage, and the merits of the long flue show a decided advantage in this boiler over the ordinary tubular boiler for the native bituminous coal of South America. In order to give a more extended form of the comparative evaporative power of various flues and tubular boilers, the writer begs to lay before this Association the accompanying Table. It shows several proportions of heating surface and evapora- tive powers of several ships that have come under his notice. He can certify the accuracy of most of these particulars, except that shown in the last column, which is taken from Professor Rankine’s report on the performance of the ‘Thetis.’ This vessel has about six times more heating surface in her boilers in proportion to the coal consumed, than any example the writer is aware of. The boiler is Craddock’s patent boiler, though that inventor’s name appears rarely to be mentioned in con- i TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 209 nexion with the said vessel. Efficient, however, as this boiler must be as an evapo- rator, it cannot possibly accomplish the quantity shown in this Table. The theoretical quantity of water capable of being heated from 90°, and evaporated at, say 212°, with an infinite quantity of heating surface and a perfect fire, is some- where about 133 lbs. per pound of coal; whilst from the diagrams represented in Professor Rankine’s report of the ‘Thetis’ performance, 18 lbs. weight appear to a be about the quantity of water per pound of coal. This calculation I have made from the diagrams published, and any party interested may repeat the calculations. The calculation is made as follows : the area of the large cylinder, as shown in the diagram, is 1380 square inches, or 9°583 square feet. The four revolutions of piston marked on the diagram 493, 52, 53, and 52 revolutions per minute, with a stroke of 23 feet, or say 258°12 feet per minute, gives 258°12 X 9°583 X 60=146433 cubic feet per hour. And if we take the average pressure shown in the four diagrams at the end of the piston stroke, supposing the barometer to be 14°5 lbs., we find the weight of that steam to be about 44 cubic feet per pound: this number therefore, divided by 44, gives the quantity of steam as 3300 pounds per hour; to this must be added 2'> for contents of ports and clearance, which makes 3465 pounds of steam. This clearly gives the weight of the steam per hour given out of the cylinders after the work is performed, to this therefore must be added the quantity of heat that must have disappeared during the performance of the work; this, in the case of the ‘Thetis,’ is about + of the entire heat; we must therefore add +, or say 3465-+693=4158 pounds of water must have been raised from a temperature of about 100° and evaporated, or say 18 lbs. of water to the pound of coal said to be consumed ; this result is about equal to 20 lbs of water evaporated at 212°, to the pound of coal consumed; a quantity quite absurd. Comparisons of certain Results obtained fram Certified Diagrams of Steamers ‘Elk,’ ‘ Earl of Aberdeen,’ ‘ Valparaiso,’ ‘ Pride of Erin,’ ‘ Inka,’ ‘ Europa,’ ‘ Cambrian,’ and ‘ Thetis.’ areas Tec’ oe OS a —- t Elk. yo Velbig P ride cf Inka. | Europa.| Cambrian, Thetis. Nominal H.P. ......... 250 380 320 | 400 | 80 648 472 80 Indicated ditto ......... 780 780 826 | 960 | 272 {1207 | 1072 226 Proportion of indicated H.P. to nominal II.P. 3°28 2°05 2581; 2:4 | 3:8 1:863| 2°272 a 2°82 i. : ft F Two 52) | wo { |T'wo 28 ? ne 21 Diameter of Cylinder... 57in. | 7 Oin. { Two 90 | 72{ Two 48\ 7 20 775 One 42 L 5 ft. 6 in. 6ft. 5ft. |5ft.6in.| 3ft. 8ft. | 7ft. Gin. 2ft. Gin. Number of Strokes per MBTMITIUCE ........esseceseee 25 175 24 Ze ae 153 16 52 F ‘B oilers, Flue or Tubular} Tubular. Flue. Flue. | Flue, | Flue. | Flue. | Flue. ete rs fe Area of Fire-grate...... 144ft. 190ft. | 130ft.| 252 50 314 247 2 ea of Heating Surface 4000 4300 2400 | 4400 | 480 | 7000 | 5400 About 4000 Coals consumed per hr.) 3360lbs. 3584 2520 | 4928 | 672 | 5100 | 4480 226 Quality of Coal .........|Glasgow best.|Newcastle.| Welsh. | Welsh. | Welsh. |Welsh.| Welsh. Good. ‘Steam evaporated per Mlb. of Coal ............ 7354 6°87 774 | 7159] 81 ah 7509 |15 Ibs. about. Estimate, water evapo- EU isos assccce ves 81 74 8-6 79 9:0 8°5 8°3 18]bs. Voal consumption per indicated H.P.......... 4071 4:358 | 3:05 | 5°126] 2:47 | 4:2 4:17 1:018 fire-grate per nominal MEE Etecieoscesesceee Coeceee 576 5) 406] *63 625] 484] 536 It therefore appears that in the report referred to, the indicated power of the said diagrams may be correct, but the coals said to be consumed per indicated horse- _ power per hour, namely 1°08, must be wrong ; and before a proper comparison could be established between the merits of the ‘ Thetis’ ’ boiler and that of any other boiler, a correct trial of the former would be necessary. In the mean time we have but to 1860. 14 210 REPORT—1860. consider that the report of Professor Rankine was based upon one hour’s consumption of say 230 lbs. of coal, and compare that with a mass of boiler, water and firebrick, weighing 20 tons, at a temperature of say 300°, it is evident that the mass of heat in proportion to the coal consumed is so great, that no conclusion should be made from such an experiment; also, that when the quantity of coal said to be consumed, viz. 230 lbs., is compared with area of fire-grate, say 40 square feet, it is evident that the result should not be depended upon, as no ordinary comparisons could be made of the condition of the fires before and after the experiment. In conclusion, let me ask of every party present to consider the trial trips of steam-ships and boilers in their true lights, and before drawing any inferences from such short trials, make a perusal of results obtained from sea voyages. The evaporative power and economy of boilers is one of the most important subjects for this Society to consider. We need only refer to the able Report drawn up by the Steam Shipping Committee of the British Association, to show how mixed up the question of the relative efficiency of the boiler and engines is generally considered. Indeed the American navy returns form the only reports showing the evaporative power of the boilers in this list, and the whole merit of a good evaporating boiler is often sacrificed to the cha- racter of the engines. With regard to the ‘ Thetis,’ I would recommend any mistake to be remedied as soon as possible, as there are many contracts, involving much responsibility, formed in consequence of this report, that will lead to serious loss and disappointment to the steam-shipping interest, and the engineering profession of this country. On the Density of Saturated Steam, and on the Law of Expansion of Super- heated Steam. By WiivtAM Farrearry, LL.D., F.RS. §c. This ee contained a continuation of the experiments detailed in a paper read by My. Fairbairn at the Aberdeen Meeting, and which had been carried on in con- junction with Mr. Tate. Experimental determinations had been obtained of the density of steam fully confirming the anticipations of Mr. Thomson and Mr, Ran- kine, that the vapour of water does not exactly obey the gaseous laws. They show that the density of saturated steam is always greater than that given by the gaseous laws, even for temperatures as low as 136° Fahr., and at pressures below that of the atmosphere. The experiments at present extend over a range of temperature from 186° Fahr. to 292°, or from 2°6 to GO Ibs. pressure per square inch, The general result obtained is expressed in the following formule, which closely agrees with the experiments, 49513 v=25'62+ Pp— 7 6 8 ee iy ol) Sa erie (.) 49513 iP => ——_—_, — 0:72 ’ ‘ ‘ cece ‘ ’ . . , 2. oe. Ce where v is the specific volume or ratio of the volume of the steam to that of the water which produced it, at the pressure P, expressed in inches of mercury. On the subject of superheating steam, the experiments throw some light, which _ the author hopes to follow up by a special series of experiments. They show that within a short distance of the maximum temperature of saturation the rate of ex- pansion is variable, being higher than that of a perfect gas near the saturation point, and rapidly decreasing, till at a point at no great distance above the temperature of saturation it becomes sensibly identical with that of a perfect gas, On an Atmospheric Washing Machine. By Joun Fisuer. The action of this machine was derived from streams of air forced through the water from below. The author in his paper observed, that for effectual use the water must never be of a higher temperature than 140° of Fahrenheit. It was stated that machines on this principle, driven by steam-power, had been for some time ast in successful overation for cleansing the soiled laces at Messrs, Fishers’ manu- actory at Nottingham, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 211 On Giffard’s Injector for Feeding Boilers. By WitttaM Froupe. In this instrument a jet of steam taken from the boiler and issuing from a pro- perly tapered orifice, is met by and enveloped in a regulated supply of water, either cold or of limited temperature. The column formed by the combination of water and steam is made to impinge on the aperture of a similarly tapered orifice, of rather smaller area, connected with the feed-pipe; and penetrating this orifice, it flows in a continuous stream into the boiler. The rationale seems to be as follows :—were it possible to condense such a jet of steam by a simple abstraction of temperature, it would collapse into a jet of water having only ;5;th of its previous sectional area, its particles, however, retaining the same weight and velocity, and therefore the same momentum for each unit of time which they had possessed as steam. And since the momentum of a jet is the exact dynamic equivalent of the pressure which produces it, this water-jet would possess a momentum equal to that of a jet of equal diameter taken from a boiler having 1700 times the pressure of that from which itself had issued as steam, and wouid be capable of penetrating a boiler having a pressure enlarged almost in the same proportion. In the injector the water which is added condenses the steam and becomes incor- porated with it, forming a compound jet which possesses for each unit of time the same momentum which the jet of steam possessed. And if the supply of water be duly regulated, the sectional area of the compound jet may be precisely adapted to the orifice of the feed-pipe. Now were that orifice equal in area to the steam-jet orifice, and were a jet of water allowed to issue from it under the same pressure which discharged the steam, the water-jet would have the same momentum for each unit of time as the steam-jet had, and therefore as the compound jet derived from it; and the two would precisely neutralize one another when brought into opposition. If, however, the steam-jet orifice be the larger of the two, then the jet derived from it, if reduced by condensation to the diameter of the smaller, will be the stronger in the same proportion, since it will possess the momentum due to the larger area of pressure ; it will therefore drive back the water which is striving to escape from the feed-pipe, and will pass as a continuous stream into the boiler. The water supply is considered to be correctly adjusted when the passage takes place without an overflow of steam or water; but the test is deceptive; for an over- flow of steam merely implies that the supply of water is barely sufficient to condense the steam into a jet as small in section as the feed-pipe orifice ; an overflow of water merely implies that though the steam is fully condensed, the supply of water has enlarged the compound jet to a section exceeding that of the feed-pipe orifice. In reality the operation should be brought as near as possible to the latter limit ; for though it will indeed seem to be proceeding quietly and properly in all the inter- mediate stages, it will be found that the compound jet, when not so enlarged as to fill the feed-pipe orifice, possessing its full momentum in a smaller section, will have energy enough to take up with it and carry into the boiler a considerable quantity of air, wasting thus not only its own power, but in a high degree that of the engine also, when it is a condensing one, since it encumbers the air-pump with extra duty. On a Process for covering Submarine Wires with India-rubber for Telegraphic purposes. By WavteR Hatt. The author exhibited a model of his machine, which effected the object by wind- ing strips of rubber, and moistening the same with naphtha during the process of covering ; the wire thus formed being covered with a thread of vulcanized India- rubber, and the whole afterwards subjected to a temperature of 140°. The wires thus covered were protected with a plaited covering of hempen cord, into which longitudinal steel wires were introduced for the purpose of giving strength, Suggestions relative to Inland Navigation. By Professor Hennessy, F.R.S, The fact that the forces operating in canal and river navigation are so different 14.* 912 REPORT—1860. from those of sea navigation, shows that a totally different construction may be adopted for the vessels employed. The short heavy barges with clumsily rounded bows and broad sterns should be entirely abandoned. Boats of very great length, compared to their breadth cf beam, may be used for canals with considerable economy of power in proportion to the cargo. The highest perfection of lines may thus be attained so as to secure the smallest amount of resistance to motion, and the least disturbing effect to the canal banks. For this object also a selection might be made among the varieties of the screw propeller, which would obviate any lateral disturb- ance of the water and drive it backwards rather than sideways. In some cases the above suggestion as to the shape of boats could not be realized without lengthening locks, and wherever these are numerous, jointed vessels, like those proposed for the Indian rivers, might be employed. The loss of water in passing locks would be the same as fora train of entirely separate boats, while the resistance to propulsion would be considerably less. Steam-propelled boats thus constructed would proba- bly realize the twofold result of economy in power and increase of speed to the highest limit advisable for traffic in heavy goods. On the Longitudinal Stress of the Plaie Girder. By Catcorr REILty. On Suggestions for an Electro-Magnetic Railway Break. By Dr. B. W. Ricuarpson. On the Character and Comparative Value of Gutta Percha and India- rubber employed as Insulators for Subaqueous Telegraphic Wires. By S. W. Sitver. After pointing out some of the mistakes prevalent on the subject of the insula- ting properties of india-rubber, a comparison was made by the writer between the relative advantages and the insulating power of india-rubber and gutta percha respectively. Insulation in the case of a submarine cable depends upon two causes or properties of the bodies used:—1. The specific non-conducting power of the substance ; 2. its impermeability, by which the original insulating conditions may be maintained. The insulating power of gutta percha is very high; but, in the case of a submarine telegraph cable, its porosity renders it a very imperfect insulator in practice. India-rubber, with lower specific insulating properties (as would appear from experiments made in dry air), is, nevertheless, practically a far more efficient insulator, by reason of its complete impermeability, while in addition it ossesses a lower inductive capacity. It was pointed out that impermeability is as important a question as specific non-conductility in an insulator of such cables; and that even if a substance could be found insulating perfectly in dry air, it still might in practice be of questionable utility for submarine lines, owing to its porosity, as was the case with gutta percha. There was now no difliculty in covering wires with india-rubber. On Improvements in Iron Ship-building. By W. Simons. Diagonal Beams.—Each range of beams is placed in the reverse diagonal direction to the range of beams, above or below it, so that collectively the vessel’s beams con- stitute a complete system of horizontal diagonal trussing. Fore and aft along the middle of each range of beams are riveted strong iron clamps; and along the centre of the ’tween decks are secured in long lengths along the inside of the frames, strong, angle, back-to-back iron clamps. For these beams, various degrees of obliquity may be adopted; but the angle chosen by the author (re- presented in a plan which was exhibited) will probably best answer the combined purpose of a beam and diagonal truss. It is a well-known fact that the beams, as at present placed, do not prevent the straining of a vessel, but merely form a connexion between the vessel’s sides and a framework to support the deck. ; The hatchways and mast partners are framed in the usual manner, and the masts are wedged on both the upper and lower decks, ae TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 913 The decks may be laid also diagonally in a reverse direction to the beams, and may be edge-bolted throughout and made of hard wood. This system of decks, by which the objectional butts are entirely avoided, is more particularly adapted for 4 or 5-decked battle-ships, where the strain from the weight of the guns and action of propeller is found to strain and twist them so much. Iron Waterways are formed in the following manner. Every iron beam is made with a vertical projection on its upper edge at both ends; this projection is about 7 inches deep and 20 to 40 inches broad, according to the tonnage of the vessel. On the upper edge of these projections are riveted double-angle iron. On the front or bosom of these projections is riveted, in long lengths along the beams, heavy angle-iron, say 6+5. Over this are then placed the plates which form the waterway ; these are rounded over on their inside edge, which is riveted to the heavy angle-iron inside ; the top of the plate is double riveted down to the double angle-iron on each beam end: the outer edge is riveted to the angle-iron along the sheer strake, where it is securely iron-caulked. Round any angle-iron frames necessary to project through the waterway is fitted exactly a doubling piece, which is securely caulked round the frame. The usual iron stringer and wood water-ways are thus superseded, and this iron water-way, it is submitted, forms a serviceable and complete box gunwale. The beam-end projections form also stronger and improved knee fastenings, par- ticularly to the upper part of the beam, where hitherto in iron vessels such a knee has not yet been adopted, although considered essential in timber vessels. In fact, for the convenience of stowage and passengers’ berths, the knee or the under side of all iron beams on this principle might be dispensed with. Of course, this waterway can be adopted with either diagonal beams or common beams. Plating diagonally with two thicknesses of plate, each in the reverse diagonal direction to the other, or with one thickness in combination with frames arranged in the reverse diagonal direction. In the former case, both thicknesses of plating will be riveted together, and the butts arranged to make shifts with cach other; by this mode of construction the present vertical frames become unnecessary, and even the keel not essential. In place of these are substituted, in long lengths, internal longitudinal stringers, clamps and keelsons, about 5 feet asunder; these would have the advantage over the present internal longitudinal fastenings, of being fitted and secured directly to the skin of the fabric through which they may be fastened every 3 inches; by this system it is not requisite that the plate butts be more securely riveted than the rest of the external skin, as it will be evident that such a vessel could not break asunder at the butts or vertical joints like a postage-stamp, as was described in the case of many late wrecks of iron ships constructed on the present mode. Timber vessels of 2000 tons have been planked on. this principle with complet success. Keelsons made in the following manner have greater strength as a backbone, and the necessary rigidity to receive the thrust of diagonai central hold stanchions or trusses. Every floor, or alternate floor, is made to project up in the middle in the form of a square. Round these projections are fixed angle-iron, to which the upper and side plates of the keelson are secured in the form of abox. Bilge and sister keelsons may be also formed on the same principle. The keelson required by Lloyds for their highest classed iron vessel, has only four rivets to secure it to the top of each floor ; consequently, when by accident the strength _of the bottom is tested, these rivets of course break, leaving the strength of the floors and keelson as a backbone untested, while with the above improved keelson, the floors are so well fastencd to the keelson, that they must break before the keelson will yield. Diagonal Central Hold Stanchions or Trusses.—in place of the common vertical hold and ’tween-deck pillars or stanchions in two lengths at present in use in wood and iron vessels, most of which are made portable, and intended merely for the sup- port of the deck, the inventor forms, from stem to stern, a range of diagonal trussing in bars of one length, the joint object of which is to strengthen he fabric and sup- port the deck, 914 REPORT—1860. These trusses are placed to cross each other in a reverse diagonal direction, so as to resist either a tensional or compressive strain; they are made of 5 X 2 flat iron, are securely riveted above to every second or fourth upper deck-beam, and below, a butt on, and are secured to the upper side of the keelson. They are riveted together at their points of intersection, and where they cross the line of the old beams, a double central back-to-back 7 X 6 angle-iron clamp is riveted to every truss and beam. If desired, a similar angle-iron clamp may be riveted along at the junction of their upper extremities with deck beams. The angle of these stanchions is about 60°, that being found best suited to the convenience of the hatch arrangement. The hatchways and masts can easily be left clear. It is submitted, these stanchions form a central range of diagonal trussing at a part of a vessel requiring support, and which hitherto has not had such; they will be of great service in connecting together two strong frameworks, namely a vessel’s bottom, and her upper deck platform. The writer also places the diagonal stanchion in athwartship direction; this he has found reduces vibration in steamers, besides clearing the screw-shaft. On these principles of construction, the writer’s firm have nearly completed at Glasgow a 900-ton iron Indiaman, named ‘The R. Mackenzie ;’ and he is glad to state that the result of such practice has more than realized the expectation formed from the theory; and respecting the element of expense, he finds that such a vessel costs £2000 less than a Thames or Mersey-built timber ship of the same size and class. Plate Butt Frames.—In an iron vessel plated in the common manner, the writer uses butt-frames. In the place of the usual mode of securing the vertical joints of the external plating on an iron internal strop between the frames, they are secured upon a frame in the following manner. There is bent round the exterior of every alternate angle-iron frame, a long continuous plate of some breadth and thickness, as the ordinary butt-strop ; this plate is punched before being fixed to the frame ; the plate-butts or vertical joints are then arranged to be riveted only on this continuous butt-frame. If longer outside plating be desired, every third frame may be constructed as a butt-frame. If preferred, the continuous butt-strop may be placed between the frames, in one length, from keel to gunwale. By either of these modes of securing the butts of common plates, no short butt- strops are required, and it is evident that a vessel having her butts or vertical joints so secured, is greatly increased in point of strength, and that there is little or no liability to break asunder at those points, Ceiling.—For the purpose of increasing the strength of iron vessels, the ceiling from the bilge keelson up to the gunwale is made of angle-iron or flat iron in one Jength placed diagonally and from 12 in. to 10 ft. apart, tailing from the centre of the vessel to the extremities. The port side of a ship being reverse to the starboard side, these diagonal ceiling bars are riveted to the reverse angle-iron of every frame, and their extremities secured to the gunwale angle-iron and bilge keelson. These iron ceiling side trusses, in conjunction with my centrai range of stanchion trussing, yield great strength without occupying space, and both can be adopted with advantage in timber vessels and in battle-ships. If preferred, these diagonal ceiling bars may be of wood in iron vessels. Tron Masts.—The writer plates iron masts and spars diagonally from top to bottom, the plates winding round the entire length and riveted together. He also forms an iron mast of diagonal spiral lattice-work riveted together at their points of inter- section. If desired, such a mast may be stayed transversely in its interior throughout. The writer also fixes winches to iron masts, with their spindles through the sides of the mast, the aperture required for such spindles being compensated by an internal doubling plate. War Ships.—Between the seams of the external planks of wood battle-ships exposed to shot, the writer inserts iron or steel plates, in thickness from 1 to 2 inches, and in breadth the entire thickness of the planks to which they are secured ; these being in long lengths, are bolted vertically to the planks above and below them, and TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 215 besides increasing the strength of the vessel, will form a resistance to shot or shell : they may be placed from 6 or 8 inches asunder. In wood battle-ships, he also fastens along the interior sides of their gun decks, vertical iron plates, from 1} to 23 inches thick, close secured and bolted through the side. Such are for the purpose of resisting the shot after it has spent its force in penetrating the external wood side. For the same purpose, he places fore and aft along the interior of the gun decks of wood battle-ships, angled metal shields, the apex of each being in the centre line of the gun ports, and bolted there through the side of the ship: where the upper and lower edges of these shield plates join the beams above and below, they are strongly bolted to the beams and to each other. In an iron battle-ship or ram, he builds the side of the hull above water and plates it with 2 or 23-inch thick iron or steel. Outside of this he timbers, planks, fastens, and caulks the wood side of a battle-ship, not for the purpose of strength, but for a resisting medium, in which a common ball may spend its force before coming into contact with the internal angle- plated shields, which it is submitted will then turn aside the ball from penetrating into the interior. These angled shields answer also for beam knees, the weight and cost of which may be dispensed with. It is submitted, that owing to such angled shields, the reduced thickness of shield plates protected by the timber side, the diagonal arrangements of four tiers of beams, and the central diagonal trussings, an iron battle ram so constructed would have less displacement, greater strength, more buoyancy, greater speed, and be more credit- able to the engineering science of this country than those now building at an expense of 11 million, the designs of which were not thrown open to public competition, although the Exhibition building, St. George’s Hall, and some of the first engineer- ing structures in England, are the result of such a course. A Novel Means to lessen the frightful Loss of Life round our exposed Coasts by rendering the Element itself an Inert Barrier against the Power of the Sea; also a Permanent Deep-water Harbour of Refuge by Artifi- cial Bars. By Admiral Taytor. On Street Railways as used in the United States, illustrated by a Model of a Tramway and Car, or Omnibus capable of conveying sixty persons. By G. F. Train, of Boston, U.S.A. In America such a car is drawn by a pair of horses. The tramway is laid in the centre of the street, and the rail is so shallow that it offers no obstruction whatever to carriages crossing it. In wide streets two such tracks are laid down, one for the going and the other for the returning traffic. Mr. T. stated that in the cities of America the system was in constant use, and was now an absolute neces- sity there. He saw no difficulty in carrying out the system in our English towns or in London. Where there were inclines, an extra horse would be used ; and where a street was not wide enough for two tracks, he would put down asingle track there, and bring the trafic back by a line laid in a parallel street. He had received a concession to bring out his system in Birkenhead, and he hoped by September to be able to show itin operation there. All he required was leave from the authorities in any town to lay down his trams and run his carriages. On a Mode of covering Wires with India-rubber. By Messrs. WERNER and C. W. SIEMENS. The authors exhibited a very ingenious machine for accomplishing this object. These gentlemen use no solvent or heat whatever, but take advantage of the pro- perty which india-rubber possesses of forming a perfect junction when newly-cut surfaces are brought together under pressure. The core or wire, with the ribbon of rubber applied to it longitudinally, is pushed into an orifice, which serves as a guide to carry them into the machine, so that the superfluous rubber is cut off by what may be termed a revolving pair of scissors, formed by a disc of steel with a sharp edge revolving excentrically against a stationary plate, and immediately, by 216 REPORT—1860. means of two grooved wheels, the edges are pressed together, and thus the wire becomes encased in a perfect tube of india-rubber. As many additional tubes as may be desired can be then ee on. The machine is also applicable to the coat- ing of wires with what is known as Wray’s Compound, with yulcanized India- rubber and other compound substances containing India-rubber. APPENDIX. PuHysIoLoey. On the Deglutition of Alimentary Fluids. By Professor J. H. Consett, M.D. In this paper the author describes two distinct forms of deglutition ; that while the alimentary bolus is propelled with rapidity over the epiglottis, fluids can flow in two streams, one at each side of the epiglottis and of the aryteno-epiglottic folds, without the danger incidental to its passage over the central aperture of the larynx. He believes that such occurs in the newly-born infant and mammal during suction ; it can take place in the sipping of fluids, swallowing of the saliva, and even during drinking in a continuous Speake. Ordinary drinking is accomplished by gentle muscular movements, which should not be confounded with the gulping of fluids. In gulping, the fluid is rapidly and forcibly propelled backwards through the isthmus of the fauces, each gulp requiring a separate act of deglutition; such act much resembles the deglutition of solids. The author contends that when the infant or mammal seizing and retaining the nipple, sucks in the fiuid in an almost con- tinuous stream, the process of respiration is not totally interrupted, as should occur if the fluid absolutely passed in the middle line over the epiglottis; it is argued that the salivary secretion is swallowed safely during sleep ; fluid carefully introduced into the mouth of persons in a state of insensibility, passes into the pharynx; fluid poured gently into the mouth of a patient whose head rests upon one side, flows backwards by a gentle act of deglutition, which is chiefly performed in this instance by the muscles of the corresponding side; fluids cannot be shaped like solid food into a definite form ; alimentary drinks must be subject, in their course, to the laws which regulate the passage of fluids in other cases; the root of the tongue being narrow and the organ convex on its upper surface, fluids must naturally have a tendency to flow from the middle line to either side ; during the mastication of solid aliment, the juices expressed by the action of the teeth and pressure of the tongue, rapidly escape backwards, so that the bulk of the mass is considerably diminished before the deglutition of the solid part is attempted; during inflam- matory affections of the tonsillitic glands, the swallowing of fluids is attended with difficulty, while a moderately sized portion of solid aliment, which proceeds in the middle line, may be transmitted with comparative facility; when a single gland is much inflamed, deglutition is chiefly performed at the opposite side. In experiments made by the author on the dead body, fluid poured upon the dorsum of the tongue passes backwards into the pharynx in two streams, through the grooved channels situated at each side of the epiglottis and aryteno-epiglottic folds. From all these considerations, it is inferred that in the living body, during the deglutition of fluids, the uvula falls forward upon the tongue in front of the epi- glottis; thus both uvula and epiglottis afford protection to the respiratory apparatus. The fluid is divided by the uvula into two currents, which descend at each side of the root cf the tongue, under the half arches of the palate, as water flows under the arches of a bridge; and such is the principal use of the uvula. The anato- mical arrangements in the human body are perfectly adequate for the transmission of fluid in this safe manner. The anatomy of the porpoise, in which the larynx rises for several inches above the level of the tongue, affords a strong confirmation of this view, which is further sustained by instances in which the epiglottis has been destroyed, wounds of the throat, &c. The distinctness of the two forms of deglu- tition is also indicated by the fact that the mouth may be filled with food, and yet drink can be swallowed without displacement of the solid aliment; the newly-born infant can perform suction in a perfect manner; on the other hand, the power of swallowing solid focd is gradually acquired, and the organs of deglutition are trained by successive steps to the safe performance of this process, ‘= =? INDEX I. TO REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. OBJECTS and rules of the Association, XVil. Places and times of mecting, with names of officers from commencement, xx. Treasurer’s account, xxiv. Members of Council from commence- ment, Xxv. Officers and Council for 1860-61, xxviii. Officers of Sectional Committees, xxix. Corresponding Members, xxx. Report of Council to Gexeral Committee at Oxford, xxx. Report of Kew Committee, xxxi. Report of Parliamentary Committee, xliv. Recommendations adopted by the Ge- neral Committee at Oxford :—involv- ng grants of money, xlv; applications for reports and researches, xlvi; ap- plications to Government or public Institutions, xlvill; communications to be printed entire among the Reports, xviii. Synopsis of grants of money appropriated to scientific objects, xlvii. General statement of sums paid on ac- countof grants for scientific purposes, 1. Extracts from resolutions cf the General Committee, liv. Arrangement of General Mectings, liv. Address by the Right Hon. the Lord Wrottesley, ly. Actinozoa, British, list of, compiled by Rh. M° Andrew, 233 :—Zoantharia, 233 ; Aleyonaria, Ctenophora, 234. Aérolites and bolides, catalogue of, by R. P. Greg, 50. Agricultural College (Royal), Cirencester, Prof. Buckman on the growth of plants in the Botanical Garden of the, 34. Anderson (Rey. Dr.), report on the exca- vations in Dura Den, 32. Annelida, British marine, list of, compiled by R. M°Andrew, 226 :—Turbellaria, 227 ; Bdellomorpha, Bdellidea, Scolices, Gymnocopa, Chectopoda, 227. Arachnida, British marine, list of, com- piled by R. M*Andrew, 226. Atherton (Charles), report on steam-ship performance, 193. Atmospheric electricity, Prof. W.Thomson on an electrometer for observing, 44, Balloon ascents to great altitudes, report on the scientific objects to be sought for by, 43. Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricul- tural College, Cirencester, report on the experimental plots in the, by Prof. Buckman, 34. Brachiopoda, British, list of, compiled by R. M*Andrew, 222. Brewster (Sir D.), report on the scientific objects to be sought for by continuing balloon ascents, 43. Bridges, experiments on the effect of vibratory action and long-continued changes of load upon wrought-iron girders of, by W, Fairbairn, 45. Buckman (Prof. J.), report on the expe- rimental plots in the Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Ci- rencester, 34. Caithness (the Earl of), report on steam- ship performance, 193. Cephalopoda, British, list of, compiled by R. M°Andrew, 218. Ccelenterata, British marine, list of, com- piled by R, M*Andrew, 232. 218 Congruences, the period-equations con- sidered as, 127. — , binomial, solution of, 155. , 2 =1, mod gp, 155. —, cubic and biquadratie, 158. > quadratic,—indirect methods of solution, 159. , general theory of, 161. , extension of Fermat’s theorem, 163. ——, imaginary solutions of a, 165. ——, having powers of primes for their modulus, 165. , binomial, having a power of a prime for their modulus, 167. Crop plants, experiments made at the Agricultural College, Cirencester, on the growth of, 37. Crustacea, British, list of compiled by R. M‘Andrew, 222 :—Brachyura, 222 ; Anomoura, Stomapoda, Amphipoda Normalia, 223; Amphipoda Aber- rantia (Lemodipoda), Isopoda Aber- rantia (Anisopoda), 224 ; Isopoda(Nor- malia), Entomostraca, 225 ; Cirripedia, 226, Devonian fish, new forms of, 32. Dredging Dublin Bay, Prof. Kinahan’s report on, 27. Dublin Bay, Prof. Kinahan’s report on dredging, 27. Dufferin (Lord), report on steam-ship performance, 193. Dura Den, report on the excavations in the yellow sandstones of, by the Rev. Dr. Anderson, Prof. Ramsay, Prof. Nicol, and D. Page, 32. Earth, researches on the physical and chemical changes of the, 175. Echinodermata, British, list of, compiled by R. M*Andrew, 230 :—Crinoiea, Ophiuroidea, Asteroidea, Echinoidea, Holothuroidea, 230. Egerton (Hon. Capt.), report on steam- ship performance, 193. Electricity, atmospheric, Prof. W. Thom- son on portable apparatus for observ- ing, 44. Electrometer, atmospheric, self-recording, report on the construction of a, by Prof. W. Thomson, 44. , portable, for atmospheric observa- tion, by Prof. W. Thomson, 44. Entozoa, British marine, list of, compiled by R. M°Andrew, 229 :—Nematoidea, Trematoda, Acanthocephala, Cestoidea, Cystica, 229. Fairbairn (W.), experiments to determine REPORT—1860. the effect of vibratory action and long- continued changes ofload upon wrought- iron girders, 45; report on steam-ship performance, 193. Fauna, British marine invertebrate, list of, by R. M°Andrew, 217. Fireballs and meteorites, catalogue of, by R. P. Greg, 48. Fish, fossil, in the yellow sandstone of Dura Den, 32. Flax plant, on the growth of the, 42. Foraminifera, British marine, list of, com- piled by R. McAndrew, 234. Forbes (Prof. J. D.), report on the scien- tific objects to be sought for by con- tinuing balloon ascents, 43. Fossil remains in the Dura Den yellow sandstone, 32. Gasteropoda Prosobranchiata, British, Het of, compiled by R. M*Andrew, 18. —— Opisthobranchiata, British, list of, compiled by R. M*Andrew, 219. — Nudibranchiata, British, list of, compiled by R. M*Andrew, 220. Gauging of water by triangular notches, Boe report on the, by J. Thomson, Geological phenomena, on the effects of long-continued heat, illustrative of, 175. Girders, wrought-iron, experiments on, by W. Fairbairn, 45. Gladstone (Dr. J. H.), report on observa- tions of luminous meteors, 1. Glaisher (James), report on observations of luminous meteors, 1. Grasses, experiments made at the Agri- cultural College, Cirencester, on the growth of, 35. Greg (R. P.), report on observations of luminous meteors, 1, 22; catalogue of meteorites and fireballs from A.D. 2 to A.D. 1860, 48. Harcourt (Rev. W. Vernon), report on the effects of long-continued heat, illustrative of geological phenomena, 175. Heat, long continued, Rev. W. V. Tiar- court’s report on the effects of, illus- trative of geological phenomena, 175. Holoptychius, fossil, some new particu- lars on the structure and figure of the genus, 32. Hydrozoa, British marine, list of, com- piled by R. M*Andrew, 232:—Cory- nide, Sertularide, Calycophoride, Physophoride, 232; Medusidz, Lucer- naridz, 233. 4 INDEX I. Invertebrate fauna, British marine, list of the, by R. M°Andrew, 217. Killmey Bay, shells obtained in, 29. Kinahan (Prof.), report on dredging in Dublin Bay, 27. Kingstown Bay, shells obtained in, 29. Lloyd (Rev. Dr. H.), report on the scien- tific objects to be sought for by con- tinuing balloon ascents, 43. Lowe (E. J.), report on observations of luminous meteors, |. Marine invertebrate fauna, British, list of, by R. M°Andrew, 217. M‘Andrew (Robert), list of the British marine invertebrate fauna, 217. M°Connell (J. E.), report on steam-ship performance, 193. Messageries Impériales of France, table of results of performances of steam-ships in the service of, 200. Meteor, very remarkable, observations of aj. 12; Meteorites and fireballs, catalogue of, by R. P. Greg, 48. Meteors, luminous, report on observa- tions of, by J. Glaisher, Dr. Gladstone, R. P. Greg, and E. J. Lowe, 1. ——, luminosity of, from solar reflexion, 15; onthe luminous trains left by, 15; on the motion of the tail of, 17 ; on the duration of, 17 ; on the hypothesis that the intensity of the light of, is caused by the oxygen in the atmosphere, 18; list of 168 bolides observed from 1841 to 1853, 19; results of the most re- markable as regards their general ob- served direction, 21. Mollusca, British, list of, compiled by R. McAndrew, 218. Moorsom (Vice-Admiral) on the perform- ance of Steam-vessels, the functions of the screw, and the relations of its diameter and pitch to the form of the vessel, 172. , chairman of the committee on steam ship performance, second report, 193. Napier (J. R.), report on steam-ship per- formance, 193. Naval architecture, Admiral Moorsom on, 172. Nicol (Prof. J.),report on the excavations in Dura Den, 32. Numbers, Prof. Smith’s report on the theory of, 120; residues of the higher powers, researches of Jacobi, 120; neces- sity for the introduction of ideal primes, 219 121; elementary definitions relating to complex numbers, 122; complex units, 123; Gauss’s equations of the periods, 125; the period-equations considered as congruences, 127; conditions for the divisibility of the norm of a com- plex number by a real prime, 129; elementary theorems relating to ideal factors, 131; classification of ideal num- bers, 132; representation of ideal num- bers as the roots of actual numbers, 133; the number of classes of ideal numbers, 134; criterion of the divisi- bility of H by A, 136; “exceptional ” primes, 138; Fermat’s theorem for complex primes, 139; M. Kummer’s law of reciprocity, 140; the theorems complementary to M. Kummer’s law of reciprocity, 141 ; complex numbers composed of roots of unity, of which the index is not a prime, 145; appli- cation to the theory of the division of the circle, 147; application to the last theorem of Fermat, 148; application to the theory of numerical equations, 152; tables of complex primes, 153 ; solution of binomial congruences, 155 ; solution of the congruence «*=1, mod p, 155; cubic and biquadratic congruences, 158; quadratic congru- ences—indirect methods of solution, 159; general theory of congruences, 161; extension of Fermat’s theorem, 163; imaginary solutions of a congru- ence, 165; congruences having powers of primes for their modules, 165; bi- nomial congruences having a power of a prime for their modulus, 167 ; primi- tive roots of the powers of a prime, 168; case when the modulus is a power of 2,168; composite modulus, 168 ; binomial congruences with composite modulus, 169; primitive roots of the powers of complex primes, 170; addi- tions to Part I., 170. Page (D.), report on the excavations in Dura Den, 32. Paris (Admiral), report on steam-ship performance, 193. Plants, Professor Buckman’s report on the growth of, in the Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, 34. Polyzoa, British marine, list of, compiled sae M°Andrew, 230:—Infundibulata, 230. Porifera, British marine, list of, compiled by R. M°Andrew, 235. Protozoa, British marine, list of, compiled by R. M°Andrew, 234. 220 Pteropoda, British, list of, compiled by R. M°Andrew, 220, Railways, experiments on cast and wrought-iron girders, by W. Fairbairn, 45. Ramsay (Prof. A. C.), report on the ex- cayations in Dura Den, 32. Rankine (Prof.), report on steam-ship performance, 193. Roberts (Richard), report on steam-ship performance, 193. Russell (J. Scott), report on steam-ship performance, 193. Sabine (General), report on the scientific objects to be sought for by continuing balloon ascents, 43. Sharpey (Dr.), report on the scientific objects to be sought for by continuing balloon ascents, 43. Shells, list of species obtained in Kings- town and Killiney Bays, 29. Ships. iron-cased, remarks on, by Admi- ral Moorsom, 174. Ships, steam, Admiral Moorsom on the performance of, the functions of the screw, andthe relations of its diameter and pitch to the form of the vessel, 172. Shootng-stars, on, 1. Smith (Prof. H. J. S.), report on the theory of numbers, Part IT., 120. Smith (Wm.), report on steam-ship per- formance, 193. REPORT—1860. Sponges, British marine, list of, compiled by R. M°Andrew, 235. Stafford (Marquis of), report on steam- ship performance, 193, Steam-ship performance, second report of the committee on, 193. Steam-vessels, Admiral Moorsom on the performance of, the functions of the screw, and the relations of its diameter and pitch to the form of the vessel, 172. Sykes (Colonel), report on the scientific objects to be sought for by continuing balloon ascents, 43, Thomson (James), interim report on the gauging of water by triangular notches, 21 Thomson (Prof. W.), report on the scien- tific objects to be sought for by con- tinuing balloon ascents, 43; report on the construction of a self-recording atmospheric electrometer for Kew Ob- servatory, and portable apparatus for observing atmospheric electricity, 44. Walker (Rev. Prof.), report on the scien- tific objects to be sought for by con- tinuing balloon ascents, 43. Weeds, experiments made at the Agri- cultural College, Cirencester, on the growth of, 39. Wright (Henry), Hon. Secretary of the committee on steam-ship perform- ance, second report, 193, INDEX IT. 221 INDEX II. TO MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. AccaptaNn language, Dr. Hincks on the, 156. Aconite, E. R. Harvey on the mode of death by, 133. Adie (P.), description of an instrument for measuring actual distances, 59 ; de- scription of a new reflecting instrument for angular measurement, 59. Africa, South-Central, Dr. Livingstone’s discoveries in, 164. Agricultural labourers, H. J. Ker Porter on the best plan of cottage for, 194; H. Roberts on, 196. Air-pump, improved form of, W. Ladd on an, 65. Alcohols and tea, the action of, contrasted, by Dr. E. Smith, 145. Algeria, Rev. H. B. Tristram on the geo- logical system of the central Sahara of, 102. Alimentary fluids, on the deglutition of, 216. , J. Ball on systematic observations of temperature in the, 37. , Capt. Cybultz on a set of relief models of the, 155. Alps, Savoy, Prof, Favre on circular chains in the, 78. America, British North, Dr. Hector on the geology of Captain Palliser’s expe- dition in, 80. American, British North, exploring expe- dition, Capt. J. Palliser on the course and results of, 170. Anesthetics, Dr. C. Kidd on the nature of death from the administration of, 136. Anca (Baron F.) on two newly disco- vered ossiferous caves in Sicily, 73. Andalusite, Connemara, analysis of, by Prof. Rowney, 71. Andrews (Prof.) on ozone, 66. Angular measurement, P. Adie on anew reflecting instrument for, 59. Animals, domestic, J. Crawfurd on their influence on the progress of civiliza- tion, 155, Animal and a plant, J, Hogg on the di-~ stinctions of an, 111, Animalcules in human milk, G, D. Gibb on, 131. Antarctic expeditions, Capt. Maury on, 44, Antarctic regions, Capt. Maury on the climates of the, 46, Aryan or Indo-Germanic theory of races, J. Crawfurd on the, 154. Assyrian inscriptions, Dr. Hincks on the language of the, 156. Asia, Central, R. von Schlagintweit on the aboriginal tribes of, 176. Aspergillum, or watering-pot Mollusk, L. Reeve on the, 120, Assyrio-Babylonian Hincks on the, 35. Atkinson (T, W.) on the caravan routes from the Russian frontier to Khiva, Bokhara, Kokhan, and Yarkand, 153 on the caravan route from Yarkand to Mai-Matchin, 154. Atlantic (North) telegraph, geography of the, by Col. Schaffner, 178. Atmospheric electricity, Prof. W. Thom- son on, 53. Atmospheric waves, W. R. Birt on, 38. Atmotic ship, Hon. W. Bland on an, 60. Atomic weight of oxygen, Prof. W. A. Miller on the, 70. Atomic weights, atomic volumes, and properties of the chemical elements, J.J. Coleman on some remarkable re- lations existing between the, 66. Avicula contorta beds and lower lias in the S. of England, Dr. T. Wright on the, 108. lunar year, Dr, Ball (John) on a plan for systematic observations of temperature in moun- tain countries, 37. Barlow (P. W.) on the mechanical effects of combining suspension chains and girders, 201. Barometer, J. A. Broun on the laws of the diurnal variation of the, within the tropics, 20, . b] 222 Barometers, M. R. von Schlagintweit on thermo-barometers compared with, at great heights, 50. Barometric pressure, Admiral FitzRoy on the areas or lines of, 41. Barometric readings, M. R. von Schlagint- weit on some results deduced from com- parisons of the boiling-point with, 50, Beale (Prof.) on the ultimate arrangement of nerves in muscular tissue, 125. Becquerel (E.) on a pile with sulphate of lead, 59. Beetles, mummy, J. O. Westwood on, 123. Belcher (Capt. Sir E.) on the manufacture of stone-hatchets, &c. by the Esqui- maux, 154. Berbers or Brabers of Morocco, E. Schla- gintweit on the, 177. Bernoulli’s theory of gases as applied to their internal friction, their diffusion, and their conductivity for heat, on the results of, 15. Bile, Dr, Thudichum on the physiological relations of the colouring matter of the, 147. Binocular instruments, A. Claudet on the means of increasing the angle of, 61. Bird (Dr.) on the deodorization of sewage, 66. Birt (W. R.) on the forms of certain lunar craters indicative of the operation of a peculiar degrading force, 34; on atmo- spheric waves, 38. Blackwall’s (J.) work on British spiders, notice of, 120, Blakeley (Capt.) on rifled cannon, 201. Bland (The Hon. W.) on an atmotic ship, 60. Blast of very high temperature, E. Cow- per on a new mode of obtaining a, 204. Blenheim iron ore, E. Hull on the, 81. Boats for inland navigation, Prof. Hen- nessy on, 212. Boiler, cylindrical spiral, J. Elder on the, 204. Boilers, W. Froude on Giffard’s injector for feeding, 211. Bone and osseous grafts, M. Ollier on the artificial production of, 143. Bone-caves near Tenby, Rev. G. N. Smith on three undescribed, 101. Booth (Rev. Dr.) on the relations be- tween hyperconic sections and elliptic integrals, 4; on a new general method for establishing the theory of conic sec- tions, 4; on an improved instrument for describing spirals, 60; on the true principles of an income tax, 184; ona deep sea pressure gauge invented by Mr. H. Johnson, 202. REPORT—1860. Boric triethide, a new organic compound, Dr. Frankland and B. Duppa on, 69. Boron, Dr. Frankland on a new organic compound containing, 69. Bose (C. Moritz Von), remarks on the volume theory, 71. Brennecke (Dr.) on some solutions of the problem of tactions of Apollonius of Perga by modern geometry, 4. Brewster (Sir David) on some optical il- lusions connected with the inversion of perspective, 7; on the influence of very small apertures on telescopic vision, 7; on microscopic vision, and a new form of microscope, §; on the decom- posed glass found at Nineveh and other places, 9; on a nail found in Kingoodie quarry, 73. British coasts, J. M. Mitchell on the im- portance of the herring fishery on the, 191, British Islands, Admiral FitzRoy on the storms of the, 39. Brodie (Prof. B. C.) on the quantitative estimation of the peroxide of hydrogen, 66. Brodie (Rev. P. B.) on the stratigraphical position of certain species of corals in the lias, 73. Broun (John Allan) on results of obser- vations in the Observatory of His High- ness the Rajah of Travancore, 20; on the diurnal variations of the mag- netic declination at the magnetic equa- tor, and the decennial period, 21; on a new induction dip-circle, 23 ; on mag- netic rocks in South India, 24; on a magnetic survey of the west coast of India, 27; on the velocity of earth- quake shocks in the laterite of India, 74. Buccinum, J. Lubbock on the develop- ment of, 139. Buckland (Frank T.) on the acclimatiza- tion of animals, birds, &c., 113. Buckton (G. B.) on some reactions of zinc-ethyl, 66. Caithness flagstones, Sir P, de M, G. Egerton on a new form of ichthyolite discovered by W. Peach in the, 78. Caithness (Earl of) on road locomotives, 204. Cale-spar, on rings seen in viewing a light through fibrous specimens of, 19. Cambridge, Rev. J. B. P. Dennis on the mode of flight of the Pterodactyles of — the coprolite bed near, 76. Camera, solar, A. Claudet on the prin- ciples of the, 62. Canada, short notice of the progress of INDEX II. natural science in, by P, P. Carpenter, 109. Cannon, rifled, Capt. Blakeley on, 201. Carpenter (Mary) on educational help from the Government grant to the de- stitute and neglected children of Great Britain, 184. Carpenter (P. P.) on the progress of na- tural science in the United States and Canada, 109. Carus (Prof. V.) on the value of “ deve- lopment” in systematic zoology and animal morphology, 125; on the Lep- tocephalidz, 125. Caustics produced by reflexion, Prof. Lindelof on the, 14. Cayley (.4.) on curves of the fourth order haying three double points, 4. Chadwick (David) on water meters, 204, Chadwick (Edwin) on the physiological as well as psychological limits to mental labour, 185; on the economical results of military drill in popular schools, 185. Cheese, Prof, Voelcker on poisonous me- tals in, 73. Chemical elements, J. J. Coleman on some remarkable relations existing between the atomic weights, atomic volumes, and properties of the, 66. Chemical geology, I. S. Hunt on some points in, 83. Chest, A. MacLaren on tie influence of exercise on the expansion of the, 142. China, W. Lockhart on the mountain districts of, and their aboriginal in- habitants, 168. Chloride of calcium, gradual reduction of hydrate of cresyl into hydrate of phenyl and other compounds through the agency of, Dr. Gladstone on, 69. Chloride of sodium and nitrate of baryta, when equivalent proportions of, are mixed together in solution and diffused, four salts exist contemporaneously in the liquid, Dr. Gladstone on, 69. Chloroferm, Dr. C. Kidd on the nature of death from, 136. Chromatic dispersion, M. Ponton on the laws of, 16. Chromatic properties of the electric light of mereury, Dr. J. H. Gladstone on the, 13. Chromoscope, J. Smith on the, 65. Cinchona, V. Hurtado on the geographi- cal distribution and trade in the, 162. Civilization, on the influence of domestic animals on the progress of, 155. Classification, Prof. V. Carus on the value of development in, 125. 223 Clarke (A.) on a mode of correcting the errors of the compass in iron ships, 28. Claudet (A.) on the means of increasing the angle of binocular instruments, to obtain a stereoscopic effect in propor- tion to their magnifying power, 61 ; on the principles of the solar camera, 62. Classification of animals, J. R. Greene on embryology in reference to the, 152. Climates of the antarctic regions, Captain Maury on the, 46. Clutterbuck (Rev. J. C.) on the course of the Thames from Lechlade to Windsor, as ruled by the geological formations over which it passes, 75. Coal-field, Tynedale, on the, 86. Coal-fields, North Staffordshire, W. Molyneux on fossil fish from the, 88. Cody (Patrick) on the trisection of an angle, 4. Coleman (J. J.) on some remarkable re- lations existing between the atomic weights, atomic volumes, and proper- ties of the chemical elements, 66; on the destruction of the bitter principle of chyraitta by the agency of caustic alkali, 66. Collingwood (Prof. Cuthbert) on the re- spiration of the nudibranchiate mol- lusea, 113; on the nudibranchiate mol- lusea of the Mersey and the Dee, 113; on recurrent animal form, and its sig- nificance in systematic zoology, 114, Colour-blindness, Dr, J, H. Gladstone on, 12. Colour, J. Smith on the chromoscope, to verify certain opinions as to the cause of, 65. Colouring matter of the bile, Dr, Thudi- chum on the physiological relations of the, 147. Colours, Dr. Gladstone on his own per- ception of, 12. Colours of the spectrum, Prof. Maxwell on an instrument for exhibiting any mixture of the, 16. Connemara, Prof. Rowney on the analysis of some minerals of, 71. Coprolite bed near Cambridge, Rey. J. B. P. Dennis on the pterodactyles of the, 76. Corals in the lias, Rev. P. B. Brodie on the stratigraphical position of certain species of, 73. Corbett (Prof. J. H.) on the deglutition of alimentary fluids, 216, Cornwall and Devon, W. Pengelly on the chronological and geographical distri- bution of the Devonian fossils of, 91, Cottage. for agricultural labourers, H. 224 J. K. Porter on the best plan of, 194 ; H. Roberts on, 196. Cowper (E.) on a new mode of obtaining a blast of very high temperature in the manufacture of iron, 204. Crawfurd (John) on the influence of domestic animals on the progress of civilization, 155; on the Aryan or Indo-Germanic theory of races, 154. Crustacea, British well shrimps, new, Rev. A. R. Hogan on, 116. Cull (R.) on certain remarkable deviations in the stature of Europeans, 155; on the existence of a true plurafof a per- sonal pronoun in a living European language, 155, Cumberland and Northumberland, J. A. Knipe on the Tynedale coal-field and the whin-sill of, 86. Curves of the fourth order, having three double points, A. Cayley on, 4. Cybulz (Captain) on a set of relief models of the Alps, &c., 155. Cydippe, J. Price on, 120. Daubeny (Dr.) on the elevation theory of volcanos, 75; on the final causes of the sexuality of plants, in reference to Mr. Darwin’s ‘Theory, 109; experi- ments on equivocal generation, 115. Death by aconite, on the mode of, 133; from the administration of anesthetics, on the nature of, 136. Deglutition of alimentary fluids, Prof. J. H. Corbett on the, 216. De la Rue (Warren) on a new acetic ether occurring in a natural resin, 71; on the isomers of cumol!, 71. Dennis (Rev. J. B. P.) on the mode of flight of the Pterodactyles of the copro- lite bed near Cambridge, 76. Devon and Cornwall, W. Pengelly on the chronological and geographical distri- bution of the Devonian fossils of, 91. Devon, South, E. Vivian on the climate of, 56. Devonian fossils of Devon and Cornwall, W. Pengelly on the chronological and geographical distribution of the, 91. Dingle (Rev. J.) onthe corrugation of strata in the vicinity of mountain ranges, 77. Dip-circle, induction, new, J. A. Broun on a, 23. Dispersion, chromatic, M. Ponton on the laws of, 16. Distances, P. Adie on an instrument for measuring, 59. Dolomites and gypsum, T. S. Hunt on, 83. Donegal, north of, Prof. Harkness on the metamorphic rocks of, 79, REPORT—1860. Dowden (R.) on the effect of a rapid cur- rent of air, 39; on a plant poisoning a plant, 110; on local taxation for local p poses, 191. Draper (Dr. H.) on a reflecting telescope for celestial photography, erecting at Hastings, near New York, 63; on the intellectual development of Europe, considered with reference to the views of Mr, Darwin and others, 115. Dresser (Dr. C.) on the morphological laws in plants, 110; on abnormal forms of Passiflora czerulea, 110. Drift, triassic, from the neighbourhood of Frome, C. Moore on the contents of, 87. Du Boulay (M.) on the meteorological phenomena of the vernal equinoctial week, 39. Duppa (B.) on a new organic compound containing boron, 69. Durham (Arthur E.) on the nature of sleep, 129. Earnshaw (Rev. S.) on the velocity of the sound of thunder, 58; on the tri- plicity of sound, 58. Earth’s crust, Rev. J. Dingle on the for- mation of the, 77. internal structure, Prof. Hennessy on studying the, from phenomena ob- served at its surface, 35. Earthquake shocks, in the laterite of In- dia, J. A. Broun on the velocity of, 74. Earthquakes and volcanic phenomena, T. S. Hunt on the theory of, 84. Education of the destitute and neglected children of Great Britain, Mary Car- penter on help from the Government grant for the, 184, , E, Chadwick on the physiological as well as psychological limits to mental labour, 185, Egerton (Sir P. de M, G.) on the ichthy- olites of Farnell Road, Forfarshire, 77; on a new form of ichthyolite discovered by Mr. Peach, 78. Eggs of Buccinum, on the development of, 139, Elder (John) on the cylindrical spiral boiler, 204, Electric fluid, Rev, T. Rankin on the dif- ferent motions of, 30. light, M. Serrin on an automatic regulator for, 19, light of mercury, Dr. J. H. Gladstone on the chromatic properties of the, 13. telegraphs, submarine, C. W. Sie- mens and M, Werner on the principles and practice involved in dealing with the electrical conditions of, 32, OO a INDEX Ii. Electrical foree, Sir W. S. Harris on, 28. indications during day thunder- storms, Prof. W. Thomson on, 54. vacuum tubes, Prof. W. B. Rogers on the phenomena of, 30. Electricity, atmospheric, Prof. W. Thom- son on, 53 Electro-magnetic railway break, on an, 212, Electrolysis across glass, W. R. Grove on the transmission of, 69. Embryology, J. R. Greene on, with refer- ence tc the mutual relations of the sub- kingdoms of animals, 132, Equations, indeterminate linear, Prof. H. J. S. Smith on systems of, 6. Equinoctial week, vernal, M. Du Boulay on the meteorological phenomena of the, 39. : Esquimaux, on the habits and manners of, and on their manufacture of stone- hatchets, 154. Ether, Dr. C. Kidd on the nature of death from, 136. Ethnological boulders and their probable origin, Rey. Dr. Hincks on, 156. Ethnology, R. von Schlagintweit on some of the Aborigines of India and High Asia, 175. Exercise, A. Maclaren on its influence in physical growth and development, 142. Eyes, Prof. W.B. Rogers on their in- ability to determine which retina. is impressed, 18. Fairbairn (William) on the density of saturated steam, and on the law of ex- pansion of superheated steam, 210. Farnell, Forfarshire, J. Powrie on a fos- siliferous deposit near, 89. Farnell Road, Forfarshire, Sir P. de M. G. Egerton on the ichthyolites of, 77. Faroé Isles, some remarks on the, by Col. Schaffner, 178. Fauna, invertebrate, of the lower oolites of Oxfordshire, J. F. Whiteaves on the, 104, Favre (Prof. A.) on circular chains in the Savoy Alps, 78. Fawcett (Henry) on the method of poli- tical economy by Dr. Whewell, 191; on cooperative societies, their social and political aspect, 191. Fern stems, Dr, G. Ogilvie on the struc- ture of, 112. Fish, fossil, from the N. Staffordshire coal- fields, W. Molyneux on the, 88. , remains of, in the triassic drift in the neighbourhood of Frome, C, Moore on, 87, 1860. 225 Fishes found in the old red sandstone de- posits of Farnell, Forfarshire, Sir P. de M. G, Egerton on, 77, 89. Fisher (John) on an atmospheric wash- ing machine, 210. Fishery, herring, J. M. Mitchell on the importance of the, 191, FitzRoy (Admiral) on British storms, 39. Fluids, alimentary, on the deglutition of, 216. Forfarshire, Sir P. de M. G, Egezton on the ichthyolites of Farnell, 77; J. Powrie on a fossilferous deposit near Farnell, 89. Formosa, island of, W. Lockhart on the, 169, Fossil remains in two newly-discovered caves in Sicily, Baron Anca on, 73. Fossil fish, from the North Staffordshire coal fields, W. Molyneux on the, 88. fishes, of the old red sandstone of Farhell, Forfarshire, Sir P. de M, G. Egerton, 79, 89. Fossiliferous deposit near Farnell, in For- farshire, J. Powrie on a, 89. Fossils, British North American, Dr. Hec- tor on, 80. : , Devonian, of Devon and Cornwall, W. Pengelly on the chronological and geographical distribution of the, 91. of the lower oolites of Oxfordshire, J. F. Whiteaves on the, 104. of the triassic drift in the neigh- bourhood of Frome, C. Moore on, 87. Foster (Dr. M.) on the theory of cardiac inhibition, 129. Fox (J. J.) on the province of the statis- tician, 191. Frankland (Dr.) on a new organic com- pound containing boron, 69. Freshwater deposit at Mundesley, J. Prestwich on the, 90. Frome, C. Moore on the fossils of the triassic drift in theneighbourhood of, 87. Froude (William) on Giffard’s injector for feeding boilers, 211. Fulgora candelaria, J. O. Westwood on a lepidopterous parasite on the, 124, Gages (Alphonse) on some transforma- tions of iron pyrites in connexion with organic remains, 79. Galvanic battery with sulphate of lead, M. E. Becquerel on a, 59. Ganoids, notice of one representing a new genus, by W. Molyneux, 89. Garner (Robert) on certain alterations in the medulla oblongata in cases of pa- ralysis, 129; on the structure of the Lepadide, 130, 15 226 Garnet, Connemara, analysis of, by Prof. Rowney, 71. Gaskoin’s (Mr.) pathological collection of shells, 116. Gases, Bernoulli’s theory of, as applied to their internal friction, their diffusion, and their conductivity for heat, Prof. Maxwell on the results of, I5. , ©. M. von Bose on the theory of volumes which separates them from other bodies, 71. Gauge, deep-sea pressure, Rev. Dr. Booth on a, 202. Geinitz (Dr.) on snow crystals, 79 ; on the Silurian formation in the district of Wilsdruff, 79. Generation, equivocal, experiments on, by Dr. Daubeny, 115. Geology, chemical, T. S. Hunt on some points in, 83. Gerhardt’s proposal for doubling the atomic number for oxygen, some prac- tical objections to, by Prof. W. A. Mil- ler, 70. Gibb (Dr. G. D.) on saccharine fermen- tation within the female breast, 131. Giffard’s injector for feeding boilers, W. Froude on, 211. Gilbert (Dr. J. H), on the composition of the ash of wheat, 70. Glaciers, Canon Moseley on the cause of the descent of, 48. Gladstone (Dr. J. H.) on his own percep- tion of colours, 12; on the chromatic properties of the electric light of mer- cury, 13 ; chemical notes, 69. Glass, decomposed, R. Thomas on thin films of, 19. , decomposed, found at Nineveh, Sir D. Brewster on, 9. Glennie (J. S.S.) on physics as a branch of the science of motion, 56; on a ge- neral law of rotation applied to the planets, 58. Graptolites, A. Gages on the transform- ation of iron pyrites connected with, 79. —— in the Lydit and Phthanit, discovery of, in the district of Wilsdruff, Saxony, Dr. Geinitz on, 79. Graves (Rev. Prof.) on the arrangement of the forts and dwelling-places of the ancient Irish, 156. Gray (Sir Charles) on Asiatic cholera, 132. Greene (Prof. J. R.) on embryology, with reference to the mutual relations of the subkingdoms of animals, 132, Greenland, some remarks on, by Col. Schaffner, 178. Greenwich and Utrecht, J. Park Harrison REPORT—1860. on the similarity of the lunar curves of minimum temperature at, 44. Grove (W.R.) on the transmission of electrolysis across glass, 69. Gutta percha and india-rubber, as insu- lators for subaqueous telegraphic wires, W. Silver on, 212. Habitat of plants influenced by nature of strata, Rev. W.S. Symonds on the, 102. Hall (Walter) on a process for covering submarine wires with india-rubber, 211. Harcourt (A. Vernon) on the oxidation of potassium and sodium, 70. Harkness (R.) on the metamorphic rocks of the north of Ireland, 79. Harris (Sir W. 8.) on electrical force, 28. Harrison (J. Park) on the similarity of the lunar curves of minimum tempera- ture at Greenwich and Utrecht, 44. Hartwell variable star atlas, 36. Harvey (Edward R.) on the mode of death by aconite, 133. Hatchets, stone, of the Esquimaux, Sir E. Belcher on, 154. Heat, Prof. Maxwell on the results of Bernoulli’s theory of gases as applied to their internal friction, their diffusion, and their conductivity for, 15. Hector (Dr.) on the geology of Captain Palliser’s expedition in British North America, 80; on the climate of the ‘ Saskatchewan district in British North America, 172. Hennessy (Prof.) on studying the earth’s internal structure from phenomena ob- served at its surface, 35; on the prin- ciples of meteorology, 44; suggestions relative to inland navigation, 211. Henslow (Rev. Prof.) on the supposed germination of mummy wheat, 110. Herring, J. M. Mitchell on the economi- cal history and statistics of the, 191. Higgins (Rev. H. H.) on some spe- cimens of shells from the Liverpool Museum, 116. Hincks (Rev. Dr.) on recorded obserya- tions of the planet Venus in the seventh century before Christ, 35; on certain ethnological boulders and their probable origin, 156. Hitchman (J.) on sanitary drainage of towns, 191. Hochstetter (Prof. von) on the geological features of the volcanic island of St. Paul, in the South Indian ocean, 81; on ~ the geology of New Zealand, 81; ona new map of the interior of the Northern Island of New Zealand, 162. INDEX II. Hodgson (R.) on a brilliant eruption on the sun’s surface, 36. Hogan (Rev. A. R.) on British well shrimps, 116. Hogg (John) on the distinctions of a plant and an animal, and ona fourth king- dom of nature, 111. Houses for the labouring classes, on, 194, 196. Hudson’s Bay and Straits, Dr. J. Rae on the formation of icebergs and ice action in the, 174. Hull (Edward) on the Blenheim iron ore, and the thickness of the formations be- low the great oolite at Stonesfield, Ox- fordshire, 81; on the six-inch maps of the Geological Survey, 81. Hunt (Dr. J.) on the antiquity of the hu- man race, 162. Hunt (T. Sterry) on some points in che- mical geology, 83. Hurtado (V.) on the geographical distri- bution and trade in the Cinchona, 162. Huxley (Prof.) on the development of Pyrosoma, 136. Hydrate of cresyl, gradual reduction of, into hydrate of phenyl and other com- pounds through the agency of chloride of calcium or zinc, Dr. Gladstone on, 69. of phenyl, gradual reduction of ' hydrate of cresyl into, through the agency of chloride of calcium or zinc, Dr. Gladstone on, 69. Hygrometers, self-registering, E. Vivian on results of, 55. Hyperconic sections and elliptic integrals, Rev. Dr. Booth on the relations be- tween, 4. Icebergs and ice action, Dr. J. Rae on the formation of, in the Hudson’s Bay and Straits, 174. . Iceland, W. Lauder Lindsay on the erup- tion in May 1860 of the KGtliigja vol- cano in, 86. » Some remarks on, by Col. Schaff- ner, 178. Ichthyolite, on a new form of, discovered by Mr. Peach, 78. Ichthyolites of Farnell Road, Forfarshire, Sir P. de M. G, Egerton on the, 77. India, Central, R. von Schlagintweit on the aboriginal tribes of, 175. , South, J. A. Broun on magnetic rocks in, 24. , J. A. Broun on the velocity of earthquake shocks in the laterite of, 74. and High Asia, general abstract of the results of Messrs. de Schlagintweit’s magnetic survey of, 32. 227 India, West Coast of, J. A. Broun on a magnetic survey of the, 27. Indians, Mr. Sullivan on the tribes of, in- habiting the country explored by the British North American expedition in the years 1857-1859, 173. India-rubber, Messrs. Werner and Sie- mens on a mode of covering wires with, 215. India-rubber and gutta percha as insu- lators for subaqueous telegraphic wires, W. Silver on, 212. Indo-European languages, Dr. Hincks on the, 156. Indo-Germanic theory of races, J. Craw- furd on the, 154. Integrals, elliptic, and hyperconic sec- tions, Rev. Dr. Booth on the relations between, 4. Interference of light, phenomena pro- duced by decomposed glass found at Nineveh, Sir D. Brewster on, 9; at Oxford, by R. Thomas, 19. Invertebrate fauna of the lower oolites of Oxfordshire, J. F. Whiteaves on the, 104. Ireland, North of, Prof. Harkness on the metamorphic rocks of the, 79. Iron, E. Cowper on a new mode of ob- taining a blast of very high tempera- ture in the manufacture of, 204, Iron ore, Blenheim, E. Hull on the, 81. Jaczwings, a population of the 13th cen- tury, Dr. R. G, Latham on the, 163. Jarrett (Rev. Prof.) on alphabets, 163. Jarvis (E.) on the system of taxation pre- vailing in the United States, 191. _ Jaundice, Dr. Thudichum on nitric and nitro-hydrochloric acids in, 148. Jeffreys (J. G.) on the British teredines, or ship-worms, 117; on specimens of the common whelk having double oper- cula, 117. Jellett (Rev. Prof.) on a new instrument for determining the plane of polariza- tion, 13. Jet, Prof. Rowney on the composition of, 72, Johnson’s (Henry) improved instrument for describing spirals, 60; deep sea pressure gauge, 202. Jukes (J. Beete) on the igneous rocks interstratified with the carboniferous limestones of the basin of Limerick, 84, Kidd (Dr. Charles) on the nature of death from the administration of anesthetics, especially chloroform and ether, 136, [5>* 228 Kimmeridge, paddle of pliosaurus of great size found at, Mr. R. Damon on a, 75. Kirkman (Rev. T. P.) on ‘the roots of substitutions, 4. Knipe (J. A.) on the Tynedale coal-field and the Whin-sill of Cumberland and Northumberland, 86. Knox (R.) on the origin of the arts, 163. Labouring classes, H. Roberts on various efforts to improve the domiciliary con- dition of the, 196. Labrador, some remarks on, by Col. Schaffner, 178. Labyrinthodon, Rey. W. Lister on foot- prints of the, from the new red sand- stone north of Wolverhampton, 87. Tadd (W.) on an improved form of air- pump for philosophical experiments, 65. Lange (D. A.) on the progress of the Isthmus of Suez Canal, 163. Latham (Dr. R. G.) on the Jaczwings, 163, Lawes (J. B.) on the composition of the ash of wheat, 70. Lee (Dr.John), prospectus of the Hartwell variable star atlas, 36. Lemuridz, Prof. Van der Hoeven on the anatomy of the, 135. Lenses, diamond, topaz, and rock-crystal, best suited for, Sir D. Brewster on, 8. Lepadide, R. Garner on the structure of the, 130. Lepidoptera, Dr. Verloren on the effect of temperature and periodicity on the de- velopment of, 123, Lepidopterous larvz, micro-, H. T. Stain- ton on some peculiar forms amongst the, 122. parasite on the body of the firefly, J. O. Westwood on a, 124. Leptocephalide, Prof. V. Carus on the, 125. Lewis (Dr.) on a hydro-spirometer, 139. Lias, Rev. P. B. Brodie, on the stratigra- phical position of certain species of corals in the, 73. Lias, lower, in the south of England, Dr. T. Wright on the, 108. Light, electric, M. Serrin on an automatic regulator for, 19. Lightning conductors, G. J. Symons on employing the gutters and rain-water pipes of private houses as, 52. Limerick, J. B. Jukes on the igneous rocks interstratified with the carboniferous limestones of the basin of, 84. Limestones, carboniferous, of the basin of Limerick, J. B. Jukes on the igneous rocks interstratified with the, 84, REPORT—1860. Lindelof (Prof.) on the caustics produced by reflexion, 14. Lindsay (Dr. W. L.) on the eruption in May 1860, of the Kétltigj& volcano in Iceland, 86. Lister (Rev. W.) on reptilian foot-prints from the new red sandstone, north of Wolverhampton, 87. Liverpool Museum, on some specimens of shells from the, 116. Livingstone (Dr.) on the discoveries in South Central Africa, 164. Lockhart (W.) on the mountain districts of China and their aboriginal inhabit- ants, 168. Locomotives, road, Earl of Caithness on, 204, Lubbock (John) on the development of Buccinum, 139. Lunar craters, W. R. Birt on the forms of, 34. & Lunar curves of minimum temperature at Greenwich and Utrecht, on the simi- larity of the, 44. Macgowan (Dr.), on of the ante-chris- tian settlement of the Jews in China, 170. Machine atmospheric, for washing, J. Fisher on an, 210. MacLaren (Archibald) on the influence of systematized exercise on the expan- sion of the chest, 142. Magnesian rocks, ‘I’. S. Hunt on, 83. Magnetic declination, J, A. Broun on the mode in which the diurnal law of, varies from place to place, and the probable position and epoch of the line of least diurnal variation near the equinoxes, 20, — declination, J. A. Broun on the diurnal variations of the, at the mag- netic equator, and the decennial period, 21, equator, J. A. Broun on the diurnal variations of the magnetic decli- nation at the, 21. rocks in South India, J. A. Broun on, 24. survey of the west coast of India, J. A. Broun on a, 27. survey of India, Messrs. de Schla- gintweit’s general abstract of the re- sults of, 32, ; Magnetic-induction dip-circle, new, J. A. Broun on, 23. Magnetism of the earth, the daily mean intensity of the, increases as a whole or diminishes as a whole, J, A, Broun on, 20, INDEX II. Mammalia, triassic, C. Moore on remains of, in the drift in the neighbourhood of Frome, 88. Man, J. Crawfurd on the Aryan or Indo- Germanic theory of the races of, 154, Maps, topographical, Capt. Cybulz on models to facilitate instruction in deli- neating the features of the ground on, 155. Masters (M. T.) on the normal and ab- normal variations from an assumed type in plants, 112. Maury (Captain) on antarctic expeditions, 44; on the climates of the antarctic regions, 46. Maxwell (Prof.) on the results of Ber- noulli’s theory of gases as applied to their internal friction, their diffusion, and their conductivity for heat, 15; on aninstrument for exhibiting any mixture of the colours of the spectrum, 16. May (D.), journey in the Yoruba and Nupé countries, 170. M*Donnell (Dr. Robert) on the formation of sugar and amyloid substances in the animal economy, 129. Measuring actual distances, P. Adie on an instrument for, 59. Measurement, angular, P. Adie on a new reflecting instrument for, 59. Mechanics, Prof. Sylvester on the appli- cation of Poncelet’s theorems for the linear representation of quadratic radi- cals to practical questions of, 7. Medulla oblongata, R. Garner on altera- tions in the, in cases of paralysis, 129. Mental labour, E. Chadwick on the phy- siological as well as psychological limits to, 185. Mercury, electric light of, Dr. J. H. Gladstone on the chromatic properties of the, 13. Mersey and Dee, Prof. Collingwood on the nudibranchiate mollusca of the, 113. Meteorological observations at Stony- hurst, results of, 56. —— phenomena of the equinoctial week, _ M. Du Boulay on the, 39. Meteorology, Prof. Hennessy on the prin- ciples of, 44. Michelsen (Dr.) on serfdom in Russia, 191, Mickie (J.), cruise in the Gulf of Pe-che-li . and Leo-tung, China, 170. Microscope, new form of, Sir D. Brewster on a, 8. Milk, human, G. D. Gibb on living ani- ~ malcules in, 131. _ Miller (Prof. W. A.) on the atomic weight of oxygen, 70. 229 Mitchell (J. M.) on the economical history and statistics of the herring, 191. Mitchell (Rev. W.) on the Koh-i-Noor previous to its cutting, 87. Mollusca, Nudibranchiate, Prof. Colling- wood on the respiration of the, 113; of the Mersey and Dee, 118, Mollusca, on the Aspergillum, or water- ing pot, 120. Molyneux (William) on fossil fish from the North Staffordshire coal-fields, 88. Moon, W. R. Birt on the forms of certain lunar craters in the, 34, Moore (C.) on the contents of three square yards of triassic drift, 87. Morocco, E. Schlagintweit on the tribes composing the population of, 177. Morphology, animal, Prof. V. Carus on the value of development in, 125. Moseley (Rev. Canon) on the cause of the descent of glaciers, 48, Motion, science of, J. S. S. Glennie on physics as a branch of the, 56. Mountain countries, J. Bell on a plan for systematic observations of temperature in, 37. Mountain ranges, Rev. J. Dingle on the corrugation of strata in the vicinity of, Moors of Morocco, a mixed race, E. Schla- gintweit on the, 177. Miller (Dr. Hugo) on the isomers of cu- mol, 71; on a new acetic ether occur- ring in a natural resin, 71. Mundesley, Norfolk, the cliff at, J. Prest- wich on some new facts in relation to, 90. Murchison (Sir R. I.), his address as Pre- sident of Section E, 148. Navigation, inland, suggestions relative to, by Prof. Hennessy, 211. Newmarch (W.) on some schemes of taxation and the difficulties of them, 194, Nineveh, Sir D. Brewster on the decom- posed glass found at, 9. Northumberland- and Cumberland, J. A. Knipe on the Tynedale coal-field and the whin-sill of, 86. Observatory, Travancore, J. A. Broun on results of observations in the, 20. Ogilvie (Dr. G.) on the structure of fern stems, 112. Ollier (M.) on the artificial production of bone and osseous grafts, 143. Oolite, great, at Stonesfield, Oxfordshire, E. Hull on the thickness of the form~ ations below the, 81. 230 REPORT—1860. Oolites, lower, of Oxfordshire, J. F.| Pierce (Prof. B.) on the dynamic con- Whiteaves on the invertebrate fauna of the, 104. Optical illusions connected with inversion of perspective, Sir D. Brewster on, 7. Organic remains, A. Gages on some trans- formations of iron pyrites in connexion with, 79. Osborn (Captain Sherard) on the forma- tion of oceanic ice in the arctic regions, 170. Ossiferouscavesin Sicily, newlydiscovered, Baron Anca on, 738. Owen (Prof.), letter to Mr. E. Chadwick on the physiological limits to mental labour, 189. Oxford, notice of the new geological map of the vicinity of, by Sir R. Murchison, 90. Oxfordshire, J. F. Whiteaves on the inver- tebrate fauna of the lower oolites of, 104. Oxygen, Prof. W. A, Miller on the atomic weight of, 70. Oxygenation in animal bodies, Dr. W. B. Richardson on the process of, 143. Palliser (Capt.), on the course and results of the British North American Explor- ing Expedition, 170. Paper, rice-, from the pith of the Aurelia papyrifera, W. Lockhart on, 169. Paralysis, R. Garner on alterations in the medulla oblongata in cases of, 129. Peach (C. W.), anew form of ichthyolite discovered by, 78; on the statistics of the herring fishery, 120. Pembrokeshire, Rev. G. N. Smith on three undescribed bone caves near Tenby, 101, Pengelly (William) on the chronological and geographical distribution of the Devonian fossils of Devon and Corn- wall, 91. Perspective, inversion of, Sir D, Brewster on some optical illusions connected with the, 7. Peruvian bark, the places where the tree grows which yields the, 162. Petherick (Consul) on his proposed jour- ney from Khartum in Upper Egypt to meet Capt. Speke on’or near the lake Nyanza of Central Africa, 174. Phillips (Prof.) on the geology of the vicinity of Oxford, 90. Photography, celestial, H. Draper on a reflecting telescope for, erecting at Hastings near New York, 63. Physics as a branch of the science of mo- tion, J. S.S. Glennie on, 56. dition of Saturn’s rings, 37; on the motion of a pendulum in a vertical plane when the point of suspension moves uniformly on a circumference in the same plane, 37; on the physical constitution of comets, 37. Pile with sulphate of lead, M.E. Becquerel on a, 59. Placodus, teeth of the, discovered in the triassic drift, in the neighbourhood of Frome, by C. Moore, 88. Pliosaurus, a paddlo of, found at Kim- meridge, 75. Planets, J. S. S. Glennie on a general law of rotation applied to the, 58. Plant and an animal, J. Hogg on the dis- tinctions of a, 111. ~ Plants, British, Rev. W.S. Symonds on the selection of a peculiar geological habitat by some, 102. , on the morphological laws in, 110. , M. T. Masters on the normal and abnormal variations from an assumed type in, 112. , on the final causes of the sexuality of, in reference to Mr. Darwin’s theory, 109. Playfair (Dr, Lyon) on the representation of neutral salts, 71. Poisoning, E. R. Harvey on the mode of death by aconite, 138. Polar expedition (Franklin’s), Capt. Snow on the, and the possible recovery of its scientific documents, 180. Polarization, plane of, Prof. Jellett on a new instrument for determining the, 13. . M. Verdet on the dispersion of the planes of, of the coloured rays produced by the action of magnetism, 54, Poncelet’s theorems for the linear repre- sentation of quadratic radicals, Prof. Sylvester on a generalization of, 7. Ponton (M.) on the laws of chromatic dispersion, 16. Porter (H. J. Ker) on the best plan of cottage for agricultural labourers, 194. Powrie (J.) on a fossiliferous deposit near Farnell, in Forfarshire, 89. Prestwich (Joseph) on some new facts in relation to the section of the cliff at Mundesley, Norfolk, 90. Price (J.) on Cydippe, 120; on slicken- sides, 91. Price (Rev. Prof.), address as President of Section A, 1. 3 Pterodactyles of the Coprolite bed near — Cambridge, Rev. J. P. B. Dennis on the mode of flight of the, 76. ; INDEX II. Purdy (F.) on the systems of poor-law medical relief, 195. Pyrites, iron, A. Gages on some transfor- mations of, in connexion with organic remains, 79. Pyrosclerite, Connemara, analysis of by Prof, Rowney, 71. Quadratic radicals, Prof. Sylvester on a generalization of Poncelet’s theorems for the linear representation of, 7. Quinine, V. Hurtado on the barks from which it is obtained, 162. Radcliffe (Dr. C. B.) on muscular action from an electrical point of view, 148. Rae (Dr. J.) on the formation of icebergs and ice action in the Hudson’s bay and straits, 174; on the aborigines of the arctic and sub-arctic regions of N. Ame- rica, 175. Railways, street, as used in the United States, G, F. Train on, 215. Rankin (Rev. T.) on the different motions of electric fluid, 30; on meteorological observations made at Huggate, 50. Reflexion, Prof. Lindiléf on the caustics produced by, 14. Reeve (Lovell) on the Aspergillum or watering-pot mollusk, 120. Reilly (Calcott) on the longitudinal stress of the plate-girder, 212. Rennison (Rev. T.) on a new proof of Pascal’s theorem, 6. Respiration, B. W. Richardson on the process of, 143. Rhynchosaurus, Rev. W. Lister on foot- prints of the, in the new red sandstone north of Wolverhampton, 87. Richardson (Dr. B. W.) on the process of oxygenation in animal bodies, 143 ; on an electro-magnetic railway break, 212. Riffers of Morocco, E. Schlagintweit on the, 177. Rings seen in viewing a light through fibrous specimens of calc-spar, on, 19. Road locomotives, Earl of Caithness on, 204. Roberts (Henry) on various efforts to improve the domiciliary condition of the labouring classes, 196. Rocks, igneous, T. S. Hunt on, 84. 3 Magnesian, T. S. Hunt on, 83. —, plutonic, T. S. Hunt on, 84. , Magnetic, in South India, 24. Rocks, metamorphic, of the N. of Ire- land, Prof. Hennessy on the, 79. gneous, interstratified with the car- boniferous limestones of the basin of Limerick, J. B. Jukes onthe, 84. 231 Rocky Mountains, British North America, Dr. Hector on the strata composing the, 81. —— Mountains, Capt. J. Palliser on explorations in the, 170. Rogers (Prof. H. D.) on some phenomena of metamorphism in coal in the United States, 101. Rogers (Prof. W. B.), experiments and conclusions on binocular vision, 17; on the phenomena of electrical vacuum tubes, 30. Rotation, J.S.S.Glennie on a general law of, applied to the planets, 58. Roots of substitutions, Rev. T. Kirkman on the, 4. Rowney (Prof. T. H.) on the analysis of some Connemara minerals, 71; on the composition of jet, 72. Saccharine fermentation within the female breast, on, 131. Sahara, central, of Algeria, Rev. H. B. Tristram on the geological system of the, 102. “ Sandstone, new red, north of Wolver- hampton, Rev. W. Lister on some foot- prints of the Labyrinthodon, Rhyncho- saurus, &c. in the, 87. , old red, of Farnell, Forfarshire, Sir P. de M. G. Egerton on the fishes found in the, 77. Saskatchewan territory, British North America, examination of, by Capt, Pal- liser, 170. , Dr. Hector on the climate of the, 172. Schlagintweit (Lieut. Edward) on the tribes composing the population of Morocco, 177. Schlagintweit (H. von), general abstract of the results of Messrs. de Schlagint- weit’s magnetic survey of India, 32. Schlagintweit (Robert von) on thermo- barometers, compared with barometers at great heights, 50; on some of the races of India and High Asia, 175. Schools, educational, E, Chadwick on the physiological as well as psychological limits to mental labour, 185. Sclater (P. L.) on the geographical distri- bution of recent terrestrial vertebrata, 121. Scoffern (T.) on waterproof and unalter- able small-arm cartridges, 72. Sea pressure gauge, deep, on a, 202. Sedgwick (Rev. Prof.) on the geology of the neighbourhood of Cambridge and the fossils of the upper greensand, 101. 232 REPORT—1860. Semitic inscriptions, Dr. Hincks on, 156. Senior (N. W.), address as President of Section F., 182. Serrin (M.), régulateur automatique de lumiére électrique, 19. Shaffner (Colonel Tal. P.), on the geo- graphy of the North Atlantic telegraph, 178 Shells, pathological collection of, Rev. H. H. Higgins on a, 116. Ship, atmotic, Hon. W. Bland on an, 60. Ship-building, iron, W. Simons on im- provements in, 212. Ship-worms, J. G. Jeffreys on the British, 117. Shiré river and valley, and inhabitants, in South-Central Africa, Dr. Livingstone on the, 164. Sicily, Baron Ancaon two newly dis- covered ossiferous caves in, 73. Siemens (C. W.) and M. Werner, outline of the principles and practice involved in dealing with the electric conditions of submarine electric telegraphs, 32. Silurian formation in the district of Wilsdruff, Saxony, Dr. Geinitz on the, 19. — schists, Lower, A. Gages on the transformation of iron pyrites connected with fossil graptolitesfrom Tinnaglough, Co. Wexford, 79. Silver (S. W.) on gutta percha and india- rubber as insulators for subaqueous tele- graphic wires, 212. Simons (W.) on improvements in iron ship-building, 212. Smith (Dr. Edward) on the action of tea and alcohols, 145. Smith (Prof. H. J. S.) on systems of in- determinate linear equations, 6. Smith (John) on the chromoscope, 65. Smith (Rey. G. N.) on three undescribed bone-caves near Tenby, 101. Smithsonian Institution, P. P. Carpenter on the principles and working of the, 109 Snow (Capt. W. Parker) on the lost Polar expedition and the possible recovery of its scientific documents, 180. Sound, Rey. S, Earnshaw on the triplicity of, 58. Sound of thunder, Rev. S. Earnshaw on the velocity of the, 58. Species, Prof. Draper on the intellectual development of Europe, considered with reference to the views of Mr. Darwin and others on, 115. Spectrum, colours of the, Prof. Maxwell on an instrument for exhibiting any mixture of the, 16, Spiders (British), notice of Mr. Black- wall’s work on, 120. Spirals, on an improved instrument for describing, 690. Sprengel (Dr. Hermann) on a new form of blowpipe for laboratory use, 72. Staffordshire (North) coal fields, W. Mo- lyneux on fossil fish from the, 88. Stainton (H. T.) on some peculiar forms amongst the micro-lepidopterous larve, 122, Stars, variable, prospectus of the Hartwell atlas of, 36. Statistics, address by N. W. Senior at Oxford, 182. Steam, saturated, W. Fairbairn on the density of, 210. Steam-ships, cylindrical spiral _ boiler adapted to, by John Elder, 204. Steam, superheated, W. Fairbairn on the law of expansion of, 210. Stenops Potto, Prof. Van der Hoeven on the anatomy of, 134. Stereoscopes, A. Claudet on the means of ‘ increasing the angle of, to obtain an effect in proportion to their magnifying power, 61. Stewart (Balfour) on some recent exten- sions of Prevost’stheory ofexchanges,19. Stonesfield, Oxfordshire, E. Hull on the thickness of the fermations below the great oolite at, 81. Stonestield slate, J. F. Whiteaves on the fossils of the, 104. Stone hatchets, Sir E. Belcher on their manufacture by the Esquimaux, 154. Stoney (G. J.) on rings seen in viewing a light through fibrous specimens of cale-spar, 19. Stonyhurst, results of ten years’ meteo- rological observations at, 56. Storms, British, Admiral FitzRoy on, 39. , arrangements for communicating warning of, from one part of the country to the other, 42. Storms, Captain W. Parker Snow on practical experience of Admiral Fitz- Noy’s law of storms in each quarter of the globe, 52. Strata, Rev. J. Dingle on the corruga- tion of, in the vicinity of mountain ranges, 77. Substitutions, Rev. T. P. Kirkman on the roots of, 4. Sugar and amyloid substances, Dr. R. M°Donnell on the formation of, in the animal economy, 129. Sullivan (Mr.) on the tribes of Indians inhabiting the country explored by the British N, American expedition, 173. INDEX II, Sun’s, surface, R. Hodgson on a brilliant eruption on the, 36. Siis tribes of Morocco, E. Schlagintweit on the, 177. Sylvester (Prof.) on a generalization of Poncelet’s theorems for the linear repre- sentation of quadratic radicals, 7. Symons (G, J.), results of an investiga- tion into the phenomena of English thunder-storms, 52. Symonds (Rev. W. S.) on the selection of a peculiar geological habitat by some of the rarer British plants, 102. Synge (Capt. M. H.) on the proposed com- munication between the Atlantic and Pacific, vid British North America, 181. Tactions of Apollonius of Perga, Dr. Brennecke on some solutions of the problem. of, by modern geometry, 4. Taylor (Admiral) on means to lessen the loss of life round our coasts; also a permanent deep-water harbour of refuge by artificial bars, 215. Tchihatchef (Pierre de) on the geogra- phical distribution of plants in Asia Minor, 181. Tea and alcohols, their action contrasted, by Dr. E. Smith, 145, : Telegraph, North Atlantic, Col. Schaffner on the geography of the, 178. Telegraphic wires, S. W. Silver on gutta percha and india-rubber as insulators for, 212. Telegraphic wires, Messrs. Werner and C. W. Siemens on a mode of covering with india-rubber, 215. Telegraphic wires, submarine, W. Hall on a process for covering with india- rubber, 211. Telegraphs, electric submarine, M. Wer- ner and C, W. Siemens on the princi- ples and practice involved in dealing with the electrical conditions of, 32. Telemeter, P. Adie on an instrument for measuring actual distances, 59. Telescope, reflecting, for celestial photo- graphy, H. Draper on a, 63. Temperature, minimum, at Greenwich and Utrecht, J. Park Harrison on the similarity of the lunar curves of, 44, Temperature in mountain countries, J. Ball on a plan for systematic observa- tions of, 37. Tenby, Rev. G. N. Smith on three un- described bone-caves near, 101. Tennant (Prof.) on the Koh-i-Noor pre- vious to its cutting, 87. Teredines, British, J. G. Jeffreys on the, 117. 233 Teredo navalis, Prof. Van der Hoeven on the, 136. Thames from Lechlade to Windsor, Rev. J. C. Clutterbuck on the course of the, as ruled by the geological formations over which it passes, 75, Thermo-barometers compared with baro- meters at great heights, R. von Schla-~ ° gintweit on, 50. Thomas (R.) on thin films of decomposed glass found near Oxford, 19. Thomson (Prof. W.) on atmospheric elec- tricity, 53. Thudichum (Dr.) on thiotherine, 72; on the physiological relations of the co- louring matter of the bile, 147. Thunder, Rev. S. Earnshaw on the velo- city of the sound of, 58. Thunder-storms, English, G. J. Symons on results of an investigation into the phenomena of, 52, Tomopteris onisciformis, notes on, by Dr, E. P. Wright, 124. Topaz, white, of New Holland, particu- larly fitted for optical purposes, Sir D. Brewster on, 8. Train (G, F.) on street railways as used in the United States, 215. Travancore, observatory of, J. A. Broun on certain results of observations in the, 20. Triassic drift, C. Moore on the contents of three square yards of, from the neighbourhood of Frome, 87, Tristram (Rev, H. B.) on the geological system of the central Sahara of Algeria, 102. Turks in Central Asia, R. von Schlagint- weit on the, 176. Tynedale coal-field, J. A. Knipeon the, 86. United States, P. P. Carpenter on the progress of natural scienve in the, 109; on street railways as used in the, 215. Utrecht and Greenwich, J. Park Harrison on the similarity of the lunar curves of minimum temperature at, 44. Vacuum tubes, electrical, Prof. W. B. Rogers on the phenomena of, 30, Van der Hoeven (Prof.) on the anatomy of Stenops Potto, 134; on the Teredo navalis, 136. Vancouver's Island, geology of, Dr. Hec- tor on the, 81. Venus, planet, on some recorded observa- tions of the, in the seventh century be- fore Christ, 35. Verdet (M.) on the dispersion of the planes of polarization of the coloured 934 rays produced by the action of mag- netism, 54. Verloren (Dr.) on the effect of tempera- ture and periodicity on the develop- ment of certain lepidoptera, 123. Vertebrata, terrestrial, P. L. Sclater on the geographical distribution of, 121. Vision, binocular, experiments and con- clusions on, by Prof. W. B. Rogers, 17. Vivian (E.), results of his new self-regis- tering hygrometers, 55. Voelcker (Prof.) on poisonous metals in cheese, 73. Volcano (the Kotligja) in Iceland, W. L. Lindsay on an irruption of, 86. Volcanos, Dr. Daubeny on the elevation theory of, 75. Volume theory, C. M. von Bose on the, 71. Volutor, Rev. Dr. Booth on an improved instrument for describing spirals, 60. Wallace (Dr. W.) on the causes of fire in Turkey-red stoves, 73. Washing machine, atmospheric, by J. Parker, 210. Washington, Smithsonian Institution at, P. P. Carpenter on the principles and working of the, 109. Water, D. Chadwick on a meter for the correct measurement of, 204, Water-meters, D. Chadwick on, 204. Weeds, exposed to a temperature of 198° below zero of Fahrenheit’s scale not losing the power of germination, Prof. Wartmann on, 110. Weld (Rev. A.), results of ten years’ me- teorological observations at Stonyhurst, 56. Werner and Siemens (Messrs.), outline of the principles and practice involved in dealing with the electrical conditions of submarine electric telegraphs, 32 ; REPORT—1860. on a mode of covering wires with india- rubber, 215. Westwood (J. O.) on mummy beetles, 123 ; on a lepidopterous parasite on the body of the Fulgora candelaria, 124. Wexford, iron pyrites connected with fos- sil graptolites from Tinnaglough in the county of, A. Gages on, 79. Wheat, mummy, Prof. Henslow on the supposed germination of, -110. Whelk, common (Buccinum undatum), on specimens having double opercula, 117. Whin-sill of Cumberland and Northum- berland, J. A. Knipe on the, 86. Whiteaves (J. F.) on the invertebrate fauna of the lower oolites of Oxfordshire, 104. Wiers’s (Mr.) alkalimeters, 72. Wilsdruff, Saxony, Dr. Geinitz on the Silurian formation in the district of, 79. Wolverhampton, Rev. W. Lister on rep- tilian foot-prints in the new red sand- stone north of, 87. Woodall (Captain) on the intermittent springs of the chalk and oolite of the neighbourhood of Scarborough, 108. Woodward’s solar camera, A. Claudet on, 62. Wright (Dr. E. P.) on Tomopteris onisci- formis, 124. Wright (Dr. Thomas) on the Avicula con- torta beds and lower lias in the south of England, 108. Wright (T.) on the excavations on the site of the Roman city of Uriconium at Wroxeter, 181. Zoology, systematic, Prof. Collingwood on recurrent animal. form, 114; Prof. V. Carus on the value of development in, 125. ONS the - BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. The Published Reports of Proceedings at the Meetings of the Association may be obtained by Members on application to the under-mentioned Local Treasurers, or Agents appointed by them, at the following prices, viz.— Reports for 1849, 1850, 1851, 1852, 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, 1857, 1858, at two-thirds of the Publication Price; and for the purpose of completing their sets, any of the first seventeen volumes, of which more than 100 copies remain, at one-third of the Publication Price. TREASURER. DEPOT FOR THE REPORTS. LONDON .......«...John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S. Messrs. Taylor & Francis, Printing a 6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames Street. Office, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street. LOCAL TREASURERS. DEPOTS. York............... William Gray, Esq., F.G.S. ........... Yorkshire Museum. CAMBRIDGE ......C.C. Babington, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. ... House of the Philosophical Society. EDINBURGH...... William Brand, Esq. .......+s+e+seeeeeee Union Bank of Scotland. DuBLIN............John H. Orpen, LL.D. ............2.0.018 South Frederick Street. BRISTOL .......... William Sanders, Esq., F.G.S. ........Philosophical Institution, Park Street. LIVERPOOL .,,...Robert M¢Andrew, Esq., F.R.S. .....7 North John Street. BIRMINGHAM ...W. R. Wills, Esq. .....cs.sseeeeeeeesss bitmingham. GLASGOW.......-.Professor Ramsay, M.A. ...ssess0000+e. Lhe College. MANCHESTER «:..R. P. Greg, Esq., F.G.S..............ee