Ta thSeretisaa55 renege tiga satss Dara is = . os STDs: Blears, b et i Shes aera a dad eee REPORT OF THE FORTY-SEVENTH MEETING a g MUSES N\A BOP Ke PEE <) hee ee Be en \ on een : ¥ = OF THE C FP OE amet y t/ m r + sf BRITISH ASSOCIATION ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; HELD AT PLYMOUTH IN AUGUST 1877. LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1878. [Office of the Association; 22 AtBEMARLE Srrert, Lonpon, W.1| PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET, lll ee a a CONTENTS. Pa, Opzects and Rules of the Association .......0....cecceccceces xvii Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement ..........., XXiV Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from SR FSTTE BI COMIEN Gi 1s)5) setae !atergie ofald Oo a's)s is 4 eves 4573 8 « rar oratshay viel rake S08 MERRY 0). dialled dascia sods Wo ale s.dleibidoldla olde Ae bie ale xli Meerares ta the Operative Classes’... 2... cc ce ccc ap ea eeee xiii Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at Annual Meetings .. xliv MeeMIRCD HU AOCOURG® 5 i cis evsiac vas ba Seka abs ele ele oF ed wee e ee xlvi Officers of Sectional Committees present at the Plymouth Meeting.. = xvii Officers and Council, 1877-78 ....... oh Bias. crn lh eae xlvili Report of the Council to the General Committee ................ xlix Recommendations of the General Committee for Additional Reports Pees emnearitied 1, NCIONCE, . . ¥:<\44 thi¢ 920 en ete as wn vielen maw ae li aunnei of Money Grants: o/s bi ee aa lvii a To aia on acca hp oF» Re an sini wd Beaks lyiii General Statement of Sums paid on account of Grants for Scientific Erte str aii Sh ects To aa Wedron \ Sw ak w Pro eine lix Arrangement of the General Meetings ...............00eeceeee lxvii Address by the President, Professor Atten Tuomson, M.D., LL.D., EMER PLB e Falk fee cin ig elas Wis) ora yel oe pve sf saved 6 o's + epiewieraisee Lxyviii REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. Thirteenth Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent’s Cavern, Devon- shire—the Committee consisting of Joun Evans, F.R.S., Sir Jonw Lussocr, Bart., F.R.S., Epwarp Vivian, M.A., Grorce Bus, F.R.S., Professor Boyp Dawns, F.R.S., Wrtt1am AysHrorp Sanrorp, F.G.S., Joun Epwarp Lez, F.G.8., and Wr11am Peneetty, F.R.S. (Reporter). RR rete ae ithe Sates aca Sees + ti ak Wan Soe ie Some Second Report of a Committee, consisting of E: C. C. Srayrorp, Jamus Dewar, Atrrep EK. Frercuer, E. W. Parnent, T. R. Oertvrm, and Atrrep H. Auten (Secretary), appointed to inquire into the Methods employed in the Estimation of Potash and Phosphoric Acid in Com- mercial Products and the mode of stating the Results. Drawn up RPG Me AMURM cs .)) skh ve «is EL 8K ole RA bale 5 9 iv CONTENTS. Third Report of a Committee, consisting of E. C. C. Sranrorp, A. E. Firrcuer, J. Dewar, E. W. Parnett, T. R. Ocrtvm, and ALFRED H. Autry (Secretary), on the Methods of estimating Potash and Phos- phoric Acid in Commercial Products containing them, and on the Statement of the Results. Drawn up by Atrrep H. ALLEN ...... Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Crustacea.—Part III. On the Homologies of the Dermal Skeleton (continued), By C. Deuver Bare, FURS. Ge... . ics. oe. eo es ose at ot ole ole ee Third Report of the Committee for investigating the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the New Red Sandstone and Permian Forma- tions of England, and the quantity and character of the Water supplied to various towns and districts from these formations, including Report on the South-Lancashire Wells, by T. M. Reapz. The Committee consisting of Prof. E. Hutz, Rev. H. W. Crossxry, C. E. Dz Rance, Captain D. Gaxron, Prof. A. H. Greeny, Prof. R. Harxyuss, deljals Howett, W. Motynevx, G. H. Morron, T. Merrarp Reap, Prof. Prestwich, and W. Wuiraxer. Drawn up by C. E. De Rance (Secretary)... (Plate I.) ........- esse eee cece e ene ee wees Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Prof. Presrwicu, Prof. Harxyess, Prof. Hucurs, Prof. W. Born Dawxins, the Rey. H. W. Crosskrey, Messrs. L. C. Miatr, G. H. Morron, D. Macxrytosu, R. H. Tivpemay, J. E. Lez, T. Prant, W. Peneerry, and Dr. Drane, appointed for the purpose of recording the position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size, and origin of the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland, reporting other matters of interest con- nected with the same, and taking measures for their preseryation. Drawn up by the Rev. H. W. Crossxry, Secretary .............. Fourth Report of a Committee, consisting of Prof. A. 8. Herscuer, M.A., F.R.A.S., and G. A. Lesour, F.G.8., on Experiments to determine the Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks, showing especially the Geo- logical Aspects of the Investigation. ; 0... 5.022. sca. soueitne « Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors during the year 1876-77, by a Committee, consisting of James Grarsuer, F.R.S., R. P. Gree, F.G.S., F.R.A.S8., C. Brooxs, F.R.S., Prof.G. Forzes, F.R.S.E.,F.R.AS., Water Frient, D.Sc., F.G.S., and Prof. A. 8. Herscner, M.A., F.R.A.S. Drawn up by Prof. Herscuen (Secretary) ............ Tenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Prof. Everrrr, Sir W. Tomson, F.R.S., Prof. J. Crerxk Maxwett, F.R.S., G. J. Symons, ~F.MS,, Prof, Ramsay, F.R.S., Prof. A. Germ, F.RS., Janus GuatsHer, F.R.S., W. Pencetry, F.R.S., Prof. Hurt, F.R.S., Prof. Awstep, F.R.S., Prof. Presrwicu, F.R.S., Dr. C. Lz Neve Fosrer, F.G.S., Prof. A. S. Herscuer, F.R.A.S., G. A. Lepour, F.G.S., A. B. Wrynz, F.G.8., W. Gartoway, and Josrpx Dickinson, F.G.S., ap- pointed for the purpose of investigating the Rate of Increase of _ Underground Temperature downwards in various Localities of Dry * Land and under Water. Drawn up by Prof. Evrrert, Secretary Page 26 36 56 81 90 98 . 194 a - ‘ CONTENTS. z P Report of the Committee, consisting of Jamzs R. Narremr, F.R.S., Sir W. Tuomson, F.R.S., W. Frovups, F.R.S., J. T. Borromtny, and OspornE Reyyotps, F.R.S. (Secretary), appointed to investigate the Effect of Propellers on the Steering of Vessels... .............2 cee ccencees Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. H. F. Barngs, C. Spmnce Barz, Esq., H. E. Drussur, Esq. (Secretary), Dr. A. GinrnEr, J. E. Harrine, Esq., J. Gwyn Jerrreys, Esq., Professor Newton, and the Rey. Canon Tristram, appointed for the purpose of inquiring into the possibility of establishing a Close Time for the protection of NTMI ANEUTUIS Su. Sera rials 6 Oy a Sy siniees 2% 40 kos «ea ee hale Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. W. N. Harrtey, F.R.S.E., Mr. W.C. Rozerts, F.R.S., and Mr. Joun M. Tuomson, appointed for the purpose of investigating some Double Compounds of Nickel and Beats by Mr..Joun, Mo THOMSON 2.00.8. ee gee eee ne awe Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Joun Lussocx, Bart., Prof. Prestwicn, Prof. Busx, Prof. T. M‘K. Huenns, Prof. W. Boyp Dawerns, Prof. Mratt, Rev. H. W. Crosskry, and Mr. R. H. Trppe- MAN, appointed for the purpose of assisting in the Exploration of the Settle Caves (Victoria Cave). Drawn up. by R. H. Tippeway MITE nthe itt 7. Po aes LINES RI. Do oper ereeer ase Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir W. Tomson, F.R.S., Major- General Srracuey, F.R.S., Captain Dovertas Garton, F.R.S., Mr. G. F. Deacon, Mr. Rocrrs Frerp, Mr. E. Roserts, and Mr. Jamzs N. Smoorsrep (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of considering the Datum Level of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain, with a view to its establishment on a surer foundation than hitherto .......... ~ Report of the Committee, consisting of Prof. Huxtry, Dr. Carpenter, Mr. Scrarer, Mr. F. M. Batrour, Dr. M. Foster, Prof. E. Ray Lan- Kester, and Mr. Drew-Surrx, appointed for the purpose of arranging with Dr. Donen for the occupation of a Table at the Zoological ENE RNR Ne Boy ia tale Ggciien athe ey Ty 0) ain s. Haas, nes oi Sla)(ote/ vee Report of the Anthropometric Committee, consisting of Dr. Brppor, Lord Aprrparn, Dr. Farr, Mr. Francis Gaxton, Sir Henry Raw- tinson, Colonel Lanz Fox, Sir Rawson Rawson, Mr. James Hey- woop, Dr. Movar, Professor Rotteston, Mr. Hatiterr, Mr. Frttows, PPE ELCRSGEMGRON TE IRV Weert nie.v ogee) cots so sepa.s seduces wares Report on the Conditions under which Liquid Carbonic Acid exists in Rocks and Minerals, by a Committee consisting of Watrrr Norn Harrtey, F.R.S.E., E. J. Mitts, D.Sc., F.R.S., and W. CaanpLEeR Roserts, F.R.S. Drawn up by W. N. Harrier, "B.RSE. ; 200 207 209 215 220 228 231 . 232 vi CONTENTS. NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. : Address by Professor G. Carry Foster, F.R.S., President of the Section .. t MATHEMATICS. Professor J. C. ApAms on the Calculation of Bernoulli’s Numbers up to B,, by ANIPANS OL SUMS CHEOTOM: « .. a15o:\= sto \c/alee tp «eens een okelp tele etter 8 SSS on the Calculation of the Sum of the Reciprocals of the First Thousand Integers, and on the Value of Euler’s Constant to 260 Plagesiof Decimals .0.scyis 025 «2 s+ 29h Open als megan na thee aw Gee 14 — on a Simple Proof of Lambert’s Theorem .......... 15 Professor Cavity, Suggestion of a Mechanical Integrator for the.calculation of {(Xde+Yay) along an arbitrary Path.........ssssevecesesssssedes 18 Mr. J. W. L. GuaisHer on the Values of a Class of Determinants.......... 20 on the Enumeration of the Primes in Burckhardt and Dase's Tables’ 6.555.504) «slave ss cele ee bp)» acacte oriole arwiasle ele We 20 Dr. D. Brerens pe Haan on the Variation of the Modulus in Elliptic HbR peAI Se They My. eNy Two apihh wel bale Wlawh eb wa bwiTw, slek o ers Maple ieee nee 23 Mr. Henry M. Jerrery on Cubics of the Third Class with Three Single Foci 26 on a Cubic Curve referred to a Tetrad of corre- SPON GI OND OI Gs 2). «Sols cesvg MeN a eretecs «tel ere te wisin sleleie eld.a'nie Whee feta meme 28 Mr. F. G. Lanpon on a Method of Deducing the Sum of the Reciprocals of the First 2?x Numbers from the Sum of the Reciprocals of the First n WNENGDRYS Grain Bea b's sincaip. Sa TRH 1 ee s's-o orem orice beled eels cle Rees a ee 30 ASTRONOMY. Professor J. C. ADaMs on some Recent Advances in the Lunar Theory...... 31 Professor Havcuton on a new Method of Calculating the Absolute Duration of Geological Pariader ip . carsiigny @105 < sks sie(s once pcg siestle 322m eek Pe 31 , the Solar Eclipse of Agathocles considered, in reply to Professor Newcomb’s criticism on the Coefficient of Acceleration of the Moon’s Ment Motion .isepe sis oatigeia ie eccer ss ore viet «sym ee aise od Mr. F. G. Lanpon on the Tendency of a System of Heavenly Bodies to Centralize and Applanize, if subject to Resistance in their Motions........ 31 Major G. N. Monry on a Meteor which passed over Bhawnpore, in India, in October 1873 CONTENTS. Lieut, P Captain Anny on a Method of showing the Sun’s Rotation by Spectrum ; Phofopraphy ..e ccs ccsce te ces ener cssenes BPeeaye arapeit ae stois tate exe's oLale Mr. A. Vernon Harcourt on a new Unit of Light for Photometry ...... Lord RayiEr1eH on the Lower Limit of the Prismatic Spectrum ...,...... Mr. J. Tram Tayior on a Binocular Microscope for High Powers........ Mr. Siryanus P. THompson on some new Optical Illusions ..,........4.. on the Relative Apparent Brightness of Objects in Binocular and Monocular Vision .........scesverseeseceveveveteree ELECTRICITY. Messrs. W. E. Ayrton and J. Perry on the Viscosity of Dielectrics ...... ————_—$ ——___—_—_—_—__—_--—__ on the Contact Theory of Voltaic Action Mr. Cxartes CuamBrrs on Magnetic Induction as affecting Observations of the Intensity of the Horizontal Component of the Earth’s Magnetic Force Professor G. CAREY Foster on the Mode of stating some Elementary Facts MY MNBCHICITY ee ccc seen Sher HEAT, ele oie Snare See bus ala ate! ovat ete tats selfs Mr. W. H. PREECE on the Telephone ........seeeececeeeeeee ren eeneeees Mr. 8S. P. Tompson on an improved Lantern Galvanoscope .........+65 be Sir W. Tuomson on the Effect of Transverse Stress on the Magnetic Suscepti- Pility of Tron... 0... ese e steed ee eben see renee ene ee rerersanaeees Mr. T. T. P. Bruck WarREN on the Determination of Temperature-coefficients for insulating Envelopes........c cscs cece tens ne ee enee ee seneeetanee Sounp. Professor H. M‘Lxop on a new Method of Determining the Vibration-number BE POMBE OTK oo. es eee ee Lew seme ge te csanate de ope Cenc at Mr. Srrvanus P. THompson on Binaural Audition ......eseceseseneneees METEOROLOGY. Dr. BarHam on some Relations of Sea and Land Temperature in the South- west of England ....ccccccercrsees ssc edseecessesccessvesesveosees Mr. G. Dives on Difference of Rainfall with Elevation .............0.00- Mr. A. Matxocx on the Measurement of the Height of Clouds ............ Mr. C. Mexiprum on the Diurnal Variations of the Barometer and Wind in Mauritius deatevee EAL Actelae ate d VERO sc PER WEE VW otacc se srec 0 ole tele tts sis 0 Mr. Joun MERRIFIELD on the Meteorology of Plymouth ............504 MISCELLANEOUS. Mr. P. Brana, Experiments illustrative of the Flight of Projectiles ...... Commander CuEynn, Suggestion for a new Polar Expedition, with a proposed PRESCOTT eater eRe tah re cicla. dvala'e lord alaralara¥o/sie,clatguelbalneteiy py argend eles) ateretetace vii 37 87 Captain Evans and Sir W. THomson on the Tides of Port Louis, Mauritius, ea ind Hremantle, AUStralIA fo 0 0. te eee cnet sates era bersanranss Mr. J. A. Ewrne and Dr. J. Gorpon MacGrecéor on the Volumes of CAEP LOIS, sc vinysisverese Saleladee order Seb teat ale trehs EMME SParecinie sees viii CONTENTS. ma Page Dr. J. H. Guapstone on some Points connected with the Chemical Con- - Bintwents-Of the Solar SyStOnl crisis o'r 27.0: is etaieye one hepa ats alata ace aioe, ok Professor HaveHTon, Summary of the First Reduction of the Tidal Obser vations made by the recent Arctic Expedition ............s0eeeeeeeeee 42 Professor Hennessy on the Physical Properties of Solids and Liquids in Re- "lation: to the -Warth’s Sirucvure ss... + .' 2 = s+» «es vier uteicieralne cies Oaiehnerernts 42 Mr. A. Maxtock on the Molecular Changes which take place in Iron and Steel while Cooling s.nsisielss eisai: 0 t% Sadi Shel .ce Re rene he ohare 42 Professor OsBoRNE ReEyNoxps on the Rate of Progression of Groups of Waves, and the Rate at which Energy is transmitted by Wind .......... 42 Messrs. C, H. Srzarn and J. W. Swan on a new Form of Sprengel’s Air- jie “sone omboso Ubon Sadao ap joss eiAAis 01s vieieiels os o) etek eee eet 43 Sir W. THomson, Solutions of Laplace’s Tidal Equation for certain special Dy pelo Oscilinien -(syjrs<.a searepcis cass ss vise sit Se oy 9 ee oe 43 ee on Diurnal and Semidiurnal Harmonic Constituents of the Variation ‘of Barometric’ Pressure 11.2.2. Weats os eeisls see eee shee aeeteee . 48 on a Marine Azimuth Mirror and its Adjustments........ 43 on the Possibility of Life on a Meteoric Stone falling on the LDH peas dblelop obi ava Sieidinolishs lorahater auaie omer tcts ic ate stot] ote tee rer ne 43 Mr. ©. J. Woopwarp on a new Form of Apparatus to illustrate the Inter- ference of Plane Waves ............ Dscahehelatereicleve 7s 4.eeesttee ainienrty heii 43 CHEMISTRY. Address by Professor ABEL, F.R.S., President of the Section.............. 43 Professor Barrr on the Formation of the Black Oxide of Iron on Iron Surfaces, for the Prevention of Corrosion a sjsu stig 4 0 siete alee ne 50 Mr. P. Brana on the Explosive Character of a Mixture of Magnesium and Potageom Chlorate’. sdb xsilcwiaeiot 2 oy. sada HO 3 AO 51 Mr. T. Farriey on Hydrogen Peroxide and some Uranium Compounds’..., 51 on the Thermo-chemistry of Oxygen ...........0.c0eeuee 61 Professor J. H. GLapSTONE on some Candles altered by long Exposure to 2A oe a er ee Acti ae cL ts ee 51 Mr. A. Vernon Harcourt on the Application of a new Unit of Light to the Hxammafion of Coal-gag oo... cc. 1452000 s0nacsxen san) dee 51 Mr. Cuarves T, Kinezerr on Hederic Acid and Resin of Scammony...... 52 Dr. B. H. Paux and My. C. T. Kinezerr, Preliminary Account of the Al- kaloids from Japanese ACONIG. 16.5. sssis sich steps a e's a stas aoe om 52 Mr. C. T, Kinezert and M. Zinger on the Albumen of Commerce ....., 52 Mr. James Macrear on an Improved System of Alkali Manufacture........ 52 on a new Mechanical Furnace used in the Alkali Manufacture and for Calcining Purposes generally..........., ie > 52 —_—_—— on the Regeneration of Sulphur employed in the Alkali Manufacture by the Mactear Process ............0cccccececcecucccee, 52 Dr. OpxING on some Properties of Gallium ............ 00.00 ccc cee sees, 53 on BenvinsWMenvaives: os. her een cea apiece 53 on Dr. W. Gibb’s Researches on Cobaltamines ................ 53 Mr. 8. E. Puirurrs on the Constitution of Mellitic Acid..............4... 53 on the Principle of Uric Acid Genesis ..........4.0. ry 3, Te Ue ae Or _ ie CONTENTS. ix Mx. . A. READWIN on some recent Changes of Gold Surfaces .........4+- 53 on some recent Gold Pseudomorphs ........++.ee005 53 Dr. D. C. Ross on the Oxidation of Colophony........ccesceceesewecees » 53 Mr. 8. P. Tompson on some Circular Tables for Analysis ..........+00005 53 Mr. Witr1am H. Warson on the Action of various Fatty Oils upon Copper 53 Dr. Joun Watts on Pyrocatechin as a Derivative of certain Varieties of PIREEIOMNGIG Ms Sure. co 'o s sieltteld avian dole pleleisvelertis weiale sie oles oelals sein aleiae 53 Mr. T. Wrxt8 on the Arctic Coal brought home by the late Expedition ..., 53 Dr. C. R. AtpER Wrieut, Contributions to Chemical Dynamics ......... . 54 -- on the Aconite Alkaloids .......ssseeeevees .. 54 GEOLOGY. Address by W. PENGELLY, F.R.S., F.G.S., President of the Section ........ 54 Mr. AnTHUR CHAMPERNOWNE on the Succession of the Paleozoic Deposits 0 SRE LEO arin Rens anon ObIn Uke Ed od GO DITIRE in ISIC eAcInn noo con 66 Professor J. W. CuarxE on the Origin and Antiquity of the Mounds of s TESTRON), [ShSe Ge oaiee odpm ion 4.27 80h S 758 On br encircle aC Mea Re OO 67 Mr, J. H. Coruins on the Serpentine of Duporth, in St. Austell Bay, Cornwall 68 ——— on-the Driftiof Plymouth Hoe... 26.06 n.cee. teekeae bes 68 Mr. C. E. Dr Rancz on the Correlation of certain Post-Glacial Deposits in aah LLG TODS AIRS egies Ble O.didiegs ob tor-Ob c.g [eigen GIES eo 68 M. G. Dewarate on the Devonian System in England and in Belgium...... 69 Dr, O. Lz Neve Foster on some of the Stockworks of Cornwall .......... 70 —_____——_———- on some Tin-Mines in the Parish of Wendron, NS LU 2 Stviilngne ees HeieiGinb letinigioninol adertoannocer auiore cditoennh 70 —_— on the Great Flat Lode south of Redruth and Cam- (REE ce 6 eces gC iLgEaChOlo Ob a0 rE sea pV et ONT IGIEP CTO ON ERCHERENE Eo Oo DORI Ros BAC 71 Mr. R. A. C. Gopwry-AtstTEN on the Geological Significance of the Boring Beene sar Menx Sy Ere wery,PUONGOM «45 eaj2 oe deaecit vase es vee ve sscnss 04's 71 Mr. W. Gowy, a Short Sketch on the Finding of Silurian Rocks in Teesdale.. 71 Professor HeER on the Fossil Flora of the Arctic Regions ..............4. 72 Mr. J. Gwyn Jerrreys on the Post-Tertiary Fossils procured in the late Arctic Expedition ; with Notes on some of the Recent or Living Mollusca from the same Expedition SISA Sage TRE RTT Hee Aree ae UR. Stree: 72 Mr. G. A. Lezsour on the Occurrence of Pebbles in Carboniferous Shale in SRE TER TCL ATID | Vs ftv ct siaievatain s, 00 She STAVAINIS ke, WS slakete ale elecdd vera ere ceavsas\iioiele 72 - ———— on the Age of the Cheviot Rocks ...........0eseeeees 72 My. Wii11am Motynevx on the Occurrence of Aviculopecten and other Marine Shells in Deposits associated with Seams of Coal containing Salt Water in meme pis Oh ea leteeee teats Eases fo sieincae hy!» cyy.ns aa: fais ioNGfs olsjie'a "0's a1 a'e's 16's: a/0% 9.6 73 Mr. Grorcr H. Morton on the Carboniferous Limestone and Millstone Grit in the Country around Llangollen, N. Wales............seeeeeeeevcnes 74 Mr. A.S. Morr on the Source and Function of Carbon in the Crust of the Rae 7 Prev aMyOR RR e aos ey orc, Sescaees, ivy. mi Ghoarsher or ciarsceht pl aber sustaus ane areas Peeve 75 _Mr.8. R. Parrison on the Carboniferous Coast-line of North Cornwall .... 75 Mr. W. PENGELLY, Sketch of the Geology of the Coast from the Rame Head to the Bobb Tail.,..,..... (nig aan BOT ano. Ge an OUR aiden 76 x CONTENTS. Page Mr. J. S. PHené& on some Peculiar Stalactitic Formations from the Island of PATS BATOR. voc ys eves Pry EL eee eet eee bs we ke & Tee ee Mr. T. Puunxetr on the Exploration of some Caves in the Limestone Hills in Fermanagh, .,....ir.se« Ried cine os k nd wuieinbs este eed Ge Cuvee nee wt) He Mr. Crrment ReErp on the Junction of the Limestone and Culm-measures dlear, Cuetec ats) ays atelc/sis iether: cajelsie vie see *)sc4r> wlelale BC AON OND hood, Mr. H. C. Sorpy on a new Method for Studying the Optical Characters of WME eT ers! urmiaicforaraisse’ 0, efarae ipodae anode A oc odan mys One cea Mr. AntHuR Wm. Waters on the Influence of the Position of Land and Sea upon a Shifting of the Axis of the Harth......0/.......ceesseneess Mr. Henry Woopwarp on the Occurrence of Branchipus or Chirocephalus in a Fossil State in the upper part of the Fluvio-marine Series (Middle Eocene) at Gurnet and Thorness Bays, near Cowes, Isle of Wight........ 78 Mr. Horacr B. Woopwarp on the Devonian Rocks near Newton Abbot and Torquay ; with Remarks on the Subject of their Classification .......... Mr. R. N. Worrn on the Paleontology of Plymouth ...... Sains sa kniiemise « hae BIOLOGY. Address by J. Gwyn Jerrreys, LL.D., F.R.S., Treas. G. & L.SS., President PAENG SECTION 5) sae, ny 9) hvoia- a. 0th aver tweens oe MD Doct oooor 114 ANTHROPOLOGY PCTS GALTON S-AGOTORS oii sa cieccecnnetvedevenscrevevenuees 94 Dr. Baruam on Flint Flakes from Cornwall and the Scilly Isles............ 114 Mr. C. Spence Bate on Prehistoric Remains on Dartmoor..............65 114 Rey. Professor Brau, Exhibition and Description of a Soapstone Image from ALL a .cerhwoltelo.ono dg ge SIRRE RE COR Be Smear an cites acne DOSES ine 115 BEIEEDDON ON PHE DUIFATIANS .. ute ccs csc oee se nouesereseessoanans 115 Miss A. W. Bucxxanp on the Ethnological Hints afforded by the Stimulants Gethe Ancient and Modern Savages. .....-..0secccccecteseseeersseses 115 _ Dr. J. Evans on some Palzolithic Implements found in the Axe Valley .... 116 Colonel Lane Fox on some Saxon and British Tumuli near Guildford ...... 116 Mr. J. Park Harrison on some Rune-like Characters on Chalk .......... 117 Mr. Bertram F. HartsHorne on the Ancient People and Irrigation-works RMR OLEGCE, (che? SLIME Gr Tie blu Sis) c) el titi Wl oictats.alejstaje oitbhe MMPa Biola s Mal claudik oj 4a 117 ‘Mr. BF. M. HUNTER on Socotra ........ sss sees ee eeee cess esses eee e ences 118 Mr. Ep. Laws on the proposed Exploration of certain Caves in the neigh- MBLC ANGE MOTD) Buick vieicisin sid ce tioldl si. niessiel sivelelele ede Salad stad aaa ee 118 Mr. A. L. Lewis on the Devil’s Arrows (Yorkshire)..............000c000s 118 Dr. J. 8. PHEns on the District of Mycenz and its early Occupants ........ 119 Mr. H. Riverr-Carnac on Indian Archaic Remains and their resemblance MP RRIRABORT EY POR viy's ooo vs ve Wyle wel ele ovo OU Mala daewele 4 Me Sule ie ok 120 xii CONTENTS. Page Professor RoLLESTON on the Rationale of Artificial Deformations of the Head 120 —_—_——_- on the Rationale of Brachycephaly and Dolichocephaly 120 —_—— -—— on the Flora and Fauna of Prehistoric Times........ 120 —— , Exhibition and Explanation of the Uses of a Flint Hammer from the Western Coast of New Guinea ......cceeeeevevereers 121 Mr. Atremp SIMSON onthe Zaparos® 6.0. 000). oe sietiecies elec eleele see 121 Mr. H. C. Sorpy on the Colouring-matter in Human Hair................ 121 Rey. W. S. Lacu-Szyrma on the Ethnology of West Cornwall........... rae GAL Rey. S. J. WHITMEE on some Characteristics of the Malayo-Polynesians .... 122 GEOGRAPHY. Address by Admiral Sir Erasmus Ommanney, Knt., C.B., F.RS., F.R.AS., Prosident, of the Sections. yc. cecvyveasqs 510 aces oe a2 y ele donieemene mere 122 Major-General Sir J. E, ALEXANDER on the supposed True Site of Mount Singles cg vidos weces a a4 aa ciple 92 09-0 cecelete Ue OU Ree: pene aa nee 141 Commander V. L. CAMERON on proposed Stations in Central Africa as Bases for, fixture, Hx ploratign «sar sfelsre's > © sieis 0% «isin 610 alsa «)osnlyinhsille « viniialal alahetalsts) ato 141 Mr. Ernest A. Froyer on Bashakard in Western Baluchistan............ 143 Lieut.-Colonel H. H. Gopwin-AustEn on the Lower Course of the Brah- maputra OF Tsanpo 6... cece ee ee cece teeter eect ent e ne ee eens teres 144 Mr. F; Hotmwoop on the River Kingani in East Africa ............0.000- 144 Dr. J. Krrx on a Visit to the Mungao District in East Africa in 1876 ...... 145 Lieutenant KircHENrR on the Line of Levels run from the Mediterranean to (Hives SG, Oe CPE Soar ae aioeoe oD DO OOO OOOO DO BION ao D000. 000 sae eG Dr. O. Frnscu on the German Expedition to Western Siberia ............ 146 Captain H. C. Marsxu on a Journey overland to India in 1872, wd Meshed, Herat, Candahar, and the Boulan Pass ..... 6.00 0502+sesceee wecns suis 148 Dr. J. S. Puensé on Recent Tours in Unfrequented Parts of Greece ........ 148 Mr. ALFRED Simson on a Journey from Guayaquil to the Napo by the Upper aassa AOULO | eyes ayes poate etcne tenes ele sore Tovey inoue Sueno aprtn ieee ete ee eee 148 — on the Ascent of the River Putumayo, South America.. 149 Mr. W. H. TreTKens, an Account of the Latest Expedition across Central PATISEI AIA ls sinGe testes miteinatreumeseseisis «sisi ATMO LOO Orinoco on be 150 ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. Address by the Right Hon. the Eari Fortrscvun, President of the Section.. 151 Mr. G. C. T. Bartury on Thrift as an Element of National Strength ...... 162 My. J. H. Barren, Notes and Recollections on the Cultivation of Tea in the British Himalayan Provinces of Kumaon and Gurhwal ............00. 163 Dr. Joun Beppor on the Statistics of Victoria (Australia)........6...0005 163 Mz. Witiram Borie on Agricultural Statistics 5.5... sew salle panies 164 Mr. StepHen Bourne on the Growth of Population with Relation to the Means of Subsistenceri cs s.0is,+ «id sts. apepas)0 lel ote aie on ielg hel ole,» «ele 165 Mr. F. J. BRAMWELL on the Water Supply of London ...........++s.seee 173 Mr, A, BurRELL on the Tea-consumption of the United Kingdom.......... 174 CONTENTS. xii Page Mr. Hypr Crarxe on the Debts and Liabilities of Sovereign and Quasi- Sovereign States due to Foreign. Creditors 1.1... ..seeee sees eee ene eeeee 174 Dr. Farr on some Doctrines of Population........ nA | AM Aes eet a . 174 Dr. W. Nettson Hancock on the Cost of adopting the System of Public | Prosecutors in England, as illustrated by the results of the Scotch and Irish cc hese cere cen commas pg deere necanccrecnsenenseiviares 175 = on the Law of Succession to Property ........ 176 — on the Importance of Increasing the Punishment of Habitual Drunkards, and of Punishing those who Seriously Injure their Children by what they spend in Drink 1.1... esse eee ee ee eee renee —__-_______ on the Assimilation of the Laws of the United Kingdom, with especial reference to the Town Laws of Scotland as to Mainous BUUdIN GS 21.) jo. eles ee ces eweens caso ceed es veda ae weeds ieee) M. Axrn Kinory on Rates of Interest and Banks of Issue ..........++0005 179 _ Mr. Tuomas Litrrieton on the Health of Plymouth ........ssceeeeeeees 180 Mr. Tuomas Moran on the Amendment of the Patent Laws, referring to | several points not hitherto discussed... .. 6s... eeec ence eee e eben ene 181: _ Dr. Lawson Tarr on Hospital Mortality.......... A ee ieca oe een npecr 181 Sedtay. W. TucKWELL on School Banks............csccccucceecncesceeees 182 Sir James Watson on Improving the Sanitary Condition of Large Towns .. 182 Sir Grores Youne, Bart., on a proposed Reduction to System of the ‘ Modi- fications,’ cr Privileges to work Overtime, which are granted under the Factory Acts to particular Trades.......... iisieteibit: otuttds. clots « pletetste) PEL ea MECHANICAL SCIENCE. Address by Epwarp Woops, Esq., C.E., President of the Section. (Plates III. & IV.) ee we) Gi wig) ol! el @) 64 ble) a: 8) we) a. dhe) 6a 0) 6b e.© #| 4.6, © 0:8) 0,8) © 8.5) amo) he ore 186 Captain Aynstry on the Experiments of the Boiler Committee of the BMPMIPALGY soso s crete ecw eevee e sects eecreneeeservenesenesnens due rales Professor Barrr on the Preservation of Iron. ......seeeeeseeees Hoa tosnor 199 Mr. W. H. Bartow on the Upward Jets of Niagara........... PGCE OL tas (LOD Professor GRAHAM BELL on Recent Experiments in Telephony............ 201 _ Mx. G. D. Betxamy on the Plymouth Waterworks .......-.0eseeeeee eens 201 7 M. ©. Bercrron on the Removal of Sand Bars at the Mouth of Harbours., 201 _ My. F. J. Bramwert on the Circulation of Hot Water in Buildings ........ 201 _ Mr. J. H. Cortrs on Lode Mining in the West of England ...........++. 201 _ Mr. J. N. Dovewas on the Eddystone Lighthouse.........+++seeeeeee eee. ~My. Wirt14m Frovnve on the Resistance of Ships, as affected by length of parallel middle Body ....... cc cece ee eee teen eee e eee ene e ene eeeees 202 : —— on a new Dynamometer for large Marine Engines.... 202 Captain Doveras Gatron on the Works now in course of execution for im- proving the Navigation of one of the mouths of the Mississippi, under the D direction of Mr. James Eads, CE. .2.......ceeeeeeeeneeneneees teens 202 s SSS SS on the Jetties of the Mississippi..............55 206 Mr. Batpwin Laruam on the Interception of Rainfall from Sewers........ 207 —__________—_ on Indications of the Movement of Subterranean Water in the Chalk Formation. (Plate V.) ..cssecceeseeeeseevceceneuanens . 207 : Mr. THomas Lipsron on Thomas Newcomen’s Steam-engine (1712)....... . 217 ) Professor M‘Lzop on the Cycloscope ....sssseecsececeverceeneseesesees Obl X1V CONTENTS. Pa; Mr. James MactraR on a new Mechanical Furnace used in the Alkali Manu- facture and for Calcining-purposes generally .....ccseseeecereereeenee 217 Mr. P. J. Mareary on the Saltash Bridge ........csccesectvecerceeceres 217 Mr. Lorrvus Perxuns on Perkins’s High-pressure Engine ..,..... cenetoas 217 Professor O, ReyNoups on certain Dynamometers ....... ss cssee scene seers 217 —_— —— on Compound Turbines... sss secre ceveeeeeeeeeres 217 —_—_____——_——_ on the Difference of the Steering of Steamers with the Screw reversed when under full way and when moving slowly .......... 218 Mr. J. N. SHooLBRED on a more extended use of the Ordnance Datum of CNRS a tg WMANS gore A ve nas ies als Wace aed Sina’ AS Mo ow Ae One eee ae 218 Mr. G. STEVENSON on a Suspended Railway .......csvecceeseecereeveuce 218 Sir Wit1i1am THomson on the Importance of giving a Distinctive Character ie tha NeedlesdMnsht, ch age, hse acalesel dataterel celalonts alalekerds meee: nao oed 218 2 Seer on an Improved Method of Recording the Depth in AB y TOTS OTN ATS abs alse: sien oldin ¥asdelensians. wieveus ida lai mlelaiele erate aerate! 218 ————— —— on a Navigation Sounding Machine for use at Full REGOC a cceratsissete.o chavs vel aveie bs 8 sTunsve’ oral tte apa die of alaiasee aratekete aah aan aoalarnaneoas 218 en on the Mariner’s Compass, with Correctors for Iron RS atti in ol tven cai s dims 8 jam'cieaeistee ta MBIT ele elalerehgola pt teiielolaiaaeeniers 218 Mr. R. C. TownsEenD on the Plymouth Breakwater ........0sceeeaceveees 219 Mr, F, H. Vartey on Electric Block Telegraphs ....c.cacveceseeeees eee tee Mr. R. N, Wort on the Government Establishments of Plymouth and Nershibourood!sane ct teimeiee eine OnE Pc 13's a hierake sheets es 219 LIST OF PLATES. PLATE I. Illustrative of the Thirteenth Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire. PLATE II. Illustrative of the Third Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters. PLATES III.,: IY. Illustrative of Mr. Epwarp Woops’s Address to the Mechanical Section. PLATE Y. Illustrative of Mr. Batpwry Larnam’s Paper on Indications of the Movement of Subterranean Water in the Chalk Formation. ERRATA IN REPORT FOR 1876. Page lvii, line 2, for “ Bristol” read “ Glasgow.” Page 151 (Sections), line 12, for “ Sight” read “ Light.” OBJECTS AND RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. OBJECTS. Tue Assocration contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by other institutions. Its objects are :—To give a stronger impulse and a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one another and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress. RULES. Admission of Members and Associates. All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be- come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to con- form to its Rules. The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So- cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Members of the Association. The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of Philosophical Institutions shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem- bers of the Association. All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Council or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem- bers of the Association. Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Association, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the approval of a General Meeting. Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges. Lirz Mempers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be pub- b Xvill RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. lished after the date of such payment. ‘They are eligible to all the offices of the Association. Annvat Sunscrrpers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds, and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this Subscription in any particu- lar year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association gratis : but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any sub- sequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the sum One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association. Assoctares for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound. They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office. The Association consists of the following classes :— 1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid on admission Five Pounds as a composition. 2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on ad- mission Ten Pounds as a composition. 3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to the payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership after in- termission of Annual Payment. | 4. Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the pay- ment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of Annual Payment. ] 5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound. 6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council. And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’) price, according to the following specification, viz. :— 1. Gratis —Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo- sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845, a further sum of Five Pounds. New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a composition. Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub- scription. 2, At reduced or Members’ Prices, viz. two thirds of the Publication Price.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a composition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a Book Subscription. Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subscription. Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for that year only. | 3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any of the first seventeen volumes of Transactions of the Associa- tion, and of which more than 100 copies remain, at one third of the Publication Price. Application to be made at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle Street, London, W. RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. Xix - Volumes not claimed within two. years of the date of publication can only be issued by direction of the Council. Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries. Meetings. The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee two years in advance ; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Officers of the Association. . General Committee. The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the following persons :— Crass A. Permanent Members. 1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presidents of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of Reports in the Transactions of the Association. 2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have furthered the advancement of those subjects which are taken into consideration at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of submitting new claims under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must be sent to the Assistant General Secretary at least one month before the Meeting of the Association. The decision of the Council on the claims of any Member of the Association to be placed on the list of the General Committee to be final. Crass B. Temporary Members. 1. The President for the time being of any Scientific Society publishing Trans- actions or, in his absence, a delegate representing him. Claims under this Rule to be sent to the Assistant G'eneral Secretary before the opening of the Meeting. 2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not exceeding three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of Meeting. Claims under this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries before the opening of the Meeting. 3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by the Pre- sident and General Secretaries. 4, Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections. Organizing Sectional Committees*. _ The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sections are nominated by the Council, and have power to act until their names are submitted to the General Committee for election. From the time of their nomination they constitute Organizing Committees for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and Reports likely to be submitted to the Sections}, and of preparing Reports thereon, * Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871. t Notice to Contributors of Memoirs,—Authors are reminded that, under an arrange- ment dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which they are to be read, are now as far as possible determined by Organizing Committees sa several XX RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be read, to be pre- sented to the Committees of the Sections at their first Meeting. An Organizing Committee may also hold such preliminary Meetings as the President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any circum- stances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at 11 a.m., to settle the terms of their Report, after which their functions as an Organizing Committee shall cease. Constitution of the Sectional Committees*. On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presidents, end Secretaries of each Section having been appointed by the General Com- mittee, these Officers, and those previous Presidents and Vice-Presidents of the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at 2 p.m., in their Com- mittee Rooms, and enlarge the Sectional Committees by selecting individuals from among the Members (not Associates) present at the Meeting whose as- sistance they may particularly desire. The Sectional Committees thus con- stituted shall have power to add to their number from day to day. The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-Book, and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on the next day, in the Journal of the Sectional Proceedings. Business of the Sectional Committees. Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday at 2 p.m., on the following Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Monday, and Tuesday, from 10 to 11 a.m., punctually, for the objects stated in the Rules of the Association, and specified below. The business is to be conducted in the following manner :— 1.—The President shall call on the Secretary to read the Minutes of the previous Meeting of the Committee. 2.—No Paper shall be read until it has been formally accepted by the Com- mittee of the Section, and entered on the Minutes accordingly. 3.—Papers which have been reported on unfavourably by the Organizing Committees shall not be brought before the Sectional Committees +. At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of last year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis of Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association and printed in the last volume of the Transactions. He will next proceed to read the Report of the Organizing Committee +. The List of Communications to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general distribution of t These rules were adopted by the General Committee, Plymouth, 1877. { This and the following sentence were added by the General Committee, 1871. oe eee Oe RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XX1 business throughout the week shall be provisionally appointed. At the close of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The Printer is charged with publishing the same beforé 8 a.m. on Thursday in the Journal. On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days, the Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early in the day as possible to the Printers, who are charged with printing the same before 8 a.m. next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one of the Secretaries of each Section should call at the Printing Office and revise the proof each evening. Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of the Committee. Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the Scc- tional Meetings, to the Assistant General Secretary. The Vice- Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ea officio temporary Members of the General Committee (vide p. xix), and will receive, on ap- plication to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets entitling them to attend its Meetings. The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association and the communi- cations made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the state and progress of which Reports are wanted; to name individuals or Committees for the exe- cution of such Reports or researches; and to state whether, and to what de- gree, these objects may be usefully advanced by the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by application to Government, Philosophical Insti- tutions, or Local Authorities. In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science, it is expedient that all Members of the Committee should be named, and one of them appointed to act as Secretary, for insuring attention to business. Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assistance they may require. The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Assistant General Secretary for pre- sentation to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be done, the Recommendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association. NV.B.— Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sections must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they can be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by the General Committee. Notices Regarding Grants of Money. Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money have been entrusted by the Association for the prosecution of particular researches in Science, XX1l RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. are required to present to each following Meeting of the Association a Report of the progress which has been made; and the Individual or the Member first named of a Committee to whom a money grant has been made must (previously to the next meeting of the Association) forward to the General Secretaries or Treasurer a statement of the sums which have been expended, and the balance which remains disposable on each grant. Grants of money sanctioned at any one meeting of the Association expire a week before the opening of the ensuing Meeting; nor is the Treasurer authorized, after that date, to allow any claims on account of such grants, unless they be renewed in the original or a modified form by the General Committee. : No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of the British Association without special permission from the General Committee to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended except in accordance with the rules of the Association. In each Committee, the Member first named is the only person entitled to call on the Treasurer, Professor A. W. Williamson, University College, London, W.C., for such portion of the sums granted as may from time to time be required, In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate the payment of personal expenses to the members. In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua- tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named is deemed to include, as a part of the amount, whatever balance may remain unpaid on the former grant for the same object. All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Association are to be deposited at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle Street, Piccadilly, London, W., when not employed in carrying on scientific inquiries for the Association. Business of the Sections. -The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation from 10 to 11 daily. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto can be used for no notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the Association. At 11 precisely the Chair will be taken, and the reading of communica- tions, in the order previously made public, be commenced. At 3 p.m, the Sections will close. Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications de- livered in may render such divisions desirable. A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author. Duties of the Doorkeepers. 1.—To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are ap- pointed during the whole time for which they are engaged, 5 2.—To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the exhibi- tion of a Member’s, Associate’s or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the Assistant General Secretary. RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XX1il 3.—Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room. No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the Asso- ciation whose names are printed in the Programme, p. 1. Duties of the Messengers. To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed, during the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed on mes- sages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms. Committee of Recommendations. The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science, All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Researches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recommendations. Local Committees. Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings. Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire. Officers. A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee. Council. In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be ma- naged by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the Meeting. Papers and Communications. The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve his right of property therein. Accounts. The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors appointed by the General Committee. : “Ds 989A, WRITTLAL "SUA “ATT ‘Aqsetoag * My ‘Aa "s'T'a “bsg ‘tjaudoy seutoy,y, ‘s'D'a “bsg ‘preyeH wet, i *PRBI “9G aequiaydag *Mu0, ‘bsg ‘eoTQ ‘up «bsg ‘xoqaTay al Meee Ae me meee meee ee ee ew eee ‘Sua “To'd “bso ‘Kepeiey [OVqoUpy “srr “(ATG JO ueaq) ‘a’d ‘MOOOVAd ‘9D ‘ADU OTL SW CHM ‘oysmorg purd ug A‘ ‘AoptoAy yaeMg uYoOr ‘uO YL, srseeeesesees sone “uadiopy JUNOISTA ‘SUL “WIRITIAZI [ze Soins cg saad hg adeeey Mann HE tece ear RRC eee Siegen a ode ‘ i *ePSI ‘Zi gsn3ny ‘xu0p sadq ‘uogzruure CS ods as agen tte neepecctat nam ae GS asuamann st S'Ud “ASSOU AO TUVA ous, teeeeeeeees grepy qunoost, *[AMO4SV'T JO [AVG *UITNC ‘OLA “Wosieg ‘sop *Aay "WI ‘Al[aAajg "UYOL Jossazorg ‘Sra Dsa poom foxy somes ie GM.ais)o’cieisinin esis + Se Cel enED ‘pooasoxT uruefaag mg ‘ € "CN Bom "ALY Se CW AO ‘OAL “SHA “WT HOUNAPAR “V "40H D ...........ongeod ‘NOZUADE SIONVET CHOT © ‘SV “bsg ‘oro saz0g a “S'T'd ‘HoqtaH "AL ‘Ae pueuoHE = “S"U'A TO" “Uoyeq ayor OT UL *bsq “unt ‘sophey, prvyont ‘bea ‘xou ala Waqoy (oss te te nee SE VO RBir ope eas Hein wees ik» R= KES CEE ‘puepy “hd as . a + "ST aT {UGIUIG UOIUEAT “70D POE: GSE Oe ae See aT ion oly: | Sao eee eae ? 'S'r a “bso ‘squat pT moug 'ay Letttttttee Steere ee eeeeeseree aren Soun piory *SapL0yWy JO peg aug, GAOUd ‘AAU LT ‘bsq ‘Sung wor *-aquinoaspay JUNO; JO [rey OY, ‘SUA “ug ‘ourqsug "WT 7, 1g OFSI ‘ZI Jaqmiajdag ‘MonsVTH ‘U'TT ‘ON ‘af AOY “bsg ‘TapprT Mospuy L's uA ‘teysMorg pravq sg ‘USWA Yousaiy poy erouag-solepy J sees Sara “ANVA'IVAVAUE AO SINDUVIN OWL *bsq 12180 VA “SUA “bso ‘uos3poxyy ydasor ee ee soeeeees guerIepoR yA edioung *AOIT Ara F P F Pa ey ae Lae eal) | = x 2) 9 Mining Statistics ..sssccssserseeess 50 10. 0 $1595 11 0 1840. BristOl Tidescsscese.sccoesovsseoedde) L00)) 0» 0 Subterranean Temperature ...... 13 13 6 Heart Experiments ..ssesseseseeee 18 19 0 Lungs Experiments ......00...00. 8 13 0 Tide Discussions ......s.seeeeee. 50 0 0 Land and Sea Level......s.s000088 6 11 1 Stars (Histoire Céleste) ......... 242 10 0 Stars (Lacaille) ....0cccsoreceseeee 415 0 Stars (Catalogue) .....-++ exsctstve 264.050 Atmospheric Air sessecccrsesesvee 15 15 0 Water on Iron ...... svsaiseesi ace) 10) OvnO Heat on Organic Bodies ......... 7 0 0 Meteorological Observations...... 52 17 6 Foreign Scientific Memoirs ...... 112 1 6 Working Population............... 100 0 0 School Statistics....... kcawenveae ap aourOl 0 Forms of Vessels ..iseeeeeseseeseee 184 7 0 Chemical and Electrical Pheno- mena ...... sedsecvscncnens ceeeeee « 40 0 0 Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ....seccceeceessereesees 80 0 0 Magnetical Observations ...,..... 185 13 9 £1546 16 4 1841, Observations on Waves.......... 30 0 0 Meteorology and Subterranean Temperature ........6+ seeseees 8 «8)-0 Actinometers......sscccsssseeseereee 10 0 0 Earthquake Shocks .......+++ sate 1 Palys 0 Acrid Poisons........sse00e08 aeateees 6 0 0 Veins and Absorbents ....ee.esees 3.0 «0 Mud in Rivers ..cccssscsccsseoesss --5 0 0 Marine Zoology...s.ssccessseseeveee 15 12 8 Skeléton Maps: s.ccowssvevessevses 200 0 Mountain Barometers ...00...... 618 6 Stars (Histoire Céleste) sree 185 0 0 lx _ REPORT—1877. & s. d. Stars (Lacaille) ..s.ssssrcccsscseeee 19 5 O Stars (Nomenclature aie sensu scdeilifon a6 Stars (Catalogue of) .. Srceeee 40)" 40. 20 Water on Tron ..ccseeeeseeveee caves 400) 10,0 Meteorological Observations at INVErneSS ..sesessceeeeercereeeees 20 0 0 Meteorological Observations (re- Cuction Of ) .seccccccsccrseeseree 25 0 0 Fossil Reptiles ..csseesssesersreeee 50 0 0 Foreign Memoirs .....sceeseseee -. 62 0 6 Railway Sections .......c.0000002 38 1 0 Forms of Vessels ....eseeesseseeeee 193 12 0 Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ....ceceeseeeeees eeeeaee 55 0 Magnetical Observations ......... 61 18 8 Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone 100 0 0 Tides at Leith ....... eehutiiblarseee 50 0 0 Anemometer at Edinburgh ...,.. 69 1 10 Tabulating Observations ........ 9 6 8 Races of Men scocccosssssvesreeree 5 O 0 Radiate Animals we... 2 0 0 £1235 10 11 1842. Dynamometric Instruments ..,... 113 11 2 Anoplura Britanniz ..... Popcorn. ied UPR 8) Tides at Bristol...,....scovesccees 59 8 O Gases on Light .......ssecesseeeeeee 30 14 7 Chronometers ....s0ccsccseeeeseree 26 17 6 Marine Zoology....... Sac iene, (eee!) British Fossil Mammalia ......... 100 0 0 Statistics of Education ........ scene 10 tas) Marine Steam-vessels’ Engines... 28 0 0 Stars (Histoire Céleste)............ 59 0 0 Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of) ...... 110 0 0 Railway Sections ......s..seeee.-. 161 10 0 British Belemnites...... cnsiena vaene « HDin Died Fossil Reptiles (publication of Report) ......+++ Sea cnasanseeeae seer 210), 10:0 Forms of Vessels ..+...+00. senuaaes 180 0 0 Galvanic Experiments on Rocks 5 8 6 Meteorological Experiments at Plymouth ......cssecsevesceoenee 68 0 0 Constant Indicator and Dynamo- metric Instruments ...... Senos! (emer) emtO Force of Wind ..ssceseeeee wesvoncee, , LO eiOig0 Light on Growth of Seeds ...... 8 O 0 Vital Statistics .......... seenstesken) MaONIRO! OaO Vegetative Power of Seeds ...... 8 1 11 Questions on Human Race ...... 7 9 0 £1449 17 8 1843. Revision of the Nomenclature of DEALS Ges coc popeesseaeroneeecres sevell ae ai, tO Reduction of Stars, British Asso- ciation Catalogue ....++...s.+0. goenO 0 Anomalous Tides, Frith of Forth 120 0 0 Hourly Meteorological Observa- tionsat KingussieandInverness 77 12 8 Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ...........006 soccssseee OD O ND Whewell’s Meteorological Ane- mometer at Plymouth ........ 10 0 0 & 3s. a. Meteorological Observations, Os- ler’s Anemometer at Plymouth 20 0 0 Reduction of Meteorological Ob- SEVVAatiOnS ......+0. Rastesae cneseseroO OG Meteorological Instruments and Gratuities) csstsccsscnsbesass-cdces erp oleaD ant Construction of Anemometer at INVernesS ...cecceccavseesecseress 56 12 2 Magnetic Cooperation ........ easeh L028 10 Meteorological Recorder for Kew Observatory cccssscoveccccsensee 00 O O Action of Gases on Light ........ 18 16 1 Establishment at Kew Observa- tory, Wages, Repairs, Furni- ture and Sundries............. 1383 4 7 Experiments by Captive Balloons 81 8 0 Oxidation ofthe Rails of Railways 20 0 0 Publication of Report on Fossil Reptiles .....scccsssevevesses nesses EO er ae Coloured Drawings of Railway Sections ........2.4 ess eaetivnleecte 147 18 3 Registration bt Earthquake Shocks ......- Opes eonsersseeee) OU 10-10) Report on Zoological Nomencla- CULE censecseosesenecsonseses vecese! SLOP SO= “0 Uncovering Lower Red Sand- stone near Manchester ..,...... 4 4 6 Vegetative Power of Seeds «4. 5 3 8 Marine Testacea (Habits of ) 10 0 0 Marine Zoology....sscscccsereseeeee 10 0 O Marine Zoology...ssesseeeceees scene | eee Preparation of Report on British Fossil Mammalia .........0006. - 100 0 0 Physiological aa = of Me- dicinal Agents ...cccccssssesvers 20 0 0 VitaliStatisties «wecssssescgeesdssstes 865 8 Additional Experiments on the Forms of Vessels ...seceeseeeee 70 0 0 Additional Experiments 0 on the Forms of Vessels ... .+.....0.5. 100 0 0 Reduction of Experiments on the Forms of Vessels ....... savas des 100 0 0 Morin’s Instrument and Constant Indicator casssesesseawensmance «- 69 14 10 Experiments on the Strength of Materials ..sescssvecssessossessae! (00) S100 £1565 10 2 1844. Meteorological Observations at Kingussie and Inverness ...... 12 0 0 Completing Observations at Ply- MOUtH seerrceccassevceveees coeee 3D O 0 Magnetic and Meteorological Co- OPEFAtION ‘see sesececccecroe's cores 20 8 4 Publication of the British Asso- ciation Catalogue of Stars...... 385 0 0 Observations on Tides on the East coast of Scotland ......... 100 0 0 Revision of the Nomenclature of Stars ...cccosccsonsssesersnnls42 2 9 6 Maintaining the Establishmentin Kew Observatory se.secesrseeeee 117 17 3 Instruments for KewObservatory 56 7 3 GENERAL STATEMENT. d. 0 0 cooosroococoo ao ao a, 8s Influence of Light on Plants...... 10 0 Subterraneous Temperature in BREAN Sisseecccccoscossees seessen, «COO Coloured Drawings of Railway SECHONS sscectcesscascessseccceces 15 17 Investigation of Fossil Fishes of the Lower Tertiary Strata .., 100 0 Registering the Shocks of Earth- QUAKeS .cc.cscovsscceeveeree 842 23 11 Structure of Fossil Shells ........ . 20 0 Radiata and Mollusca of the /Egean and Red Seas......1842 100 0 Geographical Distributions of Marine Zoology .........1842 0 10 Marine Zoology of Devon and Cornwall ......... *SEARBEC sassseet 20 0 Marine Zoology of Corfu ..... vose» kU) 0 Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds .......... 9 0 Experiments on “the ‘Vitality of BEPMMestadiraagsancscnene--l R42 8. ¢ Exotic Anoplura Rese 0 Strength of Materials .....sseeees 0 Completing Experiments on the Forms of Ships .......secee0s «. 100 0 Inquiries into Asphyxia ......... 10 0 Investigations on the Internal Constitution of Metals ..... qess 100 oO Constant Indicator and Morin’s Instrument ....eseee000e61842 10 3 £981 12 1845. Publication of the British Associa- tion Catalogue of Stars ......... 351 14 Meteorological Observations at Inverness ..... Wuddd ss entace coonens 30 18 Magnetic and Meteorological Co- BGLALION --sccscesdstesssscssseces - 16 16 Meteorological Instruments at Edinburgh ........... eudtelaselted 18 il Reduction of Asiemometrical Ob- servations at Plymouth ....... «~ 25 0 Electrical Experiments at Kew DservatOry ....cccocserecoseeee . 43.17 Maintaining the Establishment in Kew Observatory ..scccssesseees 149 15 For Kreil’s Barometrograph...... 25 0 Gases from Iron Furnaces ...... 50 0 The Actinograph .,,...ccecceseeee 15 0 Microscopic Structure of Shells 20 0 Exotic Anoplura .,..........1843 10 0 Vitality of Seeds ......... 1843 2 0 Vitality of Seeds ............ 1844 7 0 Marine Zoology of Cornwall ... 10 0 Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 Statistics of Sickness and Mor- BAIEY Ti MOXIE yecvenesconcsesese 20 0 Earthquake Shocks ......... "1843 15 14 £831 9 1846. British Association Catalogue of PIRES ca ewasiencaebi ne seeeeeee 1844 211 15 0 Fossil Fishes of the London Clay 100° 0 0 Gs. ds Computation of the Gaussian Constants for 1829 ........... 50 0 0 Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory ...sssecseeeeee 146 16 7 Strength of Materials ........... 60 0 0 Researches in Asphyxia ......... 616 2 Examination of Fossil Shells...... 10 0 0 Vitality of Seeds ....0.......1844 2 15 10 Vitality of Seeds ............1845 712 3 Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0 Marine Zoology of Britain ...... 10 0 0 Exotic Anoplura .,..........1844 25 0 0 Expenses attending Anemometers 11 7 6 Anemometers’ Repairs .......«.+ woe a Atmospheric Waves .....ssessceees 3.3 3 Captive Balloons ......+0+... 1844 8 19 8 Varieties of the Human Race 1844 7 6 3 Statistics of Sickness and Mor- talttypin’ YOrk” scsssessstsecaneet e120 £685 16 0 1847. Computation of the Gaussian Constants for 1829 ......s00 oO GeO Habits of Marine Animals ..,... 10 0 0 Physiological Actionof Medicines 20 0 0 Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0 Atmospheric Waves ...... nedespacane Vn On a Vitality of Seeds ............eeecee BO Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory .....eseree- eee 107 6 £208 5 4 1848. Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory ...ecsseeses oe 171 15 11 Atmospheric Waves ...+cssessseeee 310 9 VitalityjofSeedss crs sscnceacss «- 915 0 Completion of Cataloguesof Stars 70 0 0 On Colouring Matters ........0+ an OO On Growth of Plants.......0.+++.+. 15 0 0 G27 dag LS 1849. Electrical Observations at Kew Obsenvatory \. sccecesesesessesexee 50 0 O Maintaining Establishment at ALO wesstaes soeeee 762 =5 Vitality of Seeds Sus: wil On Growth of Plants... 5 0 0 Registration of Periodical Phe- NOMENA assesweuserensssene atte. 10 0 0 Bill on account of Anemomeitical Observations .s,.0 OF 0 Marine Fauna of South and West of Ireland . ceeccceeseees soe DO). 0 Photographic Chemistry vocgsgees =D i) Lanarkshire Fossils~......ccc.c0oee 20 0 1 Balloon Ascents,,.......... pease ae 39 11 O £684 11 1 1860. Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Observatory..........0.. 500 0 0 Dredging near Belfast............. 16 6 0 Dredging in Dublin Bay........... 15 0 0 —_——_ eee se CCU — ————————S Se - GENERAL STATEMENT. Inquiry into the Performance of Steam-vessels...ececserseerereeees Explorations in the Yellow Sand- stone of Dura Deneereessesesesee Chemico-mechanical Analysis of Rocks and Minerals..+....s+.+++ Researches on the Growth of Plants, ,......secesessceeses supegnes Researches on the Solubility of Salts...res..sceerees stags Researches on the ‘Constituents Of Manure ......se.eseresenssorees Balance of Captive Balloon Ac- COUNEB ys: 25 0 0O/| North Greenland Fauna ......... 75 0 0 Dredging Aberdeenshire ......... 25 0 0 Do. Plant Beds... 100 0 0 Dredging Channel Islands ...... 50 0 0} Iron and Steel Manufacture 25 0 0 Zoological Nomenclature......... 5 0 0) Patent Laws ......c.s00 apenenesinee 30 0 0 Resistance of Floating Bodies in WU Aber inorectecsstrssstceseretern: 100 0 0 piece tbh Bath Waters Analysis ............ 8 10 10 1868. Luminous Meteors ............... 40 0 0| Maintaining the Establishment PlFO]. 4 10 of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0 hav eal) Lunar Committee.........sssse0ee. 120 0 0 1866. Metrical Committee..........0++ 50 0 0 Maintaining the Establishment Zoological Record ...........6+++ 100 0 O of Kew Observatory..........0. 600 0 0O| Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150 0 0 Lunar Committee..............0068 64 13 4 Steamship Performances......... 100 0 O Balloon Committee ............... 50 0 0O| British Rainfall .......... awapaae 50 0 0 Metrical Committee..........0.... 50 0 0O| Luminous Meteors ............0 50 0 0 British Rainfall................00..6 50 0 O| Organic Acids .............cecseeee 60 0 0 Kilkenny Coal Fields ............ 16 0 0O| Fossil Crustacea ....... avsbieseses 25 0 0 Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ...... 15°00 || sAMethyl series) v.11, secsssesetens 25 0 0 Luminous Meteors ............... 50 0 0O| Mercury and Bile.................. 25 0 0 Lingula Flags Excavation ...... 20 0 O | Organic remains in Limestone Chemical Constitution of Cast ROCKS 5. ccseesascavoddeeieomine 25 0 0 WYOMING cose vvsiescech eter nccssceee 50 0 O | Scottish Earthquakes ............ 20 0 0 Amyl Compounds................68 25 0 0 | Fauna, Devon and Cornwall ... 30 0 0 Electrical Standards............... 100 0 O | British Fossi) Corals............... 50 0 0 Malta Caves Exploration......... 30 0 0 | Bagshot Leaf-beds ............006 50 0 0 Kent’s Hole Exploration ......... 200 0 O | Greenland Explorations .,....... 100 0 0 Marine Fauna, &c., Devon and Fossil Plorancsesctevelssssescteaees 0 0 MCOTNWaAll. jo scesrenessstodvenstoeck 25 0 0 | Tidal Observations 0 0 Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast... 25 0 © | Underground Temperature...... 50 0 0 Dredging Hebrides Coast......... 50 0 0 | Spectroscopic investigations of Dredging the Mersey ............ 5 0 0 Animal Substances ............ 0 0 Resistance of Floating Bodies in Secondary Reptiles, &c. ......... 30 0 0 WGEr a ietscesceewacakvsscecceeceh. 50 0 0] British Marine Invertebrate Polycyanides of Organic Radi- FAUNG: sescccsevaeikeene aaa 100 0 0 CAS AG:scstercesaavnesuassccases 20 0 0 "1940 0 0 3 ee ERT £1940 0 0 Rigor Mortis...........cscceeeseeees 10 0 0 ar Trish Annelida .......00.c0sse0enes 1 0 0 1869. Catalogue of Crania.............+5 50 0 0 | Maintaining the Establishment Didine Birds of Mascarene Islands 50 0 0 of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0 Typical Crania Researches ...... 30 0 O | Lunar Committee...............06 50 0 0 Palestine Exploration Fund...... 100 0 O | Metrical Committee............... 25 0 0 “£1750 13. 4 | Zoological Record................. 100 0 0 sail Dt Committee on Gases in Deep- 1867. welllWater. .<.....+005..dtegeenee 25 0 0 Maintaining the Establishment British Rainfall...........asssserse 50 0 0 of Kew Observatory.........+. - 600 0 0] Thermal Conductivity of Iron, Meteorological Instruments, Pa- RC. TF... cacnennleeean eee ane 30 0 0 RERIINE) (ocsiact.doucnecnatttie Aric 50 0 0 | Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150 0 0 Lunar Committee,........ seoeesses 120 0 © | Steamship Performances......... 30 0 0 | OO =—— ee — GENERAL STATEMENT, 1877. By igs ik Chemical Constitution of Cast MUON ev ossa..ccabanicaabirevecsas 80 0 0 Tron and Steel Manufacture ... 100 0 0 Methyl Series ..............ss0e008 30 0 0 Organic remains in Limestone Rocks........0 wabsenaesthiaeiueute 10 0 0 Earthquakes in Scotland......... 19 0 0 British Fossil Corals ............ 50 0 0 Bagshot Leaf-Beds ........+...+++ 30 0 0 Fossil Flora ........ eutencecssasdes 25 0 0 Tidal Observations ........0.....5 100 0 0 Underground Temperature ...... 30 0 0 Spectroscopic Investigations of Animal Substances .......++.. » 5 0.0 Organic Acids ......0c000....... 12 0 0 Kiltorcan Fossils ...........s000006 20 0 0 Chemical Constitution and Phy- siological Action Relations ... 15 0 0 Mountain Limestone Fossils ...... 25 0 0 Utilization of Sewage ............ 10 0 0 Products of Digestion ............ 10 0 0 £1622 0 0 1870. Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Observatory ......+0+sss00 600 0 0 Metrical Committee ...........600+ 25 0 0 Zoological Record ..sseeeeeseeeee 100 0 0 Committee on Marine Fauna... 20 0 0 Ears.in Fishes .........es+..sseees 10 0 0 Chemical nature of Cast Iron... 80 0 0 Luminous Meteors ...... bnscoosts 30 0 0 Heat in the Blood ..............- Lae, OO British Rainfall...... Betis apes acto 100 0 0 Thermal Conductivity of Iron&c. 20 0 0 British Fossil Corals......... aiwee 50 0 0 Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150 0 0 Scottish Earthquakes ...........+ 4 0 0 Bagshot Leaf-Beds .............. 15 0 0 Fossil Flora ......++ fidvuasSonn seb 25 0 0 Tidal Observations ....+0...s0000s 100 0 0 Underground Temperature...... 50 0 0 Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ...... 20 0 0 Mountain Limestone Fossils ... 25 0 0 Utilization of Sewage .........+ + 50.0.0 Organic Chemical Compounds... 30 0 0 Onny River Sediment ............ 3.0 0 Mechanical Equivalent of Heat 50 0 0 £1572 0 0 1871. Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Observatory .....+....0se0e 600 0 0 Monthly Reports of Progress in Chemistry . 2.0.05. .c0c..scccseeens 100 0 0 Metrical Committee... ae Boma 0 Zoological Record...............++ 100 0 0 Thermal Equivalents of the Qxides of Chlorine ............ 10 0 0 Tidal Observations .........ss000« 100 0 0 Fossil Flora ......:..secees wesssssae B5—0--0 a w 4 wljoooco cocoeonsoes aloocoo coscocooacoo® £ Luminous Meteors ........++..0« - 30 British Fossil Corals,.....+ss+++... 25 Heat in the Blood ......s0....005 7 British Rainfall............ ahs cbabs » 50 Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150 Fossil Crustacea ...eccssesseereee 25 Methyl Compounds ............ we «25 Lunar Objects ....+....4. jaseweniva 20 Fossil Corals Sections, for Pho- tographing.....cccsssecsssesseoves « 20 Bagshot Leaf-Beds ....... iaatésae, 20 Moab Explorations ......... esses 100 Gaussian Constants .........s0s008 40 £1472 1872. Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Observatory ......e00-+..-. 300 Metrical Committee...........000+ 75 Zoological Record........eseeseesss 100 Tidal Committee ..... Baceraveed «+ 200 Carboniferous Corals ....+.....+. 25 Organic Chemical Compounds 29 Exploration of Moab ....+...... 100 Terato-Embryological Inquiries 10 Kent’s Cavern Exploration ..... . 100 Luminous Meteors ........-...++ 20 Heat in the Blood .............4 15 Fossil Crustacea .......s0...0.000+ 25 Fossil Elephants of Malta ...... 25 Lunar Objects ........:sessesesseny 20 Inverse Waye-Lengths............ 20 British Rainfall.................++++ 100 Poisonous Substances Antago- nism : Essential Oils, Chemical Consti- PeeE eee e eee Cee eee eee eclooo SoS cooococeocooecoooooe cloco co ocoooocoooooooecooo PUEION, BC... 0000s. .ccseodsasbes 40 Mathematical Tables ............ 50 Thermal Conductivity of Metals 25 £12050 0 1873. Zoological Record....... scmsennds 100.0. 10 Chemistry Record,........ vesevees - 200 0 0 Tidal Committee ....sseecsescseves 400 0 0 Sewage Committee .....sssseeeeee 100 0 0 Kent’s Cavern Exploration ...... 150 0 0 Carboniferous Corals ........... 25 0 0 Fossil Elephants ....scsesesnesseee 25 0 0 Wave-Lengths ...serseesessseesrees 150 0 0 British Rainfall........0++++ evaehs 100 0 0 Essential Oils ssossssesesseeeseeees 30 0 0 Mathematical Tables ......s0s+++ 100 0 0 Gaussian Constants ....++--sseeeee 10 0 0 Sub-Wealden Explorations ...... 25 0 0 Underground Temperature ...... 150 0 0 Settle Cave Exploration ......... 50 0 0 Fossil Flora, Ireland.........+.++++ 20,0. 0 Timber Denudation and Rainfall 20 0 0 Luminous Meteors ......:..... 30 0 0 £1685 0 0 é LXvi £ 1874. Zoological Record .......s.seeees 100 Chemistry Record. ........s0000- 100 Mathematical Tables .........++ 100 Elliptic Functions ..........6600 100 Lightning Conductors ......... 10 Thermal Conductivity of Rocks 10 Anthropological Instructions, STORRRE Rare Se EA eee aedt ne 50 Kent’s Cavern Exploration 150 Luminous Meteors ......sec00s00+ 30 Intestinal Secretions ............ 15 British! Rawal, -vaidaww.-anesevees 100 PHISSENTIAWOUS, cee wccensncans ean 10 Sub-Wealden Explorations ... 25 Settle Cave Exploration......... 50 Mauritius Meteorological Re- BRAILLE oercty retarvavms ead SIeecore 100 Magnetization of Iron............ 20 Marine Organisms .............+. 30 Fossils, North-west of Scotland 2 &. cooooeocoe coococcosco cococo Physiological Action of Light.. 20 PETA CS UNIONS S taianiottees dandsee 25 Mountain-Limestone Corals... 25 HHIEVAGIC HBLOGKE we-te eases eferdetes 10 Dredging, Durham and York- BHU COASLG. 5. cascasaeestatestvee 28 5 High temperature of Bodies... 380 0 Siemens’s Pyrometer ............ 3 6 Labyrinthodonts of Coal-Mea- ELLOS ncsseteniine eunis op ease oiietes 7 1b £1151 16 1875. Elliptic Functions ...... sesvvveee LOO O 0 Magnetization of Iron,.......0. 20 0 0 British Rainfall ............0004.. 120 0 0 Luminous Meteors .......06.:6... 30 0 0 Chemistry Record ............... 100 0 0 Specific Volume of Liquids 20: 10° 50 Hstimation of Potash and Phos- MOOTICPA GIG Niwas covsernesvenwes LO%00 Tsometric Cresols.........:0:0.0005 20 0 0 Sub-Wealden Explorations...... 100 0 0 Kent’s Cavern Exploration...... 100 0 0 Settle Cave Exploration ......... DOMOs 40 Harthquakes in Scotland......... 15 0 0 Underground Waters ............ LOMORIO Development of Myxinoid HUSHeS® -.cseetesektenthvesees deises 20 0 0 Zoological Record ............008 100 O O Instructions for Travellers...... 20 0 O Intestinal Secretion ............006 20 0 0 Palestine Exploration............ 100 0 O £960 0 0 1876. Printing Mathematical Tables. 159 4 2 British Rainfall eee eer 100 0 0 REPORT—1877, G8. de Ohm's Daw! Fat.nesscecsstcoeetiee 9:15" 0 Tide Calculating Machine ...... 200 0 O Specific Volume of Liquids ... 25 0 O Tsomeric Oresols ..........000-200+ 10 0 0 Action of Ethyl Bromobutyrate on Ethyl Sodaceto-acetate... 5 O O Estimation of Potash and Phos- phorie’ Acid'.o3.semsod- teen es Ws 13 0 0 Exploration of Victoria Cave, Nettles, J. secweecatyise dane acehee 100 0 O Geological Record ..............5 100 0 0 Kent’s Cavern Exploration...... 100 0 O Thermal ConductivitiesofRocks 10 0 0 Underground Waters ............ 10 0 O Earthquakes in Scotland ...... 110 0 Zoological Record .............44 100 0 0 Close Time= 5.3. 0nseeteretaes 5 0 0 Physiological Action of Sound. 25 0 0O Zoological Station .............46 75 0 0 Intestinal Secretions ............ 15 0 0 Physical Characters of Inhabi- tants of British Isles ......... 1315 0 Measuring Speed of Ships ...... 10); °0" 0 Effect of Propeller on turning of Steam Vessels ............... 5 0 0 £1092 4 2 ————— 1877. Liquid Carbonic Acid in Mine- LI a ee eras Banne soonodoueiinen 20 0 0 Elliptic Functions ............... 250 0 0 Thermal Conductivity of Rocks 911 7 Zoological Record ......s.seeeee 100 0 0 Kent's; Oavern’ -.ccrcssees ene 100 0 0 Zoological Station at Naples... 75 O O Luminous Meteors ............... 30 0 0 Elasticity of Wires ............... 100 0 O Dipterocarpx, Report on ...... 20. 0 0 Mechanical Equivalent of Heat 35 0 O Double Compounds of Cobalt ANGANICKORAMS cossrasesmececeaees 8'0' Underground Temperatures ... 50 0 0 Settle Cave Explanation......... 100 0 0 Underground Waters in New Red Sandstone ..............2645 10 0 O Action of Ethyl Bromobutyrate on Ethyl] Sodaceto-acetate ... 10 0 O British Earthworks............... 25 0 0 Atmospheric Elasticity inIndia 15 0 0 Development of Light from Ooal-pasier..s.0..t:seieseeeaeoeme 20 0 0 Estimation of Potash and Phos- phoric Acid) ..2¢.csacst¥aeayede ali 18 40 Geological Record ............6+6 100 0 0 Anthropometric Committee ... 84 0 0 Physiological Action of .Phos- Phoric Acid, &c. .sseccreereeee 15 0 0 £1128 9 7 GENERAL MEETINGS. Ixvil General Meetings. On Wednesday, August 15, at 8 r.m., in the Guildhall, Professor Thomas Andrews, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., President, resigned the office of President to Professor Allen Thomson, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., who took the Chair, and delivered an Address, for which see page Ixviil. On Thursday, August 16, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place in the Guildhall. On Friday, August 17, at 8.30 p.m, in the Guildhall, W. Warington Smyth, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on “The Physical Pheno- mena connected with the Mines of Cornwall and Devon.” On Saturday, August 18, at 7 p.m, in the Guildhall, W. H. Preece, Esq., delivered a Lecture, on “The Telephone,” to the Working Classes of Plymouth. On Monday, August 20, at 8.30 p.., in the Guildhall, Professor Odling, M.B., F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on “ The new Element, Gallium.” On Tuesday, August 21, at 8 p.u., a Soirée took place in the Guildhall. On Wednesday, August 22, the concluding General Meeting took place, when the Proceedings of the General Committee, and the Grants of Money for Scientific purposes, were explained to the Members. The Meeting was then adjourned to Dublin.* * The Meeting is appointed to take place on Wednesday, August 14, 1878. ADDRESS OF PROFESSOR ALLEN THOMSON, M.D., LL.D., F.RBS., F.RS.E., PRESIDENT. Arter the long interval of six and thirty years the British Association for the Advancement of Science holds its annual meeting, the forty-seventh since its foundation, in this beautiful and interesting locality ; and, it so happens that, on this occasion as on the former, 1t passes from Glasgow to Plymouth. We are delighted to be assembled here, and are even surprised that the Association has been able so long to resist the power of attraction by which it has been gravitating towards this place. While we are prepared to be charmed with the surpassing beauty of its scenery, and know the deep interest of its prehistoric vestiges, its historic memories, and its artistic associations, we have been-frequently reminded of its scientific vigilance by the records of its active work; and we. are now ready and anxious to witness all we can behold of its energy and success in the application of scientific discovery to the practical arts. Should we, as might be expected in a place hitherto so famous in its relations to our naval and military history, find most prominent that relating to the mechanism of war, we shall still hope that the attainment of greater perfection in the engines of destruction may only be the means of rendering peace more permanent and secure. It is a source of regret to myself, and may be, I fear, a cause of detriment to this Meeting, that the choice of a President should have fallen upon one whose constant occupation with special branches of science has fitted him very inadequately for the distinguished position to which he has been called. I can only derive comfort from knowing that, wherever it may be necessary, there are many others present most able to supply what may ADDRESS. xix be wanting on my part ; and I must therefore at once bespeak their assistance and your indulgence. IT have selected for the subject of the remarks which I am about to offer a biological topic, namely, the ‘‘ Development of the Forms of Animal Life,” with which my studies have been occupied, and which has important bearings on some of the more interesting biological questions now agitating the scientific world. But before proceeding with the discussion of my special subject, it is my desire to call your attention shortly to the remark- able change in the manner of viewing biological questions which has taken place in this country during the last half-century—a change so great, indeed, that it can scarcely be fully appreciated except by those who, like myself, have lived through the period of its occurrence. In the three earlier decades of this century it was the common belief, in this country at least, shared by men of science as well as by the larger body of persons who had given no special attention to the subject, that the various forms of plants and animals recognized by naturalists in their systematic arrangements of genera and species were permanently fixed and unalterable, that they were not subject to greater changes than might occur as occasional variations, and that such was the tendency to the maintenance of uniformity in their specific characters that, when varieties did arise, there was a natural disposition to return, in the course of succeeding generations, to the fixed form and nature supposed to belong to the parental stock ; and it was also a necessary part of this view of the permanency of species that each was considered to have been originally produced from an individual having the exact form which its descendants ever afterwards retained, To this scientific dogma was further added the quasi-religious view that in the exercise of infinite wisdom and goodness, the Creator, when He called the successive species of plants and animals into existence, conferred upon each precisely the organization and the properties adapting it best for the kind of life for which it was designed in the general scheme of creation. This was the older doctrine of “Direct Creation,” of “Final Causes,” and of “ Teleological Relation of Structure and Function ;” and those only who have known the firm hold which such views formerly had over the public mind can under- stand the almost unqualified approbation with which the reasoning on these questions in writings like the ‘ Bridgewater Treatises’ (not to mention older books on Natural Theology) were received in their time, as well as the very opposite feelings excited by every work which seemed to present a different view of the plan of creation. On the Continent of Europe, it is true, some bold speculators, such as Goethe, Oken, Lamarck, and Geoffroy St.-Hilaire, had, in the end of the last and commencement of this century, broached the doctrine that there is in living beings a continuous series of gradations as well as a consistent and general plan of organization, and that the creation, therefore, or origin of the 1877. Pi ‘Ixx REPORT—1877. different forms of plants and animals must have been the result of a gradual process of development or of derivation one from another, the whole standing connected together in certain causal relations. But in Britain such views, though known and not altogether repulsive to a few, obtained little favour, and, by some strange process of reasoning, were looked upon by the great majority as little short of impious questionings of the supreme power of the Almighty. How different is the position of matters in this respect in our day !—when the cautious naturalist receives and adopts with the greatest reserve the statement of fixed and permanent specific characters as belonging to the different forms of organized beings, and is fully persuaded of the constant tendency to variation which all species show even in the present condition of the earth, and of .the still greater liability to change which must have existed in the earlier periods of its formation—when the belief prevails that, so far from being the direct product of distinct acts of creation, the various forms of plants and animals have been gradually evolved in a slow gradation of increasing complexity—and when it is recognized by a large majority of naturalists that the explanation of this wonderful relation of connexion between previously existing and later forms is to be found in the constant tendency to variation during development and growth, and the perpetuation of such variations by hereditary transmission through successive generations in the long but incalculable lapse of the earth’s natural mutations. These, together with the adaptation‘of structure and function to external conditions securing the survival of the fittest, are, as you must all be aware, in their essential features the views now known as Darwinism, first simultaneously brought forward by Wallace and Darwin in 1858, and which, after being more fully elaborated in the works of the latter and ably supported by the former, secured, in the incredibly short space of ten or twelve years, the general approval of a large portion of the scientific world. Opinion has, in fact, now undergone such a change that there are few works on Natural History, whether of a special or more general character, in which the rela- tion the scientific facts bear to the newer doctrines is not carefully indicated ; that, with the general public also, the words “ Evolution” and “ Develop- ment” have ceased to excite the feelings, amounting almost to horror, which they at first produced in the minds of those to whom they were equally unfamiliar and suspicious; and that, even in popular literature, illustra- tions are not unfrequently drawn in such terms of Darwinian theory as “struggle for existence,” “natural selection,” “ survival of the fittest,” and the like. It cannot be doubted that in this country, and partly on the Continent, the influence of authority had much to do with the persistence of the older teleological views; and, as has been well remarked by Haeckel, one of the ablest and keenest supporters of the modern doctrine, the combined influ- ADDRESS. Ixxi ence more especially of the opinions held by three of the greatest natu- ralists and biologists who haye ever lived, Linneus, Haller, and Cuvier (men unsurpassed in the learning of their time, and the authors of im- portant discoveries in a wide range of biological science), was decidedly adverse to the free current of speculative thought upon the more general doctrines of biology. And if it were warrantable to attribute so great a change of opinion as that to which I have adverted as occurring in my own time to the influence of any single intellect, it must be admitted that it is justly due to the vast range and accuracy of his knowledge of scientific facts, the quick appreciation of their mutual interdependence, and, above all, the unexampled clearness and candour in statement of Charles Darwin. But while we readily acknowledge the large share which Darwin has had in guiding scientific thought into the newer tracks of biological doctrine, we shall also be disposed to allow that the slow and difficult process of emanci- pation from the thraldom of dogmatic opinion in regard to a system of creation, and the adoption of large and independent views more consistent with observation, reason, philosophy, and religion, has only been possible under the effect of the general progress of scientific knowledge and the acquisition of sounder methods of applying its principles to the explanation of natural phenomena. T have already referred to Goethe, Oken, Lamarck, and Geoffroy St.-Hilaire as among the most prominent of the earlier pioneers in the modern or reformed conceptions of biological laws. But were it desirable to mark the progress of opinion by quoting other authors and labourers whose contributions have mainly supplied the materials out of which the new fabric has been con- structed, I should have to produce a long catalogue of distinguished names, among which would be found those of Lyell and Owen, as earliest shaping the doctrines and guiding opinion in this country, Johannes Miiller and ‘Von Baer, as taking the places of Haller and Cuvier on the Continent, and a host of other faithful workers in Biology belonging to the earlier part of this century, such as G. Treviranus, J. F. Meckel, Carus, and many more*, To Huxley more:especially and Herbert Spencer the greatest influ- ence on British thought in the same direction is to be ascribed. Let us hope that in these times, when it has been found necessary to modify the older teleological views to so great an extent, although there may still be much that is unknown, and wide differences of opinion in regard to the nature and sequence of natural phenomena and the mode of their interpreta- * Tt would also be unjust to omit to mention here one of the earliest attempts to bring British opinion into a new channel, by the remarkable work entitled ‘ Vestiges of Creation,’ which appeared in 1844, nor to conceal from ourselyes the unmerited ridicule and obloquy attempted to be thrown upon the author, not perhaps so much on account of the many inaccuracies unayoidable in the. endeavour at that-time to overtake so large a field, as ‘directed against the dangerous tendencies supposed to lurk in its reasoning, f2 Ixxi REPORT—1877. tion, all naturalists will now concur in one important principle, viz. that as truthful observation and candid judgment must alone be our guides in the interpretation of Nature, that theory of Creation is best deserving of our adoption which is most consistent with the whole body of facts carefully observed and compared. To attempt to trace, within the limits to which my remarks must be con- fined, the influence which the progress of knowledge has exercised upon the scientific and general conception of biological doctrines would be impossible, for the modification of opinion on these subjects has proceeded not less from the rapid advance which our age has witnessed in the progress of general science, especially of physics and chemistry, than from that in the department of biology itself. Thus, to go no further than the most general laws of nature, the whole doctrine of the conservation and transmutation of force in Physics, so ably expounded to this Association by Mr. Justice Grove, the theory of com- pound radicals and substitution, with the discovery of organic synthesis, in Chemistry, and the more recent advance in speculation with regard to the molecular constitution and properties of matter, with which we must asso- ciate the names of our last President and of Clerk Maxwell, in completely changing the aspect of physical and chemical sciences within the last thirty- five years, have paved the way for views of the constitution and action of organized bodies very different from those which could be formed at the time of the first Meeting of the Association in this place. And if, confining our- selyes to the department of Biology, we note the discovery by microscopical observation of the minuter elementary forms of organization, more especially as flowing from the comprehensive views of organized structure promulgated by Schleiden and Schwann nearly forty years ago, the later discovery and investigation of living protoplasmic substances, the accumulated evidence of progressive and continuous types of animal and vegetable forms in the suc- cession of superimposed strata composing the crust of the earth, the recent discoveries as to the conditions of life at great depths in the ocean, the vast body of knowledge brought together by the labours of anatomists and phy- siologists as to the structure and functions of almost every plant and animal, and (still more, perhaps, than any other single branch of biological inquiry) if we note the rapid and immense progress which has been made during the last fifty years in the study of the entirely modern science of the develop- ment of individual living beings, we shall be able to form some conception of the enormous extension in our time of the basis of observation and iact from which biological phenomena may now be surveyed, and from which just views may be deduced as to their mutual relations and general nature. It is now familiarly known that almost all (if not, indeed, all) the plants == ADDRESS. Ixxlil and animals existing on the earth’s surface derive their origin from parents or previously existing beings whose form and nature they closely reproduce in their life’s history. By far the greater number spring from germs in the form of visible and known spores, seeds, or eggs ; a few may be traced to other germs, or to vestiges of the parental body, the exact nature of which may be doubtful ; and some, including even a certain number of those also produced from known germs, are either constantly or occasionally multiplied by budding, or by a process of cleavage or direct and visible division of the parent body. The germ constituting the basis of new formation, whether it be of un- known nature or in the form of spore, seed, or ovum, is of the simplest kind of organization, and the process by which a new plant or animal is produced is necessarily one of gradual change and of advance from a simpler to a more complex form and structure: it is one of “‘ evolution” or, more appropriately named, of “ development.” But before proceeding to discuss the subject of de- velopment in beings of which the germs are known, it is right to advert to the preliminary and often debated question, which naturally presents itself, viz.:— Do all living or organized beings, without exception, spring from germs, or from any kind of organized matter that has belonged to parents? or may there not be some, especially among the simpler forms (with regard, indeed, to which alone there has of late been any question), which are produced by the direct combination of their component elements, in the way of the so-called spontaneous or equivocal generation, heterogenesis or abiogenesis ? The importance of the right solution of this problem is not confined merely to the discovery of the mode of origin of the lowly organisms which have been the more immediate object of investigation by naturalists in recent times, but is one of much wider significance, seeing that, if it shall be satis- factorily proved or even rendered probable that in the course of cosmical development all the various kinds of plants and animals have been gradually produced by evolution out of preexisting simpler forms, and thus the whole series of organized beings in nature is shown to be one of hereditary con- nexion and derivation, then it would follow that the history of the origin of the simplest organisms may be the key to that of the first commencement of life upon the earth’s surface, and an indication of the relation in which the whole succeeding progenies stand to their parental stocks. From the very lucid and masterly view of this subject given by Prof. Hux- ley in his Address to the Association at Liverpool, so recently as in 1870, in which the conclusion he formed was mainly based on the exhaustive and admirable researches of Pasteur, I might have dispensed with making further reference to it now, but for the very confident statements since made by the supporters of the doctrine of Abiogenesis, among whom Dr. Bastian stands most prominent in this country, and for the circumstance that the life-history of many of the lower organisms was still imperfectly known. Ixxiv REPORT—1877. During the last seven or eight years, however, renewed investigations by most competent inquirers have followed one another in quick succession, from a review of which we cannot but arrive at a conclusion adverse to the theory of Heterogenesis, namely, that no development of organisms, even of the > most simple kind, in fermenting or putrefying solutions, has been satisfac- torily observed to occur when the conditions of the experiments were such as entirely to exclude the possibility of their being descended from germs, or equivalent formative particles, belonging to preexisting bodies of a similar kind. I can do no more here than name the authors of the most conclusive experiments on this subject, nearly in the order of their publication, as those of Mr. W. N. Hartley in 1872, Messrs. Pode and Ray Lankester in 1873, Dr. Burdon Sanderson in that and the following years, Dr. W. Roberts in 1874, Professor Lister in 1875, and most recently of Professor Tyndall, Professor Cohn, and of Messrs. Dallinger and Drysdale*. But, admitting that the evidence from direct experiment is such as entirely to shut us out from entertaining the view that spontaneous generation occurs in the present condition of the earth, we are not relieved from the difficulty of explaining how living organisms or their germs first made their appearance, nor are we debarred from attempting to form hypo- theses as to how this may have taken place. First, upon the theory of Evolution, which, strictly carried out, supposes the more complex organisms to be derived from the more simple, it might be held that the conditions affecting the combination of the primary elements of matter into organic forms may at one time have been different from those which now prevail, and that, under those different conditions, abiogenesis may have been possible, and may have operated to lay the foundations of organic life in the simpler forms in which it at first appeared—a state of things, however, which can * T may refer to Dr. Bastian’s paper in ‘Nature’ of June 30, 1870, and to his two works, ‘The Origin of the Lowest Organisms’ and ‘The Beginnings of Life,’ and papers to Roy. Soe. 1873. Mr. Hartley’s researches, which were commenced in 1865, are described in a paper printed in the Proceedings of the Royal Society for 1872, and in his ‘ Lectures on Air,’ 2nd edition, 1876, where an interesting account of the whole subject will be found. The experiments of Mr. Pode, of Oxford, and Professor Ray Lankester are described in a paper on the “ Development of Bacteria in Organic Infusions,” in the Roy. Soc. Proce. 1873, vol. xxi. p.349. Dr. Burdon Sanderson’s researches are contained in the Reports of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council, and in various papers in ‘Nature’; Dr. W. Roberts’s paper is printed in the Transactions of the Royal Society for 1874, vol. clxiv. p. 457. Pro- fessor Lister’s “‘ Contribution to the Germ Theory of Putrefaction and other Fermentative Changes,” &c. is contained in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh for 1875, p. 313, and is also given in ‘ Nature.’ Professor Tyndall’s researches are described in his papers in the Proceedings of the Royal Society during the last two years. The work of Professor Cohn, of Breslau, entitled ‘ Beitriige zur Biologie der Pflanzen,’ 1873-76, contains many memoirs bearing upon this subject, which have been partly published in abstract in the ‘ Microscopical Journal,’ in which also will be found, in a series of contributions extending from 1878 to the present time, the interesting observations of Mr.-W. H. Dallinger and Dr, J. Drysdale. ADDRESS. Ixxy only be vaguely surmised, and in regard to which no exact information can be obtained. Or, secondly, evading the difficulty of strict cosmical evolution, we might suppose that vital conditions may have been coeval with the first ’ existence of physical and chemical properties in the rest of natural bodies. But this hypothesis would be exposed to the objection that, according to the cosmical view generally held by physicists, the whole materials composing the earth have originally been subjected to incandescent heat. Nor is the difficulty abolished, but only removed toa more remote period, by the suppo- sition of the transport of germs from another planet or their introduction by means of meteorites or meteoric dust; for, besides the objection arising from the circumstance that these bodies must have been subjected to a very high temperature, we should still have every thing to learn as to the manner in which the germs originated in the far distant regions of space from which they have been conveyed. The incompleteness of the geological record leaves us in the dark as to the time at which the first dawnings of life appeared in the lower strata of the earth’s surface. The most recent researches tend to carry the origin of life back to a much earlier period than was at one time believed, and (if the famous Eozoon be admitted as evidence) even into that of the Laurentian strata. But if doubts should still prevail with regard to the presence of definite organized forms in the older sedimentary strata, the occurrence in them of carbon in the form of graphite in large quantities makes the previous existence of living organisms at least possible, and it may be that the com- plete metamorphosis which these rocks have undergone has entirely removed all definite traces of organization. Nor have we the means from geological data of determining whether the beings of the vegetable or of the animal kingdom first made their appearance. If we adopt the view which has for some time been entertained by physio- logists that animals are entirely dependent, directly or indirectly, on plants for the material which constitutes their living substance, and that plants, as constructive agents, alone have the power to bring together the clements of lifeless matter, from such states as carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, into the condition of the living solid, the inference would be inevitable, at least for the great majority of the animal creation, that they must have been preceded by plants. But paleontology is as yet silent on this interesting question; and, if we consider the remarkable approach which is made in structure and properties between the lowest and simplest members of the two kingdoms of organic nature, so that at last all distinction between them seems entirely to vanish, and a set of organisms is found partaking equally of animal and vegetable characters, or, rather, exhibiting properties wich are common to them both, we shall hesitate to postulate confidently for the primitive antecedence of vegetable life, although, perhaps, in later epochs the preexistence of vegetables may be looked upon as necessary to the life of more developed animal organisms, Ixxvi REPORT—1877,. But while we thus speculate on the first appearance of organized bodies in nature, we ought to keep in mind that we are equally ignorant of the mode of origin of the inorganic elements and their compounds; and we may therefore be excused if we suspend all theory and conjecture until we shall be guided to more reliable hypotheses through the plain track of observation and experiment. The practical applications of the increased knowledge of the origin of minute animal and vegetable organisms are so numerous that it would occupy a much longer time than is at my disposal to give any detailed account of them; but they are of such immense importance in their commercial, social, and sanitary relations that they ought never to be lost sight of. It is now proved beyond doubt that the origin of putrefaction and fermen- tation is dependent on the presence in the substances which are the seat of change in these processes, or in the surrounding air, of the germs of minute organisms of an animal or vegetable nature, and that the maintenance of the chemical changes in which these processes mainly consist is coincident with and casually (if not essentially) dependent upon the growth and multiplica- tion of these organisms. Professor Lister had the merit of being the first to apply the germ theory of putrefaction to explain the formation of putrid matters in the living body ; and he has founded on this theory the now well-known antiseptic treatment of wounds, the importance of which it would be difficult to overestimate. The success or failure of plans for the preservation of meat and other articles of food without question depends on the possibility of the complete exclusion of the germs which are the cause of putrefaction and fermenta- tion; and the management of such plans must therefore be founded on the most accurate knowledge of these organisms, and the circumstances influenc- ing the persistence of their vitality and the vigour of their growth. The theory of Biogenesis has also lately been the guide in the investigation of the causes of various forms of disease, both in the lower animals and in man, with the result of showing that in many of them the infective substance consists, in all probability, of germs of minute animal or vegetable organisms. There is very great probability, indeed, that all the Zymotic diseases (by which we understand the various forms of fevers) have their origin in germs. As has been well remarked by Baxter in an able paper on “ The Action of Disinfectants,” the analogies of action of contagia are similar to those of septic organisms, not to processes simply of oxidation or deoxidation. These orga- nisms, studied in suitable fluids, multiply indefinitely when introduced in all but infinitesimal proportions. Thus they are, as near as we can perceive, the very essence of contagia*, * For the most interesting information on this subject, I cannot do better than refer to the very able Papers by Dr. Burdon Sanderson in the ‘Reports of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council,’ 1873, 1874, and 1875. ten at OO ———— = ADDRESS. Ixxvi Leaving, however, these and many other general questions regarding the origin of the lowest forms of animal and vegetable life, let us now turn - our attention to the mode of development of a new being in those possessing more obyious and known germs. The general nature of the formative pro- cess, in all instances where fertilized germs are produced, will be best un- derstood by a short sketch of the phenomena ascertained to occur in different kinds of plants. In the higher or Phanerogamic plants it is generally well known that the combination of two parts of the flower is necessary to the production of a seed containing the embryo or young plant. Beginning with the discovery of the pollen-tubes by Amici in 1823, the careful and minute investigations of a long line of illustrious vegetable physiologists have brought to light the details of the process by which fertilization is effected, and have shown, in fact, how the minute tube developed from the inner membrane of the pollen-granule, as soon as it falls upon the stigmatic tissue of the seed-bearing plant, insinuates itself by a rapid process of development between the cells of the style, and reaches at last the ovule, in the interior of which is the embryo-sac; how, haying passed into the micropyle or orifice of the ovyule, it makes its way to the embryo-sac; how a minute portion of the fertilizing substance of the fovilla transudes from the pollen-tube into the cavity of the embryo-sac, in which by this time a certain portion of the protoplasm has become differ- entiated into the germinal vesicle—thereby stimulating it to further growth and development, the earliest phenomena of which manifest themselves by the formation of an investing cell-wall, and by the occurrence of cell-division which results in the formation of the embryo or plantule of the seed. Thus it appears that the essential part of the process of production in Pha- nerogamic plants is the formation in the parent plant of cells of two different kinds, which by themselves have little or no independent power of further growth, but which, by their union, give rise to a product in which the power of development is raised to the highest degree. By further researches it is now known that the same law prevails in all the remaining members of the vegetable kingdom, with the exception only of the very simplest forms *. In viewing the reproductive process in the series of Cryptogamic plants, two facts at once strike us as remarkable in the modifications which are observed to accompany the formation of a productive germ, viz. :—first, that the difference between the two productive elements becomes more prominent, or as it were more highly specialized, in the Cryptogamic than in the Pha- nerogamic plants ; and second, that in the simpler and lower forms this differ- ence gradually disappears till it is lost in complete uniformity of the pro- ductive elements. * Tt will be observed that I leave entirely out of view the whole subject of the multipli- cation of plants by budding or simple division. Ixxviii REPORT—1877. Thus in the whole tribe of the Ferns and Vascular Cryptogams, in the higher Algz and Fungi, in the Characeae and in the Mosses, the differentia- tion of the productive elements is carried to a very high degree; for while that belonging to the embryo or germ presents the structure of a simple cell which remains at rest, or in a comparatively passive state, and, absorbing into itself the substance of the other, becomes the seat of subsequent development, the other, corresponding to the pollen of the staminiferous phanerogam, is usually separated from the place of its formation, and, haying undergone a peculiar modification of structure by which it acquires active moving cilia, it changes place and is directed towards the germinal structure, and, coming in contact with its elementary cell, is more or less absorbed or lost in the fertilizing process. The protoplasm of the germinal cell thus acted on and fertilized then proceeds to undergo the changes of development by which the foundation is laid for the new plant. In the Algee and Fungi, however, there are gradations of the differentiation of the two reproductive elements which are of the greatest interest in lead- ing to a comprehension of the general nature of the formative process. For in the lower and simpler forms of these plants, such as the Desmidiex, Meso- carpe, and other Conjugate, we find that there is no distinction in structure or form to be perceived between the two cells which unite in what is termed conjugation ; and a complete fusion or intermixture of the two masses of protoplasm results in the production of a single, usually spherical, mass holding the place of an embryo. And that there is an absence of specialization be- tween the two uniting cells is clearly shown, in both Desmidiwm and Meso- carpus, by the fact that the embryo or zygospore is formed in the mass resulting from the union of the protruded portions of the two cells; while in more ordinary cases, as in Spirogyra, where the embryo is formed in one of the two cells, it seems to be indifferent in which of them it is formed. From this, which may be regarded as the most elementary type of new production by the union of two cells, the transition is not a great one to the development of a progeny without any such union. We might conjecture, then, that the capacity for separate or individual existence extends in the lowest organisms to the whole or to each structural element of their organi- zation, while as we rise in the scale of vegetable life (and the same view might apply to the animal kingdom) this capacity is more and more divided between the two productive elements, or, at least, is only called into full action by their combination. The germinal element of plants thus consists of a simple primordial cell, varying in different kinds, but in all of them probably containing the essential substance protoplasm ; and the most immediate result or effect of fertilization is the multiplication by repeated fissiparous division of the previously existing cells. The new individual resulting from this cellular growth usually remains an ADDRESS. lxxix within the parent body, without, however, direct union or continuity of tissue, till the embryo has attained some advancement, as in the well-known case of the seeds of a phanerogam ; but there are many varieties in the mode of its disposition among the lower plants. A remarkable exception to the more direct relation of the process of ferti- lization to the formation of the new individual or embryo occurs in some plants, simulating in some respects that kind of variation in animal reproduc- tion which has been named alternate generation. A well-known instance of this is observed in the Vascular Cryptogams. The prothallium of the Ferns, for example, results from the development of so-called spores or unicellular buds, which are familiar as being formed in small capsules on the lower leaf- surface ; and in this prothallium, when it has reached a certain stage of vege- tation, there are formed the archegonia, containing the oospheres or germ- cells, which are fertilized by the moving ciliated particles developed in the cells of the antheridia, the process resulting in the production of a new spore-bearing frond or fern-plant. Recent researches have also called attention to the remarkable arrange- ments in many Phanerogamic plants for the prevention of fertilization of the pistils by pollen from the same flower, or even from the same plant. In the latter case this is effected by the separation of stamens and pistils in different flowers. In the former case, where both organs occur in the same flower, the adaptations, whether of a mechanical or of a physiological character, by which self-fertilization is prevented, as ascertained by numerous recent inves- tigations’ (among which those of Darwin are most conspicuous), are of the most varied and often the most complicated kind. Let us now turn to the consideration of the Development of Animals ; and let me say in the outset that it will be necessary for me to confine my remarks chiefly to the higher or vertebrated animals, and to certain parts only of the history of their development—more particularly the structure and formation of the ovum or egg, some of its earlier developmental changes, and the relation of these to the formation of the new animal. ~ Tcannot enter upon the consideration of this topic without adverting to the very recent acquisition of some of the most important facts upon which this branch of knowledge is founded; and I feel it to be peculiarly appropriate, in the year of his death, to refer to a Biologist whose labours contributed more powerfully than those of any other person to give to animal embryology. the character of a systematic branch of science, and to whom we owe some most important original discoveries—I mean Karl Ernest yon Baer of Konigsberg, St. Petersburg, and Dorpat. - Of observers who, previous to Von Baer, were mainly instrumental in preparing the way for the creation of a more exact modern science of embry- ology only two can be mentioned, viz. Caspar Frederick Wolff of St. Peters- Ixxx REPORT—1877,. burg, well known as the author of a work entitled ‘ Theoria Generationis,’ published in 1759, by which the epigenesis or actual formation of organs in a new being was first demonstrated, and Christian Pander, who, by his researches made at Wiirzburg, explained, in a work published in 1817, the principal changes by which the embryo arises and is formed. Yon Baer was born in the Russian province of Esthonia on the 29th of February, 1792. After having been fifteen years Professor in the Prussian University of Konigsberg, he was called to St. Petersburg, and having some years later been appointed to a newly established professorship of Compara- tive Anatomy and Physiology, he remained in that city for nearly thirty years as the most zealous and able promoter of scientific education and research, stimulating and guiding all around him by his unexampled activity, compre- hensive and original views, sound judgment, and cordial cooperation. In 1868, at the age of 76, he retired to Dorpat, from the University of which he had received his degree in 1814, and continued still to occupy himself with working and writing in his favourite subjects, as well as interesting himself in every thing connected with educational and scientific progress, to very near the time of his death, which occurred on the 28th of November, 1876, in his 85th year. Although Von Baer’s researches, according to the light in which we may now view them, contributed in no small degree to the introduction of the newer views of the morphological relations of organic structure which have culminated in the Theory of Descent, yet he was unwilling to adopt the views of Darwin ; and one of his latest writings, completed in the last year of his life, was in vigorous opposition to that doctrine. It would have been most interesting and instructive to trace the history of the progress of discovery in Embryology from the period of Von Baer down to the present time ; but such a history would not be suitable to the purpose of this address; and I can only venture here, in addition to Rathke, the colleague of Baer in Kénigsberg, to select two names out of the long list of distinguished workers in this field during the last forty years, viz. :—Theodor F. W. von Bischoff, of Giessen and Munich, to whom we owe the greatest progress in the knowledge of the development of Mammals, by his several memoirs, appearing from 1842 to 1854; and Robert Remak, of Berlin, whose researches on the development of Birds and Batrachia, appearing from 1850 to 1855, gave greatly increased exactness and extension to the general study of deve- lopment. The germinal element from which, when fertilized, the new animal is derived is contained within the animal ovum or egg—a compact and definite mass of organic matter, in which, notwithstanding great apparent variations, there is maintained throughout all the members of the animal kingdom, excepting the Protozoa, which are destitute of true ova, a greater uniformity in some respects than belongs to the germinal product of plants, ADDRESS. )xxxi Usually more or less spherical in form, the animal ovum presents the essential characters of a ‘* complete cell,” in the signification given by Schwann to that term. The germinal substance is enclosed by: an external vesicular membrane or cell-wall. Within this covering the cell-substance (generally named yolk or vitellus, from the analogy of the fowl’s egg) consists, to a greater or less extent, of a mass of protoplasm ; and imbedded in this mass, in a deter- minate situation, there is found a smaller internal vesicular body, the germu- nal vesicle or nucleus, and within that the somewhat variable macula or nucleolus. Now the first thing which strikes us as remarkable connected with the ovum isthe very great variation in its size as compared with the entire animal to which it belongs, while in all of them the same simple or elementary struc- ture is maintained. The ovum of mammals, for example (discovered by Von Baer in 1827) is a comparatively small body, of the average diameter of about ;1, of an inch, and consequently scarcely weighing more than a minute fraction of a grain, perhaps not more than the ;z4,,5 part. And further, in two animals differing so widely in size as the elephant and the mouse, the weights of which may stand towards each other in the proportion of 150,000 to 1, there is scarcely any difference in the size of the mature ovum. On the other hand, if we compare this small ovum of the mammal with the yolk of the egg in the common fowl, the part to which it most nearly corresponds, it may be estimated that the latter body would contain above three millions of the smaller ova of a mammal. The attribute of size, however, in natural objects ceases to excite feelings of wonder or surprise as our knowledge of them increases, whether that be by familiar observation or by more scientific research. We need not, at all events, on account of the apparent minuteness of the ovum of the mammifer or of any other animal, have any doubts as to the presence of a sufficient amount of germinal substance for explaining in the most materialistic fashion the transmission of the organic and other properties and resemblances between the parent and offspring. For we are led to believe, by those who have recently given their attention to the size of molecules composing both living and dead matter, that in such a body as this minute ovum of the mammal there may be as many as five thousand billions of molecules; and even if we restrict ourselves to the smaller germinal vesicle, and, indeed, to the smallest germinal particle which might be made visible by the highest microscopic enlargement, there are still sufficient molecules for all the requirements of the most exact- ing material biologist *. * According to a calculation made by Mr. Sorby, the number of molecules in the ger- minal vesicle of the mammalian ovum is such that if one molecule were to be lost in every second of time, the whole would not be exhausted in seventeen years, See Address to the Microscopic Society, in Journ. of Microscop. Science, vol. xy. p. 225, and ‘ Nature,’ vol. xiii. p. 382, See also Darwin on “ Pangenesis,” in his work on ‘ Variations,’ &c. (1868), IXxxil REPORT—1877. This great disparity of size, however, is connected with an important difference in the disposition of the yolk-substance, according to which ova may be distinguished as of two kinds—the large- and the small-yolked ova, between which there are also many intermediate gradations. The larger-yolked ova belong to the whole tribe of birds, scaly reptiles, osseous and cartilaginous fishes, and the Cephalopods among the Invertebrates ; and are distinguished by the strictly germinal part or protoplasm being collected into a small disk, known familiarly as the cicatricula of the fowl’s egg, and to be seen as a whitish spot on that side of the yolk which naturally floats uppermost, while the rest of the yolk, of a deeper yellow colour, contains a large quantity of vitelline granules or globules of a different chemical nature from the protoplasm. The phenomena of embryonic development are, in the first instance at least, confined to the germinal disk, and the rest of the yolk serves in a secondary or more remote manner to furnish materials for nourishment of the embryo and its accessory parts. Thus we distinguish the germinal from the nutritive or food-yolk, or, as the younger Van Beneden has named them, the protoplasm and the deutoplasm. Tn the smaller ovum of the mammal, on the other hand, it seems as if the whole, or nearly the whole, of the yolk were protoplasmic or germinal. There may be some admixture of yolk-granules; but there is not the marked separation or limitation of the protoplasmic substance which is so distinct in birds, and the earliest changes of development extend to the whole component substance of the yolk, or, in other words, the yolk is entirely germinal. Hence some have given the names of meroblastic and holoblastic (meaning partially and entirely germinal) to these two contrasting forms of ova. There are many of the invertebrate animals of which the ova present the same entirely germinal arrangement as in those of mammals, and the Am- phiowus may be included in the same group. The Amphibia stand in some measure between the two extremes—the purely protoplasmic or germinal part occupying one side, and the nutritive or vitelline the other. But among the Invertebrates the gradations are often such as to make it difficult to determine under which group the ova should be placed. The genesis or formation of the ovum itself, if it be considered with refe- rence to its first origin, carries us back to a very early period of the develop- ment of the parent in which it is produced; and it is one of the most interesting problems to determine what is the source of the cells in the parent from which the reproductive elements originally spring. All that I can ven- ture to say at present. in regard to this point is, that the primordial ova or vol. ii. p. 874, and the Review by Ray Lankester of Haeckel’s work, ‘ Perigenesis der -Blastidule,’ &c., in ‘Nature’ for 1876, p. 235, and Ray Lankester’s essay on ‘ Comparative Longevity,’ 1870. ADDRESS. Ixxxili germs appear in the parental body, while still embryonic, at a very early period of its development, and clearly derive their origin from a deeply-seated part of the formative cells which are undergoing transformation into the primitive organs; but the exact seat of the origin of the two kinds of reproductive cells is still a matter of doubt. When the ovum attains its full maturity in the ovary, the seat of its formation within the parent, it is separated from that organ, and when fer- tilized proceeds to undergo embryonic development, differing in this respect; from the germinal product of the higher plants, in which the embryo is deve- loped in the place of formation of the seed. The period of maturation of the ovum is marked in the greater number of animals by a series of phenomena which have generally been interpreted as the extrusion or absorption of the germinal vesicle ; and various observers have actually traced the steps of the process by which that vesicle appears to leave the yolk and is lost to sight, or has passed into the space between the yolk and its membrane in the shape of the peculiar hyaline bodies named the polar or directing globules. But recent researches, afterwards to be referred to, tend to show that some part at least of the substance of the ger- minal vesicle remains to form, when combined with the fertilizing element, the newly endowed basis of future development. Among the earliest changes to which the perfect animal ovum is subject, I have first to refer to the segmentation of the germ, a series of phenomena the observation of which has been productive of most important results in leading to a comprehension of the intimate nature of the formative process, and which is of the deepest interest both ina morphological and histo- logical point of view. This process, which was first distinctly observed by Preyost and Dumas more than fifty years ago, and is now known to occur in all animal ova, consists essentially in the cleavage or splitting up of the protoplasmic substance of the yolk, by which it becomes rapidly subdivided into smaller and more numerous elements, so as at last to give rise to the production of an organized stratum of cells out of which, by qdhecquent changes, the embryo is formed. The process of yolk-segmentation may at once be distinguished as of two kinds, according as it affects in the small-yolked ova the whole mass of the yolk simultaneously, or in the large-yolked ova is limited to only one part of it. The cleavage process, in fact, affects the germinal and not the food-yolk ; so that to take the two most contrasting instances of the bird and mammal, to which I have before referred, it appears that while the mammal’s ovum undergoes entire segmentation, this process is confined to the substance of the cicatricula or germinal disk of the bird’s egg. This process is essentially one of cell-division, but it is also in some measure ono of cell-formation. The best idea of its nature will be obtained from a short description of the total segmentation occurring in the mammal’s ovum. lxxxiv REPORT—1877. When, as before mentioned, the germinal vesicle has been in part ex- truded or lost to sight, the whole yolk-substance of the ovum forms a nearly uniform mags of finely granular protoplasm, enclosed within the external cell-membrane. Within a few hours later a clear nucleus has arisen in this mass. ‘To this more definite form of organization assumed by the germinal substance of the future animal, which is about to be the subject of the seg- menting process, the name of the first segment-sphere may be given. By the process of cleavage which now begins, this first segment-sphere and its nucleus undergo division into two nucleated spheres of smaller size, the whole substance of the yolk, in a holoblastic ovum, such as that of the mammal, being involved in the segmenting process. The second-stage of division follows after the lapse of a few hours, and results in the formation of four nucleated segment-spheres ; and the process of division being repeated in a certain definite order, there result in the succeeding stages (that is, the third, fourth, fifth, and up to the tenth) the numbers of 8, 12, 16, 24, 32, 48, 64, and 96 nucleated yolk-spheres, germ- spheres, or formative cells. In the rabbit’s ovum the tenth stage is reached in less than three days ; and as during that time the size of the whole ovum has undergone very little increase, it follows that the spheres of each succeeding set, as they become more numerous, have diminished greatly in size. These segment-spheres are all destitute of external membrane, but are distinctly nucleated ; and their protoplasmic substance is more or less granular, presenting the usual histo- logical characters of growing cells. By the time that segmentation has reached the seventh or eighth stage, when 32 or 48 spheres have been formed, the ovum has assumed the appearance of a mulberry, in which the outer smaller spheres, closely massed together, project slightly and uniformly over the whole surface ; while the interior of the ball is filled with cells of a somewhat larger size and a more opaque granular aspect, also resulting from the process of segmentation. Already, however, the mutual compression of the spheres or cells on the surface, by their crowding together, has led to the flattening of their adjacent sides ; and by the time the tenth stage is reached, when the whole number of the cells is about 96, the more advanced superficial cells, having ranged themselves closely together, form a nucleated cellular layer or covering of the yolk, enclosing within them the larger and more opaque cells, derived like the first from the segmenting process. Ina more advanced stage, the deeper cells now referred to having taken the form of an internal layer, there results at last the bilaminar blastoderm or embryonic germinal membrane. The process of partial segmentation, such as occurs in the bird’s egg, though perhaps fundamentally the same as that of the mammal previously described, stands in a different relation to the parts of the whole yolk or egg, and consequently differs in its general phenomena. ‘The segmentation _ white or albumen, the membrane, and the shell, previous to being laid ADDRESS. Ixxxv is mainly restricted in the meroblastic ova of birds to the germinal disk or cicatricula, and does not immediately involve any part of the larger re- mainder of the yolk. This takes place during the time of the descent of the yolk through the oviduct, when the yolk is receiving the covering of the a process which, in the common domestic fowl, usually occupies less than twenty-four hours. Corresponding essentially to the more complete segmen- tation of the mammal’s ovum, the process leads to the same result in the production of two layers of nucleated formative cells in the original seat of a protoplasmic disk—a bilaminar blastoderm resulting as in the mammal’s - ovum, though in a somewhat different relation to the yolk. I will not fatigue you with a description of the details of these phenomena, interesting as they may be, but only mention generally that they consist in the formation of deep fissures with rounded edges running from the surface into the substance of the germ-disk, The first of these fissures crosses the disk in a determinate direction, dividing it into two nearly equal semicircular parts. In the next stage another fissure, crossing the first nearly at right angles, produces four angular segments. Then come four intervening radial fissures which subdivide the four segments into eight ; and next afterwards the central angles of these eight radial segments are cut off from their peripheral portions by a different fissure, which may be compared to one of the parallels of latitude on the globe near the pole where the radial or longitude fissures converge. And so thereafter, by the succession and alternation of radial and circular clefts (which, however, as they extend cutwards, come soon to lose their regularity), the whole germinal disk is divided into the two layers of nucleated eells, constituting the blastoderma or germinal membrane of Pander and subsequent embryologists*. If a laid egg be subjected to the heat of incubation for eight or ten hours, the cicatricula, now converted into this segmented blastoderm, is found to be considerably expanded by a rapid multiplication of its constituent cells ; and in as many more hours, by further changes in its substance, the first lineaments of the chick begin to make their appearance. Similar changes affect the blastoderm of the mammal; and thus it appears that the result of segmentation, in the bird as well as in the mammal and other animals, is the production of an organized laminar substratum, which is the seat of the subsequent embryonic development. I must still request your attention to some details connected with the process of segmentation, which bear upon the question of the origin of the * The more exact nature of the process of segmentation was first made known by the interesting researches of Bagge in 1841, and more especially of Kolliker in 1843. The phe- nomena of complete segmentation were first fully described in the mammal’s oyum in Bischoff’s description of the development of the Rabbit, 1842, and followed out in his succeeding memoirs on the Dog, Guineapig, and Roedeer. The phenomena of partial segmentation were first made known, in their more exact form, by Kélliker’s researches on the development of the Cephalopoda, published in 1844. In birds the process was first described by Bergmann in 1846, and more fully by Coste in 1848, 1877. g Ixxxvi REPORT—1 877. new cells, and on which recent research has thrown a new and unexpected light. With respect to the nature of the first segment-sphere of the ovum and the source of its nucleus, as well as of the other segment-spheres or cells which follow each other in the successive steps of germ-subdivision, it appears probable, from the researches of several independent observers, and more especially of Edward Van Beneden and Oscar Hertwig, that in the course of the extrusion of the germinal vesicle a small portion of it remains behind in the form of a minute mass of hyaline substance, to which Yan Beneden has given the name of pronucleus, and that, as the result of the fertilizing process, there is formed a second similar hyaline globule or pronucleus, situated near the surface, which gradually travels towards the centre and unites with the first pronucleus, and that these two pronuclei, being fused together, form the true nucleus of the first segment-sphere. According to this view the original germinal vesicle, when it disappears or is lost to sight, as described by so many embryologists, is not dissipated, but only undergoes changes leading to the formation of the new and more highly endowed nucleus of the first embryonic or segmental sphere. It further appears that the sub- division of each segmenting mass is preceded by a change and division of the nucleus, and that this division of the nucleus is accompanied by the pe- culiar phenomenon of a double conical or spindle-shaped radial lineation of the protoplasm, which, if we were inclined to speculate as to its nature, seems almost as if it marked out the lines of molecular force acting in the organizing process. These lines, however, it will be understood, if visible with the microscope, even of the highest magnifying-power yet attained, belong to much larger particles than those of the supposed molecules of the physicist ; but, considered in connexion with what we know of the movements which frequently precede the act of division of the yolk-spheres, we seem in this phenomenon to haye made some near approach to the observation of the direction in which the molecular forces operating in organization may be supposed to act*, With respect to the nature of the blastoderm, the organized cellular stratum - resulting from segmentation, and its relation to the previous condition of * The observations referred to above as to the division of the nucleus are so novel and of such deep interest that I am tempted to add here a short abstract of their more im- portant results from a very clear account given of them by Dr. John Priestley, of Owens College, Manchester, in the ‘ Journal of Microscopical Science’ for April 1876. The researches now referred to are those of Auerbach, Butschli, Strasburger, Hertwig, and Edw. Van Beneden ; and the following may be stated as the points in which they mainly agree :— The nucleus when about to divide elongates into a spindle-shaped body, becomes irregular and indistinct, acquires a granular disk or zone in the plane of its equator; this divides - ADDRESS. Ixxxvil the ovum on the one hand, and the future embryo on the other, there is pre- sented to us, by modern research, the interesting view that the blastoderm consists, after completion of the segmenting process, of two layers of cells—an outer or upper (usually composed of smaller, clearer, and more compact nucleated cells), named ectoderm or epiblast, and an inner or lower (consisting of cells which are somewhat larger, more opaque and granular, but also nucleated), named endoderm or hypoblast. In the meroblastic ova, such as those of birds, the bilaminar blastoderm is discoid and circumscribed as it lies on the yolk-surface, and only comes to envelop the whole of the food-yolk in the progress of later development ; while in the holoblastic ova, and more especially in mammals, the blastoderm from the first extends over the whole surface of the yolk, and thus forms an entire covering of the yolk known as the “ vesicular blastoderm,” the space within being occupied by fluid. Huxley long ago presented the interesting view that these two layers are essentially the same, in their morphological relations and histological structure, as the double wall of the body in the simplest forms of animals above the Protozoa. Haeckel has more recently followed out; this view, supporting it by his researches in the Calcareous Sponges, and has founded upon it his well- known Gastrea theory. According to this view all animals take their origin from a form of Gastrula, or simple stomach-like cavity. In the lower tribes, as in the instance of the common freshwater polype or Hydra, they proceed no further than the Gastrula stage, unless by mere enlargement and slight differ- into two, and each half moves towards the pole of the spindle on its own side, there being radiated lines of protoplasm between the poles and the equatorial disk. The disk segments are the new nuclei, and the subsequent division of the cell takes place in the intermediate space. Although these observers still differ in opinion upon some of the details of this process, and especially as to the fate of the germinal vesicle, all of them seem to agree that there are two pronuclei or distinct hyaline parts of the yolk-protoplasm, a superficial and a deep one, engaged in the formation of the new nucleus ; and both Hertwig and Van Bene- den are of opinion that the two proceed from different productive elements. The radiated structure of the nuclei had been previously recognized by Fol and Flem- ming, and further observed by Oellacher. 1. Butschli’s researches are published in the Noy. Act, Nat.-Cur. 1873, and in the Zeitschr. fiir wissensch. Zool. vol. xxy. ; 2. Auerbach’s observations in his Organolog. Studien, 1874. 3. Strasburger’s observations in his memoir ‘Ueber Zellbildung und Zelltheilung,’ Jena, 1875. 4, Edward Van Beneden’s researches, partly in his memoir “On the Composition and Significance of the Egg,” &c., presented to the Belgian Academy in 1868, and more parti- cularly in the extremely interesting preliminary account of “ Researches on the Develop- ment of Mammalia,” &c., 1875, and in a separate paper in the Journ, of Microscopical Science for April 1876. 5. Oscar Hertwig’s memoirs are contained in the Morpholog. Jahrbuch, 1875, and his: most interesting and novel observations in the same work, 1877, g2 Ixxxvlil REPORT—1877. entiation of the two primitive layers of cells representing the persistent ectoderm and endoderm *. If, pursuing this idea, we take a survey of the whole animal kingdom in its long gradation of increasing complexity of form and structure from the simplest animal up to man himself, we find that all the various modifications of organic structure which present themselves are found, in the history of the individual or ontological development of the different members of the series, to spring originally from two cellular lamine, ectoderm and endoderm, the component elements of which may again be traced back to the first segment- sphere and primitive protoplasmic elements of the ovum. Time does not admit of my conducting you through the chain of observa- tion and reasoning by which Haeckel seeks to convince us of the universal applicability of his theory ; but I cannot avoid calling your attention to the extremely interesting relation which has been shown to exist between the primary phases of development of the ovum and the foundation of the blasto- derm in very different groups of animals, more especially by the researches of Haeckel himself, of Kowalevsky, Edward Van Beneden, and others, and which has received most efficient support from the investigations and writings of E. Ray Lankester in our own country; so that now we may indulge the well-grounded expectation that, notwithstanding the many and great difficulties which doubtless still present themselves in reconciling various forms with the general principle of the theory, we are at least in the track which may lead to a consistent view of the relations subsisting between the ontogenetic, or individual, and the phylogenetic, or race history of the for- mation of animals and of man. In all animals, then, above the Protozoa, the ovum presents, in some form or other, the bilaminar structure of ectoderm and endoderm at a certain stage of its development, this structure resulting from a process of segmen- tation or cell-cleayage ; and there are three principal modes in which the double condition of the layers is brought about. In one of these it is by inward folding or invagination of a part of the single layer of cells immediately resulting from the process of segmentation that the doubling of the layers is produced ; in the second, perhaps resolvable into the first, it may be described rather as a process of enclosure of one set of cells within another ; while in the third the segmented cells, arranged asa single layer round a central cavity of the ovum, divide themselves later into two layers. But the dis- tinction of ectodermic and endodermic layers of cells is maintained, whether’ it be primitive and manifested from a very early period, or acquired later by a secondary process of differentiation. Thus in many Invertebrates, as also * At this place I will only refer to one of the most recent of Haeckel’s works, in which the views alluded to above are fully exposed in a series of most interesting memoirs, viz. ‘Studien zur Gastrea-Theorie,’ Jena, 1877; and to Dr. E. Percival Wright’s translation of the account of Haeckel’s views in Journ. of Microse. Science, vol. xiv. 1874. ee Ree es ADDRESS. ]xxxix in Amphiovus among the Vertebrates, a distinct invagination occurs, while in Mammals, as recently shown by Van Beneden’s most interesting observa- tions in the rabbit’s ovum, and probably also in some invertebrates, the cells of the ectoderm gradually spread over those of the endoderm during the pro- gress of segmentation, and thus the endodermic comes to be enclosed by the ectodermic layer of cells. From the very novel and unexpected observations of Van Beneden it further appears that from the earliest period in the process of segmentation in the mammal’s ovum it is possible to perceive a distinction of two kinds of seg- ment-spheres or cells, and that when this process is traced back to its first stage it is found that the whole of the cells belonging to the ectoderm are the progeny of, or result from the division of the upper of the two first formed segments, and that the whole of the endodermic cells are the descendants of the lower of the two first segmented cells. This, however, is not an isolated fact belonging only to mammalian development, but one which very nearly repeats a process ascertained to occur in a considerable number of the lower animals, and it seems to promise the means of greatly advancing the compre- hension of the whole process of blastodermic formation. Thus ectoderm and endoderm, which are in fact the primordial rudiments of the future animal and vegetative systems of the embryo, are traced back as distinct from each other to the first stage of segmentation of the germ. Accepting these facts as ascertained, they may be regarded as of the deepest significance in the phylogenetic history of animals; for they appear to open up the prospect of our being able to trace transitions between the earliest embryonic forms occurring in the most different kinds of ova, as between the discoid or meroblastic and the vesicular or holoblastic, through the inter- mediate series which may be termed amphiblastic ova*. In the lowest animals, the two layers already mentioned, viz. ectoderm and endoderm, are the only ones known to constitute the basis of develop- mental organization; but as we rise in the scale of animals we find a new feature appearing in their structure, which is repeated also in the history of the formation of the blastoderm in the higher animals up to man. This consists in the formation of an intermediate layer or layers constituting the mesoderm, with which, in by far the greater number, is connected the forma- tion of some of the most important bodily structures, such as the osseous, muscular, and vascular systems. I will not stop to discuss the very difficult question of the first origin of the mesoderm, upon which embryologists are not yet entirely agreed, but will * T ought here to refer to the elaborate memoirs of Professor Semper on the morpho- logical relations of the Vertebrate and Invertebrate animals, contained in the ‘ Arbeiten aus dem Zoolog.-zootom. Institut in Wirzburg, 1875 and 1876, in which the conclusions arrived at do not coincide with the views above stated. xe REPORT—1877. only remark that a view originally taken of this subject by the acute Von Baer appears more and more to gain ground; and itis this—that the meso- derm, arising as a secondary structure, that is, later than the two primary layers of ectoderm and endoderm (corresponding to the serous and mucous layers of Pander), is probably connected with or derived from both of these primitive layers, a view which it will afterwards appear is equally important ontogenetically and phylogenetically. But whatever may be the first origin of the mesoblast, we know that in the Vertebrata this layer, separating from between the other two, and acquiring rapidly by its cell-multiplication larger proportions and much greater complexity than belongs to either ectoderm or endoderm, speedily undergoes further subdivision and differentiation in connexion with tho appearance of the embryonic organs which arise from it, and in this respect contrasts greatly with the simplicity of structure which remains in the developed parts of the ectodermic and endodermic layers. Thus, while the ectoderm supplies the formative materials for the external covering or epidermis, together with the rudiments of the central nervous organs and principal sense-organs, and the endoderm by itself only gives rise to the epithelial lining of the alimentary canal and the cellular part of the glands connected with it, the mesoblast is the source of far more numerous and complex parts, viz. the whole of the true skin or corium, the vertebral column and osseous system, the external voluntary muscles and connective tissue, the muscular walls of the alimentary canal, the heart and blood- vessels, the kidneys, and the reproductive organs, thus forming much the greatest bulk of the body in the higher animals. There is, however, a peculiarity in the mode of the earliest development of the mesoblast which is of great importance in connexion with the general history of the disposition of parts in the animal body, to which I must now refer. This consists in the division of the mesoblast in all but its central part into two laminee, an outer or upper and an inner or lower, and the separa- tion of these by an interval or cavity which corresponds to the space existing between the outer wall of our bodies and the deeper viscera, and which, from the point of view of the vertebrate animals is called the pleuro-peritoneal cavity, but, viewed in the more extended series of animals down to the Annu- loida, may receive the more general appellation of pleuro-splanchnie or parieto-visceral cavity, or, shortly, the celom. Thus, from an early period in the vertebrate embryo, and in a considerable number of the invertebrate, a division of the mesoderm takes place into the somatopleural or outer lamina and the splanchnopleural or inner lamina—the outer being the seat of formation of the dermal, muscular, and osseous systems (the volunto- motory of Remak), and the inner of the muscular wall of the alimentary canal, as well as of the contractile substance of the heart and the vascular system generally. ADDRESS. Xcl It is interesting to find that there is a correspondence between the later division of the mesoderm of the higher animals derived from the two primitive blastodermic lamine and the original absence of mesodermic structure in the lowest animals, followed by the gradual appearance, first of one layer (the external muscular in the higher Coelenterata), and soon afterwards by the two divisions or lamine with the intermediate ccelom. In this account of what may be termed the organized foundation of the new being, I have entered into some detail, because I felt that our conception of any relation subsisting between the ontogenetic history of animals and their phylogenetic evolution can only be formed from the careful study of the earliest phenomena of embryonic organization. Notwithstanding the many difficulties which unquestionably still block the way, I am inclined to think that there is great probability in the view of a common bilaminar origin for the embryo of all animals above the Protozoa, and that the ‘Vertebrate equally with the Invertebrate animals may be shown to possess, in the first stages of their blastodermic or embryonic formation, the two primitive layers of ectoderm and endoderm*. To attempt, however, to pursue the history of the development of animals in detail would be equivalent to inflicting upon you a complete system of human and comparative anatomy. But I cannot leave the subject abruptly without an endeavour to point out in the briefest possible manner the bearing of some of the leading facts in embryology upon the general relation of onto- geny and phylogeny. We aro here brought into the contemplation of those remarkable changes, all capable of being observed and demonstrated, by which the complex organization of the body of man and animals is gradually built up out of the elementary materials furnished by the blastodermic layers—a process which has been looked upon by all those who have engaged in its study with the greatest interest and admiration. By comparing these phenomena as observed in individuals belonging to different classes and orders of animals, it is found that not only are they not different, but, on the contrary, that they present features of the most remarkable resemblance and conformity, and we are led to the conclusion that there is a general plan of development proved to extend to the members of considerable groups, and possibly capable * If we reserve the words ectoderm and endoderm to designate the two layers of the primary bilaminar blastoderm, we may apply the terms epiblast and hypoblast to their derivatives after the formation of the mesoderm, and indicate the relations of the whole to the secondary or quadrilaminar blastoderm by the following Table :— ( Bot Pea hotses Heoerome reat crttecw Pit Siuaadt tang ioe omatopleure ...... econdary staan ee roe . { Blastoderm, Primary | Endoderm wy big ei aaa weve Hypoblast Blastoderm perenne J xe REPORT—1877. of being traced from one group to another ; this being in fact equivalent to the statement that there is a similar type of structure pervading the animals of each group, and a probability of a common type being ascertained to belong to them all. The main question, therefore, to be answered is whether there is or is not a general correspondence between the phenomena of development and the gradation of type in animal structure upon which anatomists and zoologists are agreed ; and my object will now be to bring rapidly before you one or two of the most marked illustrations of the correspondence, drawn from the early history of development in the higher animals. As one of the examples of the earlier phenomena of development I may refer to the change which is perceptible as early as the 18th or 20th hour of incubation in the chick, and which is reproduced in the course of develop- ment of every member of the Vertebrate subkingdom. It consists in the formation of cross clefts on each side of the primitive neural cavity, which divide off from each other a number of segments of this wall in the length of the axis of the embryo. At first there are only one or two such clefts ; but they rapidly increase in a backward direction in the body of the embryo, and as development proceeds they extend into the tail itself. These are the protovertebre of embryologists—not corresponding, as might at first be supposed, with the true or actual vertebrae which are formed later, but representing in an interesting manner transverse vertebral segments of the body, and containing within each the elements of the several structures belonging to the body-wall afterwards to be developed, in- cluding the true cartilaginous or osseous vertebral arches and the muscular plates. This change, however, belongs to the mesodermic lamina, and occurs in an clongated thick portion of it, which makes its appearance on each side of the primitive neural canal between the epiblast and the hypoblast. The transverse cleavage is ascertained to commence near what afterwards forms the first cervical yerlebra, but does not extend into the base of the cranium. And it is most interesting to note in this cleavage the formation at so early a period of the succession of metameres or series of similar parts, which forms a main characteristic of vertebral organization. As intimately connected with the formation of the vertebral column, the appearance of the chorda dorsalis or notochord presents many points of peculiar interest in embryological inquiries. The notochord is a continuous median column or thread of cellular struc- ture running nearly the whole length of the rudimentary body of the embryo, and lying immediately below the cerebro-spinal canal. It occupies, in fact, the centre of the future bodies of the vertebre. It exists as a pri- mordial structure in the embryo of all Vertebrates, including man himself and extending down to the Amphioxus, and, according to the remarkable discovery ADDRESS, x¢clii of Kowalevsky in 1866, it is to be found among the Invertebrates in the larva of the Ascidia*. In Amphioxus and the Cyclostomatous Fishes the notochord, growing with the rest of the body into a highly developed form, acts as a substitute for the pillar of the bodies of the vertebra, no vertebral bodies being developed ; but in Cartilaginous and Osseous Fishes various gradations of cartilaginous and osseous structures come to surround the notochord and give rise to the simpler forms of vertebral bodies, which undergo more and more distinct development in the higher vertebrates. In all instances the substance forming the vertebral bodies is deposited on the surface of or outside the notochord and its sheath, so that this body remains for a time as a vestigial structure within the vertebral bodies of the higher animals. The observations of Kowalevsky with respect to the existence of a notochord in the Ascidia, which have been confirmed by Kupfer and others, have pro- duced a change little short of revolutionary in embryological and zoological views, leading as they do to the support of the hypothesis that the Ascidian is an earlier stage in the phylogenetic history of the mammal and other Vertebrates. The analogy between the Amphioxus and Ascidian larva is certainly most curious and striking as regards the relation of the notochord to other parts; and it is not difficult to conceive such a change in the form and position of the organs in their passage from the embryonic to the adult state as is not inconsistent with the supposition that the Vertebrates and the Ascidia may have had a common ancestral form. Kowalevsky’s discovery opens up at least an entirely new path of inquiry ; and necessitates the modi- fication of our views as to the entire separation of the Vertebrates from the other groups of animals, if we do not at once adopt the hypothesis that through the Ascidian and other forms the origin of the Vertebrates may be traced downwards in the series to the lower grades of animal organization. The notochord extends a short way forward into the cranial basis; and an interesting question here presents itself, beginning with the speculations of Goethe and Oken, and still forming a subject of discussion, whether the series of cranial or cephalic bones is comparable to that of the vertebre. On the whole it appears to me that it is consistent with the most recent views of tho development and anatomy of the head to hold the opinion that it is composed of parts which are to some extent homologous with vertebral metameres He The history of the formation of the vertebral column presents an interesting example of the correspondence in the development of the individual and the race, in that all the stages which have been referred to as occurring in the gradual evolution of the vertebral column in the series of Vertebrates are * Mém. de l’Acad. de St. Pétersbourg, vol. x. + See the interesting and valuable memoirs of W. K. Parker, “On the Anatomy and Development of the Vertebrate Skull,” in Trans. of Roy. Soc., the researches of Gegenbaur, Mihalkovics, and more particularly the memoir by F. M. Balfour, “On the Development of the Elasmobranchs,” in the Journ, of Anat, and Physiol. vols. x, and xi. XC1V REPORT— 1877. repeated in the successive stages of the embryonic development of the higher members of the series.” There is perhaps no part of the history of development in the Vertebrates which illustrates in a more striking manner the similarity of plan which runs through the whole of them than that connected with what I may loosely call the region of the face and neck, including the apparatus of the jaws and gills, The embryonic parts I now refer to consist of a series of symmetrical pairs of plates which are developed at an early period below the cranium, and may therefore, in stricter embryological terms, be styled the subcranial plates. Without attempting to follow out the remarkable changes which occur in the development of the nose and mouth in connexion with the anterior set of these plates (which, from being placed before the mouth, are sometimes named preoral), I may here refer shortly to the history of the plates situated behind the mouth, which were discovered by Rathke in 1826, and formed the subject of an elaborate investigation by Reichert in 1837. These plates consist of a series of symmetrical bars, four in number in mammals and birds, placed immediately behind the mouth, separated by clefts passing through the wall of the throat, and each traversed by a division of the great artery from the heart—thus constituting the type of a branchial apparatus, which in fishes and amphibia becomes converted into the well-known gills of these animals; whilst in reptiles, birds, and mammals they undergo various changes leading to the formation of very different parts, which could not be recognized as having any relation to gill-structure, but for the obser- vation of their earlier embryonic condition. The history of this part of deve- lopment also possesses great interest on account of the extraordinary degree of general resemblance which it gives to the embryos of man and the most different animals at a certain stage of advancement (so great, indeed, that it requires a practised eye to distinguish between them though belonging to different orders of mammals, and even between some of them and the embryos of birds or reptiles), as well as in connexion with the transformations of the first pair of branchial apertures, which lead to the formation of the passage from the throat to the ear in the higher Vertebrata. There is equal interest attached to the history of the development of the first pair of arches which include the basis of formation of the lower jaw with the so-called cartilage of Meckel, and which, while furnishing the bone which suspends the lower jaw in reptiles and birds, is converted in mammals into the hammcr-bone of the ear. The other arches undergo transformations which are hardly less marvel- lous, and the whole series of changes is such as never fails to impress the embryological inquirer with a forcible idea of the persistence of type and the inexhaustible variety of changes to which simple and fundamental parts may be subject in the process of their development. - It is also of deep significance, in connexion with the foregoing phenomena, ie i a eee ee i ei ADDRESS. “Xev to observe the increase in the number of the gill-bars and apertures as we descend in the scale to the cartilaginous fishes and lampreys, and the still further multiplication of these metameres or repeated parts in the Amphioxus ; and itis interesting to note that in the Ascidia the arrangement of the gills is exactly similar to that of the Amphioxus. The study of the comparative anatomy of the heart and its mode of for- mation in the embryo furnishes another striking illustration of the relation between ontogenetic and phylogenetic development in the Vertebrates, and is not without its applications to some of the invertebrate groups of animals. I need only recall to your recollection the completely double state of this organ in warm-blooded animals, by which a regular alternation of the systemic and pulmonary circulations is secured,—the series of gradations through the class of Reptiles by which we arrive at the undivided ventricle of the Amphibian, and the further transition in the latter animals by which we come at last to the single heart of Fishes; and state that in the embryo of the higher animals the changes by which the double heart is ultimately developed out of an extremely simple tubular shape, into which it is at first moulded from the primitive formative cells, are, in the inverse order, entirely analogous to those which I have just now indicated as traceable in the descending series of vertebrate animals ; so that at first the embryonic heart of man and other warm-blooded animals is nothing more than a rhythmically contractile vascular tube. By the inflection of this tube, the constriction of its wall at certain parts, and the dilatation at others, the three chambers are formed which represent the single auricle, the single ventricle, and the aortic bulb of the fish. By later changes a septum is formed to divide the auricles, becoming completed in all the air-breathing animals, but remaining incom- plete in the higher animals so long as the conditions of foetal life prevent the return of arterialized blood to the left auricle. The growth of another septum within the ventricular portion gradually divides that cavity into two ven- tricles, repeating somewhat in its progress the variations observed in different reptiles, and attaining its complete state in the crocodile and warm-blooded animals. I must not attempt to pursue this interesting subject further ; but I cannot avoid making reference to the instructive view presented by the embryo- logical study of the nature of the malformations to which the heart is sub- ject, which, as in many other instances, are due to the persistence of transitory conditions which belong to different stages of progress in the development of the embryo. Nor can I do more than allude to the interest- ing series of changes by which the aortic bulb, remaining single in fishes and serving as the channel through which the whole stream of blood leaving the heart is passed into the gills, becomes divided in the higher animals into the roots of the two great vessels, the aorta and the pulmonary artery, and the x¢vl REPORT—1877. remarkable transformations of the vascular arches which proceed from the aortic bulb along the several branchial arches, and which, in the gills of fishes and aquatic Amphibia, undergo that minute subdivision which belongs to the vascular distribution of gills, but which in the higher non-branchiated animals are the subject of very different and various changes, in the partial obliteration of some and the enlargement of others, by which the permanent vessels are produced. These changes and transformations have for many years been a subject of much interest to comparative anatomists, and will continue to be so, not only from their presenting to us one of the most remarkable examples of confor- mity in the plan of development and the type of permanent or completed organization in the whole series of vertebrated animals, but also because of the manifest dependence of the phenomena of their development upon ex- ternal influences and atmospheric conditions affecting the respiration, nutri- tion, and modes of life of the animal. Nor is the correspondence to which I now refer entirely limited to the Vertebrata. For here, again, through the Amphioxus and the Ascidia, we come to see how an affinity may be traced between organs of circulation and respiration which at first appear to belong to very different types. The heart of vertebrates is, as is well known, essentially a concentrated form of vascular development in the ventral aspect of the body, while the heart of the invertebrate, whether in the more concentrated form existing in the Articulata and Mollusca or in a more subdivided shape prevalent in the Annelida, is most frequently dorsal; yet the main aorta of the Vertebrates is also dorsal; and it is not impossible, through the intermediate form of Amphioxus, to understand how the relation between the Vertebrate and the Invertebrate type of the blood-vascular system may be maintained. But I am warned by the lapse of time that I must not attempt to pursue these illustrations further. In the statement which I have made of some of the more remarkable phenomena of organic production—too long, I fear, for your endurance, but much too brief to do justice to the subject—it has been my object mainly to show that they are all more or less closely related toge- ther by a chain of similarity of a very marked and unmistakable character ; that in their simplest forms they are indeed, in so far as our powers of obser- vation enable us to know them, identical ; that in the lower grades of animal and vegetable life they are so similar as to pass by insensible gradations into each other; and that in the higher forms, while they diverge most widely in some of their aspects in the bodies belonging to the two great kingdoms of organic nature, and in the larger groups distinguishable within each of them, yet it is still possible, from the fundamental similarity of the phenomena, to trace in the transitional forms of all their varieties one great general plan of organization, F ADDRESS. xevll at T In its simplest and earliest form that plan comprises a minute mass cf the common nitrogenous hydrocarbon compound to which the name of protoplasm has been given, exhibiting the vital properties of assimilation, reproduction, and irritability. The second stage in this plan is the nucleated and enclosed condition of the protoplasmic mass in the organized cell. We next recognize the differentiation of two productive elements, and their com- ‘ination for the formation of a more highly endowed organizing element in the embryonic germ-sphere or cell; and the fourth stage of advance in the complexity of the organizing phenomena is in the multiplication of the fer- tilized embryo-cell and its conversion into continuous organized strata, by further histological changes in which the morphological foundations of the future embryo or new being are laid. I need not now recur to the further series of complications in the formative process by which the bilaminar blastoderm is developed and becomes trila~ minar or quadrilaminar, but only recall to your recollection that while these several states of the primordial condition of the incipient animal pass insen- sibly into each other, there is a pervading similarity in the nature of the his- tological changes by which they are reached, and that in the production of the endless variations of form assumed by the organs and systems of different animals in the course of their development, the process of cell-production, multiplication, and differentiation remains identical. The more obvious morphological changes are of so similar a character throughout the whole, and so nearly allied in the different larger groups, that we cannot but regard them as placed in some very close and intimate relation to the inherent properties of the organic substance which is their seat, and the ever-present influence of the vital conditions in which alone these properties manifest themselves. The formative or organizing property therefore resides in the living suk- stance of every organized cell and in each of its component molecules, and is a necessary part of the physical and chemical constitution of the organizing elements in the conditions of life; and it scarcely needs to be said that these conditions may be as varied as the countless numbers of the molecules which compose the smallest particles of their substance. But, setting aside all speculation of a merely pangenctic kind, it appears to me that no one could haye engaged in the study of embryological development for any time without becoming convinced that the phenomena which have been ascertained as to the first origin and formation of textures and organs in any individual animal are of so uniform a character as to indicate forcibly a law of connexion and continuity between them; nor will his study of the phenomena of development in different animals have gone far before he is equally strongly convinced of the similarity of plan in the development of the larger groups, and, to some extent, of the whole. I consider it impossible therefore for any one to be a faithful student of embryology, in the present state of science, xevil REPORT—1877. without at the same time becoming an evolutionist. There may still be many difficulties, some inconsistencies, and much to learn, and there may remain beyond much which we shall never know; but I cannot conceive any doctrine professing to bring the phenomena of embryonic development within a general law which is not, like the theory of Darwin, consistent with their fundamental identity, their endless variability, their subjugation to varying external in- fluences and conditions, and with the possibility of the transmission of the vital conditions and properties, with all their variations, from individual to individual, and, in the long lapse of ages, from race to race. I regard it, therefore, as no exaggerated representation of the present state of our knowledge to say that the ontogenetic development of the individual in the higher animals repeats in its more general character, and in many of its specific phenomena, the phylogenetic development of the race. If we admit the progressive nature of the changes of development, their simi- larity in different groups, and their common characters in all animals, nay, even in some respects in both plants and animals, we can scarcely refuse to recognize the possibility of continuous derivation in the history of their origin ; and however far we may be, by reason of the imperfection of our knowledge of Paleontology, Comparative Anatomy, and Embryology, from realizing the precise nature of the chain of connexion by which the actual descent has taken place, still there can be little doubt remaining in the minds of any unprejudiced student of embryology that it is only by the employment of such an hypothesis as that of Evolution that further investigation in these several departments will be promoted, so as to bring us to a fuller compre- hension of the most general law which regulates the adaptation of structure to function in the Universe. Pac Yen ane es ek) em oe |S ; {2S Lay #2) = yal ‘i REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Se Song i Soe a eet oh it = rR 2 oat oe a = De tus a) : fil’ far > : Am a , «lt Lf” fF . : 7 Cs hone ee by ar ersa, | ; r © i A rut 5 yee ~ ae 4 ie ¥ ; ? cea Phe = ae , felah ies aaee a, “ P Lhiget Hl ebay Lint a a =) a tae pth Fae, Fiat { a) ; sie a ive aes. MOS Sta <- ae > aca Hykeag m1 =) . aPHoias a! ~ ’ bff ar ii treo reg a men ah a TE Te MY MTE § sty a ae mer | stragy 2 Ba ow Ae , = ees Pa . HL “2 4. ' Fae how . ifs: er ie ' \- ane ay, a 3 ar = , 4) ; xe » ¢ << % 7 hen . ; ae = © % ones — REPORTS ON : : THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Thirteenth Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent’s Cavern, — Devonshire—the Committee consisting of Joun Evans, F.R.S., Sir _ Joun Lussock, Bart., F.R.S.. Epwarp Vivian, M.A., Guorcu Busx, F.R.S., Professor Boyp Dawkuiys, F.R.S., Wittiam Aysu- FoRD SanrorD, F.G.S., Joun Epwarp Len, F.G.8., and WiiiiaM OLY, . PRS. (Repor ter). [Prats I.] - Tux Committee in their Twelfth Report, read at Glasgow last year*, brought up the history of their researches to the end of August 1876. They have now the pleasure of continuing that history to ‘the end of July 1877. During the intervening eleven months the work has been continued without interruption, on the same method and under the same daily superintendence as heretofore. The workmen named in the Twelfth Report, George Smerdon (foreman) and William Matthews, are still employed on the exploration, and continue to give unqualified satisfaction. On the 2nd November, 1876, Mr. Busk, a member of the Committee, visited the Cavern, accompanied by one of the Superintendents, when he inspected that portion of the work which was then in progress, as well as the principal parts where the exploration has been completed. The researches continue to attract large numbers of visitors, most of whom are admitted by the authorized guide, who, under well-defined and strictly observed regulations, conducts them through such branches of the Cavern as are of general and popular interest, but not to those in which the work is in actual progress or has not been begun. In addition to the foregoing, the following visitors haye been accompanied by one of the Superintendents :—The Ban. T. G. Bonney, A. N. Mackray, and R. R. Wolfe, Professor Balfour, Captain Smith (India), Dr. A. M. Cash, and Messrs. 8. Ashton, J. R. K. Aston, F. Atkins, T. Ball, A. Barclay, R. b. ‘Barclay, F. Blood, R. A. Charlton, W. Cook, G. Critchett, ibe Diane, § s Elliott, J. D. Enys (New Zealand), W. Findlater, D. A. Fox, AL Frederick, G. Goodrick, J. R. Grimshaw, C. H, B. Hambly, E. Hepw orth, A. R. Hunt, * See Report Brit. Assoc. 1876, pp. 1-S. 1877, B w) REPORT—1877. A. N. Johnson, W. H. Johnson, J. T. Kough, I. L. Latham (Bombay), A. 8. Lukin, C. A. Merman, 8. Morse, J. Nield, P. H. Nind, W. W. Phillips, J. Sivewright, J. Steele, L. Tetlow, A. Tylor, B. P. Walker, J. Whitehead, F. R. Wolfe, W. Wolfe, and C. L. Wolley. The Bear’s Den.—-The Chamber termed “ The Bear’s Den” by the Rev. J. MacEnery measures about 67 feet in length, from north to south nearly, from 8 to 38 feet in width, and from 8 to 15 feet in height, the last dimen- sion being measured, as everywhere else in the Cavern, from the bottom of the excavation. The limestone roof is extremely rugged, fretted, and water- worn. The ‘“ Lake” * opens out of the north-eastern corner of the Den, and nearly opposite, in the western wali, is the eastern mouth of the ‘‘ Great Oven” +. On the same side as, and immediately south of, the latter opening is avast boss of stalagmite, which the Superintendents of the work have preserved intact. This boss is crowded with inscriptions, most of which are, unfortunately, difficult to decipher, partly because they cross one another, and also because they are much scratched, apparently by the nailed shoes of visitors. The following, however, have been distinctly made out :— 1. “ William Petre, 1571.” 2. “A. T., 1662.” 3. “1. Bertie, 1706” (in a rude segment of a circle, of which the chord is 8:5 inches, and the height 5°5 inches). . “J, R., 1706” (in a rectangular figure, 2 x 1°5 inches). . * A, Chard, 1817.” eR, D., 1822.” W. Crew.” * §, Crocker.” . “F, Davy.” (In letters 6 inches high, produced apparently with a series of blows with a pointed hammer. The last letter is Y by inference only. Its place is occupied by a triangle placed thus— VY, formed by the complete removal of a thin lamina of the stalagmite. This removal was probably accidental, and caused with the unintentional effect of the blows of the hammer in the attempt to form the Y.) 10. “ Anton Hay.” 11. “ Dauid More ” (in engrossed letters). 12. “ John Skinner.” 13. “ F. D.” (within a heart-shaped figure, measuring 5:5 inches from the indent to the point opposite, and 5 inches in greatest breadth). 14, “* W. RB.” 15. © W. E.” There is also a date belonging to the second decade of the 17th century, but to what precise year cannot be determined, as the right or units numeral is not decipherable. All that can be made out is 161 [?]. No. 1 is of considerable interest on two accounts :— First. The date, 1571, is, so far as is at present known, the earliest in the Cavern, and the only one belonging to the 16th century. Second. Its genuineness can scarcely be doubted, as it is known that there were at the period in question two natives of South Devon named William | * See Report Brit. Assoc. 1869, pp. 186-9. t+ Ibid, 1875, p. 12; and 1876, pp. 2-3. ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 3 Petre—Sir William Petre, the statesman, who obtained the manor of Brent, near Totnes, at the dissolution of Buckfast Abbey, about 1553 ; and William Petre, his nephew. Mr. R. Dymond, F.5.A., of Rxoter; writing to the Superintendents on the question, says :—‘‘ Sir Wii. Petre, the statesman, does not appear to have maintained much connexion with Devonshire after attaining manhood; and as the date of the inscription in Kent’s Cavern (1571) was that of the year preceding his interment in Essex, it would seem unlikely that it referred to him. “On the other hand, there is much that points to the conclusion that it was the work of William Petre, his nephew, who owned Hays in St. Thomas, a suburb of Exeter, but who was described as of Tor Newton, and was buried at Tor Brian, near Totnes, in 1614. His mother was a Ridgway of Tor- mohun, the parish in which the Cavern is situate; and his wife was a Southcote of Bovey Tracy, South Devon. Thomas Ridgway, the then owner of the land which contains Kent’s Hole, was the trustee of his marriage settlement in 1585. He probably held frequent intercourse with these con- nexions, and was familiar with the objects of interest on their property. His monumental inscription (see Prince’s ‘ Worthies of Devon,’ p. 633) does not state his age, but he died in 1614. His marriage settlement was apparently a postnuptial one; and he was probably young in 1571, when the youthful freak of carving the name in stalagmite was perpetrated. . May we not fairly conclude that he was identical with the ‘ William Petre’ of the Cavern ?—R. D., 20th May, 1877.” It may not be out-of place to add here that Mr. J. T. White, whilst preparing his ‘ History of Torquay,’ discovered a lease dated December 22nd, 1659, and appertaining to “ closes, flields, or pieces of ground” forming part of the property in which the Cavern is situate, in which occur the words ‘one close called Kent’s Hole ;” thus showing that in the middle of the 17th century the Cavern was so well known as to have given a name to a portion of an estate leased to a “‘ husbandman,” and rendering it eminently probable that the inscription of 1571, and all those of subsequent date, may be taken as genuine. As Mr. MacEnery broke ground in every part of the Bear’s Den, the con- dition in which he found it can only be learned from the description which he has left, and which may be given in the following very condensed form :— ©The floor of the Bear’s Den was studded with conical mounds of stalagmite, supporting corresponding pendants from the roof. Fallen masses of limestone were strewed about, and some of them were incorporated in the crust. An irregular sheet of stalagmite, about a foot thick, overspread the floor, and was based on a shallow bed of indurated rubble, containing tubes of stalactite collected in heaps in particular places, a great abundance of album graecum, an unusual proportion of Bears’ teeth, and an iron blade much corroded, Points of stalagmitic cones were observed to protrude upwards into the rubbly bed, and were found to rise from a lower sheet of stalagmite. Tho cones of this lower sheet were precisely under those of the upper, denoting that they were successively deposited from the same tubes above; but the lowermost set exceeded by double the thickness of the uppermost, and the depth of the stalagmitic sheet was in the same proportion. The lower sheet extended over the entire area of the den; but the superincumbent bed of rubble, and its overlying thin sheet of stalagmite, disappeared gradually or ‘thinned out’ towards the sides. The removal of these partial beds displayed the entire surface of the lower sheet, which exhibited a most singular B2 { REPORT—1877. appearance. Over the whole area it was cracked into large slabs, resembling flags in a pavement. ‘The upper shect was not in the least fractured. The average thickness of the cracked sheet was about two feet. It possessed the hardness of rock, and, but for its division into insulated flags, it would have been almost impossible to pierce it. Powder made no impression on it. «The first flag we turned over displayed a curious spectacle. Skulls and bones of Bear, crowded together, adhered to its undersurface. Flag after flag disclosed the same phenomenon; but in one place numerous skeletons lay heaped on each other; the entire vertebral column and its various other bones, even to the phalanges and claws, were discovered lying in their natural relation in a state of preservation as if belonging to the same individual. The remains of Bear prevailed here to the exclusion of all other animals. Some of the teeth were of the most dazzling enamel, and the bones of their natural fresh colour. Others, on the contrary, were of a darkish brown ; even the enamel was ofa greenish tinge. Owing to the induration of their earthy envelope, or their incrustation by stalagmite, few were extracted entire. Two skulls were buried in the stalagmite as in a mould, and were brought away in that state. In no case were the remains broken or gnawed by the jaws of Carnivores. The long bones were generally found entire, and when observed broken it was only mechanically from pressure. The bones were highly mineralized, heavy, brittle, easy of fracture, and when struck rang like metallic substances.” (Sce ‘Trans. Devon Assoc.’ vol. lil. (1869) pp. 238-40, 272-4, and 307-16.) ««The annexed section,” says Mr. MacEnery, “ will indicate the relative arrangement or position of the alternating strata of stalagmite and loam ” (ibid. p. 311). It must not be supposed, however, that the section makes any thing like an approach to accuracy of scale or proportions (Plate I.). The portions of the Stalagmitic Floor which Mr. MacEnery had failed to break up, chiefly adjacent to the walls and other confines of the Bear’s Den, were sufficient to furnish the Committee with two good examples of the remarkably cracked condition of which he speaks. One of these was in the north-east corner, where a crack about half an inch wide extended from wall to wall, dividing the Bear’s Den from the ‘‘ Lake” area, passing quite through the stalagmite, which was nowhere less than 2 feet thick, but without ‘faulting ” it in the slightest degree, or, so far as could be observed, in any way affecting the underlying deposits. Mr. MacEnery, however, states, though somewhat obscurely, that in some instances a derangement had taken place in the materials covered by the broken stalagmite (ibid. p. 809). The second existing crack varies from *25 inch to 2°5 inches wide, aud passes completely through the boss of stalagmite already mentioned, but without faulting it. It is, perhaps, worthy of remark that there is no unoccupied space between the base of this boss and the deposit beneath it. The two are in direct and undisturbed contact. No such cracks appear to be mentioned by Mr. MacEnery as occurring clsewhere, nor haye the Com- mittee met with any thing of the kind in any other branch of the Cavern. The ground broken by Mr. MacEnery extended to a depth of from 8 to 20 inches over almost the entire area of the Bear’s Den. As was his wont, he left the excayated materials almost where he found them, and, as in all previous cases of the kind, there were amongst them a large number of specimens which had been overlooked or neglected. These, carefully collected by the Committee, were kept apart from the relics they found in the deposits below his diggings, and, when the exploration of the Den was completed, such was their number and volume that a horse and cart were ee ee ee ~ ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE, 9) required for their removal from the Cavern. They included 1 tooth of Horse, 1 of Fox, 2 teeth of Deer, 4 of Hyzena, 4 of Mammoth, upwards of 2U0 of Bear, yery numerous bones, especially of the vertebral column and feet, a crowd of broken bones and bone splinters, numerous balls of coprolite, and a few bits of coarse pottery. It cannot be doubted that such cracks as Mr. MacEnery describes, if at all approaching in width to that still existing in the Stalagmitic boss, must be a possible, and, indeed, probable source of uncertainty respecting the position and relative chronology of some of the objects found in the underlying deposit, especially if, as he states, this deposit shared in the disturbance ; for it must be supposed that portions of the overlying Caye-earth or, as Mr. MacEnery calls it, the Rubble-bed, together with teeth, bones, and coprolites, such as he found in it, would pass down through the cracks, and be lodged on, and perhaps in, the underlying Breccia. In accordance with Mr. MacEnery’s description and the foregoing con- siderations, the deposit the Committee had to excavate was the Breccia, with a small amount of Cave-carth lying on it here and there. Fallen blocks of limestone were extremely numerous ; many of them were of great size, and required to be blasted before they could be removed ; whilst others, still larger, penetrated the Breccia below the depth to which the excavation was carried, and were allowed to remain undisturbed. The excavation in the Bear’s Den was limited, as in other branches of the Cavern, to a depth of four feet below the bottom of the Stalagmite, and the Limestone Floor was nowhere reached. The “finds” in the Den were 216 in number, of which 12 were in the Stalagmite, 101 in the first or uppermost foot-level of the underlying deposits, 47 in the second, 32 in the third, 23 in the fourth or lowest, and 1 in a small recess in the north-west corner of the Den, where no attempt was made to define the exact position of the objects. Omitting those found in the Stalagmite and the Recess, 32 of the “ finds” were in Caye-earth, 65 in a mixture of Cave-earth and Breccia, and 96 in the Breccia, whilst the matrix of the remaining 10 must be regarded as uncertain. The colour and other characters of the specimens, however, indicate with toler- able certainty to what beds and eras they belong. Besides a considerable number of bones and pieces of bone representing every part of the skeleton, the specimens included upwards of 620 teeth of Bear, 24 of Hyzena, 10 of Horse, 7 of Fox, 5 of Mammoth, 4 of Lion, and 1 of Dog (?) or Wolf (?). There were also 20 “ finds” of coprolite and 11 flints. Amongst the bones, the skull of a Bear may be mentioned, which, to requote the language of Mr. MacEnery, was ‘“ buried in the stalagmite as in a mould, and was brought away in that state.” Many of the specimens are of considerable interest, but, perhaps, none of them differ so much from those mentioned in previous Reports as to require detailed description. There is, however, a portion of a large canine tooth, probably of Bear, which is note- worthy as having been apparently chipped artifically. From its colour and general characters, it belonged to the breccia, or oldest known deposit ; but it was met with, as part of “find” No. 6993, in the cave-carth, with two teeth of Hyzena and a coprolitic ball, on 9th of June, 1877. Specimens similar in character, and found under corresponding conditions, have been previously met with in the Cavern, and were first pointed out by Professor Boyd Dawkins, a member of the Committee, in 1868. None of the flints found in the Bear’s Den are of so much interest as many of those exhumed in other branches of the Cavern, and described 6 REPORT—1877. in previous Reports, The following, however, deserve more than a passing notice :— No. 6895 is a small, delicately-proportioned, white, flake tool, 1°75 inch long, ‘6 inch in greatest width, which it retains for about two thirds of its length, and ‘2 inch in greatest thickness. Both its ends are blunt, but its edges are sharp; the inner face is almost flat, whilst the outer is strongly ridged. It was found in the first ‘foot-level,” with 6 teeth of Bear and 1 of Mammoth, on 1st November, 1876, and is undoubtedly a true Cave-earth implement. No. 6929 is an irregular rolled flint nodule, from which two flakes have been dislodged since it ceased to be exposed to any action capable of scratching its facets or injuring its edges. It is about 2°5 inches long, 1:4 inch in greatest breadth, 1:1 inch in greatest thickness, and was found, without any object of interest near it, in the Breccia, or lowest known deposit, in the fourth or lowest “ foot-level,” on 17th November, 1876. It has the dark, manganic smutty surface which occasionally characterizes the Breccia tools. No. 6943 is a white flake implement, 2-2 inches long, °5 inch in greatest breadth, and °3 inch in greatest thickness. It is broadest at one end, whence it gradually tapers towards the other, but is somewhat scimitar-shaped in outline, and has lost its point. It is nearly flat on one face, but is strongly ridged on the other, whence three longitudinal flakes have been dislodged, and its lateral margins are thin and sharp. It was found on 28th November, 1876, in the Cave-earth, in the first ‘ foot-level,” with relics of Bear, Elephant, and Hyzena. No. 6986 is a white flake, 1 inch long, 6 inch wide, and +2 inch in greatest thickness. It is a parallelogram in outline; slightly convex on the inner face, doubly ridged on the outer; quite thin at the lateral margins, one of which is somewhat notched, from which the other is free ; thick at each end, and is in all probability the central portion of a tool of greater length. It was found with 4 teeth of Bear, 1 of Hyena, and pieces of bone, on 30th December, 1876, in the first “ foot-level,” and belongs to the Cave-earth series. No. 6997 is a cherty flint nodule implement, 3:2 inches long, 2°5 inches in greatest breadth, and 1-8 inch in greatest thickness. It may be described as a somewhat sharply-pointed, rudely heart-shaped tool, retaining some of its original surface as a rolled nodule. It was found on 10th January, 1877, in the second “ foot-level,” without any object of interest near it, in the Breccia, and is characteristic of that deposit. No. 7040 is a very rough specimen, 2°75 inches long, 1°6 inch in greatest breadth, and :95 inch in greatest thickness. It retains remnants of the original surface of the nodule, and was found in the Breccia, in the first “ foot-level,” without any object of interest near it, on 5th March, 1877. No. 7059 is 2 inches long, 1:1 inch in greatest breadth, and °6 inch in greatest thickness. It is irregularly convex on each face, pointed at one end and rounded at the other, and retains traces of the original surface of the nodule. It was foundin the Breccia, in the second “ foot-level,” without any object of interest near it, on 15th March, 1877. A column or pillar of stalagmite was met with in November 1876, adjacent to the east wall of the Bear’s Den, and about 22 feet from its northern end, under the following peculiar circumstances :—It measured about 51 inches in basal circumference and 3°75 feetin height. The base was of nondescript outline, but everywhere above it the pillar was rudely ellip- tical in horizontal section, and it measured 30 inches in girth at the height | =A ’ ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 7 of 2 fect, where it was least. When found, however, it was in two parts, haying been divided along an almost horizontal plane where it was thinnest. Each of the segments stood perfectly erect, but not one on the other; for though the bottom of the upper segment was on precisely the same level as the top of the lower, the upper portion had been moved towards the right, or west, to the extent of 15 inches horizontally, and stood there on the Breccia. In other words, the pillar had been “ faulted,” so to speak, about 5 inches more than its thickness. It cannot be doubted that when the dislocation occurred the pillar had reached its full height, and the Breccia had accumu- lated round it to the height of 2 feet—that is, it had reached the level of the plane of fracture. It is difficult to see how, by any possibility, the deposit could at that time have reached a greater height, and difficult also to under- stand how any thing other than human hands could have shifted the upper segment of the pillar and placed it so as to preserve its erect position. On the other hand, it is just as difficult to see what motive man could have had for such a work. The whole pillar, when found, was completely buried in the Breccia, and the top of the upper segment was about a foot below the bottom of the thick remnant of the Stalagmitic Floor, which Mr. MacKnery had left intact, and which contained no cracks of any kind. * Rats still continue to follow the workmen into the Cavern. The foreman, George Smerdon, whose special work is that of excavating the deposits, uses a lump of clay, but little, if at all, less than 2 Ibs. in weight, as his candle- stick ; and when he leaves work he removes the candle and places it in a box lest it should be carried off by rats, a precaution which experience has taught him to be necessary; but the lump of clay, which, it is needless to say, is more or less covered with candle-grease, he leayes toits fate. During the latter end of February and beginning of March 1877 he observed eyery morning that, not only had the candle-grease been removed during the night, but almost half of the clay (that is, nearly a pound in weight) had disappeared also, as if it had formed a part of the meal of the depredator or depredators. Having observed no rats for some time, he was inclined to ascribe the work to bats, of which he had_ frequently seen several flying about. On Saturday, 10th March, however, secing a rat crossing the Bear’s Den, he at once prepared a gin for it, and when he next entered the Den he found the rat was caught. ; The Tortuous Gallery—As soon as the work in the Bear’s Den was completed, the exploration of a narrow passage opening out of its southern end, and termed ‘‘The Tortuous Gallery,” was begun. ‘At and near the entrance this Gallery is from 13 to 15 fect high; but at 11 feet from the Bear’s Den a second, or branch, Gallery presents itself, almost immediately above it, the two being divided by a continuous shect of limestone, forming the floor of one and the ceiling of the other. The branch extends, with some irregularities of direction, towards the south-east for a distance of 30 fect, where it becomes too narrow for a man to pass. Immediately beyond this point it is scen to be somewhat broader, but its further character and length are unknown. At the entrance, where its dimensions are greatest, itis 7 feet high and 3 fect broad. ‘Throughout its entire accessible length its walls and roof have strongly marked indications of the action of water. With the exception of a few large blocks of limestone, it was entirely empty. The principal gallery, “ The Tortuous Gallery” proper, after throwing off a second and lower branch towards the west, turns sharply towards the 8 REPORT—1877. cast at a distence of 23 feet from the Bear’s Den; and at 11 feet further it expands into a small Chamber, the floor of which is a pavement of blocks of limestone, some of them of considerable size. The Gallery varies from 6 to 8 fect high, and from 1:5 to 4:5 feet wide, and has obviously been a water- course. Ground had been broken here and there by the earlier explorers up to 11 feet from the Bear’s Den. Everywhere further in there was a continuous unbroken Floor of Stalagmite, from 1°5 to 3-5 feet helow the limestone roof; but at 3 feet beyond the point at which, as already stated, the Gallery turns castward, an unoccupied interspace was found. between the lower surface of this Floor and the top of the underlying deposit. At first this hiatus did not exceed a foot, but as the work progressed it gradually reached 4 feet. = The underlying deposit was exclusively the Breccia, or, so far as is known, the oldest the Cavern contains. Its upper surface formed a continuous declivity, so great that at the small Chamber previously mentioned the level was 163 inches below that of the nearest part of the Bear’s Den—a mean eradient of 1 in 25. For the first 9 feet the thickness of the Breccia was not more than from 3 to 3°5 fect, the limestone floor being everywhere reached within these limits; but elsewhere the ordinary four-feet sections failed to disclose the limestone. The “finds” met with in the Tortuous Gallery up to the end of August 1877 were but 14 in number, and the objects they contained were of but little importance: 6 of them were met with in the first or uppermost foot- level (all near the entrance), 2 in the third, and 6 in the fourth (all at some distance from the entrance). They included, besides bones and bone- chips, 14 teeth of Bear, some of them being in portions of jaws, and 1 of Horse. The latter was found on the surface, near the Bear’s Den, with 3 bits of coarse, friable, black pottery. A “core” of black flint—in all pro- bability a “strike-light” of the present century—was found under.the same conditions about a foot from them. On reviewing the work of the last eleven months the Superintendents cannot but express disappointment at not having found the very large number of choice specimens which Mr. MacEnecry’s glowing description had led them to expect in the Bear’s Den. Nevertheless the discoveries they have made not only justify his description, but show that in that branch of the Cavern the osseous remains were almost entirely confined to the uppermost foot of the Breccia, and mainly to its actual surface. So long as the lower levels remained untouched, the belief that they were equally rich would have naturally prevailed; and it cannot be doubted that in disposing of this belief very satisfactory work has been done. The Committee have again to state that since their last Report was pre- sented they have found no relic of Machairodus latidens. It is satisfactory, however, to know that since the last Mecting of the Association the crown of a canine tooth of this species has been found, by the Rey, J. M. Mello, in Robin-Hood Cave, Creswell Crags, Derbyshire. ek é ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 9 Second Report of a Committee, consisting of E. C. C. Sraxrorp - ni) T 4 James Dewar, Atrrep FE. Fietrcuer, bE. W. Parnewt, T. R. 2 ss . 4 . . Oainvie, end Atrren H. Atien (Secretary), appointed to inquire into the Methods employed in the Estimation of Potash and Phos- proric Acid in Commercial Products and tre mode of stating the Results. Drawn up by Aurrep H. ALLEN *, Determinatron or Porast. The evidence on this subject obtained previously to the last meeting of the Association (Bristol) showed that the method of determining potassium by precipitation as a platinum salt was almost universally employed by chemists of large experience in the assay of potash salts. The Committee thought it desirable, therefore, to subject the process to an exhaustive examination, with a view of ascertaining the origin of the discrepancies known to occur between the results of chemists using different modifications of the general method of estimation by platinum chloride. The process of determining potassium by platinic chloride is well known to depend on the sparing solubility of chloroplatinate of potassium and the easy solubility of the chloroplatinates of the associated metals. The pre- cipitate is crystalline, of a bright yellow colour, and is easily dried. On account of its solubility in aqueous liquids it is necessary to operate on con- eentrated soluticns and to employ alcohol for washing. When the precipitate is produced suddenly by addition of platinic chloride to a concentrated solu- tion of potassium chloride, or by rapidly cooling a hot saturated aqueous solution of potassium chloroplatinate, it is obtained in a finely granular or pulverulent form. When the chloroplatinate is formed by gradual concen- tration of a dilute aqucous solution, or by adding chloride of platinum to a dilute solution of chloride of potassium and then concentrating, the precipi- tate assumes the form of dense crystalline scales, the subsequent manipulation of which is very casy. The following modifications of the gencral process have been employed by the Committee with the view of testing thcir comparative accuracy under various conditions likely to occur in practice. The information forming the basis of the experiments was communicated to the Committee chiefly dwing last year, and to a great extent was incorporated in the Report presented at the Bristol Meeting. Modification 1.—Kssentially the process of Professor Fresenius described in his ‘ Manual of Quantitative Analysis,’ being shortly as follows :—The solution of mixed chlorides of potassium and sodium, freed, if necessary, from calcium, magnesium, and sulphates, was evaporated nearly to dryness with excess of solution of platinic chloride. (In many of the experiments a considerable excess of platinum was employed beyond the quantity required to convert both the alkali metals into chloroplatinates.) The evaporated solution was then treated with alcohol of about 80 per cent., allowed to stand for some time, transferred to a small filter, washed with alcohol of 80 per cent., and carefully dried. The bulk of the precipitate was then transferred to a weighed capsule, dried at 100° C., and weighed. The filter with from 1 to 3 milligrammes of adherent precipitate was ignited, the weight of the filter-ash (‘0004 gramme) subtracted, and the residue of Pt+2KCl calculated to PtCl,+2KCl, the amount thus obtained being added to the main quautity. * Reid at the Mecting at Glasgow, 1876. 10 REPORT—1877. Modification 11.—The above process, with the following precautions, was recommended by Dr. Fresenius in a communication to this Committee :— “To make sure not to keep any chloride of sodium along with the chloride of platinum and potassium, I first extract the chloride of platinum and sodium with spirits of wine of 80°, and then wash the chloride of platinum and potassium with a few cub. centims. of water, drop by drop; then I evaporate this solution, adding a little chloride of platinum, treat the small precipitate again with spirit of wine, and add the small quantity of chloride of platinum and potassium to the bulk.” Modification III—The third modification is that of Drs. Frank and Berrand, of Leopoldsha!l. These chemists employ only about :2 grm. of the potash salt, and manipulate like Fresenius, but they wash the precipitate with alcohol of 98 per cent., which is practically absolute. They dry the precipitate at 110° C. Modification 1V.—The fourth modification is that of Mr. R. R. Tatlock, who thus describes it in his communication to the Committee :—‘ A portion of the solution, equal to 10 grains of the original sample, is delivered into a small basin, diluted with 400 grains or so of water, and acidified slightly with hydrochloric acid. About 500 grains of platinic chloride solution (con- taining at least 25 grains of platinum) are added, and the fluid evaporated nearly to dryness on a water bath. A few drops of water are then added to the residue, and the evaporation repeated to expel the excess of hydrochloric acid. About 50 grains more of the strong platinic solution are mixed with the precipitate, and the whole stirred well and set aside in a cold place for at least an hour, with occasional stirring. The precipitate is then thrown on a very small filter (unweighed), the basin rinsed out with about 10 drops more of the platinum solution, and the precipitate on the filter washed with 10 or 15 drops more. The basin and the filter and contents are then washed with the smallest possible quantity of alcohol of 95 per cent. strength, and dried at 100° C. The dried precipitate is transferred as completely as possible to a small capsule, in which it is further dried until it assumes a distinct orange colour, and weighed. The filter, with a trace of adhering precipitate, is ignited on a crucible lid, and the residual metal, with its cor- responding chloride of potassium, calculated to potassio-platinic chloride, and the weight added to that of the precipitate.” From the aboye descriptions it will be seen that the chief points of difference in the processes are as follows :— Fresenius (Process I.) uses moderately strong alcohol (80 per cent.) for washing the precipitate ; but in his modified process he subsequently uses a few centimetres of water, and recovers any potassium salt thus dissolved. Frank and Berrand use a very small weight of the sample and wash with absolute aicohol. Tatlock washes first with a strong solution of platinic chloride, and then with strong alcohol. In all editions of his ‘ Quantitative Analysis’ prior to the 7th English, Fresenius directs the drying of the precipitated chloroplatinate at 100° C. In the last edition drying at 130° C. is recom- mended. Frank and Berrand use 110°C. Until after the conclusion of the investigations the words “further dried” in Tatlock’s method were understood by the Committee to signify longer drying at 100° C., but it has since been learnt that drying at a somewhat higher temperature was intended. In all cases in which the temperature used for drying the precipitate is not expressly stated, the Committee employed 100° G. The experiments instituted to ascertain the influence the temperature used in drying had on the weight of the precipitate showed a loss of -067 per cent., by subjecting . —_— ee eee , ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. ll the precipitate thoroughly dried at 100° C. to a temperature of 140° C. for one hour. This loss represents only 02 for 100 parts of potassium chloride. In order to obtain a satisfactory basis of investigation, it was necessary, in the first place, to obtain perfectly pure potassium salts; and as a necessary condition of the requisite purity was complete freedom from sodium com- pounds, their preparation was found less easy than might be expected*. In the first place an attempt was made to obtain pure potassium chloride by repeatedly evaporating pure nitre with hydrochloric acid. The result showed that the reaction took place with far less facility than was expected, and the process was abandoned. Chloride of potassium was next obtained by dis- .solying the purest commercial acid potassium carbonate in hydrochloric acid, filtering, and repeatedly crystallizing the product. Ignition of the crystals on platinum wire in the Bunsen flame showed the presence of sodium in abundance, and two determinations of the real chloride of potassium as platinum salt gave 98-93 and 98°85 per cent. respectively. A highly satisfactory product was at length obtained by the following process :—Cream of tartar was dissolved in boiling water, the liquid filtered, and the acid tartrate of potassium obtained by cooling the solution. The product was recrystallized, and then tested for sulphates and sodium, neither of which was found. The dried crystals were ignited, the mass dissolved in water, the liquid filtered, nearly neutralized with hydrochloric acid, a few drops of ammonium oxalate added, the solution again filtered, and then eva- porated to dryness. The resultant chloride of potassium was heated to fusion and reduced to powder. The product was absolutely free from sul- phates, completely soluble in water, and the solution was perfectly neutral. The salt showed no trace of sodium when heated on platinum wire in the Bunsen flame. The hydrochloric acid used in the experiments was prepared by acting on common salt by non-arsenical sulphuric acid and passing the washed gas into distilled water 7. The platinie chloride was obtained by reducing the commercial chloride (which contained iron and other impurities), by boiling with caustic soda and alcohol, thoroughly washing (first by decantation and afterwards on the filter) the resultant platinum black, boiling it for some time with hydro- chloric acid, and again thoroughly washing with hot water and igniting in a muffie. The metallic platinum was boiled with nitric acid, rewashed and reignited, and then weighed and dissolved in aqua regia. The platinic-chloride solution thus obtained was evaporated nearly to dryness, first with hydrochloric acid and then several times with water, in order to get rid of the free acid as much as possibleft. Ultimately the solu- tion was diluted, filtered from any insoluble residue (which was ignited and weighed, and the weight deducted from the original), and the filtrate further diluted until 100 cub. centims. contained about 6 grammes of metallic platinum. * A shorter method than those tried would probably have been to ignite pure potassium chlorate.—A. H. AuEn. + For some years all the hydrochloric acid used in my laboratory has been prepared by this process. It is more convenient, and furnishes a far superior product to that obtained by distilling the impure liquid acid——A. H. Auten. t This method of preparing pure chloride of platinum is practically identical with that recommended by Messrs. Chalmers and Tatlock in a paper read before the Chemical Section of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, April 20th, 1868, The Committee has adopted the same process for recovering the platinum from the precipitates and filtrates obtained in the experimeuts, 12 REPORT—1877. As the projected researches required that the weight of potassium salt used in each experiment should be known with the greatest possible accuracy, it was considered desirable to avoid direct weighing of the solid salt, by employing a definite amount of solution of known strength. For this purpose the capacity of a pipette, which nominally held 10 cub. centims., was accurately ascertained. The pipette was filled to the mark with distilled water at a temperature of 20° to 21°C. The contents were then allowed to flow into a small accurately tared beaker. The pipette was then allowed to drain for exactly thirty seconds, when the last drop of fluid was expelled by gentle blowing, the nose of the pipette being held in contact with the beaker so as to avoid any chance of loss. This plan was found to: result in the delivery of a more constant weight of fluid than spontaneous draining, with or without subsequent contact of the point of the pipette with the main volume of the liquid. The same pipette was always employed, and the contents were delivered in the same manner. All the measurements were made at pretty nearly the same temperature. Asa result it was found that in a series of nearly twenty experiments the extreme variation in the weight of distilled water delivered was 8 milligrammes, or about ‘08 per cent. of the weight, while the great majority of the determinations were within 2 milligrammes of the mean. The result of using the pipette for measuring out 10 cub. centims. of a 10 per cent. solution of chloride of potassium would be that the maximum deviation from the mean would amount to ‘04 per cent. of the weight, though the maximum difference in two successive measure- ments might equal twice this proportion. The experiments showed that at 20°C. the pipettes delivered a mean weight of 9-9329 grammes of distilled water. The most convenient quantity of chloride of potassium for precipitation with platinic chloride is about *7 gramme, or 10 grains. A solution of pure chloride of potassium was therefore prepared of such strength that the pipette should deliver about that amount. The exact amount of chloride of potassium contained in one pipette delivery of the solution was next ascertained. Two determinations were made by precipitating a pipette full with nitrate of silver, and one by direct evapora- tion of the liquid to dryness with subsequent cautious heating of the residue. AD One AgCl 1:3395=KCl -6968 gramme. AC ee AgCl 1:3400=KCl -6971 a B1.... By evaporation=KC1-6970 __,, The mean of these closely concordant results is ‘69697 gramme ;~:697 gramme was therefore considered as the true amount of chloride of potassium in the solution delivered by the pipette. At a somewhat advanced period of the investigations some irregularities in the results led to a doubt as to the degree of accuracy attainable by pipette measurements, and it was decided to commence an entirely new serics of experiments on a different basis. Recognizing the advantage the cm- ployment of solutions has over direct weighing of the solid salt, it was decided to weigh each quantity of solution employed, merely trusting to measurement to obtain approximately the same quantity. By proceeding in this manner all errors due to unequal deliveries of the pipette or accidental alterations of temperature were entirely eliminated. For these experiments a fresh solution of chloride of potassium was pre- pared, by dissolving a known weight of the pure potassium chloride in exactly ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 13 ten times its weight of distilled water *. In the experiments made on the weighed solution, the required quantity was approximately measured by running it from a burette into an accurately tared beaker, and the exact quantity taken was then ascertained by weighing. In this manner the amount of potassium salt employed in each experiment was ascertained with great accuracy. The error in the amount taken could not be more than +00005 of a gramme, or about ‘007 per cent. of the quantity used. With the new solution the following experiments were made as a check on its strength :— By precipitation with nitrate of silver, Weight of Weight of _ y- thn jee ire Rae a = KCl. ie Dale KCl = per cent. Lg ae 77065 = *70060 1:3459 -70017 99-94 Pen #3 A 77455 = *70414 1:35384 -70408 99-99 By direct evaporation, Wt. of soln. KCl. Residue = KCl per cent. 13} eee T7711 “TOL *7005 99°93 Tn this casé half a milligramme loss of chloride of potassium, probably due to decrepitation on heating the residue, caused a difference of -07 per cent. In the foregoing and all subsequent experiments the following atomic weights and factors were employed :— RIOTING. “sie aa . s0s 35°457 Stas, 1865. Potassium ...... B9'lal ~ 55 a SS Ole go teh ys) 8 lai 107-930. ,, 1866. Ag(Cl x ‘52023 = KCl. The atomic weight of platinum was calculated from the original data of Berzelius, obtained by the analysis of potassium chloroplatinate, but substitu- ting Stas’s numbers for chlorine and potassium for those employed by Berzelius. This gives the result , Pt*= 197-1937. Hence K,PtCl, x °16033 = K, K,PtCl, x :19310 = K,O K,PtCl, x -30560 = 2KCl. Fresenius, in the last edition of his ‘ Quantitative Analysis’ (7th English), adopts the number 98°59 as the atomic weight of the divalent platinum, which also gives the factor ‘3056, for calculating the chloroplatinate into chloride of potassium. In former editions Andrews’s number 98:94 was adapted for platinum, which caused a sensible difference in the percentage of potassium chloride obtained. The factor *30507, resulting from the employ- ment of Andrews’s atomic weight for platinum, is adopted by Drs. Frank and Berrand in their communication to this Committee. The consequence of employing the above factors in calculating the per- centage of chloride of potassium corresponding to the precipitate of chloro- platinate obtained is shown in the following statement :— * It is obvious that the subsequent calculations would have been facilitated by dissolving a known weight of the pure potassium chloride in exactly nine times its weight of dis- tilled water instead of ten. ‘This consideraticn did not present itself till it was too late to take advantage of it, 14 REPORT—1877. Precipitate. Factor = KCl per cent. Committee............ 3°2723 x °30560* 100-00 iPresenine.¢. faact oi siasc 3°2723 x *30560 100-00 Frank and Berrand ....3°2723 x -30507 99-83 The Committee is informed that the factor 194 is adopted by some chemists for calculating the chloroplatinate to anhydrous potash, a plan which would cause the result of 100°52 of chloride of potassium to be obtained instead of 100-00. With the view of testing the relative accuracy of the different modifications of the platinum process when applied to the estimation of potassium in the form of pure chloride, the following experiments were performed :— The letters P and W refer to the mode of taking the required quantity of chloride of potassium, P signifying pipette measur ement and W the weighing of the solution used, In the former case the percentage of chloride of potassium was obtained by calculating the chloroplatinate precipitate to potassium chloride, dividing the result by ‘697 and multiplying by 100. When a weighed quantity of potassium chloride solution was employed, the following equation was used for calculating the percentage of chloride of potassium found (8 is the weight of solution used, P that of the precipitate obtained) :— Px ‘3056 X11x100_ Px +3361 __ percentage of S we S ™ KCl found. Results bracketed together in the following tables were obtained from experiments executed side by side. Taste I.—Results of Experiments on pure Chloride of Potassium, using considerable excess of Platinum Solution. Experi- Py Weight of} =KCl | Weight of |} =KCl =KCl ment, eee solution. taken. | precipitate.| found. 7 cent. 1. |I. Fresenius} 7-7080 "70072 2°3039 ga. 10048. yy 48 Ww 2. _ 77540 70490 2°3156 aes 100°39 } III. Frank ionaR A .299 3. { . eed | 77165 | -70150 | 23092 |... 100: a is 4, ” 77845 ‘70310 2°3118 ae 100°48 5. | IV. Tatlock oe 697 22793 | °69655 09:02 SE. 6. +s 0% ‘697 22792 | 69652 99:93 P. ile 3 Ate 697 22787 | -69637 99:91 P. 8. Ms 7°7130 ‘70118 2:2947 fk 100°01 WwW 9. “ 77145 "70140 | - 2:2945 ai 99:98} i These results, so far as they go, are decidedly in favour of Tatlock’s method, and conclusively prove that it is capable of great accuracy. Ata later period of the investigations it was supposed that the exces- sive results obtained by some of the methods might be due to the fact that a very considerable excess of platinum solution was employed—a condition not in accordance with the directions’of Fresenius and of Frank, but essen- tial in Tatlock’s method. The experiments made to elucidate this point did not immediately succeed those already detailed, but it is convenient to record the results here rather than in another place. In the following experiments the quantity of platinum solution employed * This factor was adopted by Messrs, Chalmers and Tatlock as long ago as 1868. ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 15 was but slightly in excess of the amount required to convert the whole of the potassium into chloroplatinate. Taste II.—Results of experiments on Pure Chloride of Potassium by Pro- cesses I. and III., employing only a slight excess of Platinum solution. Experi- | p Weight of | =KCl | Weight of |} =KCl =KCl ment. Sg solution. taken. | precipitate.) found. per cent. 10. I. Fresenius | 7°7180 ‘70164 2°2915 | -70028 | 99:81 |! By ry 76995 “69996 2°2875 “66905 99°87 + W. 12. 9 7-7250 “70227 22947 70125 99°85 13. 9 7°7020 “TOL14 2:2931 “70077 | 100-08 | 14. 3 T7125 “70150 2:2985 "70242 | 10018 f —* 15, 3 77815 “70741 273218 “70954 | 100°30 | yw 16, ” 77965 “70877 2°3262 ‘71088 | 100°30 | : 17. III. Frank 2'232 20291 6633 | :20269 99-90. Ww 18. 3 2232 *20291 6637 20283 | 99°07 f - 19. rf 2°204 20037 "6573 | *20052 | 10025) yw 20. i 2°201 “20009 6553 19991 | 100-05 } 21. 3 2°2415 20377 6677 20404 | 10013 \ Ww 22. is 2-212 ‘20109 6596 20157 | 100:23 : These results showed a great improvement, and indicated pretty clearly the importance of avoiding a large excess of platinum solution when alcohol only was employed for washing the chloroplatinate. The following Table shows the relative accuracy and limits of variation obtained in experiments on pure chloride of potassium by methods I., III., and IY. Taste II1.—Analysis of the Results obtained in the estimation of Potassium when in the form of Pure Chloride. No. of ¢ *- | Highest Lowest Process. Hapor- Reault, Result, | Average I. Fresenius. With large excess of platinum solution...... 2 100'48 100°39 100-44 With slight excess of pla- tinum solution ........+66 IIT, Frank and Berrand. Large ex- cess of platinum solution Slight excess ditto ......... IV. Tatlock. Large excess of platinum solution ) 100-30 99°81 100-06 100-60 100°48 100°54 10025 99:90 100:09 100:01 99-91 99-95 ao orm From these experiments, therefore, it was concluded that the method of estimating potassium by precipitation as chloroplatinate was very accurate when proper precautions were taken. This conclusion is generally accepted, the chief discrepancies arising when mixed alkaline chlorides are analyzed, the different methods then giving results which sometimes exhibit wide variations. The following Table shows the results obtained by the analysis of various mixtures of the pure chlorides of potassium and sodium :— 16 REPORT—1877. Taste [Y.—Results of Experiments on Mixtures of Pure Chlorides of Potassium and Sodium. A. Using a considerable excess of Platinum Solution. } } Experi- Weight of 2 NaCl | Weight of | =KCl =KCl per eck, Brookes, solution. =k taken. peeuiaitede: found. {100 Pade ae 23. I. Fresenius} 3°8525 "3502 "B50 11518 awe 100: 59 24. 5 3°8970 3543 "355 1:1690 ws 100°84 25. 5 3°8705 “B519 "350 1/1590 Se 100-66 26. % 3°8530 3503 “350 11542 cp 100-70 27. * 3°8725 "3520 °B50 11606 aoe 100°75 28, A 38770 "8524 B50 11618 ae 10075 29. ‘{IT. Fres. mod. oe 697 154 2:2887 69942 | 100-34 P 30. 5 roe 697 154 2°2952 | “70080 } 100: bat : dl. i en 697 "154 2°2908 | 70007 100°35 | p 32. 3 20 697 “154 2:2912 | -70019 | 100: 16} i 39. 3 er 3485 “B50 1°1463 | *35022'| 10058 P. 34. 3 oe “3485 B50 1:1517 30196 100-99 | 30. 3 fee "3485 "350 1:1498 | °35138 | 100-83 } : 36. 3 Bie B48) *B50 11458 | °35015 100-47 P 37. = aan "8485 “350 11457 | 35012 100°47 i | : 38.) IV. Tatlock | «.: 697 154 22830 | -69778 | 10011) » 39. 0 sss 697 “154 2:2851 6983: 106-19 } : 40. * Pa 697 “154 22843 | 69808 100-15 | p Al. # SB ‘697 “154 22865 | °69793 100-25 5 } ; 49, 3 ie “3485 °B50 1-1329- | *34621 99°34 P. 43, 3 od2) 3485 B50 11512 | +34569 99:20 P. 44, ~ at 3485 “350 1/1308 34711 99°60 P. 45, 53 urs “8485 350 11340 | °34655 99-44 P. 46. es 8°8600 “3509 350 1:1452 ae 99-73 | 47. ” 38615 “3510 "350 11467 at 99°82 | W. 48, . 3:8560 | -3505 350 | 11468 |... 99.97 | 49*, + 5a ‘7053 “B50 2°2940 aD 99-45 W. 50*, % oot “7007 *350 2°2850 Bre 99°66 W. * Experiments 49 and 50 were made on a special solution containing about two parts of KCl to one of NaCl. These two determinations were made by Mr. W. Galbr aith, who has had much experience in the determination of potassium by Tatlock’s method. ‘B, Using slight excess of Platinum Solution above that required to convert all the K and Na into Chloroplatinates. | ) 1 Expeti- F Weight of | =KCl }_ xq | Weight of | =KOl =KCl per eat. Process. solution, taken. =NaCl. precipitate. found. |100 parts aon 51. I. Fresenius | 3°880 BD 11569 Boa04 | 100:23 W. 52. rs 3°873 “30 11636 59 10094 W. 5B. 55 3°8665 ‘BO 11470 35052 | 99°72 | yw 54, a 38775 | 5) 1:1505 “35159 | 0977 | ae Tit, Frank 9.9) | 2 “65708 | -200 5 5D. { eee ena: i 2200 | 2 65708 | -2008 | 100-40 ty 56. a9 P2357 120123 2 66038 | *20181 160°30 ) 57. ., 2:2195 “20177 BY “66038 |. -20181 100-02 | Ww 58. a 22070 20064: 2 65838 | °20120 100°28 J 59. 4; 2:2320 -20291 2 6782 | -20724 102-14 60. i 22395 | -20359 | 2 6891 | -20783 wei) at 1 & bl soe ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 1s Tatty V.—Comparison of the Actual Composition of Mixtures of Potassium and Sodium Chlorides with the results obtained. A. Using large excess of Platinum Solution. Tixperi- KCl per cent. NaCl per cent. KCl per cent. ; SL Process. Gree eben: ebiated x Error 23. I. Fresenius 50 50 50°29 +°29 24, 3 50 50 50-42 +:42 25, 3 50 50 50°33 +33 26. * 50 50 50°35 +'35 27. % 50 50 50°37 +°37 28. Ai 50 50 50°36 +°36 Average one fea nis +:35 29. ‘|IT. Fres. mod. 82 18 82:28 +28 30. 82 18 82°44 +44 31. yi 82 18 82:29 4-29 32. a 82 18 82°58 +38 33. 50 50 50°26 +:26 34. x3 50 50 50-49 4°49 | 35. 3 50 50 50°41 +4 36. € 50 50 50-23 4°23 37. % 50 50 50°23 +:23 Average a Sh a +54 38 IV. Tatlock 82 18 82:09 +:09 39. : 82 18 82:15 +15 40, 54 2 18 8212 +12 41. 3 82 18 2°20 +:20 42. 53 50 50 49-67 — "33 43. - 50 50 49:60 —40 44, . BO 50 49°80 —20 45. " 50 . 50 49°72 —'28 46. a 5 | 50 49:85. | — 14 47. ve 50 | 50 49-91 —09 48. 50 | 50 49-98 — 02 | 49. S 67 33 66-63 — 37 50, Ps 67 33 66°77 — 23 Average a Scie —11 B. Using slight excess of Platinum Solution. | | : Experi- KCl per cent. |NaCl per cent. KCl per cent. etn | Process. etae, ee fi aad. Error, ——— —— -|——— 51 Lil ecuanins 50 50 5O11 +1] 52, | . 50 50 50-47 +47 53. | ie | 5O 50 49°86 —14 BA. | 50 50 49°88) - | 9) S12 | | Average ots a och | +08 Bee (tr rank |’ | 50 50 5020 | 4-20 | 56. | 50 50 Bon | 415 57: | ‘ 50 50 SOOT. Hy Ol 58. = 50 50 Olde, ieeiekalt 59. ie 5O 50 51-07 41-07 60. ‘s 50 BO 51-04 +104 Average § Jif a 18 REPORT—1877. From these experiments it appears that the employment of the processes of Fresenius and Frank leads to results sensibly above the truth if a large excess of platinum he employed. The fact that in all the experiments tho error is in the same direction, indicates that it is not due to defective mani- pulation. When only a slight excess of platinum is employed in the above methods the results are decidedly better, but present greater differences among themselves, as if some other disturbing cause came into operation. ‘This is notably the case with Frank’s method, the error in only six experiments varying from ‘01 per cent. to 1:07. The results by Tatlock’s method distinctly indicate a tendency to loss ; but this is chiefly noticeable in the cases in which the proportion of sodium chloride was very high (50 per cent.). In fact four experiments with a mixture similar to that which usually occurs in practice (7. e. 82 per cent. KCl and 18 NaCl) gave results showing an error in ewcess of the truth varying from ‘09 to ‘20 per cent. The thirteen determinations by Tatlock’s method show a maximum error of —-40 per cent. In this experiment the quantity of material employed was measured in the pipette, and for several reasons this plan was found less trustworthy than the weighing of the solution used. With the view of ascertaining the cause of the loss observed in some cases by Tatlock’s method in presence of a large proportion of sodium chloride, an experiment was made by treating a mixture of 30 milligrammes of KCl and ‘7 gramme of pure NaCl with 30 c. c. of the platinum solution (the usual quantity), and estimating the potassium in the usual way. By employing a small quantity of KCl it was thought that other errors of manipulation would be avoided, and that the experiment would be practically to ascertain the extent to which chloroplatinate of potassium was soluble in a solution of platinic chloride containing much chloride of sodium (or, in other words, in a solution of sodium chloroplatinate). The weight of potas- sium chloroplatinate which should have been yielded by the above quantity of KCl is ‘0982 gramme, whereas the weight actually obtained was only ‘0915 gramme. Hence there was a loss of ‘0067 gramme. In another experiment in which only -35 gramme of NaCl were used, the quantities of KCl and platinum solution remaining as before, a loss of ‘0042 gramme of chloroplatinate was observed. In this last experiment the potassium chloride corresponding to the chloroplatinate obtained was only 95:7 per cent. of the quantity added, while in the previous experiment it amounted to only 93-2 per cent. From these results, and those recorded in the Tables, it appears that the percentage error is larger the greater the proportion of sodium salts present, a fact which appears to point to the solubility of the precipitate in solution of sodium chloroplatinate as the origin of the loss. Thus in the experiments in which pure chloride of potassium was employed, and in those in which the amount of sodium chloride was small, the variation from the truth was exceedingly slight, but the errors became greater with the amount of sodium chloride present. In experiments 42 to 50 the amounts of chloride of sodium and platinum solution employed were the same as in the test ex- periment, in which a deficiency of -0042 gramme of precipitate was observed. Jf we assume that this loss is the weight of K,PtCl, dissolved by the use of -35 gramme of NaCl and 30 «. ec. of ‘platinum solution, then a correction of -0042 gramme ought to be applied to each of the results of experiments 42 petoo0. Chis correction of -0042 gramme in the weight of the precipitate corresponds to ‘37 per cent. of KCl. The mean of the nine experiments above referred to is 99°58 per cent. of KCl, which, with the correction -37, amounts to 99-95 per cent, ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID, 19 From these considerations it appears almost certain that the deficiency is _ due to the solubility of the precipitate in platinum solution containing sodium chloroplatinate. If a loss of about four milligrammes produces an error of 37 by Tatlock’s method, the discrepancy would be much greater by Frank’s, in which a smaller weight of the sample is employed. This fact, and the very strong alcohol required, renders this process less satisfactory than that of Fresenius. Why the latter process should give results in excess of the truth, even when the modified method (II.) was used, seemed difficult to explain. With a view of ascertaining the cause, three quantities of pure chloride of potassium, with equal weights of chloride of sodium, were treated by method I. After weighing, the precipitates were dissolved in hot water, 10 or 12 drops of platinum solution added, and the process of evaporation, &e. repeated. The following results were obtained :— Taste VI. First precipitation. After re-dissolving. Se aa ee SSS SS a ae he | Wxperi- | Weight of | =KCl | Weight of | yy | =KCl | Weight of | yy | =KCI ment. | solution. | taken. | precipitate. ~~~~"* | per cent.| precipitate} ~“*\* | Per cent. 61. 3°8530 85027 | 1:1542 85272 | 100°70 11527 35226 ee | 62. 3°8725 35204 | 1-1606 35469 | 100-75 11615 85495 {100-82 } 63. 3°8770 80245 | 1:1618 30504 | 100-73 11609 35478 100-66 | In these and in all previous experiments the precipitates were dried at 100°C. In the last edition of his ‘ Quantitative Analysis,’ Fresenius directs the precipitate to be dried at 130° C. To ascertain if this difference of treat- ment was the cause of the error, some pure potassium chloroplatinate was prepared by rapidly cooling a saturated solution of the salt in boiling water. In this way it was obtained as a fine crystalline powder. By the slow evaporation of the mother liquor another sample was obtained in the form of _ “scales.” ‘The products were dried for half an hour at 100° C., and 3 grammes _ of each exposed to a higher temperature, with the following results :— Tare Veet: Crystals, Scales. Loss on Foti pat Loss on Loss per 3 grms. cent. 3 grms, cent, After 1 hour additional at 100° C.| none none none none nF i 130° C.| -0005 ‘O17 ‘0015 0:05 a 1 cf 140° GC.) -0015 °050 “0005 0-017 i $3 200° C.| -0080 ‘270 ‘0075 0-250 It will be seen that no loss occurred on further drying at 100° C., and a very trifling loss at 130°. After heating to 140° there was a slight change c2 20 REPORT—1877. of colour. At 200° decrepitation and incipient decomposition ensued. The total loss at a temperature not exceeding 140° was only ‘067 per cent. of the weight of the precipitate. This, in the experiments by method I., would only cause a difference of :02 per cent. in the quantity of chloride of potassium found. Hence it is clear that there is no advantage in drying the preci- pitate at 130° rather than at 100°. On the other hand the occurrence of decrepitation shows that the crystals contain cavities filled with water or platinum choride solution, and therefore that the production of large crystals should be avoided. It seems possible that the difference in the nature of the liquid filling the cayities may be the cause of the greater error observed when a large excess of platinum solution is employed than when little more than the theoretical amount is used. In the foregoing Tables the results obtained by Frank’s method were calculated with the Committee’s factor -3056 instead of that employed by Frank and Berrand themselves (°30507)*. By the use of the latter factor the results would come out about ‘17 per cent. lower than the figures given in the Tables. Some of the results by this process are exceedingly good, but in other cases they are seriously in excess of the truth (see Experiments 3, 4, 59 and 60). One very considerable advantage attaches in practice to Tatlock’s methed which is not shared by the others. In consequence of employing an aqueous liquid at first, any sulphates present can be readily washed out, and therefore there is no occasion to separate any moderate amount beforehand. The influence of sulphates is well shown by the following results by Tatlock’s method :— Taste VIII.—82 per cent. KCl + 18 per cent. Na, SO 2 4° j = iS, | Experi- Weight of | . Weight of =KCl - ment. | Solution. | =KCl. | precipitate. | found. ‘Ka BES cent. Padacyil2 | -697 | 2:2838 | -69793 | 100-13] » 65. | 697 | 22865 | -69875 © 10025 Tarte IX.—K,SO, with sufficient NaCl (-5 grm.) to ensure the reaction K,80, + 2NaCl+ PtCl,=K,PtCl, + Na,SO,. Bxperi- | Weight of | _ 1 4, | Weight of | =K,S0, | =K,80, per | ment, Solution. Maneie v| precipitate. found. cent. 66. 77180 | “70163 | 1:9560 | -69820 | 99-51 67. 7°7010 =| -70009 + 1:9549 | -69780 | 99-67 \ W. 68. 77250 | -70226 | 1:9591 | -69930 | 99-57 69. 77280 | -70255 | 1:9637+ | -70094 | 99-78) — 70. 7-7095 | -70087 | 1:9596 | -69948 “99-80 } W- * The factor employed by Frank and Berrand is based on Andrews’s determination of the atomic weight of platinum. This observer states that potassium chloroplatinate retains "55 per cent. of water even when dried at temperatures considerably above 100° C. If this be true, the low factor employed by Frank and Berrand would partly compensate the error thus introduced. In the experiments detailed in the text only ‘25 per cent. was lost at a temperature of 200°, but decrepitation occurred on raising the temperature still higher. + This precipitate, after drying at 130° C., gave 99°72 per cent, of K,SO,. +” ihc ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPIIORIC ACID. 21 The next experiments were made to ascertain the effect of employing hydrochloric acid in place of chloride of sodium, according to the reaction K,S0,+2HCl-+ PtCl, =K,PtCl, + H,S0,. In Experiments 71, 72, and 73, 2 cub. centims. of hydrochloric acid were employed; in Experiments 74 and 75, 23 cub. centims. were used. Tho acid in cach case had a density of 1:11. TasBLe X. Experi- Weight of | =K,SO, | Weight of | =K,SO, =K,S80, per ment, Solution. taken. precipitate. found. cent. (ae 7°7460 ‘70419 1/9661 "70180 | 99°66 W. 72. 77190 ‘70173 19483 "69547 | 99°11 w 73. 77470 *70427 19579 69887 | 99-23 ; 74. 77145 ‘70132 19590 69927 | 99°71 Ww 75. 77155 ‘70141 1:9595 "69944 | 99°72 } y In the first three experiments the quantity of HCl appears to have been insufficient to cfiect complete conversion, but in the latter experiments the reaction scems to have been more perfect. The following experiments were made in illustration of the use of Tatlock’s process in the analysis of a German muriate, which was represented by a mixture containing 85 per cent. KCl, 10 per cent, MgSO, (anhydrous), and 5 per cent. NaCl. Taste XI, Meee | Weekt of |. —Kcl | Weight of | —KCL Beat. Solution. taken, | precipitate. found, | =KCI per cent. 76. 65440 “5949 1:9467 59463 | 99-999 ve 6°5415 H9AT 1:0442 59414 | 99-910 +> W. 78. 65460 5951 | 1:9497 ‘59582 | 100°120 A mixture containing 50 per cent. KCl, 25 per cent. NaCl, and 25 per cent. MgSO, was found by Mr. Galbraith to contain 99-83 per cent. of KCl for 100 introduced, equal to 49-915 per cent. in the actual sample. In many of the experiments detailed it must be remembered that the actual departure from the truth is only a fraction of what it appears to be on calculation to 100 parts. Thus in the above Tables the results are com- pared with 100 parts of the potassium salt taken, whercas in practice the results would be stated on 100 parts of the sample. Hence in a mixture of equal parts of the chlorides of potassium and sodium, to obtain 100-5 parts of KClinstead of 100 would be expressed in practice by stating the sample to contain 50:25 of KCl and 49°75 of NaCl, thus reducing the actual error to half what it appears to be in some of the Tables. This view finds expres- sion in Table Y. The next experiments were made by Tatlock’s method on pure nitrate of potassium, to which was added enough chloride of sodium (‘42 grm.) for the reaction— 2KNO,+2NaCl-+4 PtCl, =K,PtCl, + 2NaNO,. 22 rEpoRT—1877. Taste XII. Experi- Weight of Weight of | =KNO, = KNO, per ment. Solution, | =KNO,. precipitate. found, cent. 79. 7°7090 ‘70082 1:6868 “69879 99°72 80. 7°7330 ‘70300 16944 °70212 99°87 } W. 81. 77325 *70296 16953 "70249 99°93 It appears therefore that Tatlock’s process is applicable to the analysis of sulphates or nitrates, provided that there is sufficient chloride present for the formation of the chloroplatinate of potassium. If not, it must be added in the form of sodium chloride, or, in the case of sulphates, hydrochloric acid may be used. When much sulphate is present, the quantity of platinum solution used for washing the precipitate must be somewhat increased, or the results will be too high, owing to the insolubility of the sulphates in alcohol. Magnesium appears to cause no difficulty, the result 99-999 haying been obtained in its presence. When it is remembered that none of the foregoing experiments were mado on a larger quantity than -7 of a gramme (about 10 grains), it will be seen that the determination of potassium as chloroplatinate is, when due care is taken, as accurate as the estimation of most elements, and, when heavy metals are absent, quite as easily effected. In practice it is rarely required to determine potassium very accurately in presence of large proportions of foreign metals, but in the accurate assay of the better class products is becoming daily more important. If the propor- tion of sodium salts present in a sample exceed 3 per cent. the product is unfit for certain purposes ; and as the determination of the sodium is strictly dependent on that of the potassium, any error in the latter is reproduced. Although the results obtained by Tatlock’s method show a decided loss when a very large proportion of chloride of sodium is present, this error nearly disappears with smaller amounts; and as the method is available in presence of sulphates, nitrates, and magnesium, and is- very readily con- ducted, it seems the best suited for the general assay of commercial potassium salts. From a general consideration of the foregoing researches on the deter- mination of potassium as chloroplatinate it appears that :— 1. Potassium in the form of pure chloride can be determined with great accuracy by precipitation as chloroplatinate. If a large excess of platinum solution be employed, and alcohol alone used for washing the precipitate, the results have a tendency to exceed the truth. By avoiding the use of a large excess of platinum solution more accurate results are obtained. If a small volume of platinum solution be employed in the first instance for washing the precipitate (as recommended by Tatlock), and the washing be then com- pleted with alcohol in the usual way, the results are very accurate. Potas- sium chloroplatinate appears to be practically insoluble in a concentrated solution of platinic chloride. 2. In presence of a considerable proportion of sodium, washing the pre- eipitate with alcohol alone tends to give results in excess of the truth. If the precipitate be first treated with platinum solution the results are some- what low, apparently owing to the solubility of the precipitate in a solution ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 25 of sodium chloroplatinate. The error increases with the amount of sodium, but is never very large, and a correction may be applied if desired. 8. If Tatlock’s method be employed there is no occasion to separate any sulphates, nitrates, or magnesium ; but if the amount of chloride present is insufficient for the existence of all the potassium as chloride of potassium, P the deficiency must be supplied by addition of chloride of sodium or hydro- chloric acid. The results obtained are in many cases very accurate, but : have a tendency to be somewhat below the truth. 4, There is practically no advantage in drying the chloroplatinate of po- : tassium at 130° C. rather than at 100°C. ‘The loss at the higher tempera- ture was found not to exceed -07 per cent. of the weight of the precipitate, but is probably governed by the conditions of precipitation. 5. The Committee is of opinion that a preliminary washing of the preci- pitate of chloroplatinate of potassium with a solution of platinic chloride is a valuable modification of the usual process. As the method so modified is capable of direct application to the commercial salts of potassium, and does not necessitate the previous removal of sulphates, nitrates, or magnesium, the Committee considers that it deserves to be generally applied for the determination of potassium in commercial products containing that metal. So far the Committee has not thought it necessary to make any experi- ments on other methods of determining potassium than that in which it is conyerted into chloroplatinate. SrareMENtT oF THE Resutts or ANALysIs oF PorasH Sats. Your Committee has devoted considerable attention to the difficult question of the proper mode of stating the results of analyses of potash salts. Hitherto the statements of various analysts appear to have been charac- terized by a lamentable want of system, and in many cases they are greatly at variance with the generally accepted principles of chemical combination and double decomposition. The Committee has been furnished with copies of analyses of potash salts in which carbonate of potassium is reported as coexistent with sulphate and chloride of sodium, and the cases are numerous in which similar anomalous statements occur. These various modes of statement are by no means solely due to eccentric notions respecting chemical affinity, but appear in many cases to be owing to the desire to attribute as high or low (as the case may be) a commercial value to the article analyzed as is compatible with its percentage composi- tion. Thus a commercial carbonate is chiefly valuable on account of the potassium carbonate it contains ; and therefore if the whole of the potassium be stated as existent in that form, while the valueless sulphate and chloride are relegated to the sodium, the apparent value is considerably greater than if - only that portion of the potassium be assumed to exist as carbonate which is in excess of the quantity necessary to combine with the more powerful salt radicals. The Committee believes it would be practically impossible to lay down general rules for statement of results which, if followed, would necessarily and invariably lead to an exact and scientific statement of the mode of ~ existence of the various metals and salt radicals in a complex commercial salt of potash; but it is of opinion that whatever modifications in detail individual analysts may think proper to adopt, the following general prin- ciples should be adhered to :— 24 REPORT—1877. The plan should be adopted of combining the strongest metal with the strongest salt radical, after due allowance for the tendency to form insoluble or nearly insoluble salts. Thus the soluble calcium should always be stated as existent as sulphate. ‘The excess of the salt radical should be combined with potassium on the ground that chloride, nitrate, or carbonate of potassium is incapable of coexistence with sodium sulphate. _ In the case of artificial or acid sulphates, produced by treating “ muriates” with vitriol, the Committce is of opinion that the free acid is sulphuric acid, not hydrochloric acid. ‘The reason for this opinion is to be found in the fact that any free hydrochloric acid would inevitably have been volatilized at the temperature employed in the production of the sulphate. The same remark applies to sulphuric acid if actually free, but if in combination with sulphate of potassium, to form an acid salt, it might resist volatilization. The acid salt here mentioned as a compound of sulphuric acid and sulphate of potas- sium would be more correctly described as potassium-hydrogen-sulphate, KHSO,; but your Committee believes that the practical inconvenience of stating a certain amount of potassium in this form and the rest as neutral sulphate would outweigh any advantage to be derived from a scientifically exact statement*. It is evident that the presence of free sulphuric acid or of an acid sulphate in artificial sulphates can only be due to imperfect admixture of the vitriol and muriate, otherwise the following well-known reactions would haye taken place :— KHSO, +KCl =K,SO, + HCl. NaHSO,+ NaCl=Na,SO,+ HCL Tn the event of the bulk of the muriate consisting of chloride of potassium, it may be argued that there is a greater probability of that salt remaining unacted on than that chloride of sodium should remain undecomposed ; but it is evident that the circumstances are such as must vary with the conditions of each case; and your Committee therefore prefers to recommend the adop- tion of the arbitrary assumption that all potassium exists as sulphate, pro- vided that there is sufficient of the salt radical present to combine with the whole of the potassium, after allowing for the free acid and the sulphate of calcium. On the other hand, it may be argued that as sulphates are always converted into carbonate or caustic alkali, any chloride present in the sample would ultimately be lost in the worthless form of chloride of potassium, whatever the metal with which it was originally combined. This argument has con- siderable force, and to meet it the Committee recommends that all statements of the results of analyses of artificial sulphates should have appended the equivalent in chloride of potassium of the chloride found. In artificial sul- phates there is considerable probability that the chlorine exists chiefly, if not wholly, as potassium chloride ; but such cannot be assumed to be the case with other sulphates, and in the statement of the composition of those the Committee considers the above calculation undesirable from a scientific point of view, though it is clear that there are other considerations in its favour. The distribution of the salt radicals among the remaining metals (sodium, magnesium, and iron) appears to the Committee to be a matter of indifference, * The same remark applies to other double salts, such as MgSO,+K,£O,, and the curious compound 8K,SO,xNa,SO,, often met with in kelp products. The recognition of the presence of such compounds in the statement of the results of analysis of com- mercial salts containing them appears to the Committee to be quite unnecessary. U - ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 25 as the precise arrangement will not affect the value of the sample, nor cause any alteration in the sum of the constituents, while there appears to be no reliable evidence of the actual mode of combination. In the case of “ muriates,” and sulphates having an alkaline reaction, such as those made from kelp and beetroot, potassium and sodium are the only two metals present in larger quantities than traces. In the statement of all such analyses your Commitice is of opinion that the only proper method is to calculate the potassium as sulphate, chloride, and carbonate in succession, assuming no sodium to exist as sulphate or chloride unless the amount of potassium present is insufficient to satisfy the latter or both of those salt radicals. The impossibility of the coexistence of sodium sulphate or chloride with potassium carbonate is proved by the fact that double decomposition occurs when solutions of these salts are mixed and concentrated. The non-deliquescent character of kelp sulphates and muriates also furnishes a strong independent proof of absence of potassium carbonate. The same principles apply to the statement of the results of the analyses of commercial carbonates of potassium, and in their case its adoption becomes still more important. In the case of saltpetres only that portion of the potassium can be pro- perly considered to exist as nitrate which is in excess of the quantity required for calculation as potassium sulphate (after allowing for the sul- phate present as calcium sulphate) ; whether some of the potassium will also exist as chloride, or whether there will be some sodium nitrate present, must depend on the respective amounts of potassium and NO, found; but having regard to the well-known reaction KCl+4+ NaNO, = NaCl+KNO,, your Com- mittee is of opinion that the presence of both chloride of potassium and nitrate of sodium in the same sample is improbable. In brief, the Committee is of opinion that in calculating the results of analyses of potash salts, the following method should be adhered to in com- pining the various metals and salt radicals present in the portion of the sample soluble in water. Basic hydrogen, which is met with only in artificial sulphates, exists as sulphuric acid, or, more strictly speaking, as potassium-hydrogen-sulphate, KHSO,. Calcium does not occur in practice in excess of an equivalent amount of sulphate, so that it should always he calculated to CaSO,. The remaining constituents of the soluble portion of the sample should be arranged on the principle of combining the strongest metal with the strongest salt radicals. The order of affinity which the Committee considers most in accordance with observed facts and theoretical propriety is shown in the following list, in which the strongest metals and salt radicals are placed first :— Potassium. Sulphate. Sodium. Nitrate. Magnesium. Chloride. Tron. Carbonate. The Committee is of opinion that in all cases in which one of the con- stituents of a sample is determined by subtracting the sum of the others from 100-00, the fact ought to be indicated in the statement of results. ‘This can readily be done by appending the words “ by difference” or “ esti- mated by difference ” to the name of the constituent thus determined. The adoption of this plan would obviate many of the disadvantages attendant on 26 REPORT—1877. indirect determinations ; but the Committec strongly recommends the em- ployment of direct processes whenever possible. In all cases where such a course is possible it is very desirable that the various compounds of potassium present should be calculated into the salt which the name of the article indicates as the leading constituent of the sample. In the case of sulphates, muriates, and carbonates, the correspond- ing amount of anhydrous potash should be stated. Thus the Committec recommends that an analysis of a German muriate should be stated somo- what in the following manner : Centesimal composition. =Potassium Chloride. Anhydrous Potash. Calcium Sulphate. Potassium Sulphate. A. x Potassium Chloride. B. B y Sodium Chloride Magnesium Chloride, Insoluble Matter. Water. SE, ideo | 100-00 B+a. x+y Anes Se, Re) ea Py CO In the ease of carbonates, the anhydrous potash corresponding to the car- bonate of potassium present should always be stated separately from that calculated from the sulphate and chloride, as it is only in certain cases that the potassium existing in the latter forms is of any real value. Third Report of a Committee, consisting of H.C. C. Stanrorp, A. HK. Frercurr, J. Dewar, E. W. Parnety, T. W. Ocrivim, and Aurrep H. Auun (Secretary), on the methods of estimating Potash and Phosphoric Acid in Commercial Products containing them, and on the Statement of the results. Drawn up by Aurrep H. Auimn. Estimation or Porasu, Although the process of determining potassium by precipitation with chloride of platinum is the method almost universally adopted by chemists of large experience in the assay of commercial potash salts, the Committee thought it desirable to investigate also the volumetric method of Stolba, which is based on the precipitation of potassium as silicofluoride and the titration of the precipitate with standard alkali, according to the equation— K,SiF, + 4KHO = 6KF+ HSi0,. This process is thus described on page 176 of the 7th English edition of Fresenius’s ‘Quantitative Analysis ’:—*‘ To: the moderately concentrated solution of the potash salt in a beaker add a sufficiency of hydro- fluosilicic acid, and then an equal volume of pure strong spirit. The silicofluoride of potassium will separate as a translucent precipitate. When it has settled, filter, wash out the beaker with a mixture of equal parts strong spirit and water, and wash the precipitate with the same mixture till the washings are no longer acid to litmus paper. Put the filter and precipitate ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 27 into the beaker previously used, treat with water, add some tincture of litmus, heat to boiling, and add normal alkali solution till the fluid is just blue, and remains so after continued boiling.” With a view of preparing pure chloride of potassium for these researches, the Committee abandoned the method employed last year, in favour of a simpler process suggested in a note appended to the last report. Commercial chlorate of potassium was recrystallized and heated until no more oxygen was evolved, and the product was dissolved in water, filtered, a few drops of hydrochloric acid added to the clear solution, and the whole evaporated to dryness and ignited in a muffle at a low red heat. The product was powdered and bottled. When heated on clean platinum wire in a Bunsen flame it gave no trace of yellow colour to the flame. Thirty-five grammes of this pure salt were dissolved in 515 grammes of pure water, in order to make a solution containing exactly one tenth of its weight of pure chloride of potassium. In the following investigation a roughly measured quantity of this solution was run into a beaker and the exact weight taken. This method was adopted during the experiments of last year in preference to pipette measure- ments, which were not considered satisfactory. The solution was first analyzed by precipitation by nitrate of silver. The following table shows the quantities taken, and the number of parts of KCl found for one hundred taken * :— No. of Expt. Weight of Weight of AgCl = KClfound = KCl found for Solution. obtained. 100 parts taken. emia: 70805 1:3619 70850 100-06 Borin stich 70275 13509 °70278 100-00 The six following experiments were made by adhering strictly to the description of the process already quoted. A quantity of potassium chloride solution containing about *7 gramme or 10 grains of the salt was employed ineach case. The standard alkali employed was very carefully prepared and was strictly normal. It was not found practicable to wash the precipitate till the washings were no longer acid to litmus. The washing was therefore arrested when the filtrate gave no reaction with silver nitrate. Expt. Wet.ofSoln. C.c. normal alkali = KCl = KCl found per 100 used. parts taken. Wt en i illo 18:80 $8 -70110 98°54 Sick. 2 7°1100 18°83 P °70236 98°80 Rafal. acd 7°0290 18:75 8 °69937 99-90 US ee 7:0190 18°75 8 °699382 99-62 Set feet TRAEGS 5. «. 19108 aon 99-56 Gears wit: 7-0210 18-70 P °69745 99°34 Although it was not to be expected that there could be any advantage in employing caustic potash in the titration instead of caustic soda, it was considered that the case was one in which it was just possible that there might be a choice, and therefore both alkalies were tried. The alkali em- ployed in each experiment is distinguished by the letters P and § placed after the number of centimetres of normal alkali required. * The following are the atomic weights employed in the investigation :— K=39:137; Si=28; Ag=107:938 ; Cl=35-457 ; F=18-96. 28 REPORT—1877. In experiment 1 an excess of alkali was employed, and the liquid was then titrated back with sulphuric acid. It was hoped in this way to ensure the complete and speedy decomposition of the silicofluoride; but the end of the reaction was very difficult to read, perhaps owing to the formation of silicate. It was also found to be no advantage to add the acid in sensible excess and again titrate with alkali. In some cases decinormal alkali was employed towards the conclusion of the titration, but the end of the reaction was not sufficiently defined to make the precaution valuable. No. 2 can scarcely be considered a test experiment, for the precipitated silicofluoride was dried on the filter and then scraped off. The next three experiments were made on about 1:5 gramme (twice the former quantity) of potassium chloride, the precipitated silicofloride being dried on the filter, scraped off, and weighed. Expt. Wt. ofSoln. Wt. of Precipitate. = KCl = KOI found per 100 parts taken. aio a Rate 15°0525 2°2150 1:5018 99°77 eee 15-0475 2°2115 14994 99°64 Miter s © 15°0365 22070 14964 99°52 These results do not show any great departure from the truth, especially as traces of the precipitate probably adhered to the filter and were thus lost. ‘The manipulation was very easy, filtration occurring rapidly, and the precipitate being easily washed, dried, and separated from the filter. After weighing, the precipitates obtained in the last experiments were suspended in boiling water and titrated with normal alkali, with the follow- ing results :— Expt Wt. of ppt. C. c, normal K. Sik}, found taken. alkali used. per 100 parts taken. @ As. -2°2150 39°60 P 98-4 SEA usenet 31:60 8 98°6 DAV 20R0 40°10 § 99°95 In the last experiment the titration was slightly overdone. It appears, therefore, that the volumetric method gives results sensibly below the truth. Probably the error was greater in the last three experiments owing to the precipitates having been dried, and thus reacting less readily with alkali than the undried silicofluoride. In these, as in all other experiments, the alkali was added very slowly towards the end of the reaction, and the liquid was well boiled after each addition. Three more experiments by direct titration of the silicofluoride with alkali gave the following results :— Expt. Wt. of soln. C. c. of normal = Kal. KCl found for * taken, alkali used. 100 parts taken. 105 Ss 0525 40-10 P 14956 99-4. 102 1570475 39:90 § 1-4881 98-9 1252 21503865 40:10 8 1:4956 99-4 In these last experiments the large quantity of silicsé produced rendered the end of the reaction difficult to observe. In fact the want of sharpness in the termination of the reaction is a serious defect of the process. A porcelain basin was found preferable to a beaker for conducting the titration. Although in the above experiments the volume of alkali used was read to zI5 of a cubic centimetre, the end of the reaction could not be defined ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 29 so closely, even after considerable practice. A difference of 0-1 cub. centim. in the volume of the standard alkaliemployed corresponds in the last three experiments to about ‘25 per cent. of the chloride of potassium taken, and in the first six experiments to *5 percent. of thesample. As the quantity of potassium chloride worked on cannot be conveniently increased beyond the weights used in experiments 10, 11, and 12, it is evident that the process is not susceptible of great accuracy even if no other disturbing influence existed. The fact that the volumetric method gives results below the truth is pro- bably due to the difficulty of decomposing the last traces of silicofluoride by alkali, without introducing an excess of the latter. The trace of free alkali which suffices to change the tint of the litmus to blue seems incapable of reacting on the silicofluoride. An attempt was made to overcome this difficulty by adding a sensible excess of alkali, boiling well, and titrating back with standard acid; but the result was not satisfactory, the end of the reaction being very obscure. In practice it would be preferable to set the standard alkali by its action on moist silicofluoride prepared from a known quantity of potassium chloride, rather than to trust to its theoretical neutralizing effect. As the drying and weighing of the silicofluoride requires but little more time than the titration with alkali, and gives better results, the gravimetric estimation is to be preferred. Although the process is not to be compared in accuracy to the precipitation and weighing of potassium as potassium chloroplatinate, it might no doubt be advantageously employed in particular cases. The next experiments were made on a mixture of 75 per cent. of chloride of potassium with 25 per cent. of chloride of sodium. Wt. of KClsoln. NaCl C. ec. nermal KCl found for | Expt. taken. faken. alkali used. — “Ol found. 499 parts taken. ie all fue —~ ovo 42°95 8 16019 136°3 | 14 ....11°7530 ‘375 42:95 § 16019 136°3 _ present was precipitated as silicofluoride. In two other experiments of equal weights of potassium and sodium chlorides, 222 and 218 parts of KCl were found for 100 parts taken. The former number represents a og ee tation of 96°8 per cent. of the sum of the alkali metals present. Two experiments were next made on mixtures of potassium and sodium chlorides by precipitating the solution with hydrofluosilicic acid as before, but using a smaller proportion of spirit. One third of the bulk of solution and wash water consisted of rectified spirit, instead of one half, as in all previous experiments. The weights of the precipitates corresponded respec- tively to 169 and 188 parts of potassium chloride for 100 parts taken. It is evident from these experiments that the process is quite worthless for the separation of potassium from sodium, and consequently that the number of cases in which it can be advantageously employed is greatly limited. Although this result was anticipated from the known properties of sodium silicofluoride, it was thought desirable to establish the fact by direct experiment. Since the above experiments were completed the original paper of Stolba has been consulted *. The author recommends the suspension of the preci- pitated silicofluoride in a much larger quantity of water than was employed * Zeitsch, fiir anal. Chem, iii. p. 298, These results show that 96°9 per cent. of the total amount of alkali metal ’ ] j 30 REPORT—1877. by the Committee. This plan would cause the more perfect solution of the precipitate, and probably yield somewhat higher results; but the author’s experiments on pure potassium salts gave results sensibly below the truth. As the value of the process is greatly limited by its uselessness in presence of sodium compounds, the Committee did not think it necesssary to perform a fresh series of experiments with more rigid adherence to Stolba’s directions. Mernods oF DETERMINING PHospHoric AciD. With respect to the general method of procedure in the assay of com- mercial phosphatic materials, the Committee has not thought it necessary to make any original experiments, the published and collected evidence on the subject being sufficient for the purpose. As the result of avery careful consideration of the subject, the Committee make the following recommendations and suggestions. In most cases these are quite free from novelty ; but as the evidence collected by the Committee, and the results of many commercial analyses, show that the following con- siderations and precautions are in many cases partly or wholly neglected, the Committee is of opinion that the general adoption of the following sugges- tions would tend greatly to diminish the number and extent of the dis- crepancies common in determinations of phosphoric acid. Solution of the Manure. The Committee is of opinion that for dissolving the soluble phosphate contained in a manufactured manure, cold water should invariably be em- ployed. The water should be employed in successive small quantities, and the treatment and digestion with the solyent should not be extended over more than two or three hours. Hot water should be wholly avoided, both for the original extraction of the soluble matter and for washing the residue. The neglect of the above precautions may cause an error in either direc- tion. The effect of employing hot water for dissolying the soluble phosphate is shown by the fact that the cold aqueous extract of many superphosphates yields a precipitate on boiling. On the other hand the di- and tricalcic phosphates undergo change on boiling with water, with partial solution in some cases. For the solution of the portion of the manure insoluble in water, or for the determination of the total phosphoric acid, hydrochloric acid is the most suitable. In manures containing iron the addition of a few drops of nitric acid is desirable, to ensure the complete peroxidation of any ferrous com- pound which may be present. In manures containing silica the evaporation of the acid solution to dryness should never be omitted. ‘The neglect of this precaution causes the precipitation of the silica at a subsequent stage, and is liable to cause a serious error. Another advantage of the evaporation to dryness is the partial elimination of any fluorine which may be present. In cases inwhich much organic matter is present, iron and aluminium cannot be precipitated satisfactorily. In such cases the original sample or the residue insoluble in water should be ignited with an alkaline oxidizing mixture before treating it with acid. Fresenius, Neubauer, and Luck* have recommended the employment of dilute sulphuric acid for the extraction of the total phosphoric acid from a manure. The advantage claimed for this modification is that the iron and * Zeitschrift, x. p. 133, ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 8l aluminium remain chiefly undissolved. As, however, a small and not very constant amount of iron undergoes solution, the advantage of this method is considerably diminished. Separation of the Iron and Aluminiun. In all cases in which more than traces of iron or aluminium are present, the Committee is strongly of opinion that they should be separated. In the first place several of the most satisfactory methods of determining phosphoric acid are yitiated by the presence of these metals ; and secondly, the manurial value of the sample is affected by their presence. It is therefore doubly important that they should not be ignored. The removal of the aluminium and iron from the solution is readily effected by neutralizing any excess of acid with ammonia and adding ammonium acetate, when iron and aluminium are thrown down as phos- phates, which may be filtered off and weighed. The operation should be conducted in a cold or but slightly warm solution. If the liquid be heated, a calcium phosphate is thrown down. The precipitate can be conveniently analyzed by the following method, contributed by Mr. R. Warington :—‘‘ The precipitated phosphates of iron and aluminium are washed, ignited, and weighed, redissolved in strong hy- drochloric acid, and the iron determined volumetrically. From the iron the quantity of ferric phosphate in the precipitate is calculated, the phosphate of aluminium found by difference, and thus the iron, aluminium, and phos- phoric acid in the precipitate are obtained. A little phosphoric acid is liable to be removed from the precipitate during washing, and basic salts are thus reckoned in the calculation as of normal composition.” The Oxalic-Acid Method. In employing this method it is very desirable to previously separate iron and aluminium acetate. Besides the advantages already mentioned, this precaution renders it unnecessary to add an organic acid before precipitating the phosphate with magnesia. The use of an organic acid prevents the complete separation of the lime (oxalate of calcium being soluble in citrate of ammonium), and tends to falsify the subsequent precipitation with ‘* magnesia mixture.” The presence of ammonium acetate facilitates rather than prevents the precipitation of the calcium as oxalate. On rendering the filtrate from the oxalate of calcium precipitate alkaline with ammonia, a small additional precipitation of oxalate of calcium may occur. If the solution of the manure has been made with acid, and sub- sequent evaporation of the acid liquid to dryness has been neglected, the precipitate here formed may contain silica or fluoride of calcium. If the separation of the iron and aluminium has been omitted, citric acid must be added before making the solution alkaline with. ammonia. Of course if a precipitate is formed at this stage, from whatever cause, it must be separated before adding “ magnesia mixture.” Direct Citric-Acid Method. In this method the iron, aluminium, and calcium are all retained in solu- tion by means of citrate of ammonium, and no attempt is made to separate the calcium as oxalate; but the phosphate is at once precipitated from the ammoniacal solution by “ magnesia mixture.” Although in the hands of several chemists of high repute this convenient method gives yery good re- 382 REPORT—1877. sults, the sources of error are too numerous to be wholly disregarded. Titration of the precipitate with uranium appears preferable to direct weighing, Precipitation with “ Magnesia Mixture.” Repeated experiments having shown that the employment of sulphate of magnesium for the precipitation of ammonio-magnesium-phosphate is at- tended with considerable tendency to error, the Committee is of opinion that it should be definitely abandoned in favour of the chloride. The volume of ‘‘ magnesia mixture” employed for the precipitation should only be in moderate excess of the amount necessary to completely precipitate the phosphate present. The use of a large excess of the precipitant causes a more rapid separation of the double phosphate, but is attended with such a serious tendency to error that any advantage gained is more than counterbalanced. The pre- cipitant should be added slowly. The precipitation should be conducted in the cold, and solution should not be too concentrated. ‘The proportion of free ammonia in the liquid should be large. The minimum amount of ammonia water should be em- ployed for washing. If the above precautions are duly observed, and silica, fluorine, iron, and aluminium be previously removed, it will rarely be necessary to purify the precipitate by solution in acid and reprecipitation with ammonia. In re- precipitating, some ‘magnesia mixture” should be added, as its presence tends to reduce the solubility of the precipitate in the ammoniacal liquid. Any correction for solubility of the precipitate should be applied to the ammoniacal washing, and not to the original filtrate. In igniting the precipitate the heat should be very gentle at first and afterwards be raised as high as possible. If citric acid has been employed, the ignited precipitate is often discoloured, This may be remedied by cautious treatment in the crucible with strong nitric acid followed by reignition. Ii the precipitate of ammonio-magnesium-phosphate be titrated by standard solution of uranium instead of being weighed, many of the above precautions are rendered superfluous. Estimation by Uraniwn. The removal of iron and aluminium by addition of an alkaline acetate in the cold, with determination of the phosphoric acid in the filtrate by means of a standard solution of uranium, is a method which, in the opinion of the Committee, deserves extended employment. The use of an acetate in a slightly acid solution brings the liquid into just the condition required for the use of the uranium process. The proportions of acetic acid and alkaline acetate employed, and the volume of the solution, should be approximately constant. The uranium nitrate should be standardized with an acetic-acid solution of pure precipitated ammonio-magnesium-phosphate or tricalcic phosphate, instead of with phosphate of sodium. The titration should be converse, the solution of the phosphate being added to that of the uranium. The latter should be mixed with a constant pro- portion of acetic acid, and heated on a bath of boiling water. The indicator should be powdered potassium ferrocyanide on a white porcelain slab. Owirg to the reversal of the usual process, the brown colour of the ferro- cyanide of uranium becomes gradually fainter till the end of the titration, —e—eE ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASII AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. ao Molybdic-Acid Method. Sonnenschein’s process of precipitation with molybdic acid, with subsequent treatment with magnesia mixture, and weighing as magnesium pyrophosphate, is probably the most uniformly accurate of all known processes for deter- mining phosphoric acid. It appears always to be employed when great accuracy is desired, and some chemists use it habitually. In some respects, however, the process is not well fitted for general use, for the following reasons :— A very large excess of molybdic acid above that which is actually precipi- tated as ‘“ phospho-molybdate of ammonium” is required for the complete separation of the phosphoric acid of the solution. The reagent is somewhat expensive, and there is no simple process of recovering the molybdenum from the filtrate. The yellow precipitate contains less than four per cent. of anhydrous phosphoric acid, and thus becomes very balky and unmanageable when the quantity of phosphoric acid present exceeds ‘1 or ‘2 of a gramme. This fact leads to the employment of very small quantities of the material; and as the yellow precipitate has to be subsequently redissolved and precipitated with Inagnesia mixture in the ordinary way, the error liable to occur from the use of an unusually small weight of the sample detracts greatly from the value of the method. The above considerations, together with the loss of time and expense in- cident to the use of the process, prevent the Committee from recommending it for general adoption, though it is of opinion that in many instances the method may be used with great advantage, and that in some cases it is invaluable. Pisani has described a method of determining molybdic acid by reducing its acid solution with zinc, and titrating the brown liquid with standard permanganate. J. Macagno has proposed to apply this process to the determination of phosphoric acid, by first precipitating the latter with ‘“ molybdate solution ” and then titrating the molybdic acid in the precipitate in the above manner. The Committee has instituted some experiments on this process, but the results were very unsatisfactory Tteduced Phosphates. It is well known that the soluble phosphate of some superphosphates has a tendency to pass back into the insoluble condition. It is plausibly argued that the finely divided insoluble phosphate thus produced is equal in manu- rial value to the soluble phosphate originating it, and therefore that in judging of the value of the manure the insoluble “reduced” phosphate should be stated separately, and regarded as of equal manurial value to the actual soluble phosphate. The methods which have been employed for the determination of “ re- duced” phosphate are based on the ready solubility of such precipitated _ phosphate, in certain liquids, or on its easy decomposition by certain alkaline salts. For its solution, citrate of ammonium has been employed, and for its decomposition with formation of a soluble phosphate, oxalate of ammonium * _ or bicarbonate of sodium + is used. A series of very suggestive experiments on Chesshire’s bicarbonate-of- sodium and Sibson’s oxalate-of-ammonium methods have been communicated * Chem. News, Sept. 10, 1869, p. 123. 187 Chem, News, Sept. 3, 1869, p. 111; Chureh’s ‘ Laboratory Guide, 3rd edition, p. 146, ie D BA REPORT—1877. to the Committee by Mr. M. J. Lansdell ; and as they appear to show con- clusively the valueless character of either of the above processes for deter- mining ‘“ Reduced” Phosphates, the results are given in full. The samples were all passed through the same sieve, and the proportions employed were those recommended by the authors. Dissolved (equal to Ca, P, O,). Sample contained By Sibson’s By Chesshire’s (equal to Ca, P, O,). method, method. Cambridge coprolite .... 56°07 per cent. 8°32 p. c. 2°23 p. ¢. moge-esh) tee ee ie 76:87 F 10°58 3:07 Navassa phosphate ...... 65°62 +, 7:48 5:73 German phosphate ...... 60°74 * 8:04 2:09 Redonda phosphate (dried) 87°42 £ 19°72 56:97 Redonda phosphate (lump) 86°58 19°10 64-65 By employing a solution of bicarbonate of twice the above strength, the Redonda phosphate gave equal to 84°3 of Ca,P,O, in solution. Using a smaller quantity of the sample in the oxalate method, 47°76 per cent. passed into solution. It appears, therefore, that “reduced” phosphates are indicated by each process, even in natural phosphatic materials which have never been treated with acid, and hence the methods of determination are useless*. The same objections apply to the citrate-of-ammonium method, especially with respect to the phosphate of aluminium known as ‘“ Redonda Phosphate.” It follows, therefore, that the latter comparatively cheap material would (if introduced into a superphosphate) be mistaken for and quoted as “ re- duced phosphate.” From the above considerations it appears that the known methods of determining the reduced phosphates are purely arbitrary. It is now generally admitted that the cause of the “going back” to the condition of insoluble phosphate is the presence of iron or aluminium in the manure; and many chemists are of opinion that the “ reduced” phosphates actually consist of the phosphates of iron and aluminium produced by some such reaction as the following :— CaH, (PO,),+ Al, (SO,),=2 Al PO,+ CaSO, + 2H, SO.. At any rate it is a fact that only manures containing iron and aluminium have a tendency to form reduced phosphates; so that the manufacturer has the remedy in his own hands, to avoid using mineral phosphate containing iron or aluminium. In the analysis of mineral phosphates the proportion of oxide of iron and alumina is usually stated, but these constituents rarely appear in the analyses of “ superphosphates” made therefrom. It is generally held that the phosphates of iron and aluminium have a very limited manurial value, and this fact is a strong argument against the reduced phosphates being calculated into and credited as phosphate of calcium. The value of a manure so largely depends on the proportion of oxide of iron and alumina present, that the Committee is very strongly of opinion that the united percentage of these two bases in a manufactured manure (superphosphate) should always be stated. By doing so the manu- facturer or purchaser would be enabled to judge of the probability of a newly made manure “going back” on keeping, and he would be in a better posi- tion to form an opinion of the true value of the sample. At the same time * Mr. John Hughes has made experiments leading to a similar conclusion, Chem. News, vol, xix, p.229 and vol. xx. p. 111. ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 35 the estimation of the “ reduced” phosphates would often be rendered super- fluous, The actual mode of occurrence of some of the constituents of manures is very uncertain, and although interesting in a strictly scientific sense, is of yery limited practical importance. The Committee is of opinion that the methods of statement now generally adopted are sufficient for commercial purposes ; but with the view of securing greater uniformity in the statement of results by different chemists the adoption of the following plan is recommended :— STATEMENT OF THE Resvurts or ANALysis oF ComMERcIAL PHosrHaAteEs. With respect to the mode of statement of the results of analyses of manu- factured phosphates the Committee holds the following opinions :— When found in quantities greater than traces, the proportions of oxide of iron and alumina in the sample should always be stated, and also their equivalents of the corresponding phosphates (Fe PO, and Al PO,) and the equivalent of the latter in tricalcic phosphate. Hence that item would appear somewhat as follows :— Oxide of iron and alumina .........eeesees A’/, (Equal to phosphates of iron and aluminium .. B?/,) (Equal to neutral phosphate of calcium ...... C°/,) If it be proposed for any reason to state the iron and aluminium as phos- phates instead of oxides the following form would be suitable :— Phosphates of iron and aluminium.......... faa (Equal to neutral phosphate of calcium ...... C°/,) (Containing anhydrous phosphoric acid ...... D°/,) The object of stating the equivalents in phosphate of calcium and phos- phoric acid is to give the manufacturer or purchaser an estimate of the tendency of the sample to “go back” owing to the formation of reduced phosphates. The Committee is of opinion that the soluble phosphate in a manure pre- pared with acid is best stated as acid calcium phosphate, though in some cases it may be questioned whether it wholly exists in that form. The term *i-phosphate” should as far as possible be abandoned; but as this cannot be done suddenly it is recommended that the equivalent of Ca H, (PO,), in Ca PO, should also be given. It is likewise desirable to state the equivalent amount of bone phosphate (Ca, (PO,),) from which the soluble phosphate has been derived. Hence the statement of the soluble phosphate will be somewhat as follows :— Soluble acid phosphate of calcium .......... E?/ (Equal to so-called bi-phosphate of lime ...... F°/,) (Equal to neutral phosphate of calcium (bone phosphate) made soluble .............005 G°/,) (Containing anhydrous phosphoric acid ...... H°/,) The statement of the insoluble phosphate presents no difficulty. The Committee is not prepared to make any recommendation respecting the statement of the calcium sulphate, but is of opinion that whether the anhydrous or the hydrated substance is entered as existent in the sample, the equivalent of the other should also be added in parenthesis. The Committee believes that it has done all in its power to secure tho objects for which it was appointed, and therefore presents this as its first report. n2 36 REvPORT—1877. Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Crustacea.— Part III. On the Homologies of the Dermal Skeleton (continued). By C. Spence Bare, /.R.S. &c. Correlation of Appendages. By the term “ correlation ” I mean a change of form associated with func- tional variations, the character of which is sufficiently distinct to produce, both in appearance and application, an appendage that is essentially dif- ferent from the type with which it is homologically connected. The eyes are less subject to correlate with other forms than most other appendages. This probably arises from the circumstance that their func- tional properties are only liable to vary in a greater or less degree of utility. It is true that Alphonse Milne-Edwards has observed in a species of Palinurus the eye to become altered into an antenna-like appendage ; and the author of this report contends that it is homologous with the first pair of appendages in Nauplius, and therefore correlates with a free-swimming appen- dage (Proceedings Roy. Soc. vol. xxiv. p. 377); but our knowledge of the cases is small where the eye loses its functional power ; consequently we must assume that its variation in form must be limited in degree only consistent with its uses. In Podophthalma and allied genera the organ is extended on a very long appendage, whereas in others the peduncle is extremely short; and in those genera that reside in dark habitats the visual organ has become so depauperized that it can only be traced through the anatomical arrangement of the nervous system. This is the case with the Cirripedia, where, from the fixed nature of the animal, sight would only be a means of inflicting pain, since the animal could not escape any object of terror it observed approaching. The eye in the Nauplius form, whether in young specimens of the higher types or adult forms of Entomostracous Crustacea, is not homologous with the true organ of the higher forms of Crustacea, and therefore cannot be said to correlate with it. The first pair of antennse, called the antennules by some writers, is generally of a very simple character. They usually consist in their outward form of a base or peduncle made up of three separate joints, the remaining portion being broken up into numerous minute articuli, that gradually decrease in size towards the extremity, and so become long and flexible, like the lash of a whip, and consequently are named the flagellum by anatomists. It is usual for this to break into two separate branches ; and it is clear that one must be of a superior character to the other, since there are certain organisms attached to it that are invariably constant, whereas they are never attached to the other. I have therefore, when desirous to distinguish the former, identified it as the primary branch of the flagellum and the other as the secondary, which in different species is again liable to be redivided at various points along the branch, but every time forming more feeble and less important branches. This appendage, when compared with its homo- type, a truly formed walking-limb, differs from it in the same way as the latter changes in the lower forms of Crustacea when yariated for other pur- poses, as in Mysis. A true or normally developed limb adapted for walking consists of seven separate joints. The first pair of antennze consists of seven also; but three of these only retain their normal character, the four others being differentiated so as to comply with other conditions necessitated by distinct wants, | } ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 37 The first, or coxa, is the joint that is most important to the necessities of the animal; itis the part that invariably contains the functional organ with which the appendage is endowed, and is most capable of internal organic change. In the lower types of Crustacea it differs little in external form from the other less important joints of the same limb, and appears to become depre- ciated as it corresponds with the increasing length of the flagellum. In Amphipoda the length of this antenna is often very considerable in the deep- sca genera; whereas in those that live on the shore or on land, as Z'alitrus and Orchestia mostly do, not only do the flagella diminish in general pro- portion, but the entire organ, as an appendage, becomes enfeebled and weak, arguing strongly that its higher endowments are best capable of full develop- ment under the former than the latter conditions. Moving upwards in the grade of animal life, in those Crustacea that pursue a wholly aquatic existence this first pair of antenns, while decreasing in the length of the flagellum, does so apparently by diminishing its tenuity, and so condensing all its power within less extent. This also corresponds with a similar change in the coxal joint of the peduncle. This change appears to be carried to the highest extent in the short-tailed genera, of which we may find a convenient example in the common edible Crab (Cancer pagurus) of the British seas. The coxa in this genus is very much larger than the other joints of the peduncle, and on being opened is found to contain an osseous chamber, attached by one extremity only to the antero-external surface of the outer walls of the joint. In the genus Maia a similar chamber, but different in form, exists; and this probably will be found to be true of all the Brachyura or short-bodied forms of crabs. In the Macrura a chamber of a similar nature, but longer in form, cor- responds with the depreciated appearance of the coxal joint of the antenna, which is longer, narrower, and carries a longer and more slender flagellum than the Brachyura. But the chamber in the Macrura is certainly of a very peculiar character, for it is in some of the species, such as Homarus, Astocus, and Palinurus, more or less completely filled with particles of sand, This sand is thrown off with the exuviations of the animal at each successive moult, and is again replaced by the voluntary act of the crustacean itself. In some genera, such as Anchistia, Palemon, and Lucifer, there exist yarious forms of otolithes. In lower orders, such as the Amphipoda, the antenna is very simple, and gencrally long and slender. The second filament, which in the higher groups is commonly equal in length with the primary branch, is in this order reduced to a rudimentary condition, and is frequently wanting in the adult form, although almost invariably present in the young stage. We generally find, however, that in those genera where this antenna is reduced in length the coxa increases in dimensions, while the two succeeding joints are less so in proportion. A marked exception to this is perceptible in Orchestia and Talitrus and the terrestrial Isopods, where the appendage is short and unimportant, ap- proximating towards a rudimentary condition. In the Hyperidians it has a tendency to become enfeebled and diminutive. The tendency to variation in these two widely separated forms is certainly the result of certain altered circumstances which interfere with the characteristic development of the organ. ~ Talitrus and Orchestia are genera that live in an intermediate position ; their habits are between the aquatic and land Crustacea, They do not live 38 REPORT—1877, in the water, and some species are found some miles inland. Their short antenne differ from those of the truly aquatic genera of the Lysianassida, and are evidently organs in a rudimentary condition, impoverished in charac- ter and small, because they have no dutiesto perform. In the Hyperide they have also assumed an impoverished condition probably from a similar cause, _ although the habits of the creature are very distinct. In the Orchestide and Oniscide the animals live out of what might be pronounced to be their accustomed element ; whereas in the Hyperide they are inhabitants of tho sea, but exist if not parasitic, certainly encased within Medusz in such a way as to lose much power of free action. Organs of sense, such as the anterior antennz are generally considered to be, must lose their power from want of use, owing, in the one case, to altered conditions, and in the other to incapacity for action. Yalitrus and Hyperia are generally considered by carcinologists to rank at opposite extremities of the order; and when generalization is adopted from too narrow observation, a faulty conclusion is liable to be enunciated, such as that which identifies a short antenna as typical of an improved organization on the one hand, or as evidence of a more feeble type on the other. Among the Entomostracous forms of Crustacea the first pair of antenne correlates with various forms, and apparently loses its functional sense. In Nebalia it varies so little from the normal form, that it must be admitted as part of the evidence that this genus ranks higher in the natural order of Crustacea than the Entomostraca. In Limnadia these appendage appear to have degenerated into » simple flagellum, the peduncle or stalk having become impoverished to the same extent. In Daphnia they appear to be wanting. In Cypris they are flagelliform and robust. In Pontia they are flagelliform and long, and they are very long in Cyclops. In Caliqgulide they are reduced in size and feeble in form, and frequently support organs of adhesion of sucker-like appearance. In the Lerneans and close allics they are wanting, unless, as is probable, they homologize with the organs of insertion, in which case correlation is carried to an extreme degree. The object or function of this pair of antennee has by all the older carcino- logists been supposed to fulfil the duties of an olfactory organ. Dr. Farre, in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ for 1843, was the first who attempted to reverse this decision. In 1851 Professor Huxley communicated to the ‘ Annals of Natural History,’ 2nd ser. vol. vii. p. 304, some “* Zoological Notes and Observations made on board H.M.N. ‘ Rattlesnake’ during the years 1846-51. I. On the Auditory Organs of Crustacea.” He says that ‘The older authors, Fabricius, Scarpa, Brandt, and Treviranus, unanimously confer the title of auditory organs on certain sacs filled with fluid which are seated in the basal joint of the second or larger pair of antennx ;” but “ by the majority of the older writers no notice is taken of the sac existing in many genera in the bases of the first or smaller pair of antenne. Rosen- thal *, however, describes this structure very carefully in Astacus fluviatilis and Astacus (Palinurus) marinus. He considers it to be an olfactory organ, while he agrees with previous writers in considering the sac in the outer antenne as the auditory organ.” This view is supported by Professor Milne-Edwards, as I shall show when writing about the second pair of antennx. This distinguished carcinologist appears to have given no consideration to * “Ueber Geruchsorgane d. Insekten,” Reil’s Archiy, Bd. x. (1811). ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 39 the apparatus attached to the base of the first pair of antenna, which, with the exception of Rosenthal, appears to have been overlooked by most car- cinological anatomists. Prof. Huxley, in the paper quoted, admits its presence only in Macrurous Crustacea; for he says, ‘‘ It is universally ac- knowledged that in the Macrura there exists in the basal joint of both the first and second pair of antennz a sac containing a liquid, and that in the Brachyura such a sac exists, at least in the second pair.” * Although,” the same author continues, “the structure of the organ contained in the first pair of antenne in the Macrura departs somewhat from the ordinary construction of an acoustic apparatus in the Invertebrata, yet the argument from structure to function, as enunciated in the paper referred to(Dr. Farre’s), seems almost irresistible. Still, as it has obviously not produced general conviction, I hope that the following evidence may be considered as finally conclusive.” Mr. Huxley then describes and figures a small transparent Crustacean (taken in the South Pacific) of the genus Paleemon; and states that the “ basal joint of the first pair of antenne is thick, and provided with a partially detached ciliated spine at the outer part of its base. Between this and the body of the joint there is a narrow fissure. The fissure leads into a pyriform cavity contained within a membranous sac, which lies within the substance of the joint. The anterior extremity of the sac is enveloped in a mass of pigment-granules ; on that side of the sac which is opposite to the fissure, a series of hairs with bulbous bases are attached along a curved line ; these are in contact with, and appear to support, a large ovoid, strongly refracting otolithe. * The antennal nerve passes internal to and below the sac, and gives off branches which terminate at the curved line of the bases of the hairs. The sacis about +4, ofan inch in length, the otolithe about =4in diameter. The structure is obviously very similar to the ordinary apparatus in Mollusca &e.” A similar kind of formation I have observed in a species of Anchistia from Australia; and also Dana has figured a similar structure in the same appendage of an Anchistia. It may be that Huxley’s Palemon may be a species of Dana’s Anchistia. The form of the otolithe observed by myself was irregularly ovoid. It is described in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society’ for the 24th of November, 1843, p. 5, pl. xxi. fig. 56, where I observe that it “ bears a near resemblance to that which Yan Beneden considers to be an otolithe, and which was found by him in the inner ramus of the posterior pair of pleopoda in some species of Stomapoda.”’ Huxley likewise has observed and figured the same structure as being present in the genus Lucifer; where he says that ‘ we have an organ pre- cisely similar to the auditory sacs of the Mollusca, while Palemon offers a very interesting transition between this and the ordinary Crustacean form of acoustic organ as described by Farre.” M. Souleyet has also noticed the structure in Lucifer, but only gives it a passing notice, in Froriep’s ‘ Notizen, 1843, p. 83. The second and third joints appear to possess no peculiarity of structure, but generally diminish in length and breadth, perhaps in a corresponding ratio to the increased functional development of the first or coxal joint. A filamental appendage is almost universally attached to the extremity. In some genera the lash is consolidated to a plate, as in Seyllarus, Ibaccus, or rigid rod, as in Clydonia &c.; but, as a rule, throughout the entire list of AO REPORT—1877. genera in all the Podophthalmous Crustacea, whether Brachyura, Macrura, or Stomapoda, there are universally present two or more of these filamentary appendages, often subequally Jong, only one of which, the primary, appears to fulfil any important office. In Amphipoda there is never more than one secondary appendage, and that is always of a rudimentary character, and frequently only determinable in the very young stage of the animal and obsolete in the adult. In the Isopoda, with the exception of the Anisopod group, it is always absent. The secondary appendage, even in those families where it is most de- veloped, appears to fulfil but an unimportant office. In this it differs from the principal filament, or tige, as it is named by Milne-Edwards, which, in addition to the numerous simply-formed hairs with which it is covered, is furnished with a considerable number of mem- branous cilia, which are peculiar to this organ in Crustacea, and may be found in every form of animal in the class, except where the entire appendage has become impoverished from the peculiar nature of the animal’s habits or conditions, such as in the Terrestrial Isopods or parasitic families of Crustacea. The forms of these cilia vary a little in separate genera; but in whatever shape they are found there is, I think, no doubt but that they are actively concerned in communicating vibrations, analogous to the waves of sound, to the nerye-system in this pair of antenna; and on this account it is that IT named them, in my Report on the Sessile-eyed Crustacea to this Asso- ciation in 1855, as being auditory cilia. In 1853 M. Leuckart (Troschel’s ‘ Archiv, i. p. 255) stated that the organ attributed to auditory consciousness was not to be found at the base of the antenne in the genus Wysis as in other Crustacea, but that a chamber containing an otolithe, similar to that found in the antenna of Macrura, existed in the inner ramus of the caudal pleopoda, which has been confirmed by Kréyer, Van Beneden, and, I can add, my own observations. Kroyer and Van Beneden have traced the branch of a nerve to the chamber, and have no doubt but that this organ fulfils the functions of an auditory apparatus. This small otolithe, according to Van Beneden’s description, shows an extreme regularity in the arrangement of the several layers of which it is formed, as if it were a little agate or highly polished siliceous stone. It is liable to vary somewhat in form in separate species. In 1863 Dr. V. Hensen published his researches on the auditory organs of Decapod Crustacea (Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Zool. xiii. Bd. 3 Hit. 18 363), His observations extended to twenty-eight distinct forms, and he confirmed the assertions of Farre and others that the ‘sand found in the auditory chamber of the Prawn &c. is but common sand, he having seen the animal introduce it after having moulted. But in those Crustacea in which the auditory chamber is closed and the otolithes are cast at every moult and again repro- duced, these organisms Professor Humby, after having tested some 200, thinks to be fluate of lime. Dr. Hensen, however, appears to attribute more of the power of hearing to the hairs of certain forms that exist, (1) attached to the otolithes; (2) attached to the auditory chamber ; (3) attached to the external surface of the animal. The first of these he finds to exist chiefly among the Macrurous Decapoda, im some cases springing from among the otolithes, in others supporting, as in the tail of Afyszs, the otolithe in its “position. The second kind of hair exists in the auditory chamber of the Brachyurous | : | = ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 41 Crustacea, which contains no otolithe, but is a large chamber filled with a fluid in which these hairs stand in great numbers. The third kind exists on the peduncle of the first antenna and on the second joint of the second antenna, and, in Palamon, on the uropoda; in " Mysis they exist in the same member ; so that the function of hearing must be considered as established in this part of the animal. In Palemon squilla the auditory hairs are replaced, as the animal increases in age, by those of the ordinary kind. Dr. Hensen classifies the several forms of auditory apparatus under separate heads :— 1. Those which have one otolithe within the auditory chamber Sergestes, Mysis, Hippolyte, and Mastigopus. 2. Those that have no otolithe and no auditory chamber—as T'hysanopoda and Pandalus. Dr. Hensen also mentions Alima, Erichthus, and Phyllosoma ; but these being the immature forms of known Crustacea must be excluded from his list. 8. Those that have a chamber with numerous otolithes—as Palemon, Pasiphaé, Crangon, Alpheus, Astacus, Gebia, Pagurus, Palinurus, Nephrops, and Lithodes. 4, Those that have a closed auditory chamber but no otolithe—as Por- cellana?, Hippa, Pinnotheres, Myctiris, Ocypoda, Grapsus, Lupea, Sesarma, Nautilograpsus, Platycarcinus, Pilumnus, Chlorodius, Gelasimus, Trapezia, Carcinus, and Hyas. From the experiments which he made, Dr. Hensen found that the animals living in water took no notice of sound made in the air, and that they were only slightly affected by sounds made with a fife or bell in contact with a membrane connecting the same with the water, the only effect being that the erab would first jump and then quit the place. He has observed freshly- caught specimens of Palemon antennarius on the first experiment leap out of the water when a sound was made against the side of the vessel. THe per- formed various other experiments on distinct species, among others that of removing the auditory apparatus from the tail of Mysis, and was disappointed to find the powers of hearing were not interfered with as much as he had anticipated. In experiments made with musical notes, he was induced to believe that certain hairs vibrated to certainsounds. Under these conditions, Dr. Hensen found that a certain hair, which only vibrated under one note, will, under a different one, shake to the very base so powerfully that it cannot be distinctly observed, and that as soon as the sound ceases the movement also ceases. To illustrate the extent to which Dr. Hensen believes this to be capable of being carried, he has drawn up ascale of musical notes adapted to the various hairs which he thinks belong to this sense. As we descend in the scale of Crustacean forms the antennex naturally become simplified ; but as they lose their internal structural character they increase their external functional arrangement. Thus in Amphipoda the auditory chamber and otolithes are wanting, but in all the aquatic normal forms the filaments are long, and richly studded with those membranous organisms that I have named auditory cilia. The second pair of antenne has a tendency to vary in form to a greater degrce than the first, but the functional variation is as limited. In the higher forms, such as the Brachyura, some of the joints of which they consist are fused together, and not unfrequently ossificd with the tegumentary tissues of the head or cephalon, in some instances to such an extent that their scparation cannot be identified. But whether free or fused as Lucifer, 42 REPORT—1877. with other parts, the normal character of this pair of antenne is that of a peduncle of five joints and a terminal flagellum, variable in length, and, with but few exceptions, consisting of a solitary branch. The centre or third joint of the peduncle in some orders, as the Macrura, invariably carries a squamose or scale-like plate; this varies in size and a little in form, but disappears in the higher and lower orders, and again reappears in the genus Apseudes among the Isopoda. This squamiform plate is, I believe, homotypical with the secondary branches of the flagellum of the first pair of antenne, therefore a correlative of the same. In the Brachyura the first three joints of the base or peduncle of this antenna are more or less perfectly fused with the dermal tissues of the cephalon. In some, as in most of the triangular genera, as Stenorhynchus, Pisa, &c., the line of separation between the somite and the appendage is indistinguishable in the adult. This is also more or less the case in several forms of Brachyura, and makes a ready and safe key to generic distinction. In all these forms the flagellum is reduced to a feeble condition, and becomes almost rudimentary in those of terrestrial habits. In the Macrura the genus Scyllarus and its near allies have the flagellum transformed into a broad plate or scale; but in Crustacea generally this appendage is multiarticulate, robust, and long. In some genera, as in Palinurus, it is used as a weapon of offence as well as for other requirements. In the Amphipoda this antenna is simple and normally well defined, the five joints of the peduncle and the flagellum being separate and distinct, and the whole appendage robust and long, the two parts (7. e. the flagellum and peduncle) being generally subequal. But in those genera that exhibit a variation, the higher class has the peduncle the more important, as in the Or- chestide, whereas in the male of Cerapus, as compared with the female of the same and the Hyperide in general, itis less so. Almost universally the flagellum is delicately multiarticulate, varying from a small number of articuli, as in Oorophiwm, to an innumerable quantity, as in some species of Bathyporeia. In the genus Clydonia the flagellum consists of a long, rigid, non-articulate spine. Among the Hyperide the antenna is considerably impoverished, and in many genera it is rudimentary, while in Phrosina it appears to be absent. In the parasitic Amphipods, such as Cyamus, as compared with the pre- ceding antenna, the second is well developed and important, but not so much so as in the organs of the normal Amphipods. In the Isopods this appendage is seldom very important, being largest in the terrestrial forms, as Ligia, Oniscus, &c., and in some aberrant genera, like Arcturus &e. By most carcinologists this pair of antenn is considered to be the seat of an organ of sense. It has been worked out and displayed by M. Milne- Edwards, in his ‘Histoire Naturelle des Crustacés,’ vol. i. p. 124, pl. 12. figs. 9, 10, both in Homarus and Maia. He argues that the structure demonstrates the auditory character of this organ, as we have shown in investigating the evidence relative to the functional properties of the pre- ceding pair of antennes. As Milne-Edwards, in his ‘ Histoire Naturelle des Crustacés,’ vol. i. p. 124, 1840, suite 4 Buffon, bases his opinion on the character of the structure of the organ at the base of the second pair of antenne, it is but just that his reasons should be communicated as literaily as translation will conveniently admit. He says :— In Maia and other short-tailed Crustacea there is a very curious operculum. M. Audouin and I have observed that it is con- nected with a moderately large~ osseous plate, which separates from it at i ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 43 right angles, and is directed upwards towards the organ, and ends in a point ; near its base this long plate is pierced by a great oval aperture, and over this opening is stretched a thin elastic membrane, which we call the internal auditory membrane, and near which the auditory nerve appears to terminate; some small bundles of muscles are attached to the extremity of the osseous plate, which supports also the opercular disk of the auditory tubercle, and which by its form recalls somewhat the stirrup (bone) of the human ear; moreover on the anterior border of the exterior opening, which is shut by the disk, there raises also a small plate, which is parallel to the internal auditory membrane; and when the anterior muscle of the little operculum is contracted so as to turn slightly this little apparatus forwards, the delicate membrane to which we allude becomes more and more stretched. After the researches of M. Savart on the transmission of sound, we know that an aperture closed by a thin and delicate membrane is one of the circum- stances most favourable for increasing the power of an acoustic organ. .... It therefore may be assumed that this kind of tambourine that we have described as covering the external ear of the Crayfish serves to communicate to the auditory nerve the sensations that are transmitted to it, and affect them in the same manner as if the nerve was in direct communication with the external membrane. The mechanism by means of which the auditive membrane is alternately extended and relaxed is analogous to that which is produced in the human ear by that osseous chain which traverses the tympanum, and its effects should be the same. It must serve to augment or diminish the extent of the undulations on the vibrating membrane, and to moderate the intensity of the sounds which strike the ear. “The existence of the long rigid lash belonging to the second pair of antenne, which is in connexion with the auditory organ, appears to be another circumstance of a character that must facilitate the perception of sound. This opinion has already been enunciated by M. Strauss, and appears to agree well with the results of M. Savart.” In most of the Brachyura the entrance to the organ in this pair of antenne is covered and protected by a movable operculum, and again covered by the several appendages of the mouth, a situation of much value in enabling the animal to appreciate the character of food it is about to consume, but one that cannot be available for an acoustic organ, seeing that sound could not reach it unless interfered with to an important degree. I therefore fully indorse the opinion, which I think all recent observations demonstrate as true, that the second pair of antenne is the seat of the olfactory nerves, while the first contains the auditory apparatus. These antenne are frequently developed with great power; and in the genera Corophiwm and Podocerus ' they are frequently used for climbing, and not improbably for clasping foe and friend. The fourth pair of appendages is represented by the mandibles (the protognathe of M. Milne-Edwards’s nomenclature of 1854, ‘Annales des Sciences Naturelles’). The correlation that this pair of limbs undergoes is not very extreme. We see them in the simplest form most probably in Nebalia, where they differ little from a truncated pair of appendages, the molar or masticating surface being represented by a pair of opposing tubercles attached to the first joint. In the Brachyura the tubercle is increased to a maximum, while the rest of the appendage is reduced to a minimum. ‘This exists to a greater or less degree throughout the several orders of Malacostraca, varying in shape and altering in form, but universally present with the same functional powers, 44, REPORT—1877. In Anceus the functional property is evidently lost, for the male animal ccases in the adult stage to live on substances that require mastication. In this stage it is doubtful if the animal imbibes nourishment even in the form of fluids; yet the organ retains the general form of a mandible, but is planted, both in position and arrangement, as if it were an antenna. In the female, Anceus (Praniza) retains the general form of structure of the young animal, when it lived a parasite on fish ; the mandibles are therefore delicate and slender needle-like styles, arranged with the succeeding ap- pendages so as to act together in consort with power as a proboscis or organ of penetration. In the genus Cyamus the mandibles appear to be reduced to a minimum, both in physical and functional qualification, and so also in several genera of the Hyperide. The appendages of the fifth pair, the deutognathe of Milne-Edwards’s latest nomenclature, are those that are called imdédchoires by Milne-Edwards in his ‘ Hist. Nat. des Crust.,’ foot-jaws by many authors, maville in my “ Report on the British Edriophthalma,” and for which Professor Westwood has suggested ‘ siagnopoda,” as the Greek equivalent for this and the suceceding pair of appendages which belong to the mouth. Neither this nor the sixth pair, the tritognathe of Milne-Edwards, appears to undergo any change of form with arelative change of function that can be accepted within the meaning of the term correlation. They vary little in character from the larva to the adult Brachyura, and from the Kdriophthalma to the Podophthalma. Their functional power is invariably connected with manducation, in which they assist in conveying food to the mouth; and from the delicacy of their structure compared with other appendages, it is probable that they may have gustatory capabilities ; but of this as yet we have but small independent or structural evidence. The seventh pair of appendages is the last that belongs to the cephalon or head. They are generally absent in the larva of the Brachyurous forms that pass through the zoéa stage, and only appear when the animal is approxi- mating the adult condition. From the time that these appendages first appear to that of the permanent form of the adult animal there is little variation in form, but between their external shape in the various orders of Crustacea there is a considerable degree of variation. In the Decapoda the tetartognathe of Milne-Edwards takes an interme- diate character between the maxille and gnathopoda, and its functional pro- perties probably assume the character of the former rather than the latter. In the Edriophthalma and some Schizopoda they are modified on the type of gnathopoda in the Macrura, and they fulfil the functions of the posterior pair as they exist in the Decapoda; that is, they act as an operculum, and efficiently protect the mouth and its more delicate appendages. The eighth pair of appendages undergoes a very considerable amount of correlation in Crustacean life. In the higher forms they are functionally employed as aiding in mastication. Passing through the Macrura they assimi- late a pediform character of an imperfect type, while in Squilla and the Amphipods they are developed into a well-formed grasping-organ. Among the Isopoda they are formed as true walking appendages, and differ little from the succeeding pairs except in being somewhat more robust. Among the Phyl- lopoda they assimilate to the larval character, and possibly disappear in some of the lower types. The correlation is equally great in the ninth pair of appendages, which, as a gencral rule, is formed on the same type as the preceding pair. There are ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 45 many instances of variation in form, not only between these two pairs, but between the appendages of the same pair. Thisvariation is generally estimated as of sufficient importance for generic classification ; but whatever variation may exist, it is one of degree only, and not inconsistent with the same functional characters. These are so universally connected with either seizing or directing food to the mouth, that I do not think that a better term can be suggested than gnathopoda for the eighth and ninth pairs of appendages, which are the first two that belong to the pereion. The five following pairs of appendages (that is, the true pereiopoda or perambulatory legs) correlate between organs adapted for walking, grasping, and swimming. When adapted for walking, we consider them in their normal condition; they consist then of seven simple subcylindrical joints, of which the last is formed into a simple pointed extremity. When intended for grasping or holding any object, the anterior distal angle of either joint of the leg may be produced to a corresponding process against which the extremity of the ultimate joint impinges, and so forms a prehensile organ that represents a two-fingered hand. The power of producing a chelate process appears to exist in the various joints of all the five pairs of pereiopoda. This, I think, is strongly exemplified in the presence of chela, more or less perfect, in the young of many Crustacea, which disappear in the adult stage. Thus in the freshwater Astacus, while in the embryonic condition rudimentary chelz are apparent in each pair of appendages, they are found fully developed only on the three anterior pairsoftheadult. Again, we frequently see, both in this genus as well as in Cancer, that supplementary chele are developed at various parts of these appendages, not only when they are not wanted, but often when they are absolutely detrimental to the animal’s requirements. In some forms we find the chela is prominently developed in the larval or young stage, while it entirely disappears in the adult. Evidence of this exists in some genera of the Hyperine Amphipoda, such as Vibilia and Brachyscelus. In the adult Vibilia the leg is long, slender, and simple, not very unlike that of the same appendage in the normal character of Amphipoda; in Brachyscelus it has the basis developed to a large scale, and the remaining five joints are reduced to little more than a rudimentary limb. In these very dissimilar genera the penultimate pairs of pereiopoda are in the larval condition developed into chelate appendages ; in the former genus by a process attached to the carpus, in the latter by a similar process attached to the propodos. These animals probably resemble Hyperia in their habits, and pass most of their lives within the cavity of some Medusa-like creature, where prehensile appendages are of little use, and consequently the force of chelate production is not stimulated. It is an interesting problem, and pro- bably true, that the not very remote ancestor of either or both these genera is to be found in a form not very distant from one like Phronima, where the chelate organ is large and well developed in the antepenultimate pair of pereio- poda of the adult animal. In some genera, as Gelasimus, the difference in extent of development is very great between the right chela and the left, and between those of the males and females. When, in the latter case, the part varies from the type, the variation generally exists in the male animal, the chele of the female, and less altered appendage in the male, corresponding generally with the normal form. In Gelasimus the variation in the male is so great that the chief characteristic limb, which may be either of the first pair of pereio- 46 REPORT—1877. poda, loses much of its original functional power. It may hold any object, but it cannot reach its mouth with it; consequently we may assume, finding it only in the male, that it is used chiefly as a weapon of offence and defence. In the common Lobster (Homarus marinus) we find the same to a certain extent, but not to such an exaggerated degree; nor is it confined to the male, only that the large chela is developed to so great an extent that it cannot reach the mouth. In this case we have learned, from observation, that the animal feeds itself with some of the posterior chelate appendages, while it uses the first pair only for holding the food. It is not often that any of the posterior pairs of pereiopoda are developed into important chele, but even this is the case in some genera. The most pos- terior pair in which we are aware of a largely developed chelate organ exists in Stenopus among the Macrura, and Phronima and Phrosina among the Amphi- poda. In some genera, particularly among the Anomura, the two last pairs of pereiopoda are developed into small chelate organs. In Dorype they are adapted for grasping any piece of wood, shell, or foreign body that the animal may hold on its back sufficiently important to find protection under. In the genus Homola the posterior only is so developed, the penultimate resembling those anterior to it. Im Pagurus and Cenobitus they are developed into very smal] chelate organs, and are used for very different purposes. One of the most important is to supply the place of a flabellum that is wanting in the branchial chamber of this family. With this purpose the animal passes it into the gill-cavity, and there cleanses and wipes the branchial organs with the brush of hairs that is attached to it, or removes particles of dirt or objects of detriment by means of the pincers. Moreover, it has the power of feeding itself with these same organs under peculiar circumstances, as related by Mr. Darwin in his ‘ Naturalist’s Voyage.’ He tells us that some of these animals, as Birgus, live chiefly on the land, that they frequently live on the cocoanuts which fall from the trees, and that they first pull off all the husk or rind from the outside, invariably selecting the end where the eyelets are. These being exposed, they, with their heavy claw, tap one repeatedly until they break it im; then, inserting one of the posterior pairs of pereiopoda into the hole, they draw up the juice of the cocoanut with the brush on the leg, and feed on the milk—as singular and unusual an adaptation of means to an end as is perhaps to be found in the history of animal instinct, being one that is highly suggestive of educational knowledge. Where the peretopoda are developed for natatory purposes, they are gene- rally of a more feeble and less perfect type. In the Schizopoda they have the character of weakened or impoverished appendages. The secondary parts increase in importance, while the primary become depreciated. The branchial organs lose much of their internal character as well as their high structural features, while the hairs on the appendages and general surface are increased both in number and size. In fact the rigidity of the leg is lost, and the flexile nature of a fin is acquired. This would appear as if atavism, or a retrograde character, were apparent in the development of the pereciopoda in the Schizopod group. In Nebalia and the Phyllopoda the general characteristics of the pereiopoda partake more of a larval or embryonic form, bearing, as they do, a near re- semblance in character and general appearance to the oral appendages in the zoca of Crustacea than to any retrograde or impoverished condition. Z ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 47 The pleopoda are very liable to undergo a considerable amount of cor- relation. In the Brachyura the anterior are adapted for intromittent organs, and carry the penis within their folds, In the females of Brachyura and Macrura they are formed for carrying and suspending the ova in the water, and for swimming purposes in both males and females in the latter order. In the Stomapoda, while they are used for swimming purposes, in some genera, as Squilla, they support branchial organs also. Tn the Amphipoda they are adapted for swimming only. In the Isopoda they are constructed as foliaceous plates, and often enclosed ina chamber and adapted for respiration, though they are constantly used as natatory appendages also as a secondary condition. This generally refers to the fiye anterior pairs of appendages. The sixth pair universally in Macrura and Isopoda, the fourth, fifth, and sixth in Amphipoda, are yvariated into leaping or pushing appendages, by which they are enabled to spring forwards or backwards to a very consider- able extent, as Macrura in the water, and Yalitrus and Orchestia on the land, ; The last pair of appendages is seldom present; in one or two genera among the Schizopods they exist in a rudimentary state, but in so feeble a condition that they can only be considered as present in an anatomical sense, as for all functional purposes they are practically useless. 3 On Exuviation. One of the most curious and interesting phenomena connected with the dermal skeleton is the power of its being cast or shed as a whole. This is exhibited in the Crustacea more perfectly than in any other group of animals. The exuviation is not confined to the external or dermal tissue only, but extends to all that which in the higher groups of animals is known as the mucous membrane, or internal continuation of the true skin. — Tn all Crustacea, from the smaller Entomostracous forms to the large Podophthalmous animals, every hair and spine upon the external surface, as well as every cilium and minute organ that may exist on the walls of the various internal cavities, is detached and shed in continuous connexion with each other. How this could be accomplished was for a long time a mystery. Accord- ing to Mr. Couch, Olaus Wormeus, in the early part of the seventeenth cen- tury, speaks of it as a thing not to be doubted. The first to observe, with experimental accuracy, the process, was M. Réaumur; as long ago as 1712 and 1718 he published, in the ‘ Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences,’ pp. 226 and 263, his “‘ Observations sur la mue des Ecrevisses.” He kept specimens of Astacus fluviatilis, or river Crayfish, in cases that he had perforated with holes, and placed in the river stream. He found, in the latter part of the summer or the commencement of the autumn, that these Crustacea change the skin. He observed that for some days previous to the commencement of this operation the animal abstains from solid food, from which circumstance he was able to anticipate the period of the opera- tion, for he was able by the pressure of his finger on the carapace or surface 48 REPORT—1877. of the dorsal somites to observe that the dermal tissue yielded to the touch and was less resistant than at other times. Soon after the animal appears to be restless, and commences to rub its legs one against the other. It then turns itself over on the back, and agitates the whole of the body; then all of a sudden it bursts the membrane that unites the carapace with the body, and raises the great dorsal carapace. The animal now rests for a while; then it recommences by agitating its legs, and moving every part of the body. The carapace is then gradually elevated along the base of the legs, and in less than half an hour the animal is disembarrassed of its old integument. It draws back it head, disengages both its eyes and antennz, then draws out its legs from the case formed of the old integument. This latter part of the operation appears to be performed with a great deal of pain, and sometimes in the struggle to liberate the legs from the old skin one or more are broken off. This is probably induced from some incident precluding the external case from being ruptured; for if the old skin does not split in a longitudinal direction, it is difficult to understand how the legs can be withdrawn from the old case. But as soon as the crayfish has over- come this painful portion of the moulting, it rapidly disembarrasses itself from the rest of the envelope. It withdraws its head from the carapace, presses forward, and quickly liberates itself from the posterior part, and soon frees itself entirely from the old skin. The carapace then falls back into its old relative position, and joins itself to the pereion and pleon : thus the old skeleton appears in general form exactly as it did before it was stripped from the animal; consequently it bears a perfect resemblance to that of a crayfish of the same character. The new skin which succeeds the moulting is soft and membranous; but in three or four days, or even in twenty-four hours, it becomes encrusted with calcareous matter, and becomes as hard as the old integument. Milne-Edwards says that all the higher orders of Crustacea change their skin in nearly the same manner, If, he says, we examine a species of Maia some time before it has commenced moulting, we shall find between the test and the chorion a membranous mass that resembles the cellular tissue, im- perfectly condensed at first, but becoming more and more solid and thick as it approaches the period of moulting. «This new membrane is evidently,” says Milne-Edwards, “ secreted by the chorion, and moulds itself upon the test that covers it.” We find attached to it ucarly every hair that should be present at a later period; but these appendages are not enclosed within the hairs that are attached to the ancient moult, as Réaumur believed he observed them in the crayfish. Generally they project upon the surface of the new skin, and are folded like the finger of a glove which is inflected within itself. Collinson, in the ‘ Phil. Trans.’ 1776, art. 51, published some observations on Cancer major, probably the common edible crab. The account which he gives of the manner in which the animal escapes from the old shell varics from Réaumur’s description of the process in the crayfish. Instead of the carapace being raised as a whole and thrown off perfect, it divides along the lateral sutures that extend from the anterior portion of the mouth to the posterior margin of the carapace. This, according to Milne- Edwards, separates the lateral pieces (or epimera) from the dorsal piece, or somite proper; but, according to Dana and myself, the line of division sepa- rates the second antennal and mandibular somites. EE ee ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 49 Milne-Edwards contends that this splitting of the carapace in the Brachyura is a necessity demanded by the formation of the animal; and he says that in those Brachyura where this suture does not exist he is inclined to believe that exuviation takes place as described by Réaumur in the crayfish. Ono argument against this idea is that this suture exists in every one of the Bra- chyurous forms of Crustacea. The new tegumentary structure continues in a soft condition, according to Collinson, for a longer period than described by Réaumur in the Crayfish ; and the period of moulting for these animals is considered a period of sickness. They generally during this state hide themselves in sheltered places where they may be best protected from the animals to which they are most liable to become a prey. Some hide themselves beneath stones, others burrow into the mud. At this period some exotic land-crabs are most preferred for their edible properties ; but the marine forms are valueless for food. In the ‘ Annals of Nat. Hist.’ vol. vii. p. 298, 1851, the author of this Report gave an account of the manner in which he had observed exuyiation take place in the common Shore-Crab (Carcinus menas). The manner in which it appears to free itself from the skin depends upon the internal growth of the animal. From the period of quitting the ovum to that of old age the skin is thrown off at certain periods. When very young it is accomplished every few days; as the animal grows larger, weeks and then months intervene, until the animal arrives at an adult condition, when it is cast but once a year; and when it has become old, and ceases to increase in size, it is probable that the shell is cast off less frequently, if we are to judge from the state in which specimens have been taken on which oysters of two or three years’ growth have been found attached to the animal. In old age the absence of the internal growth appears to be wanting as a stimulus for the reproduction of the new skin. The increased bulk of the growing animal becomes compressed aia limits too small. The old carapace is therefore raised out of its position by the mechanical pressure of the internal structure ; and one of the first signs of the approaching change in the animal’s economy is an increased thickness of the animal. As the period of exuyiation approaches the crab wanders about in search of a retired spot, and frequently exhibits a savage disposition, darting at any thing that approaches it. When it finds a suitable position, it inserts the point of one or more of its legs into some crack or crevice, and withdraws itself from the old skin by raising the carapace, and escaping between it and the pleon, in the manner described by Réaumur and Collinson. The carapace of the new structure is at first in a very wrinkled and erumpled condition; but it almost immediately expands to its full size, thus becoming much larger than its old proportions, and continues without further increase in dimensions until its next period of exuviation. The animal has the power for a certain period of retaining its shell at will until suitable circumstances both as to time and place occur for the casting of its shell with security. It appears also to be very shy. In several instances I have seenanimals before and after the process has commenced, having patiently watched for hours at a time without success to see the actual process proceed ; upon returning, after a few minutes’ absence, I have found the old skins cast off, and the animal at rest by the side of it. This would indicate that it is done rapidly, if not with ease, 877. E 50 REPORT—1877. Réaumur described exuviation in the Crayfish (Astacus fluviatilis) as being _ one of great labour and difficulty, as well as being of long duration. In all the cases that the Reporter has observed inthe common Shore-Crab (Carcinus menas), and they have been numerous, the process has been easily and quietly performed in a short time, when conditions have been favour- able, and without a struggle. One condition is the capability of securing the feet in some crevice or notch; another is retirement. Unless it has the former, the duration of the period is considerably prolonged ; it seems to be almost impracticable, since without it there would be no point of resistance against which the animal can act in its efforts to with- draw itself from the old structure. Neither of these conditions was pro- bably present in Réaumur’s experiment; hence the animal had the appear- ance of undergoing prolonged labour and struggling. One specimen of the Common Crab the Reporter frequently took into his hands, and with a pair of scissors cut away the old carapace as it was loosened and raised from the surface of the new shell. After the whole of the integuments had been removed from the animal, it hung attached to the eyestalks reversed; here it continued for a considerable time, nor had the animal power to free itself from it without assistance—a circumstance that induced the Reporter to conclude that the anterior portion can only be re- moyed by the assistance of the legs, which failed in this instance because the carapace being cut away, the legs had no object against which to press. The carapace, therefore, is rejected naturally in an inverse direction, and only returns to its old position by the elasticity of the membranous ligaments that have not been ruptured. This has been interestingly exemplified by a series of Trilobites that have been found in the locality of Newton Abbot, many of which were observed with the heads reversed lying close to the bodies of the animals. There is no doubt, I think, but that all the specimens so found were the exuviations of animals then living rather than the representatives of defunct ones. When they have thrown off the old skeleton, the Crustaceous animals are very liable to become the prey of others, both of their own and other forms. Of this they appear to be aware, and are consequently more afraid of an ap- proaching object, and through fear are much more active and less easily caught than at any other period. It is at this time also (that is, immediately after shedding the skin) that the female is in a state adapted for the approaches of the male. For some days previously the male may be seen running about and hiding itself under stones and in crevices of the rocks, holding the female clasped by one or more of its legs, the carapace of the female being pressed against the sternum of the male. In this position they continue until the female throws off the old calcareous shell, when the female is reverse in its position relative to the male, and connexion between the two immediately ensues, and continues for a day or two, perhaps until the shell of the female attains its hard calea- reous character. It would therefore seem to be tolerably certain that the period of the exuviation in the male must be at a separate period of the year from that of the female. Mr. Gosse, in the ‘Annals of Natural History,’ 2nd series, 1852, vol. x. p. 210, gave an account of his observations of a crab (Maia squinade) during the period of moulting, in which he appears to confirm all that has been previously described as to the manner in which the Brachyura and Ma- crura get rid of the old integuments. ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 51 As to the lower forms, such as the Edriophthalma, it was long assumed, on the authority of Professor Bell, who relied on the assertion of the late Mr. J. Couch, that the animals of this order never shed their skin at all, but con- tinue adding to and increasing it until they arrive at the adult stage. Those who have observed these animals, and seen how the old skin, in a not very long period of time, is liable to become incrusted and overgrown with foreign material, must rejoice to know that, like their higher neighbours, these animals can at certain periods of their existence eject their old skin, and swim about in a new one, fresh and clean. This fact may easily be demonstrated by any who may like to retain a few specimens in a glass tank, when the exuvie will be seen soon to strew the bottom as dead animals, but which, on close examination, will be found to be the remains of the cast-off skins, I have kept these creatures long in small vessels, and watched them closely for years, and have seen them shed their exuyiz not unfrequently. The manner of so doing appears to be upon the same plan as that of the higher forms, such variation as takes place being consistent only with the yariated conditions and forms of the animals. The animal, having no cara- pace, escapes from the old skin by a separation immediately behind the cephalon, between it and the pereion; the pereion splits along the lateral walls just above the coxal plates of the legs. This separation corresponds with the lateral opening between the carapace and the legs in the higher orders, where, there being no dorsal arcs to the somites of the pereion, the legs appear to separate from the carapace or cephalon rather than from the pereion, of which they form an attached portion. The little animal clings to a fragment of weed or stone, and resting there for a time, gradually liberates itself through the opening that I have de- scribed, first by removing the whole of the body posterior to the cephalon, then, after resting some short time, withdrawing the head and its appendages from the anterior portion. In the terrestrial forms, chiefly represented by the Ligia and Oniscus, a variation in the exuviation appears to depend upon the nature of the habitat; thus, living in the air and creeping about among bushes, the worn- out old epidermal tissue appears generally to be shed in portions, a circum- stance that I attribute to the animal’s surface coming into contact with rough projecting bodies, so ripping off portions before the whole is ready to be cast off. In these creatures the new skin appears to have arrived at a firmer and more resisting state before being shed than in the aquatic forms, When the Crustacea cast their old integument, and appear as renewed animals, they exhibit afresh and uninjured all the appendages that kaye been broken off or wounded. On Renewal of Appendages. Tt has long been known that these animals, after losing any of their ap- pendages, have the power of reproducing them. But the manner in which this is done has been known only through the results of modern observations. The late Mr. H. Goodsir, in the ‘ Annals of Nat. Hist,’ 1844, vol. xiii. p. 67, writes, ‘‘ That he has found that a small glandular-like body exists at the basal extremity of the first phalanx in each of the limbs, which supplies the germ of the future legs. This body completely fills up the cavity of the shell for the extent of about half an inch in length. The microscopic struc- R2 52 REPORT—1877. ture of this glandular-like body is very peculiar, consisting of a great number of large nucleated cells, which are interspersed throughout a fibro-gelatinous mass, A single branch of each of the great vessels, accompanied by a branch of nerve, runs through a small foramen near the centre of this body, but there is no vestige of either muscle or tendon, the attachments of which are at each extremity. In fact this body is perfectly defined, and can be turned out of the shell without being much injured. When the limb is thrown off, the blood-vessels and nerve retract, thus leaving a small cavity in the new-made surface. It is from this cavity that the germ of the future leg springs, and is at first seen as a nucleated cell. A cicatrix forms over the raw surface caused by the separation, which after- wards forms a sheath for the young leg.” When a part receives a hurt beyond repair, or sometimes for a less cause, such as a passing fright received by the animal or from the dread of capture by an enemy, a crab or lobster will throw off the injured limb. This ‘appears to be known to them, for it not unfre- quently forms a plan of attack on one another. I have known the common Velvet-Crab (Carcinus puber) attack for some purpose the common Shore-Crab (Carcinus menas), and, with a pinch from its nippers, induce the weaker animal to eject all its legs in rotation, and leave it a helpless mass, at the merey of any passing terror. But when a limb receives a less intended injury, it appears to be removed by a violent muscular contraction, termi- nating with a blow given by another limb or against some foreign body. The amputation is the work of a few seconds, except when the exuvia has been recently cast; then for the few succeeding days before the external shell is hardened it has not that easy capability, and the wounded limb will sometimes remain attached to the animal for half an hour or longer before it is rejected. (Ann. Nat. Hist. 1851, vol. vii. p. 300, ‘Notes on Crustacea.’’) The newly-formed limb is developed within the old shell, and lies folded within its case until the animal moults, when it appears as part of the newly perfected animal, the sac-like membrane in which it was folded being cast with the rest of the exuvie. The new limb is larger or smaller in accord- ance with the duration of time which elapsed between the period that the limb was amputated and that at which the skin is shed. The form and con- dition in which the limb then is in remain to all appearance stationary until the next time of moulting, when the whole creature again advances in size, but the new or small limb more in proportion than the rest of the animal, until it equals it in relative proportion. The size of the restored appendage is therefore dependent upon the length of time which occurs between the accident and the next succeeding moult— that is, the length of time from the commencement of repair to that when the limb is freed from the saccular membrane. The legs during development generally lie folded upon themselves ; but the long flagelliform appendage of the antennz is adapted to a spiral case until the period of the general moult arrives, when it is withdrawn, and assumes a straight line, the old skin retaining its spiral form (“ Report of Committee appointed to explore the Marine Fauna of the South Coast of Deyon: No. 2,” Brit. Assoc. Report, 1867, p. 283, pl. iii. fig. 4). It may readily be supposed, after having seen the animal withdraw from the old shell, that we arrive at a full knowledge of how the act is performed. It may appear comparatively an easy natural process to withdraw the soft and yielding body from the hard and rigid case; and this may be so when ON OUK PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 53 the appendages are not very much larger at the extremity than they are at the points of articulation. The late Mr. Couch, who, at his place of residence, had valuable oppor- tunities for studying marine animals under various conditions, gave much attention to this subject. In the Report of the Royal Polytechnic Society for Cornwall for the year 1843 is a communication on the process of exuviation in Crabs and Lobsters, by J. Couch, Esq., and again, in the Journal of the same Society, is a paper giving an account of “A particular Description of some circumstances hitherto little known connected with the process of Exuviation in the common Edible Crab,” by Jonathan Couch, Esq., F.L.S. &e. (1852). This last memoir chiefly refers to the manner in which the animal withdraws the large claws from the old shell. Bell says, in his Introduction to his ‘History of the British Stalk-eyed Crustacea, p. xxxv, that ‘It is impossible to imagine that the crust of the legs, especially of the great claws of the larger species, could be cast off unless it were susceptible of being longitudi- nally split; and Réaumur states that such is actually the case, each of the segments being composed of two longitudinal pieces, which, after separating, to allow of the passage of the soft limb, close again so accurately that it is very difficult in the last crust to discover the line of division. When the animal has disembarrassed itself of the crust, the latter is found absolutely entire, and has exactly the form which it possessed previous to the opera- tion.” In the ‘ Annals of Nat. Hist.’ 2nd ser. vol. x. p. 210, Mr. Gosse, in his ac- count of the exuviation in Maia squinado, states that the animals withdrew the legs, first one and then another, until they were quite out, as if from boots. The joints as they came out were a great deal larger than the eases from which they proceeded. It was evident that in this instance neither were the shells split to afford a lateral passage for the limbs, nor were the limbs reduced to tenuity by emaciation. It is this point which the late Mr. Jonathan Couch took up in his last memoir alluded to. He writes :—‘ That in my former studies of this process I had myself overlooked or misapprehended the mode by which the claw- legs were withdrawn from the loosened crust, is in the first place to be ascribed to the fact that my attention was chiefly occupied with what was going on in the body and its immediate organs, the eyes, antenne, and inward frame ; and in the next place to the circumstance that the portions of the legs which alone answer to Réaumur’s description in any degree are by their situation hidden below the under portion of the carapace, to which they are pressed close by the principal joints of the legs themselves, so that they could not have been attended to without a greater degree of violence than I judged myself warranted in using with due regard to the other observations I was desirous of carrying out. “It was evident, from an inspection of the proceeding in this specimen,”— a female (technically a bon crab) of the stage of growth only one degree short of the full size,—“ that Mr. Gosse’s statement relative to the withdrawal of the smaller legs is correct, and therefore the language quoted from Réaumur will not correctly express what takes place in the Common Crab; nor, I be- lieve, for reasons presently to be assigned, even in the species on which his observations were made—the River Crayfish. The bony covering, where this remarkable process takes place, is not simply divided by splitting, but by a far more complicated action, which yet is beautifully expressive of the 5h REPORT—1 877. simple means to which creative wisdom has had recourse when a natural proceeding was to be regulated. But the most remarkable part of the pro- cess, and that which particularly leads me to present this communication to the Society, is what I found to take place in the larger or claw-legs. ‘‘ In these the flesh of the two outer sections is much shrunk ; but the por- tion occupied by the third, or innermost, is, on the contrary, very much dis- tended. This is especially seen on the inner concave surface of this portion of the limb, where, if we examine the part under ordinary circumstances, we find three lines, which meet at an angle, their diverging extremities being bounded by a curved border that is directed at its termination towards the body of the animal. As a preparation for exuviation, in the same manner as the well-marked line in front of the carapace or shell between its margin and the mouth becomes loosened by absorption, so this curved line on the claw-leg has become separated along its course, while the other lines (those which are straight and meet at an angle) are only so much changed from a firm crust as still to remain connected together by a membrane, and thus assume the nature and offices of movable joints or hinges. The hitherto firm structure of this part of the claw-leg being thus turned into a movable cover, which admits of being lifted at the curved circumference, the swollen por- tion of the lim) is protruded through the opening; and, by the tension thus produced below, the wasted extremity is drawn downward, the greatest ac- commodation of space being thus afforded with the least expenditure of effort or displacement. “In the specimen examined I found that a portion of the muscular sub- stance of the limb had become so much distended as to be thrust out of its sheath, and partly wrapped round the outside’of. the loosened crust. “But while this may be supposed to be of great mechanical use in drawing downward the remaining wasted portion of the limb occupying the more dis- tant segments, it offers but a slight hindrance to the final passing of the whole through the final ring or coxa, where the leg is united to the body. For this last remaining space is narrow ; and the distention being chiefly pro- duced by a liquid diffused through the fleshy fibres, it offers but little positive obstruction to the passage. A dragging action, therefore, accompanied pro- bably by a muscular contracting power, is all that is required to enable it to slip through ; at the same time that a portion of the distending fluid, if not the whole, is so much thrust backward as still to occupy the opening, and thus contribute to bring down each successive part in turn. “The extremity of the claw-leg, then, being not only smaller naturally, but more wasted in this process than the rest, finds no hindrance to its escape ; and thus the imprisoned limb is set at liberty. It is a fact beyond doubt, as appears by examination of many specimens, that no splitting process takes place in the slender or walking legs. “Tt is a matter of some interest to ascertain whether and to what extent this remarkable process takes place in others of the great family of Crusta- ceous animals; and Ihave exercised no small extent of effort in following the examination in species of both the sections, the long-bodied or lobster kind, and the short-tailed or crabs.” Mr. Couch’s results were not attended with any great success in point of number of species. “ Nothing of this kind appears,” he says, “in the Norwich Crab (Maia squinado), Corystes cassivellaunus, the common Crayfish (Palinurus vulgaris), or various species of shrimps. We may therefore conclude that all the limbs in those instances are withdrawn from their covering in the same manner as ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 55 the smaller legs of the edible crab. The River Crayfish (Astacus fluviatilis), the particular subject of the French naturalist’s researches, as well as the common lobster, haye such lines marked on the inner segment of their claw-legs as leaye no doubt in my mind that an opening takes place in them when the process of exuviation proceeds, although not such a mechanical splitting as Réaumur describes ; and it does not take place in any shape in the smaller, or walking legs. «The same may be said of the common Harbour-Crab (Carcinus menas), Xantho florida, the Velvet-crab (Carcinus puber and pusillus), and Atele- cyclus heterodon, all of which I have examined.” It would be interesting to know how in the male of the genus Gelassimus, the enormously large distal joints of the prehensile claw can be drawn through the small opening of the coxa. Iam much inclined to believe that the splitting of the walls at the point alluded to by Mr. Couch may be more for the purpose of enabling the animal to withdraw the great osseous tendon, which at this joint must be extremely in the way of the passage of the rest of the limb during the withdrawal from the old case. In a very large number of exuvie that I have examined I have never seen the splitting process as described by M. Réaumur. Whatever may be the period, whether it be during the larva state or that of the adult animal, the process of development under which the new shell is produced must be similar. M. Milne-Edwards, in the introduction to his ‘ Histoire des Crustacés,’ p. 55, says that it is evidently secreted by the chorion, and moulds itself upon the integument that covers it. In the ‘ Annals of Nat. Hist.’ 1851, vol. vii. p. 298, are published some ob- servations on the development of the shell of crabs, with illustrations. I state that I found immediately above the heart a mass consisting of nucleated cells, areolar tissue (and blood-vessels?), extending to the internal surface of the old shell, from which it is separated by a layer of pigment, which gives colour to the new formation. Towards the base (that is, immediately above the heart) the cells are uniformly large and distinct, while the areolar tissue ramifies throughout the whole. As advance is made from the base, cells of a less size mix with them, which increase in number as they diminish in dia- meter, until they approach the layer of pigment, immediately beneath which they adapt themselves, by mutual pressure, into a polygonal form. The layer extends over the whole periphery of the crab, immediately beneath the shell, the thickness of the mass decreases with the distance from the centre, and the larger cells become fewer in number, the mass being chiefly made up of the smaller cells, which become lime-absorbing organs for the future shell, which process commences previously to, and is completed after, the removal of the exuvie. 56 REPORT—1877. Third Report of the Committee for investigating the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the New Red Sandstone and Permian Forma- tions of Lingland, and the quantity and character of the Water supplied to various towns and districts from these formations, in- cluding Report on the South-Lancashire Wells, by 'T. M. Reap. The Committee consisting of Prof. EK. Hutz, Rev. H. W. Crosskey, C. E. De Rancz, Captain D. Gatton, Prof. A. H. Grenn, Prof. R. Harkness, H. H. Howntrt, W. Motynevux, G. H. Morton, T. Metuarp Reape, Prof. Prestwicu, and W, Wuttakenr. Drawn up by C. EB. De Rance (Secretary). [Puate II.] Wuen the Report of your Committee, presented at Glasgow, was written, it was believed that sufficient information would have been collected this year to enable them to draw up a final Report on the subject of the inquiry with which you entrusted them. Your Committee, in the prosecution of their duties, have largely distri- buted the circular form of inquiry; but they feel, though a large amount of valuable information has been obtained through this source, it for the most part only gives to the general public information as to local areas already in the hands of the inhabitants of those districts, and that to collect informa- tion that may be of general value as to the probable depth and quantity of water available in adjoining areas, requires personal examination and study of a trained geologist. As far as the time and opportunities of your Committee go, they have endeavoured to carry out such personal examination; and the results, with those obtained during the coming year, they propose to lay before you at the next Meeting of the Association, should you think fit to reappoint their Committee, which they trust will be the case, as much information is at present promised them, and facilities are more freely given as the existence of the Committee becomes more widely known. In regard to their general fitness for drinking and cooking, the Rivers Pollution Commissioners classify waters in the order of their excellence in respect to wholesomeness and palatability as follows :— 1. Spring water. re Wholesome. 4 2. Deep-well water. } Very eee 3. Upland surface water. } Moderately Stored rain-water. palatable. oes 4, Saspiate: | 5. Surface water from cultivated Jand. Winbor 6. River-water which sewage gets access to. + Palatable. angerous. | 7, Shallow well-water. The value of spring and deep-well waters is not merely due to their greater intrinsic chemical purity and palatability, but to their being pecu- liarly suited for domestic supply, from their almost invariable clearness, transparency, and brilliancy, and their uniformity of temperature throughout the year rendering them cooi and refreshing in summer, and preventing them readily freezing in winter; and their utilization and conservation —— —T err ON THE CIRCULATION Ol UNDERGROUND WATERS. 57 appear to be a matter not only worthy of inquiry into by the Association, but one of national importance, and to demand imperial legislation. The average amount of hardness of the water of the deep wells of the New Red Sandstone, tabulated by the Rivers Pollution Commission, being 17°-9, and of the springs from the same formation no less than 18°-8, the relation of hardness of water to the rate of the mortality of the persons drinking it becomes a matter of great importance. The Commissioners give three Tables of Statistics that bear directly upon this point. From Table I. it appears that in twenty-six towns inhabited by 1,933,524 persons, supplicd with water not exceeding 5° of hardness, the average death-rate was 29-1 per 1000 per annum. From Table II. we learn that in twenty-five towns inhabited by 2,041,383 persons, drinking water of more than 5°, but not exceeding 10°, the average death-rate was 28°3 per 1000. In Table III. we find that sixty towns, with an aggregate population of 2,687,846, drinking water of more than 10° of hardness, the average death- rate was only 24:3, Of the towns in Table I. none are supplied from the New Red or Permian formations. In Table IT. three are so supplied. In Table ILI. ten are so supplied. From which it will be observed that the largest number of towns supplied with New Red water is found in the Table with the lowest death-rate and the hardest water. The same result is obtained if we compare towns of corresponding popu- lations and occupations supplied from surface-areas with soft waters, and those supplied by deep wells in the New Red Sandstone. Thus Manchester, with 351,189 inhabitants, has an average death-rate of 32:0 per 1000; while Birmingham, with 343,787, has only 24-4. And, again, Stirling, with 14,279 inhabitants, has an average of 26:1 per 1000; while Tranmere, with 16,143 inhabitants, has only 18°8. But it may possibly be objected that the high death-rate of Manchester is not due to the softness of the water supplied to the inhabitants, but to the density of the population, the close proximity to the houses of cesspools and ashpits, and the want of care experienced by children in the manufacturing districts; and, again, that the low death-rate of Tranmere is due to the constant emigration of adults. And that these averages, being dependent on so many external causes, not due to the purity or impurity, hardness or softness, of the water supply, is borne out by the facts that Greenock and Plymouth, both supplied with soft water, with an equal number of in- habitants, have a death-rate respectively of 32°6 and 23-3 per 1000, due to difference of density of population, Greenock having only one house for every twenty-eight people. And, again, Liverpool and Birkenhead, both supplied with moderately hard water; the former an old and densely populated town, with a site saturated with what is injurious to health, has a death-rate of 34 per 1000; while Birkenhead, a new town on an open site with wide streets, has a death-rate of only 24 per 1000, though mainly inhabited by a poor ‘and struggling class of persons. But, at the same time, it is worthy of note that the five inland manu- facturing towns with the lowest death-rate are all supplied with hard water, and all from the New Red Sandstone. 58 REPORT—1877. | . Mortality | as a per 1000 per annum. aera AA ee reac es seqentaasuenwaevascaaelecep 343,787 24-4 HATES als dtese ys etaasie ie'ds svt das eseaigneee 95,220 27:0 PN OuhiIng Wal seeiecsstswacssseenanecvocscucesere 86,621 24°2 Ntoke-0n= Crent,<..caceas anvarvvons ves etewetees 130,985 279 Wolverhampton ......,cccsscsecesespeeseases: 68,291 25°9 AVGTAD Ecc. snmcansut 144,981 25'5 And, again, the average death-rate of twelve inland non-manufacturing towns supplied with soft water was 26-0 per 1000; while that of twenty similar towns supplied with hard water was only 23:2. When, however, the mortalities of the districts including the principal English watering-places are compared, there appears to be little variation in the death-rate, whether the population be supplied with soft, moderately hard, or hard water ; so that it may be safely concluded that where sanitary conditions prevail with equal uniformity, the rate of mortality is practically uninfluenced by the degree of hardness of the water drank; and H.M. Rivers Pollution Commission are of opinion that ‘soft and hard waters, if equally free from deleterious organic substances, are equally wholesome.” Your Committee has as yet not been able to obtain much information as to the water supply to be obtained from the Permian rocks. These beds in different arcas of England present so many distinct types that an analysis of them may be found useful to those inclined to work up information for your Committee. Its Salopian type*. Well shown in the neighbourhood of Enville, south of Bridgnorth. In descending order :— Urrer SERrzs. ted and purple sandstones and marls. Breccia in a marly base... ......... as. 60 to 120 feet. | Gaadstene Chit ie 1d i aera, Sesame eee 40 to 50 ,, Muippte Series. Calcarcous conglomerate ...........45. 50a SENGSLONG ANG gnarl oA o's 6.0% quel Gree SO ton 40 ©. | Caleareous conglomerate ...... 6.00455 i aa ( Purple sandstones, passing various shades of red, brown, and occasionally white, often calcareous, and interstratified WADA TEGSIN SEIS 9), cee cee -slaraen ieee wee 850 (Coal-measures of Forest of Wyre.) Lower Senits. In Warwickshire the lower series occur, and the overlying calcareous breccias may be secn at Coleshill and Hurley, near Baxterly; while the higher beds have been penetrated in a boring for water at Warwick at a depth of 700 feet, and are pierced in shallow wells at Kenilworth. The whole of this triple series is believed to belong to the Rothtodtliegende, or Lower Permian. * Memoirs of the Geological Survey. ‘The Triassic Rocks of the Midland Counties of England.” By EB. Hill, F.R.S. London: 1869. i ll " ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 59 Collyhurst (near Manchester) type. These beds are believed to have been formed contemporaneously with the Enyille group, but in a separate hydrographical basin, separated from that of Shropshire, Staffordshire, and Warwickshire by an east and west upheaval of Lower Carboniferous rocks across the plain of Cheshire. The Lower Permian beds of South Lancashire have been worked out in great detail by Mr. Binney, F.R.S., who gives the following sequence in _ descending order :—- Red marls, with numerous bands of fossili- ferous limestone, worked at Astley and Rep Marts, Bedford. At Worsley this series attains a thickness of 131 feet, with fifty-two thin | beds of limestone: on. Tee ee 131 feet. Bright red sandstone, obliquely laminated, of uniform texture, seen at Collyhurst and at DUGCRDGES - cana Pern AGEN e BETES 1500 feet. Lower Permian SANDSTONE. On the southern edge of the Lancashire coalfield these beds are slightly unconformable to the underlying Coal-measures between Manchester and Sutton, allowing the reappearance of the “‘ Spirorbis Limestone ” at Whiston. North of the coal-field the unconformity is much more marked; at Skillaw Clough, near Bispham, Roach Bridge on the River Darwen, near Plea- sington Station on the Blackburn Railway, the Permian rests directly on the Millstone Grit; and in the wide spread of Lower Permian Sandstone, found by your Reporter to underlie the low drift-covered plain of Garstang, between Preston and Lancaster, the underlying rocks are of Lower Yoredale age, as is also the case in the deep borings of the Furness district, on the opposite side of Morecambe Bay, carried out by the Diamond Boring Company. There are a few wells in the Garstang Permian Sandstone, the deepest of which is at Higher Crookey. In Cumberland the same series obtains, but is overlaid by the St.-Bees Sandstone, so finely developed in the cliffs of that name, and referred by Sir Roderick Murchison to Permian age, though formerly referred to the Trias. The Collyhurst Sandstones are described by Prof. Harkness in the Vale of Eden, under the name of “ Penrith Sandstones,” as attaining a thickness of nearly 3000 feet. Durham type. In Durham and the north-east of England the sequence is widely different. That at Durham is described by Prof. King as follows :— . Crystalline and Concretionary limestone. . Brecciated limestone. . Fossiliferous limestone. . Magnesian limestone. . Mar! slate. . Lower Red Sandstone (with Coal-plants), rm bo OO HH Or 60 REPORT—1877. The Lower Red Sandstone lies irregularly and unconformably on the Coal- measures in hollows eroded in its surface, but contains many species of Coal- measure plants. Large quantities of water are pumped from these sandstones, and from the Magnesian Limestone of this.county, for the supply of Sunder- land, South Shiclds, Jarrow, Seaham, and several villages—the quantity pumped from an area of 50 square miles overlying the Coal-measures being, according to Messrs. Daglish and Forster*, no less than 5,000,000 gallons per day, which abstraction has not in the least altered or lowered the per- - manent water-level in the rock of this district, which occurs along the coast _ at mean-tide level, rising to 180 feet above it inland. The following analysis of the Sunderland water is given by the Rivers Pollution Commission :— Totaisolid ampurity y slosh. 34.4 Saws 44:18 Oxganie; Camborne: sierra ttle’: bis sel scerecse @ 035 Oreanic Nitromen “mein: mietetistalte stotetenenes 030 PAmarmnonitaial atc alse cle staenere 0-0 Nitrogen as nitrates and nitrites ........ “416 Nitrogen, total combined .............. 446 Previous sewage contamination .......... 3°840 Miiigrire |Site cc ce 2 Soe ae ee aaa 4-17 GTP OLALY takes oe eteten oie ose 8 Hardness; Permanent ................ 13-9 Tal te aes cca ss © gag 14:7 The Commissioners comment on the fact that spring water, Waterham’s Field, Pontefract, is not only excessively hard, but differs from the Sunder- land well-water in having a large amount of temporary hardness (24:9); but it is important to notice that the water of Sunderland, unlike that of Pontefract, is obtained from the Sandstone beneath the Magnesian Lime- stone, and not from the Dolomite itself. These limestones, as stated by the Commissioners, are rarely used as a source of water-supply ; dolomite being a double carbonate of lime and magnesia imparts both these substances to the water. 100,000 lbs. of the Sunderland water contained 5:89 lbs. of lime and 3°96 lbs. of magnesia, which must be due to the percolation of the water through the porous lime- stone before it reached the underlying sandstone. These limestones of Durham gradually thin away to the south, through Yorkshire and Derbyshire, and die out near Nottingham. The thin lime- stones of Lancashire, already described, may be considered their debased and argillaceous equivalents, the fossils occurring at Astley and Bedford being the well-known magnesian limestone genera Tragos, Schizodus, Bakevellia, and Turbo. The less crystalline limestones hold 3°45, 6°0, 13:13, 14-87, and even 17:0 lbs. of water to the cubic foot. The Sandstones vary less, 10 lbs. of water (a gallon) being the average point of saturation. The more crystalline limestones absorb very little. Of these Yorkshire and Nottinghamshire Limestones, the Commissioners give the following analysis :— * Report Brit. Assoc, 1863, Newcastle Meeting, p. 726. ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 6] Mansfield, Pontefract, | Well, 75 fect | Mansfield, Yorkshire. | deep, Water- W a 8 works. on Total solid impurity ...........cssesersecsoeees 8492 25°24 54:32 ROMMIGI CRT DON § <0. :6505ecvesesscsescetasetansense 054 053 139 GFeAIG DULTOPEN .........0.soarceisecesenceesons 021 014 039 BEM YEL AN nos sacar vest cecuvaccasacssectaeene 0 0 0 Nitrogen as nitrates and nitrites ............ 2673 “599 1-888 Total combined nitrogen...........:seseeeceeees 2694 613 1:227 Previous sewerage contamination ............ 26,410 5,670 11,560 DAMME oy nis. ss anatn.cnvcqsedas esse sesresncoes 5°55 1:40 3°20 _ { Temporary 26°5 6:0 23°4 Hardness | Beranent 40:8 16:4 | 26:0 OR OUAD ; chen: senwarchescaseess cab tsar 67-3 224 | 49:4 From Somerset and Devon your Committee has received no returns; but they would wish to call attention to the classification of the Triassic rocks of the South-Devon coast, recently published by Mr. Ussher *, of the Geological Survey, in which he gives the following sequence :— Td. Upper, Marls:. s 0 0 came ine on os 1350 feet. / 9. Upper, Sandstone... 2 swiss 2s 530 ,, | Sy Cone lamierabess. < .. <5 Frye stp eae a 015 100 ,, | ps al oereNlarls: Mong. < sil cveppicce sy aiece) o> 600 ,, / 5. Lower Sandstone and Breccias.... 1000 ,, 3580 ,, But he states that this maximum total thickness is probably 1000 feet greater than the actual vertical distance, but from various causes an estimate is very difficult. In Leicestershire, Mr. Ptant reports that for many years water good in quality and abundant in quantity has been known to exist at the base of the great gypsum bed which lies in the Upper Keuper Marls. This supply has been proved wherever the marls have been penetrated in wells from 30 to 80 feet in depth, and in excavations for brick-making &c. In one of theso excavations near the town of Leicester, on the base of the gypsum being reached at a depth of 40 feet and the last layer cut through, a copious supply of clear water burst through in such abundance as to require special arrangements to carry it to an adjacent brook. The water was found to have worn a deep channel in the red marl lying immediately beneath the gypsum. The stream remains constant in dry and wet weather. The marls above and below this gypsum bed are quite dry and free from water, and the water occurring in it must be derived from the various out- crops of this bed in Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, and Leicestershire. Mr. Plant has been led to conclude that this water, running constantly at the base of the gypsum bed, must be the source of supply of sulphate of lime found in the underground waters of the Midland Counties ; and he has always found it difficult to account for the water obtained in deep wells (pump and draw wells) in the Upper Red Marls of this county whenever the gypsum bed was penetrated; he is now of opinion that, as far as domestic and farming requirements are concerned, in the Upper Red Marl district, this horizon affords the most abundant and valuable source of supply. * Quart. Journ. Geol, Soc, vol, xxxii. p. 392, 62 REPORT—1877. And though this gypseous bed does not strictly come under the head of an inquiry into the Permian and New Red Sandstones formations, yet it is important as affording another and undescribed source of underground water- supply in the Midland Counties. The various sources of supply he tabulates thus in descending order :— 1. Great Gypsum bed. 2. Upper Keuper Sandstone. 3. Lower Keuper Sandstone. 4, Bunter Sandstone. 5. Permian Sandstone. Mr. Plant states that he trusts to have some further information about deep borings now in operation in Leicestershire in addition to those he has already obtained, and which are published in the previous Reports. In Staffordshire, Mr. Motynevx reports that he has obtained a large amount of information; but as important borings for water are still in progress, he would prefer waiting until they are completed, so that he may be able to present the Committee with a connected Report on the area he has taken charge of, which shall include the resources of the Bunters of the Cannock-Chase district, where the South-Staffordshire Waterworks are erecting two large pumping stations, and also the results of mining opera- tions through the so-called Permian beds south of Walsall and elsewhere. Mineral Waters of St. Clement's, Oxford. It has lately been suggested by Prof, Presrwicu that some of the saline springs occurring in the Oolites may derive their supply from deep-seated underlying New Red rocks. In a paper read before the Ashmolean Society he describes the character of the water now issuing from an artesian bore-hole carried 420 feet through the Oxford Clay and Oolitic strata in 1832. An analysis by Mr. Donkin proves this water to contain 1277 grains per gallon, a quantity not exceeded by many of the continental saline waters. In the large proportion of sulphates, this water more nearly resembles some of the German mineral waters, such as Friederickshall and Rehme, than those of England ; for that of Cheltenham only contains 694 grains of saline ingre- dients, of which 104 grains per gallon consist of sulphate of soda, which, at St. Clement’s, amounts to 357 grains. As stated in your Committee’s second Report, not less than 10,000 square miles of area are occupied in England and Wales by the New Red Sandstone and Permian formations, which absorb not less than 10 inches of rainfall annually, and probably more in districts where the overlying drift is porous, or absent altogether, and the sandstone is of an exceedingly open and per- meable character and is traversed by joints and fissures. This area is a fertile source of shallow wells, and both the sandstone and the overlying drift sand and gravel form an excellent water-bearing stratum ; but unfortunately these shallow wells, though yielding clear and palatable water, from the numerous and potent sources of pollution surrounding them, are almost all valueless as a source of domestic supply, being charged with organic matter derived from animal refuse matters, the total solid impurity amounting to 240 parts per 100,000, or 168 grains per gallon, in the water SS = ss ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 63 Results of Analysis expressed in Parts per 100,000, (The numbers in the table can be converted into grains per imperial gallon, by multiplying them by 7, and then moving the decimal point one place to the left. The same process A a transforms the hardness into degrees S A of hardness on Clark’s scale), BIRMINGHAM. ft. am NG: 0 Oourt..<...0c.iesscecdvertes|-+= Pump, 30 Ravenhurst Street ......... ace Conetrton, Cresire. Town pump at Star Inn............. Coventry, Well in Cow Lane ...........0..ceseees{++ Cratnornn, Yor«snrre. Orchard well...... ph eteeuerechsdiatewenst 5 Pump in well 20 POP e eer e ee reren nt eseeenes Daruineron, Durmam, Blackwell pump POO ee eee ere eerentereee 44 Dawuitsu, DEvonsuire. Well at Marine Terrace ..........00005 ber GreasELey, Norts. Morley’s pump Pee cere ree errr err ry Huactescorr, Lercestersuire. Mr. Moore’s pump Pere e eee w een e ee eeanl tee Horworrn, near Daruineron. Welliat Rectory ....5icccscccccaccoestealees KippErMinstTEr. Well in “ Three Tuns” Yard.........|..- LEAMINGTON. Mr, Jonres’s well .........s.secesesecsees[eee Matpas, Cursurrr, MEIN GIL ch ve cence ccddciessdeeaccseteacsclece Newark, Norrts. Well near Trent COO e eee wee w eee rneeneeleee Well Newnuam, GuovucesTERsHIReE. Mr. Everett’s well Retrorp, Wrst Nortrs. Well in Mermaid Yard ............. alga STaFrorpD, Pump in Station-Master’s Yard......|... Stock Ton-on-Trss. Mr. Trotter’s well............. rrr Ace Wi:nrcore, NEAR Tamworrn. | Public pump at head of village ...... Wonrxsor, Norrs, He eee teem eee eee ee eee e ae eeeaesneneas late eee Park-Street well ...... wav ioecs ates Achaveiie Sp Hardness. Bg | — a ES oS RAT ae pe @ g Remarks. Be. Hie eR ce RO i= Pa H 151,960 [27-5 99°6 | 127-1 31,830 |15°6 |80°6| 44:3 Palatabis: 10,456 | 40/131] 17-1 | 82,620 |87-0|35-7 | 72-7 Slightly turbid, 16,270 | 6:4 /36:2| 42-6 490 |22°3 19-6 | 41-9 66,920 |36°9 /41°7| 786 | Clear and palatable, 70,940 | 0 130-6! 3806 Slightly turbid. 59,600 |22-2 40-7) 62:9 29,3830 | O |37:1) 37-1 25,880 |382°3| 3-8} 36-1 Clear and palatable. 52,900 |11°3/17-3| 286 | 60,540 |35°6 |28°3| 63-9 3,790 |12°0 |10-7| 22-7 |) 560 /13-0/189| 31-9 | r Slightly turbid, 113,620 |25°3 |31:1| 56-4 | 85,930 |42°2 40-7) 82:9 73,240 |14-1 /43:3| 57-4 Clear and palatable. 5,020 |17°0|12°4| 29-4 18,980 |52-0 135:1! 87-1 Slightly turbid. 78,510 | O 157-5! 57-5 20,940 |15°7 28'5| 442 | Turbid. Palatable. 64 REPORT—1877. of one of the shallow wells of Birmingham. An examination of the analyses of eighty-seven samples of these waters made by the Rivers Pollution Com- mission shows, in the high figures of the column of previous sewerage or animal contamination, how largely sewers and cesspools contribute to the contents of these wells. The preceding Table of the composition of waters from shallow wells in the New Red Sandstone is compiled from the sixth Report of the Rivers Pollution Commission. The pollution of these wells is easily understood when it is remembered that in most of the villages and in many of the smaller towns the water- supply is obtained, and the sewerage disposed, by digging two holes in the cottage garden, often within a few feet of each other, into the shallower of which the refuse of the cottage is discharged, and out of the deeper of which the water-supply is pumped from a porous soil, which soon gets replenished from the soakage of the soil lying beneath and around the shallower cesspool. The dangerous and disgusting liquids making their way into the well, after passing through a foot of porous soil, are sufficiently deodorized as to not impair the palatability of the water; and such polluted waters are drank for years, until an outbreak of epidemic disease calls attention to them. At least 12 millions of the British population obtain their water-supply from shallow wells of this class. In regard to village water-supply, the evidence of Mr. James Caird, C.B., one of the Inclosure Commissioners, examined by the Chairman of the Select Committee of the House of Lords on Improvement of Land (Minutes of Evidence, 2nd May and 24th June, 1873, pp. 42 and 348), is of importance, as he states that both he and his colleagues, Messrs. Darby and Ridley, consider ‘“‘that in the case of charges for the supply of water to a village for sanitary purposes it would be very advantageous, where the village belongs to an estate, that it should be included in the objects of the loan, the improvement being one that is for the convenience of the agricultural labourers resident on the estate;” and Mr. Ridley further suggests “ that in any Sanitary Act that may be passed, a provision of that kind should be inserted, making the providing of water an improvement under the Act of 1864.” It was suggested in 1865 to the Rivers Pollution Commissioners by the late Sir George Grey, then Secretary of State, that they should endeavour, if possible, to carry out the suggestions of Mr. Charles Neate, M.P., that they should inquire ‘ how far the general level of springs in the country has been lowered” by agricultural drainage ; ‘‘ how far it depends upon the height at which water is maintained in the neighbouring river, and what is the number of springs that have altogether failed, or at least that fail during the summer.” ‘This inquiry they do not appear to have been able to carry out, possibly from a belief that springs that would be affected by local drainage would be subject to surface-pollution, and consequently be of no value as a source of water-supply. But when it is remembered that many deep-seated springs derive their supply from distant outcrops, often of an exceedingly porous and permeable character, the question of cutting off the available rainfall by means of intercepting drains becomes one of great importance ; and your Committee intend inserting a clause in their forms of inquiry in the hope of elicitating information on this point. Through increase of population and manufacturing requirements, the quantity of water annually consumed in England is steadily increasing, while the number of available sources of supply being necessarily limited, the competition for the possession of suitable water-bearing areas, especially ee ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 65 those adjoining the more densely crowded centres, becomes keener and keener, and the parliamentary and other preliminary expenses larger and larger. Rival townships after severe competition obtain the whole of the water rights of a district to the exclusion of those who, from apathy, ignorance, or want of funds, neglected to claim a portion of the supply naturally belong- ing to them. The Local Government Board and Parliamentary inquiries at the best only endeavour to ascertain whether any water-scheme laid before them is likely to fulfil the particular objects proposed; and they have no means of judging whether it is the best scheme, or whether it will interfere with the interests of other districts who may not be represented. To take two cases in point :— The urban sanitary district of Pemberton, near Wigan, with 10,374 inhabitants, situated on the Coal-measures, has suffered much from an in- adequate supply of water. After much opposition in Parliament, an Act has been obtained to construct reservoirs to impound waters flowing off cultivated land, and consequently belonging to that class considered suspicious by the Rivers Pollution Commission. In the adjoining urban sanitary district of Ashton-in-Makerfield, with a population of 7463, situated on the Pebble Beds of the New Red Sandstone, which at present gives a very inefficient supply of water from shallow and dangerous wells, an Act of Parliament has been obtained, after much cost, opposition, and litigation, to construct works to obtain surface-water from adjoining cultivated land on the Coal-measures, which will, moreover, neces- sitate constant pumping. Colliery-shafts sunk in the New Red Sandstone and Permian formations south of this district yield an almost inexhaustible supply of pure water; and your Committee cannot but feel it a matter of regret that this source of supply should be so systematically disregarded, which could not be the case were the Local Government Board empowered to see that districts choose the purest water and cheapest scheme available in a given area. The supply of New Red water just referred to, east of Ashton and Golborne &c., may possibly be made available for the additional supply of Liverpool, the water-pipes of which borough pass through the district in question from Rivington. Your Committee are of opinion that it is desirable that they should con- tinue to inquire into areas where New Red and Permian water may be obtained by means of deep wells. That, looking to the national importance of utilizing the underground waters of England, it is desirable that the sphere of their inquiry should be extended so as to include the Oolites, which the results obtained by the Rivers Pollution Committee prove contain an almost inexhaustible supply of pure water, which is not made available for the supply of the population living upon it until it is hopelessly contaminated with sewerage. ~ That the result of their labours since the formation of the Commission has been to prove that there is an available daily supply of water from the - New Red Sandstone and Permian of England of not less than 3600 million gallons of water, the quality of which is remarkably free from organic im- oy and the hardness of which does not in the least appear to affect the ealth of the population at present taking their supply from it, the death- rate of this area comparing well with the best soft-water district. 1877. F 66 REPORT—1877. On the South-Lancashire Wells. By T. Mutrarp Runs, C.E., F.G.S. As a member of the Committee [ have devoted considerable time to obtain- ing information on the subject we are engaged in investigating, especially as regards South Lancashire ; I have exhausted the information available to me through the means of your printed forms of inquiry. Much more ought to be obtainable ; but companies undertaking the supply of districts are, perhaps naturally, jealous of giving answers which they imagine may be used to their detriment at some future time. Having collected all the answers to the queries of the Committee, I next attempted to analyze them, with a view of ascertaining whether I could help the Committee further by a digest of the, to some extent, crude facts and statements relative to the district I am more immediately acquainted with. In doing this I was met by the difficulty of reducing the replies to one common datum for comparison. With existing wells there are only a few in which the quantity pumped, the variations in the supply, and correct analyses of the water from time to time are taken and recorded with the scientific exactness which would enable me to draw deductions haying the force of demonstration. So far as I am able I purpose now to present for your consideration the facts and my deductions therefrom, arranged with the object of enabling you to test for yourselves their relative importance. The area of the country over which my information extends (and here I must acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. G. H. Morton, F.G.8., who has kindly placed at my disposal all the valuable facts in his possession relating to Liverpool and Cheshire wells) includes in Lancashire the Triassic rocks lying between the south and south-western borders of the Lancashire coalfield, and the shores of the Mersey and of the Irish Sea as far north as Southport. In Cheshire the area occupied by the wells of which I have any reliable in- formation lies within a radius of 5 miles from Liverpool. For the purposes of comparison, however, although there are outlying wells which I shall have to refer to, there are three nuclei or centres about which ~ the most important systems of wells are grouped, viz. Liverpool, Birkenhead, and Widnes. These “systems” I have shown on two sheets of vertical sec- tions annexed to this report (Plate IT.), reduced with as much accuracy as was available to a common datum, on which I have shown the extreme variation of level of water in each well produced by pumping. As regards seasonal varia- tion it will have to be treated separately. I have also shown on the 6-inch Ordnance Surveys, coloured geologically, the position of each well in the Liverpool and Widnes Systems, and in other cases have shown the position of the wells in the 1-inch scale Geological Survey sheets. Widnes Wells.—With the exception of the town supply, these wells have been sunk for manufacturing purposes. As a great chemical manufacturing town, Widnes has been entirely created within the last 30 She *, and a large supply of water is a necessity. Widnes occupies what I have shown to be the site of the old course of the river Mersey 7, a rock valley having a depth of 141 feet below Ordnance datum, now filled up with glacial-marine drift. It is through this drift, of * The first works were established by Mr. John McClellan in 1846, the second by Mr John Hutchinson in 1847. + Buried valley of the Mersey, Proc, of Liverpool Geol. Soc., Sess. 1871-2. ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 67 varying thickness according to the position of the well, that the well-sinkers and borers had to penetrate to get to the water-bearing rock below. ‘This portion has of course in each case been tubed. The succession of these strata is shown on the sections, and consists first of Marsh Clay or Silt (Postglacial), Quicksand (Glacial), and a great depth of a tenacious, unctuous, fine clay of a brown colour, evidently recomposed to a considerable extent from the Triassic Marls, but being itself of glacial marine origin, as shown by the shell-fragments and occasional erratic boulders and pebblesit contains. This reposes on a red sand often containing erratic pebbles, the top sand of the red rock below. According to the Geological Survey the bed-rock belongs to the Pebble Beds, or middle division of the Bunter. It is pretty certain from the consensus of evidence on the subject that when this retentive bed of brown marl was first pierced the water rose above the sur- face of the ground. A reference to the section will show that the water-level has been permanently lowered by pumping to an average of about 8 feet below the surface ; when the pumps are at work, of course the level of the water in the well is entirely dependent upon the power of the pumps. I have not been able to obtain returns from all the well-owners, but the amount of water of which I have returns, if we include the Local-Board well at Cronton, is 1,670,000 gallons per diem; I should think, however, there must be a mil- lion more gallons pumped*. The form of the printed questions, however, creates a difficulty, as the “ Quantity capable of being pumped up in gallons _ per day” is not necessarily the same thing as the actual yield. There can be no doubt, however, that a very considerable quantity of water in this area is tapped and utilized. It will be seen from the sections that the extreme height the water rises above ordnance datum is 18 feet. Stocks Well, Cronton.—This is a well belonging to the Widnes Local - Board. It is situated about 23 miles from Widnes, and is 70 feet above O.D. (not 45 as stated in the return); but as it does not lie in the Preglacial valley of the Mersey, I mention it separately. It yields 800,000 gallons per day. Before pumping the water flows over at the surface, and therefore rises 52 feet above the water-level at Widnes. The Widnes Board are sink- ing a well at Netherley Bridge, and, I understand, get a yield now of about 350,000 gallons per day. “ Garston Iron Works.—The yield of this well is 240,000 gallons per day. It is situated on the margin of the river Mersey, and the water-level appears to be approximately the same as at Widnes. As it is nearly 7 miles from Widnes and 4 from Liverpool the water-level appears to be governed by proximity to the river. The water-level is stated to have diminished. At Whiston the St.-Helen’s Corporation have established a well; but further than that the yield is 1,000,000 gallons per day I have no reliable information. Ince Waterworks, Golbowrne—In a direct line this well is over 10 miles from Widnes. The surface-level is 125 feet above O.D.; the yield 240,000 gallons per diem. The water-level before pumping is stated to be - 80 feet below the surface, or 45 feet above O.D. The Sankey White-lead Works, Well, Sankey Bridges——The peculiarity of this well is its being all in the drift, finishing in a bed of gravel about 100 feet below the surface. The water, rising to within 3 feet 6 inches of the * Mr. Boult, who has collected a great amount of information on the subject, gives _ 480,000 as the yield of the Ditton Iron Company's well, Pilkington’s 240,000, and tho Tharsus Copper Works 192,000, or a total of 912,000, all of which will be additional to my returns, ¥r2 68 REPORT—1877. surface, is, as I reckon it, about 16 fect 6 inches above O.D. It is evident the river governs the height to which the water rises. It is stated not to be perceptibly affected by the seasons. Ormskirk Local Board Well.—This is a well lying out of the special area I have marked out for further investigation. It is remarkable as being affected by local rains within 24 hours. The water-level is stated to vary slightly in summer and winter, but has not diminished during the last 10 years. The water is pronounced to be remarkably good and soft. There is a very large fault on the west side of the well. Borings through the New Red Marls.—In two cases I know of, these marls have been pierced; the one at Alsager within 300 yards of the railway-sta- tion, in which 553 feet of the marls were pierced, and water tapped which rises in an iron tube 10 or 12 feet above the surface. The level of the surface is 310 feet above O.D. The water is very pure and soft, and suitable for brewing-purposes. Though the bore was continued to a depth of 1000 feet, the water was not increased thereby. The second case is at Preston Brook, at which the water was tapped after piercing 400 feet of marls. An attempt was made to pierce the marls at the Palace Hotel, Birkdale, near Southport, but was given up at a depth of 558 feet. I have now recapitulated the leading features of the wells outside of Liver- pool and Birkenhead of which I have information. As the answers are already printed in extenso in the two Reports of the Committee, any one wishing for more detailed information can there obtain it. Inferences—Though the information is any thing but of a scientifically exact character, it appears to me that some useful inferences can be drawn from it. They are these:— As to the present Water-level.—lt is quite clear that, when a well or a system of wells is established in a district, the permanent water-level is lowered to the extent of the draw upon the supply. Though I call this the permanent water-level, I merely do so to distinguish it from the tem- porary level of water in the well produced by, say, 12 hours’ pumping. It is not naturally, but becomes artificially, the permanent water-level of the country ; and in any case, were the pumping-operations to cease entirely, I should expect to see the natural water-level restored in 12 months. As to the effect of local Rains.—In only a few instances have the observers stated that they could distinguish the effect of rain on the wells. Even in the one in the drift at Sankey Bridges my informants say they can distinguish no seasonal changes. It is quite possible, however, that this bottom-drift gravel may be supplied from springs in the rock below. ‘The Ormskirk well is a com- paratively shallow one, and the local rains affect it, I should say, by immediate local percolation. It will be seen that the Liverpool wells are not altogether exempt from this local percolation ; at all events the Bootle well is not. This, however, is only in accordance with what we would expect inferentially from a consideration of hydraulic principles ; the larger the area from which the supply of water is drawn, the less likely is the well to be affected by local rains. The nature of the top rock, the dip of the beds, the number and ~ position of the fissures in the rock, the proximity of a fault, will all assist to determine the extent of local percolation. If, however, the well and the bore is made watertight by tubbing and tubing to a considerable depth, local rains cannot influence the yield to any perceptible extent. When a great thickness of clay or marl is penetrated I know of no recorded instance of seasonal variation in the supply from the Triassic rocks. ——— ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 69 As to the Mode of Circulation of Underground Waters.—A few minutes’ _ consideration will show that the supply to a well or bore cannot arise through general pereolation through the pores of the walls or internal surfaces of the well or bore. According to Mr. Isaac Roberts’s experiments, quoted in your 1st Report of 1875, a pressure of 10 lbs. to the square inch, which I suspect exceeds any hydraulic pressure acting on the pores of the rocks in any of the wells of which I have returns, gives 43 gallons of water per hour per square foot of sandstone 10 inches thick, or 108 gallons per foot per diem. If we take the total area of the surface of the three wells and bore-holes of Messrs. Gaskell, Deacon, and Co., at Widnes, which is the largest well-sur- face, compared with the yield of water, that I have recorded, it amounts to 4428 superficial feet, which, with 500,000 gallons per diem, gives 113 gallons per superficial foot per diem, assuming the water to ooze out at the same rate from top to bottom, which is manifestly absurd; if, on the contrary, we take the Green Lane one recorded in your Report of 1875, p. 123, we find it has an area of only 95 superficial feet of surface and a yield of 817,000 gallons per diem, or 8600 gallons per foot per diem. It is thus evident to me that the rain-water is absorbed generally by the rock at the surface, and that it percolates very gradually to underground fissures, traverses planes of bedding and jointing, and so circulates and is drawn off at the well. It is, in fact, a large rock-filter, with veins and ramifications ex- tending in various directions, which enable us to tap and draw off the supply; and it is this freer circulation than what would take place through homoge- neous rock that enables us to draw in some cases those immense supplies, such as is obtained at Green Lane, of 3,243,549 gallons per diem as a maxi- mum, the average quantity for 1876 being 2,903,712 gallons per diem. Source of the Supply: Rainfall—The enormous aggregate yield of wells in a given area of the New Red has set many speculating as to the source of the underground water, some being unwilling to admit rainfall as a sufficient source of supply for the wells; consequently ingenious theories have been devised to account for it. Mr. Joseph Boult, to whom I am indebted for much information, does not believe the supply is from surface-percolation ; and Mr. Robert Bostock, an excellent practical geologist, of Birkenhead, believes that sea-water is decomposed by filtration through the rock, and that the water of the sea is the main source of the supply. Unfortunately, when tested, none of these theories will themselves ‘hold water;” and whatever difficulties there may be in ‘“ surface-percolation,” there are,in my opinion, tenfold greater difficulties in any other theories. Again, many Cassandra-like water-prophets cry out that because the water-level is reduced in Liverpool, therefore we are drawing on capital, and are gradually exhaust- ing Nature’s storehouse, or rather “ store-cistern.” A little calculation would show this latter fear to be groundless. According to information supplied me by Mr. G. J. Symons, which I append, the maximum rainfall taken by Mr. Briggs at Sandfield Park, near Liver- pool, for 10 years ending 1874, was 34°90, and the minimum 22°64, the average for the 10 years being 30°14. Roughly, 25 inches of rain over a square mile of surface gives a supply of 1,000,000 gallons per diem ; there- fore if we assume that 10 inches are absorbed independently of evaporation (and I think this is not an unreasonable assumption in a flat absorbent dis- trict like Lancashire), it would take a contributing area of 7:5 square miles to supply 3 million gallons per diem. It must also not be lost sight of that rivers haying their sources in other strata—the carboniferous system for 70 REPORT—1877. instance, where the rainfall is much greater from the district being hilly KK meander through the low-lying Triassic country and supply their quota. Many of these rivers have loose sandy beds, favourable for percolation ; and with fissures, however contracted, to convey the water to a distance, a con- stant circulation must necessarily be kept up. If we assume the absorption to be as much as 10 inches, a circle having a radius of just over 14 mile from the well would be sufficient to keep up the supply to 3 million gallons per diem, I am not by any means suggesting that nature acts in this uni- form sort of way; on the contrary the water may travel by faults and fissures a long distance in one direction and a short one in anothert; but of this I am assured, that a good well depends upon these underground ramifications, and that their existence or absence constitutes the main distinction between a well being a good yielder or a bad one, more than on the actual constitution of the rock itself, as, according to my experience, all the New Red Sandstone is sufficiently porous, looked at as a filter. As regards a greater yield being obtained by boring or not will be dependent upon the source of the deeper yield and the depths to which the well is pumped down. At Alsager no additional water was obtained by boring deeply into the rock. If the tube was well supplied by the rock first penetrated, and the fissures (if any) intersected by the bore lower down had the same “head” or source, the supply would not be greater; but if the water were to be pumped down below its natural level instead of flowing out of an artesian tube, it is quite possible the deep bore might begin to yield. As exhibiting the nature of the underground circulation I have made a calculation from materials supplied me by the borough engineer of Liverpool, Mr. Deacon. The Dudlow-Lane well is about 2 miles in a direct line from the Green- Lane well, and while the engine stopped in November 1875, the water rose to 95 feet above the bottom of the well. This would give a difference of level at the time between the water in the Dudlow-Lane well and the Green- Lane well of about 80 feet. The velocity of discharge in the 6-inch bore-hole of Green-Lane well when delivering 817,000 gallons (see Report of Committee, 1875, p. 123) per diem would be 459 feet per minute; a 9-inch pipe, with the difference of level of 80 feet, would carry water from one well to the other at a rate sufficient to supply the bore with the quantity of water it is stated to have yielded. Or, to state it in another way, a 6-inch pipe 4000 feet long and 170 feet head would supply, roughly speaking, the same quan- tity of water at the same velocity as that which passes through the bore. It is therefore evident that there must be fissures, having a large aggregate area, to enable nature’s rocky filter to supply water at the rate of 459 feet per minute to the 6-inch bore-hole when we consider the smallness of the available head, for the friction through rocky fissures would be excessive as compared with smooth pipes. Quality of the Water: Hardness.—So few analyses having been given in the papers returned to me, and wishing to further investigate some of the questions flowing out of the inquiry, I was under the necessity of applying _ to Dr. Campbell Brown, the public analyst of Liverpool, who has kindly * For the distribution of rainfall in England on the various groups of strata, see my presidential address on “‘ Geological Time,” Proc. Liyerpool Geol. Soc., session 1876-7. t Iam informed the Green-Lane Well has been proved to “draw” at a distance of 23 miles in a direct line. A reference to Mr. Robert Stephenson's report of 1850 shows, according to the evidence of Mr. Bold, that a well at Moseley Hill, distant 5000 yards, was affected by the pumping-operations at Green-Lane well. ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 71 supplied me with information respecting the Liverpool wells in the form which 1 thought desirable for my purpose. I append his statement of the analyses of the water of Bootle, Green-Lane, Windsor, and Dudlow-Lane wells from 1868 to 1876, together with very valuable information kindly given me by Mr. Deacon, the borough engineer, as to the nature of the wells and the level of the water in the wells on the _ dates of the analyses. At my request he was also good enough to supple- : ment it by a table showing the average daily yield of the several wells from ° : | 1868 to 1876. To make the information more complete, Dr. Brown has also, for purpose of comparison, recalculated the analyses of several Liverpool wells given in Robert Stephenson’s Report of 1850 into the terms of his own analyses; I also append these. Having vainly endeavoured to discover some connexion between the rain- fall and the yield of the wells by comparing Mr. Deacon’s table with the rainfall table supplied by Mr. Symons, which I also append, it suggested itself to me that relative hardness might be a test of surface-percolation ; but Dr. Brown states that ‘“‘I do not find that there is any regular difference between the hardness in summer and winter. Differences can be traced to heavy rainfall and the rate of pumping.” It is also clear, from a perusal of what Dr. Brown says of the Bootle well, that heavy rainfall does affect its hardness ; but that the effect is only a local one is clear from the resumption of hardness which took place after 7 days’ pumping. As local percolation _ means greater danger of organic contamination, it is open to question whether it should not be to a great extent prevented. A perusal of Dr. Brown’s statements seems to show that the hardness has increased from 15° in 1868 to 22°-28 in 1876 in the Bootle well; in the Green-Lane well from 13° in 1868 to 18° in 1876; in the Windsor well from 15° in 1868 to 213° in 1876; and in Dudlow-Lane well from 63° in 1868 to 73° in 1876. In some cases the deep-bore water is softer than the well- water, in others harder. On comparing these analyses with those recalculated from Robert Ste- phenson’s report by Dr. Brown and his remarks thereon, it is impossible not to be struck with the fact that the Corporation wells at Bootle and Windsor are now yielding water of almost identical quality with that supplied in 1850, although there have been many intermediate fluctuations. Taken together with the steady increase of hardness since 1868, it seems to show that the deepening and boring done since 1850 must have had the effect of softening the water, but that now it is, through greater pumping strain, returning to its original hardness; in fact, the old conditions are reintro- duced on a larger scale. It is consolatory as showing that the hardness is not due to the depth or extent of the contributing area, but to the actual drain on the rocks. This is a point that demands more consideration than I have yet been able to give it, pressure of professional work having driven me to the last day almost for preparing this Report. I quite agree with Dr. Brown also that there is very httle, if any, percolation of sea-water into the Corporation wells, and con- _ sider his arguments are conclusive on that point; there is no doubt, however, that sea-water does enter wells in some cases. It is naturally what we would expect; but each case must be taken by its own evidences, and the fact remains that though the mean level of the water in the Bootle well was about 20 feet below low-water mark in 1876 and its distance from the sea is under a mile, with the dip of the rocks from the sea towards it, yet no 72 REPORT—1877. sea-water enters the well. Whether this is due to the great north and south faults, by which it is cut off from the sea, is a subject for speculation ; if so it is easy to understand how those wells belonging to private firms on the margin of the river are affected by sea-water, while the wells more inland are not. On the Cheshire side the Wallasey well is on the margin of the great float, and is pumped down to below low water, yet it is not affected by the sea; but here, again, the well itself is tubbed, and there is a great covering of drift over the rock, which may be impervious. In some cases, on the other hand, the bare rock is exposed in the river without any drift covering. It appears to me that no general rule can be drawn on the subject, local cir- cumstances alone determining what will take place. In presenting you with this Report I must apologise for its shortcomings, as there are many points touched upon which require more mature consider- ation than I yet have had time to give them. As, however, local observers who win the facts are necessarily the best able to arrange them in a form to be understood and digested, I trust I may have contributed something towards a knowledge of the circulation of underground waters. APPENDIX. I. Various Rerurns. Name of Member of Committee asking for information, A. H. Green, Name of Individual or Company applied to :— The Selby Waterworks Co. James Wetherill, Surveyor and Manager of Waterworks. 1*. There are 7 wells in the town of Selby, obtaining water from the New Red Sandstone. 2, 20' 6" above mean water-level at Liverpool. 3. Depth of well 12' 0" 6’ 0"; cast-iron pipe to top of rock; diameter of bore in rock 6 inches; 330 ft. from surface. 4. Water rises to within 4 ft. of natural surface; when umping we have to take the water as the bore yields it; it flows to the above falc in 2 hours. 5, About 250,000 gallons, more if the bore was larger. 6. Yes; about August, September, and October. 7. No; below the streams, but not affected by them. 8. About 8° of hardness, which you will find from the report of Mr. Homersham on the Wakefield Water Bill last session ; the water is well adapted for domestic purposes. 9. Alluvial soil 5 ft.; clay, 24’ 0"; sand charged with water one man can pump, l' 0"; clay, 24° 0"; quicksand, 21' 0"; strong spring of water and the bottom of pipes, Red Sandstone, 18’ 0"; marl resembling Fuller’s earth, 0' 1'';. Red Sandstone, 10’ 5''; Grey Sandstone, 0' 1"; Red Sandstone, 64' 9" ; ditto, harder, 118' 6"; very hard rock, 10' 6"; Red Sandstone, 6’ 9"; very hard rock, 4' 9"; ditto, 22’ 0”: total 350 ft. 8 in. to bottom of bore-hole. 10, Yes. 11. They are kept out. 12. None. 13. None whatever. 14. None. 15, From inquiry none have been given up; plenty of good water can be obtained. Name of Member of Committee asking for information, C. E. de Rance, per Mr. Aveline, F.G.S. Name of Individual or Company applied to :— Mr, John Vivian, C.E., 23 King Street, Whitehaven, for the Furness Diamond Boring Company. ’ 1. About 500 yards from the village of Glaston-in-Furness. 2. About 380 ft. 3. Bore-hole 2108 ft. deep; 8” diameter at top, 23 at bottom. 4. About 10 ft. the water will rise, always flowing out of the hole. 5. A flow of about 104,760 galls. per day. 6. No; only open during the past 12 to 18 months, 7. Not perceptibly ; * For nature of questions, see first report of the Committee, Bristol. \ ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 73 about 4 ft. above their level. 8. Nothing peculiar; good pure water. 9. 25 ft. of drift or boulder-clay, Red Sandstone and shales, greenstone or Laver Dyke, Magnesian Limestone, grits and shales, mountain Limestone; there were four springs :—Ist cut at 120 ft. from! surface in Red Sandstone ; 2nd cut at 244 ft. from surface in Red Sandstone; 3rd cut at 1061 ft. from surface in the Greenstone Dyke ; 4th cut at 2080 ft. from surface in dark blue shale at junction of Limestone. 10. No springs, but a little drainage. 11. The drainage was tubed back. 12. There is a dyke, but no known fault. 13. No. 14. No. 15. Not known; I think not. Name of Member of Committee asking for information, C. E. De Rance. At Southport Palace Hotel, Birkdale Park, a boring was made without success for water, which reached a depth of 186 yards without finding the base of the Keuper Marls. At Scarisbrook Park, east of Southport, the Red Marls were Seay and found to rest on chert, limestone, and grit, which may possibly elong to the Yoredale series. At Poulton-le-Fylde a fruitless boring for coal, after passing through Upper Boulder-clay, Middle Sand, and Lower Boulder-clay, penetrated the Keuper Marls to a depth of 179 yards without reaching their base, pseudomorphiec crystals of salt and pieces of gyysum occurring as at Southport. At the North-Eastern Hotel, Fleetwood, a boring was made for water by the War Office without success, a bed of grit being reached at 179 yards. Name of Member of Committee asking for information, C. E. De Rance. Name of Individual or Company applied to :— Mr. Boult, from Mr. Beloe, C.E. 1. Neston: (a) Waterworks; (6) Village well. 2, (a) 176 feet; () 103 feet. 3. (a) 119 feetx 7x53, 178 feet x5"; (b) 75 feetx 25X9, 352 feetx3". 4. (a) 59 feet above O.D.L. normal level, 5. (a) 191,000. 8. The water is tasteless nd pure. Mr. Boult, from Messrs. Macfie and Sons. 1. Sugar Works: (a) Bachelor Street; (0) Vernon Street, Liverpool. 2. (a) 56 feet ; (b) 56 feet. 3. (a) 127 feet, 5047 feet; (0) 126 feet x11 feet, 603 x 18 feet. 4. (a) 4 feet below Ordnance datum line; (6) 4 feet below O.D.L. 5. (a) ~ 830,000; (6) 660,000. Grains per gallon. Stine ATC NORS: iss a Here fa) cvollh: attievsi, « aisjede comnchs 22 PATA AP LOLS nrecss cianyouors sia ets l0,2.-6 5.018 Sredehel tens 744. Al buUMenotd AMMONIA. vec). « oo. sos sls «\cinteje oye 0-21 PATYUFINGENG ET ots are eeteiet as wtarersg sie dere snare) aoa 0°33 HEA OTIMG Ee; elon t eer ota cta eae oleae ee cratiate otal 406°5 Water, salt, and acid. 9. (a) Drift 38 feet, Upper Mottled Sandstone 466 feet. Mr. Boult, from My. KE. Tate. 1. Love Lane Sugar Refinery, Liverpool. 2. 51 feet. 3. 109 feet x9 feet, 369 feetx4" and 8”. 4, Normal height 19 feet below O.D.L. 5. 840,000. 8. Water has a strong taste of salt. Mr. T. Boult, from Mr. Dresser, Edmond Street, Liverpool. 1. Edmond Street Rice Mills, Liverpool. 2. 60 feet. 3. 79 feet by 43; bores 379 feet ; 3 bore-holes, 12”, 6", and 4", 4. 15 feet below Ordnance datum in normal condition, 5. 230,000. Grains per gallon, + SETotaW hardness: iii is sc sise ses es PTET a3 ner wil MOMUSTARELOTD. cavern tcivoniw lied ccs ohne seals 1157°8 Albumenoid ammonia ............ a Wage ere 0:27 (AAT OTIIOM entero eT oes, wal aiere are ey oo Gane Asotin 0:6 Chlorine, areata tate soos alee ate Belay cain art 588'4 9. Drift 18 feet, Upper Mottled Sandstone 361 feet. 13. The water is very bitter and saline. 74 . rEPORT—1877. II. Derats or Liverpoot WELLs coLLEcrED By Mr. Mrrtiarp Reape. Bootle Well. ° On 5th Dec. 1868 the hardness of Bootle-well water was 15 On 8th Feb. 1870 33 a5 A amiss: On ” ” ” ” deep bore ,, 16 On 26th June, 1872 £: , » wellwater ,, 163 On 24th Sept., 1872 % x 53 5 alee On Ist April, 1873 Fe ah * son ae ‘On 28th May, 1875 Ps ue se erie AL On 4th June, 1875 A east side of well ,, 22:4 On ” 2” ” ” west ” ” 27°25 On 20th May ,, 85 deep bore jaime On Ist Sept., 1876 a Fe 9 P2228 In 1876 the hardness varied from 22° to 244°, and on 7th Dec., 1876, it was 252°. I do not find that there is any regular difference between the hardness in summer and winter. Differences can be traced to heavy rainfall and the rate of pumping: e.g. the hardness of Bootle-well water was taken weekly for a year; it was generally about 23°, but after heavy rains it fell to 22° and 21°-8, and in very dry weather it rose to 24°. On 1st October, 1875, the hard- ness was 23°, and on 6th October, when the level of the water was 12 feet 6 inches above the bottom of the well, the pump was stopped for repairs. On the 8th October the water rose to 34 feet, and there was no unusual variation in the hardness; at that time heavy rains began to fall, and on 15th Octo- ber, the level of the water being 48 feet, its hardness fell to 18°. The hardness due to magnesium salts was almost the same at this time as before the change, the difference being due to calcium salts. Pumping was then resumed on 15th October after the sample was taken, and in 7 days, viz. on « 22nd October, the level was reduced to 17 feet and the hardness rose again to 23°. On 81st January, 1877, the water of well was.............. 24-56 - = » the average water of the deep bore .. 23:44 Ad - ,, the water near the bottom of bore.... 20°56 Green-Lane Well. On 2nd Dec., 1868, the hardness of Green Lane well was 13 On 26th June, 1872 - Pa » deep bore ,, 142 On 28th March, 1873 4 >» well 3° Wow On 25th May, 1875 5 » deep bore ,, 16 re) ” 29 29 well 3) 143 In 1875 the percolating water from the upper strata at 40 feet above the bottom of the well was 10°, while the mixed water of the well taken at the same time was from 16° to 163°. On 5th Sept., 1876, the water of the deep bore was .... 18:28 5 53 a = well itself. ssc mL In 1876 the average was from 18° to 193°. In 1877, Jan. mi sy 3 20°6. ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 7 OL Windsor Well. On 5th Dec., 1868, the hardness of Windsor Well was 15 On 26th June, 1872 7 . 3 ri tents: On 30th Sept., 1872 Fe £4 3 ee LY. On 20th Oct. 1873 ‘ - 33 sot gos On 24th May, 1875, i Bs Fe | er FELD ” bed 39 ” rp) deep bore 9” 19 On 13th March, 1876 - dp well » 21h On 8th June and Sept. 8th ,, x P| 9 oe On 7th Dec. Ss 6 | » 246 On Ist Sept. Pe * deep bore ,, 21°16 Dudlow-Lane Well. On 2nd Dec. 1868, the hardness of Dudlow Lane well was 63 On 24th Sept., 1872 Pa - 5 rG On 30th Sept., 1872 + “ $ LE On 20th Oct., 1873 = ‘ 73 On Ist June, 1875, the deep-bore was 7°86, ee - » wellitself was 8°. ‘On 4th Sept., 1876, the deep-bore was 8°88. rf . » well was ole The average at present is 7d. The hardness was taken weekly in 1874, and there was no regular difference between the hardness in summer and winter. __ The hardness of Flaybrick-Hill well in Birkenhead was 43° in 1870, and 5° in 1874. J. Campsett Brown, D.Sc. Liverpool Royal Infirmary, School of Medicine, March 4, 1877. LiverrooLt CorPoRATION WATERWORKS. Particulars of Wells in the New Red Sandstone belonging to the Liverpool Corporation. Bootle Well.—The depth of this well from the surface of the ground is 104 feet. The bottom of the well is 49 feet below Ordnance datum. In connexion with the well there are 15 bore-holes, one of which (4 inches in diameter) is sunk to 571 feet below O.D., one to 273 fect 5 inches below O.D., and one to 268 feet 5 inches below O.D. The other bore-holes are shallow. Green-Lane Well.—The depth of this well from the surface of the ground is 185 feet. The bottom of the well is 49 feet below O.D. There are two _ bore-holes: one, of 9” diam. at the top and 6” diam. at the bottom, is sunk to a depth of 248 feet 6 inches below O.D.; the other, of 18” diameter, is sunk to a depth of 359 feet below O.D. Windsor Well.—Depth from surface of ground 210 feet. Bottom of well below Ordnance datum 24 feet 2 inches. There is one bore-hole of 6 inches diam. at the top and 4 inches diam. at the bottom. The total depth of the bore-hole is 269 feet below O.D. Didlow-Lane Well.—Depth from surface of ground 247 feet 3 inches. Bottom of well below Ordnance datum 49 feet. Bore-hole 18” diam. sunk to a depth of 245 feet below O.D. a The following is a tabulated statement of the levels of the water in the several wells in relation to the Ordnance datum on the dates referred to by Dr. J. C. Brown in his report on the hardness of the water :— REPORT—1877. 76 a “Ita re |) ou} SuLMp +! “OLET Peas] WRETT “PLOT PUL “ELST 0 06 |"L t9qQuLeDeq | “OL8T GF *L, toquieseq] | “91ST ‘IST savox Jo yaed o[qvioprs -uoo ev Sunmp poddoys suidumg} $z gz |g xoquiejydag | -g/QT LI “Aveniqay | *LL8T GF *T daquiaydag | ‘9/97 9 OF ‘p doquieydag | “9181 IT 61 |'T tequeydeg | “9181 Ig ‘Arenuvp | (LIST OF ‘pount | “LRT “1GOK 6 = Seu |: (18x18 X18/Road-side. 52-46 | Old Chester Road. a 12x 10x ? In garden-bank. 58-46 |Old Bell & Cuckoo. Granite. 12x 12x 12 Road-side. 5147 | Wilton Hall. Felstone. 5 Brook running into Wilton Pool, 52-47 | Stockland Green. a 12x12 x12'In road. 55-47 | Castle Bromwich. 5 i At Castle Bromwich. 50-47 Perry. \ 51-48 | Streetly Hill, 52-43 Pool Hollies. 52-44 Holly Hurst. 52-45 Powel’s Pool. om Rs ame ds p No boulders found in these squares. 53-45 Maney. 54-44 New House. 54-45 New Hall. 54-46 | Jones Rough. 54-47 Tyburn. | ¥) pave the streets of Newcastle. One of the most remarkable is on the grounds _ of the High School in that town, and is used as a parish boundary. Its size is 5x3 ft.; and it formerly stood about 2 ft. 6in. above the surface, but part is now buried. It is rather rounded, but not striated, and consists of a compact felstone. It is about 400 feet above the sea, and indicates the boundary between Stoke and Newcastle. It is quite isolated, and rests on Boulder-clay, containing glacially striated subangular boulders of a different ‘mineral character. The dimensions of groups of boulders in the neighbourhood of Henley farm and Beech Dale are 3 ft. 8 in. x 2ft., 4 ft. x3 ft., with others smaller. ‘Some are slightly subangular, some more rounded, and all much weathered, The direction, by compass, of the longest axis of one of the group is N.E.E. —S§.W.W., of another 8.8.—N.W., and of another N.—S. The height of the group is 450 ft. above the sea. Larger boulders have their bases covered by soil and grass, smaller ones are almost completely covered by soil. They rest on the Keuper, very near the outcrop of the Bunter sandstone. The G2 St REPORT—1877. group lies on the side of a hill facing nearly E, They are visible in one field, but the upper part of the slope is covered with dense underwood and timber, in which others may possibly be concealed. Some of these boulders are of compact felstone, and others of granite. SHROPSHIRE, Mr. C. J. Woodward, of Birmingham, reports that he has walked over a considerable portion of the district having St. George’s, Shropshire, as a centre, and a three or four miles radius. In the whole district boulders occur, though at times one may walk for a mile or so and not meet with them. Their apparent absence, Mr. Woodward believes, is frequently from accidental circumstances ; for, as mentioned by him in the Report of this Committee for 1873 (British Association Report, 1873, p. 192), many boulders are buried as soon as met with by farmers, many, too, get broken up for road purposes. The most likely place to meet with boulders is about the buildings of a farm or at the corners of streets in villages, for in these places the stones serve a useful purpose, and consequently are not destroyed. The size of the boulders in this district is from 2 to 3 fect in length, by about the same in width and thickness; but besides these, which are boulders proper, there are stones of various sizes down to pebbles, composed of the same kind of rocks, and indis- tinguishable from what are commonly called boulders, except by their size. The number of boulders per square mile in the district is probably from’ 0 to 200 or so. The boulders consist mainly of granite and felstone. In the neighbourhood of Lilleshall Hill are several boulders, which consist of compact felstone, containing iron pyrites and garnets. Boulders of similar rock, containing garnets, haye been met with at Wightwick, near Wolver- hampton, and in a lane near Wroxeter, Salop. HERTFORDSHIRE. Boulders are found at Royston and Ashwell, upon which Mr. H. G. Ford- ham, of Royston, reports. The characteristic materials are a millstone-grit and a fine compact sandstone, the latter being the most prevalent. In the village of Ashwell there are as many as forty boulders, the largest of which is 3x 2°6x 1-6 ft. It is much worn and rounded by exposure to the wheels of carts. Another smaller cubical boulder measures about a foot in each direction, and is of fine yellowish sandstone. Other boulders of this material occur of larger size, up to about 2 ft. 6 in. in the longest diameter. There are patches of Boulder-clay and gravel on most of the neighbouring hills, and probably these boulders have been derived from them. ‘These gravels are mostly composed of flints, but they also furnish fossils and fragments from the Oolite and Lias. In Royston is a boulder remarkable for its size and history. It is of millstone-grit, and measures 4 ft. 8in.x3ft. Gin.x2 ft. 2in. The history of this boulder, so far as known, is given in the notes to ‘ Royston Winter Recreations in the Days of Queen Ann ’—a translation from a Latin poem printed in 1710. It has been used as the footstone of a cross of considerable antiquity, and is now preserved in the garden of the Royston Institute. Two boulders, one of millstone-grit, 3x 2x1 ft., with rounded angles, and another of sandstone, smaller, occur in the garden of a house in Mel- bourn Street. a ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 85 In the district the boulders are used for paving, marking the sides of roads, and protecting the corners of buildings. Sourm Drvyon. Mr. Pengelly reports as follows respecting boulders and scratched stones in fouth Devon :— In 1875 Mr. P. F. 8S. Amery wrote me respecting boulders of “ green- stone ” on his father’s estate of Druid, near the town, and within the parish, of Ashburton ; and during a visit there, in July 1876, he kindly accompanied me to inspect them. The boulders occur about ‘5 mile north-west from Ashburton, in two ad- jacent fields, the easternmost being known as Longbottom, whilst that on the West of it is termed Cole’s Bottom. In the southern corner of Longbottom there is a boulder measuring 24 x 18 x 11 inches, having rudely quadrilateral faces, with the angles well rounded off. It contains no marks or scratches, and it is known that it does not now occupy the place in which it was found, which, however, was, no doubt, in the same field and not far off. It is now near the bottom of the field, and about 30 feet above the level of Ashburton, which is itself about 200 feet above mean tide. . A similar but smaller stone occurs on the opposite side of the same field. The soil on which both specimens lie, and in which they were found, is a clay, sometimes yellowish and sometimes bluish, in which stones of the same character as the boulders, but of much smaller dimensions, are numerous, The labourers term them “ water-stones.” Near the top of Cole’s Bottom there are the fragments of a boulder, which must have been considerably larger than either of those already mentioned, which it resembles in lithological character. It was encountered by the plough in 1875, and unfortunately broken in pieces and dislodged by the workmen who found it. The fragments, which are themselves of consider- able size, are now lying by the hedge in the same field. The boulder appears to have had all its angles rounded off, like those already mentioned; but on what was probably its lower surface there are several grooves, sensibly straight, about 6 inches long, from 2 to 3 inches broad, and parallel to one another. These grooves are crossed and partially effaced by two others of greater breadth. This specimen is about 70 feet above the level of those in Longbottom, and rather further from Ashburton. It must be confessed that the grooves it bears do not impress one with the conviction that. they are of glacial origin; and were it not that they occur on what was apparently the lower surface of the mass, they might rather, perhaps, be ascribed to the lough. The only greenstone formations known to exist in the immediate neigh- bourhood are those forming Roborough Hill, on the eastern side of North Street, Ashburton, and Sparnham Hill, on its western side; but to have travelled from either of them, the largest boulder must have ascended an acclivity to the height of 200 fect above the valley separating the spot in which it was found from the hills just named; whilst the smaller specimens must have performed a similar journey, but failed to attain so great a height. In July 1876, Mr. Paige-Browne, of Great Englebourne, Harberton, South Devon, was so good as to inform me of the existence of a large number of boulders in his neighbourhood, and to invite me to make him a visit for the purpose of a joint inspection of them, I availed myself of this invitation 86 REPORT—1877. on the 28th of the following September, and on the next day we proceeded to the hamlet of East Leigh, also in Harberton parish. On our way thither Mr. Paige-Browne directed my attention to the frequent occurrence of large stones, of a reddish colour, in the foundation courses of hedges and other rough walls, and all differing strikingly from the slate or “shillet” of the district. These were the outposts, so to speak, of the boulders we were to examine; and whilst they were considerably smaller than most of the spe- cimens to be visited, they were so large as to render it probable that they had not been transported by man from any great distance, but had been found near at hand and utilized. At East Leigh, about a mile north-westerly from Englebourne House, and nearly as far in a south-westerly direction from the village of Harberton, boulders are very numerous and of great size. They are generally angular and subangular, but with one face more or less rounded, and even polished, but without any scratches or strie. They are all of a red colour and jaspi- deous aspect, and so siliceous as to scratch glass readily. One of them, pro- bably the largest of the group—so near a cottage-door that we felt called on to apologize to the inmates for our seeming intrusiveness when engaged in examining it—measures 17 x 10 x5 feet, and, taking its specific gravity at 2°5, its weight can be little less than 60 tons. It lies on the common soft shillet of the district, and is certainly a travelled block. This is, no doubt; the history of all the numerous blocks near it. A short distance towards the north-west there is in a field a large mass of the same kind of rock, rising above the soil, and probably in situ, having on it a loose, but in all likelihood untravelled, block of the same character. Both of them, and especially the upper one, are smoothed and rounded on certain parts of the surface. Indeed one portion of the upper stone has a polish a lapidary might envy; but it was no doubt produced by the rubbing of cattle. Neither of the stones is scratched or striated. Fast of these blocks, in the adjoining field, is the striking and abrupt pile known as Berry-Stone Rock. It is distinctly stratified and.jointed, and is, I have no doubt, the undisturbed remnant of a much larger mass—the parent of all the numerous boulders covering the district immediately on the south ; and it seems more than probable that some of the isolated masses rising above the greensward, not far from the Rock, as well as in the adjacent field on the west, are untravelled, undisturbed prolongations of the same mass. In the south face of the pile, which is almost vertical, Mr. Paige-Browne detected fragments of crinoidal stems, and we found subsequently obscure casts of Brachiopods, all of which we left untouched. Information has reached me that Mr. Champernowne, F.G.8., of Darlington Hall, has since found several corals in the same mass, but none of them sufficiently perfect for specific identification. Mr. Paige-Browne informed me that a common mode of freeing cultivated eround from boulders was to dig deep adjacent pits, into which, by under- mining, they were caused to fall, and were then buried. The process, how- ever, being attended with risk, is not now much resorted to, as the workmen object to it. Whilst descending to Leigh Bridge, on the east of Berry-Stone Rock, we entered a very small field, in which the boulders were very numerous, and many of them of great size. Here we found an intelligent villager named Heath, who stated that all the blocks of which he had had experience lay either in the common soil, or on rock utterly unlike themselves; that unsuspected boulders of precisely the same character were frequently encountered in the _ —_ > ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND AND WALES, 87 district by men engaged in cutting deep gutters and drains, and that they were sometimes of such dimensions as to render it much the wisest course to leave them undisturbed and to deviate from the proposed line of excavation. From the observations I was able to make, and the information furnished to me, it appears that the boulders occupy a zone, about *75 mile long and *5 mile broad, south of an east-and-west lino from Leigh Bridge on the east, through and a little beyond the Berry-Stone Rock on the west, and that none have been detected north of that line. The Berry-Stone Rock occupies a place in the map of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, but it does not appear that Sir H. De la Beche, or any other writer, has directed attention to its remarkable character, or to the multitude of boulders lying in its vicinity and undoubtedly connected with it. Having learnt that, on account of the proximity of the numerous and very large boulders, its limited extension, its supposed metamorphic character, its dissimilarity to all the other rocks of the district, and its resemblance to certain metamorphic rocks surrounding Dartmoor, it had been suggested that the Berry-Stone Rock was itself an erratic block, and derived probably from Auswell Rock, about 85 miles due north, I decided on making it a second visit, and requested that, as a preliminary step, an excavation should be made immediately adjacent to its southern or precipitous side. Having secured the ready consent of Mr. Helyar, of Coker Court, Somerset, who is the proprietor of the land, and of Messrs. E. and E. Whiteway, the tenants, this was done; and on the 25th May, 1877, I proceeded, with Mr. J. 5. Amery, to the spot, where we found Mr. Paige-Browne and Mr. E. Whiteway. Two pits had been dug, one five feet deep and the other somewhat less, the work haying been stopped in each case by the occurrence of a mass of rock, which was either a large boulder or a subterranean prolongation of the Berry Stone in situ. In short, there was no indication that the base of the pile _ had even been approached. The entire mass is rudely rectangular in form, measuring 145 feet long in an east and west direction, 56 feet high from the top of the southern face to the bottom of the deepest pit at its base, 11 feet high on the northern side (the difference in height being due, not to the form of the pile, but to inequalities in the level of the ground), and 32 feet broad at the top. The beds dip at about 26° towards the north, and are of considerable thickness, one of them measuring 7°5 feet; and the numerous well-defined joints are sensibly vertical, in no instance “open,” and have a north-and-south direction. It will be seen from the foregoing data that the portion of the pile which has been actually examined contains upwards of 250,000 cubic feet, and, at a specific gravity of 2:5, weighs upwards of 18,000 tons—facts sufficient of themselves to show that the ‘Berry- -Stone Rock is certainly not a travelled mass, but is distinctly in situ. According to Professor Heer (see his ‘ Primeval World of Switzerland,’ edited by James 3 Heywood, M.A., F.R.S., 1876, vol. ii. p. 181), the largest block in Switzerland—the « Monster Block ” on the hill at Montet near - Devent—contains no more than 161,000 cubic feet, that is, — less than two thirds of the volume of the Devonshire pile ; ; and we learn from the First Report by the Committee on Scotch Boulders (1872, p. 24), that the largest block they have detected—that at Kemnay, in AMertosienive-= measures 38x 30x 10-5 feet, =11,970 cubic feet at most; 7. ¢., less than one twentieth of the bulk of the Berry Stone. If these are the measures of the greatest efforts of Switzerland and Scotland respectively—countries possessed of mountains entitled to look with scorn on 88 REPORT—1877,. our Dartmoor, and which we know were the scenes of glacial labours on a most magnificent scale, whilst we have done no more than, if we have done so much as, to show that Devonshire was glaciated at all—we can scarcely hesitate to dismiss the hypothesis of the Berry-Stone Rock being a travelled block. Again, to have travelled from Auswell Rock, or any spot in that neigh- bourhood, the blocks must have bid defiance to at least many of the hills and valleys of the interjacent country. True, their route for a part of the way might have been the Dart valley ; but they must have left this as high up as at Staverton, and been regardless of the contour of the country throughout the residue of their journey ; and since they abound at the level of the River Harber, at Leigh Bridge, that contour must have closely resembled that which obtains at present. Of those at a distance from it, there are none at so high a level as the base of the Berry Stone itself. Further, had the Berry-Stone Rock, or any of the undoubted boulders south of it, travelled from Auswell Rock, we might surely have expected that, here and there, and at by no means wide intervals, blocks of the same character would have presented themselves in the intervening country ; but it is admitted, even by those who have diligently sought them, that, so far from any thing of the kind being met with, the boulders of East Leigh, as already stated, are confined to a narrow zone, having the Berry-Stone Rock on its northern margin, and without a single block to the north of that pile. Finally, it is difficult to believe that such a mass could have fallen on a glacier without being divided along some of its numerous joints; in other words, that a pile traversed by so many divisional planes could, after such a fall, have remained so large. The foregoing reasons, as well as the general aspect of the rock, forbid the acceptance of the notion that it is a travelled block, and compel me to hold that it occupies the place it always did, and that it is the parent of the nu- merous blocks scattered over the district immediately on the south. With regard to the characters which distinguish it so strikingly from the surrounding formations, if it has undergone metamorphosis at all, the fossils it yields show that it has not been to an extent sufficient to obliterate them. Unfortunately they are too ill-preserved for specific identification, so that they fail to tell us whether they belong, like the Auswell Rock, to the Carboniferous period, or, like the adjacent ‘“shillet” and slate, to the Devonian era. If, however, the Rock has been metamorphosed, it is not inconceivable that subterranean granitoid rocks may exist in various directions very far from Dartmoor, and, without reaching the surface anywhere, may in certain places rise very near it in sharp conical masses, and that such metamorphosis as the Berry Stone has undergone may be due to such a subterranean boss. Such an explanation of the highly metamorphosed condition of the rocks extending from the Start Point to the Boll Tail, in the southern angle of Devonshire—the cause of which is no more exposed to view than in the case now under notice—has been suggested by Dr. Harvey Holl, F.G.S., and the late Mr. Beete Jukes, F.R.S. &e. (see Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond. vol. xxiv. pp. 439, 440, 1868, and ‘Notes on Parts of South Devon and Cornwall,’ 1868, p. 15), and a glance at the known distribution of the granitoid rocks in Cornwali, Devonshire, and Lundy Island will show that it has at least an air of probability. The extension of the Berry-Stone pile, though now confessedly very limited, was of necessity considerably greater before the crowd of huge boulders was severed from the mass; and, as already stated, there can be little doubt that a: ee i i i a ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 89 at least some of the so-called boulders rising through the greensward in a line with the Berry-Stone, and on the west of it, are indications of its subsoil prolongation in that direction. A degree of resemblance to the Auswell Rock may be the result of simi- larity of composition and of exposure to corresponding treatment. It may be sufficient, perhaps, to justify the question, “‘ Has the southern been derived from the northern mass?” but not sufficient to justify an affirmative reply. I cannot conclude this note without expressing my gratitude to Mr. Paige- Browne for having directed my attention to phenomena so unexpected and so striking as the Leigh boulders, and which are certainly amongst the most pronounced indications of ice-transportation known to me in Devonshire, LEICESTERSHIRE. Mr. J. Plant, of Leicester, reports as follows :— Isolated Boulders. Loseby, Leicestershire, about 9 miles from Leicester. Gravel-pit, in map under letter o in Loseby. 42 fect long, 3 feet wide, 33 feet deep. Sharp angles and edges on one side, the other side rounded off. Long shape; never moved by man; S.E. by S. No groovings can be seen. Granite. About 650 feet above the sea at mean tide Liverpool. The erratic is in a gravel-pit of “drift,” flint, rounded pebbles of liver- quartz, &c. ; this gravel-bed forms part of a long “ridge” of drift-gravel; the pit opened is 20 feet deep, and rests upon gravel, which again lies upon the upper clays of “ Lower Lias.” This “ erratic” is 10 miles distant from its nearest possible source, and is the largest of this kind that I have found at that distance. It is reported to me that when working (some years ago) this gravel-pit, a large block of pure coal (as large us this “ erratic”) was found, but it was speedily utilized for domestic purposes. I was informed of another block of coal (large size) found in a gravel-pit at Beeby, 4 miles west of Loseby. These blocks of coal must have travelled in ice, as they would certainly have been broken up by any other means of transport, such as water. Both blocks were buried many feet in the gravel. Ihave never met with any “erratics” of any kind on the “ marlstone,” and, in fact, there is very little “ drift’? upon any of it, the red rock being nearly at the surface ; and hence the name of these marlstone-districts, ‘ the red lands.” The mean height of the marlstone is 680 feet, all lying south, south-east, and east of Leicester, and the mean height of Charnwood Forest (the presumed source of these erratic blocks of granite, syenite, greenstone) is about 700 feet; there are a few peaks 840 feet, and one, Bardon Hill, 902 feet. Groups of Boulders. Group No. 1.—At Evington, about 1 mile east of the town of Leicester. The size of the boulders is from 3 feet x 2} x 13 down to cubic blocks about 1 foot on each side. The greater part have sharp angles and edges, and when free of clay and sand the rock-surface is very fresh, not at all weathered ; the grits and sandstone are rounded and worn. Many of the limestone blocks are covered with grooves and scratches. Rocks at south end of Charnwood Forest would supply the granite, syenite, and 90 REPORT—1877. greenstone, and north end of the same district would furnish the grits, sand- stone, and limestone. Nearly half are granites, others millstone-grit, with limestone, chert, Triassic sandstone, and coal-measure sandstones. About 280 feet above sea-level. The group extends over an area of about 14 mile by 3 a mile wide. At depths of from 1 foot up to 20 feet in “ drift’ these boulders are found in heaps; the “drift” has been penetrated (for a deep sewer) 30 feet, and bottom not reached. Group No. 2.—At Thurnby, 5 miles south-east of Leicester. Size of boulders from 2 feet x 14 x 14 down to cubic blocks about 9 inches on each face. All edges sharp and angular. Rocks of the same nature occur at the south end of Charnwood Forest. All seen are granites, syenites, greenstones. Height above the sea is about 500 feet mean tide Liverpool. The area occupied is a mile square, but they are scattered in groups and patches, The boulders occur at depths of 1 to 2 feet in “drift.” Great numbers of them have been collected and utilized for roads, others are now seen for many miles along the turnpike, supporting the footpath at intervals about 12 feet apart: this is a very common way of utilizing these boulders in modern times; formerly they were all used up in foundations of houses, churches, abbeys, walls, barns, &c. Fourth Report of a Committee, consisting of Prof. A. 8. Herscurt, M.A., F.R.AS., and G. A. Lusour, F.G.S., on Experiments to determine the Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks, showing especially the Geological Aspects of the Investigation. Havine been led during the past year, by a renewal of their appointment (with the provision of a grant amply sufficient to enable them to recommence it), to pursue, and if possible to complete the experimental investigation in which they have now for the fourth year been engaged, of the Thermal Con- ductivities of certain Rocks, the Committee have attempted to complete this research as far as the different kinds of rocks within their reach appeared to offer geologically the most practical inducements to fix their places exactly in a thermal-resistance scale, and to verify as certainly as possible the re- sults of the observations which they have obtained in former years. The same form and size of rock-plates, the same steam-heater and cooler, and exactly the same form of thermopile as that described in the account of the experiments presented in last year’s Report were resorted to in order to extend, and in part also to repeat, some of the former experiments in this year’s series of similar determinations. The apparatus was, however, modi- fied in some essential points, in order, by changing entirely the circumstances of the experiments, to leave no doubt of the reality of the observed thermal conductivities, and of the extent to which their values can be trusted as repre- senting correctly the true conductivities of the rock-specimens examined. For this purpose a new thermopile was constructed, having as one of its elements iridio-platinum instead of iron wire (German silver being, as before, the a a ae oe roe ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS, 91 other element), which, with the fine gauge (0'4 mm., rolled to 0-2 mm.) of the wires used, was not so destructible as iron, while it yielded with German silver a thermoelectric current whose electromotive force was scarcely less considerable than that obtained with a combination of iron and German silver. The series of twenty-four junctions of dissimilar wires contained in the con- tinuous circuit which enclosed the rock, while opposite to each other (above and below the rock-plate) in twelve pairs, were so distributed equally over its area as to indicate by their total action an average difference of tempera- ture between its faces for all the different points of the area of the plate *. The wires, where not used to touch the plate, were secured to a band of thin leather 4 or 5 inches wide, two similar bands of thin silk above and below the rock-plate forming the rest of their support, so that the rock-plate could be placed between the two silk bands in a flexible loop of a twelve-fold coil of wires, the right half of which consisted of German silver and the left of iridio-platinum half-turns of the coil. The latter were cut through, and being joined to twenty-four ends of German-silver wire in a water-bath, which proceeded from as many teeth of a commutator, it was casy (as described by a sketch of the arrangement in last year’s Report) to note the actual mean temperature of cither the upper or the lower set of junctions touching the rock-plate, by varying the temperature of the water in the bath until no current passing through the galvanometer indicated that the water in the bath had reached the same temperature as that of the set of junctions above or below the rock-plate with which the junctions-in the water-bath had been connected up. Several independent proofs having already been obtained that water, with- out convection, possesses a thermal conductivity which is not only high among liquids, but is actually not inferior to that of some solid rocks whose place is low in the conducting-scale, no difficulty was anticipated in making the wire junctions assume identically the existing temperatures of the rock- faces touching them, nor was the bibulous or porous stratum of thin silk upon which they rested, when soaked with water, expected to vitiate the observa- tions by any incquality of temperature in a water-film of such exceeding thinness, touching the rock, in which the thermopile wires were placed, In order to press them close, smooth sheets of unvulcanized india rubber were placed outside of the wet silk; and the wires being thus effectually squeezed against the rock with a simple luting of pure water (which, under the pressure of 4 1b. per square inch on every part of the surface, could nowhere well attain half a millimetre in thickness), the equality of their temperature with that of the rock-face contiguous to them might be regarded as assured. In some of the most porous rocks, as chalk and firestone, the water laid on the silk was nearly absorbed by the stone, leaving the silk damp, but steaming ; and as equally steady and satisfactory observations were yet obtained in these cases when air and water-vapour must to a great extent have replaced the water-film, it deserves a future trial if steam (and it may be even air) in such an extremely thin film as contained the wires in these experiments may not be as effective a medium of heat-conduction with which to surround the wires as water; but, beyond the evidence that air saturated with water- * The thickness of the plate was also similarly gauged with steel_calipers at several points, so as to obtain the average thickness, the exact value of which as thus obtained yas used in all the experiments described in these Reports to calculate the conductivity of the plate. 92 REPORT—1877. vapour (at a tension of a few inches of mercury, and at a temperature of 110° F. to 130° F.) is as efficacious as water itself, no special experiment with the thin wire thermopile to solve the question as regards dry air alone was made in further trial of what would be, if found to be successful, a practically very valuable simplification. The other variations introduced in this year’s series of experiments were to increase the temperature differences and the heat-flow through the tested plates by removing all but the most necessary sheets of caoutchouc lining between them and the heater or cooler, and by raising a more rapid supply of steam in the heater with a stronger flame. The actual temperature of the plates was also raised in some experiments by shifting all the movable linings from underneath to above the plates so as to bring the latter further from the cooler and nearer to the source of heat. The success of these ex- periments was only partial, because, in the strong temperature differences which prevailed (when temperatures between 130° F. and 160° F. were noted in the water-bath), false currents arising from want of homogeneity in the heated wires presented themselves in the thermopile, which, in spite of the number of its coils, did not neutralize each other entirely ; and it was found necessary to test it very carefully (as described in the last Report) by introducing a hot paper-covered thick plate of iron between the lappets of the thermopile in place of a rock-specimen, and observing the temperatures of its two faces at the water-bath. Errors of indication of the thermopile were thus discovered, and were noted at different temperatures of the iron plate, arising from the abrupt changes of temperature along the wires. The way in which the temperature of the water in the bath was changed, quickly or slowly, from hot to cold, or vice versd, seemed especially to influence these considerably ; and it was finally resolved to abandon the attempt to obtain new results, by these means, of the thermal conductivities of the rock-plates at higher temperatures and under very different circumstances of the heat- flow through them from those which had been employed before, although the known allowances for the small erratic deportment of the thermopile always gave under these entirely new conditions results which did not differ appre- ciably from those which were previously observed, and which have been re- corded in the earlier tables of these Reports. Temperatures of the rock- faces between 100° F. and 120° F. were found by trials with the iron plate to be easy to observe correctly in the water-bath, with proper care in its management, with errors not exceeding two or three tenths of a. degree, while the temperature differences requiring to be thus observed varied from between 3° and 4° with quartz to between 30° and 40° with shale and sand. About this range of temperature of the rock-faces was accordingly adopted, by properly thickening the lining between them and the heater, in the expe- riments which afforded the following table of results (p. 94). While it would be necessary, in order to deliver the individual wires of the thermopile from strong effects of temperature-differences, and to obtain scientifically accurate results, to discard steam-heating and the use of temperatures much above those of the outer air altogether, resorting for, example, rather to cold water from a main to produce the temperature difference necessary to transmit heat through the rocks, or using water otherwise cooled artificially in the cooler, and exposing the under surface of the rock with a lining and a metal plate to the ordinary temperature of a room, yet with the small uncertainties which, without doubt, remain in the indications of the thermopile from the cause here pointed out, in this and in all the earlier tables of absolute con- ductivities and resistances which the Committee has appended to its Reports, OE = ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS. 93 it can furnish some additional support from these provisional experiments to the assurance which it has already gained in former years, that the values assigned to them will not be found to differ, except in some rare accidental cases, more than 10, or, in the least satisfactory cases, it may be 15 or 20 per cent. from the real thermal conductivities of the rock-plates examined. ‘The heat-capacity of the cooler and the rate of loss of heat through it to the outer air were reobserved, and were used independently in the preparation of this Table, although they differed slightly (perhaps from setting and tightening of its jacket with time) from similar measures of them which were used last year. The conductivities observed this year are, for the most part, a little higher than those found formerly, perhaps by reason of the new determinations used of the heat-capacity and heat-loss of the cooler; but some exceptions to this rule are also found; and it must be remembered that no allowance is made in these or in the earlier results for the small quantity of heat absorbed by the rock-plate itself during the progress of an experiment, nor, again, for the fact that the rate of absorption of heat and of its emission to the outer air by the jacketed vessel of the cooler is dependent on the rate of rise of water temperature inside it. The specific heats of the materials of the rocks themselves and of the apparatus are not sufficiently known to determine these corrections surely ; but at the common specific heat (0-2) of a great number of rocks it appears that about one thirtieth of their values may have to be added to the observed conductivities for the first of these considerations. Whether an additive or subtractive correction is required for the second cause cannot be decided, because it is an uncertainty already occurring in the determination of the heat-capacity and rate of heat-loss of the cooler, the judgment necessary in assigning which must be regarded as providing sufficiently for this correction, Thus a correction for heat-capacity of the cooler vessel and its jacket of one tenth was added to the conductivities before observed directly, while one eighth was added in the experiments of the present year, allowing a rather longer time (of three or four minutes) for the heat to penetrate the vessel and its jacket. At the slow rate (about 1° F. in the same time) that the temperature of the water rises in the cooler during an experiment no higher correction than this could well be admitted ; for after this length of time the loss of heat from the water depends sensibly upon its escape to the outer air, and no longer perceptibly upon the absorp- tion or capacity for heat of the vessel and its jacket, when an experiment is made to find the amount of this heat-loss by absorption. The uncertainty of this correction must therefore range between one tenth and one eighth of the observed conductivities, which have been used as its extreme values in different cases. Theapparatus may fairly be regarded in other respects as perfectly heat-tight in its connexions by the thick belts of caoutchouc which surround the tested plate of rock and the meeting ends of the boiler and cooler pressed against it by great pressure; and a thick wooden table (through which the padded boiler top just reaches the level of its upper surface) prevents any extraneous heat from the source below it from reaching the testing apparatus. The discrepancies which are observed can therefore only be ascribed directly to two disturbing causes. These are, the imperfect closeness of contact of the thermopile wire junctions with the tested rocks, and the want of absolute freedom of the wires from extraneous currents arising from other actions than those of the temperatures at their points of junction. It is impossible to prevent entirely the operation of these dis- REPOoRT—1877. 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[ierrettteesesctester ete eneeeseerees bea arq.reur pox exrysuosocy | PRE tee te scheint yo. e e e| Fimoe x (ner a eee eee ec eT ale | on | sirerseresssseseeneneesso¥+(SUOTPBASGO O4N}) O]CIVUI URITTOTS OFITTAL TSHOG. ere sores (qooumey qoory) yoor-deay, oryradydaog ong | ‘(oarysyyaog ‘yoouney yoo) = | E9FOO- [oreo paztozUCD AvmMSoam YA ‘youdutoa :4snpos voryy 96 REPORT—1877. turbing causes ; and the best endeavours of the Committee have therefore been used to obviate and to diminish the effects of their action as much as possible. This they have, they believe, accomplished in the main successfully ; but instances yet frequently occur which show that without special and very close attention to them the most unequivocal experiment, apparently, may yet mislead ; and it is not without this recognition and probable explanation of some of the obvious discrepancies in the accompanying Table that they venture to produce the values which it contains as probably exhibiting very approximately the true absolute thermal conductivities of the various rock- specimens which they have tested. The quartzites (compact siliceous rocks) from Schiehallion agree in their conductivities with crystalline and opaque white quartz. Another class of rocks from the neighbourhood of Schiehallion experimented on is the class of micaceous sandstones, or flagstones, which cover a large area in the in- terior of Scotland. The mica, which is abundant in these sandstones, appears to have imparted to them a slaty cleavage, the plane of which in their actual © positions is seldom horizontal, and is more often 30° or 40° inclined to the. horizon. Like other sandstones they may be readily broken across, as well as in the direction of their cleavage-planes, and no difficulty ‘occurred in obtaining some trial sections of them in these different directions. The result shows that the conductivity increases (on the average of the samples tried) continuously from that of heat transmission across to that of its trans- mission along the direction of the cleavage-planes in the proportion of 2:3, not quite so great as that observed in slate *, apparently from the less perfect ease and liability to cleavage which these stones present. A kind of firestone kindly supplied to the Committee by Mr. Baldwin Latham, C.E., from quarries at Godstone, in Surrey, where it is largely extracted on account, of its unalterable qualities under the action of certain furnace-heats, which exhibits very regular bedding in the quarries, but of which the cleavage is yet either insensible or exceedingly imperfect, exhibits no signs of increase of conductivity for heat-transmission in the direction of the bedding-planes, But some specimens of altered shale compacted apparently to perfect uni- formity and hardness by contiguity to the once molten intruder of whin rock under which they lay, so as to break with the same facility in all directions excepting where shrinkage-cracks in and across its plane of bed- ding (apparently like those in whin rocks) have parted it by the heat to which it has been exposed, still exhibits a tendency of heat to traverse it more freely in the direction of its original bedding-planes than in the trans- verse direction, in the proportion of about 3:47. The conductivity is, at the same time, raised considerably by the semifusion of the materials above that of ordinary shales, of which some new trials which were made this year are also included in the present Table. The specimens of granite, of porphyritic trap rock, and of mica schist obtained from Loch Rannoch in Perthshire, present conductivities which resemble very nearly that of the grey Aberdeen granite with which they are here compared; and some new trials of varieties of limestone, chalk, and marble have been made, which may be regarded as in satisfactory accordance with what have been previously observed. In order to establish and confirm the good conductivity of water which was revealed in some of the experiments made with it last year, dry clay * About 3:5. See these Reports, vol. for 1876, p. 24. + The experiment having been made on two specimens only, which were not cut from the same block, very great weight cannot be claimed at present for this preliminary trial. eee —E——L—=——— tc ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS. 97 and sand were saturated with it after their conductivities in a dry state hal been tested, the soft materials being placed for this purpose in one of the thick caoutchouc belts, which was closed at the top and bottom with sheets of thin paper and gutta-percha tissue (used to keep water of the thermopile lappets from the dry sand, and roughened to make it touch the sand per- fectly inside, like sandpaper, with a coat of sand attached to it with shell- lac). The water was added to the sand in its cell (by a pipette introduced below, until it overflowed from an opening in the top), so as to effect its thorough saturation; whilst the pressure (of 60 lbs. or 80 lbs.) upon it in the apparatus would prevent any water from remaining in the cell, except such as was contained in the interstices of the sand. The low conductivities of dry sand and of dry clay are (for their weights) remarkable; and the effect of adding water to them is to inerease their low conductivities very considerably. But the effect is much more evident in sand than in wet clay, where the possibility of any convection-currents of the enclosed water assisting the heat-transfer is effectually excluded ; in the interstices of the sand, on the contrary, however feeble they must be, it is yet possible that they may materially assist the process of transmission of the heat. It indeed appears probable that the fluid freedom of the water in the interspaces which it fills in the sand may in this case enable gravity to have some share in - carrying through the open channels some ascending currents of warm water and some descending currents of cold water, in spite of the effects of friction. li this explanation can be conceded, it may be fairly granted from the great increase of conductivity imparted to loose sand by water in its passages, which will be noticed in the Table, not less than what is found in some rocks notable for their good conducting qualities, that the presence of the water used to saturate the lappets of the thermopile, casily percolating their silk tissues, must place the thermoscopic wires as thoroughly in contact with the rock as if they were cemented to it with a thin film of rock at least as good in its capacities of conduction as some of the best conductors of the ordinary varieties of rocks which have been examined. The Committee has recorded this observation of the good conducting-power of water contained in such a vehicle as sand or other freely permeable substance with considerable satisfaction, from the renewed confidence which it enables it to place in the method of experimenting which was adopted, and from the fresh assur- ance that it gives of the correctness of the results which haye thereby been obtained. In presenting the results arrived at by these means of experiment during the past year, the Committee feel very certainly persuaded that the lists of absolute thermal conductivities and resistances which accompany this Report, and which are appended in three previous Tables to the earlier Reports of the Committee during the last three years, are near approximations (although they differ by fluctuating and insidious faults of observation from a constant mean) to those expressions for the thermal conductivities of the most im-: portant and abundant kinds of rocks which it has been one of the Committee’s principal objects in the present investigation, by the best and most conclusive possible processes of experiment, to ascertain. 1877. ii 98 REPORT—1877. Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors during the year 1876-77, by a Committee, consisting of James GuarsHER, F.R.S., R. P. Gree, F.G.S., F.R.A.S., C. Brooxn, F.R.S., Prof. G. Forsus, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S., Watter Fue, D.Sc.,F.G.S., and Prof. A. 8. Herscuat, M.A., F.R.AS. Drawn up by Professor Herscuen (Secretary). Tue meteoric occurrences and the results of observation and research relating to luminous meteors during the past year have presented many points of interest and importance, and, as will be seen in the present Report, they have occasionally furnished materials for discussion, of which the results must be regarded as possessing considerable scientific value. A large part of the Committec’s time and attention since the presentation of the last Report has been bestowed on discussing and comparing together the summaries and reductions of meteor-registers supplied to them by a few actiye observers of shooting-stars at monthly and even at more frequent intervals from their own and from more extensively recorded meteor obser- vations, from which a large store of additional information on special and ordinary showers of shooting-stars has been derived. The object at first intended to be pursued by the Committee, of providing observers with a full review of the existing lists of meteor-showers and of the radiant-points of comets and meteors, with commentaries and instructions how to observe and project the apparent paths of shooting-stars so as to note their horary num- bers and to recognize their radiant-points, has, for this reason, not been carried out. But the large accessions to the known orbits or directions of individual meteors and of meteor-streams which the past year’s observations have contributed exceeds what the Committee has been able to report in any previous year, and affords ground for the assumption that the brief delay in its compilation which has thus arisen will not materially affect the utility of a complete synopsis of meteor-showers, and of instructions to assist obser- vers in tracing and identifying them, which, with more leisure in another year to bestow upon it, the Committee hopes to provide regular and occasional observers of shooting-stars with at no very distant period. A few stone-falls have taken place, or their occurrences have been an- nounced, during the past year; but none of these were remarkable for the size or weight of the discovered meteoric fragments. On the 16th of August, 1875, a small aérolite, weighing about 14 oz., fell in the district of La Calle and Constantine, in Algeria. On the 25th of June, 18th of July, and 19th of October, 1876, aérolites are said to have descended in America, the first in Kansas city, Missouri, about as large as and of the shape of a small oyster- shell, which struck and nearly penetrated a tin roof, where it rebounded and lay too hot to be touched immediately. Of these three aérolites little more than the brief announcements of their falls has yet been published, A small meteoric fragment weighing about three quarters of a pound fell from the prodigious fireball of December 21st, 1876, near Rochester, in the northern part of Indiana, U.S.; and aérolites in Missouri, Georgia, and Kentucky, U.S., are stated to have been discovered, and to be now in Dr. Lawrence Smith’s possession, which fell from detonating meteors seen in the United States on the 3rd, 20th, and 23rd of January, 1877. Particulars of these stone-falls and of recently discovered iron masses and OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. $9 meteorites, together with a review of recent progress in the special ex- amination and investigation of certain meteoric stones and irons, are inclu- ded in the last Appendix of this Report. Of the detonating fireballs visible in 1876-77, two appear to have been of unusual magnificence, that which passed over the northern States of America on the 21st of December last having traversed a distance of about 1000 miles, from near the river Kansas to near the town of Erie and the western boundary of New York state, appearing in a great part of this prodigious flight to consist of a multitude of fireballs pursuing each other in a cluster of great length and breadth, produced apparently by a disruption of the metcor attended with very loud explosions about the middle of its course. Another surpassingly bright detonating fireball was seen in Cape Colony, South Africa, on the evening of the 16th of March, 1877, the light and the violence of whose explosion, like those of the last meteor, were quite unusual. A deto- nating fireball passed over the southern counties of Ireland on the 6th of April last, from Wicklow to Cork, off the coast of which. latter county it burst with a very loud explosion. In the Appendix, where these large _ meteors are described a notice of some recent memoirs by Professor yon i te Niessl, of Briinn, in Moravia, will also be found, showing that two deto- nating fireballs seen in Bohemia and Hungary on the 10th of April, 1874, and 9th of April, 1876, were directed from a common radiant-point in Cassiopeia, and must without doubt haye been pursuing almost identical orbits round the sun, which Professor von Niessl considers there is evidence enough to show were of a hyperbolic form. Descriptions of various large meteors seen in England are given in a fire- hall list, and also in the first Appendix of this Report with more detail, where sufficient data were collected to enable the meteors’ real heights and the lengths, directions, and velocities of their real courses to be ascertained. For such determinations more or less complete materials were afforded by the meteors of July 25th, August 11th, 13th, 15th, September 24th, and November 8th, 1876, and January 7th, March 17th, and April 6th, 1877, permitting the heights, the radiant-points, and in some cases the velocities of these meteors to be assigned. Notwithstanding very conflicting statements which eyen professedly exact descriptions of these meteors’ paths contain, an impartial discussion of all the observations allows of their combination and comparison together, so as to produce the most accordant representations of the real courses along which these meteors passed over England or the adjacent coasts. A table in the first Appendix contains the most reliable of these deductions ; and sufficiently distinct descriptions of the eight fine metcors which it records were secured by observations to make the real paths here assigned to them free from any greater uncertainties than those which naturally attach to and interfere with exact vision and perfectly correct descriptions of such unexpected and startling celestial phenomena. ‘The light emitted by the large fireball of September 24th, 1876, was unusually vivid and intense, and many remarkable instances of deception as to the real direction and nature of its source, as well as in the views of the fireball’s appearance as modified by clouds and otherwise, occurred among the de- scriptions, some instances of which are cited in the general account given of this meteor in the first Appendix. The same Appendix also contains a list _ of ordinary shooting-stars doubly observed in England during the past year, Paes a large proportion of which accordances were obtained from a ecmparison of the meteor-register kept by Mr. Denning at Bristol with the published list of meteors scen and recorded by Professor Main’s assistants in the Radcliffe H2 160 REPORT—1877. Observatory, Oxford, the remainder being extracted from this or other pub- lished lists and from occasional records of meteor-tracks furnished to the Committee by various observers. No very important occurrences of star-showers during the past year have been recorded. The Leonids and Andromedes of November 1876, the meteors of the lst to 3rd of January, and the Lyrids in April 1877 were either very scarce or quite absent on the annual dates of maximum of those showers, as far as a watch for their appearance could be kept successfully ; but clouds prevented observations on the Leonid meteor-nights of November 13th to 15th. Some meteors of this shower were seen on the mornings of November 19th and 20th by Mr. Denning, who also observed a conspicuous shower of shooting-stars very similar to the Leonids on the mornings of November 26th to 29th, with a radiant-point in Leo Minor. The existence of this meteor-stream in close proximity to that of the Leonids, with which its meteors may occasionally happen to be confused, deserves attention, and, if possible, exact verification by future observations. A considerable abun- dance of meteors, amounting apparently to an active star-shower, and inclu- ding several bright ones, was noticed in America during the night of October 18th to 19th, 1876, the radiant-point being approximately between Taurus and Auriga. Scareely any Orionids were seen on the preceding and following nights by Mr. Denning during the annual period of this well-defined October shower. A similar fitful shooting-star shower (unconnected with the Per- seids, since the radiant-point of that shower was far below the horizon at the time of apparition) took place in New Zealand on the night of August 13th; and Mr, Corder described a very accurately defined shower of small metcors from a radiant-point in Pegasus, in about two hours, on the night of September 21st, 1876, when at an earlier hour of the evening no such frequency of shooting-stars had been observed elsewhere. Collection together in such brief and sometimes abundant flights or swarms is a marked and significant peculiarity of shower-meteors, and it is very desirable to determine the position of the radiant-point of the meteor-swarm in such cases with as much accuracy as possible. In the stormy weather and full-moon light at the heginning of this year nothing could be seen of the annual January star- shower ; and on one night at least (that of the 20th to 21st) of the April meteor-period, with perfectly clear sky, Mr. Denning observed only four Lyrids during five hours of uninterrupted watch. Although certainly a shower of very brief duration, this is a very remarkable scarcity of its meteors to be observed on either the first night following or on the very night itself of this meteor-shower’s expected maximum display in the year 1877. With the exception of the Perseids of August 1876 and 1877, the Gemi- nids on the nights of the 11th and 12th of December, 1876, furnished the most abundant annual or periodic star-shower of the year. In point of numbers (about twenty or thirty meteors per hour for one observer) the Geminid display occupied a middle place between the above two August showers, including, like those showers, several meteors as bright as Jupiter or Venus, only less attractive in appearance than the well-known Perseids, from their somewhat smaller speed and from the less frequent occurrence of enduring light-streaks on their courses. The shower was observed in France as well as in England, and the position of its radiant-point in the north-eastern part of Gemini was well determined. Of its two nights of chief intensity the maximum of the shower appears to have been somewhat more strongly marked on the 11th than on the 12th of December. Of the two August showers, while that of 1876 was extremely meagre, it was not much surpassed OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 101 by this year’s display, these haying both been (as will be gathered from de- scriptions of them and of other recently observed meteor-showers in the third Appendix of this Report) the scantiest returns of the Perseids that have been observed for several years. ; A numerous collection of newly recorded meteor-showers is contained in the same Appendix of this Report—partly obtained by Mr. Corder’s and Mr. Denning’s observations between the autumn of the last and the summer of the present year, and partly by a systematic projection and reduction by Mr. Denning of long lists of shooting-star observations recently published in this country and abroad. Inclusive of upwards of 1000 of his and Mr. Corder’s original observations, about 4000 meteor-tracks from these various sources have been projected and were more or less completely reduced to their radiant-points by Mr. Denning, with results of which the particulars are collected, and have here been arranged together in comparativo tables by Mr. Greg. About thirty of the meteor-showers thus observed and extracted appear to be new to former lists, while about one hundred other previously known meteor-shower positions are more or less exactly corroborated and confirmed. ‘The newly recorded showers are also in many cases in better agreement with cometary shower-dates and positions than any formerly assigned individual showers had been, and several new examples of cometary coincidences are offered by them, of which, with fuller details of these new vigorously and successfully conducted investigations, the third Appendix of this Report contains a complete description. The Committee has now to record with profound regret, at the close of its Report, the death, on the 30th of June, 1877, of Professor Heis. The first astronomer who systematically devoted his attention to observing shooting- stars in order to record their radiant-points, and who published in the year 1849 an original list of radiant-points of all the then known meteor-showers, he began in the year 1842, and continued to superintend without interruption until quite recently, the simultaneous observations of shooting-stars which he instituted in the Rhenish and neighbouring towns of Germany and belgium amongst the best observers and most eminent astronomers of those countries, and which he also collected from observers and astronomers in more distant, lands. With the thoughtful care of preserving to posterity the fruits of his long-continued records, he undertook, in the last years of his life, the compi- lation of all the results of his prolonged researches, from the first recorded observation in the year 1833 to the present time; and his werk * ‘ On the Re- sults of Forty-three Years’ Observations of Shooting-stars” was on the point of publication, and lacked but little final revision from his hands, before his sudden and unexpected death. To the watchful and unwearying labours of Professor Heis, which supported its cultivation during the period of indiffer- ence into which it had fallen after the disappearance of the great November showers of 1832-36, the present high pdsition which the theory and obser- yation of luminous meteors has reached among astronomers as an important addition to the popular branches of their science must be regarded as being greatly due; and the direction given by his earliest and latest works to the formation and promotion of the new science during its rapid stages of de- yelopment will always be accounted by astronomers as one of the foremost of the great achievements by which he won distinguished and honourable titles to their grateful recollection. * Now published as vol. ii., 1877, of the ‘Publications of the Royal Observatory of Minster,’ under the joint editorship of his daughters and of one of his pupils, ] Date. 1847. Feb. 25 1861. 'Nov.15 1872, Sept. 5) 1874. Sept. 2 1875. | Sep. 14 G. M. T. (or (Afternoon) About (local time). 02 Hour local time). h m 10 30 p.m. (local time). 10 53 p.m. } 8 25 p.m.) Twenty north of luwa City, U.S. miles N.W. City, stated. 8 0 p.m.|lowa city, U.S. Course map over City, the sight. Lssex. Place of Observation. From about 50) about 50 miles [Real course on map: Mr.Irish. Heights City to Iowa go, and Pitts- burgh, U. §., and thence to Ocean, out of Highfield House Observatory, Beeston (Notts), miles) Si: to of Iowa 1 OP mees not ] on from Sioux Chica- Atlantic REPORT—1877. Apparent Size. Seen in full sun- shine, Apparertsizesome- what greater than that of the full noon. Very large 2 3 at first to of the moon. Two miles north, of Chelmsford, =: Venus eee eeeeeees \from a mere point Intense of the apparent size OBSERVATIONS SEEN IN RECENT YEARS, Duration. Not more than 7 seconds, Red _ (blood- red). blue. Train of yel- low sparks. Greenish blue, About 6 secs. with — train of crimson sparks. 15 seconds while in sight. 9 “ seconds ; rapid. Senet eee erence weeeenene Position or Apparent Path. \ Seen in the east at an altitude of about 40°, s Appeared in the) N.W. and passed) across 6 Urse} Minoris, the S. part of Cassio-| peia, and the S. part of Aries, to the very horizon eastwards. From 44°-+38° to 101 +56:5, | or from below y Andromede across « Persei. i From near Po-| laris to 4° east of} the ‘ Pointers,”| and thence to within about 2° of the horizon,| N.N.W., where} it was perhaps) lost in mists. OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. F LARGE METEORS SPECIALLY IN THE YEAR 1876-77. ‘Length of ~ Path Direction or Radiant-point. Appearance, Remarks, &c, SERRE Beeeee eee Rgds ichoascs Cert eee weanee Radcliffe Obser-): A very bright me- teor. Arete eee eanees seenee > when first seen; then in- creasing its bril- liancy as if ap- proaching. A most brilliant meteor. Colour. Sea-green ; “lovely ” colour. Yellow Red, blue, and green, Yellow to red and green. Yellowish, changing to greenish blue before disappear- ing. a Duration. a Moved slowly and majes- tically. 0-8 second ; very quick. lsecond ...... Moved slower than meteors usually do. eee eee eesererene First 4 Crossed y Cygni From 223° 429° | Appeared Appeared from be- Position or Apparent Path. © seen while|> looking at Ju- piter with aj telescope ; passed the from SS. meri- dian, N. Decl.| 20°, due west-} wards, over disappearing 15° west that planet. (exactly) an disappeared at a point about 4 (Z, y) Aquile. Began over and \pproximate sition by de- scriptions, from near A Draco- nis to @ an n Urse joris = to 141 +26* From due W. to N.W. [* This point of|) disappearance | time recorded.] about} | alt. 30°, S.S.E.,] and moved westward, dis- appearing by a steep curve to|/) N.N.W. hind a about S.E., tude 60°, | fell, apparently, ti into the sea, in the E.S.E. cloud, alti- Direction or Radiant-point. seevsseesseeee Apparent course very nearly horizontal. [The altitude at starting (57°) is irreconcil- able with the rest of this description, unless for north we read south declination 20° at the commencement. | OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, i 4 Mtoarersccssc|[ ECLSCID] vesccosesseeseererseve ‘ eee eeeeeentene Fell vertically seeaee tes eerecceeeaes Bae Weevivisst...0.. ee ars cavshee Gtebss cv dgasancs Moved nearly horizontally at first, then gradually declin- ing. [The point of disap- pearance is not compatible with the direction of the course, as described, near its commencement, | PEPER reer ee ower error HH eeeeeeeeseeerrenere see teee .|Bright streak ; remaining visible Appearance, Remarks, &c. [A. E. S., at Brompton, de- scribes the meteor as_bril- liant blue, pear-shaped, fol- lowed by a train of red sparks ; time 10" 5™, Mr. F. Dennett, London, says that it there appeared “ greenish purple,” about 10 o'clock, shooting across the sky from KE. to W.] Another large meteor was observed about 12" p.m. across y Cygni, where it was brightest, for 1 second. Seemed to burst behind a clond.. The nucleus died away, leaving a bright streak for some seconds between those stars and in a line with them. Left a fine train visible at « Co- ron for about 20 seconds. Ended in a train of sparks like a rocket. [The apparent course at Bristol, observed by Mr. Denning, was from 208°,+23° to 186°,+23°. For other ob- servations of this and of the last meteor, see these Reports, vol. for 1876, pp. 132-136.) Disappeared without bursting. Left no light-streak on ils course. [For further observa- tions of the meteor, at Douglas and in Ireland, see Appendix I., p- 133.] Direction and altitude at first ap- pearance from recollection. The general position from a memorandum at the time. 107 Observer or Reference. St. Vincent Beechey. ‘ English Mechanic,’ vol. xxiii. p. 536, Aug. 4th, 1876. T. W. Backhouse. J. Lucas. Communicated by F, H. Dickinson. J. Lucas. Joseph Clark and others. Communicated by J. E, Clark. E. W. Binney. Proceedings of the Manchester Lit. and | Phil. Society, vol. xvi. p. 12; Oct. 17th, 1876. | James P. Joule. 108 Hour Place of Date. |G. M. T. (or Ob ti Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. local time). ar oe 1876.;h ms Sept. 5,11 50 p.m.|Writtle, nearl=% oe... eee Green ......,...3 seconds Chelmsford (Essex). 18) 6 43 45 |West Hendon,/About=% at dis-|/Pure green ... 2°8 seconds... p-m. Sunderland appearance. As (Durham), bright as a street gas-lamp 150 or 250 yards off. TDj10 14 p.m.|Bristol ......ss000+|== Uf svccovcovscssceves|ecesee avadesoseane 2°5 seconds; very slow motion. 244 few mi-/Betwcen Marck|Light like that of/Colour of thel........0....... ne nutes after] and St. Pierre! alime-light close] streak (and 6 30 p.m.| (Dunkirk to| at band. of the me- (Paris Calais Railway teor’s light) time). Stations). white. 21 6 26 or |Kempley, Dy-'Very brilliant ......!... duaeiseiewne sinahir| sal ee eee tee eae 6 27 p.m.| mock, between Ledbury and/ Ross (Uere- fordshire). 24 6 30 p.m.'Hurley, NAM ....eee Weecccecenscecceclescsescecccscecorlocsccasecsnesesees Great Marlow, (Bucks). 24, 6 30 p.m.iTwo miles W.]...........:00ccscsesees Nucleus clear;Duration of Cowes, Isle white; the} while in of Wight. tail rather) sight 2 or more red. 3 seconds ; continuing with a red | flash he- hind the lower cloud for about 3 seconds, l REPORT—1877. a | Position or Apparent Path. Fell in’ an Appeared from be a= é= From 330° = €¢° to 345 —15 a= = From 212°-+24° | to 187 +15 | Beginning of | its course per-j haps not seen. _— o= From 11° +41° to 85 —2°5 The perpendicula streak of light like a chalkf mark on the sk| remained visibl in the N.N.W. Fell in the S.E. b E., at no greg distance fro the horizon. east- erly direction from an al i tude of - | 25°, . hind a cloud-belt at alt. 60°, ané passed behind lower one at al 20°. The di rection of its fall would cleaft Selsey Bil an Brighton nearly towards Beeches liead. OBSERVATIONS Direction or Radiant-point. > ...seseeeeee/From the direction of ¢ Pegasi| (Direction and appearance of the streak a straight, thin, perpendicular white line. treak about ee? or 15°. mt 12°... . cloudy sky no slope of its path could be observed. seseceseseeeee'Fell very perpendicularly. thus— .. Fell quite vertically ; or in the! OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 109. Appearance, Remarks, &c. Burst into small sparks ...... .|Point of disappearance exact. Grew smaller in last third part of its course, as if receding in the distance. Left a bright phosphorescent streak visible for 3 minutes, and drifting thus— if while in sight. Illuminated the carriage from behind the observer, who noted the appearance and position of the streak on turning round. This was white, sharp, and unbroken for several minutes, then slowly curling up and scem- ing to ascend as _ smoke does. [t was mistaken by some persons who saw its flight for lightning. see eeeeeerees tee eeteee eee e sees ereeeee Nucleus well defined ; barbed 03 spiked, with a tail following it 6° in length. Observer well- practised in quickly estimating altitudes at sea. A dark and cloudy evening. Observer or Reference. H. Corder. T. W. Backhouse. W. F. Denning. “M.” The ‘Times,’ Sept. 26th, 1876. Communicated by W. F. Denning. |W. A. Cockburn. Communicated by W. F. Denning. John Thompson. Communicated by W. F. Denning. oe 110 REPORT—1877. Tlour local time). 1876.;h m s Sep. 24) 6 30 p.m. 24] 6 31 15 p.m. Oct. 14/11 19 p.m. 19} 2 O a.m. to wo About Date. |G. M.T. (or Hull...... 11 30 p.m. Noy. 1) 8 35 p.m. |Between 8 40 and 9 0 p.m. (Paristime.) cr Place of Observation. Orwell Park Ob- servatory, near Ipswich (Suf- folk). Bist]. fase ess joe Newburyport, Massachusetts, U.S. Numerous} meteoric stones at Ledyard (Conn.) are sup- posed to have fallen from it. Manchester ...... Baist@lccessnastaet Choisi le Roy, France. (A detonation is said to have followed its appearance at Clerey, Aube. ‘Nature,’ vol. xv. p. 69. Apparent Size. Aten teeter eee eeenee The disk at maxi- mum probably not more than 2' in diameter ; but its light was fuliy equal te that of full moon. Walf the apparent size of and nearly as bright as the full moon. Fully 4 or 4 the ap- parent size of full moon. = YY pe redncaseereeinrs Large fireball. Its) Bluish flash was brighter than moonlight. White, like ajAbout 3 secs./Point of disappear flash of light-! Position or Duration. Apparent Path. mediately ove! Grimsby, at abou! the height the ance at altitud 14° 6', azimut 54° 16’ E. fro 8.; by compa rison of lowes’ point of th streak with Sa turn at altitudé 10° 56’, azimuth 53° 15’ Ey fro Ss. Rather swift... e= Oo= From 43° +22° to 30 — 2 About 2 secs.) Shot from the con-}, stellation Taurus near the zenith, to the south west. About 1 or 2/Moved nearly ho seconds. i | horizon. low motion... e= o= | From 347° +18° | to 548 — 9 we Sep SOp sion eee ‘From a Aurige to} a Urse Majoris 3) (Course indica. ted by the light streak.) OBSERVATIONS ength of Path. Direction or Radiant-point. PAE TROP ERE He ree bout 25° ... .|From the direction of ¢ Persei pl PAPO eter ere ee tee errr eereees thee eee About 15° ... ae EE. Fell vertically, N. to S....... "or OF LUMINOUS METEORS. Appearance, Remarks, &ce. The explosion only, like that of an unusually brilliant rocket, seen through clouds. In first third part of its course rather brighter than a first- magnitude star, In the second it grew to many times the _ brightness of Venus, and_ collapsed suddenly to its first ap- pearance. In the last third of its course it expanded again to the brightness of the full moon, when it disappeared suddenly with- out explosion and without sound, leaving a streak vi- sible in this part of its course for 16 minutes. {See other descriptions of this meteor in Appendix I., pp. 135 and 138.] A very fine meteor, leaving a bright streak for two se- conds across ¢ Ceti. Very ac- curately noted. The smallest objects were visible in its light. Left a streak 10° long and 4° wide visible for more than 15 minutes ; at first straight, and soon hecoming Z- shaped. 111 Observer or Reference. T. M. Fallow. Communicated by W. F. Denning. J. J. Plummer. W. F. Denning. The ‘New York Ob- Nov. 9th, server,’ 1876, Nucleus elongated. Left a light-|Communicated by streak on its course which remained visible 5" or 10™ after the meteor had disap- peared. R. P. Greg. A bright meteor, even in full- Communicated by moon light. ...|The momentary _ light-streak left on its whole course pointed out its track from S.to N. [? A Taurid.] Globular nucleus; the flected light from which drew the _ observer’s at- tention to it, so as_ to note its explosion near « Urs, and the streak of light broader than the meteor, which va- nished quite slowly. W. F. Denning. re-'S. Meunier. ‘Comptes Rendus,’ vol. Ixxxiii. p. 862. REPORT—1877. Place of Date. |G. M. T. (or 5; | local time). Observation. 1876.) h m Noy. 6} 5 45 p.m.|Orsay, near Paris (Paristime.) 6 Between (Clitheroe (Lan- 8 0 and | cashire). 9 O p.m. 6 Between |Pulborough 8 0Oand| (Kent). 9 O p.m. Apparent Size. Bright, but smaller than the moon’s disk. A large but not very bright me- teor. A large meteor ... Lit up the clouds), and sky. At first=3rdmag.*; 7| 7 19 p.m.) Writtle, near Chelmsford (Essex). 8)/Twoorthree New Cross rail- minutes way station after (Kent) ; (and 5 0 p.m.| near Slough, Bucks). 8) About Wimbledon 5 5 p.m.) (Surrey). 8) About Hay, near Iere- 5 6 pm.| ford, S. Wales. afterwards > 1s!) mag.* Unusually —_ large meteor. Verybright meteor. Would have been splendid on a dark back - ground. Colour. Duration. or ahadnsoeenpar a: Moved slowly. 50 or 60 se- conds [!]. Thea, .cccccossict oases senteeeriee see rene eee Bluish white... Yellowish conds (?). seconds. Stoke Poges, Slough.) deliberately. Shot Fell from a little ‘About 3 se-|Disappeared abou (About 4 or 6|First observed at Moved rather|Passed at alow alti- sessecesesseeee|Draversed a cloud- Position or Apparent Path. About 20° or 25°% above the E.N.E. horizon; ap- peared from be hind clouds, and| disappeared be hind a house. about from near zenith to point in W.S.W., where it divided, one part disap- pearing due W., at altitude 10°, the other, which moved _ north- westwards, at al little higher alti-| tude. below the ze- nith in the northern sky, within a point or two due north. 6° under B Ca pricorni. about alt. 30° due north, tude from N.N.E.F to nearly west (or 5° north o west, alt. 9°) where it dis- appeared at «= 215°, d=+10°%] very near Arc-| turus. less place in the sky about 209 or 25° above the W. horizon. Short course | only seen. Fete eee tet neeee Moving horizontally [? A Taurid, near About 20° \About 10° of|Passed its path vi- sible. OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. Direction or Radiant-point. wards. its radiant-point. | ..|The course before the meteor divided was sinuous. {Not a Taurid.] UU ee PSEC USUSECC OSE ee About 10°(?)../Directed from Saturn (334°, a —13 ...|lravelled horizontally towards the south [?] or south-west. (So also described at Slough, moving over a long arc of the sky.) Oe Ue CET OOECOCEOOC ETOCS seeeeeree Denning. ] south- .|Burst twice, slanting downwards. [Position at Bristol by de- scription, from 236°, +50° to 241°, +35° (?). _wW. F. Appearance, Remarks, &c. — Globular nucleus, leaving a slight streak on its course, Divided into two parts in mid- path, one falling to W., the other towards N.W. [? Another meteor starting from the path of the first. W.F. Denning.] emitting bluish sparks the last time at its dis- appearance. (Seen also near Buntingford, Herts; in the east, moving towards the north.—R. P. Greg.) Probably burst, as there was a brilliant flash. The meteor’s course imperfectly seen. Burst into fragments, of which five or six were counted while disappearing behind a dark cloud, and left a streak visible after the fragments disappeared. Seen in fading daylight. [See Appendix L., for further this meteor. ] The path curved downwards, near extinction, like that of aj projectile, and the meteor sepa-| rated into several distinct glo- bules of light following in the same train. p- 141, observations of Nucieus with a great tail which threw off sparks on both sides. Twilight still very strong in The night afterwards was clear ; but few the wester n sky. shooting-stars were visible. 113 Observer or Reference. Described by A. Guillemin in ‘Comptes Rendus,’ vol. Ixxxiii. p. 922. [. Nostro. ‘Nature,’ vol. xv. p- 99 (Nov. 16, 1876). Cecil H. C. Percival. ‘Nature,’ vol. xv. p 79. (Nov. 23rd, 1876.) H. Corder. S.March(and “J.A.G.’’) The ‘ Times,’ Nov. 10, 1876. F. C. Penrose. Ibid. Communicated by T. W. Webb, in the ‘ English Mechanic.’ 114 REPORT—1877. Hour | / | ac Place of P | : Position or Date. — sap Observation: Apparent Size. Colour. | Duration. Apparent Path. 1876. h m . Nov. 8|About Manchester ...... Large; > Venus|..,,............-./3 or 4 seconds, From alt. about 38° | 5 6 p.m. in its whole not more. due south, to alt. course, and bril- about 20° or liant at bursting. | 25° nearly S.W. (Twilight too | bright for any | | stars to be visible | inthe sky.) | | \ ( } 4 1k} 8 30 p.m.|Leeds ........ seer] == WOUIMAR SE esueaees| oshoxccPhnaneaobs Very quick .../Crossed a point at 3 (e Delphini, Altair). 17)About Sutton, near |Meteor of unusuall...........:.se08 5 or 6 seconds/Shot from the great 7 20 p.m.| Mitcham brilliancy. square of Pega- (Surrey). sus to Aquila. } | | ! | | | | | | | | 29) 9 53 p.m.|/Newcastle-on- {At first=1stmag.*;/White ......... Moved slowly eo Tyne. then rather at first, more/From 47°-+-20° brighter than 2}. quickly after-- to 7 +14 wards. Began close to 3'5 seconds. | the lower edge of the moon. Dee. 4|About (CAG ae Fully= Venus at its|Bright greemis.|......0csccceesteeeceenen cscesnat Vercanert 8 0 p.m. greatest bright- | ness, | | H i | { H ! if . | | | | | | / | | | | | | | . H i | 13/A little Cricklewood Fireball ; very large Bright flame-|..............0+66 While walking before (London), | colour; northward the 4 30 p.m. train of fiery meteor crossed) | appearance. the _ observer’s view from W. | to E. Length of Path. - Direction or Radiant-point. oe —— —— — _ 0° or 40° in|Almost horizontal, like the view, by a| sketch, good = esti- ea mation, an \5, towards due west. ...Directed from 6 Cygni. Evidently a Leonid from its appearance. [? A Leo- minorid. ] PPAALAUKIC. | sv veoserasseaeresttees ...Radiant in Taurus; either 60°, +20°, or 80°, +22°; but very probably from the last of these two radiants (Tau- rids If., W. F. Denning), be- tween 6 and Z Tauri. Passed obliquely across the line between « and 8 Aurigz, as in the sketch. \ Prime Vertical-----+.~\-—=~ OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. First waned, and then came out/Arthur W. Mitchell. A bright moon, foggy atmosphere, 115 | e Observer or Reference. | Appearance, Remarks, &c. ee ee | = —___—_— Very beautiful effect when burst-|A. Brothers. ing; left a light streak for a perceptible time on the whole course which it traversed. The position measured by house- roofs and objects. A beautiful meteor; left a bright/l. W. Backhouse. green streak for 1 second on its course. much brighter, finally bursting in Aquila. Left a magnificent trail of fire behind it. Imme- diately afterwards another shot out nearer to, and passed com- pletely through Aquila, fol- lowed by a third nearer to the horizon. [Newspaper para- graph from J. E. Clark. ] Small, and moved slowly (6° in|A. S. Herschel. the first second) in the first half of its course. Bright as Jupiter in the last half, dying out gradually at last; no sparks; nearly globular; no train or streak left on its course. The ‘ Astronomical Register,’ vol. xv. p. 16. (Jan. 1877.) F. G. Evans. Communicated by W. F. Denning. and cirrus-clouded sky dimmed the meteor, which was yet a beautiful one. It finally ex- ploded, noiselessly, with a shower of coloured sparks. ee ee. cr ee Te rr | ‘In full twilight. (At Eastsheen.| X.” The ‘ Times,’ “fi. Z.,” proceeding from Kew} Dee. 15, 1876. to Mortlake by the river, saw the meteor in the N.E., of un- usual brightness.) 116. Hour Date. |G. M. T. (or local time). 1876.| h m Dec.13) 4 45 p.m. 13|About 4 50 p.m. 13| 7 28 p.m. 21) 8 40 p.m. 1377. Jan. 7|Abont 10 30 p.m. sT 10 31 p.m. “TI 10 32 p.m. REPORt—1877. Place of Observation. St. James’s Square, Lon- don. Blackwater, near Yorktown (Hants). Bristol ene eeeee ‘Illinois and sur- rounding States, U.S. America. Putney Ilill, London, Birmingham ... Apparent Size. About equal to, or rather brighter than 2. A small fireball ... = 2nd mag.* in brightness, but large and dull, with a sensible disk. Meteor of the) largest size; ae-| rolitic. Meteor of great brightness. Increased from a mere point to the brightness of Near London ... Venus, near @ | Leonis, with a brighter flash at disappearance. Cee e eee e nen ene naeneneen | see Colour. Duration. Apparent Path. Cotte de ide de vcdltdneadaisse os nea} HOn aan | ROBSERNER walking down the Square it passed from north to south until it disap- peared behind the houses. Pale yellow,]........-.e00+.++-|Fell from the hea- changing to vens and ap- bluish green; proached but at last red,| did not reach with tail of the earth be- the saine co- fore it disap- lour. peared. WIRKE swncccsseel eps s.sesjedsevees [EO , thei gfare- part of Ursa Major (near the N.E.) to a point near Saturn (near the south horizon). Nucleus andjFully a minute/From 75 miles ove following Kansas, to 25 meteors miles over west- white. ern Nw York. Some 10 secs.! Deep yellow,|5 or 6 secs. ; Position or Its course began between @ and Geminorum Majoris, ending a little beyond the latter star. From a point near} n Hydre to ap point below fp Leonis at 182° merging into} very slow ruby-red to-| speed. wards the tail. Genes skavonesnn} Motion unusu- ally slow. teor about 8° i length. Majoris ail point 3° below a Canum Vena- ticorum ; several further. OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 117 Observer Direction or Radiant-point. Appearance, Remarks, &c. PR Poe. Paveescercvescerers| cencccevsencervaveecasesssessveveceaee|seseeeustesees sheoueaueasdeeddsepecsesers|¢ NAtUTe)” VOL XVA ys 278. vsersseeeeee-eeeee|Direction from N. to S,....e00«.|Lwilight and thin clouds pre-|‘ Nature,’ vol. xv. p, vented any stars from yet ap-| 170, Dec. 21, 1876. pearing. '{122°, extreme-|Radiant in Leo Minor, then on|Grew alternately slow and faint,|W. F. Denning. ‘| ly long course. the N.E. horizon. (Posi-| and again brighter and more tion, in degrees, from 135°,| rapid, until it was spent in a +66° to 334°, +10°.) thin wreath of white sparks, lasting about 1:5 second. 1000)Radiant in the south, or east|/Broke, in midcourse, into 20 or|[See the Appendices on part of Capricornus, a little} 100 lesser fireballs; detonating.) Large and Aérolitic south of the ecliptic. A. stonefall. Meteors in this Re- port, pp. 150 and 192. } ...([/Radiant, from this and the|Bright nucleus, with a tail of fire|‘‘ J. L. McC.” next two observations, near| in its wake about 2° in length.) (W. F. Denning; y Eridani, at 58°, —12°. ‘Nature,’ vol. Xv. p. See further notes regard- 346). ing it, by Mr. Denning, in Appendix II., pp, 135, 142.] © seerseeeee-{Radiant-point in Fluvius Eri-|Motion unsteady with a slight|W. H. Wood. danus; 96, Tupman, or 164| undulation, as if forcingits way| ‘Nature,’ vol. xv. p. of the B.A. Catalogue, 1874.! with difficulty. Matter appa-| 295. (Feb. 1st, 1877.) rently projected from the head formed a long train behind it. Part of the course at last hidden by houses. The meteor reap- pearing, burst with a flash at extinction, \(39°) .........|Radiant of shooting-stars on|The meteor halted for 2 seconds|‘ Nature,’ vol. xv. p. ; this evening apparently near| near«CanumVenaticorum,and; 244. (Jan. 11th, those stars in Ursa Major,| a faint portion then left a train| 1877.) but clouds made its determi-| for several degrees further. nation doubtful. Several meteors were seen on on the same evening whicli equalled Jupiter in brightness, for the most part with unusu- ally slow motions. the moon at dif-| 118 REPORT—1877. Hour Place of é Date. |G. M. T. (or : Apparent Size. Colour. | local time). Observation. 1877.| h m q ; Jan. 19|About Hashorr, shrelandalsayveraeesyrecsuvessavy Variously tint- 6 25 p.m.| (Seen also by ed. (Pale (6 0 pm.) Mr.E. J. Bibbs) blue at Wol- | Irish time).| at Wolver- verhamp- hampton.) ton.) | | i 4 9 6 p.m. Birmingham == lheoae ne Sheena +-./Yellowish red | | | } 26) About Gloucester Rail-/Meteor of largeje.........cee 6 20 p.m.| way Station. | size. laee | | 26|About Ilford (near Lone|.........c0ccccneeeasaee|eeeee Wigs boss cree i 6 20 p.m.| don, Essex.) Mar.11) 2 0 a.m.|St. Etienne, A fine meteor ...... Violet-colour.. | (Paristime).| France. 16 8 0 p.m.|Uitenhage (and|/Meteor of the/Blue ......... (localtime).| Cape Colony),) largest size. | 3 | S. Africa. | 17| 9 55 p.m.|Reading ......... Like the finest and|Giving an in- | largest rocket; 4] tense white | apparent diame-| light. The | ter of the moon.| train &sparks whitenear the head but turn- ing redder. 17} 9 56 p.m./Rossall, near |-sessevere Bi esesdaspenee icv sudenersnn te Fleetwood, Lancashire. | | | | } | | 17/A few -mi-|Brighton .,,...... ‘About 4 the appa-| White at first, nutes be- | rent diameter of, then bluish,| fore 10 | the moon, and at last| p.m. | purple | 17/About West of England|From about 3 to 3 Yellow, green, | 9 57 p.m.| and Ireland. apparent size of; and red. | ferent points of observation. | Duration. (Moved very slowly, lasting 7or8 seconds, at Wolver- hampton.) 3 seconds; slow Moved slowly. very Very rapid ... Travelled slowly. Position or Apparent Path. Shot westward from a little S.W. of the Pleiades to a point south of Saturn. — é= From 354° +30° to 2 +16 Some two or three degrees at least below and to right of the moon. Passed from right to left over and very near the full moon. if Near the southern horizon. Appeared near the eastern horizon, and burst finally in the western sky. 3 or 5 seconds Sailed rather slowly across the sky. Moved slowly Slow apparent speed. About 2or3 to4 or 5 seconds. From) 2° Betelgense below Pleiades. (From 86° +10° to 54° +15°.) From a__si—point about, 3° north- west of « Hydrx to a point in! Monoceros at about 112° 5, —20°. Near the western horizon; disap- over Pontypool (alt. 29 miles; length of path 58 miles). OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 150° eee eee eee et ength of visible path about twice the moon’s diameter. been ew nent tenes {Li [ite eceeetowecenes -|Moved parallel to the horizon, Direction or Radiant-point. (Fell almost perpendicularly to the south, at Wolverhamp- ton.) K, (Quadrans) or MG, (Bodtes). At 7 40™ p.m., Feb. 11, another bright meteor was seen at Birmingham, in the} N.W., at no great altitude, travelling slowly towards N. from right to left. eRe eee CeCe eee eee cere eee Travelling from west to east... HEASE CO WESD: - vayfaiscersesscsas aus Passed obliquely downwards, from right to left, towards [? from left to right, to near] Orion’s Belt. Due S. to N., at an inclination downwards of 34° from ho- rizontal. Radiant-point de- duced from the observations at 145° —4°, in Sextans, near Cor Hydre. . Appearance, Remarks, &c. Magnificent fireball, leaving a brilliant track, and with a final blaze at disappearance. Bright moon and twilight. [For other descriptions of the meteor see Appendix II. (Large Meteors), p. 153. ] Nucleus with short tail. Burst at last, projecting some sparks forwards. Left a bright track behind it. A brilliant evening, with no stars yet visible (except (?) Sirius, brightly seen in 20™), and still almost daylight. Brilliant, in spite of some day- light and of the moon’s ex- treme brightness. No detonation heard vsssesesesesees A detonating fireball, producing an immense illumination. It made the stars appear dull and red, and seemed very close to the earth. The observer's attention, as he looked towards west, was drawn towards the meteor by its light in the south. Nucleus pear-shaped, with a bright track. [Similarly de- scribed at Gunnersbury, near London, by “W. M.”; Ibid., p- 451.] The meteor cast a strong light, and was followed in its track by a train resembling fiery ashes. See Appendix I. of this Report, pp. 135, 142. 119 Observer or Reference. —— Joseph Radley. ‘Natural History Journal of Friends Schools’ Societies,’ vol.i.p.25. Mar. 1877. W. H. Wood. A. J. Mott. ‘Nature,’ vol. xv. p. 399. (March 8, 1877.) C. M. Ingleby. ‘Nature,’ vol. xv. p- 375. (March 1, 1877.) ‘Nature,’ vol. xv. p. 460. (March 22, 1877.) The ‘Times.’ [See Ap- pendix on Aérolitic Meteors in this Re- port, p. 193.] H. M. Wallis. ‘Nat. Hist. Journal of Friends Schools’ | Societies,’ vol. i. p | | 41. April 1877. ALG ‘Nature, vol. xv. p. 471. (March 29, 1877.) | i i | | | W. Ainslie Hollis. (lbid.) The ‘Observatory,’ vol, i.p.19. Cal. culation of the me- teor’s course by Captain Tupman. —eEeEeEe—————————— 120 Hour Place of Date. |G. M. T. (or local time). Observation. 1877.| h m Mar.28/About GE CHIO ses css ..¢ 9 30 p.m. Apr. 6} 9 0 p.m./Thomastown (Dublin | (Kilkenny). time.) 16|About Leicester [and at) 10 50 p.m.| Bristol]. 16/10 50 p.m.|Douglas (Isle of Man). | 16 Newcastle-on- Tyne). May 13/About 10 35 p.m. Brighton .,....... 10 50 p.m./Cambridge (and)A splendid meteor. REPORT—1877. Colour. Apparent Size. Very brilliant meteor. tee e nee eaweeaenes Twice the appa-|Nucleus with rent size of the| adeepcrim- moon. Light| son tail 4 or equal to the full) 5 times the moon on a clear} length of night. the head. 2 or 3 X Venus./Bluish, with a (Lit up the sky) with a_ strong) glare. | train of yel- lowish light. COO rete eee e meee eee et nee ea ee en eaeeeeees (Lighted up the| sky.) About 4x Y Ruddy; not unlike Mars. Duration. A few seconds 4 to 6 seconds Position or Apparent Path, Travelling in N.E. direction. Began at an alti- [A second or two. | eee eee eee ere eee ee eee ey | 3 or 4 seconds; slow motion. tude of about 40°, and shot to the S.W._ hori- zon. the northern heavens. Com- menced near y Cephei, and shot towards the eastern ho- rizon. [In the north-east _ fell rather more perpendicularly than in _ this sketch. ] In Tn a south-easterly direction. Burst within a point from Buck’s Road and Conister. The observer was in Christian Road, whence Buck’s Road runs. 25°) Sk from S., and Conister Rock is 70° E. from Ss. Dropped downfrom Cassiopeia to the horizon. (Rose upwards in the E£.S.E. to alti- tude about 40°; burst and de- scended again towards the east.) Appeared a little S. of Arcturus, and disappeared near B Herculis. OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 121 Length of Path. eee eee teens Direction or Radiant-point. Appearance, Remarks, &c. [S.W. to N.E.?] wc... .s...s..{Disappeared with a final flame and without audible explosion. From: N.E. to S.W.........cc0000 Appearance of the meteor with its narrow deep-red streak— [A detonating fireball. See Appendix II.. Large Meteors. ] Descending at an angle of Sky cloudless; general appear- about 30° from perpendi-| ance like a rocket; but it dis- cular. appeared suddenly without noise or sparks. A slight zig- zag but no curvature was visi- a ble in its path. : 0° ON Pen octiiasie seccscecsscsssssecsseseeeeeee( Durst twice with such intense light that the time by St. Thomas’s church clock could be read. ...... Moved eastward (Course ? zigzag, or else|(Disappeared with a flash) near its radiant-point? A very rough description, giving only the general alti- tude and azimuth, by some landmarks at Newcastle, pretty closely.) Threw out vanced. Followed in about half a minute by another, smaller but quite similar, from almost exactly the same point and direction, visible 3. se- conds, Observer or Reference. Cc. O. ‘Natural History Journal,’ vol. i. p. 41. C. Budds. Communicated by G. J. Symons. F. T. Mott. ‘ Nature,’ vol. xv. p. 549. (Apr. 26, 1877.) [Communicated by W. F. Denning. ] Paragraph in ‘ The Mona’s Herald,’ April 18th, 1877. se+ees(Communicated by A. S. Herschel. sparks as it ad-|W. H.S, J. Hope. ‘Nature,’ vol. xvi. p. 43. (May 17, 1877.) -122 REPORT—1877. Hour ; Place of ; : Date. |G. M.T. (or) op orvation. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. local time). 1877.) h m June 4; 0 35 a.m.jEast Grinstead/A white ball of|/White .........;Not more (by (Sussex). light, like the recollection) + | moon. than 3 secs. / 14) 8 40 p.m.jObservatory of Disk of 5' or 6'/Dazzling About 3 secs.| (Clermont} Clermont Fer-| diameter while) white. Tail! while in time.) rand, Clermont, visible. Obser-| with some] sight. Farnce. vers who saw it) red and blue reach the hori-| iu its tints. zon compared it | to the full moon | | then. | 16/About Bristol 2. dvii/S= Of. Likeia large).............ccccdees saguntenesat <2 9 33 p.m. and brilliant comet. | | 16110 50 pm. Ibid... 0.0... ear IEC”. MMR ME ERE TIES | | | } | | | | | | | | ) / | July 2)/About Street, near Glas-/ Four times as bright|Bluish white. 4 seconds ; 10 20 pm, tonbury (So-| asalst mag. star. moved mersetshire). slowly. 210 20 p.m. Bristol ....... recotpluanger but NOt bsesss.s+ss0+es ../Slow motion... much _ brighter than Jupiter. 2|About Filton, near Very fine meteor...|...... Seana anaes Moved slowly ' /10 30 p.m.) Bristol. or a little | f earlier. | / | ‘From 30° W. of S., Position or Apparent Path. Stationary; about 2° nearer th zenith than e Pegasi at alt. 10° } azimuth 75° 15’, W. from “S., where it disap- peared _ behind the base of a chimney. In the western sky. Disappeared be- hind a screen of trees. Proceeded from the stars of Ursal| Major, as in the sketch. Ap-|\) proximate posi-| | tion, according to a projection on a globe, a — from 177° +52° to - 149 +30 alt. 30°, to a point 75° W. of] | south. Shot horizontally about 3° or 4° above a Virginis. (From about e= o= 212° —10° to183 — 3) Passed from south- east to west; about 4 of the way, in altitude, from the horizon to the zenith. Bite of Path. OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. Direction or Radiant-point. . [Radiant ‘(or stationary point of foreshortened path) at 323°, +11°.] .../Descended to the right, or eee ew nee eet e eee eee northwards, at an inclination the chimney, where it reach- ed it. Descending obliquely in a northerly direction. vs Path carefully represented by the stars. Descending slightly (about 15°) from horizontal. of 30° to the vertical line of| (Radiant apparently Schmidt’s, for June and July, at 266°, | { | —— Appearance, Remarks, &c. It had no visible motion, but flashed out and dis-| appeared just as if the sky had opened and shown the moon through, and_ then closed again. Sky foggy. A train of consider- able length and brightness fol- lowed the head or nucleus of the meteor. In spite of daylight and moonlight, which were both strong in the clear western sky, visible. (Perhaps from the same radiant- point as the other bright me- teors noted on this evening ) A fine bolide, seen in twilight. Burst, leaving a trail of sparks. The star Spica identified by Mr. following evening. Left very little train or light- track; but the size of the meteor and its blaze of light were quite surprising. hind a house, and disap- peared behind a knot of elm trees. —10°.) Moved quite horizontally, thus— a First appeared from be- the meteor was yet distinctly) Denning with Mr. Carell on a) Observer or Reference. J. K. Esdaile. M. Gruey. ‘Comptes Rendus,’ vol. Ixxxiv. p. 1462. (June 18, 1877.) | | | Newspaper paragraph, Communicated by W. F. Denning. C. Holt. (Communicated by W. F. Denning.) W. S. Clark. ‘ The Natural History Journal,’ vol. i. p. 97. (Sept. 1877.) ‘A. S. Carell. (Communicated by W. F. Denning.) F, W. Gayner. (Communicated hy Ws F, Denning.) 124 IIlour Date. |G. M. T. (or local time). 1877.| h m July 7} 0 5 am. Aug.10)10 25 p.m. Place of Observation. Bristol ...........-|Quite= 2 -REPORT—1877. Apparent Size. Birmingham ...)= 2A sssccsessesveeres Colour. Duration, Wihite 5 caccas Da vaaephic uanesenes Pale green ... Position or Apparent Path. 15 second ...|From ¢ Ursx Mi- noris to 227° +29°. OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 125 - eee ; r Observer Direction or Radiant-point. Appearance, Remarks, &c. or Referanes! eS —— d seseeseeseses-(Directed apparently from «/Lit up the clouds with a strong W. F. Denning. Lyre, but clouds made| glow of light (shining through! the exact line of its path) them). uncertain. Near $3 Ce- phei. SSeS [A Perseid.] ....s0..seeeseeeeeeee/Left a streak 30° in length./W. H. Wood. . Twenty-six meteors seen be- tween 10° 15™ and 122 30, with no clouds after 11" p-m. A rather poor August- shower display. On the 11th, sixteen meteors in clear sky between 10" 30™ and 115 30™ | p.m. >. J i) My Y 126 REPORT—1877, LIST OF DUPLICATE OBSER- FOR THE Hour ae Place of : : Position or Date. G. M.T. (or) F Apparent Size. Colour, Duration. cal mend | Observation. BREE - a aan Apparent Path. 1875./h ms Shey Whe, | Nov.15| 0 54 a.m./Stonyhurst Ob-/=2nd mag.» ...... MWILItE) 2 cacc onl anes oeteee eens From Pollux to y § servatory, about 10° above Yorkshire. 6 Orionis. 15) 0 53°50 [Royal Observa-|> Ist mag.# ....0.|..........-...cceclesnsssscsonssseees From direction of; a.m. tory, Green: 6 Draconis to- wich. wards « Cygni. 15 2 46 a.m./Stonyhurst Ob-|=3rd mag.t ...... Wihitie’ |ossedseesomenun eae meteor. 1011 59 p.m.|Radcliffe Ob- |=3rd mag.x ...... Red .os.s0 seveu|tiedeusovee is orton servatory, Oxford. 1110 27 p.m./Bristol ......... SUSE MOL Ht pews dah esecewaveste ce Rapid ...scenes 1110 27 p.m./Radeliffe Ob- |=Ist mag.* ...... Yellow ..<....- second ...... Servatory, Oxford. 11,10 38 p.m.'Bristol ......... fs) AY VERY) BNE) se carsccscscesens|scgscscctiet ae meteor. 1110 38 p-or. Tord soxaseerysay S=2NG MAK saelveled.cconccnsnantitee| swemvevnerwaeareme | | Position or Apparent Path. . From a Canu Venaticum = [ misdirection, cer. tainly], passe n Boodtis 7° o 8°, curving downwards. [, o— => From 199° +54° to 207 +19 © (from ¢ Urse t 7 Bodtis). a= = From 44° +46° to 445 +37 On a line from Passed a yoint at 269°,—15°, and went about 5° further. Passed from 7 Draconis nearly across (to a point about 2° beyond y Coron. Burst below Are- turus and went on a short dis- tance; no small stars visible there. — é= 40° 439° 40 +33 siopeie. —— — From 315°-+-9° to 307 +3[?—3 From 3 (a, 2) Aqui- lee to a Ophiuchi oo From 151°+69° to 170 +53 [From 170 +73 to 182 +55 OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 129 . 2 . ani Appea R ks, &e. Observer Direction or Radiant-point. ppearance, Kemarks, &c on Reksrente: sseesseeee|[NO Radiant-point assignable.|Burst at disappearance. Left aj J. Lucas. The commencement and di-| streak. rection of motion at Oxford were evidently ill seen.] 8 Oe A Perseid or Cassiopeiad ...,../+++-+sseeeeeeeecestsceceensnececsenerenses W. F. Denning. * 3 oe A Pegasid .........seecesseeeeee--/Accurate. Left a streak across|[d, " Algol. cesceseeeeeeree|| Radiant c Cassiopeiae, 40°,|++++++reseesessreresreseeeeesees a Mrs T. W. Backhouse. : +72°]. sesseeeeeeeeee+|Directed from 1° to right of|/End of the course seen throughiId. @ Serpentis. [Perseid.] trees. Left a pretty bright train. ‘ Flared up suddenly at « Corone,|T. H. Waller. leaving a light-streak there 14° long, for 1™. [Seen also by Mr. Denning at Bristol.] Bee Eee ee tee eee eee eee EE Te ee ee ree OaeeseEEES an eeee Sem ee...|Perseid ......... Sheree ......,Left a spot of light where it|H. Corder. = burst. Seen through clouds. [Identical with the last meteor, and with one seen at Bristol, at 95 54™, . by Y Mr. Denning (these Reports, é- vol. for 1876, p. 132). For Earl 183°,+7°, in that description, v read 183°,+79°.] aac ee woo. {Left a streak ............-+-sseeeeeee/W. F. Denning. fag » a BEYRETO © ssi. ecee. eeaese ——— [Radiant 7 Persei, 40°, +57°.]|Left a bright streak ............4..|J. Lucas. + a Perseus or Cassiopeia ...... ...|Left a streak. Very accurate ...\W. F. Denning. ../[A Andromede (a Honorid),|Left a streak ...........ssesee--.eee/J. Lucas. 352°, +45°] Sergey, | CASSIOPElad ..........2.00c0ssees Left a streak.. W. F. Denning. Appeared almost together; rather ......|From the same radiant ...... lreseeeeerereecens doubtful paths. 130 REPORT—1877. Hour Place of : ; Date. |G. M. T. (or - Apparent Size. Colour. local time). Observation. 1876.|;h m s Aug.11|10 40 p.m.|Sunderland ....../=Sirius to 4 Orange-yellow and 5 se- conds later. Oth DIAG 2. 0as|. ee se eneeeeeanees 11/11 8 pm.|Birmingham ...}=2nd mag.* ...... IBlivel) sacusens * 11/11 8 30 |Sunderland...... = GEOUMAL NE prencine|siassucceeocahessins p.m. 11)11 48 p.m.|Birmingham .,./=2nd mag.* ...... Blue tones 11/11 49 p.m.|Radcliffe Ob- |=8rd mag.* ......!...... veslanswanee servatory, Oxford. M249 aemUbid. | vcieaeveses ANG Magie vosestyslecrses ancevencauet TUS DO RIN BTIStG! cceavsccc|—= 18D MAL asovve|ssercecena suowene 14/11 3 p.m./Radcliffe Ob- |=3rd mag.x ......|White ......... servatory, Oxford. 14/11 6 p.m./Bristol ....00...}==2Md MAg.x ..002-/r..0e Ries sascerens 14/11 24 p.mJIbid. © ............ =3rd mag.x ......|. a corrcrte 14)11 24 p.m./Radcliffe Ob- |=3rd mag.x ......|Red ....c0...008 servatory, Oxford. 14/11 35 p.m./Bristol ......... SHU SEAMAG I ones velbs sve cseceeressses 14/11 36 p.m.'Radcliffe Ob- |=Ist mag.x ...... White ~....c%0: servatory, Oxford. Position or Duration. Apparent Path. ———___ = 0 From 266° + 3° to 260 —15 5° further to the) left. 1-4 second ... to 26 +56 Disappeared at #4) (@ Equulei, e|| Aquarii). ...|From e [? Z] Cygni to 5° south of a Aquile. From 6 Draconis to a Herculis. e= b= From 123° +62° to 132 +49 e=~0= From 108° +62° to 128 +55 ../Shot from Z Ursa Majoris towards e« Canum Venati- corum. a= 6= From 156° +70° to 164 +62 e= 6= From 84° +73° to 121 +74 Ter eeee ee eeercotee neon eens wee eee eb eee neees From «2 Draconis to » Urse Ma- joris. “= = From 212° +42° to 204 +36 At 2 (e, €) Bootis... Oe teeter eeeeeeene gt ’ OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 131 Observer Direction or Radiant-point. Appearance, Remarks, &c. or Referente’ ee Reeeraree casclecces aha ioc: nical T. W. Backhouse. [Radiant about y Persei, and ¢, v Persei. Identical with .|Inclined a good deal more to-|| the last pair.] wards the right. RAUIAN GING Gao erestevacs wes ae [Cassiopeiad ? Accordance of di-|W. H. Wood. rections not exact. | oe Directed from 1° below ¢ Pe-'\Left a streak .......,scecesesseresves T. W. Backhouse. gasi. Directed from & Persei ......... A fine moonlight night. Twelve| W. H. Wood. j meteors seen from 102 30™ to 125 15™, FE CSECREen [4 (near n )Persei. | Fe, SE seesosae dnucleGucbdtuecatacheasilecc@adeaste J. Lucas & DOCS Go nt ee [Some error of position in this Id. : track, or in that of the next meteor. | Mer agsass|A: PETSCId seacececovecevececscoces Meftinoy streaks, ti sus. dactisstcasseoes W. F. Denning. yee cereeseeess-|[ Radiant y Pegasi (2), at 3°,|secesrsessssesccrsssecersceesesees ereeeees(J« LUCAS. +15°.] W. F. Denning. ronwas fauskesas conser, Leth AN OTIP Ht SETCAC “serccesasaeees> Accurate position. Left a streakjId. eo Bese ciara [Radiant 18°, 45°; ratherjeccescsssseeeeereeeeeeereereeueenernenees J. Lucas. distant and uncertain. ] [Radiant o Draconis.]...........- Shone out like a star, almost|W. F. Denning. stationary, at last. J. Lucas. K2 132 REPORT—1877. APPENDIX. I. Merzors Dovsty OBSERVED. In the list of observations of large meteors presented last year, several de- scriptions are contained which more or less certainly and correctly describe the same meteor seen at different places. But the observations are not always very perfectly compatible with each other. The following are the principal conclusions which, as far as the data would permit, it has been found possible to obtain from them*. Some of the observations referred to are described in the list of observations of large meteors annexed to this Report, especially of the three last meteors mentioned in the present Table, which were seen after August 1876, and whose real paths have been de- termined from the accounts of them which are now about to be recorded (see, for the Table, pp. 134, 135.) Notes on the Results of the Comparisons presented in the Table. 1876, July 25, 10" 3" p.w.—The descriptions giving accurate particulars of this meteor’s apparent course (at Poplar and Edgeware Road, London, Brighton, Downham, Hersham, Street, and Burnham, Somersetshire) are seven in number ; but three of them exhibit anomalies of the meteor’s track among the constellations which put them out of useful reference for calcula- tion. The meteor’s long path appears to have been traced backwards after its disappearance by a natural tendency of the eye to wander round the sky at a constant altitude in prolonging a great circle to constellations much above those from which it was directed. An account received from Burnham, in Somersetshire, by Mr. Corder, states that the meteor passed from Ophiu- chus through Bootes on a line directed from the constellation Pegasus, a line which cannot be a great circle on the globe. The meteor’s course, de- scribed at Brighton as being remarkable for its apparent length, is still more extraordinary by the unnatural deflection at the middle of its track, by which it proceeded thence on a course about 45° inclined to its original direction. As far as can be gathered from the only thoroughly consistent accounts of its apparent course recorded (a correction of “north” to “south” declina- tion in that at Downham, Norfolk, includes this latter among the most pre- cise of the descriptions), the particular account of the meteor’s course through the constellations ‘‘ Aquila and Hercules to Arcturus” at Edgeware Road, Lon- don, while not self-contradictory like the above, appears yet to be affected with the same source of error ; and itis the only account so signally in con- trast with the remaining well-recorded ones as to make the possibility of two meteors having been visible, either appearing nearly at the same time or to- gether, a question which could be reasonably offered for consideration. The calculated path presented in the Table is derived from the observations at Street (Somersetshire) and Poplar, with the corroborative evidence shown at Hersham (Surrey) and at Downham (Norfolk, assuming the above small but important correction of the point of origin) of its approximate exactness. That the meteor proceeded from a very low southern radiant-point is pretty clearly proved by these accounts; but it is unfortunate that the other cireumstan- tially detailed descriptions of its apparent course point apparently to an origin of the meteor’s flight far north of the equator, and accordingly (if they could [* ‘Monthly Notices of the Astronomical Society,’ vol. xxxvii. pp. 208-210, with some amplifications in the present columns of the Table.} OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 133 be accepted) to a very widely different conclusion. The point of first ap- pearance was too far from the observers to be very ecrtainly determined ; but the length and duration of the flight at Street give a velocity (19°5 miles per second) which does not perhaps exceed the theoretical velocity in a parabolic orbit (12°3 miles per second) with the radiant-point observed more than can be accounted for by the unavoidable errors of observation. With regard to the meteor’s appearance, an interesting description of the view obtained of it (apparently in London, as no place of observation is named in the letter to ‘The English Mechanic,’ vol. xxiii. p. 668, September 8, 1576, where this account appears) by Mr. W. J. Lancaster is as follows :—‘ I saw the meteor of July 25th splendidly at about 2™ after 10 o’clock. Its course terminated far above 7 Bodétis. In fact I fancied that it was higher than e Bodtis, but of this I could not be positive because my whole attention was upon the meteor. Of one thing I am, however, positive, and that is, that immediately before it vanished it split into two principal nuclei and a quantity of appa- rent nuclei. The two fragments were about $ and 3 the size of the original, the larger fragment being the anterior one; the other fragment vanished first, then the anterior one. The colour before explosion was a magnificent bluish green. In fact it at once impressed me with an idea of its composi- tion. It was as nearly as possible the colour produced by burning magne- sium and zinc with a trace of copper. Some of the fragments burned with a red tint. I did not hear any sound of an explosion.” 1876, August 11, 11" 22™ p.w.—This was a splendid Perseid fireball, of which the streak remained visible for a few minutes, assuming a serpentine form, and which was visible from Sunderland in the north to Clifton and Somerton in the south of England. The length of the light-cloud was about 12 miles, and it must have been fully half a mile in width before it disap- peared, at the height of 50 miles above the earth’s surface, 20 or 30 miles northward from Swansea and Cardiff, at which it was deposited. The meteor produced a white lightning-like illumination “over 8. Wales and the whole country in the neighbourhood of the Bristol Channel. No durations of its flight were, unfortunately, recorded by which its velocity might have been exactly ascertained, as the length of its path and the real height and locality of its luminous track were very accurately noted and determined The radiant-point is indicated with some precision, near the usual radian .-point of the August “ Perseids.” 1876, August 13, 9" 27™ p.m.—tThe observations of this Perseid at Bunt- ingford, near Ware, in Herts, and at Folkestone, are in perfect accordance for the point of disappearance; but the meteor’s oblique descent towards these places makes the distance from them at which it first appeared diffi- cult to decide. The point of first appearance assigned at Oxford (near a Cas- siopeiz) limits the height of the meteor there at 140 miles; but a less early point of appearance by a few degrees at either of the stations diminishes this height to 90 miles over Walton, where the meteor is taken to have first entered the atmosphere. Like the last meteor, although penetrating it to little more than 40 miles above the earth’s surface, it gave rise to no audible explosion. 1876, August 15, 9" 30™ p.w.—This fine Aquariad fireball was observed over an extensive area in England, Wales, and Ireland, and in the Isle of Man. It crossed the Irish Channel from St. Bride’s Bay, near Milford Haven, to Arklow in Ireland; and the extent of its further flight is imperfectly _ known from the distance from all the observers in England who recorded it which it there attained. At Newtown (Montgomeryshire) in Wales. a news- 1877. REPORT 134 *PZ8t ‘or ysnsny jo TTeqary “(get *d ‘gZ8T tO} *JOA) sqrodayy asaq} Os[e 92g “qpiuypas ‘te—g ysnsny o8— 0908 @ prasieg onjer -12 Ut IQ ‘(ysndny pue Aine) viedoissep (sare AA ‘amojMaNT pue ‘suis noc ‘Joys “PlOJZO ) (P+) o0I— LE qe ‘taenby 9 ‘7 avant (proyxo Aq pomig -U0d-[[9M ‘9UOJSIxOT pue projsuyung ) (c+) 099+ ~ 068 qe ‘atadoisstQ 7 Ivan (*puovas wad saytut gt Az90/04 aroqeiwg) — *(¢) Saytur OSL JOG st ‘sujsnod 4e yunovoe ayy Aq ‘yyed Jo wysuey oy, “(wae ye spuooas og 10 0z SUMOJMANT JB SpuoIeS 6) puovas sad sayrar 6 Ajojaa £ (pr0jxQ) spuooas p Ul satu of ~aVsUTIN AL wou “puepary jo a.1jua0 ay} 1AAO salt ¢T 07 ‘sv[Snoci 4v yunovov ayy Aq ‘sanuyuod asinoa oD *(puryary) Mopiry JO *M saytur ct jatod Bw Jao sallur (G+) FE “(see 'S) Avg sep quieg ‘ajsy wypoysaty JO “A saat oT yurod ® Joao sayim (8+) 69 ‘ammjoatuoo yes19uaS @ uByy a0U a]3II[ St yged jo yyZuay paydope auL *(projsuyung ) ¢¢ SpWooas G,, UI Sa[IUl ZB (‘proysat -jung pue auojsay[oy ) *‘plojyiap pues uopuoT uaanjoq ‘Ieq = 8,193 -40q JAAO satu (f+) OF *urey190un. AI9A 9sM09 ayy jo yaed zaddn ayy Jo yyS10y pu quapxe! JO ARO SATLOF -10N ‘Wleyaiag *q Iweu UOEAL JIAO salut 06 *papuaz -xa Ajqviapisuoo = aq, 0} saainbax asanod ayy jo UOVUIMIA} ay} UOy -BAlasqo sv[snoq 93 YAM ‘aoURps1Od0R I1eF Alaa Y *(S8a]@A\) UM0Z “MON pure ‘(qT) ary 9S UOJMEN ‘([O¥STIg) yaa Aatysy ‘(p19j}xOQ) 41070A108qQ eapTpopey ‘aouydnastp 10 saysty ON ‘“yuadys JyST] Jurey & pur syivds JO Urey Suo, yy ‘u99I8 10 ANI 0} AOTIAA ‘puvjaly «=pue salva, qaao gueypug ‘urd wog 6 ‘st ‘any ‘gst *ATuo a0ue -ivadde ys1y jo jutod OJ 4sel oy}? fjuour -90138 poos y *(ps0y -xQ) Arozwarasqg aytfa -pey pue ‘auojsax[o.y *(s}19H ) ce *plosiad ” oyeia «=ouy g ‘(11-6 qsnsny ‘losieg & reau) ogo + oP (puepiepung pure ‘uojIparg “poz -xQ) ‘(lesteg Y Ive) (o3-+F) ol G+ 009 ['eZe *d ‘sqr0dayy asaq} JO FZSI Loy “JOA €.6I1— G09 FB ge “(aTey) eZet ‘qIZT aung jo Treqama (2 )] *[2] S11 89¢ ‘ec Ame of — o69G *(aademmen FQ) Ane 0S— —_ 88S 9 Dv *qutod-jueipeyy, UMOUZ 48o1v9N [odie oy avou AzoA jutod-jueiper y] (-avjdog pure 420139) oFS— = BSB qe ‘sarejuy Ivan g Dp *quiod-querpeyy pearesqo *paprooar svat WOTJeMp ayy fo ayeu1ysa JoqjO ON — *(_P10JXO) ¢ 3 Q mM = ° ol fst tudy) 61d rt 'yo, ,‘S10wasas “40 94L, pue fgeg -d MAXXX "[0A ‘00g “NSW W ‘SeVON ATUWMOTYT , ‘avmdny, "T “5 Aq Suoyenoe9 = *uontsod SIq} Ut qurod-juerper uaouy Ajsnoterd ony “HOTS -od ayeanoov Ayarey W “of— =o SFT. ze f eipAy 109 atau ‘snejxag uy ‘urd m1¢ 4g 3e ‘burp uo ‘auo sq} 0} AeIWMIs pur ‘snus, Sv 943uq se may} jo auo S(grEg *d “Ax ‘[oa IMyUN, ‘Surauaq AA) sioaqom 4y31q [Teiaaes jo querper y “ZZ81 “utp “‘tuepirg A 4y “GChI— 88 ye st tuepug A SoFI— oS qnoqe uonisod yeajuas uvamt $sqyjed papsooaa 9914} 9} JO MoNIasI03 “ul JO sjurod oma.3xa) o&f— 099 PRM} cOU= % otP. Usemjoq ‘tuepiug A away *puogvas xad sayiut g.eT peeds oroqrvind [voor “oo, ‘puovas asad Soft G1 gnoge Ay10Ta A. ‘smotnp payeurysa spuovas $F ‘g ‘g *Z pus ‘(emo1g ‘parnsvaut) Spuoovas § UI salIU gg “OITYSTINOUIUO JT ‘jooddjuog 1aA0 sapiut 6% *puooas Jad saptut ¢.z1 st poads -109]9UI (oTjoqevaed) Teoyjo10943 OY,y, *sattut FOL esIN0d Jo qyZueT ey} seats ., Mopuory qeau,, yyed paasasqo ysoSu0] ayy, ‘puovas Jad sayrur ¢.¢g Aq10079,4 ‘(MeysuLuIg) spuoa “28 9g 10 ¢ UT sOTIM ¢g1 *AIQUIIAON Ut (*T spr NBL) ¢eSPlnVy,,, ay3 jo dnoiZ jedmuud pur 381g 23 «Jo 4ueIpey o8t+ 09S *4S9 MW-T]]NOS-ysom 9Y} Spremor 4431p Su0j §,109}9UI AY} JO a1o1pN -AzaA9 WOIIAAIp [erouas ay} 40 ‘syyed papsoo “at 943 Ayaqvutxord -de Aysyes 03 opeur aq ued jutod-querper waq}0 ON = *(uozIIOY ‘G' N'A 24} Wo ysourye) (oS) 06+ ofS ye ‘umes, & rea *spulodas ¢ JO F ‘squEET ‘SULOGUITA, 3B UoOyeI q ‘uoyout jo ayer pux (saqrut 0¢z 10 “OgT) wped jo yySuo_ oy} xy 0} JoYIO Yowa YIIM a[qe -[Wuosat ~=—- AJQuatoyNS jou pue aAyjoojap AraA are aSIN0d §,109}aUI ayy Jo Ajyeooy puv “4ySrey “y23ua] [eat a3 Suturur -1a}9p JOF s[eisayem ayy, “‘quriod-queiprr umouy Ajsnoteid qe ‘a, ivan |spuovas UL sap ¢y [jo yurod v raAo saziUt QT \gurod @ 1040 g INC |SP' § Ur solr Ri t it : m a Sa 136 REPORT—1877. paper might have been read for some time by its light, as it passed along ; and it was remarkable for its sustained brilliancy at Bath, Bristol, Ciren- cester, Swansea, Oxford, Rochdale, at Douglas in the Isle of Man, and at Cookstown, near Loch Neagh, in Ireland. Its course was noted at the Rad- cliffe Observatory, Oxford; and here, as at other more western places over which its course began, it was followed without extinction to the N.W. ho- rizon. The observation at Douglas enables the radiant-point to be deter- mined, to which the observations in the 8.W. of England only point back- wards by a nearly common line. As seen to commence, from the new pier, over Douglas Head, and to skirt the high ground of that southern headland of the bay before coming into clearer view westwardly over the town, the altitude of its horizontal motion westwards from the point of origin nearly due south cannot have much exceeded 30°, the apparent altitude assigned by Mr. Binney. If by a reduction which no eye-estimations of altitude near the horizon can dispense with, 25° or even 20° is substituted for the real altitude at which the meteor started horizontally westwards at Douglas from the south meridian, the position for the radiant-point is obtained (by inter- section with the other projected courses) which is entered in the Table, and which agrees without discordance with the place which had already been as- signed to it generally and independently from their common intersection. The place so found (at 310°, —10°) agrees well with a known radiant-centre for August in Aquarius, close to which the radiant-point of a bright fireball seen on the 10th of August, 1874, was already found to be situated (as de- scribed last year in these Reports), at 313°, —14°, near », e Aquarii. The velocity (like that of the fireball there described, of 19 miles per second) agrees with the theoretical velocity of bodies moving in a parabolic orbit with this radiant-point. The President of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, Mr. E. W. Binney, who obliged the Committee with the present details of his ob- servation of the meteor at Douglas, has also kindly communicated two other observations, which it is difficult to reconcile with those of this large meteor, but which may yet indicate that it pursued its course to a considerable distance over Ireland. The annexed map of Douglas town and Bay repre- sents the point (a) on the New Pier from which Mr. Binney relates that he obtained the first view of the LZ meteor in the direction a6, oe commencing its course over the New Hotel, whence it took its flight westward, skirting the hills of Douglas DOUGLAS Head (whose élevation is BAY He about 300 or 400 feet), until it passed clear of them, and pursuing its way over ey onic Douglas town, appeared to —_ SS Wew Pier him to vanish in the north- = west near the horizon. Some <4 7 IR US wewHotet friends who saw the meteor oo ‘Déuglas from near the New Hotel 3 id aiso followed it in view until vA it disappeared over Fort we f Anne Hotel (¢ in the sketch), 2 i Va which is nearly in the same * [Seale, one mile to an inch.] a OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 137 north-west direction. The dotted lines 1, 2, 3 are the directions, respectively, of St. Bride’s Bay (Milford Haven), Arklow, and a point near Mullingar in Ireland. It thus appears that a much longer flight than that above supposed must presumably have been performed; but it must yet be remembered that intervals of azimuth, like those of altitude, are commonly far overrated near the horizon; and the real course of the meteor " was very probably not more prolonged (even if it was so much, at last) at Mr. Binney’s point of observation*, from due south to about west, or a little south of west. Mr. Binney mentions the occurrence on the night before the 15th of August of another meteor equally brilliant with this large fireball, which made its appearance in the west at Belfast. The hour of its occurrence was the same, and it answered, a correspondent wrote to him, in every particular to the de- scription of the meteor seen at Douglas; and no doubt of the date, he added, was possible, which was the 14th of August. Mr. H. Darbishire, who communi- eated this intelligence, states that he was on the watch for meteors on the night of August 15, between 9" and 10" p.m., and saw nothing at Belfast re- sembling the large meteor elsewhere recorded at about 9” 30™ on that night. On the other hand, a notice of such a meteor, seen at Cookstown, 30 miles west of Belfast, appeared in a later Part of the ‘ Proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester ’ (vol. xvi. p. 60, December 12, 1876), showing that either this fireball, or one perfectly resembling it, was very brilliant in that part of Ireland at the hour when other observers noted its appearance. The following account of the meteor was given by Mr. N. Staples, whose letter to him of December 4th, 1876, on. the subject of the meteor, Mr. Binney then communicated to the Society :—“ As I noticed in the Paper that you observed a meteor on the night of August 14th, when in the Isle of Man, I beg to inform you that: a meteor was observed in Cooks- town, about long. W. 6° 45’, on the night of Tuesday, August 15th, about _ 9» 45™, local time, passing over from 8.E. to N.W. It was described to me as lighting up the whole street; colour reddish green[!].”’ Mr. Binney adds that the meteor was also seen at Rochdale in Lancashire, but of its ap- parent course there he has not been able to obtain particulars. Remarkable as was the brilliancy of the meteor at this far northern point in Ireland, it is not necessary to assume a further continuation of its course than to such a low height as 15 miles over a point; near Mullingar (about 80 miles 8.S.W. from Cookstown) to satisfy the uncertain information which can alone be gathered without recourse to measurements from such a general description of the meteor’s apparition. The earth-point of its course, as derived from the exact observations of its course in England, was 15 miles west from Carrick, 90 miles 8.W. by W. from Cookstown, and instead of passing “over” that town towards N.W., if the same meteor (as there seems no reason to doubt) was seen there, it must have moved at no great altitude above the south, on a slightly descending course nearly towards the west point of the horizon. The meteor did not burst or detonate, and left no persistent light-streak on its course; but the strong bluish light of its nucleus cast moving shadows * A point « is added in the map where Christian Road branches off from Buck’s Road. The direction of Buck’s Road and of Conister from this point (referred to in a description of the meteor of April 16, 1877, in the accompanying fireball-list) are shown by dotted arrow-lines in the map. ‘The point f is the tower of St. ‘homas’s church, which is also referred to in the same description. 138 REPORT—1877. in Wales, and it was followed by a long train of red and yellow sparks. . 1876, September 24, 6" 30™ p.u.—Far the most splendid meteor seen in England for some years past burst over the English Channel on the last Sun- day evening in September 1876. A view of the phenomenon, complete in every point from first to last, was obtained of the brilliant spectacle at the Orwell Park Observatory, near Ipswich, by Mr. J. J. Plummer, who kindly supplied the Committee with the following details *:—